DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

FRANKLIN K. LANE, Secretary

UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

GEORGE OTIS SMITH, Director

PROFESSIONAL PAPER 102

THE INORGANIC CONSTITUENTS OF 

MARINE INVERTEBRATES

BY

FRANK WIGGLESWORTH CLARKE

AND

WALTER CALHOUN WHEELER

WASHINGTON

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 

1917

DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

FRANKLIN K. LANE, Secretary

UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

GEORGE OTIS SMITQ, Director

Professional Paper 102

THE INORGANIC CONSTITUENTS OF 

MARINE INVERTEBRATES

BY 

FRANK WIGGLESWORTH CLARKE

AND

WALTER CALHOUN WHEELER

WASHINGTON

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 

1917
ADDITIONAL COPIES

OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM

THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE

WASHINGTON, D. C.

AT

10 CENTS PER COPY
CONTENTS.

Introduction............................................................................................ 5

Foraminifera............................................................................................. 6

Sponges.................................................................................................. 7

Madreporian corals...................................................................................... 9

Alcyonarian corals....................................................................................... 12

Hydroids................................................................................................. 17

Annelids................................................................................................ 18

Echinoderms............................................................................................. 20

1. Crinoids.......................................................................................... 20

2. Sea urchins........................................................................................ 25

3. Starfishes and brittle stars ......................................................................... 28

4. Holothurians...................................................................................... 30

5. Summary.......................................................................................... 31

Bryozoa................................................................................................. 32

Brachiopods.............................................................................................. 33

Mollusks................................................................................................ 36

1. Pelecypods........................................................................................ 36

2. Scaphopods and ampMneurans...................................................................... 37

3. Gastropods........................................................................................ 37

4. Cephalopods...................................................................................... 39

Crustaceans.............................................................................................. 40

Calcareous algse.......................................................................................... 44

General discussion..................................................................'...................... 50

3

THE INORGANIC CONSTITUENTS OF MARINE INVERTEBRATES.

By FRANK WIGGLESWOE.TH CLAEKE and WALTER CALHOUN WHEELER.

INTRODUCTION.

That many important rocks were once marine sediments and that animals and plants 

shared in their formation is one of the commonplaces of geology. Coralline limestones, shell limestones, and crinoidal limestones are among the most familiar illustrations of this statement. 

That corals and shells furnish calcium carbonate to the sediments, that radiolarians and diatoms 

are siliceous, and that vertebrate animals, some crustaceans, and a few brachiopods are more 

or less phosphatic are also well-known facts, which, however, have been determined in a more 

or less desultory way. No systematic investigation to ascertain just what substances each 

class of organisms contributes to the sediments seems to have been made, and the present 

research is an attempt to cover the ground a little more thoroughly than it has been covered 

heretofore. Completeness is, of course, impossible, but something of a foundation for future 

work we have tried to lay.

Although many analyses of corals and molluscan shells are on record, some important 

groups of organisms have received only slight attention, and little has been done heretofore 

toward determining the composition of their tests or skeletons. The few published data, moreover, have been generally but not always incomplete in certain important particulars, especially 

with regard to the localities from which the specimens analyzed were obtained, the depth of 

water in which each creature lived, and the temperature of its habitat. Even in our own work 

some of these details are lacking, but their great significance when known is strikingly evident 

in the study of such groups of animals as the echinoderms and alcyonarians. Furthermore, 

some of the older analyses are unsatisfactory for other reasons, for many of them were made 

to determine single facts, such, for instance, as the proportion of magnesium carbonate alone; 

and in others such important constituents as organic matter were not taken into account, an 

omission that is especially serious, for it renders the accurate comparison of the analyses with 

others impossible. In the shells of mollusks the proportion of organic matter is small, but in 

the echinoderms, alcyonarians, and phosphatic brachiopods it is relatively large, ranging from 10 

to even 40 per cent or more. This statement, however, must not be misconstrued; it refers, 

of course, only to the specimens, dried or alcoholic, which are actually analyzed. In order to 

compare the analyses, therefore, so as to determine the true composition of the inorganic shells 

or skeletons, the very variable amounts of organic matter must be rejected, and the remainders 

recalculated to 100 per cent. Relations then appear which are not recognizable when the crude 

unreduced analyses are' compared. Any one of our tables of analyses will show this fact very 

clearly.

In a strict sense completeness can not be claimed even for our analyses. Minor constituents 

which have been detected in shells, corals, and seaweeds, such as lead, copper, and manganese, 

have been ignored. They occur only in traces and have little or no significance with respect to 

the larger problem before us. What organisms tend to form limestones and what ones are notablj 

magnesiaii, phosphatic, or siliceous are the questions which we are attempting to answer. In most 

of the analyses lime, magnesia, phosphoric oxide, sulphur trioxide, silica, and loss on ignition 

were determined. Alumina and oxide of iron were also considered and weighed together. The 

loss on ignition covered carbon dioxide, organic matter, and water. The carbon dioxide was calculated to satisfy the bases, and the amount thus determined, subtracted from the total loss on

5
INORGANIC CONSTITUENTS OF MARINE INVERTEBRATES.

ignition, gave a fair but rough estimate of organic matter plus water. From the crude analyses 

thus obtained the reduced or rational analyses, recalculated to 100 per cent, were computed. 

These rational analyses are comparable, and give, closely enough, the essential composition of 

the material which goes to build up the limestones. More refined work would add little toward 

the solution of our main problem and would require much tedious labor. In the following" pages 

the detailed analyses are given, group by group, together with some of the older published data. 

After the evidence has been presented a general discussion of its significance will be in order. 

The analyses, except a few that are specified, were made by Mr. Wheeler.

FORAMINIFERA.

The Foraminifera, because of their enormous abundance, are of great importance in the 

formation of marine sediments. The globigerina ooze, for example, covers 49,520,000 square 

miles of the ocean floor, at a depth of 1,996 fathoms, or 3,653 meters. The analyses of it published in the report of the Challenger expedition on deep-sea deposits show that it consists 

mainly of calcium carbonate, with very little magnesia. Foraminifera are also abundant on 

"coral reefs," and great masses of limestone are composed largely of their remains.

These organisms, however, are so small, rarely larger than the head of a pin, that it is not 

easy to obtain enough material of any one species for chemical analysis. The difficulty, fortunately, is not insuperable, and with the help of others we have been so fortunate as to obtain 

representative samples of seven species, as follows:

1. Pulvinulina vienardii D'Orbigny. Albatross station 2573; latitude, 40° 34' 18" N.; longitude, 66° 09X W.; 

in line from Long Island Sound to Cape Sable; depth of water, 3,188 meters; bottom temperature, 3° G. .

2. Sphserodina dehiscens Parker and Jones. East Coast of Mindanao, Philippine Islands; latitude, 8° 51/ 45// N., 

longitude, 126° 26' 52" E.; depth of water, 804 meters.

3. Tinoporus baculatus Carpenter. Murray Islands, Torres Strait, Australia.

4. Orbitolites marginalis Lamarck. South of Tortugas, Fla., at depth of 29.3 meters.

5. Orbiculina adunca Fichtel and Moll. Key West, Fla.

6. Polytrema mineaccum Linne". Bahamas.

7. Quinqueloculina auber'iana D'Orbigny. Same locality as No. 4; analysis by A. A. Chambers.

Analyses of Foraminifera.

SiO3 . ..............................................

(Al,Fe)203 ----------------------. ------------------

MgO. ..............................................

CaO. ................................................

P2OS - . .............................................

1 .

14.70

3.81

1.68

41.36

(?)

38.12

99.67 

34.41

3.71

2

8.55

4.76

.82

45.48

(?)

39.01

98.62 

36.63

2.38

3

0.03

.18

5.03

47.35

.00

46.57

99.16

42.74

3.73

4

0.03

.13

4.93

48.92

Trace.

45.20

99.48 

43.90

1.30

5

0.11

.09

4.64

48.79

Trace.

45.56

99.19 

43.43

2.13

6

| 0.02

5.09

47.35

(?)

46.24

98.70 

42.80

3.44

7

0.54

4.32

49.02

45.54

99.42

1 43.27

2. 27

Rejecting organic matter and water and recalculating to 100 per cent, the analyses assume 

the following rational form:

Reduced analyses.'

Si08 ... .............................................

(Al,Fe)oO3 ......................................... Mgco3 :.. ...........................................

CaCO8 .. ............................................

Ca,P808 ---- ------.------ -------- ...................

1

15. 33

3.98

3.67

77.02

(?)

100.00

2

8.89

4.94

1.79

84.38

(?)

100.00

3

0.03

.19

11.08

88.70

.00

100.00

4

0.31

.13

10.55

89.01

Trace.

100.00

5

0.11

.09

10.04

89.76

Trace.

100.00

6

J 0.02

11.22

88.76

(?)

100.00

7

0.56

9.33

90.11

(?)

-100.00
In Nos. 1 and 2 the high perceii 

ties. If they are rejected, the per 

respectively. These two Forarninife 

are from shallow water in warm reg 

organisms with regard to temperat 

of our analyses, notably in the serie

The only published analyses o 

appear in H. B. Brady's volume * on 

of these analyses relate to Oi^ito 

Tongatabu, Friendly Islands. Thes

1,2. Two different samples; analyses by

3. Sample washed with boiling water.

4. Same as No. 3, unwashed; analyses 3

a are from

>ns. A sim

re appears,

of crinoids

Foraminife

the materia

complanat

analyses a

C. R. A. Wrig 

nd 4 by J. Git

Analyses of

SiO........

AlA° —

(Al,Fe)2O3 

MgC03 .... 

CaCO......

Incl

give

Other analyses, presented by T 

Verde Islands, and Operculina com.p 

analyses are obscurely stated but 

a Tertiary fossil, Nubecularia novorc 

amount which probably represents 

several siliceous Foraminifera contai ling from 

to have been built up of sand grain 

problem of the present investigatior

The sponges are a rather unsatis 

of their very porous structure. Th 

or mud, which are difficult to rerno 

and others composed almost wholly 

of procedure for our purposes woul 

spicules and to analyze them alone, 

be gone over, and more time would ae consumed 

gation. As the sponges are of miner importanc 

followed our usual course, and so hs.ve obtained 

they are not all that might be desired. Twen 

completely, as follows:

1. Euplectflla speciosa Quoy and Gainiar (" Venus's no

2. Bathydorus uncifer F. E. Schulze. Galapagos Islan 

89° 54' 30" W.; depth of water, 617.4 meters; bottom temp

3. Halichondria panicea Johnston. Alasl

4. Suberites suberea Johnston. Unga Island and Popoff

5. Tethya gravata Hyatt. Buzzards Bay, Mass.

6. Pheronema grayi Kent. Off southwest coast of Irelar

SPONGES.

ages of silica and sesquioxides are evidently due to impurientages of magnesium carbonate become 5.19 and 2.09,

0.58

.68

12.52

86.46

100:24

ding "phosphates

right and E 

inata, from

from 4.8 

ssica, 26 pe 

concentra 

76

and are of 

Their rer

SPON

actory grou| 

y are liabl 

'& entirely. 

>f organic ir 

obviously 

but to do

eep and presumably cold water. The others 

ar difference in the magnesian content of the 

with much regularity, in several other series 

md aicyouarians.

a that we have been able to find elsewhere 

collected by the Challenger expedition. Four

var. laciniata, collected either at Fiji, or at

as follows:

t and J. T. Dunn.

 bitoliies.

0.3

2.7

100.0

0.14

9.55

88.74

5.43

0.11

10.50

87.91

f lime and magnesia."

unn, are of Am.phistegina lessonii, from Cape

ear Amboyna, in the Malay Archipelago. The

to 4.9 per cent of magnesium carbonate. In

cent of magnesium carbonate was found, an

ion by leaching. There are also analyses of

L to 94.7 per cent of silica. Their tests appear

ttle or no significance in relation to the main

ains are not true additions to the sediments.

of organisms for chemical analysis, on account 

to contain inclosed impurities, such as sand 

Some sponges are siliceous, some calcareous, 

atter, the proteid spongin. The ideal method 

e to separate the clean siliceous or calcareous 

at a large amount of material would have to 

than we could give to this part of our investiin relation to the marine sediments, we have 

esults which are of some significance, even if 

* sponges have been examined, more or less

er basket"). Philippine Islands.

s, Albatross station 2818; latitude, 0° 29' S.; longitude,

ature, 9.9° G.

trait. Alaska.

, at depth of 1,098 meters.

1 Chalenger Report, vol. pp. xvn-xxi, 1884.
INORGANIC CONSTITUENTS OF MAEINE INVEETEBEATES.

7. Geodia mesotrisena var. pachana Leiidenfeld. Off southern California, Albatross station 2909; latitude, 32° 22' 

N.; longitude, 120° 08' 30" W.; depth, 377 meters; bottom temperature, 7.3° C.

8. Phakellia grandis Verrill. East part of Browns Bank, nearly east of Cape Cod, between latitudes 40° 3(X and 42° 

08' N. and longitudes 66° to 69° W.; depth, 549 meters.

9. Chondrodadia alnskensis Lanibe. On beach at Unalaska, Alaska.

10. Gclliodes grandis Verrill. Gulf of Maine.

11. Esperiopsis quatsinoensis Lambe. Auttu Island, Alaska.

12. Chalina arbuscula Verrill. Outer Island, Conn.

13. Spinosella sororia var. crispa Duchassaiug and Michelotti. Harrington Sound, Bermuda.

14. Euspongia officinalis tumuli/era var. turrita Hyatt. Harrington Sound, Bermuda.

15. Hircinia campana var. turrita Hyatt. Bermuda.

16. Euspongia officinalis var. rotunda Hyatt. Nassau, Bahama Islands.

17. Hippospongia equina var. meandrifonnis Duchassaing and Michelotti. Nassau, Bahamas.

18. Hippospongia agaricina var. dura Hyatt. Off Duck Key, Florida, at depth of 4.6 meters.

19. Hippospongia caniculata var. gossypina Duchassaing and Michelotti. Off Rock Island, Florida, at dep^h of 7.3 

meters.

