Water for a 

Rapidly Growing 

Urban Community--

Oakland County, 

Michigan 

By F. R. TWENTER 

and R. 1. KNUTlllA 

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 2000 

A study of the occurrence, 

quality, and availability of 

water as it relates to the 

rapidly growing industrial 

and domestic needs of 

Oakland County 

Prepared in cooperation with Oakland County 

and fhe State of Michigan 
UNIIED STAVES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

RQGERS C. B, MORTON, Secretary 

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

V. E. McKelvey, Director 

Llbmry af Congress coblog-card No. 71-188495 

U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON : 1972 

For sale by the Suwrintendent of Dacumentr. U.S. Gavernrnant Printinu OfRm 

Washinaton, D.C. 20402 - Price $1 (paper cavsr) 

Stock Humbsr 2401 -1 180 
CONTENTS 

Paee 

Definition of terms ............................................... VIII 

Abstract ........................................................ 1 

1 . Oakland County 

Location .................................................... Water-the purpose of this report ............................ Sphere of investigation ....................................... 2 . The changing scene 

Population ................................................... The shifting population ...................................... 3 . Water use 

More people-more water ..................................... Industrial water use ......................................... Irrigation water ............................................. Water from Lake Huron ..................................... 

4 . A replenishable resource 

Precipitation ................................................. Hydrologic cycle ............................................. The source is replenished ..................................... 5 . An interwoven system 

Land and water ............................................. Some interrelationships ....................................... A water budget for a small basin ............................. 

. How man can change nature's budget ........................ 6 Water on the land 

Surface water-a prime asset ................................. Streams ..................................................... Streamflow ............................................. Flow duration ........................................... Streams at low flow ...................................... High flow-another aspect of streams ..................... Floods-how often? .......................................... Water storage ............................................... Streamsfor storage ...................................... Additional storage in lakes ................................ Lakes ...................................................... A study of six lakes ..................................... Ground water for lake-level improvement .................. 7 . Water in the ground 

Characteristics of the container ............................... Water in glacial deposits ..................................... Influence of the bedrock surface ............................... 
Page 

7 . Water in the ground-Continued 

Bedrock formations that yield water .......................... 108 

Depth to water .............................................. 111 

Artesian conditions ...................................... 113 

Water levels and pumping ................................ 113 

How much water? ........................................... 116 

8 . Water quality-A prime concern 

What is good water? ......................................... 119 

Good water in Oakland County ............................... 121 

........................................ 

9 . Water quality control 130 

The water-resources picture 

A review-a look ahead ...................................... 132 

Water-quality control .................................... 133 

Lake-level improvement .................................. 135 

Streamflow augmentation ................................. 136 

Flood-plain management ................................. 137 

Redefinition of ground-water reservoirs .................... 139 

Use of water from Detroit ............................... 140 

Collection and anlaysis of basic information ................ 141 

10 . For more information ........................................ 141 

Acknowledgments ................................................ 147 

Index ........................................................... 149 

FIGURES 

Oakland County-899 square miles of Michigan ................ 2 

Index map of Oakland County ................................ 3 

A land of abundant lakes and streams ........................ 4 

Essential elements of a water-resources study for Oakland County 5 

Past population-a rapid increase since 1910 ................... 7 

About 70 percent of the people lives on 20 percent of the land ... 8 

The greatest concentration of people is in the Detroit-I'qntiac 

area ...................................................... Projected population-1.6 million and upward ................. Great differences exist in water use between communities ....... Water use in Milford-a typical picture for communities without 

big water-using industries .................................. Water taken from sources within Oakland County today is only a 

small part of the total water used .......................... More than 80 percent of the water used in 1965 wa+s used in the 

southeast part of the county ................................ Maximum daily demands for water placed on supply systems. in 

general. will be at least double the average demand .......... Industry may determine supply requirements .................. Most of southeastern Oakland County is now served by water 

from Lake Huron via the Detroit water system .............. 

Page 
Page 

Average yearly precipitation for the past 60 years is nearly 30 

inches-considerable variation can occur from one year to the 

next ..................................................... Wettest months of the year are May and June . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Average yearly precipitation ranges from 29 to 33 inches . . . . . . . . Water from precipitation follows varied routes of distribution . . . More than 40 inches of water was "lost" from 1960 to 1966 because of reduced precipitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The altitude of the land surface ranges between 600 and 1,200 

feet above mean sea level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The land surface is relatively flat in some areas but quite hilly in 

others ..................................................... The configuration of the land surface and the occurrence of water 

are related ................................................ Base flows reflect basin physiography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Physiography and aquifer characteristics that influence be.= 

flows in Swartz Creek basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nature's water budget in Swartz Creek basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Surface and ground-water runoff are governed by precipitation 

and ground-water levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The headwaters of five major river systems rise in Oakland 

County .................................................... Average streamflow ranges from less than 10 to more than ZOO 

cubic feet per second . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Runoff varies widely from 

adjoining basins . . . . . . year-to-year but has similar trends in 

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Annual runoff reflects not only annual precipitation but also the 

precipitation of preceding years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Precipitation's effect on streamflow is influenced by basin physiagraphy and geology; this effect is reflected in records fmm 

streams in two different physical environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Records of streamflow are obtained from gaging stations such as 

this on the Huron River at Milford . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Streamflow data are available for 85 stations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Monitoring of streamflow began in Oakland County as early as 

1935 ...................................................... Variability of streamflow is easily shown by flow-duration cu~res 

such as that for the Huron River at Milford . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Duration curves for four streams in Oakland County illustrate 

variations in flow characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Runoff characteristics vary greatly throughout the county as is 

shown by the wide range in variability indexes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The magnitude and frequency of low flow of a stream is often 

the controlling factor in determining the suitability of a stream 

for a water supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . An index of low-flow characteristics for Oakland County is provided by median annual 7-day low flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Median annual 7-day low flows range from 0 to 0.4 cubic feet per 

second per square mile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Most peak flows occur during the spring months . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 
Page 

Planned use of river flood plains should take into account the 

magnitude and frequency of flood events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Five hydrologic areas are used to define flood-flow charz.cteristics ..................................................... Variations in flood flow between hydrologic areas is shown by 

flood-frequencycurves ...................................... The magnitude of floods having a 50-year recurrence interval are 

greatest in hydrologic areas 4 and 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .'. . . . Regional draft-storage curves can be used to make storage estimates .................................................... Major reservoirs may be designed to have many uses . . . . . . . . . . . The assured flow of streams may be increased sevemlfold 

through reservoir development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Six lakes that ~eflect different environmental settings . . . . . . . . . . . Lake-level trends for four lakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The water table around Elizabeth Lake slopes toward the lake except near the lake outlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Water levels in two observation wells indicate that some ground 

water is flowing into Judah Lake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Water from Tipsico Lake recharges the ground-water reservcir . . Some water from Orchard Lake flows underground until it 

reaches Franklin Branch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The water table around Duck and White Lakes slopes both toward 

and away from the lakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Recreational use of lakes located in the path of urban expansim is 

becoming an important consideration in the Detroit Metropolitanarea .................................................. Lake levels of Duck and White Lakes are being raised by water 

being pumped into them from the ground . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The lithology of glacial deposits in the Duck and White Lake 

area differs greatly from well to well . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pumping ground water into lakes raises lake levels but may lower 

ground-water levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Glacial deposits and bedrock are the two major groups of rocks . Glacial deposits were left behind as the glaciers retreated farther 

and farther from Oakland County . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A surficial geologic map shows how the county was covered by 

materials deposited during the glacial period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Glacial materials range from well sorted to poorly sorted . . . . . . . A beach deposit in the southeastern part of the county . . . . . . . . . Materials deposited during glacial time range in thickness from 

less than 50 to more than 400 feet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Well-sorted sands and gravels yield significantly more water than 

poorly sorted rock materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Thin lenses of sand and gravel in clay often yield some water . . . 

Glacial deposits from land surface to a depth of 50 feet heve a 

medium to high aquifer index throughout much of the nwthwestern part of the county . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . From 50 to 100 feet below land surface there are several areas 

that have a high aquifer index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 
A medium to high aquifer index is predominant in glacial materials from 100 to 150 feet below land surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . From 150 to 200 feet below land surface, glacial deposits throu~hout much of the county appear to have a low aquifer index . . . . The topography of the bedrock surface is similar to that of the 

present landsurface ....................................... Subcrops of the three bedrock aquifers-the Saginaw, Marshall, 

and Berea Formations-are of limited areal extent . . . . . . . . . . . The water table is often a subdued expression of the land surface ...................................................... Water levels in shallow wells usually decline during the sumrrer 

months but begin to rise again after the first frost in the r.utumn ...................................................... Artesian wells are produced by ground water under pressure . . . . Cones of depression are small when pumpage is small; howevsr, 

cones become larger and may coalesce when pumpage is large . Cones of depression in Pontiac as of 1950 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Water levels in Pontiac have declined as much as 110 feet . . . . . . Transmissivities for wells in glacial deposits range from 4,000 to 

more than 300,000 gallons per day per foot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Many streams in the southern and eastern parts of the county exceed the recomme~ided limits for dissolved solids for public supplies ..............................................,....... Temperatures of water in streams vary considerably and often 

reflect climatic conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... Streams having higher base flows generally have lower summer 

temperatures ........................................,..... Temperature of ground water from shallow wells changes faster 

and has a larger range than does water from deeper wells . . . . Water in some areas is protected for trout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Good quality water is common in the northern part of the 

county .................................................... Streamflow variation is greatest in the southeastern part of the 

county .................................................... Structure built on stilts reduces possibility of damage by flood 

water .................................................... Wells in some areas yield more than 400 gallons per minute; 

wells in other areas yield less . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

TABLES 

Page 

Nearly half the total runoff in the 

. 

Swartz 

from ground-water sources . . . . . . . . . . . Creek basin 

. . . . . . comes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 

The proportions of surface-water runoff and ground-water runoff 

vary between basins and from year-to-year within each basin . . Evaluation of nature's water budget in the Swartz Creek basin . Stream slope in Oakland County ranges between 4 and 39 feet per 

mile ...................................................... 
Page 

5. Summary of flow-duration data for continuous and partial-rccord 

stations in Oakland County ................................. 6. Suitable sites for reservoir development in Oakland County ...... 7. Fifteen selected lakesites with storage potential in Oakland 

County ................................................... 8. Some environmental features of six selected lakes in Oakland 

County .................................................... 9. Dissolved-solids content of six selected lakes varies with time and 

betweenlakes ............................................. 10. Quality of water from 58 lakes in Oakland County in 1967 ...... 11. Dissolved-solids content of lakes is influenced by inlet characteristics ...................................................... 12. Availability of ground water from storage in glacial deposits .... 13. Significance of some chemical and physical parameters commonly 

associated with water in Oakland County ................... 14. Water-quality standards proposed by the State of Michigar for 

five major water uses .......................... ... ......... 15. Concentration of common chemical constituents in surface u-ater 

in OaklandCounty ......................................... 16. Concentration of common chemical constituents in ground water 

in Oakland County ......................................... 

DEFINITION OF TERMS 

Acre-foot (acre-ft). The quantity of 

water required to cover 1 acre to a 

depth of 1 foot; equal to 43,560 

cubic feet or 325,851 gallons. 

Aquifer. A formation, group of formations, or part of a formation that is 

water bearing. Also called groundwater reservoir. 

Artesian water. The occurrence of 

ground water under sufficient hydrostatic head to rise above the upper 

surface of the aquifer. 

Base flow. Discharge entering stream 

channels as effluent from the groundwater reservoir; the fair weather 

flow of streams. 

Bedrock. In this report, designates the 

consolidated rock underlying the 

glacial deposits. 

Coefficient of transmissivity. A term 

used to express the rate of flow of 

water, at the prevailing water temperature, in gallons per day, through 1 

a vertical strip of aquifer 1 foot 1 

wide extending the full saturated 

height of the aquifer urder a gradient of 100 percent. 

Cubic feet per second (cfs). A unit 

expressing rates of discbarge. One 

cubic foot per second is €qua1 to the 

discharge of a stream of rectangular 

cross section, 1 foot wide and 1 foot 

deep, whose velocity is 1 foot per 

second; equivalent to 448.8 gallons 

per minute or about 0.65 million 

gallons per day. 

Cone of depression. A conical depression, on a water table or piezometric surf ace, producecl by pumping. 

Drawdown. Lowering of the water 

table by pumping or artesian flow. 

Effluent seepage (effluent flow). Flow 

of water from the ground into a 

surface-water body. 

Evapotranspiration. Water withdrawn 

from a land area by dire-t evaporation from water surface. and moist 
soil and by plant transpiration, no 

attempt being made to distinguish 

between the two. 

Flow-duration curve. A cumulative 

frequency curve that shows the percentage of time that specified discharges are equaled or exceeded. 

Gaging station. A particular site on a 

stream, canal, lake, or reservoir 

where systematic observations of 

gage height or discharge are obtained. 

Gravity yield. The ratio of the volume 

of water which a rock or soil unit, 

after being saturated, will yield by 

gravity to its own volume. 

Ground water. Water in the ground 

that is in the zone of saturation, 

from which wells, springs, and 

ground-water runoff are supplied. 

Ground-water runoff. That part of 

streamflow which consists of water 

discharged into a stream channel 

by seepage from the ground-water 

reservoir; same as base flow. 

Hydrograph. A graph showing changes 

in stage, flow, velocity, or other aspect of water with respect to time. 

Infiltration. The flow of a fluid into a 

substance through pores or small 

openings. 

Low-flow frequency curve. A graph 

showing the magnitude and frequency of minimum flows for a 

period of given length. 

Partial-record station. A site where 

limited streamflow data are collected 

systematically over a period of years 

for use in hydrologic analyses. 

Permeability. The capacity of a material to transmit a fluid. 

Recharge. Addition of water to an 

aquifer by infiltration of precipitation through the soil, by seepage 

from streams or other bodies of surface water, by flow of ground water 

from another aquifer, or by pumpage of water into the acquifer 

through recharge wells; also, the 

water added by these processes. 

Recurrence interval (return period). 

The average interval of tine within 

which the given flood will b? equaled 

or exceeded once; also, the average 

interval of time within which a flow 

equal to or lower than a given low 

flow will occur once. 

Runoff. The water draining from an 

area. When expressed in inches, it 

is the depth to which an area would 

be covered'if all the water draining 

from it in a given period were uniformly distributed on its ~urface. 

Soil moisture. Water diffused in the 

soil or in the upper part of the zone 

of aeration from which water is 

discharged by the transpiration of 

plants or by soil evaporation. 

Subcrop. In this report, a bedrock 

formation or rock unit that occurs 

directly under the glacial deposits 

and that would be exposed at land 

surface if all the glacial deposits 

were removed. 

Water table. The upper surface of the 

zone of saturation, except where the 

surface is formed by an impermeable body. 

Zone of saturation. The zone in which 

the functional permeable rocks are 

saturated with water undlr hydrostatic pressure. 
WATER KIR A RAPIDLY 

GROWING URBAN COMMUNITYOAKLAND COUNTY, MICHIGAN 

By F. R. Twenter and R. L. Knutilla 

ABSf RACT 

Oakland County, an area of 899 square miles, is in southeastern Michigan. 

The southern part of the county is overlapped by the suburbs of the city of 

Detroit. 

In 1970, about 850,000 people were living in fie county and using about 

100 million gallons of water a day. More than 80 percent of the water used 

for large industrial and municipal supplies came from Detroit's water sy* 

tern. 

The average annual rate of streamflow fmm the county is about 370 million gallons per day (575 cubic feet per second). Median annual 7day low 

flows range from 0 to 0.25 cfs per square mile. Low flows can be augmented 

by more than 60,000 acw-feet of water captured during high streamflow by 

construction of small reservoirs at 21 inventoried sites. 

Glacial deposits and the Marshall Sandstone are the prime sources of 

ground water. Most wells that penetrate the full thickness of glacial deposits in the northwestern part of the county will yield at least 50 gpm (gallons per minute), and many will yield more than 400 g-pm, The Marshall 

Sandstone, which occurs only in the Holly area, is capable of yielding more 

than 1,000 gpm. 

The chemical quality of both surface and ground watex is relatively good 

throughout the county. Only in the southern part of the county is the dissolved solids above the acceptable standard of 500 milligrams per liter. 

I. Oakland County 

LOCATION 

Oakland County is in the southeastern part of Michigan's 

Lower Peninsula (fig. 1). It is relatively close to two of the Great 

Lakes-Lake Erie, about 25 miles to the southeast, and Lake 

Huron, about 35 miles to the northeast. 
Pontiac, the largest city in the county, is in the economic and 

population corridor between Detroit and Flint (fig. 2). With the 

continuous increase in population, the northern suburban area of 

Detroit has overlapped into the southeastern corner of Oakland 

County and has merged with communities in ae suburbs of Pontiac. In the future, urbanization from the cities of Detroit and 

Pontiac will wedge northward and merge with Flint to form one 

large metropolitan complex. 

83'45' 

I CEXEPER 

2 LAPEFR 

3 LlVlNCSTON 

4 OAKLAND 

5 MACOMB 

6 WASHTENAW 

7 WAYNE 

Oakland County--899 square miles of Michigan. FIG. 1 

WATER-THE PURPOSE OF THIS REPORT 

Water is an important part of everyday living in Oakland 

County. The hundreds of lakes that dot the county (fig. 3) are 

highly valued for year-round recreation and esthetics. Also highly 

valued for similar purposes are the five major perennial streams 

and their tributaries. 
Base from U.S. Geological Survey; 1:250,000; Detroit, 1965 

5 - 0 5 MILES 

Index map of Oakland County. FIG. 2 

As the city of Pontiac expands and as suburban Detroit extends farther northward, the esthetic, recreational, and homesite 

value of water in the streams and lakes will become increasingly 

important. Streams and lakes will serve also as a source of water 

for irrigation, coding, and waste dilution. Ground water will con- 
2 - 0 2 4 6 8MILES 

1 FLINT RIVER BASIN 4 HURON RIVER BASIN 

2 SHIAWASSEE RlVER BASIN 5 RlVER ROUGE BASlN 

3 CLINTON RlVER BASlN 

A land of abundant Iakes and streams. FIG. 3 

tinue to be an important source for many water-supply needs. In 

order that these water-related needs may continue to be met 

without undue cost and effort, water facts are necessary. Thus, 

this report is intended to provide a factual basis for planning and 

management of the watex resources as they apply to these needs 

and to the growth and economic development of Oakland County. 

SPHERE OF INVEST [GATION 

The basis for this report a 3-year study of all 

facets of water in Oakland County, This study is supplemented 

is (1966-68) 
by results from earlier studies, published and unpublished, concerning various aspects of the water situation, not onIy locally 

but on a national scale. 

Any study of water resources in Oakland County involves two 

factorewater supply and water use (fig. 4). Both are of prime 

importance. Without people's use of water there would be few 

WATER USES --,- r* -- 

POPULATION 

WATER SUPPLY --- -- --.- 

REPLENISHMENT 

INDUSTRY - OCCURRENCE 

IR'RIGATION QUALITY 

RECREATION 

IGER PLAN FOR THE FUTU 

Ill11 I. 

Essential elements of a water-resources study for Oakland County. FIG. 4 

- - 
water problems. Therefore, the people situation was analyzed. 

Data on population and population growth were collected in an 

effort to predict future populations. The use of water was defined 

-how much is used, where it is used, and who uses it-so that 

future demands could be estimated. 

Secondly, the water itself was analyzed-its replenishment, its 

occurrence, its quality, and its availability. To do this, data on cIimate, evapotranspiration, and soils were obtained to determine 

the water's physical and chemical makeup. Streams and lakes 

were measured during different stages so that predictions could 

be made of future streamflow and lake levels. Water levels in 

wells were recorded to establish a basis for determining any future rise or fall. Geologic data were obtained from rocks at the 

earth's surface, from drillers records, and from new wells so that 

the framework of the container in which water occurs couId be 

defined. Finally, these data were analyzed and their relationships 

were established to form a basis for making the future more predictable. 

2. The Changing Scene 

The population of Oakland County increased gradually from 

1850 until about 1910-20 (fig. 5). SubsequentIy, the population 

growth rate accelerated owing to the expansion of suburban Detroit into the southeastern corner of the county. Today the county 

has more than 800,000 people (fig. 6), most of whom live in five 

townships. 

If the land in Oakland County were planned and completely developed to single-family housing, an urban developer might select 

a maximum suitable unit density of about 2.7 homes per acre. 

This would provide for an average lot size of 80 by 135 feet and a 

35 percent allowance for streets, parks, recreational areas, 

churches, and shopping facilities. Assuming a population of 4 per 

dwelling, an acre of land provides housing for 11 people. Thus, a 

population density of about 7,000 per square mile could be considered a well-developed area. A population much greater than this 

would probably necessitate muItiple housing units. At the present 

rate of growth it will be several hundred years before dl areas in 
Past population-a rapid increase since 1910. FIG. 5 

the county reach this level of development. Of greater significance, however, is the fact that some areas in the southeastern 

part of the county have already reached, or are nearing., a population level that could be considered overly developed (fig. 7). 

Because of exceIlent building sites, rolling terrain, lakes., and 

streams, it is expected that the population will continue to increase rapidly. By the year 2000 the estimated population, on the 

basis of present trends, will be about 1,600,000 (fig. 8). 

THE SHIFTING POPULATION 

AIong with the population increase, there is evolving a change 

in land use. The small farms and hesteads of yesteryear are 

giving way to the modern subdivisions of today. An area that 
once housed only a single family now houses several hundred 

families, Of the many examples of this change in Oakland 

County, the largest probably is at Keatington. Here, on an undeveloped 3,200-acre tract of land and lakes, a new town is being 

builLa town that will, within a few years, house about 25,000 

people. With this type of change in Iand use comes an increase 

in water use. 

Throughout Oakland County some aspects of this changing 

scene are affecting all the people. Several decades ago when most 

daylight hours were consumed by work, little time was left for 

relaxation and enjoyment of outdoor recreation. Lakes and 

streams were used primarily by ardent naturalists and fishermen. 

The water remained fresh and clean. Today, with more free time 

and better means of transportation, many people escape city life 

by swimming, boating, and fishing in lakes and streams. Okhers 

find relaxation by living along the shores and beaches. More 

water is being used, often without concern about future needs. 

Thus, the water becomes less fresh and clean, What the future 

About 70 percent of the people lives on 20 percent of the Iand. FIG. 6 
Ponti -ti 

EXPLANATION 

POPULATION DENSITY 

(People per square mile) 

The greatest concentration of people is in the Detroit-Pontiac area. FIG. 7 

holds is not completely predictable. However, with the possibilty 

of a shorter workday and the certainty of an increased population, we can be sure that more use will be made of our water resources, The quantity of water available per capita will be reduced and, unless pollution is eliminated, the quality of water will 

deteriorate. 

3. Water Use 

MORE PEOPLE-MORE WATER 

One method for predicting water use has as its basis the 

relation between population and per capita use. Logically, more 

people use more water. That is, if a community with 50 people 
YEAR 

1969 

YEAR 

2000 

If 

YEAR 

2300 

Projected population-1.6 rnilIion and upward. FIG. 8 

used water today at the rate of 3,000 gpd (galIons per day) then, 

on a straight-line basis, that same community with 5,000 people 

should use 300,000 gpd. However, this method alone produces erroneous results, for it requires stability in not one but several 

trends. Not only must the trend in per capita domestic use remain stable but also the trends in population and industry. In actual situations, we find little stability. Per capita domestic use 

varies from house to house and from day to day. Population increases slowly one decade, rapidly the next. Industry that is absent from the scene today may arrive tomorrow. Because of these 

factors, we find that the total quantity of water used varies considerably between communities. This variance is well illustrated 

by the pumpage data shown in figure 9. 

As can be seen, South Lyon has fewer people than Molly or 

Waterford, yet daily water use is greater. Waterford used nearly 
60 South Lyon (1965) - 

Waterford (1 965) o z ---=- 

rn 3 50 u-.-*- 

[h - m --- rn W 

-+ 70 a 40 - # 

F Z 

.-. 60230 - - 

4 

I 

50 

u 

L 20 Populafion-1,920 - 

L 

Y- 0 laHons per Asy-1,590,000 

ens per day per perwn-828 --- 40 10 

- 

G 

Gall 

1 

w A 

305 O I 

Population-14.700 z -- 20 , 20 -- Holly (1965) Gallons per day-1,470.C (0 Gatlons per day per person- 3 wlsl 

10 10 ~pu,ation-B-. EY 

F GaHons per day-400,000 

Gallons erday er * crson-112-. 

J F rn A rii I .I G s o N FJ O 2 OTFn-ii-.l-~ J G s o N u 

Great differences exist in water use between communities. FIG. 9 

three times as much water in July as in January and Holly had a 

slight seasonal increase in water use during the summer. Water 

use in South Lyon showed no seasonal trend. Thus, one significant 

fact emerges from the data on the graphs-water use predictions 

can be no more than an educated estimate based on conditions 

relative to the local situation. This estimate, if continually up 

dated, will provide the water manager a basis for designing a 

city's future water supply. 

The community of Milford is typical of the smaller communities that have no major water-using industries. Monthly water 

use is relatively stabIe or on the uptrend during the first part of 

the year but shows a downtrend during the latter part of the 

year (fig, 10). The peak demand for water is during the growing 

season when temperatures and evapotranspiration rates are high. 

Because water use in Milford is principally domestic, the per capita use here, which was 97 gpd in 1966, probably is representative of per capita domestic use in other communities. However, 

two things should be kept in mind. First, this figure includes not 

only water used for drinking, washing, and lawn irrigation, but 

also that used by the city to prepare the water for use, to keep 

water mains flushed and clean, and to offset losses suflexed 

through leakage in transmission. Secondly, more water is used 

during a dry year than a wet one; 1966, although not a dry year, 

had less than average rainfall. 
Milford (1966) 

Populatmn-4.560 

Gallons per day--440,000 

Gallons per day per person-97 

Water use in Milford-a typical picture for communities without big waterusing industries. FIG. 10 

Per capita water use in MiIford compares favorably with that 

in HolIy (112 gpd) and Oxford (114 gpd). Also, per capita use in 

the part of Oakland County supplied by Detroit water is about 

I30 gpd, industry included. Therefore, it is assumed that a per 

capita consumption of 100 to I10 gpd is typical of domestic use in 

- -. - - Tw-&<A&7$+z - " -,?, ~> ~-- 4+< 

-. &.:.:&,: . .~-+AX..-~ -- 2L ;-~,.* . -. .- .:-....,-, PER .-- DAY .:;.; =:. .PER. PERSON :-.:.-:;..-~:-Y~:%.~:+; . ..~*~<<;L~~ , L-.-~-.. . .- .-.-.. - - 
Oakland County. Communities having considerably higher use ratios than this, such as 650 or 200 gpd per person, reflect water-using industry, tourist areas, or communities having large rexidential lots. Use of water in rural homes or in communities of less 

than 500 population is reported to be between 50 and 66 gpd per 

person. 