20. Aplysina hirsuta Hyatt. Off St. Thomas, Danish West Indies; depth of water, 37 to 42 meters.

The analyses, made by our usual methods, are as follows:

Analyses of sponges.

SiO2 ................. .......................

(Al.Fe),03 .... ..............................

MgO..... ...................................

CaO. ...... .................................

P,05 . ....................................... s63 ....... ............ ..........:..........

SiOa .. .....................................

(Al,Fe)a03 - --------.--.-.------.---. - MgO.......................................

CaO.......................................

PoOB .................... ...................

s63 !. .................... ...................

Ignition. ...................................

1

88.56

.32

.00

oo

.00

.00

10.26

99.36

o

76.33

1.05

.48

2.78

.00

Trace.

18.60

99.24

C)

53.96

1.64

.58

1.28

.31

(?)

41.97

99.74

3

74.52

6.19

1.43

2.33

.17

.08

12.11

96.83

10

52.24

3.86

.86

.77

.61

.81

34.64

93.79

4

72.92

1.22

.55

.33

.49

.39

22.21

98.11

11

51.94

1.38

.75

1.77

.46

(?)

42.29

98.59

5

68.46

3.71

.61

.89

.48

.40

23.02

97.57

12

31.93

1.44

.97

.97

.50

.82

61.25

97.88

6

65.19

3.05

Trace.

3.26

Trace.

.02

27.05

98.57

13

3.08

.77

.26

2.80

.69

(?)

91.32

98.92

7

64.96

.21

.38

.29

.21

31.73

97.78

14

1.31

.96

.43

7.58

.77

(?)

89.75

100. 80

8

60.70

2.30

.23

.51

.46

(?)

35.84

100.04

15

0.57

2 29

1.60

20.01

.68

(?)

75. 68

100. 83

Sponges Nos. 16-20 were composed mainly of organic matter, and only loss on ignition 

was determined. The figures showing this loss are as follows:

Per cert.

16. Euspongia officinalis...................................................................... 96.£4

17. Hippospongia equina...................................................................... 96. 98

18. Hippospongia agaricina.................................................................... 95. 55

19. Hippospongia caniculata................................................................. 94. 72

20. Aplysina hirsuta......................................................................... 93. ?4

Iii these sponges the inorganic matter is so small that it may only represent impurities, 

an analysis of which would be meaningless. Euspongia and Hippospongia are the ordinary bafch 

sponges of commerce.

In several of the analyses, notably in Nos. 3, 5, 7, 10, and 12, the summation is very low, 

011 account of the presence of soluble salts (sea salt), which were not determined. Analyses 

1 to 12 represent siliceous sponges, and in Nos. 2 and 6 the siliceous spicules are very conspicuous. 

No. 1, Euplectella, the beautiful "Vemis's flower basket," maybe taken as the type of these 

sponges, and its analysis shows that its skeleton is nearly pure opaline silica. Several analyses 

of siliceous sponge spicules by other chemists lead to similar conclusions. In spicules from
MADREPORABIAN COBALS.

an analysis by Maly of spicules from

In all these sponges the spicules or s 

other constituents shown in our analy

9

unnamed species J. Thoulet 1 found from 12.88 to 13.18 per cent of water, F. E. Schulze 2 cites

Poliopogon amadou which contained 7.16 per cent, and

in seven species of siliceous sponges W. J. Sollas 3 found water varying from 6.1 to 7.34 per cent.

seletons are composed of amorphous opaline silica. The 

ses, except organic matter, which is included in the loss on

ignition, are probably but not certainly impurities. To this statement one exception may be 

made. The phosphoric oxide- is perhaps a part of the organisms, which contain it not as such 

but as phosphorus in some organic compound. This, however, is by no means certain. That 

all the sponges analyzed contain phosphorus in some form, although in small amounts, is clear. 

Analysis No. 13, of Spinosella, is very high in organic matter, and its precise character is 

doubtful, at least so far as the chemical evidence goes. Nos. 14 and 15, however, of Euspongia 

and Hirciiiia represent calcareous spcnges. Reducing the analyses to standard form, rejecting 

organic matter, and recalculating to 100 per cent, we have the following figures for their inorganic

portions:

Reduce! analyses of calcareous sponges.

Si02 ......

(Al,Fe)203

MgC03 ....

CaC03 .....

Ca3PoO8 ...

CaSO4 ....

7.81

5.72

5.37

71.14

9.96

(?)

100. 00

1.36

5.45

8.00

81.64

3.55

(?)

100. 00

We can not assign much weigh 

in the specimens analyzed. The pre 

confirmed by an analysis by O. Biiti 

aspera. His figures are as follows:

to these reductions, because of the apparent impurities 

ence of magnesia, however, in these sponges is somewhat 

chli 4 of spicules from a Mediterranean sponge, Leucandra

CaCOg........................ .......

MgC08 ..... ....'......................

CaSO4 .2H2O. ..................:....

H.,0. ...............................

....................................................... 86. 76

....................................................... 6. 84

....................................................... .26

....................................................... 1. 97

....................................................... 3. 14

....................................................... .42

If we reject water and organic 

magnesium carbonate rises to 7.17. 

distinctly magnesian, although more

ant results. Twenty-eight of these 

and with the results two old analys 

Survey may properly be included.

99.39

matter and recalculate to 100 per cent the percentage of 

It seems probable, then, that the calcareous sponges are 

analyses are needed to establish the fact. 5

MADREPORARIAN CORALS.

Madreporarian or stony corals have been repeatedly analyzed and with generally concordwhich will appear later, in our study of the alcyonarians. 

follows:

1. Balanophyllia floridana Pourtales.

2. Paracyathus defilipii Duchassaing and

3. Dendrophyllia cornucopia Pourtales. 

00" N.; longitude, 81° 47'' 45" W.; depth, 24;

corals were studied in the course of this investigation,

is made in the laboratory of the United States Geological

The order of arrangement here is regional, for reasons

The list of corals analyzed is as

Scuth of Key West, Fla.; depth of water, 165 meters. 

Michelotti. South of Key West; depth, 165 meters. 

Fish Hawk station 7286. Gulf Stream, off Key West; latitude, 24C 

meters; bottom temperature, 11.9° C.

i Compt. Rend., vol. 98, p. 1000, 1884. 

" Challenger Report, vol. 21, p. 28, 1887.

3 Challenger Report, vol. 25, p. xlviii, 1888.

4 K. Gesell. Wiss. Gottingen Abh.,, No. 3, 1908. 

6 On manganese and iron in sponges, see Cotte, J., 

own analyses.

oo. biologic Compt. rend., vol. 55, p. 139,1903. Traces of manganese were noted in our
10 INORGANIC CONSTITUENTS OF MAEINE INVERTEBRATES.

4. Siderastrea radians Pallas. Shoal water, Ragged Keys, Fla.

5. Forties furcata Lamarck. Shoal water, Ragged Keys, Fla.

6. Famafragum Esper. Shoal water, Tortugas, Fla.

7. Eusmilia aspera Dana. Shoal water, Tortugas, Fla.

8. Oeulina diffusa Lamarck. Shoal water, Tortugas, Fla.

9. Cladocora arbuscula Lesueur. Tortugas, Fla.; depth, 27.5 meters.

10. Agarida purpurea Lesueurr Reef, Loggerhead Key, Tortugas, Fla.

11. Orbicella annularis Ellis and Solander. Reef, Loggerhead Key, Fla.

12. DasmosmiUa lymani Pourtales. Albatross station 2087; latitude, 40° 06' 50" N.; longitude 70° 34X 15" W.; 

depth, 119 meters; bottom temperature, 10° C.

13. Flabellum alabastrum Moseley. Albatross station 2677; latitude, 32° 39X N.; longitude, 76° 50/ 30// W.; between 

the Bahamas and Cape Fear; depth, 875 meters; bottom temperature, 4.5° C.

14. Madrepora prolifera Linne. Albatross stations 2662-2672, between the Bahamas and Cape Fear; depth, 512- 

894 meters; bottom temperature, 6°-7° C.

15. Dendrophyllia profunda Pourtales. Locality, etc., as under No. 14.

16. Madrads decactis Lyman. Shoal water, Bermuda.

17. Deltocyathus italicus Michelotti. Albatross station 2750; latitude, 18° 30' N.; longitude, 63° 31X W.; depth, 

908 meters; bottom temperature, 7° C.

18. Acropora cervicornis Lamarck. Shoal water, South Bight, Bahamas.

19. Orbicella cavernosa Linne. Reef, Light House Point, Andros Island,'Bahamas.

20. Maeandra cli'vosa Ellis and Solander. Locality as under No. 19.

21. Mseandra labyrinthi/ormis Linne. Reef, Golding Cay, Andros Island, Bahamas.

22. Mussa aff. M. dipsacea Dana. Reef, Golding Cay.

23. Forties clavaria Lamarck. Reef, Golding Cay.

24. Porites astreoides Lamarck. Reef, Golding Cay.

25. Flabellum pavonium var. paripavomnum Alcock. Albatross station 4080; north coast of Maui, Hawaiian Islands; 

depth, 326 to 369 meters; bottom temperature, 13.5° C.

26. Madrads kauaiensis Vaughan. Albatross station 3982; vicinity of Kauai, Hawaiian Islands; depth, 426-435 

meters; bottom temperature, 9.1° C.

27. Flabellum sp. Albatross station 5273; latitude, 14° 03X N.; longitude, 120° 27' 45/x E.; China Sea, near southern 

Luzon; depth, 102.5 meters.

28. Desmophyllum ingens Moseley. Albatross station 2785; latitude, 48° 09X S.; longitude, 74° 36X W.; off coast 

of Chile; depth, 822 meters; bottom temperature, 8.3° C.

The actual analyses appear in the following tables. Sulphates were rarely determined, 

but they are unimportant.

Analyses of corals.

SiOo, ..............................................

(Al,Fe),0, .........................................

MgO........................ ........................

CaO...............................................

SO.. ..............................................

PA- - .............................................

SiOo. ..............................................

(ALFe),03 - -------- .................................

MgO. . .............................................

CaO. ..............................................

SO..................................................

P O

1

0.09

.69

.49

51.46

(?)

Trace.

47.32

100. 05 

39.97

7.35

8

0.07

.05

.19

53.90

(?)

Trace.

44.57

98.78 

42.56

2.01

2

0.42

.35

.39

52.03

.00

Trace.

44.62

97.81 

41.31

3.31

9

0.30

.08

.05

53.31

(?)

Trace.

44.83

98.57 

41.94

2.89

3

0.09

.11

.19

51.71

(?)

Trace.

46.23

98.33 

40.84

5.39

10

0.04

.00

.28

53.87

(?)

.00

44.62

98.81 

42.64

1.98

4

0.12

.11

.21

51.23

(?)

Trace.,

47.21

98.88 

41.48

5.73

11

0.00

.03

.27

53. 58

(?)

.00

44.76

98.64

42.40

2.36

5

0.11

.10

.36

51.61

(?)

Trace.

46.76

98.94 

40.95

5.81

12

0.20

.27

.29

53.79

.10,

Trace.

44.47

99.12 

,42.52

1.95

6

0.28

12

.18

53.69

(?)

Trace.

44.44

98.71 

42.38

2.06

13

0.09

.11

.17

53.54

(?)

Trace.

44.80

98.71 

42.26

2.54

7

0.00

.04

.21

53.25

(?)

Trace.

44.90

98.40 

42.08

2.82

14

0.19

.07

.06

53.48

.12

Trace.

44.50

98.42 

42.03

2.47
MADEEPORAEIAN COEALS.

Analyses of corals—Continued.

11

SiOo. ..............................................

(Al,Fe).,O3 .. ........................................

MgO. . .^ ...........................................

CaO. ..............................................

S03 .. ...............................................

P,05 .. .............................................

Ignition. ...........................................

Organic matter, etc .................................

SiOo. ..............................................

(Al,Fe),Os. .........................................

MgO ..."........................................ ...

CaO ........................................ i ......

SO................................................ pA--. ----------------.-.--.---.--. ...............

Ignition. ...........................................

15

0.33

.07

.05

53.83

m(?)

Trace.

44.49

98.77 

49 35

2.14

22

0.14

.05

04

53. 34

m< ?) 

Trace

44.81

98.38 

41 Q 1!

2.86

16

0.04

.13 '.34

52.78

(?)

Trace.

45.33

98.62 

41.84

3.49

23

0.04

OQ

.17

52.12

(?)

rFi*cjr»£i

45.84

98.26 

41.14

3.70

17

0.21

.25

.25

53.38

(?)

44.49

98.58 

42.41

2.28

24

0.02

.02

.18

53.84

(?)

44.98

99.04 

42.50

2.48

18

0.00

.06

.20

52.47

(?)

45.77

98.50 

41. 45

4.32

25

0.40

.53

.20

53.22

(?)

Trace.

44.31

98.66 

42.04

2.27

19

0.09

.00

.35

53.07

(?)

.00

45. 23

98.74 

42.09

3.14

26

0.06

.11

.15

53.25

(?)

Trace.

44.80

98.37 

42.81

1.99

20

0.02

.04

.34

53.70

(?)

.00

45.33

99.43

42.56

2.77

27

0.07

.15

.17

52.94

(?)

Trace.

45.28

98.61 

41.79

3.49

21

0.00

.04

.26

53.71

ri?)

Trace.

45.10

99.11 

42.49

2.61

28

0.13

.06

.27

53. 69

ri?>

44.64

98.79 

42.48

2.16

The two other analyses of corals, which were made some years ago in the Survey laboratory, 

do not appear in the foregoing table because they are stated in somewhat different form. They 

are, however, included in the following table of reduced analyses, in which the figures are recalculated to 100 per cent and as definite salts, with organic matter and water rejected. The 

two in question are as follows:

29. Siderastrea sp. Bermuda; analysis by L. G. Eakins.

30. Coral, species undetermined. Panama; analysis by W. T. Schaller.

Reduced analyses.

Si03 . ......................................................

(Al,Fe)oO8 . ................................................. M?co3 :. ...................................................

CaCOa- ....................................................

CaSO*. .....................................................

CagPA- ...................................................

SiO2 . ......................................................

(Al,Fe),03 . .................................................

MgC03 ... ..................................................

CaC03 . ....................................................

CaSO4 . .....................................................

Ca^Og. ...................................................

1

0.10

.74

1.11

98.05

(?)

Trace.

100. 00

7

0.00

.04

.46

QQ ftO

J?)

Tr&c£

100. 00

2

0.44

.37

.87

98.32

.00

100. 00

8

0.07

.05

.41

99.47

(?)

Trace.

100. 00

3

0.10

.12

.43

99.35

(?)

Trace.

100. 00

9

0.31

.08

.11

99.50

(?)

Trace.

100.00

4

0.13

.12

.48

99.27

(?)

Trace.

100. 00

10

0.04

.00

.61

99.35

(?)

.00

100.00

5

0.12

.11

.82

99.95

(?)

Trace.

100. 00

11

0.00

.03

.59

99.38

(?)

.00

100.00

6

0.29

.12

.39

99.20

(?)

Trace.

100.00

12

0.21

.28

.63

98.71

.17

Trace.

100. 00
12 INORGANIC CONSTITUENTS OF MARINE INVERTEBRATES. 

Reduced analyses—Continued.

SiO2 . ......................................................

(Al,Fe),O8 . ..................................................

MgCO3 . ....................................................

CaOO3 . ....................................................

CaSO4 . .....................................................

Ca3P,O8 . ...................................................

Si02 . ......................................................

(Al,Fe)203 ....... ............................................

MgC03 .. ...................................................

CaOO3 . ....................................................

CaSO4 . . ....................................................

CasP/V.. ............ ......................................

SiO2 . ......................................................

(Al,Fe),O3 . . .................................................

MgC03 .. ...................................................

CaOO3 . ....................................................

CaS04 . . ....................................................

Pa P D

13

0.09

12

.37

99.42

(?)

Trace.

100.00

19

0.10

.00

.77

99.13

(?)

.00

100. 00

25

0.41

.55

.43

98.61

(?)

Trace.

100.00

14

0.20

.07

.14

99.38

.21

Trace.

100. 00

20

0.02

.04

.73

99.21

(?)

.00

100.00

26

0.06

.11

.33

99.50

(?)

Trace.

100.00

15

0.34

.07

.12

99.47

(?)

Trace.

100.00

21

0.00

.04

.57

99.39

(?)

Trace.

100.00

27

0.07

.15

.37

99.41

(?)

Trace.

100.00

16

0.04

.14

.76

99.06

(?)

Trace.

100.00

22

0.15

.05

.09

99.71

(?)

Trace.

100.00

28

0.14

.06

5Q

99.21

J?)

Trace.

100.00

17

0.22

.26

.54

98.98

(?)

Trace.

100.00

23

0.04

.10

.37

99.49

(?)

Trace.

100. 00

29

0.23

Trace.

.42

99.35

(?)

(?)

100.00

18

0.00

.05

.45

99.49

(?)

Trace.

100. 00

24

0.02

.02

.40

99.56

(?)

100.00

30

1.25

.59

.59

97.57

(?)

. (?)

100. 00

These analyses are remarkably concordant and show that the stony corals contain little 

besides calcium carbonate. Silica and sesquioxides are probably extraneous; magnesia is altogether subordinate, although fairly regular in its amount; phosphates occur only in traces The 

older analyses all tell the same story, except that in six analyses by S. P. Sharpies 1 of corals 

from, the Gulf Stream from 0.27 to 0.84 per cent of calcium phosphate was determined. In 

five analyses of Brazilian corals, L. R. Lenox 2 found from. 0.42 to 0.54 per cent of magnesium 

carbonate, quantities like those appearing in our tables. In short, the uniformity of the data is 

so marked that it is unnecessary to reproduce all the published analyses here.3

ALCYONARIAN CORALS.

The alcyonarians, which include the red corals, the gorgonias, or sea fans, and other similar, 

generally branching forms, differ from the madrepores in being notably magnesian. 7?o this 

rule one exception is known, the genus Heliopora, which stands quite alone and resembles the 

ordinary corals not only in structure but also in chemical composition.4 With this exception, 

the alcyonaria are chemically similar to the crinoids, but some genera are much richer in phosphates. In some respects the alcyonarians are difficult to deal with analytically, for rrany of 

them have a horny axis, composed chiefly of organic matter, surrounded by a cortex or ervelope

1 Am. Jour. Sci., 3d ser., vol. 1, p. 168, 1871.

2 Mus. Comp. Zool. Bull., vol. 44, p. 264,1904. In a memoir by J. C. Branner on sandstone reefs.

3 See also B. Silliman, jr., Am. Jour. Sci., 2d ser., vol. 1, p. 189, 1846, for 31 analyses of corals from the South Pacific and the Ind'an Ocean; 

G. Forchhammer, Neues Jahrb., 1852, p. 854, on magnesia in shells and corals; H. W. Nichols, Field Columbian Mus., Pub. Ill, p. 31. 1906; also 

t ,r determinations of magnesia. In Coelaria dxdalea from Abyssinia ne found 0.35 per cent of MgCOa. A. G. Hogbom, Neues Jahrb., 1894, Band 

1, p. 262, in two Bermuda corals found 0.36 and 0.62 per cent of MgCOs.

* See H. W. Moseley, Philos. Trans., vol. 166, p. 91, 1876, on the structural relations of Heliopora.
ALCYONARIAN CORALS. 13

which is largely calcareous. These two portions of the structure are so unlike in composition 

that imperfections in a sample taken for analysis may lead to very uncertain conclusions. 

The list of alcyoiiarians analyzed is as follows:

1. Heliopora cerulea Pallas; blue coral. Southern Philippines. The blue color consists of organic matter. 1

2. Tubipora purpurea Lamarck. Singapore, Straits Settlements; latitude, 1° 2(X N.; longitude, 103° 5(K E.

3. Corallium elatior Ridley; a red coral. Murotsu, Tosa (Shikoku), Japan; latitude, about 33° N.

4. PrimnoaresedaVemll. East of Nova Scotia; depth of water, 366 meters; latitude, 42° 16'N.; longitude, 63° 15'W.

5. Lepidisis caryophyllia Verrill. Off Nantucket Shoals, Albatross station2037; latitude, 38° 53'00" N.; longitude, 

69° 23' 30" W.; depth, 3,168 meters; bottom temperature, 3.3° C.

6. Pennatula aculeata Dana. St. Peters Bank and Banquereau; Albatross station 2470; latitude, 44° 47' N.; 

longitude, 56° 33' 45" W.; depth, 410 meters; bottom temperature, 4.5° C.

7. Paramuricea borealis Verrill. Southwest edge of the Grand Banks; depth, 641 to 732 meters.

8. Paragorgia arborea Milne-Edwards and Haime. La Have Ridge, off Nova Scotia.

9. Alcyonium carneum L. Agassiz. Southwest of Stellwagen Bank, off Race Point Light, Cape Cod, Mass.; depth, 

57 meters; bottom temperature, 3.9° C.

10. Gorgonia suffruticosa Dana. Fiji Islands. Cortex and axis together.

11. Gorgonia acerosa Pallas. East end of Long Cay, Nassau, Bahamas; latitude, 25° 5' 6" N. Cortex and axis.

12. Gorgonia acerosa. Csesars Creek, southern Florida; latitude, 23° 30' N., approximately. Cortex alone.

13. Muricea humilis Milne-Edwards. Parahyba do Norte, Brazil; latitude, 7° to 8° S.

14. Muricea echinata Valenciennes. Cape San Lucas, Lower California; latitude, 22° 52' N.

15. Plexauretta grandifiora Verrill. Mar Grande, Bahia, Brazil.

16. Ctenocella pectinata Valenciennes. Torres Straits, Australia; latitude, about 10° S.

17. Xiphogorgia anceps Pallas. Caesars Creek, southern Florida; latitude 23° 30' N., approximately.

18. Rhipidogorgia flabellum Linn£. Bermuda; latitude, about 32° N.

19. Rhipidogorgia flabellum. East side of Andros Island, Bahamas; latitude, about 25° N.

20. Leptogorgia pulchra Verrill. La Paz, Gulf of California; latitude, 24° 16' N.

21. Leptogorgia rigida Verrill. Cape San Lucas, Lower California; latitude, 22° 52' N.

22. Phyllogorgia quercifolia Dana. Fernando de Noronha, Brazil; latitude, 3° 50/ S.; longitude, 32° 25'W.

Analyses of alct/onarians.

SiOo

(Ai;Fe)263 . . ...............................

MgO......................................

CaO........... .............................

so8 ...... ..................................

P o

Ignition ...................................

COn needed. ................................

Organic matter, etc. .......................

SiO2 . ......................................

(Al,Fe)oOa .. ...... ..........................

MgO.......................................

CaO.......................................

so8 ....— ..................................

P O

CO2 needed. ...............................

1

0.14

.07

. 16

54.42

.29

Trace

44.33

99.41

42.78

1.55

2

1.36

.55

5.67

46.60

.68

Trace.

44.75

99.61

42.48

2.27

9

6.84

2.20

1.66

14.04

.31

2.32

72.24

99.61 

10.34

61. 70

3

0.00

.14

5.44

48.65

.77

.18

46.01

101. 19

42.87

3.14

10

0.26

.13

3.03

22.32

1.51

.10

71.46

100. 81 

1Q 04

51.52

4

0.09

.64

2.15

37.76

.71

.28

57.58

99.21 

31.38

26.20

11

0.13

.13

3.54

28. 73

.68

QQ

62.34

96.54 

25.17

37.17

5

0.11

.05

3.16

49.87

.37

45.70

99.26 

42.43

3.27

12

0.03

.13

3.51

26.48

1.33

.73

63.49

95.70 

23.26

40.23

6

1.21

.72

2.62

35.67

.35

1.02

59.26

100. 85 

29.76

29.50

13

0.44

.06

5.25

42.14

.89

.24

51.59

100.61 

38.13

13.43

7

0.26

.18

2.27

29.92

1.64

.39

77. 32

100. 98 

24.74

41.58

14

0.09

.05

4.58

38.04

1.35

.30

54.09

98.50 

33.91

20.18

8

0.13

.02

3. 71

43.47

1.10

.22

50.48

99.13 

37.44

13.04

15

,0.38

.13

5.61

40.94

Trace.

Trace.

52.49

99.55 

38.34

14.15

See Moseley, H. W., op. cit., and Bourne, G. C., Philos. Trans., vol. 186, p. 455,
14 INORGANIC CONSTITUENTS OF MARINE INVERTEBRATES.

The low summation of Nos. 11 and 12 is due to inclosed or adherent sea salts. In No. 12 

the amount of water-soluble matter was determined and proved to be 4.71 per cent, of which 

0.55 per cent was SO3 . Applying these corrections to the analysis the summation becomes 99.96.

Si(X. ..............................................

(Al,Fe)2O3 - -........-..-.-...-.-.-.-...........-..

MfO

CaO. ..............................................

SO,. ..............................................

P O

Ignition ..........................................

COo needed ........................................

Organic matter, etc .................................

16

0.17

.10

5.90

37.05

.79

.32

56.15

100.48

34.87

21.28

17

0.08

.04

3.52

27.19

1.28

.51

65.56

98.18 

24.07

41.49

18

0.12

.16

3.42

27.41

.80

.28

65.67

97.86 

25.60

40.07

19

0.16

.06

4.22

32.23

1.17

.86

62.10

100. 80

28.51

33.59

20

0.06

.02

4.60

33.59

1.21

2.67

55.89

98.04 

28.31

27.58

21

0.21

.16

5.14

36.15

.93

2.78

55.39

100. 76 

30.96

24.43

22

0.26

.19

5.59

34.62

.93

2.97

55.28

99.84 

34.14

21.14

The reduced or rational analyses are as follows:

Reduced analyses.

SiO2 . .....................................

(Al,Fe) 2O3 - ...............................

MgCO3 . ...................................

Ca€O3 . ...................................

CaSO4 . ....................................

Ca3P208 . ..................................

8iO«.............. .........................

(Al,Fe)203 --- ------------------------------

MgC03 .....................................

CaCO3 .......... ...........................

CaSO4 ....................................

Ca3P2O8 . .................................

SiO2 ......................... ..............

rAl,Fe)2O3 - ...-.-..-...------............--

MgC03.....................................

CaCO3 . ....................................

CaSO4 ..................... ...............

Ca3P208.. ..................................