Using the above data and population figures shown in an earlier section we can estimate trends in water use. Shortly after the 

turn of the century, when the population was about 50,000 and 

mostly rural, water use was about 3 million gpd, most of which 

was ground water from within the county (fig. 11). In 1965, with 

EXPLANATION 

n 

Water from sources Water imported 

in Oakland County from Detroit 

Water &ken from sources within Oakland County today is only a small part 

of the total water used. FIG. 11 

a much greater popuhtian and a considerable number of waterusing industries, daily water use in the county averaged between 

80 and 85 million gallons. Much of this water came from Detroit 

and was used in five southeastern townships (fig, 12), serving 18 

percent of the county population. By the year 2000, if projected 

figures are correct, water use will average about 200 million gpd. 

Most of this water will be used in eight OF nine southeastern 

townships and will be supplied by Detroit. 

We should keep in mind, however, that no water--supply sysw 

can be planned solely on average use, for, in fact, water use varies from day to day. Therefore, the system must be planned so 

that it is capable of meeting the maximum demands placed on it. 

Demands for water during fie summer months increase considerably and on days of ma~mum demand water use may be two to 

2.5 times greater than the average (fig. 13). Thus, by the year 

2000 there may be days when total use will exceed 500 million 

gallons. 
1-68 rnitl~on 

nor. 'hart 8( 

More than 80 percent of the water used in 1965 was used in the southeast 

part of the county, the area of greatest population density. FIG. 12 

500 

MAXIMUM EIAY . 

d 

i 10*1 AVERAGE DAY 

0- - 

Maximum daily demands for water placed on the supply system, in general, 

wilI be at least double the average demand. FIG. 13 
INDUSTRIAL WATER USE 

Water use by industry varies greatly. Use may be Iarge or 

smalI depending on size of plant, number of employees, and type 

of processing. In some plants little or no water is used in product 

processing-here the primary use is for air conditioning and domestic needs, Although the quantity of water used per year for 

air conditioning may not be great, the effect of the periodic demand for this use on the supply system may be tremendous. For 

severaI months during the summer, large quantities of water may 

be required, whereas during the rest of the year the requirements 

are small. Thus, the supply system must be designed to produce 

large quantities of water even though the system may be used at 

full capacity for only severaI days during some years. A supply of 

water and a supply system for these types of use often can be developed best by use of water from local sources. 

In some plants, large quantities of water are used in product 

processing; generally little of this water is incorporated into the 

product. Thus, it is necessary to have not only an adequate source 

of suppIy but a disposaI system capable of handIing large quantities of waste water. Data for South Lyon, discussed earIier in 

this section, reflects the effect of industria1 water use on a cornrnunity's water picture (fig. 14). Here there is IittIe evidence of 

seasonal trends in use or little percentage variation from month 

to month. 

- 583 Million gallons (total use) 

80 Million gallons t 

P- * (approx~mate domestic use) - - P,, F'L. -- -- -J? f y5-2.., . - 

Industry may determine supply requirements. FIG. 14 

15 
Industry plays an important role in estimates of future water 

use. However, estimates of industrial. use should be related to the 

availability of water. To illustrate, where unlimited amounts of 

water are available, such as in the area supplied by the Detroit 

system, estimates of industrial water use is in relation to the 

treatment and transmission of water rather than to the available 

supply, In communities, where limited amounts of water are 

available, estimates of possible industrial use are limited to the 

available local water supply. A supply that is sufficient to sustain 

only domestic demands could not meet the demands of water-using industry. 

IRRIGATION WATER 

Irrigation in Oakland County does not appear as a major water 

use in 1968 or in the future. The acreage in crops being irrigated 

at present is very small and has been on the decrease in recent 

years. Because there is little evidence to the contrary, it appears 

that this decreasing trend will continue. 

Substantial quantities of water are used to maintain healthy 

and green grass in parks, golf courses, and lawns. The quantity 

of water required for this type of irrigation usually is computed 

as a part of the per capita requirement for the community. As 

such, irrigation does not appear to have a significant role in estimates of future water requirements, 

WATER FROM LAKE HURON 

One significant factor involved in water-use analysis for Oakland County is the Detroit water system (fig. 15). Through this 

system "any village, township, city, county or industry, through 

its representative governmental agency, can obtain any amount of 

water capacity it wants * * *" (Detroit Department of Water 

Supply, 1966, p. 3). Thus, in areas where the population increases 

rapidly and becomes concentrated and where local water supplies 

cannot produce the quantity and quality of water needed, Detroit 

water will be readily available. Ln those areas where the population increase has been slower and where it appears that this 

trend will continue, local water sources will be sufficient to supply 

most demands for several decades. 
EXPLANATION 

TRANSMtSSION - MAINS 

Prrsunt 

--- 

Propwed 1970 

83" 30' 83" 15' 

Most of southeastern Oakland County (shaded area) is now served by water 

from Lake Huron via the Detroit water system. FIG. 15 

4. A Replenishable Resource 

PRECIPITATION 

Precipitation replenishes the water resources in Oakland 

County. It is well known that snow and rainfall replenish lakes 

and streams; not, as well known is the fact that precipitation also 

is the primary replenishment for ground water within the county. 

Thus, data on precipitation gives some insight into the status of 

the local water resources. 

The amount of precipitation varies from year to year, month to 

month, and day to day. Sixty years of records at Pontiac indicate 

that the yearly precipitation there ranges from less than 20 to 

about 40 inches (fig. 16). January is the dryest month; May is 

the wettest (fag. 17). Many of our water problems arise during 
_1 

Low / 

Average yearly precipitation for the past 60 years is nearly 30 inche-nsiderabIe variation can occur from one year to the next. FIG. 16 

Wettest months of the year are May and June. FIG, 17 

dry years when too little water causes droughtlike conditions or 

during wet years when an overabundance of water produces flooding. When precipitation is near normal, water problems are reduced. Daily and hourly variations in precipitation occur often 

and are sometimes quite great, but their time of occurrence defies 

long-range predictability. 

Precipitation varies not only with time, but with locality. 

Within Oakland County, however, the normal yearly variation is 

relatively small, ranging between about 29 and 33 inches (fig. 

18), a variation which probably is not of great significance in re 

lation to the overall water resources picture. More irnpodant is 

the fact that most of the county receives, on the average, about 

30 inches of rain and snow each year-ILn amount equivalent to 

about 815,000 gaIlons per acre. 
7- 

R. 7 E- R-8 E. 59 E. 10 E. R. 11 E. 

'oxford 

Holly '3 N. 

0 ~ Lake Orion 

EXPLANATION 

RAINFALL, IN INCHES 

Average yearly precipitation ranges from 29 to 33 inches, FIG, 18 

HYDROLOGIC CYCLE 

The amount of water that falls on the county, if diverted to 

complete controlled use, would be adequate for most needs. Present technology, however, precludes such control, Therefore, any 

estimates of available water or any wate~ budget must take into 

account not only precipitation, but the distribution, use, and loss 

of water. If we consider the hydrologic cycle, we kd that water 

from precipitation is distributed along two main path+evapotranspiration (the combined processes of evaporation and transpiration) and runoff-paths along which water is used and is 

often lost (fig. 19). Evapotranspiration is the greatest consumer of 

water, returning about 70 percent (21 inches) of the water from 

precipitation back to the atmosphere during an average year. The 

remaining 30 percent (9 inches) goes to surface runoff and in the 

process replenishes our lakes. In reaching the two major paths of 

distribution some precipitation percolates to ground-water reservoirs and subsequently seeps to streams or returns to the atmosphere by evapotranspiration. During an average year, about 5 

inches of the water from precipitation takes this xoute. A budget 
- 2, 

INCHES 

9 INCHES 

Water from precipitation folIows varied routes of distribution, FIG. 19 

evaluating several of these parameters is defined later in this report. 

THE SOURCE IS REPLENISHED 

The quantity of wahr that goes to runoff and percolation may 

seem to be a rather small part of the total precipitation. Yet, 

throughout most of the area, it has been enough to maintain 

water levels in streams, lakes, and welIs (except in areas of heavy 

pumping). During extended periods of reduced precipitation, such 

as between 1960 and 1966, considerably less water is available for 

recharge and wahr levels may decline (fig, 20). With the return 

Accumulative loss or gain 

-40 - 

-50 1958 

I I I I I I I I 

1960 1962 1964 1966 

More than 40 inches of water was "lost" fxom 1960 to 1966 because of reduced precipitation. FIG. 20 
of average or above-average precipitation, such as in 1966-67, 

water levels soon return to normal. Thus, streams that become 

stamant and sometimes dry up are flushed out and replenished 

when it is wet. Lakes that appear to be dying are rejuvenated 

when precipitation increases. And wells that go dry during 

droughtlike conditions will often yield sufficient water again after 

a year or two of above normal precipitation. 

5. An Interwoven System 

LAND AND WATER 

Water has many forms of occurrence. It occurs in the air, on 

land, and in the ground. Although each mode of occuxrence is 

unique, in many respects they are interwoven and form a highly 

complex system. The surface of the land, its makeup and configuration, plays an important role as a part of this system. 

In Oakland County the land surface exhibits a variety of differences, especially as to diffexence in altitude and configuration. 

In the relatively flat southeastern comer of the county, the altitude of the land surface is at its lowest-about 630 feet above sea 

level (fig. 21). Northward, the surface is increasingly higher until 

The altitude of the land surface ranges between 600 and 1,200 feet above 

mean sea level. (See fig. 22 for location of section.) FIG. 21 

it reaches its highest altitudes, just over 1,200 feet, in the rollim 

and hilly stretch between the west-central boundary and the 

northeast corner, In the northwest corner the surface altitude decreases until again it is less than 1,000 feet. 

Surface-water drainage exhibits the influence of the land suxface. This drainage radiates outward from the high terrain (fig. 

22) eventually merging into one of the major streams which flow 

from the county. Because of the irregular configuration of the 

land, water is trapped in many areas to form numerous lakes and 

swamps. 
2 - 0 2 4 6 8 MILES 

EXPLANATION 

Contour line of the land surface showing altitude 

above mean sea level; contour interval 50 deet 

except in areas of hi& relief where the interval 

is 100 feet 

Line of seetion 

The land surface is relatively flat in some areas but quite hilly in others. 

FIG. 22 

Water in the ground aIso is affected by the land surface in the 

respect that it always seeks a lower altitude. It may either flow to 

streams within the county and be carried away, or it may flow 

underground toward lower altitudes outside the county. 
SOME INfERRELATlONSHIPS 

Examples of the relationship between the land surface and the 

occurrence of water are provided throughout this report. We 

should keep in mind, however, that this relationship implies another relationship--one that exist's between water in all its various forms. In this report, we place water into general categories 

so that it can be logically discussed ; however, no such neat subdivisions actually exist. In nature, dl water is related. An example 

of water's interwoven nature and how it is affected by the land 

surface is shown by the relationship between runoff, recharge, 

and evapotranspiration. Comparing water in an area where the 

surface is rolling or hilly to an area where it is relatively flat, 

other conditions being equal, we find that the interrelationships 

shown in figure 23 are common. An actual example as it occurs in 

Oakland County is demonstrated in the Swartz Creek basin. 

More runoff, less recharge, 

less evapotranspirat~on. 

and deeper water table 

Less runoff, more recharge. 

more evapotranspiration, 

and shallower water table 

The configuration of the land surface and the occurrence of water are related. FIG. 23 

Seepage measurements were made in the Swa1-t~ Creek basin 

on October 12, 1966; the discharge is shown in figure 24. This 

was during a period of dry weather and the measurements represent base flow, wherein runoff was principally ground water. Although the measurements were made in the fall, some transpiration probably took place, and with temperatures of more than 

60°F, evaporation losses were significant. 

Significant differences in ground-water seepage in the upper 

reaches of Swartz Creek are noted although the glacial materials 

throughout the basin are fairly uniform in hydrologic properties. 

Ground-water seepage is substantially greater in the reach of 

stream from miles 3.1 to 4.4 where the stream gradient is also 

greater (fig. 24). The steeper gradient of the water table in this 

area, as reflected by stream gradient, water-table contours, and 
".'I - 

0 0 1 970 - --pc.. --..=a P - W Area having numerous 5 lakes and swampy tarids 960 - - 

S an 

5 950 ' 

W 

2 

w 940 - > 

a 

m 

4 930- 

L 

k! 

920 - 

5 - w 

0 910 - Areas OP la~es - 

3 

k and swampy Ian 

b ; 900 -- 

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 

MILES UPSTREAM FROM GAGING STATION NEAR HOLLY 

Base flows reflect basin physiography. FIG. 24 

the slope of the surrounding land surface, results in increased 

ground-water flow; the amount of flow being directly proportional to slope of the water table. In the reach of stream from 

about miles 4.4 to 5.7, a decrease in discharge is noted. The decrease is attributed, in part, to evapotranspiration; and although 

no data are available to substantiate this, some water probably 

infiltrated into the ground in this reach and returned to the 

stream between miles 3 and 4. 

The decrease in streamflow between miles 1.2 and 3,l can be 

attributed to evaporation from the several lakes in this area and 

to transpiration from swamps. In both reaches were streamflow 

decreases (between miles 1.2 to 3.1 and 4.4 to 5.7) stream gradients are small, and the areas of wet swampy lands are substantially greater; these conditions are conducive to greater evapotranspiration losses. 
As can be seen, gains and losses to streamflow wikhin the upper 

reaches of the creek are directly attributable to the influence of 

land-surface configuration. Downstream, near mile 0, the composition of materials at land surface come into play and the increase in flow here can be attributed, in part, to permeable glacial 

materials which transmit water to the stream more readily (fig. 

25). However, stream gradient still appears to have an impostant 

influence. To illustrate this, the same permeable materials that 

cross Swart2 Creek near mile Q extend into the headwaters of 

Little Lake Outlet to the north. Yet, runoff from this basin is small. 

Inspection of the land-surface configuration in the basin indicates 

very low stream gradients (fig. 25) with resultant swamps and 

lakes ; these are conditions that favor high evapotranspiration 

and reduced runoff. Thus, it appears that, in this area, the influence of the relatively flat land surface overrides the influence of 

the pemeable material. 

As demonstrated, the configuration of the land surface plays an 

important role in the nature and occurrence of water in a river 

basin. Analysis of stream flow data illustrates certain patterns of 

behavior between land and water and suggests an interrelationship between water flowing in streams or that is stored in 

lakes and water in the ground. The existence of an interrelationship between surface water and ground water is demonstrated in nature by the sustained flow of streams during periods 

of dry weather. Water issuing from the ground as springs and 

seeps foms the rills which add to and maintain the flow of 

streams. The balance that exists between surface and ground 

water and other elements of the hydrologic cycle may be demonstrated through a water-budget analysis. Data collected in the 

Swartz Creek basin provide a basis for illustrating a typical 

budget. The budget and method of analysis are given in the fob 

lowing section. 

A WATER BUDGET FOR A SMALL BASIN 

The hydrologic cycle, a continuing phenomenon, may for the 

purpose of analysis be considered to begin with precipitation, As 

man envisions it, precipitation is the source of water for streams; 

it replenishes soil moisture, recharges ground-water reservoirs, 

supplies water for storage in lakes and other depressions, and 

provides the water needed for plant growth (fig. 26). The apgortionmerit of precipitation may be expressed in the water-budget 

equation, P= R +AS+ L, where P (precipitation) represents input, 
EXPLANATION 

AQUIFER INDEX \ 

(Relative permeability of the " 

upper 50 feet of ebcial drift) I 

LOW 

-*a - 

Basin 

boundary 

A 

Gaging 

station 

0 

w 

'h 1 MILE 

CONTOUR INTERVAL, 10 FEET 

k DATUM IS MEAN SEA LEVEL A 

Periodic Low-flow rncnnurt~ment measurement 

Base frurr U.S. Geological 

Survey; Holly, 1920 

Physiography and aquifer characteristics that influence base flows in Swartz 

Creek basin. FIG, 25 
Nature's water budget in Swartz Creek basin, FIG. 26 

and R (runoff), AS (change in storage), and L (losses through 

evaporation and transpiration; colIectiveIy, evapotranspiration) 

represent output. Other eIements such as interbasin underflow, 

change in soiI moisture, diversion of water into or out of the basin, 

and consumptive use of water by man, often are included in a 

water-budget analysis. However, in this basin study, these elements, along with the change in surface-water storage, were small 

and their net effect on the overalI budget was nedigible. Measurement of precipitation, streamflow, and ground-water levels, therefore, provide the data necessary for solving the equation. 

An understanding of the principal elements in the budget equation provides an insight to the intexwoven system in which water 

occurs. Precipitation, an integral part of the equation, was covered in chapter 4 and needs no further emphasis here. Of the 

other elements in the equation, runoff is most readily perceived; 

however, the complexity of this element is not always recognized. 

Runoff is made up of two principal components; overland flow 

or surface-water runoff, and efiuent seepage or ground-water 

runoff. The proportionrnent of these components reflects basin 

characteristics, principalIy basin geology. A delineation of the 

relative proportions of each component can be accomplished by an 

analysis of streamflow records. Figure 27 illustrates the separation of streamflow into its components for the period April 1967 to 
12 loo ma 

3z 

00 

22 Surface runoff 

-m 

2% LO 

En 

4 EL 

EE 

0' 

1967 

Surface and ground-water runoff are governed by precipitation and groundwater levels. FIG. 27 

March 1968, a period for which both water level and streamflow 

data are available. The solid area represents the surface-water 

component, and the remaining or shaded area of the hydrograph 

is ground-water contribution to streamflow. Table 1 shows a 

TABLE 1.-Nearly half the btal mmfl in the Smrtz Creek basin comes from grmd 

u~aker so~~rce8 - - 

Month 

Total 

Runoff, in inchSurface Ground Ground-watm runoff as a percmtape of 

tohtat runafr 

1967 

April ------ ----- ------ 

May------,----,-,--- 

June----------------- 

3.12 

.80 

.91 

July - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 

August- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 

September- -- - - - - - - - - - 

October - - - - - - - - - - - - - 

.46 

.33 

.16 

.45 

November- - - - - - - - - - - .72 

December- - - - - --I - - - - 1 .37 

1968 

January-------------- 

February- - - - - - - - - - -- - 

March- - - -- -- -- -- - --- 

.59 

1 .70 

1.19 

Total _ - - - - - - - - - 11.80 6.78 5.02 43 

28 
month-by-month summary of runoff and the totals for the 12- 

month period. As shown, about 43 percent of the streamflow was 

derived from ground-water sources. 

The significance of the proportions of surface-water runoff and 

ground-water runof? may best be demonstrated by a comparison 

of flow for basins having varied runoff characteristics. A comparison was made for three such basins in Oakland County (table 2). 

TABLE 2.-The propdhm of surfme-wder runof and g~ound-uraler runofl aary 

between basins and fmm year-to-year within eaeh basin 

RunoiT, in inches Ground-water runoff 

Year as a percentage of 

Total Surface Ground total runoff 

Swmb Creek near H~IY 

R3ver Rouge at Biumimham 

Huron River at Milford 

1964- - ------ --- -- -- -- 4.88 1.16 3 -69 76 

1966- - - ---- - - -- -- -- - - 6 -01 1.56 4.45 14 

1967----------------- 8-64 3.11 5.53 64 

The percentage of ground-water runoff shown in the table reflects 

variations in permeability of the glacial deposits in the three basins; higher percentages of ground-water runoff indicate more 

permeable deposits, In some areas, basin physiography and urbanization will significantly affect the proportions of surface- and 

ground-water runoff. 

As can be seen, the ground-water portion of streamflow is 

greatest in the Huron River basin and is lowest in the River 

Rouge basin; that in Swartz Creek basin is intermediate. The 

pemeabilities that are reflected by these streamflows correlate, in 

general, with the geology in the basins. The principa1 glacial deposits at land surface in the Huron basin are outwash (usually 

permeable); whereas, in the Rouge basin, deposits of clay lake 

beds (usually impermeable) predominate. Deposits in the SwarOz 

Creek basin are composed of both permeable and impemable 

materials; outwash predominates in the downstream part of the 

basin and impermeable till makes up most of the headwater deposits. 

The proportions of surface- and ground-water runoff vary also 

within each basin from year-to-year depending upon climatic con- 
ditions. These differences are shown in table 2, where runoff 

ranging from dry to wet conditions axe included. In wet years 

ground-water runoff is relatively large, but it makes up a smaller 

proportion of the total flow. 

The second element on the output side of the budget equation 

-that is, change in storage-was evaluated on the basis of records of ground-water levels and a computed value of gravity 

yield (gravity yield times change in ground-water level equals 

change in storage). The value of gravity yield was determined 

from data for two short-term periods--September 5-14, 1967, 

and January 1-15, 1968. Resultant values of gravity yield were 

0.05 for the September period and 0.10 for the January period; 

the differences probably are due to the necessity of having to analyze short periods of record and in defining ground-water levels 

on monthly measurements, Because the data for the September 

period are more reliable and because evaluation of pumping test 

data indicate that the lower value of gravity yield is more representative, the value 0.05 was used in computing the change in 

ground-water storage. 

Losses are not evaluated independently in the budget equation 

but are shown as a residual after equating the other elements. 

The budget analysis for the 12-month period April 1967 to March 

I968 is shown in table 3. Some monthly values may be in error, 

TABLE 3.-Evaluation of ndure's waler budget in the S&z Creek basin 

[Units in inches] 

Manth P=R+aS+L 

1967 

April ------ - -- - --- -- -- -- -- - ---- -- - -- - - ---- -- 3 -90 = 3.12 +O .32 + 0 -46 

May-------------------------------------------- .65= .8Q+ -04- .19 

June --------------------------_---------------- 8.40= .91+ .05+ 7.44 

July -------------------------------------------- 2.39= .46- .04+ 1.97 

A~gwt--- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- --- - - - - - - - -- - 3.59 = .33 - ,20 + 3 -46 

September ------------------A-__----------------- 1.82= -16- .ll+ 1.77 

October- - ---- _- --- - -_ - - - - ---- ----- - - - - - - - - - - - - 4 -06 = -45 + -19 + 3 -44 

Novembex -------------------------------- 2.13= .72+ .13+ 1.28 

December -_----------------------------u-A----- 3.94= 1.37+ .11+ 2.46 

1968 

January-- - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - -- - - 1.44 = .59 - -12 + .97 

Fe'ebruary--------------------------------------- 1.84= 1.7Q+ -23- -09 

March ----------------------------------------- 1.26= 1.19+ .04+ .03 

especially those for losses-losses which include lag between precipitation, runoff, and change in ground-water storage. As an example, May and February show negative losses which is impossible in nature. However, annual totals are in the correct order of 

magnitude for the period studies. 
Although it represents only a short period of time, the water 

budget shown above does define the relative apportionment of 

precipitation to the three principal output elements in the budget. 

A more reliable budget could be constructed if long-term records 

were available; however, such is not the case for all elements. 

Records for precipitation indicate a long-term average of about 30 

inches, somewhat below that for the 1967-68 year. Also, annual 

runoff for a long-term period as indicated by records for the 

Swarta Creek gaging station is about 8 inches or about 4 inches 

less than that shown above. The difference between long-term 

precipitation and long-term runoff is about 22 inches, a figure 

which represents the average annuai water loss by evapotranspiration. Over a long-term period, changes in storage are negligible. Data are insufficient to assign more exacting values to either of these elements. 

HOW MAN CAN CHANGE NATURE'S BUDGET 

The Swastz Creek basin lies in sparsely settled area. Within 

the basin, homes are widely scattered and the land is forest covered or is used for agricultural purposes. The interrelationships 

of surface water, ground water, and precipitation as shown in 

the preceding sections therefore reflect conditions little affected 

by man. But, what might happen when man develops and populates an area? How could he affed nature's apportionment of 

water? What imbalances might he cause? One example of what 

might happen is shown in the following hypothetical situation. 

Among man's immediate needs when he arrives on the scene is 

water. Tn a basin such as Swartz Creek, ground-water aquifers 

probably would be selected as the chief source for a water supply. 

The first step, therefore, is to put down a well. As more families 

move into the am, additional wells are installed. Eventually, 

there are subdivisions and industries that need water and large 

diameter wells are constructed. As this situation multiplies, pump 

age soon greatly exceeds the rate at which the aquifers are 

being recharged-water levels begin to decline. The water is 

being "mined." 

At first this may not be considered a serious problem. However, 

other elements in the water picture soon begin to suffer. Streams, 

which depend on ground-water to maintain their flow during periods of dry weather, soon become dry or recede to undesirable 

low flows. These streams, rather than receiving water from 

ground water sources as they once did, now are supplying the 

a 
aquifers. This problem of reduced flow may be of lesser significance for those streams to which water, once used, is returned. 

The returned water often is of poorer quality, however, and will 

alter the streams' usefulness. Lakes and other bodies of water 

which are within the cone of influence caused by pumping also 

feel the eflects. They, also, are recharging the aquifers and their 

levels begin to decline. During periods when streamflow and lake 

levels are high this induced recharge may be a beneficial use of 

surplus water. However, this benefit cannot override the ill effects 

of reduced streamflow and lower lake levels during dry periods, 

Along with urbanization, other problems, perhaps less readily 

perceived, also arise. Asphalt and concrete roads and parking 

lots, sidewalks, and buildings restrict infiltration of water which 

would otherwise percolate to ground-water reservoirs. In so 

doing, overland runoff is facilitated. Water from precipitation 

and snow melt can reach the streams readily, reducing times of 

concentration and resulting in greater peak discharges and consequent flood problems. Thus, with pumpage and urbanization, 

changes occur in nature's water budget. The proportions of surface- and ground-water runoff in streamflow are changed, and 

runoff volumes, particularly where pumpage constitutes a diversion of water, are altered. 

Man, however, is not necessarily limited in his move toward 

urban growth and development by these changes in the hydrologic situation. Methods can be adopted to arrest ground-water depletion, flood problems, and reduced lake levels and streamflow, 

Recharge wells, recharge galleries, and other systems of water 

spreading might be employed to induce recharge during periods 

of surplus streamflow and precipitation. In some cases water may 

be pumped from aquifers to augment streamflow. Also, as discussed later in this report, lake levels can be restored by various 

methods and reservoirs may be used to augment bw-flow and reduce flood flows. 

6. Water on the land 

SURFACE WATER-A PRIME ASSET 

In Oakland County, water on the land is a major feature and a 

prime asset. This water provides esthetic, recreational, and utilitarian benefits that are unequaled in most other parts of the 
State. Water occurs on the land in several forms; however, the 

most obvious and most valued are the streams and lakes that 

exist in abundance throughout the county. Although streams and 

lakes have some characteristics in common, each group also has 

its own distinguishable characteristic and are discussed as separate entities. 