1

0.15

.07

.35

98.93

.50

100.00

2

1.40

.57

12.23

84.61

1.19

100. 00

9

18.05

5.80

9.21

52.23

1.36

13.35

100.00

16

0.21

.13

15.65

81.44

1.69

.88

100.00

3

0.00

.15

11.56

86.57

1.32

.40

100.00

10

0.55

.28

13.43

79.84

5.43

.47

100.00

17

0.14

.07

13.04

80.96

3.83

1.96

100. 00

4

0.13

.88

6.18

90.39

1.59

.83

100.00

11

0.22

.22

12.52

81.45

1.95

3.64

100. 00

18

0.21

.28

12.64

83.38

2.40

1.09

100. 00

5

0.11

.05

6.92

92.24

.68

Trace.

100. 00

12

0.04

.24

13.29

79.48

4.08

2.87

100.00

19

0.24

.07

13.19

80.75

2.95

2.80

100. 00

6

1.70

1.01

7.71

85. 62

.84

3.12

100.00

13

0.50

.07

12.64

84.47

1.73

.54

100. 00

20

0.09

.03

13.71

74.99

2.91

8.27

100.00

7

0.44

. .30

8.03

85.11

4.69

1.43

100.00

14

0.11

.06

12.28

83.79

2.93

.83

ICO. 00

21

0.28

.21

14.13

75. 36

2.07

7.95

100.00

8

0.15

.03

9.05

88.04

2.17

.56

100.00

15

0.45

.15

13.79

85.61

Trace.

Trace.

100.00

22

0.34

.26

15.73

72.99

2.11

8.57

100. 00

Analysis No. 1, that of Heliopora, might be an analysis of an ordinary coral, being nearly 

nonmagnesian and hence different from all the others. The material of No. 9, Alcrvnium 

carneum, was obviously very impure, containing much admixture of sand or mud. That the 

species is remarkably rich in calcium phosphate, however, seems to be clear. It needs further 

investigation upon better material.
ALCYONARIAN CORALS. 15

In two of the Gorgonias the black wiry axis was separately analyzed, although the amount 

of material was very small. The axis of a EMpidogorgia sp. from Bermuda was also studied 

and to better advantage. The three analyses are as follows:

SiOa . ............

(Al,Fe12O3 ....... W).:!.!........

CaO.............

P O

S&.v. :::::::::::

Gorgonia 

acerosa.

0.04

.10

.71

.53

.31

94

96.45

99.08

Gorgonia 

suffruticosa.

0.39

.06

.80

1.10

Trace.

1.65

94.39

98.39

Rhipidogorgia?.

0.07

Trace.

1.03

.50

.15

1.90

95.83

99.48

The axes, evidently, are composed largely of organic matter, and the inorganic portions diffe'r 

in composition from the more abundant calcareous envelopes. In two of them magnesia is in 

excess of lime, and in all three the sulphates are conspicuous. To determine the exact chemical 

nature of these axes would require much material and a longer investigation than we are justified in attempting.

A specimen of Leptogorgiajlammea Verrill, from the Cape of Good Hope, was also examined, 

but it was not sufficiently perfect. Much of the cortex had been broken away, leaving an excess 

of the axis. The partial results obtained, however, showed an exceedingly high proportion of 

phosphates, and a complete study of the species is much to be desired. Indeed, the genus 

Leptogorgia well deserves an exhaustive investigation, but perhaps more on biological than on 

geological grounds. The fact that it contributes both magnesium carbonate and calcium 

phosphate to the marine sediments seems to be established.

Several other analyses of alcyonarians, partial or complete, are on record, and three of them 

deserve reproduction here. The data are as follows:

1. Pleurocorallium jottnsoni Gray. From latitude 25° 45' N., longitude 20° 12' W., about 160 miles southwest of 

the Canary Islands; depth of water, 2,791 meters. At that depth the temperature must have been very low] probably 

not much above 0° C. Analysis by Anderson in Challenger Report, Deep-sea Deposits, p. 465, 1891.

2. Alcyonium palmatum. Probably Mediterranean.

3. Corallium rubrum; the precious red coral. Mediterranean.

Analyses 2 and 3 by O. Butschli in K. Gesell. Wiss. Gottingen Abh., No. 3, 1908.

Older analyses of alcyonarians.

CaCO3 .............

MgC03 . ..........

Ca3P2O8 ..........

FeA. ...........

CaS04 .2H20......

H2O. ....... ......

T TI sinl 11 V*1 n

1

93.39

6.00

} .!0

Trapp

.30

nc

99.84

2

86.25

9.38

1.00

I:::::::::::

1.15

1.36

.82

.37

100. 33

3

86.78

8.97

.70

1.55

1.46

.06

99.32
16 INORGANIC CONSTITUENTS OP MARINE INVERTEBRATES.

The reduced analyses, rejecting obvious impurities, are as follows:

Reduced analyses.

SiO,. ............

FeA.... ........

MgC03 ...........

CaC03 ...........

CaSO4 ............

Oa,Pa08 ... .......

1

Trace.

(?)

6.03

93.87

.10

100. 00

2

9.63

88.42

.93

1.02

100. 00

3

9.18

88.84

1.26

.72

100.00

That these analyses fit well into our own series is evident.

In a worked specimen of Corallium rubrum, H. W. Nichols found 9.32 per cent of magnesium 

carbonate, not far from Butschli's figure. In Eunicea tourneforti and PlexaureUa dichotomy, both 

from the Bahamas, he found, respectively, 2.78 and 2.11 per cent. These percentages, however, are based on crude material; that is, without rejection of organic matter and water. 

They are, therefore, unavailable for comparison with our reduced analyses. Three similar 

analyses by G. Forchhammer 1 are also recorded, of Tubipora musica, Corallium, nobile (=C. 

rubrum), and Isis Tlippuris, which gave, respectively, 3.83, 2.73, and 6.36 per cent of magnesium 

carbonate. These data lack sufficiently explicit details to admit of comparison with ours. 

Why his figure for the red coral is so low is not clear. The material taken for analysis must 

have been quite different from that used by Nichols or Biitschli. A still earlier analysis of 

red coral by Witting 2 gave 3.50 per cent of magnesium carbonate. The specimen analyzed, 

however, contained about 12 per cent of impurities.

If, now, we arrange the alcyonarians in the order of ascending magnesium carbonate, a 

remarkable relation connecting composition with temperature appears. Heliopora, being 

anomalous, is not included in the table. Alcyonium carneum, is also excluded on account of its 

impurities. The three analyses by Anderson and Biitschli are, however, inserted. Localities 

and latitudes are abbreviated. The percentages of magnesium carbonate are from the reduced 

analyses, and those of calcium phosphate are also given.

Magnesium carbonate and calcium phosphate in alcyonarians.

Species.

Muricea echinata. ..................................

Muricea humilis. ..................................

Rhipidogorgia flabellum. ...........................

Plexaurella grandiflora. .............................

Locality.

Off Nantucket..........

Florida. ...............

Florida. ...............

Fiji....................

Latitude.

25° 45' N. ......

42°16/ N.......

38° 33' N. ......

44°47'N.......

33° N.........

1°20X N. .......

22°52'N.......

25° 5'N.. ......

7°-8° S. ........

32° N.........

23°30'N.......

25° N.........

23°30/ N.......

^ie'N.......

22°52'N.......

10° S...........

3° 50'N.. ......

CaaPA.

0.10 

.83 

Trace. 

3.12 

1.43 

.56 

.72 

1.02 

.40 

Trace. 

.83 

3.64 

.59 

1.09 

1.96 

2.80 

2.87 

.47 

8.27 

Trace. 

7.95 

.88 

8.57

MgC03 .

6.03 

6.18 

6.92 

7.71 

8.03 

9.05 

9.18 

9.63 

11.56 

12.23 

12.28 

12.52 

12.64 

12.64 

13.04 

13.19 

13.29 

13.43 

13.71 

13.79 

14.13 

15.65 

15.73

Neues Jahrb., 1852, p. 854. 2 Annales Chemie Pharmacie, vol. 1, p. 119,1832.
HYDEOIDS. 17

Although records of temperature and depths are available for only a few of these alcyonarians, 

the suggested relation is clearly evident. The organisms from cold, northern waters or from 

very deep waters are low in magnesia, and those from warm regions are high. The same 

relation appears in our analyses of echinoderms and is unmistakable. It is not rigorously exact, 

but some apparent irregularities are due to impurities, such as sand and mud, which appear in 

the analyses as silica and sesquioxides. If these were rejected the percentage of magnesia 

would be raised. Variations are also to be expected because of cold or warm currents and 

different depths of water. Very deep water, even under the Equator, is always cold, whereas 

shallow bays farther north may be relatively warm. Possibly, also, the alcyonariahs may form 

two or more distinct series that are not perfectly comparable in chemical composition. CoraMum 

and Tubipora, for example, are compact forms, with little organic matter and lower magnesia 

than the genera with horny, organic axes, such as those whose names appear at the end of the 

table. It is also noteworthy that the highest proportions of calcium phosphate are commonly 

associated with a high content of magnesia.

HYDROIDS.

In the course of this investigation six analyses have been made of coralline hydroids belonging to the genera Millepora and Distichopora. The species and localities are as follows:

1. Hillepora aldcornis Linne. Shoal water, Tortugas, Fla.

2. Millepora aldcornis. Bermuda.

3. Millepora braziliensis Verrill. Candeas, Pernambuco, Brazil.

4. Distichopora nitida Verrill. Micronesia, exact locality unknown.

5. Distichopora cocdnea Gray. South Sea Islands, exact locality unknown. '

6. Distichopora sulcata Pourtales. Off Habana, Cuba; depth of water, 143 to 179 meters.

Analyses ofmillepores, etc.

SiO,... ......................................................

(Al,Fe)208 ...............................................

MgO. ......................................................

CaO... ......................................................

SOg.........................................................

PO

1

0.23

.10

.43

52. 50

27

Trace.

44.77

98.30 

41.57

3.20

2

0.02

.07

.10

53.14

.04

Trace.

45.16

98.53 

41.85

3.31

3

0.09

.06

.59

53.36

1.03

Trace.

44.87

100.00 

42.01

2.86

4

0.10

.20

.11

53,07

.69

Trace.

44.89

99,06 

41.44

3.45

5

0.09

.07

.12

53.43

.65

Trace.

45.05

99.41

41.76

3.29

6

0.07

.05

.12

53.90

.61

Trace.

45.37

100. 12 

42.15

3.22

Reduced analyses.

Si(X .........................................................

(Al,Fe),O8 .... ...............................................

MgCO3 .". ...................................................

CaCOg.. .....................................................

CaSO4 ......................................................

Ca3P2O8 . ...................................................

1

0.24

.11

.95

98.22

.48

Trace.

100. 00

2

0.02

.07

.22

99.63

.06

Trace.

100. 00

3

0.09

.06

1.28

96.77

1.80

Trace.

100. 00

4

0.11

.21

.24

98.22

1.22

Trace.

100. 00

5

0.09

.07

.26

98.43

1.15

100.00

6

0.07

.05

.26

98.56

1.06

Trace.

100. 00

A few partial analyses and one fairly complete analysis of millepores have already been 

published, which in all important particulars agree with ours. The coralline structures consist 

essentially of calcium carbonate, with minor impurities, and resemble chemically the true 

50364°—17——2
18 INORGANIC CONSTITUENTS OP MARINE INVERTEBRATES.

corals. In two millepores from Bermuda A. G. Hogbom l found respectively 95.86 and 94.39 

per cent of calcium carbonate, with 0.41 and 0.97 of magnesium carbonate. In MiUepora, 

alticornis from the Gulf Stream S. P. Sharpies 2 found 97.45 per cent of calcium carbonate, 0.27 

of calcium phosphate, 2.54 of organic matter and water, and only traces of iron and magnesia. 

B. Silliman, jr.,3 in one analysis of the same species reported no magnesia, which evidently 

was not sought for. A single analysis of M. braziliensis by L. R. Lenox * gave the following 

composition:

CaCO3 ...................................................................................... 93. 80

MgC03 ...................................................................................... 2.14

CaSO4 ....................................................................................... 2.08

SiO2 ........................................................................................ .03

(Al,Fe)203 .................................................................................. .07

98.12

It is interesting to note that the Brazilian species is the richest of all in magnesia, although 

it is poor in comparison with the echinoderms and alcyonarians. As reef builders the millepores contribute little to the coral rock but carbonate of lime.

In an analysis of MiUepora cervicornis, by A. Damour,5 8.51 per cent of magnesium carbonate 

is reported. The name, however, belongs to a fossil species, and the specimen analyzed was at 

least partly fossilized. Its locality is given as Breliat, Manche, France.

ANNELIDS.

The curious tubes formed by marine worms probably contribute little to the sediments. 

They are, however, of some interest in an investigation of this kind, and for that reason six 

analyses of them have been made, as follows:

1. Filograna implexa Berkeley (Serpula complexa). Scarborough, England.

2. Protula tabularia (Montagu) (Serpula labularia). Locality unknown, probably British.

3. Hydroides dianihus Verrill. Vineyard Sound, Mass.

4. Leodice potyhranchia Verrill. Off Marthas Vineyard, Mass.

5. 6. Hyalincetia artifex Verrill. Off Marthas Vineyard, Mass., Fish Hawk station 1025; depth of water, 384 meters; 

bottom temperature, 7° C. Two analyses, of different samples; the tubes of this annelid, on ignition, gave an inorganic 

residue which fused to a white, porcelain-like mass.

Analyses of worm tubes.

Insoluble in HC1. . ..........................................

SiO,. ........................................................

(Al,"Fe)808 ......... ...........................................

MgO. ........................................................

CaO.........................................................

SO,.................:...-...................................

P,06 ..... ....................................................

Ignition ....................................................

CO2 needed. .................................................

1

29.82

1.12

.75

.00

35.98

Trace.

.29

31.23

99.19 

28.00

3.23

2

0.75

.41

.14

50.89

.07

Trace.

45. 99

98.25 

39.95

6.04

3

15.45

1.30

3.58

39.11

Trace.

.22

38.82

98.48 

34.46

4.36

4

28.05

2.33

4.40

5.12

6.06

6.43

46.91

99.30

5

0.20

.07

8.57

5.35

3.47

20.72

61.83

100. 21

6

0.24

.01

8.17

5.24

4.33

20.32

61.41

99.72

Tests for fluorine failed to show its presence in any of these tubes.

These analyses fall into two distinct groups, one low in sulphates and phosphates, the 

other unusually high. The first three are easily reducible to standard form if we reject the 

insoluble matter, the silica, and the sesquioxides, which represent inclusions of sand or mud. 

The reduced analyses then assume the following form:

1 Neues Jahrb., 1894, Band 1, p. 262.

« Am. Jour. Sci., 3d ser., vol. 1, p. 168, 1871.

3 Am. Jour. Sci. 2d ser., vol. 1, p. 189,1846.

* Mus. Comp. Zool. Bull., vol. 44, p. 264, 1904. 

6 Compt. Rend., vol. 32, p. 253,1851.
ANNELIDS. 

Reduced analyses of worm tubes.

19

MgCOg.. ..........

CaCO3 ............

CaS04 .............

Ca3P208— --------

1

0.00

QQ ft!

Trace.

.99

100. 00

2

0.32

99.55

.13

Trace.

100. 00

3

9.72

89.66

Trace.

.62

100. 00

Two of these analyses resemble those of corals and mollusks; the third is more like one of 

an alcyonarian or an echinoderm. In all three the organic matter is very low. Three other 

partial analyses by Forchhammer * are on record, which may be compared with these; although 

only magnesium carbonate was determined. These are— Percent Mgcos. 

Serpula sp. Mediterranean.............................................................. 7. 644

Serpula triquetra. North Sea.......................................... .................. 4. 455

Serpula filogr ana 2 . ...................................................................... 1. 349

The tubes of Serpula are evidently quite variable in composition, at least as regards their 

magnesian content.

The tubes formed by Leodice and Hyalinoecia, being highly phosphatic, are difficult to 

interpret chemically. The bases are insufficient to satisfy the,acids if the phosphoric oxide is 

assumed to represent the normal tribasic salts. Phosphorus may be present as part of the 

organic matter, and so, too, may a portion of the sulphur. Metaphosphates, pyrophosphates, 

and acid ortnophosphates are also possibly present, and between these alternatives it is not easy 

to decide. Acid salts are, however, improbable, for when boiled in water the tubes give faintly 

alkaline reactions. We prefer, therefore, to leave the reduction of analyses 4, 5, and 6 in abeyance until more evidence can be obtained. In this direction an analysis of OnupJiis tubicola 

Miiller, by Schmiedeberg,3 is suggestive. To the organic matter of the tube of OnupMs, "onuphin," he assigns the formula C24H43NO18 , and the tube itself he regards as a complex compound 

of the composition

C24H43NO18 + CaHPO4 + 4MgHPO4 + 22H2O.

The analyses given by Schmiedeberg are as follows:

Analyses o/Onuphis tubicola.

Water. ....................................

P,06 . .....................................

MgO- .....................................

CaO. .......................................

Entire tube.

38.48

24.07

21.58

9.73

3.40

2.74

100. 00

Calcined ash.

P,0B .............. .....................

CaO.....................................

MgO................................... K!.....................................

Na

SO3 , SiO,, CO2, and loss. .................

....... 57.20

....... 12.48

....... 25.02

....... 1. 96

....... .50

9 97

99.43

In a general way this analysis of OnupJiis resembles our analysis of Hyalinceda, except 

that the magnesia is much higher and the sulphates, if present, are insignificant in amount. It 

will be noticed, moreover, that Schmiedeberg assumes the presence of acid phosphates in his 

interpretation of the data, which, as we have already stated, is improbable.

1 Neues Jahrb., 1852, p. 854.

2 In a later memoir (Philos. Trans., vol. 155, p. 203, 1865) Forchhammer gives the percentage of MgCOg In Serpula filograna as 13.49 per cent 

Which figure is correct?

a Zool. Sta. Naples Mitt., vol. 3, p. 373,1882.
20 INORGANIC CONSTITUENTS OF MARINE INVERTEBRATES.

None of the analyses of the phosphatic worm tubes can be regarded as wholly satisfactory, 

but it is clear that these structures add phosphorus to the sediments. If they decay in contact 

with calcareous sediments, the final product would probably be a tribasic phosphate, and that 

is as far as we now need to go.

ECHINODERM 8. 

1. CRINOIDS.

In 1906 H. W. Nichols 1 published, a number of partial analyses of marine invertebrates, 

and in a crinoicl, Metacrinus rotundus from Japan, he found 11.72 per cent of magnesium 

carbonate. This analysis attracted the attention of Austin H. Clark, and at his request two 

other analyses of crinoids were made in the laboratory of the United States Geological Survey 

by Chase Palmer, who also found that they contained abundant magnesia. These aralyses, 

which were published and discussed by Mr. Clark,3 will be considered in detail later. They at 

once suggested that crinoids generally might be highly magnesian and so play an important 

part in the formation of magnesian limestones.

In order to settle this question Mr. Clark supplied us with 24 specimens of recent crinoids, 

representing 21 genera and covering a wide range of localities. These were analyzed by Mr. 

Wheeler, and the analyses confirmed the original supposition. All the specimens contained 

magnesium carbonate in notable proportions but varying in a most remarkable manner. The 

data obtained are in detail as follows, beginning with the list of the specimens studied:

1. Ptilocrinus pinnatus A. H. Clark. Albatross station 3342, off the Queen Charlotte Islands, British Columbia; 

latitude, 52° 39X 30" N.; longitude, 132° 38' W.; depth of water, 2,858 meters; bottom temperature, 1.83° C. Mean of 

two analyses.

2. Florometra asperrima Clark. Albatross station 3070, off the coast of Washington; latitude, 47° 29X 30/x N.; 

longitude, 125° 43X W.; depth, 1,145 meters; bottom temperature, 3.28° C.

3. Psathyrometra fragilis Clark. Albatross station 5032, Yezo Strait, Japan; latitude, 44°05/ N.;longitxxde, 145° 

30X E.; depth, 540-959 meters; bottom temperature, 1.61° C.

4. Pentametrocrinus japonicus P. H. Carpenter. Albatross station 5083, 34.5 miles off Omai Saki Light, Japan; 

latitude, 34° 04X 20X/ N.; longitude, 137° 57' 30/x E.; depth, 1,123 meters; bottom temperature, 3.39° C.

5. Capillaster multiradiata Linne. Albatross station 5137, Philippine Islands near Jolo, 1.3 miles from Jolo Light; 

latitude, 6° 04X 25XX N.; longitude, 120° 58X 30/x E.; depth, 36 meters; no temperature record.

6. Pachylometra patula Carpenter. Albatross station 5036, Philippine Islands, North Balabac Strait, 15.5 miles 

from Balabac Light; latitude, 8° 06X 40X/ N.; longitude, 117° 18X 45XX E.; depth, 104 meters; no temperature record.

7. Catoptometra ophiura Clark. Same locality as No. 6.

8. Hypalocrinus naresianus Carpenter. Albatross station 5424, Philippine Islands, 3.4 miles off Cagayan Island, 

Jolo Sea; latitude, 9° 37X 05XX N.; longitude, 121° 12X 37XX E.; depth, 612 meters; bottom temperature, 10.22° C.

9. Parametra granulata Clark. Albatross station 5536, Philippine Islands, between Negros and Siquijor, 11.8 

miles from Apo Island; latitude, 9° 15X 45XX N.; longitude, 123° 22' E.; depth, 502 meters; bottom temperature, 11.95° C.

10. Craspedometra anceps Carpenter. Albatross station 5157, 3.3 miles from Tinakta Island, Tawi Tawi group, 

Suhi Archipelago; latitude, 5° 12' 30X/ N.; longitude, 119° 55' 50XX E.; depth, 32 meters; no temperature record.

11. Ptilometra millleri Clark. Sydney Harbor, New South Wales, Australia; latitude, 33° 15' S.; longitude, 151° 

12' E., approximately.

12. Hathrometra dentata Say. Fish Hawk station 1033, off Marthas Vineyard, Mass.; latitude, 39° 56X F.; longitude, 69° 24X W.; depth, 329 meters; bottom temperature, about 7.8° C.

13. Bythocrinus robustus Clark. Albatross station 2401, Gulf of Mexico, southeast of Pensacola; latitude, 28° 38X 30/x 

N.; longitude, 85° 52X 30XX W.; depth, 255 meters; no temperature record. v

14. Crinometra condnna Clark. Albatross station 2324, north of Cuba; latitude, 23° 10' 35" N.; longitude, 82° 20' 

24XX W.; depth, 59 meters; bottom temperature, 26.17° C.

•15. Isocrinus decorus Wyville Thomson, stem. Off Habana, Cuba; latitude, 24° N.; longitude, 82° W.; approximately.

16. Same as No. 15, arms.

17. Endoxocrinus parrse Gervais, stem. Off Habana, Cuba.

18. Same as No. 17, arms.

19. Tropiometra picta Gay. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil; latitude, 25° 54X S.; longitude, 44° W., approximately.

20. Promachocrinus kerguelensis Carpenter. Shores of the Antarctic Continent in the vicinity of Gaussberg; 

latitude, 67° S.; longitude, 90° E., approximately; depth, 350-400 meters; bottom temperature, —1.85° C.; srlinity of 

water, 3.3 per cent.

i Field Columbian Mus. Pub. Ill, p. 31. « U. S. Nat. Mus. Proc., vol. 39, p. 487, 1911.
ECHINODEEMS. 21

21. Anihometra adriani Bell. Same locality as No. 20. Nos. 20 and 21 were collected by the German South Polar 

Expedition.

22. Zygometra microdiscus Bell. Aru Islands, near the western point of New Guinea; latitude, 5°-6° S.

23. Chlorometra rugosa A. H. Clark. Near Rotti, Lesser Sunda Islands; latitude, 10° 39' S.; longitude, 123° 40' E.; 

depth, 520 meters.

The actual analyses are as follows. Sulphates were not determined because the material

was insufficient.

Analyses of crinoid skeletons.

SiO

(Al,Fe),O8 ..................................................

MgO. . T. ...................................................

CaO.........................................................

p,os - ------------ ....... ...................................

C02 needed. . ................................................

SiO,. ......................................................

(Al,Fe)203 ..................................................

MgO. ......................................................

CaO.........................................................

P,O5 . ......................................................

Ignition. ...................................................

SiO........................................................

(Al,Fe)2O3 ..................................................

MgO.........................................................

GaO......... ................................................

pkoB ....... ..................................................

Si02 . .......................................................

(Al,Fe)aO, ............................................... ..

MgO........................................................

CaO. .......................................................

P O=

1

1.64

1.07

3.08

40.65

.11

51.45

98.00 

35.23

16.22

7

n 04

7Q

4.64

40.75

.33

'51. 80

98.35 

36.81

H QQ

13

0.40

.31

4.56

47.08

47.17

99.52 

41.93

5.24

•

2

0 04

CM

3.60

40.37

.21

53.75

98.36 

35.48

18.27

8

0.07

no

4.44

45.86

Trace.

48.32

98.78 

41.27

7.05

14

0.04

.25

4.75

41.78

Trace.

50.33

97.15 

38.00

12.33

19

0.02

.35

4.51

39. 57

.10

53.64

98.19 

36. 05

17. 59

3

1.11

1.01

3.12

34.20

Trace?

6fl 04

99.48 

31.37

28.67

9

0.40

.50

4.48

41 7Q

Trace.

51.44

98.61 

37.77

13.67

15

0.03

.07

5.08

45.67

Trace

47.54

98.39 

40.40

7.14

20

0.02

.45

3.02

40.68

Trace.

54.53

98.70 

35.18

19.35

4

0

07

.71

3.76

38.50

.40

55.25

98.99 

34.01

21.24

10

0.15

1Q

5.13

42.77

.11

50.28

98.63

QQ 17

11.11

16

0.09

.19

4.70

42.77

Trace?

50.59

98.34 

38.71

11.88

21

0.23

.37

3.27

42.49

Trace.

52 22

98.58 

37.08

15.14

5

0.16

.62

4.77

38.12

TrEicc

54.61

98.28 

35.19

19 4?

11

0.17

TO

4.17

QQ QT

.17

54.61

98.22 

34.90

1Q 71

17

0.04

.20

5.09

45.42

48.58

99.33 

41.29

7.29

22

0.04

.48

4.92

37.19

.17

55.05

97.85 

34.47

20.58

8

0 T>

.63

4.94

41 34

43

51.36

98.82 

37. 51

TOOK

12

3 17

31

9 4Q

26.12

.23

CK 9C

97.57 

22.73

42.52

18

0.15

.26

5.04

43.41

Trace.

50.00

98.86 

39.65

10.35

23

0.05

.23

3.99

42.72

Trace.

51.69

98.68 

37. 95

13.74

The summation in most of these analyses is low. The deficiency is due mainly to inclosed 

or adherent sea salt&, an inevitable impurity, as was proved in the analyses of two separate 

samples. In No. 15i, 1.27 per cent of water-soluble salts was found, and in No. 17, 0.21 per 

cent. These additions raise the summations to 99.66 and 99.54 per cent, respectively.
22 INORGANIC CONSTITUENTS OF MARINE INVERTEBRATES.