STREAMS 

Oakland County is an upland area where streams are small and 

runoff is generally inadequate for my major water-development 

project. Rising in the county are fie headwaters of five major 

river systems (fig. 281, four of which rise in the higher dtitudes of the northern two tiers of townships and the fifth rises 

near the south-central part of the county. The Shiawassee and 

Flint Rivers drain the northwestern and northern part of the 

county, respectively, and flow westward and northward to Saginaw Bay. The Clinton River drains most of the central and eastern parts of the county and flows generally eastward to Lake St. 

Clair. River Rouge and the Huron River drain the southern and 

southwestern parts of the county respectively; they flow into the 

Detroit River and bake Erie, respectively. 

In a broad sense the pattern of drainage has been dictated by 

the shape of the bedrock surface; the general direction of flow 

follows the slope of this surface. In a stricter sense, though, the 

stream network was determined by drainage patterns developed 

during glacial and recent time. 

Stream valleys are gene~ally broad and often contain lakes of 

considerable size. Gradients are gentle and average falls of less 

than 20 feet per mile (table 4). In some reaches, however, slopes 

well in excess of 20 feet per mile are common, and many smdler 

streams have even higher average gradients. 

Streams, as sources of water supply, have been relatively untapped to date (1968). Their principal use, other than for recreation, has been to carry OR wastes. However, use of streams for 

lake-level augmentation, irrigation, and esthetic purposes has 

been important also. Except for irrigation or waste dilution, 

most uses are nonconsumptive and do not seriously alter the quality of water. 

Streamflow 

The average annual, discharge of streams in the county (fig. 

29), is about 575 cfs. This supply is adequate to meet most current and future needs, especially where quality requirements axe 
EXPLANATION 

..- -. .- 

Major basin boundary Subbasin boundary 

The headwaters of five major rives systems rise in Oakland County. FIG. 28 

not critical and where the water may be reused downstream. The 

average flow represents the upper limit or maximum developable 

supply. It is the limit of the potential ~,vater available if it were 

possible to store it all in reservoirs and release it at a uniform 

rate. Without storage, however, dependable supplies are limited 

to the low flows of summer and fall. 

Streamflow varies widely from by-to-day and from year-toyear. At times streams contain little water and some smaller 

streams become dry. At other times, streams become torrents 
TABLE 4.-Sireurn slope in Oakland County ranges bdween 4 and 339 j~l per mile 

Altitude, in feet 

Length Average 

Streams (mh) Atmouth slope 

At source or Founty (feet per 

line mi13 

Buckhorn C-k- -- - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - 

Shiawassee Rnver- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 8.7 12.5 

1,017 

1,017 

923 

897 

10.8 

9.5 

Duck Creek- _ -- ------------------ KearsTey Creek ----_ - - -- - - - - - --- - - - Swartz Creek ---------------_----- 

4.3 

7.0 

14.1 

1,023 

6,048 

9 70 

929 

910 

842 

21.9 

19 -7 

9.6 

Thread Creek -------------- ---- --- 

Deer Lake Outlet ------L----------- 

Sashabaw Creek-- - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - 

6.8 

3.7 

7.5 

1,008 

1,047 

998 

883 

9 67 

9 57 

18.4 

21.6 

5.5 

Galloway Creek- ---_---- --- -- --- -- Trout Creek- - ---- ---------_ ------ 7.8 

5.3 

'347 

'389 

808 

868 

17.8 

22.8 

Sargent Creek - - - - - - - - _ - - - - - - - - - - - - 

Paint Creek- - _ . - -_ _ --------- -- --- 

Twin bakes Outlet- _ . - - - - - - - - - - - - 

5 -2 

23.4 

3.3 

961 

1,050 

898 

$61 

$13 

79 5 

38.5 

14.4 

31.2 

West Branch Stony Creek- -- -- -- --- Stony Creek- - -- - - -- - - -- --_--- - - -- - 

Cl~ntonR~ver ------_-------------- 

Big Beaver Creek- - - - ------_--- -- Quartqn Lake Outlet ------- - 

FranMnnRranch ---_-----_-------- 

12.7 

19 .O 

48.2 

5.9 

9 .O 

11.6 

967 

998 

1,039 

7 80 

910 

968 

781 

682 

666 

627 

721 

644 

14.6 

16.6 

7 -7 

25.9 

21 .O 

27 -9 

PebbleCreek --------------------- 10.3 993 619 36.3 

River Rouge-- - - - - - -- - -- ---- - -- -- - 

Evans Ditch---------------------- 

20 -3 

8 + 6 

798 

740 

608 

610 

9 -4 

15.1 

Minnow Pond Drain ------- -- ------ 9.6 969 755 22.1 

Upper River Rouge ---- -- - - - - - -,-- TI.iaITecl Lake Branch--- - - -- -- - __-- -- - 11.0 

7.8 

946 

933 

635 

806 

28.3 

16.3 

Norton Creek ---- -----_-L_--- ----- 8.8 939 903 4.1 

Pettibone Creek--- - - - - -- -- -- - -- - - - 16.9 999 901 14.2 

Huron River-- - - - - - -- _- -- - - - - - - -- - 36.0 1,028 869 4.4 

with raging waters causing destruction to propedies within their 

reach, Total annual runoff, although greater in some basins than 

in others, has parallel trends (fig. 30). Similarly, a within-year 

cyclical variation in streamflow-with generally higher flows in 

late winter and spring months followed by a recession to lower 

flows in late summer and earJy fall-is similar between basins. 

Day-to-day fluctuations in streamflow reflect day-to-day 

changes in climatic conditions, whereas annual runoR reflects, in 

part, precipitation for more than 1 year. For example, the low 

runoff of 1964 (fig. 31) is a culmination of precipitation deficiencies beginning about 1960. Similarly, the high runoff of 1952, a 

year of below normal precipitation, is a reflection of the above 

normal precipibtion during the years 1949-51. 

Fluctuations in streamflow are controlled chiefly by precipitation and temperature. During the winter, precipitation, in the 

form of snow, accumulates on the ground to be subsequently released when temperatures rise above freezing. Sudden changes in 

temperature during these periods, coupled with rain, may result 
in flooding, since infiltration of water is impeded by frozen soils 

and resistance to overland runoff to streams is minimal. During 

other seasons runoff from a given storm is dependent on soil conditions, soil moisture content, and vegetative cover, 

2 8 MILES 

EXPLANATION 

o 

u 

20 a a - 40 80 o - loo 200 

Av-e streamflow, in cubic feet per sa*md, 

for indicated pattern 

(Rim widths are dmwm to show 

their ralaFiue rat#$ dfiw) 

Average streamflow ranges from Iess than 10 to more than 200 cubic feet 

per second, FIG. 29 
waste-water treatment plant 

VJ 

W 

x 

0 

z 

0' 

- 

i -7;*- 

Z 

5 l[ 

I 

Rwer Rouge at 

Brrrnrngham 

n IL- I - I' 

RunoiT varies widely from yeas-to-year but has similar trends in adjoining 

basins. FIG. 30 

Although precipitation and temperature are fundamental in 

triggering a change in streamflow, basin physiography and geology largely govern the degree of change. River basins having 
ANNUAL PRECIPITATION. IN INCHES. AT PONTlAC STATE HOSPITAL 

Annual runoff reflects not only annual precipitation but also the precipitation of preceding years. FIG. 31 

combinations of such physical features as small slopes, large lakes 

and swamps, pervious soils, and dense vegetation will have lower 

peak flows per unit area, maintain higher base flows, and generally have a more nearly uniform flow throughout the year. Most 

streams in the Clinton, Shiawassee, and Huron River basins reflect these properties (fig. 32). River basins having hilly terrain, 

steep slopes, intense urbanization, and impervious soils permit 

rapid overland runoff, have higher peak flows, recede quickly to 

low flows, and have low sustained or base flows. Swartz Creek, 

most streams in the River Rouge basin, and streams in the southeastern part of the county which are tributary to Clinton River 

have these properties. 

The flow of streams is constantly changing and is subject to the 

whims of nature and man; therefore, streams must be monitored 

(fig. 33) to evaluate their suitability for an intended use. The 

monitoring may consist of collection of records on a continuous or 

periodic basis, or as occasional spot sampling. Monitoring of 

streamflow began in Oakland County as early as 1935; however, 
1000 

Cl~nton R~ver at Auburn Heights 

WATER YEAR 1965 

z 

d 

FIN w incrudes wste fr rn Ponl1.31 sater .upp18t 

I I I I 1 

Precipitation's effect on streamflow is influenced by basin physicgraphy and 

geology; this effect is reflected in records from streams in two different 

physical environments. FIG. 32 

it was not until after 1955 that the program was expanded to 

provide adequate areal coverage (figs. 34 and 35). These early 

Ln 

g 

Im . Z 

10 

- - - - - - 0 Huron R~ver at Milford 

4 + Dramage area 125 sq mi 3 

CU 

3 

A LL D J 

z J 

0 Q U 

W 

C" 10 , . z E /' 

W l ,' 

a '(' tused b{ re:t~lation'. 

tW 

:: I I 

100 I! 

m 

3 

U 

Rkver Rouge at B~rrnin 

Drainage area 36 9 sq mi 

Ort N Dec in Fet: r Apr May Jul~e Jdy AUF Sepl 

5 

W tx 

C- 
5 

- "lYi LC. 

Records of streamflow are obtained from gaging stations such as this on the 

Huron River at Mi1fol.d. FIG. 33 

records, and those obtained as a part of this project, provide the 

basis for evaluating the characteristics of streamflow made in 

this report. 

Records collected at long-term continuous-record stations both 

within and outside the county are the nucleus for streamflow 

anaIyses. Statistical correlation between these records and those 

for short-term continuous record stations and partiahrecord stations provided the basis for defining streamflow characteristics. 

Flow duration 

The variability of streamflow is most easily shorn as a cumulative-f rquency or flow-duration curve. Such a curve combines into 

a single unit the complete record of discharge and indicates the 

percentage of time specific discharges were equaled or exceeded. 

As an example, duration curves for Huron River at Milford are 

shown in figure 36. One curve is for the actual period of record 

and the second is for a period extended on the basis of comelation 

with nearby long-term stations. (Flow-duration data for the Milford gage and other stations in the county were adjusted to the 

193146 period for defining flow characteristics.) Table 5 shows 

duration data for each continuous and partial-record station in 

the county. Data for partial-record stations, or stations which 
EXPLANATION 

Streamflow stations 

and numher 4 

A A 

Shw, diacharpe Disehaw 

A 

Discharge 

(continuous) (periodic rnenaurement) (low-flow mesuurernentl 

Streamflow data are available for 85 stations. FIG. 34 

have been in operation for only a few years (fig. 35), are less reliable than those for stations having long-tern records. 

Duration curves are commonIy used to make comparisons of 

the flow characteristics of different streams. A comparison of 

four streams in Oakland County is shown in figure 37. Discharge 

for these streams is plotted in cubic feet per second per square 

NEXT PAGE: Monitoring of streamflow began in Oakland County as early 

as 1935. FIG. 35 
Station Water year ending September 30 

Sh~awassee River near Dav~sburg 

Buckhorn Creeh near Hoilg 

Sh~awassee Rivrr at Holly 

Kearsley Creek at Drtonutlt 

Duck Creek at Ortanville 

Swartz Creek near Five Points 

Swertz Creek at Flue Pornts 

Swartr Creek near Molly 

Swartz Creek near Bayport Park 

Thread Creek near Oavisburg 

Thread Creek near Holly 

Clinton Rtver at Clarkston 

Deer Lake Outlet at Ciarkston 

ludah take Outlet near Eames 

Sashabaw Creek near Drayton Pla~ns 

Clinton River at Drayton Plarns 

Clinton River near Drayton Pla~ns 

Cltnton Riucr at Auburn Herghts 

Galtoway Creek at Auburn Heights 

Parnt Creek Drain near Oxford 

Paint Creek near Lake Oron 

Trout Creek near Lake Oron 

Trout Creek tr~butary near Lake Orron 

Sargent Creek at Rochester 

Pami Creek at Rochester 

Stony Creek near Romeo 

West Branch Stony Creek near Lake Orron 

West Branch Stony Creek near Lakevrlfe 

West Branch Stony Creek nearwashington 

Twin takes Outlet near Washington 

Stony Creek near Washtogton 
- 

Red Run near Royal Oaki 

Blg Beaver Cre~b near Warren 

East 

Plum 

Pond 

Brook 

Creek 

at lit~ca 

near Leonard 

- 

Rrver Rouge tr~butary at Birmingham 

R~vcr Rouge at Birm~ngham 

FrankI~n Branch at Franktrn 

Pebble Creek near Southfleld - - 

River Rouge at Southf~eId 

Minnow 

Evans 

Upper 

Ddch 

Rkver 

Pond 

at 

Rouge 

Dtan 

Southfield 

at 

at 

Farmlngton 

Quakertown 

- 

Walled take Branch at Northvllle 

Huron R~ver near hndersonv~lle 

Huron R~ver near Drayton PlalnsT 

HayesCreek near CommerceH 

Hayes Creek at Commerce = 

Huron R~ver at Commerce m 

Huron River near M~lford 

Norton Creek near M~lford 

Pett~bone Creek at M~lford 

Huron Rtver-at Milford 

Huron R~ver near New Hud 

Dau~s Creek near South Ly 

EXPLANA I I~IV 

Aiftcted by regulation 

2 Dranagc area ~ndetrn~t 

NOTE Station numbers conlorm to the numaer!ng system useo lor rne narronal nerwurn DT gag 

irg statrons rn th? U.S Gsologrcal Survev's annual report on surface-water supply since 1958 

i~wtlaw measurement srtes n~t ~ncluded In [rstlflg 

Occasional d~scharge measurement - (partial-record statron) 

Continuous streamflow records 
2mt--.-.-l Ln 

h 1 

Example: A mean daily flaw of 

30 cfs may beexpected ta bc-v -- 

eqoaled or exceeded 90 per 

cent ofthe time 

-- - -- 

5l-- L - . -- --- 

0 1 1510 2 5 50 7 5 90 95 98 9999 5 99 9 

PERCENTAGE OF TIME INDICATED DISCHARGE WAS EOUALEO OR EXCEEDED 

Variability of stxeamffow is easily shown by flow-duration curves such as 

that for the Huron River at MiIford. FIG. 36 

mile (cfs per sq mi) to eliminate most of the effects of basin size* 

The relative shapes and positions of the curves present a generalized picture of the hydrologic characteristics of the drainage basins and suggest variations in basin runoff. The high-flow end of a 

duration curve is governed principally by climate and basin physiography. The low-flow end is indicative of ground-water 

contributions to streamflow. Steeply inclined curves, such as those 

for Swartz Creek near Holly and River Rouge at Birmingham, 

indicate rapid overland runoff, steeper stream gradients, more 

compact soils, and small contributions from ground-water 

sources. Flatter duration curves, such as those for Clinton River 

at Auburn Heights and Huron River at Milford, indicate higher 

retention of flood waters, either as ground-water storage or as 
surface storage in lakes, swamps, or stream channels. Flatter 

curves also indicate well-sustained low flows and more permeable 

soils. A duration curve which is concave upward at the low-flow 

end indicates a release of ground water to base Wow with increased proportions. A bending downward of the low-flow end 

(Swartz Creek) indicates a proportionate decrease in the release 

Swartt Creek near Hol!y 

R~ver Rouge at Birmingham 

Clinton River at Auburn Hetghts 

----+- 

Huron River at Milford 

PERCENTAGE OF TIME INDICATED DISCHARGE WAS EOUALED OR EXCEEDED 

Duration curves for four streams in Oakland County iIlustrate variations 

in flow characteristics. FIG. 37 
TABLE 5.-Summary o f ~ ~ rdatafor l continuous ~ [Dincharge in cubic feet per second: diharge in 

Station 

Drainace area Discharge which was equaled or exceeded 

for indicated percentage ol time 

tsq mi) 

4-1437. Shiawassee River near 11.6 7.8 5.9 4.6 

1438. 

Davisburg. 

Buckhorn Creek near Holly _ 22.0 

(-67) 

12 

(-51) 

7.5 

(-40) 

5.1 

1438.3. Shiawassee River at Molly- - 49.2 

E.54) 30 (.34) 

20 (-23) 14 

1480.2. Kearsley Creek at Ortonville 19 -7 

(-61) 

13 

(-41) 

8.0 

(.28) 

4.9 

1480.3. Duck Creek at Ortonville- -- 7.23 

(-66) 

4 -0 

(-41) 

2.9 

(.25) 

2.2 

(-55) (.40) (.30) 

1481.9. Swam Creek near Five 2.48 .9 .5 .3 

1481.95. 

Points. 

Swartz Creek at Five Points 6 -17 

(.36) 

3.0 

(-20) 

1.7 

(.12) 

1.0 

1482. SwartzCreek nearHolly ---- 11.9 (-49) 

7.0 (.28) 3.7 (-16) 2.0 

1482.5. 

1483.95. 

Swartz Creek near Bayport 27.9 

Park. 

Thread Creek near Davis- 7.56 

(-59) 

24 

I.86) 

2.0 

(.31) 

11 

1.39) 

1.5 

(.17) 

4.6 

(-16) 

1.2 

burg. (.26) (.20) (.i6) 

1484. Thread Creek near Holly--- 12.2 4.7 3.3 2.3 

1607.5. Clinton River at Clarkston . 11 -5 t.39) 7.0 

(.21) 

4.1. (.19) 

2.5 

Deer Lake Outlet at 15.0 

Clarkson. 

Judah Lake Outlet near 4.39 

Eames. 

Sashabaw Creek near 21 .O 

Drayton Plains. 

Clinton River at Dravton .. 74.7 

Plains. 

Clinton River near Drayton 79.5 

Plains. 

 linto on River at Auburn 123 

Heights. 

Gallaway Creek at Auburn 17 -8 

Heights. 

Paint Creek Drain near 18.3 

Oxford. 

1615. Paint Creek near Lake 38.9 

Orion. 

1615.2. Trout Creek near Lake 7 -38 

Orion. 

1615.22. Trout Creek tributary near 2.35 

Lake Orion. 

1615.38. Sargent Creek at Rochester 4.69 

1615.4. Paint Creek at Rochester 71.3 

1615.8. Stony Creek near Romeo_-. 25.6 

See footnotea at end of table. 
and partial-record sfations in Oakland County 

cubic feet per square mile shown in parentheses] 

Lowest average discharge for indicated period of consecutive days 

Variability and for recurrence interval shown 

index pppp -- Average 

(Qso/Q90) 7 days 30 days dis-.harge -- -- 

2 yr 10 yr 20 yr 2~r 10 yr 20 yr 

2.4 2.9 1.8 -_---_- 3.3 2.1 - - - - - - - 7.9 -_------ (.25) (.16) _------ (.28) (.18) ---_-_- (.68) 

4.0 2.4 1.1 ------- 3.0 1.4 ------- 12 - - - - - - . - (.11) (.05) _-_-- (.14) (.06) _--__-_ (.54) 

3.3 7.7 3.5 ------- 9.3 4.5 -_---_ 30 - - - - - - - - (.16) (.07) ------- (.19) (.09) _--_--_ (.GI) 

4.8 2.1 .9 __-__-- 2.6 1.2 -___-_. 14 

-----_-- (.11) (.05) ------- (.13) (.06) ------- (.71) 

2.5 1.3 .8 _----_ 1.5 1 .O - - - - - - - 4.1 - - - - - - - - (.18) (.11) ------- (.21) (.14) ------- (.57) 

9.0 .1 .03 - -- -- - - .1 .04 - - - -- - - .9 - - - - - - - - (.04) (.01) ------- (.04) (.02) ------- (.36) 

6.0 .3 .1 - - - - - - - .4 .2 - - - - - - - 3.1 - - - - - - - - (.05) (.02) ------- (.06) (.03) ------- (. 60) 8.8 .5 .1 .1 .7 .2 o 6.9 

- - - - - - - - (.04) (.01) (.01) (.06) (.02) (:b) (.58) 

18.5 .8 .1 _---- 1.3 .2 -_----- 25 

- - - - - - - - (.03) (.004) ___-_- (.05) (.007) ------- (.go) 

2.5 .7 .5 - - - - - - - .8 .5 - - - - - - - 2 .O - - - - - - - - (.09) (.07) ------- (.11) (.07) -----_- (.26) 
TABLE 5.-Summary of flow-duration data for continuous 

[Discharge in cubic feet per second; discharge in 

Drainage Discharge which was elualed or exceeded 

Station area for indicated percentage of time 

(sq mi) 

West Branch Stony Creek 11 .7 

near Lake Orion. 

West Branch Stony Creek 14.8 

near Lakeville. 

1617.6. West Branch Stony Creek 22.5 

near Washington. 

1617.7. Twin Lakes Outlet near 3.63 

Washington. 

1618. Stony Creek near Wash- 68.0 

ington. 1618.3. Clinton River at Yates-----299 

1620. Red Run near Royal Oak _ 36.5 

1629. Big Beaver Creek near 23.5 

Warren. 

1634. Plum Brook at Utica- - _-_ 16.1 

1640.9. East Pond Creek near 9.49 

Leonard. 

1659.9. Endicott Lake Outlet __-___ 21.5 

1660. River Rouge at Birming- 36.9 

ham. 

1660.3. Franklin Branch at 15.4 

Franklin. 

1660.9. Pebble Creek near South- 10.3 

field. 

1661. River Rouge at Southfield__ 87.9 

1662. Evans Ditch at Southfield-_ 9.49 

1662.9. Minnow Pond Drain at 9.18 

Quakertown. 

1663. Up_per River Rouge at 17.5 

Farmington. 

1666. Walled Lake Branch at 22.1 

Northville. 

1688. Huron River near Ander- 14 .0 

sonville. 

1689. Huron River near Dravton 20.8 

Plains.1 

1689.95. Hayes Creek near 3.11 

Commerce.1 

1690. Hayes Creek at Commerce 7.55 

1695. Huron River at Commerce- - 49.6 

1696. Huron River near Milford- 76.0 

1697. Norton Creek near Milford 17.9 

See footnotes at end of table. 
and partiaLrecord stations in Oakland County-Continued 

cubic feet per square mile shown in parentheses] 

Lowest average discharge for indicated period of consecutive days 

Variability and for recurrence interval shown 

index - - Average 

(Q~o/QQo) 7 days 30 days disch.lrge 

2 yr 10 yr 20 Yr 2 Yr 10 yr 20 yr 
TABLE 5.-Summary of $ow-duration data for continuous 

[Discharge in cubic feet per second; discharge in 

Station Drainage Discharge which was ecualed or exceeded area for indicated peree~tage of time 

(ss mi) 

30 50 70 90 

1699.5. Pettibone Creek at Milford 18.0 12 7.5 5.5 4.0 

(.67) (.42) (.31) (.22) 

1700. Huron River at Milford-_ - _ 125 92 62 45 3 0 

(.74) (.50) (.36) (.24) 

1705. Huron River near New 143 115 . 80 55 3 5 

Hudson 1- _ _ _ _ - _ - _ _ _ _ - _ _ (.SO) (.56) (.39) (.24) 

1708. Davis Creek near South 24.4 12 3.0 1.0 .3 

Lyon. (.49) (.12) (.04) (.01) 

Affected by regulation. 2 Drainage area indefinite. 3 Includes about 3 cfs from industrial and municipal effluent. 

of ground water to streams. Where comparison of flow variability 

is desired for other locations, the lower part of the flow duration 

curves may be drawn from data listed in table 5. 

Streams having well-sustained base flows (Clinton and Huron 

Rivers) due to a gradual release of water, principally ground 

water, have relatively high flows per unit area even at the low 

end of the duration curve. Geologic factors which influence the 

ground-water flow to streams include : (1) permeability of the soil 

through which the water must percolate, (2) storage space available to ground water, and (3) ability of the ground-water body to 

transmit water to the stream. An evaluation of duration data 

with these factors in mind permits a reconnaissance evaluation of 

basin geology. 

A rapid guide to the variability of streamflow may be obtained 

from the variability index listed in table 5. This index is obtained 

by dividing the 90 percent duration discharge into the 30 percent 

duration value. Streams having large index values Fave highly 

variable flow, for instance they may have higher runoff per unit 

area after a storm but a low base flow. Those streams having 

lower index values maintain more uniform flow. A generalized 

picture of flow variability based on the variability index is shown 

in figure 38. 

Streams at low flow 

Low-flow frequency analyses provide a statistical estimate, 

based on past experience, of how often the flow of a stream will recede below certain amounts; whereas, flow-duration curves ex- 
awd partiul-record skztions in Oakland County--Continued cubic feet per square mile shown in parentheses] 

Lowest average discharge for indicatsd period of wnseeutive days 

Variability and lor recurrence interval shown 

index 

IQp./Qgol 7 days 30 days 

- Average 

dEsEharge 

2 vr 10 vr 20 ~r PY~ 10 yr 20 ~r 

pxess the full regimen of streamflow without regard to the sequence of occuxmnce of particular flo~vs. Flow-duration curves, 

for example, do not indicate whether flows less than a certain 

amount were uniformly distributed throughout the period of record or if they occurred principally in 1 or a few years. Low-flow 

freque~zcy data therefore can be of great value in appraising a 

stream for water supplies, assessing storage requirements, and 

delineating the hydrologic characteristics of a basin. It is the 

quantity, duration, and probability of occurrence of low flows 

that dictate the suitability of a stream for an intended use. Without storage to augment flow during dry periods, the magnitude of 

low Aom detemi~les the dependable supplies. 

A family of low-flow frequency curves is shown in figure 39. 

Similar families of curves were drawn for all the long-term gaging stations in the county and in adjacent areas. These sets of 

curves were correlated with cords at short-term gaging stations 

and partial-record stations. Results of the analyses are given in 

table 5. As was done $or flow duration, estimates of low flow are 

adjusted to the 1931-66 period in predicting probable frequency 

of future low flows. Provided in the table are the magnitude of 

average discharge for periods of 7 and 30 days and for recurrence intervals of 2, 10, and 213 years. The discharge at the 2-year 

recurrence interval represents the median annual or normal lowflow of a stream. Average low-flows for return intervals averaging 10 and 20 years are important considerations when a user 

must be concerned abut the more critical drought conditions. 

Many investigators use the median 7-day flow (7-day Qz) as an 

index of the low-flow characteristics of a stream. The 7-day Q, 

for streams in Oakland County is shown graphically in .figure 40. 
Variability index (Qa/&) Characteristirs " "1 High base flow, Iower (1 I-7 peak diwharuea wr unit area 

7-10 Moderato base and peak dirhug~, 

Low base flow, high peak 

discharms and flding 

- - Basin boundary 

Runoff characteristics vary greatly throughout the county as is shown by 

the wide range in variability indexes. FIG. 38 
200 

0 

Z 

0 

0 

w 100 m 90 

c $0 w 70 

a 60 

LW 

Y 

L 40 

Y 

m 30 

3 

0 

G 20 

W 

4 10 X 9 consecu-trve days will be less than 

- 5: 8 15 cfs at ~ntervalsaveragtng 7 years 

2 

5 

101 11 15 2 3 4 5 678910 20 30 40 

RECURRENCE INTERVAL. IN YEARS 

The magnitude and frequency of low flow of a stream is often the controlling factor in determining the suitability of a stream for a water supply. 