The reduced analyses are as follows, rejecting organic matter and water and recakrilating 

to 100 per cent:

Reduced analyses.

Si02 .......................................................

(Al,Fe, 03 . .................................................

MgOO3 . . .....................................................

CaCOg.. .....................................................

328

SiO2 ... ......................................................

(Al,Fe)203 - ---------------------------------------------------

CaCO3 .. .....................................................

328

Si02 . . .......................................................

(Al,Fe)203 ... ...... .........................................

MgCOa-- ...................................................

CaCO3 . . .....................................................

f!a P O

Si02 . ........... ...............................................

(Al,Fe)203 .. . ...............................................

CaCO3 . ......................................................

"328

1

2.01

1.31

7.91

88.48

.29

100. 00

7

0.05

.95

11.68

86.46

.86

100.00

13

0.42

.33

10.09

87.16

Trace.

100.00

2

0.05

.48

9.44

89.45

.58

100. 00

8

0.08

.10

10.16

89.66

Trace.

100. 00

14

0.05

.30

11.69

87.96

Trace.

100. 00

19

0.02

.43

11.17

87.51

.27

100. 00

3

1.57

1.41

9.25

87.77

Trace?

100. 00

9

0.47

.59

11.08

87.86

100. 00

15

0.03

.08

11.69

88.20

Trace.

100.00

20

0.02

.57

7.86

91.55

Trace.

100.00

4

0.48

.91

10.15

87.34

1.12

100. 00

10

0.24

.22

12.34

86.93

.27

100.00

16

0.10

.21

11.42

88.27

Trace.

100.00

21

0.28

.44

8.23

91.05

Trace.

100. 00

5

0.21

.78

12.69

86.32

Trace.

100. 00

11

0.21

.24

11.13

87.94

.48

100. 00

17

0.04

.21

11.62

88.13

Trace.

100.00

22

0.05

.62

13.37

85.48

.48

100.00

6

0.14

.74

12.20

85.81

1.11

100.00

12

5.73

.56

9.36

83.47

.88

100.00

18

0.17

.29

11.96

87.58

Trace.

100.00

23

0.06

.27

9.87

89.80

Trace.

100. 00

With these analyses the two made by Mr. Palmer may be advantageously com pared, 

although they were not quite so elaborate. The data are as follows:

"24. Heliometra glacialis var. maxima. Iwanai Bay, northeastern part of the Sea of Japan, latitude, 43° OF 40// N.; 

depth, 315 meters; temperature, surface, 20.5° C., bottom, 1.5° C.

25. Metacrinus rotundus. Eastern Sea, off Kagoshima Gulf, southern Japan, latitude, 30°58/ 30// N.; de^th, 278 

meters; temperature, surface, 27.8° C., bottom, 13.3° C.

In No. 24, which contained much organic matter, Mr. Palmer found 2.68 per cent MgO 

( = 5.61 MgCO3 ) and 40.03 CaO ( = 71.48 CaCO3 ). In No. 25, with no organic matter, he found 

4.89 MgO ( = 10.29 MgCO3 ) and 49.95 CaO ( = 89.19 CaCO3 ). Assuming that the crinoid skeletons consist essentially of carbonates, and recalculating to 100 per cent, we have as the content 

of magnesium carbonate in these crinoids—

Per cent.

24. Heliometra glacialis var. maxima........................................................... 7.28

25. Metacrinus rotundus..................................................................... 10.34

These figures fit in well with the others and even by themselves suggest a relation between 

temperature and the magnesia content of crinoids. In the following table the entire series is
ECHINODERMS. 23

arranged in the order of ascending magnesium carbonate, with the accessory data as to latitude 

and locality abbreviated. In this table the two analyses of Endoxocrinus are averaged together, 

and so also are the two of Isocrinus.

Percentage of magnesium, carbonate in crinoid?.

Genus.

Ptilocrinus. ........................

Anthometra. ......................

Psathyrometra. ....................

Hathrometra. .....................

Bythocrinus. .......................

Pentametrocrinus. ..................

Metarrinus. ........................

Parametra. ........................

Isocrinus .........................

Gatoptometra. ....................

Crinometra. .......................

Tropiometra. .......................

Locality.

British Columbia. ......

Antarctic ..............

Cuba..................

Cuba..................

Cuba....................

Latitude.

43° N. ..............

67°S........ .--.-..

52°39'N...........

67° S........ .......

44° N. ..............

39°66'N...........

47° 29'N. ..........

10° 39' S. ..........

28° 38X N...........

34° N...............

9° 37'N. ...........

30°58/ N...........

Q° 1 5X N

33° 15' S.... .......

24° N...............

8°N................

23° 10'N...........

25° 54' S..... ......

24° N...............

8° N.. ..............

5° 12' N. ...........

6° N................

5°-6°S.............

Depth.

Meters. 

315

375

2,858

375

(?)

329

1,145

520

255

1,123

612

278

502

(?)

(?)

104

59

(?)

(?)

1,044

32

36

(?)

Temperature.

°C. 

1.5

-1.8

1.8

-1.8

1.6

7.8

3.3

(?)

(?)

3.4

10.2

13.3

12

(?)

(?)

(?)

26.2

(?)

(?)

(?)

(?

(?)

(?)

MgC03 .

Per cent. 

7.28

7.86

7.91

8.23

9.25

9.36

9.44

9.87

10.09

10.15

10.16

10. 34

11.08

11.13

11.56

11.68

11.69

11.77

11.79

12.20

12.34

12.69

13.37

The percentage of magnesium carbonate in GJilorometra is low for the latitude of the 

locality, but that is doubtless due to the depth of the water (520 meters) in which the crinoid 

lived. The probable temperature at that depth was between 7° and 10° C.

From the foregoing table it is perfectly clear that the proportion of magnesium carbonate 

in crinoids is in some way dependent on temperature. Temperature, however, is not entirely 

dependent on latitude. Depth of water has also a distinct influence. The crinoids from relatively shallow depths in the Tropics are highest in their magnesian content; those from the 

Antarctic and the far north are lowest. The proportion given for No. 12, from the coast of 

Massachusetts, is probably too low, for the specimen as analyzed contained over 6 per cent of 

silica and sesquioxides—evident impurities, due to adherent mud from which the delicate structure could not be wholly freed. If these are rejected, the magnesium carbonate is raised from 

9.36 to ,,10 per cent, which gives the crinoid a better and more probable rating.

So far as we are aware such a peculiar relation between temperature and composition as 

is here recorded has not been previously observed. To recognize it is one thing; to account for 

it is not so easy. At first we supposed that it might possibly be due to a difference in the form 

of the more abundant carbonate—the less stable aragonite in the warm-water forms and calcite 

in the crinoids from colder regions. But tests by Meigen's reaction proved that the organisms 

were all calcitic, and so this supposition had to be abandoned.

Mr. A. H. Clark, who is an authority on the crinoids, informs us that the crinoids from 

warm regions have the most compact skeletons, the compactness being in general proportional 

to the temperature and to some extent dependent upon the size of the individual. Heliometra, 

for example, is the largest of the crinoids, its skeleton is one of the least compact, and its magnesian content is lowest among all the species examined. Strucfcufe as well as temperature seems 

to be correlated with the proportion of magnesia in the crinoids, but the chemical explanation of 

the facts is yet to be found. It may have connection with the gaseous content of sea water, 

carbon dioxide, for example, being more soluble in warm than in cold waters, but this is only a 

suggestion, which may or may not be fruitful. The same regularity of temperature also appears 

in our analyses of alcyonarians.
24 INORGANIC CONSTITUENTS OF MAEINE INVEETEBEATES.

FOSSIL CEINOIDS.

In order to make this investigation more systematic it seemed desirable to analyze a 

number of fossil crinoids, so as to determine whether any definite and regular changes could 

be traced in passing from the recent to the ancient organisms. For the material studied we 

are indebted to the kindness of Mr. Frank Springer, who selected the material with great care 

so as to cover a range of horizons from the Lower Ordovician up to the Eocene. The 10 c4noids 

chosen are described in the list below, and the analyses which follow were made in the 

same way as those of the modern species.

1. Pentacrinus decadactylus D'Orbigny, stem. Eocene, Vincenza, Italy.

2. Millericrinus mespiliformis Goldfuss, stem. Upper Jurassic, Kelheim, Bavaria.

3. Pentacrinus basaltiformis Miller, stem. Middle Lias (Lower Jurassic) Breitenbach, Wurttemberg, Germany.

4. Encrinus liliiformis Lamarck, stem. Triassic, Braunschweig, Germany.

5. GrapMocrinus magnificus Miller and Gurley, complete crown. Pennsylvanian (upper Carboniferous), Kansas 

City, Mo.

6. Dorycrinus unicornis Owen and Shumard, calyx and stem, 

(lower Carboniferous), Burlington, Iowa.

7. Megistotyrinus nodosus Barris, plates. Middle Devonian, Alpena, Mich.

8. Eucalyptocrinus crassus, plates. Silurian, western Tennessee.

9. Crinoid sp.?, stem. Trenton limestone, Middle Ordovician, Kirkfield, Canada. 

10. Diabolocrinus vesperalh White, plates and stem. Lower Ordovician, Tennessee.

Analyses of fossil crinoids.

Lower part of Burlington limestone, Mississippian

SiO2 .. ....................

(Al,Fe)203 ----- ----------

FeO ............. ........

MnO ....................

MgO.......... ............

CaO................ ----..

p o

1

0.99

2.64

1.36

.13

.78

51.22

.00

42.80

99 92

2

2.84

.28

.00

.00

.38

53.68

Trace.

42.93

100. 11

3

1.55

2.59

.84

51.78

.09

43.21

100. 06

4

0.24

.43

.00

Trace.

9.44

43.40

Trace.

45.95

99.46

5

3.07

2.18

1.32

.15

.78

50.10

41.71

99.32

6

6.92

.64

.00

Trace.

.38

51.20

Trace.

41.00

100.14

7

10.39

.87

1.19

.16

1.21

46.57

39.20

99.59

8

29.11

1.73

.27

.04

.58

37.43

.00

30.71

99.87

9

2.56

.31

.00

Trace.

.91

53.87

Trace.

42.45

100. 10

10

4.07

1.95

.88

.04

.79

50.42

Trace.

41.53

99.68

Reduced analyses.

Si03 .......... ............

(Al,Fe)2O3 ...... ..........

FeCO3 . ..................

MnCO8 ...... ..............

MgC03 .. ..................

CaC03 ....................

CagPA.. .................

1

1.00

2.66

2.21

.21

1.66

92.26

.00

100. 00

2

2.85

.28

.00

.00

.80

96.07

Trace.

100. 00

3

1.57

2.64

1. 79

93.80

.20

100. 00

4

0.24

.44

.00

Trace.

20.23

79.09

Trace.

100.00

5

3.11

2.22

2.16

.24

1.66

90.61

Trace.

100. 00

6

6.94

.64

.00

Trace.

.80

91.62

Trace.

100. 00

7

10.48

.88

1.94

.26

2.56

83.88

Trace.

100. 00

8

29.30

1.74

.43

.06

1.23

67.24

.00

100. 00

9

2.55

.30

.00

Trace.

1.90

95. 25

Trace.

100. 00

10

4.10

1 Q7

1.42

.06

1.67

90.78

Trace.

100. 00

In some respects these analyses are unsatisfactory, for they show no regularities of any 

kind. In only one of them, No. 4, is there exhibited a concentration of magnesium carbonate; 

in the others the percentage of this constituent is very low. The reason for this decrease of 

magnesia is by no means clear. It is conceivable that the ancient crinoids may have been 

deficient in magnesia, but it is more probable that the loss is due to alteration, perhaps to the 

infiltration of calcium carbonate; Such a change would obviously lower the apparent proportion of magnesium carbonate. Several of the crinoids contain noteworthy quantities of 

ferrous carbonate and manganese—constituents which did not appear in the analyses of the 

modern species. In No. 8 there is a very strong silicification, 29.11 per cent; but the matrix 

of the specimen contained only 7.55 per cent of silica. Here the infiltration of the impurity
ECHINODERMS. 25

seems to be very clear. Some of the deficiencies in magnesia may have been caused by solution 

and leaching, but calcium carbonate should then have been removed to a greater extent. In 

short, the fossil crinoids differ widely in composition from the still living species, and in a very 

irregular manner, and it is worth noting that in three analyses of fossil algae reported by Hogbom1 

a similar decrease of magnesia appears. It would be easy to speculate on the significance of 

these differences, but the conclusions so reached would not be entitled to much weight. That 

the recent crinoids are distinctly magnesian and that the proportion of magnesia is dependent 

in some way on temperature are the two positive results of this investigation.

2. SEA URCHINS.

Nine sea urchins, selected for us by Mr. Austin H. Clark, were analyzed. The species 

chosen were as follows:

1. Strongylocentrotus drobachiensis O. F. Muller. Upernivik, Greenland, latitude 72° 48' N.

2. Strongylocentrotus fragilis Jackson. Albatross station 2946, off southern California; latitude, 33° 58' 00" N.; 

longitude, 119° 30' 45" W.; depth of water, 274.5 meters; bottom temperature, 13.6° €.

3. Echinarachnim parma Lamarck. Coast of New England.

4. Encope californica Verrill. Galapagos Islands, on or near the Equator.

5. Lytechinus anamesus H. L. Clark. Albatross station 2938, off Wilmington, Cal.; latitude, 33° 35' 15" N.; longitude, 118° 08' 30" W.; depth, 86 meters; bottom temperature, 15° C.

6. Loxechinus albus Molina. Port Otway, Patagonia; latitude, about 46° or 47° S.

7. Tetrapygus niger Molina. Coast of Peru.

8. Tretoddaris affinis Philippi. Albatross stations 2316 and 2317, off Key West, Fla.; latitude, 24° 25' N.; 

longitude, 81° 47' W.; depth, 85 meters; bottom temperature, 24° C.

9. Heterocentrotus mammillatus Linne. Low or Paumotu Archipelago, southern Pacific Ocean; latitude, between 

14° and 24° S.

The following analyses differ from those previously published 2 in being more complete 

and in the correction of certain errors of calculation:

Analyses of sea urchins.

SiO2 . ..............................................

(Al,Fe)a03 .. .......................................

MgO. ..............................................

CaO. ................................................

SO.............. ....................................

P O.

Ignition. ...........................................

1

0.12

.34

2.58

47.34

90

Trace.

48.53

99.11 

39.92

8.61

2

0.26

.65

2.68

41.08

1.15

.39

52.21

99.42 

34.20

18.01

3

0.14

.27

2.97

49.17

.26

.05

45.74

98.60 

41.71

4.03

4

3.86

5.03

4.75

43.42

.28

Trace.

43.01

99.35 

38.99

4.02

5

8.52

3.01

3.04

37.92

.37

.19

45.38

98.43 

32.28

13.10

6

0.05

.17

3.07

45.87

.35

Trace.

49.47

98.98 

39.34

10.13

7

0.31

.30

2.82

48.86

1.43

Trace.

44.98

98.70 

40.69

4.29

Rejecting the very variable organic matter, etc., the reduced analyses assume the following

form:

Reduced analyses.

Si02 ... .............................................

(Al,Fe)o03 .........................................

MgC03 :...................................... ......

CaCO. ...............................................

CaS04 .. ............................................

Ca^Og. ...........................................

1

0.13

.37

C QQ

93.13

.38

Trace.

100. 00

2

0.32

.81

6.95

88.44

2.42

1.06

100. 00

3

0.15

.29

6.59

92.39

.46

.12

100. 00

4

3.99

5.20

10.38

79.94

.49

Trace.

100. 00

5

9.93

3.51

7.44

77.91

.73

.48

100. 00

6

0.05

.18

7.38

91.73

.66

Trace.

100. 00

7

0.33

.32

6.27

90. 52

2.56

Trace.

100. 00

1 Neues Jahrb., 1894, Band 1, p. 252.

2 Clarke, F. W., and Wheeler, W. C., The inorganic constituents of eehinoderms: ~U. 8. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 90, pp. 191-192, 1915.
26 INORGANIC CONSTITUENTS OF MARINE INVERTEBRATES.

Sea urchins Nos. 8 and 9, Tretocidaris and Heterocentrotus, must be considered separately 

from the others. No. 9, a giant form, was the subject of four analyses, the shell or test, the 

dental pyramid, the small white spines on the border of the peristome, and the large purplishred spine. The large red spine analyzed was 15 centimeters long and weighed 13 grams.

Analyses of Heterocentrotus mammillatus.

/

Si02 . .........................................................

(Al,Fe),O8 .................................................:..

MgO. . :.....................................................

CaO. .........................................................

SO,.. ........................................................

P,0S . . ......................................................

Organic matter, etc ..........................................

Shell.

0.02

.13

5.21

43.60

.61

49.62

99.19 

39.66

9.96

Dental 

pyramid.

0.02

.08

5.50

46.02

.58

Trace.

47.00

99.20

42.89

4.11

White 

spines.

0.05

.13

3.74

48.26

.29

Trace.

46.46

98.93

41.77

4.69

Red epines.

0.05

.26

4.47

47.72

.78

Trace.

45. 99

99.27 

41.49

4.50

Reduced analyses.

Si02 ... ........................................................

(Al,Fe)2O8 ....................................................

MgCOg......................................................

OaCO3 . .......................................................

CaSO4 . ......................................................

0.02

.14

12.26

86.42

1.16

Trace. .

100. 00

0.02

.09

12.27

86.57

1.05

Trace.

100.00

0.05

.14

8.32

90.97

.52

Trace.

100.00

0.05

.28

9.86

88.43

1.38

Trace.

100.00

From these analyses we see that the inorganic constituents of Heterocentrotus aro not 

uniformly distributed. The shell and teeth are alike and are rich in magnesium carbonate; the 

coarser spines are much less magnesian. The composition of the entire skeleton, if it can be 

called so, would probably be somewhere near that of the red spines alone, only a little higher 

in magnesia.

A similar example is offered by No. 8, Tretocidaris. In the specimen analyzed the shell 

and spines were taken separately, but the spines were dead when the urchin was collected. 

The analyses are as follows:

Analyses of Tretocidaris affinis.

Actiial analyses. Reduced analyses.

SiOa ............ .................

(Al,Fe)203 ..... ...................

MgO.............................

CaO... ..........................

sn

p o

Shell.

0.11

.15

4 09

45.80

.57

Trar»p

4Q QO

98.97 

40 OQ

8.23

Spines.

0.53

.14

2.07

4Q 7Q

P}

Trace.

46.28

98.81 

41.40

4.88

Si02 . ...........................

(Al,Fe)203 ..... ..................

MgC03 . .........................

CaCO3 ... .......................

CaSO4 . ..........................

Ca3P2O8 . ........................

»

Shell.

0 19

.16

9 Of)

89.35

1.07

Trace

i nn nf\

Spines.

0.56

.15

A fiQ

94.66

(?)

Tr«r*p
ECHINODERMS. 27

Here again the spines are lower in their content of magnesia than the shell.

In two of the analyses, Nos. 4 and 5, large percentages of silica and sesquioxides appear. 

These are due to inclosed or adherent sand and mud, which were visible in the specimens but 

not readily removable. On rejecting these impurities and recalculating to 100 per cent, the 

percentages of magnesium carbonate became 11.43 and 8.59, respectively. Similar corrections to 

the other analyses are negligible. After making these corrections and assuming the percentages 

found for the shell rather than the spines in Nos. 8 and 9, the next table has been constructed. 

If, however, the composition of the entire Heterocentrotus should be taken, it would change

places with Encope.

Percentage of magnesium, carbonate in sea -urchins.

Locality.

rV f*~\T \^7"£Ktt

Latitude.

72° 48' W. .....

(?).............

42° 45' N.....

33° 58' N.....

46° 47' S.......

33° 35' N.....

24° 25' N.....

14° 24' S......

Depth.

Meters. 

(?)

(?)

(?)

2,745

(?)

85

85

(?)

(?)

Temperature.

°C 

(?)

(?)

(?)

13.6

(?)

15

24

(?)

(?)

MgC08 .

Per cent. 

5.99

6.27

6.59

6.95

7.38

8.59

Q 30

11.43

12.26

These figures, like those for the crinoids, seem to show a regular variation in temperature, 

at least so 'far as temperatures have been determined or can be inferred. The sea urchins from 

cold regions are relatively low in magnesia; those from the Tropics are high. There is, however, 

one apparent exception—the urchin from Peru. This abnormality is probably due to the cold 

Humboldt current which flows northward from the Antarctic Ocean. A larger series of analyses 

of sea urchins, with more details as to depth of water and temperatures, is much to be desired.

Two published analyses of sea urchins are worth reproducing. They are:

1. Echinus (Strongylocentrotus?) drobachiensis. North Sea; analysis by L. Schmelck. Norske Nordhavs Exped., 

No. 28, p. 129, 1901.

2. Echinus esculentus. Locality not stated, probably Mediterranean; analysis by O. Butschli. K. Gesell. Wiss. 

Gottingen Abh., No. 3, 1908.

Older analyses of sea urchins.

Actual analyses. Reduced analyses.

SiO2 .............................

A12O3 ............................

Fe,O3 ............................

CaCO3 ...........................

MgCO, ...........................

p o

CaSO4 ...... ......................

CaSO4 .2H2O...... ................

HoO................. .............

1

Trace.

0.30

77.75

5.30

Trace.

TVafa

16.33

99.68

2

0.04

86.40

8.53

.08

1.70

2.45

.03

99.23

SiO,... ...........................

AL,O8 ........ .....................

Fe203 . ..........................

^gG03 . .........................

CaCO3 ....... .....................

CaSO4 ...........................

Ca3PoO8 .........................

1

Trace.

Trace.

0.36

6.36

93.28

Trace.

100. 00

2

0.04

8.84

89.64

1.40

.08

100.00

Although different in minor details these analyses are fairly comparable with ours. The 

urchin analyzed by Schmelck was from the far north, and its composition is very near that of 

our specimen from Greenland. Biltschli's sea urchin is doubtless from warmer water and shows 

the higher figure for magnesium carbonate.
28 iisroKGAisric CONSTITUENTS OF MAEINE INVERTEBRATES.

3. STARFISHES AND BRITTLE STABS.

Eleven starfishes, including brittle stars, were analyzed, as follows:

1. Asterim mdgaris Packard. Eastport, Maine; latitude, 44° 55' N.; longitude, 67° 00' W.

2. Asterias tanneri Verrill. Albatross station 2309; latitude, 35° 43' 30" N.; longitude, 74° 52' W.; depth, 102 

meters; bottom temperature not given.

3. Asterina miniata Brandt. Pacific Grove, Cal.; latitude, 36° 36' N.; longitude, 121° 55' W.

4. L'otasterias compta Stimpson. Albatross station 2250; latitude, 40° 17' 15" N.; longitude, 69° 51' 45" W.; 

depth, 86 meters; bottom temperature, 10.8° C.

5. Benthopectm spinosus Verrill. Albatross station 2568; latitude, 39° lo' 00" ^N.; longitude, 68° 08' 00" W.; 

depth, 3,249 meters; bottom temperature, 2.7° 0.

6. Luidia dathrata Say. Near Charleston, S. C.; latitude, 32° 47' N.; longitude, 79° 57' W.; depth, b3tweeii 

2 and 22 meters.

7. Acanthaster planci Linne. Palmyra Island, in the Pacilic Ocean, west of south from Hawaii; latitude, 5C 49X N.

8. Gorgonocephalus arcticus Gray. Off Cape Cod, Mass.; about latitude 42° N.

9. Gorgonocephalus caryi Lyman. Alaska.

10. Ophioglypha sarsii Ltitken. Albatross station 2176; latitude, 39° 32' 30" N.; longitude, 72° 21' 30" W.; depth, 

553 meters; bottom temperature, 5° C.

11. Ophioderma cinereum Miiller and Troschel. Enseiiada Honda, Culebra Island, east of Porto Eico; latitude, 

18° 20' N., approximately.

The last locality is in or on the edge of the equatorial current. The Albatross stations were 

all fixed on cruises between Cape Hatteras and Nan tucket. The analyses are as follows:

Analyses of starfishes.

SiO2 .. ............

(Al,Fe)203 .........

MgO..... .........

CaO..............

C!f»

P O

Organic matter, etc .

1

0.45

.21

2.59

35.71

(?)

.07

60.18

99.21 

30.84

29.34

2

0.79

.55

3.83

38. 51

(?)

.24

54.89

98.81 

34.30

20.59

3,

0.03

.20

3.98

36.85

(?)

.14

57.64

98.84 

33.05

24.59

4

1.21

.48

3.05

30.35

(?)

.13

63.91

99.13

27.08

36.83

5

2.06

.79

3.93

40.54

(?)

.11

51.66

99.09 

35.94

15.72

6

0.27

.36

4.89

41.30

(?)

.14

52.03

98.99 

37.70

14.33

7

0.19

.14

4.36

33.18

(?)

.07

62.07

100. 01 

30.81

31.26

8

1.77

.62

3.36

36.13

(?)

.22

55.72

97.82 

31.65

24.07

- 9

1.08

.72

2.82

29.80

.69

.32

63.37

98.80 

25.85

37.52

10

6.98

.53

3.99

42.14

(?)

.29

50.95

98.88 

Q7 on

13.66

11

0.21

no

5.80

41 39

.16

.07

51.58

99.23

00 £Q

12.89

Reduced analyses.

SiO,.. ............

. (Al,Fe)A- ------- - MgC03 ..... .......

CaCO3 . ...........

CaSO4 .............

PO p f)

1

0.64

.30

7.79

91.06

(?)

.21

100. 00

x 2

1.01

.70

10.28

87.44

(?)

.57

100. 00

3

0.03

.27

11.24

88.06

(?)

.40

100. 00

4

1.94

.77

10.27

86.57

(?)

.45

100. 00

5

2.47

Q4

9.88

86.42

(?)

.29

100.00

6

0.32

49

12.13

86.77

(?)

.36

100. 00

1

0.27

.20

13.33

85.99

(?)

.21

100. 00

8

2.39

.84

9.53

86.60

(?)

.64

100. 00

9

1.76

1.17

9.66

84.36

1 Ql

1.14

100.00

10

1.15

.62

Q 84

fi7 Rti

(?)

.74

100. 00

11

0 94

.11

14.08

85.09

.30

1 U

100. 00
ECHINODERMS. 29

In the following table the analyses are arranged in the order of ascending magnesium 

carbonate, like those of the sea urchins and crinoids:

Percentage of magnesium carbonate in starfishes.

Species.

Lepiasterias compta ...............

Asterias tanneri ...................

Locality.

Station 2176.............

Station 2568.............

Station 2250..... ........

Station 2309.............

Latitude.

44° 55/ N... ........

42° ± N... .......

(?)..................

39° 32' N. ..........

qqo i K/ TVT

40° 17/ N...........

35° 43/ N... ....... .

36°38/ N...........

32°47/ N...........

5° 49'N. ...........

1 R° 9(V 1ST

Depth.