FIG. 39 

In a later section, the 7-day Q2 is used as a low-flow index in a regional analysis of storage requirements for augmenting low flow. 

Basin geology governs to a large extent the magnitude of low 

flows. Basins in which the predominant glacial materials are 

highly permeable (glacial outwash and sandy lake beds) maintain 

higher base flows per unit area than those having compact glacial 

materials (morainal deposits and clayey lake beds). Surface deposits in Oakland County (fig. 63) vary markedly and cause a 

wide range in low flows even in adjacent river basins; this variance is depicted in figure 41. 

High Row--clnother aspect of streams 

Peak flows in Oakland County occur as a result of snow melt, 

extended or intense rains, or combinations of these events. Such 

flows may occur any time during the year but most occur during 

the spring (fig. 42). It is also during the spring months that 

more severe flooding is apt to occur. At this time, water from 

rainfall, augmented by water from melting snow, flows over 

frozen or partly frozen and often saturated ground and readily 

reaches the stream to produce high discharges. Such a combination of events occurred on April 6, 1947, when about 3 inches of 
rain fell on snow-covered ground. The resultant flood discharges 

were the highest since at least 1902 and caused extensive damage 

along stream valleys. 

EXPLANATION 

0 

u 

u 

16 20 0 

u 

20 40 

7-day I&, in cubic feet per 

second, for indicated pattern 

(Rim width. are dram la show 

tfir relataue pates offlow) 

An index of low-flow characteristics for Oakland County streams is provided 

by median annual ?-day low flows (?-day Qz) . FIG. 40 
EXPLANATION 

0.2-0.4 

Ran~e of medim annual 

7-day low flow 

. *- 

Basin bundary 

Median annual 7-day low flows range from 0 to 0.4 cubic feet per second per 

square mile. FIG. 41 

Heavy, intense summer storms, while not common and usually 

of limited areal extent, can cause severe flooding. This type of 

storm occurred on June 24-25, 1968. The resulting flood caused a 

considerable amount of damage in the southeastern part of the 

county. 
Most peak flows occur during the spring months (distribution shown is for 

peak flows greater than 180 cubic feet per second occurring between 1950 

and 1966). FIG, 42 

FLOODS-HOW OFTEN? 

Measured in terms of geologic time, severe floods are a common 

occurrence. In terns of man's life, however, they are rare events 

and time soon reduces man's awareness of them. In man's lifetime, flooding of the bottom land in stream valley is observed 

with regularily. Floods of disastrous proportions are often only 

hisltorical events and overlooked as improbable occurrences. Use of 

a stream and the land along it, however, is largely governed by 

the magnitude and frequency with which the stream is in flood 

(fig. 43). It is therefore necessary to evaluate flood events when 

considering the construction of darns, bridges, culverts, highways, 

sewage-treatment plants, or other structures within reach of a 

stream's floodwaters. The feasibility of construction, economics in 

design, and engineering problems of design require analysis of 

flood data. 

flooding 

Xcas 

major 

ional 

f lood 

Planned use of river flood. plains should take into account the magnitude and 

frequency of flood events. FIG. 43 
The time of occurrence of a flood cannot be predicted. It is possible, however, through evaluation of past records to state with 

some assurance the chance of a flood of a certain magnitude occurring in any year. Where records are short, regional anaIyses 

of flood data provide a basis for estimating floodflows. Such an 

analysis is contained in a comprehensive report on floods by Wiitala (1965). In that report, Oakland County, because of its vaxiations in flood-flow characteristics, is divided into five hydrologic 

areas, which are shown in figure 44. FJood-frequency relationships applicable to each area with an example of the sppIimtion 

of the curves are shown in hre 45. 

EXPLANATION 

------ 3 

Boundary of hydrologic area Hydrologic area number 

Five hydrologic areas are used to define flood-flow characteristics. FIG. 44 
6000, I I I I 

50~6 Flarn'plr b &am hav~ng -I 1- a ~rarnage area of 50 squaw A 

a r mites would have 3 n.2~ 

Z t - flow of at least iOO( I 

0 cfs on an average 

Q 

40 50 100 200 300 

DRAINAGE AREA. IN SQUARF MILES 

AREA 1 

LLL 11 11, ' 

40 50 100 200 300 

DRAINAGE AREA. IN SQUARE MILES 

L 

1 

60, 

IU I

30 50 100 

I 4 

200 300 

DRAINAGE AREA, IN SQUARE MILES 
DRAINAGE AREA. IN SQUARE MILES 

AREA 4 

500 - _1 

doc) - - 

, ! I I I I I.! I 

70 50 100 2110 300 

DRAINAGE AREA IN SQUARE MILES 

AREA 5 

Variations in floor1 flow between hydrologic areas is shown by flood-frequency curves. FIG. 45 

-. - -.- .--- -. - -- 
Although much of Oakland County is relatively free from destructive flooding, floods are a serious problem in the southeastern part of the county. To illustrate this, the magnitude of a flood 

having a 50-year recurrence interval for streams draining an 

area of 50 square miles was determined for each hydrologic area 

(fig. 46). As shown, hydrologic areas to the southeast (areas 4 

and 5) have substantially higher flows than those for other areas. 

Also, hydrologic area 5 has peak discharges more than eight 

times greater than those of area 3. High flows in areas 4 and 5 

are primarily the result of compact, impermeable soils; however, 

urbanization has also contrihuted to the flood problem, 

The magnitudes of flds having a 50-year recurrence interval are greatest 

in hydrologic areas 4 and 5. FIG. 46 

60 
WATER Sf ORAGE 

The total. amount of water flowing out of Oakland County averages about 575 cfs. This is more than six times the normal low 

flow of the streams. With this tremendous difference it is obvious that potential supplies are great, whereas dependable supplies, based on low flows, may be inadequate for most uses. To increase dependable supplies, storage must be provided. 

Estimates of storage requirements may be accomplished by several methods if streamflow records of sufficient length are available. However, where limited data are available, a regional analysis of low-flow records in relation to anticipated demands 

provides a basis for estimating storage needs (H. C. Riggs, 

written commun.; Martin and Hulme, 1957). This method involves relating draft-storage relations, computed from low-flow 

frequency curves, to an index of low flow. Regional curves relating 

draft, storage, and frequency were defined from drafbstorage relationships developed for long-term stations in Oakland County 

and adjacent areas. Curves for recurrence intervals of 10 and 

20 yeass are shorn in figure 47. These curves permit estimation 

of storage requirements for any location where the index of low 

flow is known or can be determined. The following steps are necessary in using the curves fox making storage estimates. 
Example: A stream having alow-flow index of O 04cfs per sq mi 

would requtre about 35 acre-feet per sq mt d ffrarnage area to 

support a draft rate of 0 15 sfs per sq mr 

200 

Draft'ratcs. 

- 

in cfs per sq rnF 

33-par recurrence rnterval) 

+ 

- 

- 

- 

7-day O,, rn cubic teet per second per square mile 

Regional draft-storage curves can be used to make storage estimates. 

FIG. 47 

1. Determine drainage area upstream from point of use. 

2. Estimate the low-flow index (5'-day Q,). Values of 7-day Qz 

are given for 54 locations in table 5. Estimates of 7-day &, 

may be made from figure 40 or by obtaining a few baseflow measurements, preferably on different recessions and 

in different years and correlating these data with concurrent data for locations having a known low-flow index. 

3. Examine figure 47A or 47B, depending upon how often an inadequate amount of storage can be tolerated, with the ?-day 

Q2 in cubic feet per second per square mile. Intexsect selected draft-rate curve and read storage from the ordinate 

scale. 

Storage estimates obtained from the regionaI curves are useful 

primarily in making a preIiminary evaluation of development potential and for comparing the possibilities between different 

streams. Development of the curves was limited to those draft 

rates that could be maintained by the amount of storage replen- 
ished each year. Higher rates can be obtained if storage facilities 

are large enough to carry over storage from years of excessive 

annual flows. 

The gross water supply available from water stored in a reservoir generally is lessened by evaporation. According to Kohler, 

Nordenson, and Baker (1959), annual evaporation from an open 

body of water in the county would be slightly more than 30 

inches per yeax-an amount approximately equal to the annual 

precipitation. Most losses due to evaporation are during the summer months when, coincidentally, streamflow is generally lowest, 

About 80 percent of the total evaporation occurs during the 

May-October period. Evaporation losses, therefore, are important 

considerations in reservoir design and must be accounted for 

when determining stoxage requirements. Other factors to be considered are seepage and conveyance losses and losses in storage 

capacity through sedimentation; also, changes in hydrologic conditions caused by impoundment must be considered. Where impoundments inundate large areas of swamp land, reduction in 

evapotranspiration may result in a net gain in runoff. In other 

areas higher ground-water levels caused by impoundment may induce subsurface diversions or interbasin flow of water. 

Major reservoirs will be required to provide sufficient storage 

capacities to withstand droughts of 2 or more years, Often such 

reservoirs are not economically feasible unless several uses ox 

benefits (fig. 48) may be realized from the impoundment. RetenMajor reservoirs may be designed to have many uses. FIG. 48 
tion of flood waters, recreation benefits, improved property values, 

higher drought flows, and water supply for irrigation, municipal, 

and industrial needs are among the benefits which may be realized from a multiple-purpose reservoir, 

Streams far storage 

Dams can be built and reservoirs can be created at many locations in Oakland County, but it is not always economical to utilize 

every location. Lakes, for example, that invite construction of 

dams at their outlets are generally limited to esthetic and recreational use; this results in residential development, and high property values which do not justify construction of a dam. Barring 

economic limitation, however, topography in the county is favorable for reservoir development at a number of locations. From a 

map study, 21 sites have been identified and are shown in figure 

49. Specific data on each site are listed in table 6. 

Increases of several times the present flow are possible by reservoir development, and at some sites potentially available flows 

approaching the average annual flow may be achieved. By way of 

illustration, the presently and potentially available supplies are 

shown for several sites in figure 49. Potentially available supplies 

are based on the storage volumes listed in table 6 and the application of drafbstorage reIationships shown in figure 47. 

The reservoirs considered to be available could store an estimated 60,000 acre-ft of water. Some of the reservoirs would require the entire flow of the stream for periods in excess of 1 year 

before they would be filIed. Smaller darns might be desirable in 

these cases unless the larger impoundment could serve several 

uses. Where recreation, esthetics, flood control, and improved 

property values are important considerations, larger dams may 

be warranted. Other locations suitable for reservoir development 

are undoubtedly available, especially where economic and engineering considerations can be overcome, or where small supplies 

are needed and impoundments with somewhat less than 1,000 

acre-ft of storage capacity would be adequate. 

Additional sfomge in lakes 

Economic and conflict of interest considerations Iargely influence decisions regarding the use of lakes for water supply. Also, 

some uses alter the quality of water and may have a deleterious 

effect on the lakes. Use of lakes as storage reservoirs, however, 

has little influence on quality and, barring other limitations, may 

serve as a water-supply source or to augment low flow. 
EXPLANATION ..* 

4 Present supply (7-day Q,), in cubic feet per second -.- 

19 Potential supply (201-gear recurrellce interval), in cubic feet per seoond 

Potential supply is that which could be developed in reservoirs listed in 

table 6 

* Apwoachiw average annual discharge, shown in parentheses 

r More than 

\ 6 Dam Imtion; number corresponds to site listed in table 6 

The assured flow of streams may be incxeased severalfold through reservoir 

development. FIG. 49 

Most lakes in Oakland County fluctuate about 2 feet each year 

under natural conditions but may have a long-term range in stage 

of several feet. If the volume represented by this range in stage 

could be utilized as storage space, the Bakes and ponds represent a 
TABLE 6.-Suilable sib far rewrwir 

Site Drainagearea (so rn~) 

1. Shiawassee River- - ---------- NWX wc. 12, T. 4 N., R. 7 E. 

2. Buckhorn Creek ------------- NE% see. 10, T. 4 N., R. 7 E. 

3. Kearsley Creek- ---- - - - - -- -- - SE M sec. 18, T. 5 N., R. 9 E. 

4. Duck Creek-- -- - - ---------- - SW% sec. 24, T. 5 N., R. 8 E. 

5. Swartz Creek ---__----------- NEX see 26, T. 5 N., R. 7 E. 

6. Do ..................... SEX=. 1,T.5N.,R.6E. 

7. ThreadCreek _---__------__- NWXsec. 5, T. 5 N., R. 8E. 

8. Deer Lake Inlet - --_------- KWX sec. 19, T. 4 N., R. 9 E. 

9. Clinton River-_ .------------ SWjii sec. 19, T. 3 N., R. 11 E. 

Galloway Creek- ------------ NWMsec.24.T.3N.,R.lOE. 

Paint Creek Drain _---------- NWX sec. 4, T. 4 N., R. 10 E. 

Trout Creek ----------------- SEX sec. 24, T. 4 N., R. 10 E. 

Paint Creek ----------------- SWM sec. 3, T. 3 N., R. 11 E. 

Stony Creek ----------------- NW~sec.31, T.5N., R. 12E. 

West Branch Stony Creek- - - - KJV% sec. 25, T. 4 N., R. 11 E:. 

Franklin Rmnch+- - - - - - - - - - - - SW M sec. 31, T. 2 N., R. 10 E. 

Do 2-------------------- SEgsec 5, T. 1 N., R. 10 E. 

Minnow Pond Drain- - - ----- - NWX sec. 5, T. 1 N., R. 9 E. 

Upper River Rouge- --------- SWM sec. 16, T. 1 N., R. 9 E. 

Do ------_-------------- NWMsec.27,T.lN.,R.9E. 

Pettjbone Creek --- -- - - - - -- NE ?d sec 34. T. 3 N.. R. 7 E. 

significant storage reservoir. There are 1,468 lakes and ponds in 

the county (Humphrys and Green, 1962) having a total surface 

area of 15,313 acres. Practical limitations, however, would restrict development to those lakes having adequate drainage into 

them and active inlets and outlets. 

Fifteen lakes, or combinations of lakes, were selected from a 

map study to illustrate the potential of lakes as reservoirs 

(table 7). Together, these lakes have more than 6,700 acres of surface area. If they could be regulated within a 2-foot range in 

stage, a storage voIume of more than 13,000 acre-ft would be realized. It is expected, however, that lakes will continue to serve 

primarily for their recreational and esthetic value. 

The numerous lakes in Oakland County axe of immense value. 

They provide esthetic and recreational uses that no other features can provide. Thus, great efforts should be made to maintain 

these lakes in usable existence for as long as possible. To accomplish this, we must have a better understanding of those factors 
deveIopmmE in Oakland Couwly 

Storage 

(acre-ft) 

Pond 

altitude 

(feet) 

Pond 

arm 

(acres) 

Dam 

h&ght 

[feet) 

Remarks 

3,400 

2,700 

1,900 

950 

950 

960 

335 

24 5 

275 

18 

22 

17 

Would inundate Long and Kirby Lakes. 

900 9 80 SO 15 

3,500 9 50 27 5 3 1 

1R,20O 

I ,930 

870 

910 

1,340 

315 

24 

20 

On Oakland-Genessee County line. 

2,200 1,000 325 28 

2,280 8 50 215 31 Some residential areas in Auburn Heights would be inundated. 

2,200 900 13 5 50 

670 1.010 1 SO 11 

L. 1 

22 

24 

4 1 

Requires railroad relocation. 

Located in Macomb County. 

42 Multipurpose use, water supply and 

hod-water retention. 

52 

40 

26 Small area drained, suitable for floodwater retention. 

36 

52 

52 

26 

that, are important in determining the usability of a lake. Of all 

factors, three are of major importanc*lake Bevels, water quality, and depth. If these can be maintained within desirable standards the useful life of the hkes will be greatly prolonged. 

TABLE 7.-Fifkm sekcled lakesQes with storage potenliul in Oaklad County 

[Data on arurface area from Humphrys md Green (1962)l 

- - 

Lakcsite Drainage basin Surface area 

bacresl 

Combined area of lak 

67 
A study of six lakes 

To maintain Oakland County lakes in usable condition, a better 

understanding of their hydrology is necessary. Thus, a study was 

made of six lakes (fig. 50, table 8) selected because they occur in 

T. 

4 

Jutid Lnke P1 

Six lakes that reflect different environmental settings. FIG. 50 

varied environmental settings, yet have features that are characteristic of many other lakes in the county. The hydrologic regimen at two of the lakes, Duck and White, were altered by lakelevel restoration projects in the summer of 1966. The effects of 

the restoration projects on these two Takes is discussed at the end 

of this section of the report. 

A desirable lake level is one that remains relatively high and 

has a minimum of fluctuation. Under natural conditions this situation seldom exists. Lake levels continually rise and faI1; at times 

unusually high levels cause destruction to shoreline property and 
TABLE 8.-Some ensironmental feabures of siz selected Eakes in Oakland County 

Size 

Lake (acres) 

Inlet and outlet 

characteristics 

Geologic 

environment 

Percenta~ of 

urbanid 

nhnreline 

RemarkTipsico__ --- 301 

Orchard- --- 788 

Elizabeth-. - 363 

No inlet, intermittent outlet. 

Landlockerl 

No inlet, intermittent outlet. 

Moraine and 

till. 

Moraine 

Moraine 

40 

90 

100 

No flow from outlet during period of study. Water fmm Caps Lake 

siunally 

pumped sine pto May lake -- 

1968. 

Judah--_--_ 116 Intermittent inlet 

and outlet. 

Momine 30 Flow from outlet during much of the year. Several 

ohsewation wells drilled 

amund this Iake were 

Duck- -- - - - 253 LandIocked Outwash 80 

dry. 

Water pumped from deep 

wells into Iake occssionally dnce November 

1966. 

White- - - - -- 540 Landlocked Outwash 100 Water pumped from deep wells into Iake accasimally since duly 1968. 

at other times they are undersirably low. An obvious factor influencing lake-level fluctuation is precipitation. Hydrographs of four 

of the six lakes studied (fig. 51) iIlustrate the relation between 

precipitation and l&e levels. In reality, however, precipitation 

only produces a rise in lake levels, not a decline. Lake-level decline can be attributed principally to evaporation. Through evap 

oration, as much as 6 inches of water can be removed from a lake 

in a month's time. Because evaporation is greatest during the 

summer months, these are the months during which lake levels 

often show the greatest decline. 

ILC-C* 1 I ip~ronrnate where dashed ~iarlted diversion from Cass L-'- I 

Trends only. retative altitudes 

not implied I Lp= 

. -hard lake -4 

Lake-level trends for four lakes. FIG. 51 
Base from U.S. Geological Survey; 1:24,000; 

Clarkston, Pontiac North, Pontlac South, 

and Walled Lake, 1952 

CONTOUR INTERVAL, 10 FEET 

DATUM IS MEAN SEA LEVEL 

Another factor affecting lake levels is their inIeboutlet characteristics. Lakes without an inlet have only the precipitation which 

falls within their usually small drainage basins and, in some 

cases, ground-water inflow as replenishment sources for maintaining their levels. A lake with an inlet, however, receives replenishment not onIy from these sources, but also from the drainage area served by the inlet stream. Because of this added source 

of replenishment, the levels of such lakes generally rise faster than 

do levels in lakes of comparable size which do not have inIets. In 

addition, most lakes which have inIets also have outlet streams 

which, when equipped with a controI facility provide a means for 

regulating the lake level. In the final analysis lakes with inlets, 

such as Judah, have the best chance for maintaining desirable 

levels. 

The slope of the ground-water table adjacent to lakes also affects lake levels. Where the water table slopes toward the lake, 
2" EXPLANATION 

850 1 

VERTICAL SCALE EXAGGCRATED 

2 

. .- 

Drainage divide (on map) 

0 

Observation well (on map) 

1 

Observation well Ion section) 

-----AWater level (on section) 

E 2 

Well designation 

(on map and section) 

ABOVE AND LEFT: The water table around Elizabeth Lake dopes toward the lake except near the lake outlet. FIG. 52 

ground water will flow into the lake; where it slopes away from 

the lake, lake water will flow into the ground. Fox most lakes that 

have outlets the water table in the vicinity of the outlet slopes 

away from the lake; elsewhere the slope is generally toward the 

lake. Of the six lakes studied Elizabeth and Judah Lakes best reflect this situation (figs. 52 and 53). Where the water table slopes 

away from a lake, the lake receives very little or no ground-water 

inflow and its levels, dependent primarily upon precipitation, 

often recede to undersirably low stages during extended dry periods. Such conditions commonly exist where earth materials in 

the vicinity of the lake are permeable and where parts of the 

nearby land surface are at a lower altitude than the lake. An example of this situation occurs at Tipsico Lake. Here, the earth 

material. at depth is permeable sand and the land surface, although high in the area immediately adjoining the lake, is below 

lake level a short distance away (fig. 54). Thus, water flows away 

from Tipsico Lake into the ground. 
Base from U.S. Geological Survey; 

1:24,000 Pontiac North, 1952 

0 H 1 MILE 

L L I 

CONTOUR INTERVAL, 10 FEET 

DATUM IS MEAN SEA LEVEL 

.. -1 

Drainage divide (on map) Observation well (on section) 

wz 975- 

0 -------- 

Obserwatimn well (on map) Water level (on section) 

J2 

Well designation (on map and section) 

05 23 tWater levels in two obsenration wells indicate that some ground water is 

flowing into Judah Lake. FIG. 53 

Ground-water resewdr 

950 

VERTICAL SCALE EXAGGERATED 
The influence of ground-water levels on lakes is dramaticrtlly illustrated in the record of water levels of Orchard Lake and adjacent Cass and Pine Lakes. During the past several years, Orchard 

Lake, although separated from Cass and Pine by only narrow 

strips of Iand, has been from 1v2 to 2 feet lower in level. That it 

is lower suggests a tight seal in the earth materiaIs separating 

the lakes and the possibility of underflow from Orchard Lake. 

Analysis of Iogs of weIIs verify the existence of materials of Iow 

permeabiIity between the lakes, and water-level data show a 

steep slope in the water table from Orchard Lake to the south 

(fig. 55). Further analysis of the hydroIogic situation here reveals that the base flows in FrankIin Branch, southeast of Orchard Lake, are significantly higher than what might be expected 

for this area. It is apparent that water moves as underflow from 

Orchard Lake to the south and discharges to Franklin Branch. 

This resuIts in Orchard Lake being lower in level than either Cass 

or Pine Lakes. 

It might be supposed that Pine Lake also loses water by underground seepage to the south. However, ground-water levels immediately adjacent to the lake show less gradient away from the 

lake. Also, tighter soiIs restrict seepage to a greater extent than 

that from Orchard Lake. It is highly probable, however, that 

some water does seep to the south. 

The problem of low levels in Orchard Lake has been relieved 

somewhat since the spring of 1968. Water is now diverted from 

Cass Lake via a pipeline and is pumped over a control facility into 

Orchard Lake. Since July 1968 the level of Orchard Lake has 

been about 1 foot higher than that of Cass. 

Ground-water levels in the Duck and White Lakes area reflected a combination of conditions during periods when pumping 

water from the mound into the lakes was not in progress. Water 

IeveIs for two such periods are shown in figure 56. As can be 

seen, some parts of the lakes were receiving ground-water inflow 

whereas other paxts were losing water fa the ground. In general, 

these conditions reflect the effect of the surrounding topography. 

The chemical quality of lake water in Oakland County is often 

afFected by the same factors that affect lake levels. Lakes which 

are replenished by ground-water inflow and surface-water runoff 

from inlet streams, for example, have higher total dissolved-solids 

content than Iakes replenished primarily by precipitation. (See 

chapter 8 for details on water quality.) This reflects the difference 
Base from U.S. Geological Survey; 

1:62,500 Milford, 1950 

0 % 1 MILE 

CONTOUR INTERVAL, 20 FEET 

DATUM IS MEAN SEA LEVEL 

in total dissolved solids between these sources of supply. Table 9 

gives the dissolved-solids content, for water samples for each of 

the six lakes studied. As discussed earlier in this section, Tipsico 

was the only lake of the six studied that received most of its replenishment directly from precipitation, and as was expected, it 

had a very low dissolved-solids content. 
Land surface 

A 

Ground~water reservoir 

EXPLANATION 

- .. - 

Drainage divide (on map) 

0 

Observation well (on map) 

I 

Observation well (on section) 

------ 

Water level (on section) 

T2 

Well designation (on map and section) 

ABOVE AND LEFT: Water from Tipsico Lake recharges the ground-water 

reservoir. FIG, 54 

The highest concentration of dissolved solids is in Elizabeth 

Lake. Although most environmental features of the lake are very 

similar to those of Tipsico Lake, it differs in two respects. It has 

a shoreline that is completely urbanized and it receives some of 

its replenishment from ground water. Either or both of these features could cause an increase in dissolved-solids content. Whether 

they do or not is not easily determined. Urbanization does not 

always produce great increases in the total dissolved solids of 

water even though it may produce high concentrations of certain 

individual chemical constituents. Evidence of this is shown by the 

much lower concentrations of dissolved solids in another completely urbanized lake, White Lake. Ground-water inflow does not 

necessarily raise the dissolved-solids content of lakes either. That 

TABLE 9.-Dissolved-solids wntenl of six selected lakes va& wilh lime and belween lahxs 

Lake Date of 

Dissolved solids (rng/l) - collection Individual Average 

sample 

. . Tipsico ----L-------------L------ Mar. 28, 1966 

Do- - - - -- -- - - -- -- - -- -- -- --- - Sept. 10, I966 

DO ......................... ~pr. 17, 1967 

Orchard-------L----------------- Mar. 28, 1966 

Do -----------------L------- Apr. 18, 1967 

Do -------------------__ h'ov. 15, 1967 

Elizabeth ----- - - -- - -- -- -- -- -- --- - Mar. 29, 1966 

Uo ------------------------- Apr. 18, 1967 

Judah--------------------------- Mar. 29, 1966 

Do ---------------------- Apr. 17, 1967 

Duck ........................... duly 23, 1966 

Do -_----------------------- Apr. 17, 1967 

White ........................... Mar. 28, 1966 

Do --------_-_--_----------- July 23, 1966 

Do ----_------ Am. 17. I967 

120 113 

129 

90 

174 

194 187 

194 

2 67 263 

258 

209 

2 56 233 

222 210 

198 

I55 

186 168 

164 

Direction of 

- 

ground-water flow 

a 

Gaging station (on map) 

6 0 'h 1 MILE 

CONTOUR INTERVAL 10 FEET 

DATUM IS MEAN SEA LEVEL 

Some water from Orchard Lake flows underground until it reaches Franklin Branch. FIG. 55 

w D2 W3 w 1075 

> 

0 2d 

1050 1050 

+Z 

1025 '3 1025 Lz za rm 

wg 1000 69 1000 

ow sx 

= 975 3 97 5 

3 VERTICAL SCALE EXAGGERATED 4 VERTICAL SCALE EXAGGERATED 

4 

EXPLANATION 

..- 

Drainage divide (on map) 

0 

Observation well (on map) 

L 

Ground-water reservoir 

5 VERTICAL SCALE EXAGGERATED 

4 

I 

Observation well (on section) 

-------- 

1966 water level, prior to 

any pumping (on section) 

... ...................... 1968 water level, pump on 

Duck Lake idle (on section) 

w 2 

Well designation (on map and section) 

The water table around Duck and White Lakes slopes both toward and away from the lakes. FIG. 56 
this is true, is shown by the concentration of dissolved solids in 

Duck Lake. In July 1966, prior to pumping ground water into the 

lake, the dissolved-solids content was 222 mg/l (milligrams per 

liter). In April 1967, after the lake level had been raised about 

1 foot by the more than 180 million gallons of water pumped into 

the lake, the dissolved-solids content was 24 mgfl less than it was 

prior to pumping. Although two samples do not form a definite 

basis for evaluating the effects of ground-water pumpage into 

Duck Lake, it is significant to note that IittIe change has been indicated. Thus, it may be that neither urbanization nor groundwater inflow produce the higher dissolved solids in Elizabeth 

Lake. There is still another aspect of urbanization that may produce a high dissolved-solids content in lake water. That aspect is 

the extensive use of salt to clear roads of ice during the winter 

months. In lakes that have effective inlets and outlets, the salt 

probably would be Aushed away. However, lakes that are essentially landlocked would tend to collect the salt, After a period of 

time, the increased salt content would be reflected by higher conTABLE 10.--Qudikg of waler from 

[Dissolved constituents and hardness given in millimams per liter; *, 

Sample site Lake Date of 

colFection 

Sulfate (sod Chloride (c1) 

02N07E31BDDB- - - _ - - _ - Kent 

02N08EOlABDD -------- Union --do--- 

02NOSE06DCCD ,,------ Sherwood 

02NOSE:L 1CDDA ---- - _ _ - Lower Straits 

Nov. 15 

02N0 8E15AACB - - - - - - - - Commerce 

02NOSE22DACC - - - - - - - - Wolverine --do- - - 

02NORE34DBCB -------- Walled 

02NO9EOZABAD -------- Cass 

02NO9E12BDCA ------_- Pine 

Apr. 18 - -do--, 

--do--- 

02N09E15ADDR -------- Orchard - -do-- - 

02N09E16CABA- - -- -- -- Upper Straits 

02N09E25ABAB -------- Walnut 

02NlOK06DACA-- ---_ Square 

OZPU'lOE17AADA -------- bwer hng 02NlOE29BCCC -+_--_-_ Wing 

Nov. 15 

Apr. 18 

Nov. 15 

--do_-- 

Apr. 18 

03N07E12CBAC -------- Duck 

OSN07E13ACBB -------- White Apr. 17 

--do-- - 

20 

12 

17 

22 

03N07E18CCDA -------- Dunham Nov. 15 22 3.2 

03X07F,34ARCD-- - - - - - - Lower Bettibone 

03K08E13ARRB - - - - -- - - Pontiac- - - - - - - - - - - 

--do--- 

Apr. 18 

22 

40 

15 

14 

03N08E26BBBC -------- Oxbow Nov. 15 28 19 

03NOSE33DBCB -------- 

03N09E07ADBB- ------- Bogie 

Macedav - -do-- - 

Apr. 18 

Nov. 15 

35 

2 8 

26 

28 

18 

2 3 

Apr. 18 41 2 9 
centrations of chloride in the lake water. The chloride content of 

Elizabeth Lake is 56 mg/l or two to four times higher than that 

of lakes outside the more highly urbanized areas. Thus, although 

not known defintely, road salt may have an important influence 

on conditions of water in Elizabeth Lake. 

Dissolved solids-content of Judah Lake reflects still another 

aspect of lake hydrology. This lake has the second highest concentration of dissolved solids and is the .only one of the six lakes 

studied that has an inlet. Also, the lake is little influenced by urbanization. These features, when viewed collectively and in relation to those of the othe; five lakes, appeared to indicate a wrrelation between dissolved-solids content and lakes with inlets. 

However, the correlation based on Judah Lake alone was not conclusive. Therefore, an analysis was made of the concentration of 

dissolved solids in 55 of the 58 lakes for which water-quality 

data were collected (table 10). Three lakes were excludec' from 

the analysis because of abnormally high concentrations of dissolved solids. The 55 lakes, were classified as "lakes with inlets" 

58 lakes in Oakland County in 1967 

dissolved solids computed by multiplying specific conductance by 0.591 

Dissolved Hardness as CaC03 Specific Bicarbonate Carbonate Nitrate solids. conductance pH 

(HCOd (cod (NOa) evaporated Carbonate Non- (micromhos 

at 180°C carbonate at 25OC) 
TABLE 10.-Qualitc of water from 

[Dissolved constituents and hardness given in milligrams per liter; *, 

Sample site Lake Date of 

collection 

Srlf ate (Sod Chloride 

(C1) 

03N09E12AACB _--_____ Angelus 

03N09E22ABCA ___-_-_- Watkins 

Apr. 18 - do-- - 20 

3 3 

03N09E30BABB ___-_-__ Pleasant Nov. 15 29 

03N09E34BDDD- _ _ _-_- Elizabeth Am. 18 56 

03N09E36DABA _-----__ Sylvan 38 

03NlOE14CCCC - - Galloway 

04N07E19CCAC ___-____ Tipsico 

04N07E22CABB __----__ Buckhorn 

Apr. 18 

Apr. 17 

Nov. 16 

94 

2.5 

11 

04N08E28ADBC -_-__--_ Big 04N09E04DDAD___ _-__ Crooked 

_r_do_- _ 

Apr. 17 

10 

2 .o 

04N09E12CDAB ----____ Walters Nov. 16 

04N09E17ACDD- - - - _ _ _ - Cranberry 

04N09E29BBCA _______ Deer 

04N09E34DCAC _ Oakland ~bv. 16 

04NlOEOlBDAD ---_--__ Long - _do-_ _ 

04NlOElOBCDA -_-_---_ Square 

04NlOEllACDB ________ Orion 

04NlOE16DBCC -___-_ Sixteen 

Nov. 16 

Apr. 17 

Nov. 16 

04NlOEZODABB _____-__ Voorhies 

04NlOE33BBBC ______-_ Judah 

Apr. 17 

_-do__- 

04NllE02BCCB --___-__ Cranberry 

05N07ElOABAA- ___-__ Fagan 05N07E23BDDB _--____ Crotched 

Nov. 16 

Apr. 17 

_-do___ 

05N07E27DCDB ___---_ Bush Nov. 16 

05N07E34CCCA- _ _ _ __ _ Stiffs Mill _ _do-_ - 

05N08E33BAAA- _--____ Valley OFiNOSE30AABD _ Louise 

05NlOE23DCDD -__. Parker 

Nov. 16 

Apr. 17 

Nov. 16 

05NlOE28BBDA -___-___ Tan 

05NlOE28CBBD ----___ Clear 

Apr. 17 

Nov. 16 

05NllEOlCDAA _--_____ 

05NllE27ACDA -______ 

Secord 

Lakeville 

Apr. 17 . -do__ _ 

OSNllE31CDAD _--____ Indian Nov. 16 

and "lakes without inlets." Two of the lakes in the grcTlp without 

inlets were known to receive most of their replenishment from 

precipitation and were identified as a special group. Although two 

lakes do not provide a significant sampling number they were 

g~ouped separately for purposes of comparison. These three 

groups, along with their average dissolved-solids contents, are 

shown in table 11. 

A statistical analysis was used to determine the validity of the 

range in dissolved-solids content between the two ms.jor groups 

in table 11. The analysis indicated that the two groupings were 

significantly different, although the range in dissolved solids overlapped somewhat. The tests pointed out one additional aspect in 
58 lakes in Oakland County in 1967-Continued 

dissolved solids computed by multiplying specific conductance by 0.591 

Dissolved Hardness as CaC03 Specific 

Bicarbonate Carbonate Nitrate solids, -A- conductan ce pH 

(HCOs) (cod (NOa) evaporated Carbonate Non- (micromhos at 180°C carbonate at 25OC) 

that lakes with inlets varied more about the average than lakes 

without inlets. This would normally be expected because of the 

greater differences in drainage areas and the nature of the areas 

drained. 

TABLE 11.-Di~solved-solids content of lakes is influenced by inlef characteristics 

Lake classification 

Number of 

samples 

Dissolved sdlids (ma/l) 

Range Average 

. . Lakes with inlets. _ _ __ _ _ _- _- _ - - - -- -. - - - 25 206-304 2 52 

Lakes without inlets _ _ _ - _ _ _ - _ - - _ - - _ - _ 28 164-268 208 

Lakes without inlets; primary source of 

replenishment is precipitation- _ _ _ _ _ _. 2 90-130 110 

Galloway Lake was not included in this calculation because its dissolved-solids content wa~ ~bnormally high. 2 Wing and Fagan Lakes were not included in this calculation because their dissolved-solids content was abnormally high. 
In general, the information and deductions shown in this section can be applied to most lakes in Oakland County; however, as 

illustrated by Elizabeth Lake, there are always exceptions. As urbanization around the lakes increases, the exceptions will increase 

also. This may be either good or bad. Man's entrance on the scene 

often causes deterioration in the quality of lake water. This deterioration is reflected by an increase of materials in sclution and 

suspension and by an increase in bacteriological contert. Eventually this increase promotes growth of aquatic vegetat,ion. When 

the vegetation dies, large volumes of organic materials accumulate 

on the lake bottom. The final result is a reduction in lake depth 

until the lake becomes a marsh or swamp. As a lake, it is dead. 

One might say that under natural conditions this happens anyhow. This, of course is true. It should be added, however, that the 

life span often is much longer for lakes that are not urbanized. 

No single statement can be made as to the expected life of the 

lakes in Oakland County. Each lake is an entity that is affected by 

unique conditions, and to predict its life would require a concentrated study over a period of several years. 

Man's entrance on the scene does not always have a degrading 

effect on the lakes. In fact, some lakes are being made more useful through man's efforts. The usefulness and life span of lakes 

increases when man dredges lake bottoms and increases lake 

depths. Other cases in point are the recent lake-level restoration 

projects. The effects of such projects on Duck and White Lakes 

are discussed below. 

Ground water for lake-level improvement 

For many years the numerous isolated lakes in Oakland County 

were viewed only as places of recreation and relaxation-little 

thought was given to the level of the lake water. Recently, however, a new wave of interest has arisen. Suburban I'?troit has 

been, and still is, spreading northwest into the county (fig. 57). 

Along with the spread have come people searching for lake-front 

property on which to build homes; homes that are often unusual 

and expensive. As the property was being developed, the homeowners soon realized that the level of the lake waters fluctuate and 

that shorelines sometimes become mudflats. To the homeqwner this 

was an unsatisfactory situation; the lakes needed to be raised to a 

satisfactory level and maintained at this level ! 

To raise the water levels, water had to be added to the lakes. 

Water levels in several lakes have been raised with water from 
Recreational use 08 lakes located in the path of urban expansion is becoming 

an important consideration in the Detroit Metropolitan area. FIG, 57 

nearby large perennial streams. However, streams are not easily 

accessible to some lakes, and at Duck Lake an effort was begun in 

1966 to raise its level by using ground water from deep wells. 

Exploratory drilling on the west side of Duck Lake (fig. 58, wells 

A and B) indicated the existence of two aquifexs; an upper and 

a lower aquifer separated by at least 25 feet of clay (fig. 59). In a 

third well (fig. 59, well C) about 700 feet away, there was no 

lower aquifer. Therefore, a large-diameter well was installed between test weDs A and B to utilize the lower aquifer as the chief 

source of water supply and lessen drawdown in nearby shallow 

wells. Pumping began in November 1966 at the rate of about 

1,050 gpm (gallons per minute). At this time climatological factors were causing lake levels to rise--this was indicated by the 

natural rise of mite and Tipsico Lakes (fig. 60). However, with 

pumped water being added, the level of Duck Lake rose at a 

faster rate. Thus, after 6 months of pumping, Duck Lake had 
0 1 MILE 

Lake levels of Duck and White Lakes are being raised by water being 

pumped into them from the ground. FIG. 58 

risen over 1 foot more than its counterparts. By the winter of 

1967-68, Duck Lake was at its established legal level. Homeowners around Duck Lake were relieved of the mudflat problems, and 

use of ground water to restore the level of Duck Lake proved to 

be a feasible venture. During 1968 natural recharge was sufficient 

to keep the lake at its legal level-no pumping was needed. 

During the time that the level of Duck Lake was being raised, 

work was also being done to restore White Lake. Late in 1966 exploratory drilling began on the west side of the lake (fig. 58) . Test 

holes revealed a lack of adequate aquifer materials (fig. 59, wells 

D and El. A pumping test yielded only about 200 gpm, an insufficient quantity of water for lake-level control. Additional exploratory holes were drilled on the north side of the lake. The materials penetrated were completely different from those of the other 

exploratoxy wells. Aquifer materials existed throughout the 

section (fig. 59, wells F and G) and in sufficient abundance to 

yield nearly 3,000 gpm to a single well. A production well was in- 
owEXPLANATION 

Sand and gravel Clay Clay, gravely, sandy Sand or gravel. Bedrock 

Aquifer or clayey sand some clay 

and gravel 

The lithology of glacial deposits in the Duck and White Lake area differs 

greatly from well to well. FIG. 59 

stalled (at same location as test well G on fig. 58) and pumping, 

at the rate of 2,700 gpm, was started in July 1968. The level of 

White Lake began to rise (fig. 60) and by November 1968 was 

nearing its legal level. 

Evaporation loss is an important factor that must be considered whenever attempts are made to raise lake levels. Actual 

losses from Duck and White Lakes were not measured; however, 
Pumping ground water into lakes raises lake levels but may lower groundwater levels. FIG. 60 

evaporation from cIass A evaporation pans in southern Michigan 

indicate potentiaI evaporation losses to be about 30 inches a year. 

During some summer months, potential evaporation is as much as 

6 inches. Also, studies in the Swartz Creek basin previously described reveaI that 23 inches of water was lost to evapotranspiration in that basin during a I-year period in 1967-68. Another indication of evaporation losses can be obtained by 

analyzing the actual lowering of leveIs in Tipsico and White 

Lakes. In 1967, during the 90-day period between July 1 and September 27, the leveI of these two lakes dropped about 6 inches (fig. 

60). During this same period, recharge from rain amounted to 

more than 6 inches. Thus, the total loss from each of the lakes for 

this time was about 12 inches or abut 4 inches per month. Included in this figure are the losses or gains from ground-water outflow or inflow-parameters which am not easily evaluated. However, as these parameters were effective throughout the year and 

as there was no deficiency in precipitation during the 90-day period, 

it was assumed that the drop in the lake levels was due primarily 

to evaporation. Thus, during long periods of hot weather, evaporation losses cannot be overlooked. It is during such times that 
evaporation will extract large quantities of water directly from the 

lakes. The effect that different evaporation rates might have on 

water loss from Duck and White Cakes is illustted in the following table : 

in galloas per minuh 

Evaporation rate, in inches month 

Duck Lake Whita Lake 

During periods of normal or above normal precipitation, water 

generally can be pumped from streams or wells to improve lake 

levels. During such times, water from precipitation may be more 

than adequate to recharge the aquifers. Also, by pumping from 

streams, water may be captured which otherwise would run off as 

excess flow. 

When precipitation is below normal, pumping water to raise 

lake levels may or may not be desirable. If water is being pumped 

from a stream which has a high base flow, or from a deep aquifer 

that is sealed from shallower aquifers, pumping even during 

drought conditions probably will not be undesirable. On the other 

hand, pumping from streams which have low base flow may deplete streamflow during dry times to a level that would be undesirable to property owners along the stream, Similarly, pumping 

from interconnected deep and shallow aquifers, may lower 

Water pumped from 

interconnected deep 

and shallow aquifers 

Potential evaporation during 

hot dry months may be as much 

as 6 inches per month 

Water level lowered 

during dry times 'V because of reduced 

recharge 
ground-water levels. For example, IeveIs in the observation well 

on White Lake (fig. 60) were lowered as much as 7 feet after 

pumpage into White Lake began. Another factor to be considered 

is that pumpage may induce recirculation of ground and lake 

water. 

Records showing the effects of pumping water into White and 

Duck Lakes are of such short duration that a reliable analysis of 

total environmentaI changes is inconclusive. However, some 

changes have occurred that are interesting to note as they may 

have some bearing on future situations. 

From the winter of 1966 through the fall of 1968, natural conditions favored artificial recharging of lakes. Throughout Oakland 

County, precipitation was about normal and evapotranspiration 

Iosses were not overly excessive. Also, lake and ground-water levels were showing a gradual and almost continuous rise; the typical trends under natural conditions are shown by records from 

Tipsico Lake and from well OC (fig. 60). In 1966, levels of Duck 

and White Lakes (fig. 60) followed the typical trend from June 

into November. Pumping into Duck Lake began in November and 

the level of the lake started to rise at an accelerated rate. During 

the early stages of pumping, ground-water levels in the vicinity 

of the Duck Lake production well showed a definite response to 

pumping, as is shown by records from well OD (fig. 60). However, after February 1967, natural recharge was suficient to 

raise water levels in wells in the lake area and to mask most of 

the effects of pumping. Pumping into White Lake began in July 

1968, a time when ground-water levels throughout the area were 

relatively high and lake levels had been on the uptrend for the 

previous 9 months. The response was immediate-the lake level 

began to rise and the water Ievel in well OW began to fall. This 

trend continued until pumping was stopped near the end of 

September 1968. 

Although present evidence is inconclusive, it appears that 

pumping ground water into Duck and White Lakes during long 

periods of droughtlike conditions will have a noticeable effect of 

ground-water levels in the area. The only way a reliable determination of this effect can be obtained is by careful observation of 

trends in both ground-water and lake levels over a period of 

years. The results obtained from such observation will be of great 

importance in evaluating not only the Duck and White hke situation but for an evaluation of future projects of this type. 
7. Water in the Ground 

CHARACTERESTlCS OF THE CONTAINER 

The availability of water in the ground, or ground water, can be 

defined for much of Oakland County on the basis of three factors 

--the container in which the water occurs, the land surface covering the container, and the quantity of water available for addition to the container. Also, in some areas, water withdrawn from 

the container will be a significant factor. 

The land surface is discussed, in part, in chapter 5. It has been 

shown how the configuration of the land influences the occurrence 

of water. However, the composition of materials at land surface 

is important also in that this is the factor that controls the rate 

of percolation of precipitation. HI materials at the surface are primarily clay, little water will percolate into the ground and runoff 

will be high. If the materials are sand and gravel, the percolation 

rate will be high and runoff will be low. Thus, the composition of 

the container cover, combined with its configuration, are important for determining the amount of water from precipitation that 

will recharge ground water. 

The quantity of water that is potentially available for addition 

to the container is dependent primarily upon precipitation. As 

discussed earlier, precipitation in Oakland County is abut 30 

inches per year. However, water used by plants and evaporation 

losses reduce this supply by about 70 percent. Also, because the 

land surface is not in all places completely flat and because its 

composition is such that it cannot absorb all precipitated water, 

large quantities of water run off the land and are carried away 

by streams. Thus, out of the water potentially available for recharge, only about 15 percent percolates to the ground-water container. 

Because present technology precludes great alterations in either land surface or precipitation, it is the container that 

becomes the focal point in the ground-water availability picture. 

For it is here that water will be collected and stored. Because the 

container is composed of rocks, it is the variance in rocks that 

causes variance in ground-water availability. In fact, the type of 

rock underlying an area may completely define the area's waterproducing potential, as some rocks yield large quantities of 

water; others yield little or none. The rocks that have immediate 
hearing on the problem of ground-water availability can be divided into two major groups-glacial deposits and bedrock (fig. 

61). 

- 

W 

LC1200 

z lo00 

800 

600 

400 

-200 5 Vertical scale exaggerated DATUM IS VEAh SLA LEVEL a 

GIacial deposits and bedrock are the two major groups of rocks. (Wne of 

section is shown in fig. 22.) FIG. 61 

WATER IN GLACIAL DEPOSITS 

In Oakland County, glacial deposits, their occurrence, mode of 

deposition, and water-yielding properties are a unique and complex subject. Glaciers that moved over the county many years ago 

left a conglomeration of deposits that appear to be without any 

definite sequence or orderly pattern, A deposit in one area may 

differ completely from a deposit several hundred yards away. 

What appears at land surface may be no indication of what occurs at depth. Thus, it is only with great difficulty that the pieces 

of the puzzle can be fitted together and the following broad generalizations made. 

Four times within the last million years, Michigan was glaciated and the land covered with new deposits of glacial 

materials. It was during the last of these glacial pe~ods, the Wisconsin, that the materials so prominent throughout Oakland 

County today were deposited. The majority of existing landforms were formed during the retreat of the last glaciers some 

15,000 years ago. Only minor changes have taken place since that 

time, 

By nature, glaciers follow the course of least resistance, and 

because of this they often divide into smaller lobes. During Wisconsin time, Oakland County was overridden by three such ice 

lobes. The Saginaw Lobe entered the county from the northwest, 

the Huron Lobe from the northeast, and the Erie Lobe from the 

southeast (fig. 62). These three lobes merged along a northeastsouthwest line roughly from Oxford to South Lyon. With the advent of warmer climates, melting at the leading edge of the ice 

was more rapid than ice advancement, and the glacial lobes began 

to recede. The most likely positions of the ice lobes at various 
times during ice retreat are shown in figure 62. When recession 

of the ice lobes was uniform, rock debris was scattered more or 

less uniformly over the land producing gently undulating till 

plains. Occasiormally large ice blocks broke from the glacier to become buried in the debris; at a later date the blocks melted and 

depressions called kettles or pit lakes were formed. Today, these 

depressions are the basins for most of the lakes in the county. 

During some periods, melting and ice supply were equal, causing 

the ice front to remain stationary. At these times, rock debris carried by the glacier was dumped along the ice front to form morainal hills and ridges. During most of the periods of ice recession, meltwater from the glacier carried sand, gravel, and clay 

and deposited them in outwash plains or channels. The location of 

these materials as expressed at land sulcf'ace is shown on the surficial geologic map (fig. 63). 

Relative to its capacity to yield water, outwash is the most important glacial deposit in Oakland County. TGs material commonly contains many beds or lenses of well-sorted sand and 

gravel that may provide storage for large quantities of water 

(fig. 64). Most of these deposits were produced by glacial rneltwater that flowed southwestward away from the glacial lobes. It 

should be kept in mind, however, that the outwash areas as expressed at land surface may not be continuous to bedrock. In 

some areas the water-borne debris was deposited over previously-f ormed glacial deposits. In these areas, the outwash may be 

very thin and of little value as an aquifer. In other areas, however, there were more definite and distinct channels for the meltwaters to flow in throughout extensive periods of time. Here, the 

sorted materials are thick and water is often plentiful. Several of 

the better defined channels are identified on the surlicial geologic 

map. 

Two other features produced by deposition of debris from meltwater are eskers and kames. These features are formed within, 

or in contact with, the melting ice mass. Usually they are composed of water-sorted material (sand and gravel) and haye a pronounced relief. 

Numerous kames can be found within the county. The most 

outstanding single example is Grampian Mills (fig. 2) which rises 

230 feet above the surrounding moraine, The most interesting 

group of kames is found in tuwnships T. 5 N., R. 7 E,, and T. 5 

N., R. 8 E. (Holly and Groveland Townships), Landforms assodated with these kames may be traced as far southeastward as Pon- 
B 

EXPLANATION 

l-7 Till F!7 

n~it\vnsh 
Glacial deposits were left behind as the glaciers retreated farther and farther from Oakland County. A, B, C, and D 

denote most Iikely positions of the lobes at various stages of ice retreat. FIG. 62 
tiac Lake. Many kames contain well-sorted sands and gravel that 

are of economic importance, Glacial deposits in some kames, however, were a result of rapid deposition and are poorly sorted. 

EXPLANATION 

Moraine Outwash and ~lacial channel Con tact 

Ll 

Water-lain moraine 

I 1 LA,. , . ! 

Till (ground n~orninel Lake (led 

Beach 

- 

Eaker 

A sufficial geologic map shows how the county was covered by materials deposited during the glacial period. FIG. 63 
Glacial materials range from well sorted (top photograph) to poorly sorted 

(bottom photograph). FIG. 64 

Poorly sorted 
Several eskers can be seen in the county but all are poorly developed. None of the ridges have the sinuous characteristics associated with eskers, possibly because of their short lendh. The 

longest esker occurs just east of White Lake and extends intermittently southward for several miles (fig. 63). The northern part of 

this esker has a remarkably flat top which, in places, is deeply 

pitted. Several small gravel pits expose the well-sorted material 

of which the esker is composed. 

TilI has the greatest areal extent of any of the glacial deposits. 

Ht is the material that forms the till plains and moraines shown 

on the surficial geologic map. However, its importance as an aquifer is far less significant than that of outwash. Till is made up of 

gravel, sand, and clay, is poorly sorted, and has little stratification. 

These characteristics are a deterrent to transmission of large 

quantities of water. Thus, as an aquifer, till. is far less important 

than outwash. 

Again, as with outwash, there is no certainty that till is continuous with depth. During periods when the glacier was in retreat, 

meltwater flowing across Itill areas would deposit outwask When 

the glacier readvanced, this outwash would be covered with till. 

Thus, in some areas, till and outwash may appear in a complex, 

bedded sequence. 

During the final stages of glzlcier retreat the southeastern part 

of Oakland County was inundated by water from a large glacial 

lake. The level of this lake was controlled to a large degree by the 

activities of the glaciers as they retreated to the east and north. 

Beaches wexe formed at times when the glacier movement, and 

thus the lake level, remained relatively stationary. If the glaciers 

advanced or retreated, the resulting beach level would be higher 

or lower than the preceding beach. Several of these beach deposits are relatively thick and thus are important sources of wellsorted sand (fig. 65). Except for the beach deposits, sediments in 

the area shown as lake beds on the surficial geologic map are 

dominated by clay and thus, generally are a poor source of water. 

In several localities, however, such as along the Inner Defiance 

Moraine, there is an abundance of sand and gravel, in some cases 

to a considerable depth. Also, sand and gravel deposits are found 

at depth in other parks of the lake bed areas; however, additional 

data are needed before the areas underlain by sand and gravel 

can be delineated, 

The thickness of the glacial materials varies throughout the 

county. As is shown in figure 66, glacial materials are as much as 

400 feet thick in several areas and in one area, along the western 
A beach deposit in the southeastern part of the county. FIG. 65 

boundary, are more than 500 feet thick. In the southeastern part 

of the county, there are several areas where the thickness is less 

than 100 feet, Only in small areas in the northwestern and southeastern corners of the county is the thickness less than 50 feet. 

The ability of the &Rerent rock types to yield water varies 

considerably. Unless undisturbed samples of the rocks are available, there is no way of knowing exactly what percentage of a 

Coarse Mixed coarse and f~ne 

MATERIAL SIZE 

Fine 

99 
202 8 MILES 

EXPLANATION 

SW - 

Line of equal thickneaa of glacial degosita 

Intmra(i8 SOht 

Materials deposited during glacial time range in thickness from' less than 50 

to more than 400 feet. FIG. 66 

given unit might yield water. Some coarse-grained sands and 

gravels yield hundreds or thousands of gallons of water per minute to wells, whereas fine-grained materials, such as clay, yield 

little or no water. However, one factor must be kept in mindsands and gravels that yield large quantities of water usually are 

\vela sorted (fig, 67). Any variance from this condition reduces 

the permeability. In mixtures of materials, such as sand and clay 
H1GH FPERMEABltITY 

Well-sorted sand ar gravel. 

graw sizes are similar and 

pores are open 

LOW PERMEABtL.ITY 

Poorly sorted rock materials; 

grain sizes are dissimblar and 

pores are filled with finer 

materials 

Well-sorted sands and gravels yield significantly more water than poorly 

sorted rock materials, FIG. 67 

reported in drillers' lithologic logs, clay particles rnay fdl the pore 

space between sand grains and the permeability will be reduced 

to practically zero. However, the sand and clay may occur as thin 

lenses within the units and the actual mixing of the materials 

rnay occur during drilling (fig. 68). In this case the unit reported 

Thin lenses of sand and gravel in clay often yidd some water. FIG. 68 

101 
as sand and day, although appearing to have a relatively low 

permeability, can be considered to be a minor aquifer. 

Because of the jumbled nature of the glacial deposits the 

ground-water reservoirs cannot be delineated by common procedures. Instead, delineation is made by using maps that show the 

aquifer characteristics of glacial deposits for 50-foot vertical intervals. To do this, glacial deposits were separated into a variety 

of common rock types and common modifiers. As an example, on 

a log reading "sand, gravelly, coarse-grained" the first term is the 

rock type and the two succeeding terms are modifiers. Each rock 

type and modifier was assigned a number. For a rock type, this 

number was a reflection of the percentage of aquiferlike materials comprising a rock unit and the unit's ability to yield water. 

For a modifier, the number reflected the modification made on 

the water-yielding ability of the rock. Thus, for every 50-foot interval penetrated by each well, a numerical value of water-yielding ability of the materials was determined. This value is termed 

"the aquifer index." 

A computerized evaluation of the geologic data provided plots 

of the aquifer index for 50-foot depth intervals in each well. 

Wells within a designated range of values were grouped in areas 

identified as low, medium, ox high as shown in figures 69 through 

72. The terms "fow," "medium," and "high" reflect the probable 

permeability of the material. On the basis of present data, it appears that an applicable range in yields for the terms defining the 

aquifer indices is as follows : 

Gallons per Probable pemeabditu misrule 

Maps showing the areal extent of the three groupings were 

prepared only for depths to 200 feet. Below this depth, available 

data are so scanty that area delineation is very inaccurate. Even 

the map for depths between 150 and 200 feet contain some indefinite areas because of poor control. 

The possibility of encountering aquiferlike materials in glacial 

deposits varies greatly from area to area and with depth. In general, however, the northwestern part of Oakland County is underlain by glacial deposits that have a medium to high aquifer index 

from land surface to a depth of 150 feet. The only large area having a definite low aquifer index is in the southeast. 
EXPLANATION 

AQUIFER INDEX 

HIGH ME131 [-ha LOW 

Glacial deposits from Land surface to a depth of 50 feet have a medium to 

high aquifer index throughout much of the northwestern part of the 

county. FIG. 69 

INFLUENCE OF THE BEDROCK SURFACE 

Beneath the glacial drift is a surface that was carved on bedrock, primarily before glacial time. This surface is referred to 

as the bedrock surface. It consists of hills and valleys similar to 

those at land surface, although their actual orientations and loca- 
tions are not always coincident. Altitude of the bedrock surface 

ranges from just less than 400 feet in the southeast corner of the 

county to slightly more than 850 feet in the northwest (fig. 73). 

2 0 2 4 6 8 MILES I I I I 

EXPLANATION 

AQYFER ITXI , 

HI(;H MEIIIUM LOW 

Areas n hrrc glacial 

deposits are less 

than 100 feet thick 

From 50 to 100 feet below land surface there are several areas that have a 

high aquifer index. FIG. 70 
EXPLANATION 

AQUIFER INDEX 

Areas whr rv glacial 

deposits arp Irss 

than 150 feet thick 

A medium to high aquifer index is predominant in glacial materials from 

100 to 150 feet below land surface. FIG. 71 

The original drainage on the bedrock surface was somew%at as it 

is at present; that is, outward from the higher areas in the northwest part of the county. Although the preglacial valleys and hills 
EXPLANATION 

AQUIFER INDEX Pnn HIGH MEDIUM LQW 

deposits arp less 

than 2110 fp~t thick 

From 150 to 200 feet below land surface, glacial deposits throughout much 

of the county appear to have a low- aquifer index. However, accurate evaIuation of deposits in the northwest is impossible because data are I'acking. 

FIG. 72 
EXPLANATION 

Contour line of the bedrock surface showing 

altitude above mean sea level; contour interval is SO feet. Contours were constructed 

from well data; ~eophysical studies by Peebles 

(1969) supplemented well data in five northwestern townships 

The topography of the bedrock surface is similar to that of the present land 

sudace. FIG. 73 

are covered today and have little direct effect on surface drainage, they are an important factor in the occurrence and movement of ground water, especially where the bedrock surface was 

carved from relatively impelvious materi~l. If the overlying drift 
is permeable, water will flow from the higher bedrock areas to 

the buried valleys. Some of these valleys, such as those in the Pontiac-Claxkston area, may contain and yield large quantities of 

water. However, if the drift in the buried valleys is mostly clay 

or other impermeable material, it will yield little if any water. 

BEDROCK FORMATIONS THAT YIELD WATER 

Other sources of water are the bedrock formations underlying 

the gIacia1 drift. Three northeast-trending bands in figure 74 delineate the subcrop areas for the bedrock formations which will 

yield water of potable quality. Of the three formations, only the 

Marshall Formation appears to offer a consistently reliable source 

ABOVE AND RIGHT: Subcrops of the three bedrock aquiferethe Saginaw, Marshall, and Berea Formations-are of limited areal extent. FIG. 

74 
of water. In areas underlain by the Saginaw and Berea Fomations some wells yield sufficient water for domestic supplies; however, other wells are dry. 

The Marshall Formation has not been tapped ex%nsively by 

EXPLANATION 

Bdrock units 

Bedrwk aquifers ~~h~~~~~ 

Average 

thickness 

in 

Oakland (:ounip 

(ftl 

Dcseril,tion 

El 

Sa~irian 

Format ion 

50? 1 

Sandstone. sandy shale, gray and blue shale, underclay, coal, and limmtune in cyclic srquencp. The 

name "Parma" ohen is applicd to the sandstone 

or conglomerate present below the loacst shale. 

Local variations in litholoyy and thickness chist 

due to erosion 

bl 

Bayport 

Limestone 

40.100P I ! 

Limestone and dolomite. white to nray or bluishpray: lenses of sandstone and sandy nodular chert 

beds arc. sometimes prcsent. Sand content increases toward the baw and forms a white coarse 

prained sandstone. The Bayport is estensively 

eroded in many plates in its suhrop area 

mg 

Michigan 

Formation 

5°-L0P 

Shale, gray, some Ercen and blue; same thick dolomite and thin selenite gypsum. A thick brown 

dolomite commonly is found at the base. Below 

the dolomite in platen is the "Michigan Stray 

Sandstone." The mntacr hetreen (he Michigan 

and the underlying Marshall is hclieved to be 

gradational 

v r-1 rm =*.:...- s::::. 

I.. . .. . 

M;i~il~:ill 

I'rlrmati~tn 

t 15 

Sandstone. white. gray. and red. very Cine ~raincd 

to coarse-grained; some hrls of monglomcrate, 

shale. and Rolomiw. Two members present: at 

the top is an extensir-u fine- to coarse-grain~d 

while to light-gray sandstonc called Napoleon 

Sandstune. underncatl~ is a rille to vrr) fine 

graind sandstone called Loiver Marshall which 

 soften cemented with dolomite. The bare of the 

Marshall generally is shaly and dolomitie grading 

into the underlying formation 

C 6 

Coldwater 

Shale 

625 

Shalc. hlue to light-gray: some iron carhunatc concretions and thin beds of limestone or dolomite. 

occasion all^;, lenticular heds of sandstone and 

sandy shale are found near the bottom and top 

s s 

Sunbury 

Shale 

10 

Shale, black to dark-gray, hard; some dolomitc and 

some Eray sandstone or light-gray rnicac~uus. 

sandy shales 

m 

Hctr,:~ 

Pr>rnut ion 

I 

140 

I Sandstone; lower part is liaht gray, dolomitic. silty. 

shaly, contains some p,,rite, and is ~vell cemented 

with silica or dolomite. Middle part is friable. 

fine tu medium grained, angular to fiubanpular. 

wit11 some scattered heds of shale. Upper par1 is 

similar to the lower member but is less shaly and 

more pyricir. The middle memher is more dominant in OaklandCounty. The Berea grades into 

the underlying formation 

bs 

Redford 135 Shale, gray: upper part is fiilty and sand! 

Shale 

as 

Antrim 

Shale 

145 

Shale. hlack to brown; some dark-gray to preenishgray shales; carhnacwufi, finely laminated, fissile. 

hard. Has concretions of pyrite 1-3 inches in diameter. Also contains concretions of anihraconite 

and bituminous limeslone ranging in diameter from 

1 inch lo 6 feet 
wells; however, the few wells that have penetrated this sandstone 

indicate that it is a good source of supply. Several wells in the 

northeast corner of T. 5 N., R. 7 E,, yield sufficient water to 

supply a smaI1 subdivision. Analysis of water shows that the 

water is of fair quality although hard. The Marshall also underlies 

the city of Holly, where it supplies water to one industrial and 

one city weI1. Pumping tests on both these wells indicate that the 

Marshall in this area will readily yield 500-1000 gpm, and that 

yields of several thousand gallons per minute, with a drawdown 

of less than 15 feet, may not be unrealistic. Thus, it appears that 

the Marshal1 will yield large quantities of relatively good water 

to wells nearly anywhere in its subcrop area. Depending on site 

location, wells penetrating this aquifer would have to be 200 to 

350 feet deep to obtain maximum yield. North of the subcrop area, 

the Marshall Formation underlies younger formations, but here 

also it may yield large quantities of water. However, present data 

indicate that the water may be of increasingly poorer quaIity 

with increasing depth. 

The Saginaw Formation is an alternating succession of thin 

beds of sandstone, shale, limestone, and coal, most of which are 

difficult to trace over any large area. Because of this, there may 

be a wide variation in yields between wells. In general, the yield 

from any one well depends on the percentage of sandstone. In the 

Flint area, just north of Holly, it was found that where the Saginaw was more than 75 percent sand, the formation would yield as 

much as 500 gpm; in areas where it was Iess than 25 percent 

sand, production was only a few gallons per minute (Wiitala 

and others, 1963). The Saginaw subcxop in Oakland County is 

limited to about 10 square miles in the extreme northwestern 

corner. WelIs are sparse in this area; thus, little information is 

available concerning the nature and extent of the Saginaw as an 

aquifer. On the basis of data from the Flint area, it is expected 

that wells pentrating sandstones in the formation would yield 

sufficient good quality water for domestic supplies. However, it 

may be necessary to put down several test wells to depths ranging between 125 and 200 feet to locate any water-bearing sands. 

The Berea Formation contains several types of material, 

among which are beds and lenses of fine to medium-grained sandstone. Wells that penetrate this sandstone commonly have low 

yields and sometimes are dry. This indicates that the sandstone 

has a low permeability, either because of poor sorting or because 

cementing materia1 fills the cavities between grains. In general, 

the Berea is not a good source for large water supplies; however, 
in many places it will yield sufficient water for small domestic suppIies. Depth is an important factor in the consideration of the 

Berea as an aquifer-in most of its subcrop area the formation is 

overlain by at Ieast 200 feet of glacial material. North of this 

subcrop area the overburden is even thicker. Thus, the cost of 

drilling to these depths will be high. 

All avaiIable data indicate that the bedrock formation of most 

importance as a source of water in Oakland County is the Marshall Formation. Aquifers of limited thickness and areal extent 

exist in other bedrock formations; however, their value as a 

source of water can only be determined by intensive local investiga tions. 

The foregoing discussion illustrates the importance of the container in determining the availabilityof water in Oakland 

County. A container composed of permeable material, such as 

well-sorted sand and gravel in the glacial deposits or sandstone in 

the Marshall Formation, can store and yield Iarge quantities of 

water. On the other hand, impermeable matexials, such as the 

clay in both glacial deposits and bedrock, may store water but 

wiIl yield only small quantities of it to wells. 

By studying the lithologic data on drillers' logs, we can obtain 

a fair understanding of the container and be able to delineate 

areas that appear favorable as sources of ground water. Rowever, before selecting the most favorable areas informa tion will 

be needed concerning the depth to water and the actual amount 

of water that can be obtained from the container. This type of 

information can be obtained only by making pumping tests and 

water-level measurements. Thus, wells become a prerequisite to 

the information. However, wells are not everywhere available 

from which data has been or can be collected. 

DEPTH TO WATER 

The depth to water is determined by measuring water levels in 

existing wells. Not many years ago, water-level measurements 

could be made for most wells, and several maps showing 

water levels were published (Ferris and others, 1954; Mozola, 

1954). Today, however, check valves in wells and buxied submersible pumps make such measurements practicaIly impossible. The 

only information available for most wells is that obtained by the 

driller at the time the we11 was drilled or by the pump serviceman 

at the time the pump was repaired. For many wells, this information may be as much as 5 or 10 years old and may not reflect existing water-level conditions. For other wells the information is 
relatively new. Relating information that has a wide diversification in collection dates and preparing a water-level map from such 

data is impractical and inaccurate. Thus, there is no county-wide, 

water-level map accompanying this report. 

Ground-water levels, however, can be estimated for many local 

areas in Oaklang County by use of good topographic maps and by 

keeping the following factors in mind. 

1. The flow in many streams is perennial. This results from 

ground-water inflow and indicates that the water table in 

the vicinity of the streams has an altitude that is at least as 

high as that of the streams. 

2. Many lakes are replenished by ground-water inflow indicating 

conditions similar to those along perennial streams. 

3. Between areas where the altitude of the water table is reflected in lakes and streams, the configuration of the water 

table is a subdued expression of the land-surface topography (fig. 75). 

4 /Water \ks table 

The water table is often a subdued expression of the land surface. FIG. 75 

4. The water table fluctuates throughout the year. Figure 76 

shows the trend of fluctuations. Water levels usually rise 

during the winter when evapotranspiration is low and decline during €he summer when evapotranspiration is high. 

Unusually large amounts of precipitation may produce a 

reversal from the general trend, such as that shown for the 

month of July (fig. 76). 

5. During long periods of reduced precipitation, as from 1960 to 

19616, the overall trend of water levels is downward. When 

precipitation in normal or above, as in 1967 and 1968, the 

overall trend will be upward. 

In some local areas determining the altitude of the water table 

may involve two other factmeartesian conditions and pumping. 
Water-levd trend 

based on 50 wells 

1967 1968 

MklAJJfiSDNL~JFMP 

Water levels in shallow wells usually decline during the summer months but 

begin to rise again after the first frost in the autumn. FIG. 76 

Artesian canditions 

Artesian conditions resuIt when water-bearing permeable materials are confined by overlying impermeable materials. Under 

these conditions, pressures exerted by water at higher altitudes 

can cause water to rise in a well above the point where it was 

first encountered. Figure 77 illustrates in a general way how artePressure exerted by water entering recharge area at higher 

altitude forces water in wells at lower altitudes to rise above 

where the aquifer was first penetrated \ 

Permeable marer~als 

Artesian wells are procluced by ground water under pressure. FIG. 77 

sian pressures may be produced. Slight artesian rise of water in 

wells is not unusual; however, a rise to a point where water flows 

at land surface is not common. Of the sevemI areas of flowing 

wells in Oakland County, probably the best known are those 

around Qrtonville and Troy (fig. 2). In both these areas there 

are abut a hundred flowing wells with pressures sufficient to raise 

water levels several feet above Iand surface. 

Water levels and pumping 

The effects of pumping on ground-water levels are generally 

well known. If the pumping rate is small, the effect usually is in- 
consequential. If the pumping rate is large and from several 

wells, water levels may be lowered considerably over a large area 

(fig. 78). This is well illustrated by water-level records in the Pontiac area. Prior to 1963 a cone of depression was developed over a 

widespread area by heavy pumping of ground water for public 

Cones of depression are small when pumpage is small (A) ; however, cones 

become larger and may coalesce when pumpage is large (B) . FIG. 78 

114 
and industrial supplies. The early development of this cone, as it 

existed in 1950, is shown in figure 79. Because of the heavy pumping, the water level in one well near the center of the cone of 

depression was lowered X 10 feet (fig. 80). When pumping was 

stopped in 1.963, water levels rose rapidly, 

EXPLANATION 

Cones 

a 

of deprescion 

Cones of depression in Pontiac as of 1950. FIG. 79 

,.,,., .. stopped 

Augusr 9,1963 ' 

! 

'< 

Water levels in Pontiac have declined as much as 110 feet. FIG. 80 

In the county today there are only a few areas of heavy pumping. The water-level changes caused by this pumping are usually 

confined tc~ the vicinity of the pumping well and in most cases are 

not extensive enough to affect other wells in the area, Except for 

the area around Waterford, lowering of water levels by pumping 

does not appear to be a problem that warrants immediate con- 
cern. Even in the Waterford area, lowered water levels may 

never be a major problem since much of this area is underIain by 

beds of permeable material that are capable of high yields. Mowever, because Waterford is in a major population and industria1 

corridor, pumpage of ground water within the next decade or two 

may increase to the point where the declines in water level will 

become serious. 

HOW MUCH WATER? 

The quantity of water that can be pumped from a well is best 

determined by conducting pumping tests to evaluate the hydr* 

logic characteristics of an aquifer. One such characteristic, expressed as transmissivity, provides a goodl index of the aquifer's 

water-yielding capacity. Transmissivities have been computed for 

more than 2 dozen wells which obtain water from glacial deposits 

and are shown in figure 81. Because pumping tests are usually associated with some major project, such as a city or industrial 

water supply, the transrnissivities shown are concentrated in certain areas. Nearly all the transmissivities are high and are 1e 

cated in areas that have a high aquifer index. This relationship, 

although limited, lends credibility to the aquifer-index ratings for 

materials in other areas of the county. It should be noted that 

several wells with low transrnissivity are in areas with high aquifer indices. This is real in nature but, because data are not complete, many small areas were not delineated in figure 81. 

Another method that can be used to estimate the quantity of 

water that the container will yield is the analysis of actual production records from wells. Such records can be collected for a 

given well site by conducting a survey of yields of wells in the 

immediate area. Caution should be taken, however, in using records that show low yields, as higher yields may be possible if 

larger pumps are used, Also, low yields from some wells may be 

the result of inadequate well development. Wells that have high 

yields, such as several hundred gallons per minute, indicate that 

the container underlying the area adjacent to the well is a good 

source of water. 

Glacial deposits in Oakland County store large quantities of 

water. On the average, every cubic foot of saturated glacial material contains about 2.5 gallons of water. Thus, a block of glacial 

materials encompassing an area of 1 square mile and having a 

thickness of 200 feet will contain about 14.5 billion gallons of 
83" 30' 83" 15' 

Transrn~sslv~ty based on computat~ons by W. G. Keck 

and Assoc~ates. Inc., East Lanstn~. Mich.. and the 

U.S. Geolog~cal Surw 

2 - 0 2 4 6 8 MILES 

EXPLANATION 

Depth of well. in feel 

Transmissivity, in gallons 

per day per foot 

AQUIFER INDEX 

Expected water yield 

(gallons per minutel 

Transmissivities for wells in glacial deposits range from 4,000 to more than 

300,000 gallons per day per foot; most of the high transmissivities are in 

areas where the aquifer indices are high. FIG. 81 
water. However, not a11 of this water is available to wells. Some 

glacial materials yield large quantities of water, others yield little. 

The relationship of the aquifer indices, shown in figure 81, to the 

availability of ground water is given in table 12. The delineation 

TABLE 12.-Availability of ground der from elorage in glacial cEepoaita 

!Yields b d on a thickness of 200 feet und an areal coverage of 1 square mile] 

Aquiler index 

Probable 

quantity 

availal>le 

tw wells 

(billion 

gaIlonu) 

Probable 

yield 

(mad per =I mi) 

Range ol 

norma1 ylelds 

from a sinale 

well (gpm) 

Probable 

life span 

of efirient 

operation at 

marimr~m normal 

yields without 

recham (ye-) 

High- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Medium- - - - - - - - - - - _ 

LOW - - - A - _ - - _ - _ - - - _ 

6-12 

3-6 

0-3 

0.6-1.5 

-1- -6 

0- .I 

1400-1,000 

50-400 

0-50 

12-24 

15-30 

0-100 

Yields of up to 2,500 gpm are possible at some sites. 

of areas in figure 81 is based on data from Iand surface to a 

depth of 200 feet. Therefore, in areas where the glacial deposits 

are thicker than this, weIls may penetrate additional aquifers and 

yields may be somewhat higher than shown. Also, the figures relating to the "life-span of operation" in taMe 12 are based on 

water presently in storage. Normal recharge to the aquifer, 

about 85 milIion gallons per square mile per year, would extend 

the life span. 

The pertinent factor shown by figure 81 is that the glacial deposits in much of northwestern Oakland County are capable of 

yielding sufficient water to need most demands within the near 

future. Areas having high aquifer index values have the potential 

capability of supplying more than 1 million gallons of water per 

day per square mile to municipal and industrial needs. Some individual wells within this area are capable of yielding more than 2 

million galIons of water per day. 

Figure 81 and table 12 can be used to estimate the availability 

of water in larger areas. As an example, Waterford Township 

(T. 3 N., R. 9 E.) is comprised of about 30 square miIes having a 

high aquifer index, 5 square miles having a medium aquifer index, 

and 1 square mile having a low aquifer index. Multiplying the 

total square miles in each area by the quantity of water per 

square mile that is available to wells (table 12) and then totaling 

these values, indicates that the township presently has about 

200-400 billion gallons of ground water in storage. Individual 

wells can pump water from most of the area at a rate of at least 

400 gym fox a period of more than 12 years. Recharge from precipitation will extend the length of the pumping period. 
Also shown in figure 81 is the areal extent of the Marshall Formation subcrop. Wells that have penetrated this sandstone indicate 

that it has water-producing characteristics similar to those of 

glacial materials with a high aquifer index. Within its subcrop 

area, wells in the Marshall can be pumped at more than 1,000 

gpm and thus can meet most demands for water. 

Water from sources outside Oakland County could have cmsiderable influence on the quantity of water that will be pumped 

from ground-water sources within the next few years. Water 

from the Detroit water system is rapidly becoming available and 

by 1980 should be within reasonable piping distance of most 

areas in the county. With this assurance, some industries or municipalities may desire to use local ground-water supplier at a 

more rapid rate than normal. By so doing, larger quantities of 

water can be pumped, but the span of efficient operation will be 

reduced. However, if the available supply is sufficient to fulfill the 

demands until Detroit water can be utilized, no harm will result. 

Once ground-water pumpage terminates, recharge to the aquifer 

will eventually restore ground-water conditions to their prepumping status. 

As shown by the preceding discussions, there are many areas in 

Oakland County capable of yielding moderate to large quantities 

of ground water. Although the location of these areas and their 

extent is generally defined ; thorough investigations should kc? conducted on local areas before individual wellsites are selected. 

8. Water Quality-A Prime Concern 

WHAT IS GOOD WATER? 

One of the first questions a person asks when using water. from 

an unknown source is "Is the water good?", that is, "Is the quality of the water such that it can be used without a harmful effect?" Thus, the question "What is good water?" is a prime 

concern in the discussion of water. 

The acceptability of any water has a direct relation to the use 

for which the water in intended. For instance, muddy, turbid 

water in not desirable for drinking or recreational purposes, but 

that same water is acceptable for power generation or cornmercia1 navigation. Highly mineralized water is unsuitable for domestic purposes and fish propagation; however, it may be a source 

of some economically valuable mineral. These comparisons could 
go on and on through the various water uses and we would find 

that nearly all water is acceptable for some purpose. Thus, as can 

be seen, there are no absolute measurements of water quality. 

"Good water" can be defined only when an intended use of the 

water is known. Five major categories of water use are used by 

the State of Michigan (Michigan Water Resources Commission, 

1968) to assist in the definition of water quality. They are: 

1. Public water supply. 

2. Fish, wildlife, and other aquatic life. 

3. Recreation. 

4. Agriculture. 

5. Commercial and industrial. 

In our quest for an answer to the question "What is good 

water?", it is also necessary to use certain measurable parameters 

of water in order to be quantitative in our evaluation. These parameters can be classified into three major groups, as shown 

below. 

Chemical Phvsicd B;alogical 

Dissolved solids Color Bacteria 

Hardness Taste and odor V iruses ' 

Hydrogen ion concentration (pH) Turbidity 

Toxic and deleterious substances Suspended solids 

Radioactivity Dissolved oxygen Temperature 

Only the chemical and physical groups are discusced in any 

detail in this report. The biological group, which considers the 

number and species of living organisms and their environmental 

interaction, may change rapidly in response to very minor 

changes in water environment. Consequently, evaluation of the 

parameters in this group should be made immediately prior to 

use. 

Having some idea of the uses of water and some parameters to 

measure, we need only a set of standards for parameter evaluation in order to define good water. The U.S. Public Health Service 

(1962) has suggested such limits or standards for the common 

parameters in either surface or ground water (table I?). In addition to the standards recommended by the U.S. Public Health 

Service, the State of Michigan has recently proposed standards 

(table 14) for the five major water uses. These standards, established primarily for pollution control of streams and lakes, are 

not completely definitive as they do not give the optin~um values 
TABLE 13.-Significance of some chemical and physical parameters commonly associated 

with water in Oakland Cot~nty 

[Adapted from U.S. Public Health Service (196211 

Maximum 

Parameter recommended 

concentration 

(mg/l) 

Significance 

Dissolved solids- - - - _ - __. __.- 500 Includes all material in water that is in solution. 

Amounts up to 1,000 mg/l are generally considered 

acceptable for drinking purposes if no other water is 

available. 

Iron (Fe)-------------------. 0.3 Objectionable as it causes red and brown staining of 

clothing, porcelain, and utensils. 

Hardness (as CaC0a)-- .. .---. .. .. Affects the lathering ability of soap. Water may become 

objectionable for some domestic uses when the hard- ness noes above 100 mn/l: however. it can be treated -, . readiiy by softening. 

Temperature ----------------- --.----.--- Affects the desirability and economy of water use, es ecially for industrial cooling and air conditioning. 

&st users want water with a uniformly low temperaCalcium (Ca) and magnesium ----------- (ME). Sodium (Na) and potassium (K) __. ._.___. 

Sulfate (SO&) -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 250 

Chloride (CI) .--- - -. -. - --. -- - 250 

Fluoride (F)-- - .-..-..-...-.. 2.0 

Silica (SiOz) ------------------ --.-------- 

Bicarbonate (HCOa) and car- _..._-----_ 

bonate (Cod. 

ture. Principal causes for hardness and scale-forming properties of water. Reduces the lathering ability of soap 

Imparts a salty or brackish taste when combtned with 

chloride. Large quantities may limit use for irrigation. 

Commonly has a laxative effect when the concentration 

is 600 to 1,000 mg/l, particularly when combined with 

magnesium or sodium. Causes bitter taste when com- bined in large amounts with other ions. 

Large amounts combined with sodium impart a salty taste. When combined with cal$ium and magnesium 

may increase the corrosive activlty of water. 

Concentrations over 2.0 mg/l will cause mottling of 

enamel on teeth of children. However, concentrations 

of about 1 mg/l play a part in the reduction of tooth 

Co%?&tes to formation of boiler scale. Inhibits deterioration of zeolite-type water softeners. 

Raises the alkalinity and usually the pH of water. In 

combination with calcium and magnesium, causes carbonate hardness and scale. Releases corrosive car- bon dioxide gas on heating. 

Nitrate (N03) ._.-._...__.__.- 45 Water with high nitrate content may cause methemoglobinemia or cyanosis in infants. High conc~ntrations 

suggest organic pollution from sewage, de-ayed or- ganic matter, nitrate in the soil, or chemical fertilizer. 

Because of this, concentrations are charac5eristic of 

individual wells and not of any One aquifer.. 

pH A pH of 7.0 indicates neutrality of a solutnn; a pH 

lower than this generally causes an increase in the 

corrosiveness of water. 

of the various parameters. However, they do define the maximum 

values allowed by law. 

The water-use category for which the standards of the U.S. 

Public Health Service and the State of Michigan are mc~t restrictive is that for domestic water supplies and for fish, w!ldlife, 

and other aquatic life. Therefore, by defining the parameters of 

water that are good for these uses, we have gone a long way toward defining the type of water that is acceptable for most other 

uses and, thus, water which can be considered to be good. 

GOOD WATER IN OAKLAND COUNTY 

"The water is good" is a statement that can be applied to the 

overall quality of water in the lakes, streams, and ground in Oakland County. There are exceptions, but these usually show up 

only in the southern part of the county, where the water is pol- 
TABLE 14.-Water-quality standards proposed by 

[Adapted from Michigan Water 

Parameters 

Total dissolved Suspended, colloidal, 

Water uses solids Temperature and set'.leable materials 

and residues -- 

Water supply- -- -_. . _.. Shall not exreed 500 The maximum natural No nbjertinnablc un- mg/l as a monthly water temperature natural turbidity, 

average, nor exceed shall not be increased color, or deposits in 

750 mg/l at any time. by more than 10°F. quantities sufficient to interfere with the 

designated use. No 

resid les or floating so!ids of unnatural 

orlgin. 

Fih, wildlife, and other None established- - - - - - - In general, the ambient Same as for "Water 

aquatic life. temperature range supp'y!' must be from 32OF to 

the natural maximum; the maximum 

limit ranges from 

70°F for cold-water 

fish to 87OF for some warm-water fish. 

Recreation ... .__. ._-..- Limited to concentra- 90°F maximum _--_. ..._ .._do .-_. .__ .____-. . 

tions less than those 

which are or may be- come injurious to the 

designated use. Agricultural ------------ Less than 700 mg/l----- Not applicable ------.-- ----do -------- ..--__-- 

Commercial and indus- Commercial: Same as for "Water ----do- --- - - - - - - -- -- -- trial. Same as for "Recrea- supply." tion." 

Industrial: 

Same as, for "Water 

supply. 
the State of Michigan for jive major water uses 

Resources Commission (1968)l 

Parameters-Continued -- 

Taste and odor producing substances and nutrients 

Toxic and deleterious 

substances Dissolved oxygen 

Hydrogen ion 

(PH 

Concentrations of substances of unnatural 

origin shall be less than 

those which are or may become injurious to the 

designated use. Nutrients 

originating from industrial, municipal, or domestic animal sources shall be limited to the extent necessary to prevent adverse effects on 

Must conform to cur- rent U.S. Public 

Health Service 

drinking water 

standards except: Cganide; Normally not detectable 

with a maximum 

upper limit of 

0.2 mg/l. Chromzum: Normally not detectable 

Present at all times in 

sufficient quantities to prevent nuisance. 

pH shall not have an induced variation of more than 0.5 unit as a result of un- natural sorrces. 

water treatment proc- esses or the stimulation 

of growths of algae. weeds and slimes which 

with a maximum 

upper limit of 

0.05 mg/l. 

are or may become injurious to the designated use. Same as for "Water sup- ply" with the designated use being for fish or game. 

Not to exceed one- tenth of the 96-hour 

median tolerance 

limit obtained from 

continuous Row bioAt the average 7-day QIO the following 

dissolved-oxygen 

values shall be maintained in rivers 

Maintained I: -tween 

6-45 and 8.F with a maximum artificially induced variation of 

1.0 unit within this 

assays where the 

dilution water and 

toxicant are contincapable of support- . . 

ing: 

Intolerant, cold-water 

range. Changes in 

the pH of natural 

waters outxide these 

uously renewed ex- cept in specific cases when justified and 

approved by the 

appropriate agency. 

fish: Not lcss thnn 

6 ma/l at any time: 

Intolerant, warm- water fish: Average daily not less 

than 5 mg/l nor any single value 

less than 4 mg/l. Tolerant fish; Avervnlues must be 

toward neutrality (7.0). 

age daily not less 

than 4 mg/l nor any single value 

less than 3 mg/l. At greater flows the 

dissolved-oxygen 

content shall be in excess of these 

values. 

Same as for "Water sup- ply" except a4 it applies to water-treatment pro* esses. 

Same as for "Recreation." 

Also, NOa concentrations 

shall conform to U.S. 

Public Health Service 

Limited to concentra- tions less than those 

which are or may become injurious to the designated use. Conform to current U.S. Public Health 

Service drinking 

water standards as 

Same as fzr "Water 

supply. 

Not less than 3 mg/l at any time. 

Maintained within the 

range 6.5-8.8 with a maximum induced 

variation of 0.5 unit 

within this range. 

Same as f~r "Water 

supply. 

drinking water standards. related to toxicants. 

Toxic and deleterious 

substances shall be 

less than those 

Same as for "RecreationM--- 

which are or may 

become injurious to 

the designated use. Same as for "Recrea- Commercial: Same as for "Recreation." Average daily not less than 2.5 mg/l nor any single value 

less than 2 mg/l. Industrial: 

tion." 

Same y, for "Water 

supply. 
luted or where it is being pumped from bedrock. Elsewhere quality-of-water analyses (tables 15 and 16) indicate that most water 

is within the recommended limits for a public domescic supply. 

TABLE 15.-Concentration of common chemical 

[Dissolved constituents and hardness 

InstanStation 1,oeation Date Time ta~eous Bicarbonate 

dis:harge (IICOa) 

(cfs) 

Streams tributary to Shiawassee River 

4-1437.0. Shiawassee River near Davisburg- - NE'isec. 12. T. 4 N., R. 7E. 4-14-66 1500 6.69 254 

4-1438.3. Shiawassee River at Holly -.------ SElQsec. 24, T. 5 N., R. 7 E. 4-14-66 1000 28.9 248 

7-25-66 1445 5.63 240 

Streams tributary to Flint River 

4-1480.2. Kearsley Creek near Ortonville .... SE!l/sec. 18, T. 5 N., R. 9 E. 4-14-66 1350 12.3 246 

4-1482.0. Swartz Creek near Holly --------- SR?~sec. 15, T. 5 N., K. 7 E. 4-14-66 1100 6.96 241 

7-25-66 1430 .38 246 

Streams tributary to Clinton River 

4-1607.5. Clinton River at Clarkston ....... NWIisec. 20, T. 4 N., R. 9 E. 9-13-67 1020 1.28 203 

4-1608.0. khabaw Creek near Dravton SE1,isec. 26. T. 4 N.. R. 9 E. 4-14-66 1035 15.0 196 

Plains. 

4-1610.0. Clinton River at Auburn Heights_- NW?isec. 36. T. 3 N., R. 10 E. 4-14-66 1400 117 204 

7-26-66 0940 22.1 200 

4-1615.4. Paint Creek at Rochester ---.----- SEXsec. 10. T. 3 N., R. 11 E. 4-14-66 1700 44.0 227 

7-25-66 1635 11.2 262 

4-1615.8. Stony Creek near Romeo SWXsec. 31. T. 5 N., R. 12 E. 4-14-66 1130 12.8 212 

7-25-66 1600 1.23 266 

4-1618.3. Clinton River at Yates ........--- SE'isec. 13, T. 3 N.. R. 11 E. 4-14-66 1755 192 226 

4-1640.1. North Branch Clinton River at NEhsec. 28. T. 6 N.. R. 12 E. 4-21-67 0750 16.5 231 

Almont. 

4-1646.0. Middle Branch Clinton River near SE!dsec. 2, T. 3 N.. R. 12 E. 4-2G67 0920 26 213 

Macomb. 

Streams tributary to River Rouge 

4-1660.0. River Rouge at Birmingham ---._. NW?gsec. 36, T. 2 N., R. 10 E. 4-14-66 1015 8.15 273 

7-25-66 1305 .32 228 

4-1660.3. Franklin Branch at Franklin ------ NW!.isec. 9, T. 1 N., R. 10 E. 9-13-67 1050 2.32 188 

4-1661.0. River Rouge at Southfield ------.- S\V!isec. 32, T. 1 N., R. 10 E. 4-14-66 0900 27.4 242 

7-25-66 1300 1.98 252 

4-1663.0. UpperRiverRougeat Farrnington- NWlisec. 27, T. 1 N., R. 9 E. 4-14-66 1200 6.81 270 

7-25-66 1530 .90 250 

Streams tributary to Huron River 

4-1695.0. Huron River at Commerce ------- SE1.isec. 10, T. 2 N., R. 8 E. 4- 6-67 1515 86.3 216 

8-16-67 0850 13.7 225 

4-1700.0. Huron River at Milford SE'isec. 9, T. 2 N., K. 7 E. 4-14-66 1145 59.1 242 

7-25-66 1200 34.0 248 

4-1705.0. Huron River near New Hudson--- NEksec. 1, T. 1 N., R. 6 E. 4-14-66 1440 45 206 

TABLE 16.-Concentration of common chemical 

[Dissolved constituents and hardness given in milligrams per liter. Aquif?~: QGO, glacia 

Depth Date of Temper- Silica Iror Bicarbonate 

Well No. (feet) Aquifer collection ature (SiOs) (Re\ (HCO3) 

("C) 

01N07E30ACB ._----_-.--- 118 QGO 12-16-58 .---.-_ 15 3.3 370 

01N08E21BBBA -_-._----. 102 ---__.. 5- -67 13 16 2.0 352 

OlN09E17DBDB -_.__-____ 293 ---.--- 1-59 - - 18 1.2 370 

OlNlOEl3ACAB .......--- 183 QGO 6-22-54 ------- 14 .85 371 

OlNllEl8BACB2 -.------- 219 QGO 8-24-29 _ 11 - - 316 

02N07E23BDCC --_.-_..-- 171 QGO 5- -67 12 14 ------- 156 

02N08E26ABDD .-.----_-- 140 QGO 3-2840 ------- 15 1.3 296 

02N09EllCABC.. _ -. _- -- NO QGO 4-28-53 11 12 1.0 217 

02NlOE24AABA -.._...__. 145 QGO 1-20-61 _-----_ 17 .6 394 

02NllE20DDDD --------- 125 --.-..- 11-29-38 .---.__ 10 .37 357 
Several parameters, such as iron, dissolved solids, hardness in 

ground water, and temperature of both ground and surface 

water, may exceed recommended limits but none is so hig'l as to 

constituents in surface water in Oakland county 

eiven in millinrams Der liter1 

Dissolved ..~.-. .- Hardness -- ~~ S~ecific 

solids as cdnduct Temper- Carbonate Sulphate Chloride Fluoride Nitrate Phosphate (residue CaCOs ance pH ature (COa) 601) (C1) (F) (NOa) on evap (micro- ("C) 

tion at Calcium, Noncar- mhos at 180°C) magnesium bonate 25°C) 

Streams tributary to Shiiwasaee River---Continued 

Streams tributary to Flit Riveduntinned 

0 57 12 .2 1.2 -------- 326 2 62 60 518 7.8 25 

Streams tributary to Clinton River-4ontiued 

Streams tributary to River Rouge--Continued 

Streams tributary to Huron Rivedunlinued 

constituents in ground water in Oakland County 

deposits, outwash; QG, glacial deposits, undifferentiated; MIMA, Marshall Formation] 

Carbonate Sulfate Chloride Fluoride 

(cod (sod) (cl) (F) 

Hardness as Specific Nitrate Dissolved CaCOa con- (NOS) solids ductan-e pH Carbonate Non- (micromhas carbonate at 25°C) 

------ 374 335 -------- COO 7.2 

0.1 300 269 0 516 8.0 

4.0 420 276 .__-.--- 710 7.6 

.O 462 306 _------- 710 7.0 ------ 408 180 ----.--- --------- --.--- 
TABLE 16.-Concentration of common chemical 

[Dissolved constituents and hardness given in milligrams per liter. Aquifer: QGO, glacial 

Depth Date of Temper- Silica Iron Bicarbonate 

Well No. (feet) Arl~~ifer collection ature (SiOe) (Fe) (HCOa) 

("'3 

02NllE33DBCA 1 --_._... 225 QGO 5- 1-36 .....-. 8.8 --...._ 289 

03N07E18DCBA ... . _ -_. .- 85 QGO 6- -67 12 15 ._...._ 308 

03N08E23AABD ....._---. 104 QGO 5- -67 10 12 __..._. 164 

03N09E24ADBA .__---_... 237 QGO 3-17 53 ...._-. 14 1. G 349 

03NlOE28AAAA .....--..- 195 QGO 9-25-50 .---_.. 12 1.2 400 

03NllE27DABC ..---..... 167 QGO 3- 6-59 ......_ 15 2.4 390 

04N07E20CCCD. - _. .-. . 87 QGO 9-10-66 11 5.8 .--..._ 88 

04N08E05BBCB ....._. 212 ._...-- 4-20-66 12 19 _-...-. 310 

04N09E21CDCA 1 -_...__. 164 QG 3- 6-59 .-._.._ 12 1.0 325 

04N10E20CACD 2 .-.---_. 95 QG 6- -67 11 13 .1 260 

Wells are assigned numbers using a four-segment system of numbers and letters. For example, a wellsite in the NE?4 of the SW!; of the SWlj of the SWli in section 32 of Addison Township in Oakland 

County is numbered in thls report as follows: 

05NllE32CCCA 

The "05N" designates township, "11E" designates range, and "32" designates the sectcon. The section 

is divided into quadrants and is lettered counterclockwise as A, B, C, and D. The smaller quadrants are subdivided similarly. The location for most wells shows a four-quadrant breakdown; thus each wellsite is 

located on a 2.5-acre tract of land. When there is more than one well within a 2.5-acre tract the wells are numbered sequentially. 

have a toxic effect. For example, dissolved-solids concnntrations 

greater than 500 mg/l are likely to cause accelerated corrosion or 

scale in plumbing but will cause no known physiologicz.1 damage. 

Very high concentrations may be objectionable because they impart a salty or mineral taste to the water. Sometimes high concentrations of dissolved solids indicate influence from outside factors. Thus, the high dissolved-solids content in surface water in 

the southeastern part of the county (fig. 82) may indicate that 

the water is being polluted and that the biological aspects of the 

water are high enough to have physiological significrnce. Iron 

concentrations greater than 0.3 mg/l may cause staining of porcelain fixtures and laundered articles, but it is not physiologically 

harmful if consumed in drinking. Also, hardness has no generally accepted standards. Its acceptance depends upon what the 

user has become accustomed to. Iron and hardness do rot constitute a serious water-quality problem for domestic and public supply in Oakland County. Where these consituents are objectionably 

high the water can be treated easily and economically to reduce 

hardness and iron to an acceptable concentration. 

RIGHT: Many streams in the southern and eastern parts of the co1lnty exceed 

the recommended limits for dissolved solids for public. supplies. Numerical 

values indicate total dissolved solids, in milligrams per liter, under low-flow 

conditions during August 24-25,1967. FIG. 82 
ermslituenls in ground wak~ in Oakland Countg-Continued 

deposits, outwaqh; QG, glacial dewits. undifferentiated: MKMA, Marshall Formation1 

- - - - - - - Carbonate Sulfate 

(Cod (SO.\ 

Chloride 

(Cll 

Fluoride Nitrate Dissolved 

IF) fKOd solicls 

CaCOa -- 

Carbonate Noncarbonate 

wn- ductanoe 

(micromhos 

at 25°C) 

pH 

0 5.0 4.0 -4 -0 364 302 -------- 684 7.4 

0 67 10 .S 1.8 196 124 62 314 7.2 

0 15 3.0 .7 .7 27 0 242 0 4% 8.0 

0 25 17 .2 .O 32 4 ZF0 -------- GOO 7.7 

0 9.2 20 1.0 .O ZtiY 2 00 0 464 8.2 
Temperature has no fixed optimum standard; however, most 

users prefer water that has a low and constant temperatuxe. 

Nearly everyone enjoys a drink of cold water, especially on a hot 

day. Also, water with a low temperature is a necessity for many 

cooling and manufacturing processes. 

The temperature of water in streams and lakes is affected primarily by the sun's radiation and thus varies considerably from 

day-to-day and season-to-season (fig. 83). Generally, the average 

for 1966. for Jcll 

Clinton River 

near Drayton Plains 

(Station No. 4- 160Q) 

Records available for period 

1962-68 

,Maximum 

daily temperelure 

Temperatures of water in streams vary considerably and often reflect dimatic conditions. FIG. 83 

monthly temperature of surface water, except during pexiods 

when the water is frozen, will be nearly the same as the average 

monthly air temperature. 

Variations in temperature between surface-water bodies under 

the same climatic conditions are usually the result of varying 

amounts of ground-water inflow. Streams with high base-flow discharge usually stay cooler in the summer and warmer in the winter than streams with a low base-flow discharge. Figure 84 illustrates this relationship for a summer period. As shown, streams 

affected by lakes, dams, and ground water seeps scatter somewhat 

from the general relationship. Inspection of base-flow discharge 

(table 5) will, however, indicate in a xelative way which rivers 

might be expected to have cooler water temperatures during the 

summer. As an example, the base-flow discharge of the Clinton 

River near Drayton Plains is relatively high, indicating a large 

contxibution of ground watex. Consequently, its average summer 

water temperature is relatively low. 
Temperatures durtng base-flow 

rnvestinationof 3uIy 25.26. 1966 

Q~tfected by errruenr from city of Pont~ac 

RASE FLOW. IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND PER SQUARE MICE 

Streams having higher base flows generally have lower summer ternperatuxes. FIG. 84 

Temperature of water in the ground is affected by two sources 

of heat ; heat from the sun and heat from the earth's interior. The 

amplitude or amount of change in temperature depends upon the 

depth of the water below land surface. As might be expected, 

water close to the surface shows a greater change than the deeper 

water. Also, the shallow water changes more rapidly, that is, 

there is less lag in time between a change in surface temperature 

and a corresponding increase ox decrease in water temperature 

(fig. 85). At depths less than 60 feet, water temperature is affected primarily by the sun's heat. The average ground-water tem- 
Well about 10 feet deep 

IIF ~IAI~IIJ JIA SIC) N u 

Temperature of ground water from shallow wells changes faster and has a 

larger range than does water from deeper wells. FIG. 85 

perature in this zone is about 9.1" 6; which is very close to the 

average annual air temperature. Below 60 feet, the water temperature is aRected by heat from the earth's interior and increases 

about 0.9"C for every 100 feet of depth. The approximate ternperature of water at depth greater than 60 feet can be calculated 

by the following formula: Temperature = 9.I0C + 0.009" C per foot 

(for each foot of depth below 60 feet). 

WATER-QUALITY CONTROL 

One of the significant causes of water-quality deterioration is 

the addition of inorganic materials to the water. Other than effluent from some sewag&reatment plants, such additions often 

occur on a small scale and usually as a side effect to some other 

activity. Agriculture fertilizers are spread on lawns and golf 

courses. Chlorides are spread on roads and highways. Septic 

tanks are used where other sewage facilities are not available. 

The intended effect of these activities is something other than the 

destruction of water quality. The final result, however, is that 

some of the inorganic materials find their way to streams, lakes 

and ground-water reserviors and the water's quality slowly deteriorates. The change is often undramatic and may continue for 

years before a serious water problem develops. By then, simple 

solutions may be impossible. As an example, one of the limiting 

factors for aquatic plant growth in many lakes is the phosphate 

ion. When the concentration of this ion reaches a critical value, 

accelerated plant gxowth occurs. Although plants use the phosphate ion in the growing process, the ion is again returned to the 

water when the plants die and decay. Thus, once the ion is present, natural conditions are not likely to remove it. The only 
method of removal may be the dredging of accumulated plant debris and the pumping of ground water to dilute or flush the lake 

water-an expensive process. Preventive practices usually are the 

simplest solution. Thus, management is the prime aspect in maintaining good water quality in Oakland County. 

As stated previously, most water in the county, as of 1968, is 

good. The proposed standards for surface water (table 14) set 

forth by the State of Michigan are an important step towards assurance of good water in the future. 

The most restrictive standards for quality control are those fox 

domestic water supplies and for fish, wildlife, and other aquatic 

life. Included in these classifications are all natural lakes, as well 

as all impoundments with public beaches. They are to be protected for total body contact; all other water is to be protected 

for partial contact. In addition, all water is to be protected for intolerant, warm-water fish and several areas (fig. 86) are to be 

protected for intolerant, cold-water fish. 

Strict adherence to the proposed water-quality control standards by all people probably will be the one thing that will be of 

most benefit to the water resources in Oakland County. In the not 

too distant future, most of the county will have access to Detroit's water-supply system and availability of water for domestic 

and public supplies will not be a major problem. However, water 
Water in some areas is protected for trout. FIG. 86 

for recreation and sports will be in greater demand. If an all-out 

effort is not made toward water-quality control, the amount of 

usable water in lakes and streams will diminish. 

9. The Water Resources Picture 

A REVIEW-A LOOK AHEAD 

In 1970, there will be about 850,000 people living in Oakland 

County, and they will use about 100 million gallons of water per 

day. Thirty years later, the population will have increased to 
nearly 1,500,000 and daily water use will be about 200 million 

gallons. Water from the Great Lakes, through the Detroit water 

system, will supply most of these needs. However, water from 

local, sources will continue to be of importance to many users for 

water supply, waste dilution, recreation, and esthetics. 

As shown in the preceding pages, water resources presently are 

available to most of Oakland County in sufficient quantities h 

meet all but the most demanding needs, Ground water can be ob 

tained in much of the county at rates of at least 50 gpm and in 

many areas at rates of more than 400 gpm. Streams discharge 

water from the county at an average annual rate of about 575 

ds. The available supplies are large; however, to assure that 

these resources will continue in abundance and make possible the 

optimum growth and economic development of the county, consideration of certain aspects regarding the resources are essential. 

These include : 

1. Water-quality control, 

2. Lake-level improvement, 

3. Streamflow augmentation, 

4. Flood-plain management, 

5, Redefinition of ground-water reservoirs, 

6. Use of water from Detroit, and 

7. Collection and analysis of basic information. 

In the sections that follow there is provided a look, in retrospect, at the major findings presented in this repod. Also provided are discussions of some management techniques and areas 

which require further investigation. These discussions will aid 

the water manager in his evaluation of the above items in the water-resources picture. 

Water-qualify control 

Water must be of good quality to be usable. In 1968 water in 

most of the county, if biological aspects are excluded, was of mod 

quality. The concentration of chemical constituents in some lakes, 

streams, and bedrock aquifers in the southern part of the county 

exceeded acceptable standards (fig. 87) although not seriously so. 

In general, the poorer quality water in lakes and streams was 

found to be in areas that are highly urbanized. 

Water-quality control is a subject that should be the concern of 

everyone, in groups or as individuals, In the preceding chapter 

certain standards have been set forth to assure good water quality. 

If these standards are not violated, water in the county should 
r--- 

R. 11 E. 

tent is less than 500 mg/l 

T 

1 dissolved-solids content is often above 

1 bedrock aquifers 

1; .. L.. N:,. -... hri:I~ i-,...3 I +. -. . . . . - , - j-.. F~*:?J~E~.~JI . -- 83" 30' 83" 15' 

Good quality water is common in the northern part of the county, FIG. 87 

continue to maintain iB present good quality-in some areas it 

will improve. Concerned agencies or groups can readily spot 

major violations of the standards and with properly enforced 

control bring them to a halt before serious damage is done. Minor 

violations, however, which often are unintended, are not easily 

detected or controlled. In fact, control of some violations will 

never be possible unless individuals take upon themselves the 

duty of safe-guarding water resources. Destruction of water quality often is an accumulative process of undramatic stature. Because of this, detection of the early stages of the process may not 

be possible unless a sound water-quality monitoring program is 

established. Continuous collection of basic quality information 
will provide the framework around which a good-water program 

can exist. Strict water-quality control may be the principal link 

to plentiful water in the future. 

New techniques in color and infrared stereo areal photography 

may be employed to provide a method of monitoring and differentiating water of different chemical and physical properties 

within lakes and streams. Because of the numerous lakes in Oakland County, these methods may be the only way to economically 

appraise this valuable resource. Utilization of photographic techniques also could provide further insight into the interrelationships between surface and ground water. That is, it may be 

possible to discern areas where ground water in entering a lake 

or stream and to estimate the rate at which it is entering. From 

this information, a more definitive analysis of the water resources and the environment in which they occur could be made, 

The first such photographic reconnaissance would represent conditions as they existed at that time. In the future, additional reconnaissances could be made and, when compared with earlier 

photos, could be used to evaluate changes that are occurring. 

Such comparative studies would have significant value in dehing 

the effects of urbanization and pollution on lakes and streams, as 

well as other, perhaps more gradual changes in these resources. 

Lake-level improvement 

Lakes are a valuable asset to Oakland County. For them to remain in a desirable and usable condition, maintenance of suitable 

lake levels, in addition to water-quality control, are essential. Stabilization of lake levels is provided for in Public Act I94 of 1939, 

as amended. Under this act, legal lake levels can be established 

and methods most suitable to the situation can be used to maintain the lakes at their legal level. By the end of 1968, three methods were successfully being used for lake-Ievel restoration in Oakland County. These are: (1) control dams on outlets, (2) pumped 

water from nearby streams or lakes, and (3) pumped water from 

the ground. These methods may be used with similar success on 

other lakes. 

Before a lake-level restoration project is atbmpted, a careful 

study should be made of the geologic and hydrologic conditions in 

the area of the lake. Basic information on ground-water aquifers 

and water levels, streamflow, lake levds, and water quality, 

should be collected and analyzed to determine the feasibility of a 

restoration project. Then if the project is begun, data collection 
should be continued so that changes in the hydrologic regimen 

can be identified. Careful observation of trends in both ground 

and surface-water levels is the only way to reliably determine the 

effects of a lake-level improvement project. The results obtained 

from such observations will be of great impoxtance in determining the feasibility of future projects of this type. 

The headwaters of five major river systems rise in Oakland 

County. These systems radiate in diverse directions from the central part of the county and discharge across each of its sides. Because of this situation, drainage basins are small and runoff is 

generally inadequate for major water-development projects. 

Streamflow varies widely from day-to-day and year-byear. In 

the southeastern part of the county these variations are greatest, 

resulting in frequent flooding and lower base flows (fig. 88). 

Elsewhere the extremes of flow are moderated somewhat as flood 

waters are held in temporary storage in lakes and other depressions. Also, in areas of more permeable soil, precipitation infiltrates more readily into the ground. This temporarily stored 

water later serves to maintain the base flow of streams in these 

areas. 

The flow of streams is variable ; thus, the usefulness of streams 

is often limited-their adequacy for water supply is dependent 

upon their low-flow characteristics. Most streams in the county 

recede to undesirably low flows; however, this situation often can 

be remedied by construction of storage reservoirs. Water from 

periods of high streamflow can then be captured and utilized to 

augment low flows during dry periods. The benefits which may be 

derived from reservoir construction can be evaluated from draftstorage frequency relationships developed for this report. These 

relationships will provide the water manager with a basis for determining storage requirements for an intended use and for defining the potential of a stream for water supply. 

Small reservoirs, holding 1,000 to 3,500 acre-ft of water, can be 

built at several locations in the county. An inventory of 21 possible sites showed a storage potential of as much as 60,000 acre-ft 

of water. 

Reservoirs, in addition to supplying water for low-flow augmentation, can serve as catchments to reduce floods and lessen flood 

damages. Other benefits might include recreational uses, improved property values, esthetics, and water supply. 
EXPLANATION 

LOW FLOW INDEX 

7-day Q, , in cubic feet per second per square mile 

HIGH MEnI1:M LOW 

Streamflow variation is greatest in the southeastern part of the countysustained flows are lower than in most other areas and this part of the 

county is subject to more severe flooding. FIG. 88 

Flood-plain management 

Flood plains, with good management and development, can provide significant benefits. These plains can be reserved as "open 

space" by state, county, or other local governmental agencies. 
Such open space can be utilized for parks, parking lots, and recreational facilities during most of the year. Only during periods 

of flooding, which commonly occur during the spring months, 

would the pIains be unusable. When flooding does occur, evacuation would be easy and property damage would be negligible. In 

contrast, where flood plains are highly populated there may be severe pxoperty damage and possible loss of life. The magnitude 

and frequency of occurrence of floods are greatest in the southeastern part of the county (fig. 88). Elsewhere, flooding, although 

not uncommon, is not a serious problem. 

Some parts of flood plains can be developed for flood-safe commercial and industrial uses with good management and construction techniques. Maximum probabIe water heights of future 

floods can be determined from past records; this data can be used 

to guide construction of new structures and to provide corrective 

measures on existing structures. In some cases, the Iower parts of 

new or existing structures can be permanently closed and waterproofed to seal out floodwaters. ln other cases, structures can be 

built on stilts and the lower level used for parking (fig. 89). In 

Structure built on stilts reduces possibility of damage by flood water. Notice 

high-water marks left by stream in flood stage on building supports in 

right center of photograph. FIG. 89 
either case, the structures must be able to withstand the pressures exert4 by water under flood conditions. An important consideration for any type of flood-plain construction is that it is 

properly guided and controlled, It must be recognized that utilization of the flood plain may restrict the flow of water and thus increase the heights of future flood. 

Redefinition of ground-wakr reservoirs 

The availability of ground water in Oakland County varies 

greatly from axea b area and with depth. Some wells yield more 

than 400 gpm, some yield less, and some are dry (fig. 90). These 

differences in yield are attributable primarily to differences in 

rock lithologies. Thus, to obtain the best possible picture of 

ground-water availability, accurate definition of the mound-water 

reservoirs is necessary. Toward this end, data for many wells 

were analyzed during the study for the present repork. From these 

analyses, potential yields were defined for 50-foot intervals of 

depth. The resultant reservoir definition is an accurate accounting based on available data. However, since a new law became 

effective in 1967 requiring well drillers to submit logs or lithologic 

logs of all new wells to the State of Michigan, new data on 

ground-water reservoirs have been accumulating at a rapid rate. 

Within a short time, it may be necessary to reevaluate the data 

and redefine the reservoirs in order to have as accurate and as 

current a picture of the ground-water situation as data permit. 

Automatic data processing was used to analyze the basic 

ground-water information for this report. Information on more 

than 1,200 wells was processed by use of computers. By this 

method information could be analyzed using a variety of techniques to assure the best possible interpretation of the information. An added benefit in the use of automatic data processing lies 

in the fact that data, once prepared for processing, is always 

available for retrieval and reanalysis. In addition, new data can 

be readily added to the original stored information; thus, the 

ground-water picture for the entire county can be reevaluated 

and made current with a minimum expenditure of time and money. 

As an example, since the last evaluation of the data, information 

on another 500 or more wells has become available. These data, 

when added to the original data, could provide a more detailed 

definition of the aquifer index maps presented in this report. 

Manual manipulation of the data would be a long process; 

whereas, use of the computes is a relatively short and easy procedure. 
2 0 2 4 6 8 MILES 

EXPLANATION 

I--- 

Yields or nlort. Ihiln 100 gallonq Yields of lrvs than 400 gallons 

per minute can be expected. per minute can be expected 

Wells in some areas yield more than 400 gallons per minute; wells in other 

areas yield less. FIG. 90 

Use of water from Dehoit 

As shown in this report, much of Oakland County contains sufficient water to supply most needs; however, local heavy uses may 

deplete local supplies. When this occurs, other sources capable of 

producing large supplies of good water may be sought. Such a 

source, the Detroit water system, is rapidly becoming available 

and by 1980 should be within reach of most areas in the county. 
In 1969, the Detroit system supplied more than 80 percent of the 

water for large domestic and industrial supplies in the southeast 

part of the county. This system is capable of providing a reliable 

and abundant supply of good quality water. Whether or not a 

changeover to this system in other parts of the county is c'ssirable must be based on economic, political, and legal factors which 

differ for each community or user. Local sources may be more 

economical for some users for many years. However, the fact that 

water is available from the Detroit system is assurance of future 

dependable water resources. 

Collection and analysis of basic information 

Further assurance that the county's water resources will serve 

the future can be provided by a well-designed, continuous program of basic data collection and analysis. Primarily, such a program involves the collection of new information as it is related 

to, and described under, the six major aspects of water discussed 

previously. This type of program will provide an up-to-date bank 

of information and will point out changes that may be occurring 

in the water regimen. The information gained will provide the 

basis for sound management decisions. 

10. For More Information AboutBASIC FACTS CONCERNING WATER 

Baldwin, H. L., and McGuinness, C. L., 1963, A primer on 

ground water: U.S. Geol. Survey Spec. Rept., 26 p. 

Deutsch, M., and Vanlier, K. E., 1961, Ground water for Michigan's future : U.S. Geol. Survey open-file rept. 

Leopold, L. B., and Langbein, W. B., 1960, A primer on water: 

U.S. Geol. Survey Spec. Rept., 50 p. 

Meinzer, 0. E., 1923, Outline of ground-water hydrology, with 

definitions : U.S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 494. 

Swenson, H. A., and Baldwin, H. L., 1965, A primer on water 

quality : U.S. Geol. Survey Spec. Rept., 27 p. 

POPULATION AND LAND USE 

Bureau of the Census, 1964, United States census of agriculture 

preliminary report (Oakland County) : U.S. Dept. of Commerce Ser. AC 64-PI, 6 p. 
Detroit Metropolitan Area Regional Planning Commission, 1963, 

1970-1980 Population projections in the Detroit region: Detroit Metropolitan Area Regional Planning Comm., 7 p. 

1965, Population and occupied dwelling units in the Detroit region July I, 1965 : Detroit Metropolitan Area Regional 

Planning Comm., Planning Data Ser. C, Rept. 12,6 p. 

1958, Land use in the Detroit region: Detroit Metropolitan Area Regional Planning Comm. 

Huron-Clinton Metropolitan Authority, 1967, 25 year? of Metro 

Parks: 13th Biennial Rept., 63 p. 

CLIMATE 

Kohler, M. A., Nordenson, T, J., and Baker, D. R., 195f, Evaporation maps for the United States: U.S. Weather Bur. Tech. 

Paper 37, 13 p. 

U.S. Department of Commerce, Weather Bureau, 1857 to date, 

monthly and yearly climatological data, Michigan. 

STREAMS AND LAKES 

Bay, J. W., 1938, Glacial history of the streams of southeastern 

Michigan: Bloomfield Hills, Mich., Cranbrook Inst. Sci. Bull. 

12, 66 p. 

Humphrys, C. R., and Green, R. F., 1962, Michigan lake inventory: Michigan State Univ. Dept. Resource Devel. Bull. 63, p. 

63A-63H. 

Hutchinson, G. E., 1957, A treatise on limnology, volume 1: New 

York, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1015 p. 

Kelley, R. W., and Farrand, W. R., 1967, The glacial lakes around 

Michigan: Michigan Dept. Conserv., Geol. Survey Bull. 4, 23 

P. 

Knutilla, R. L., 1964, Flow characteristics of Michigan streams: 

U.S. Geol. Survey open-file rept. 

Martin, R. 0. R., and Hulme, A. E., 1957, Surface water, in Rasmussen, W. C., Groot, J. J., and others, The water resources 

of northern Delaware : Delaware Geol. Survey Bull. 6, v. 1. 

Olmstead, F. II., and Hely, A. G., 1962, Relation between ground 

water and surface water in Brandywine Creek besin, Pennsylvania : U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 417-A, 21 1). 

Searcy, J. K., 1959, Flow-duration curves: U.S. Geol. S7.1rvey Water-Supply Paper 1542-A, p. 1-21. 
Skelton, John, 1968, Storage requirements to augment low flows 

of Missouri streams: Missouri Div. Geol. Survey and Water 

Resources, Water Resources Rept. 22. 

Weeks, E. P., Ericson, D. W., and Holt, C. L. R., Jr., 1965, Hydrology of the Little Plover River basin, portage County, 

Wisconsin, and the effects of water-resource development: 

U.S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 1811. 

Wiitala, S. W., 1965, Magnitude and frequency of floods in the 

United States, Part 4, St. Lawrence River basin: U.S. Geol. 

Survey Water-Supply Paper 1677,357 p. 

Streamflow data are given in the U.S. Geological Survey WaterSupply Paper series "Surface Water Supply of the TJnited 

States." Records of streamflow in Michigan are given in 

"Part 4. St. Lawrence River Basin," in two volumes. Reginning with the 1961 water year, streamflow also are released 

annually on a state basis in reports entitled "Water Resources Data for Michigan, Part 2. Surface water records." 

GROUND WATER 

Deutsch, M., 1963, Ground-water contamination and legal cc ntrols 

in Michigan: U.S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 1691, 79 

P. 

Humphrys, C. R., 1967, Water management information: East 

Lansing, Michigan State Univ. Coop. Ext. Service and Dept. 

Nat. Resources, 220 p. 

MacKichan, K. A., Kammerer, J. C., 1961, Estimated use of 

water in the United States, 1960: U.S. Geol. Survey Circ. 456, 

26 p. 

Oakland County Planning Commission, 1966, Topography, Oakland County, Michigan: Oakland County Planning C;omm., 

ser. D, 1 :48,000 map. 

Oakland County Road Commission, 1966, Official highway map of 

Oakland County roads, public fishing sites, Huron-Clinton 

metropolitan parks, state parks, recreation areas, and lakes: 

Oakland County Road Comm., scale 1 :48,000. 

Scott, I. D., 1920, Inland lakes of Michigan: Michigan Geol. and 

Biol. Survey Pub. 30, Geol. Ser. 25, p. 253-261. 

Wiitala, S. W., Vanlier, K. E., and Krieger, R. A., 1963, Water 

resources of the Flint area, Michigan: U.S. Geol. Furvey 

Water-Supply Paper 1499-E, 86 p. 
Ground-water levels and artesian pressures in observation wells 

are given in a 5-year U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply 

Paper series "Ground-Water Levels in the United States, 

Northeastern States." Records of ground-water levels also 

are released annually on a state basis in an open-file series 

"Summary of Ground-Water Conditions in Michigan." 

WATER QUALITY 

Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, lF"8, Water 

quality criteria, in Report of the National Technical Advisory Committee to the Secretary of the Interior: Washington, U.S. Govt. Printing Office. 

Hem, J. D., 1959, Study and interpretation of the chemical characteristics of natural water: U.S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply 

Paper 1473. 

Michigan Water Resources Commission, 1968, Water quality 

standards for Michigan intrastate waters: Michigan Dept. 

Conserv. Water Resources Comm. 

U.S. Public Health Service, 1962, The Public Health Service 

drinking water standards-1962 : U.S. Public Health Service 

Pub. 956. 

GEOLOGY 

Cohee, G. V., Macha, C., and Holk, M., 1951, Thickness and lithology of Upper Devonian and Carboniferous rock^ in Michigan : U.S. Geol. Survey Oil and Gas Inv. Chart OC-41. 

Cohee, G. V., and Underwood, L. B., 1944, Maps and sections of 

the Berea Sandstone in eastern Michigan: U.S. Geol. Survey 

Oil and Gas Inv. Prelim. Map 17. 

Flint, Richard Foster, 1957, Glacial and Pleistocene geology: New 

York, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 509 p. 

Hale, Lucille, 1941, Study of sedimentation and stratigraphy of 

Lower Mississippian in western Michigan : Am. ATSOC. Petroleum Geologists Bull. 25, no. 4, p. 713-723. 

Kelly, W. A., 1936, Pennsylvanian System in Michigan: Michigan 

Geol. Survey Pub. 40, Geol. Ser. 34, pt. 2, p. 155-205. 

Leverett, Frank, and Taylor, F. B., 1915, The Pleistocene of Indiana and Michigan and the history of the Great Lakes: U.S. 

Geol. Survey Mon. 53. 

Martin, H. M., 1936, Centennial geologic map of the southern 

peninsula of Michigan : Michigan Geol. Survey Pub. 39, Geol. 

Ser. 33. 
Monnett, V. B., 1948, Mississippian Marshall Formation of Michigan: Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull. 32, no. 4, p. 

629-688. 

Mozola, A. J., 1962, The bedrock topography of Wayne Courlty, 

Michigan: Michigan Acad. Sci., Arts, and Letters, Papers 

1961, p. 19-27. 

Newcornbe, R. B., 1932, Oil and gas fields in Michigan: Michigan 

Geol. Survey Pub. 38, Geol. Ser. 32, p. 47-100. 

Peebles, R. W., 1969, Gravity studies of buried bedrock topography in northwest Oakland County, Michigan: Lansing, Michigan State Univ. M. S. thesis. 

Stanley, G. M., 1936, Geology of the Cranbrook area: Blocmfield 

Hills, Mich., Cranbrook Inst. Sci., 56 p. 

Tarbell, Eleanor, 1941, Antrim-Ellsworth-Coldwater Shale Formations in Michigan: Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologist;? Bull. 

25, no. 4, p. 724-733. 

Wayne, W. J., and Zumberge, J. H., 1965, Pleistocene geology of 

Indiana and Michigan; in The Quaternary of the TJnited 

States : Princeton, N. J., Princeton Univ. Press, p. 68-84. 

WATER RESOURCES IN OAKLAND COUNTY ArEA 

Brater, E. F., and Wisler, C. O., 1957, Report on floods on the 

Rouge River, in Report to the Board of Wayne County Road 

Commissioners : 69 p. 

Detroit Department of Water Supply, 1966 Detroit's water development program for southeastern Michigan 1966-2000: Detroit Dept. Water Supply, 26 p. 

Detroit Metropolitan Area Regional Planning Commission, 1965, 

Flood plains reconnaissance study: Detroit Metropolitan 

Area Regional Planning Comm., 161 p. 

1966, Southeastern Michigan, drainage basins wit], rain 

and stream gages: Southeastern Michigan Rain and Stream 

Gage Comm. 1966 Progress Rept. 

Ferris, J. G., Burt, E. M., Stramel, G. L., Crosthwaite, E. G., 

1954, Ground water resources of southeastern Oakland 

County: Michigan Dept. Conserv. Geol. Survey Div. Progress 

Rept. 16. 

Heiden, N. R., 1957, Industrial water- needs: Oakland County 

Planning Comm., 50 p. 

Johnson and Anderson, Inc., 1967, Independence Township watel* 

distribution system, Engineering Report: 42 p. 
Kunkle, G. R., 1961, The ground water geology and hydrology of 

Washtenaw County and the upper Huron River basin : Washtenaw County Planning Comm., 247 p. 

Leverett, F., and others, 1906, Flowing wells and municipal water 

supplies in the southern portion of the southern paninsula of 

Michigan: U.S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 182, 292 p. 

Michigan Department of Health and Michigan Water Resources 

Commission, 1962, Report on water pollution control in the 

river basins of the southeastern Michigan region: Michigan 

Dept. Health and Michigan Water Resources Comm., 105 p. 

Michigan State University Department of Resource Development, 

1968, Oakland County, Michigan-Water resources study: 

1968 resource devel. class, spring term, C. R. Humphrys, instructor, 107 p. 

Michigan Water Resources Commission, 1957, Repor: on water 

resource conditions and uses in the Huron River basin : Michigan Water Resource Comm., 149 p. 

1968a, The water resources of southeastern Michigan: 

Michigan Water Resources Comm., 154 p. 

1968b, The water resources of the lower Lake Huron drainage basin: Michigan Water Resources Comm., 189 p. 

Mozola, A. J., 1954, A survey of the ground-water resources in 

Oakland County, Mich.: Mich. Dept. Conserv. Pub. 48, Part 

11, 348 p. 

[U.S.] National Sanitation Foundation, 1964, Report on metropolitan environmental study, sewerage and drainage problems, 

Administrative Affairs : 147 p. 

U.S. Amy Corps of Engineers, 1963, Flood plain information report on the upper River Rouge at Farmington, Michigan: 26 

P 

Wisler, C. O., Stramel, G. J., Laird, L. B., 1952, Water resources 

of the Detroit area, Michigan: U.S. Geol. Survey C'rc. 183,36 
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

The authors greatly appreciate the information and assistance supplied by 

the people of Oakland County and by state, county, and local governmental 

agencies. We are especially grateful to members of the Oakland County Department of Public Works for their assistance and for making available to 

us the data in their files concerning the county's water resources. 

Grateful appreciation is expressed to our colleagues in the Water Resources Division of the U.S. Geological Survey who gave us technica.1 assistance and guidance. Special mention is given to the following perssms who 

participated directly in the study for this report: Jilann 0. Brunett, who 

collected and compiled information on the six lakes discussed in chapter 6; 

Roger W. Peebles, who assisted with the compilation of well data and interpretation of pumping data; David E. Swanson, who assisted with ths compilation of well data and preparation of the geologic section in chapter 7; and 

Warren W. Wood, who compiled and evaluated much of the data on chemical 

quality in chapter 8. 
[Italic page numbers indicate major references] 

Page 

Air conditioning, water use -------------- 16 

Altitude of land surface ----------------- 21 

Aquifer index ....................... 102, 116

Areal photography, water quality control - 135 

Artesian conditions ---------------------- 113

Artificial recharge of lakes -------------- 84

Automatic data processing --------------- 139 

Bedrock formations, water yield --------- 108

Bedrock surface, movement and occurrence 

of ground water ------------ 108 

Berea Formation, water yield ----------- 109 

Bibliogi aphy ---------------------------- 141

Biological parameters of water quality --- 120

Cass Lake, lake-level study -------------- 73

Categories of water use ----------------- 

----120

Chemical parameters of water quality ---- 120

Configuration of the land surface 21, 91

estimating ground-water levels ------- 112

reservoirs --------------------------- 64

streamflow .......................... 37

Deflnition of terms ..................... VIII

Depth to water ------------------------- 111

Detroit water system ----- 13, 16, 119, 131, 140

Discharge, county average --------__----- 33

Dissolved-solids concentration, parameter of 

water quality --------------- 126

quality of lake water --------------- 73

Draft-storage relations --------------- 61. 136

Duck Lake, lake-level restoration ------ 73, 85

quality of water .................... 80

Elizabeth Lake, lake-level study ---------- 71

quality of water .................... 76

Eskers, water yield --------------------- 98

Evaporation, lake levels --------------- 69, 87

Evapotranspiration, estimating groundwater levels ---------------- 112

hydrologic cycle 19, 26

Flint, water yield of underlying Saginaw 

Formation 

Floods ------------------------------- 56. 138

April 6. 1947 ....................... 53

frequency --------------------------- 67

I Page 

Flood+Continued 

June 24-25, 1968 .................... 65 

urbanization ........................ 60 

Flood-plain management ---------------- 181 

Flow duration .......................... 40 

Glacial deposits, thickness --------------- 98 

water yield ...................... 92, 116 

Glacial lobes ............................ 92 

Gravity yield ........................... 30 

Hardness, parameter of water qualit-r --- 126 

High flow .............................. 53 

Holly, water yield of underlying Marshall 

--- 40 

.- 

Formation ------------------ 110 

Huron River at Milford, flow duratio-1 

Huron River basin, runoff -------------- 29 

Hydrologic cycle ...................... 19, 26 

Industrial water use .................... 15 

Inlet-outlet characteristics, lake levds ---- 70 

quality of lake water -------------- 73, 81 

Iron, parameter of water quality -------- 126 

Judah Lake, lake-level study ------------ 71 

quality of water .................... 81 

Kames, water yield ------_--------------- 93 

Keatin~ton ............................. 8 

Lakes ----------- -- ------ ----- ----- ----- 66 

artificial recharge ------------------- 84 

quality of water .................... 78 

storage ............................. 64 

water levels ........................ 68 

Lake-level restoration ------------------- IS5 

Low flow ............................... 50 

Low-flow index ......................... 61 

Marshall Formation, water yield ----- 108.119 

Milford, water use ...................... 11 

Orchard Lake, lake-level study ----------- 73 

Ortonville, flowing wells ----------------- 113 

Outwash, water yield -------------------- 93 

Peak flows .............................. 53 

INDEX 
Page 

Permeability ............................ 100 

Phosphate ion .......................... 130 

Physical parameters of water quality ---- 120 

Pine Lake, lake-level study -------------- 73 

Pontiac, precipitation -------_----------- 17 

urban development 2, 3 

Population, increase ..................... 6 

shift in ............................. 7

year 2000 ........................... 7 

Precipitation .......................... 17

average ............................. 18

estimating grou~ld-water levels ------ 112

hydrologic cycle ----_-__----------- 19.25 

lake-level restoration ---------------- 89 

lake levels -------------------------- 69 

quality of lake water -------------- 73, 82 

recharge of ground water --------- 20.91 

streamflow -------------------------- 35 

water-level decline _-l-_--__-_-------- 20 

Pumping, effects on ground-water levels -- 119

Pumping tests .......................... 116 

Quality of water ---------_-------------- 119

lakes ---__------------------------- 73 

Reservoirs ....................... 63, 136. 139

River Rouge basin, runoff --------------- 29 

River systems, headwaters in the county -- 33 

Runoff, hydrologic cycle --------------- 19, 25 

Saginaw Formation, water yield --------- 109 

South Lyon, industrial water use -------- 15

no seasonal water use trend --------- 11

Standards of water quality -------------- 120 

Storage --------------------------------- fil 

streamflow augmentation --------- 51, 136

Streamflow ............................. 83

augmentation ....................... 136 

estimating ground-water levels ------ 112

monitoring ......................... 38 

variability ....................... 40, 136

Page 

Streams, storage ........................ 64 

Swartz Creek basin, changing nature's 

water budget ---------------- 31 

wnfiguration of the land s-~rface ---- 23 

evaporation loss ..................... 88 

runoff ------------------------------ 29 

Temperature, fluctuations in streamflow -- 35 

parameter of water quality ---------- 128 

Till, water yield ........................ 98 

Tipsico Lake, evaporation loss ---------- 88 

lake-level study ..................... 71 

quality of water .................... 74 

Transmissivity .......................... 116 

Troy, flowing wells ...................... 113 

Urban development, flooding ------------- 60 

population increase ------------------ 6 

quality of lake water -----_------- 75, 84 

Variability index ........................ 50 

Water-budget equation ------------------ 25 

Water-level decline, precipitation -------- 20 

p~~mping __-_-------------------- 90. 114 

Water levels, lakes ..................... 68 

Water quality, detection ---------------- 134 

Water-quality control --------------- 180, 18.3 

Water table, lake levels ------------------ 70 

Water use, irrigation .................... 16 

predictions ......................... 19 

per capita use ------------------ 9 

product processing ------------------ 15 

trends ............................ 13, 16 

typical domestic use _--------------- 12 

year 2000 ........................... 13 

Waterford, availability of water --------- 118 

pumping ........................... 115 

White Lake. evaporation loss ----------_- 88 

lake-level restoration ~ _-_----__- 73, 86 

quality of water .................... 75 

I 

* U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 197' 0-429-662