Meters. 

(?) 

(?) 

(?) 

553 

3,249 

86 

102 

(?) 

(?) 

(?) 

(?)

Temperature.

°c.

(?) 

(?) 

(?) 

5 

2.7 

10.8 

(?) 

(?) 

(?) 

(?) 

(?)

MgC03 .

Per cent. 

7.79 

9.53 

9.66 

9.84 

9.88 

10.27 

10.88 

11.24 

12.13 

13.33 

14.08

Here again we meet the same coordination of temperature with content of magnesium 

carbonate that was noted among the other echmoderms. The starfishes from cold regions run 

lowest in magnesium carbonate; those from warm regions run higher. Whether, however, this 

coordination is general or not is stiU an open question, for several analyses by L. Schmelck of 

forms from the North Sea are not easy to explain. Schmelck's data are as foUows: 1

1. Astrophyton; an ophiuran. Station 37; latitude, 78° 48' N.; longitude, 8° 57' E.; depth of water 199 meters; 

bottom temperature, 1.1° (\

2. Arcaster tenuispinus. Station 10; latitude, 61° 41' N.; longitude, 3° 19' E.; depth, 402 meters; bottom temperature, 6° 0.

3. Arcaster tenuispinus. Station 25; latitude, 63° 107 N.; longitude, 5° 25/ E.; depth, 179 meters; bottom temperature, 6.9° 0.

4. Astropecten andromeda. Station 10; details under No. 2.

Schmelck's analyses of starfishes.

SiO.. ......---..---....-......--...-.---..........---.-...-..-....--.

Al O

Fe2 03 .------------- ----------------------------------

MgCOs-- ....-..- .....................................................

PaPO

CaS04 .. ..............................................................

p o

1

Trace.

Trace.

0.31

7.60

74.82

.71

Trace.

17.57

101. 01

2

Trace.

Trace.

0.31

9.36

74.11

rPTrace.

16.23

100. 00

3

Trace

Trace.

0.60

9.24

78.92

1.00

Trace.

10.24

100. 00

4

7 OQ

65

.37

8.55

fi4 48

.83

Trace

13.83

95.80

Schmelck's analyses reduced.

SiO2 ................................................................

Al O

Fe2 03 ...............................................................

MgCO3 . .............................................................

CaCO8 ... ......... ....................................................

CaSO4 .. .............................................................

Ca3P2 08 .. ...........................................................

1

Trace.

Trace.

0.37

9.11

89.67

.85

Trace

100. 00

O

Trace.

Trace.

0.36

11.18

88.46

(?)

Trace

100. 00

3

Trace.

Trace.

0.66

10.29

87.92

1.13

Trace.

100. 00

4

8.66

7Q

.45

10.42

78.67

1.01

Trace.

100.00

1 Norske Nordhavs Exped. No. 2S, p. 129, 1901.
30 INORGANIC CONSTITUENTS OP MARINE INVERTEBRATES.

Nos. 2 and 4 of this group of analyses represent the same locality and temperature. If 

the excessive and surely extraneous silica in No. 4 is rejected and the analyses are recalculated 

to 100 per cent the figure for magnesium carbonate becomes 11.41, nearly that for No. 2. All 

the percentages given for magnesium carbonate are higher than the temperatures would lead 

us to expect, but they still fall far below the three highest in our table. A general tendency to 

regularity as regards temperature is evident, but it is perhaps not invariable. More datr, relative to starfishes are much to be desired.

4. HOLOTHITBIANS.

Although the holothurians are of slight importance as contributors to the marine sediments, 

it seemed desirable to compare a few of them with the other echinoderms. Four holothurians 

were therefore analyzed, but their organic matter was so vastly in excess of their hard parts 

that the analyses, with one exception, are far from satisfactory. However, the data, which are 

not without some significance, are as follows:

1. Holoihuria ftoridana Pourtales. Fajardo, Porto Rico. 

. 2. Cucumaria frondosa (Gunnerus). A northern cold-water species, precise locality unknown.

3. Trochostoma intermedium Ludwig. Off Cersos Island, Gal. Weight of sample, 0.2204 gram.

4. Trochostoma intermedium. Albatross station 3307, in Bering Sea; latitude, 56° 12' N.; longitude, 172° 55' W.; 

depth of water, 130 meters; bottom temperature, 3.3° C. Weight of sample, 0.1175 gram.

Analyses of hotethurians.

SiO

(Al,Fe)203 -----------------------------------------------------------

MgO. . ..............................................................

CaO ................................................................

P O

S03 .. ................................................................

1

0.08

.18

3.48

25.19

.74

69.93

99.60

oq Ol

46.72

2

0.27

.25

.41

1.10

.85

1.29

p5. 71

99.88 

(?)

(?)

3

5.56

8.40

1.81

491

3.15

(?)

76.71

100. 54

(?)

(?)

4

6.93

6.31

1.36

1.44

1.86

(?)

82.21

100. 11

(?)

(?)

In No. 2, 0.31 per cent of matter soluble in water was found, which raises the summation 

to 100.19.

Of these analyses only the first is reducible with any certainty to standard form. The percentage composition of the inorganic portion of the specimen then becomes—

SiO2 .................................................................................'...... 0.15

(Al,Fe)2 03 ................................................................................. .34

MgC03 ..................................................................................... 13. 84

CaCO3 ..................................................................................... 83. 2?

CaS04 ...................................................................................... 2.3?

Ca,P9Os ................................................................................... Trace.

100.00

This is very near the analysis of the starfish from Culebra Island, which is not far from the 

locality of this holothurian. The coincidence is very striking.

In the specimen represented by analysis 2 the proportion of inorganic matter was so small 

that good results could hardly be obtained. The other two analyses were also made with altogether inadequate material. These analyses, however, show that the small inorganic portions 

of the holothurians are relatively rich in phpsphatic matter and in magnesia. The difficulties 

of discussing them intelligently are like those of discussing the worm tubes and the ares of 

alcyonarians. In Trochostoma therd are brown spots, which were already known to be phosphatic, although quantitative analyses of them seem to be lacking. The true character of such
ECHINODEBMS. 31

bodies can be determined only by an elaborate investigation upon abundant material, a task 

which lies outside of our main problem.

Two analyses of holothurians are already 011 record, as follows:

1. Stichopus regalis. Locality not stated; analysis by O. Butschli, K. Gesell. Wiss. Gottingen Abh., No. 3,1908.

2. Ash of the epidermis ("lederhaut") of a large holothurian, species and locality not stated; analysis by Hilger. 

Pfluger's Archiv. f. Physiologic, vol. 10, p. 212, 1875.

Old analyses of holothurians.

Na,SO4 ..........................

NaC!l.. ...........................

CaCO,... .........................

MgCCl,. .........................

CaS04 .. .........................

CaSO4 .2H2O .....................

Ca3P208 -------------------------

1

..........

81.54

8.10

2

AQ

2

4.47

.83

78.96

12.10

1.04

.96

FeC03 .......... .................

H,0... ..........................

SiO3 .. ............................

1

3.67

3.23

1.03

99.66

2

1.02

.57

99.95

These analyses, together with ours of HolotJiuria, show that the hard parts of these 

animals, like those of the other echinoderms, are distinctly magnesian. Although definite 

data are wanting, it seems probable that Hilger's specimen came from warmer water than 

that analyzed by Butschli. The sodium salts are of course extraneous.

5. SUMMARY.

From the evidence now available it seems almost certain that the inorganic constituents 

of any echinoderm will have the composition of a moderately magnesian limestone. There may 

be exceptions, but none has yet been found. The four tables—for crinoids, sea urchins, starfishes, and holothurians—all tell the same story, and with remarkable unanimity. Furthermore, the proportion of magnesium carbonate appears to be a function of temperature, the 

organisms from warm waters being richer in it than those from cold waters. The exceptions to 

this rule are few and may be only apparent, for cold or warm currents and varying depths of 

water account for nearly all irregularities. Schnielck's analyses of starfishes from the North 

Sea are the only ones so far which are troublesome to explain.

The sea urchins seem to be a little poorer in magnesia than either of the other groups, but 

the analyses are fewer and therefore less conclusive. Silica and sesquioxides are probably 

altogether extraneous, although it is possible that small quantities of them may really belong to 

the organisms. In phosphate of lime the starfishes are richest, and all the specimens analyzed 

contain it in small amounts. Whether it is an essential constituent or not is uncertain. As 

shown by Meigen's reaction, all the echinoderms studied are calcitic, and no evidence of aragonite in them was found.

The temperature relations shown by the analyses offer an interesting biological problem, 

with which we can not undertake to cope. It is not due to differences of composition in the 

solid matter of sea water, for that is practically uniform the world over. In all the great 

oceans, and even in minor bodies of water like the Mediterranean, the Baltic, and the Black 

seas, the proportion of magnesia to lime is veiy nearly if not actually constant. In gaseous 

contents and especially in carbon dioxide the waters vary; the gases being more soluble in 

cold than in warm water. Whether this fact has any relation to the phenomenon under discussion we can not attempt to say. We can only report the facts and leave their biological 

discussion to others.
32 INORGANIC CONSTITUENTS OF MARINE INVERTEBRATES.

BRYOZOA.

Nine Bryozoa have been analyzed in the course of this research, as follows:

1. Schizoporella unicornis Johnston. Vineyard Sound, Mass.; depth of water, 15.5 meters; bottom temperature, 

20.5° C.

2. Schizoporella unicornis Johnston. Between Johns Pass and Pass a Grille, Fla.

3. Microporella grisea Lamouroux. Australia.

4. Cellepora incrassata Lamarck. Northeast part of the Grand Banks.

5. Flustra membmnacea truncata Smith. St. Paul Island, Pribilof group, Alaska; latitude, 57° N.; longitude, 

170° W. Only 0.1165 gram available for analysis.

6. Lepralia pallasiana Moller. Off Gloucester, Mass. A thin coating on a granite pebble; weight of organism, 

0.4078 gram.

7. Catenicella margaritacea Busk. Australia.

8. Bugula turrita Desor. Georges Bank, off coast of Massachusetts; Albatross station 2578; latitude, 41° 20/ 30" N., 

longitude, 68° 34' 30" W.; depth of water, 67.7 meters; bottom temperature, 12.3° C.

9. Bugula neritina Linne. Florida.

The actual analyses are as follows:

Analyses of Bryozoa.

8i02 ... ...........................

(Al,Fe)203 ...... ...................

MgO..............................

CaO. .............................

P n

SOg ................. ...............

Organic matter, etc .................

1

1.65

.29

.28

50.90

Trace.

.73

4.K aA

99.49 

39.92

5.72

2

2.49

.37

2.04

48.17

TYar-p

.77

45.70

99.54 

40.16

5.54

3

0.17

.11

.49

50.83

.10

.79

46.80

99.29 

39.94

6.86

4

0.19

.19

2.74

49.36

Trace.

.98

46.03

99.49 

41.26

5.06

5

} 3.00

2.06 , 30.81

.09

(?)

61.45

97.41 

26.39

35.06

6

/ 4.78

i 13

2.32

43.08

.11

(?)

50.42 

36.29

13.29

7

0.95

.41

3.50

40.83

.16

1.00

52.66

99.51 

35.23

17.43

8

8.77

1.18

2.55

20.45

.38

1.47

61.51

96.31 

17.69

43.82

9

6.31

.75

2.57

19.69

.60

2.43

59.47

91.82 

16.41

43.06

Reduced analyses.

SiO2 . .............................

(Al,Fe)a08— —-'—---------------

MgC08 ............................

C^C03 ... .........................

CaaPaOg...........................

CaS04 .............................

1

1.77

.31

.63

95.97

Trace.

1.32

100. 00

2

2.66

.39

4.58

90.97

Trace

1.40

100.00

3

0.18

.12

1.11

96.90

.24

1.45

100. 00

4

0.20

.20

6.07

Ql 77

Trace.

1.76

100.00

5

} 4.82

6.94

87.92

.32

(?)

100. 00

6

/ 5.52

\ .15

5.62

88.44

.27 /<t>\

100.00

7

1.15

.50

8.96

86.89

.43

2.07

100. 00

8

16.71

2.25

10.19

64.51

1.58

4.76

100. 00

9

12.94

1 K4

11.08

63.29

2.68

8.47

100. 00

Bryozoa Nos. 1 to 5 were massive coralline forms and were* easily handled. No. 6, 

Lepralia, was an incrustation upon a pebble, from which it could not well be separated mechanically. The entire specimen was therefore weighed, the bryozoan was then dissolved by hydrochloric acid, and the pebble was weighed again. The solution only was available for aralysis, 

and the usual loss on ignition could not be determined but was necessarily taken by difference. 

Such an analysis is obviously unsatisfactory but not entirely worthless. Bryozoa Nos. 7 to 

9 were delicate mossy or fernlike organisms, and the poor summations of the last two indicate 

the presence of undetermined saline matter. The high silica in them is evidently due to 

inclosed sand. If silica and sesquioxides are rejected and the remainders recalculated to 100 

per cent the percentages of magnesium carbonate become 12.51 and 12.95, respectively. The 

magnesia, however, shows no such regularity as regards temperature as appears in our series of 

alcyonarians and echuioderms. The difference between the magnesian content of th Q. two
BRACHIOPODS. 33

specimens of Schizoporella is very striking. What this difference may signify is yet to be 

determined.

Several other analyses

Two of them, fairly complete, were made by A. Schwager for J. Walther.1 They are as follows,

both specimens being from

1. Escharafoliacea.

2. Lepralia sp.

:lje Bay of Naples:

of Bryozoa, complete or partial, are recorded in the literature.

Schivager's analyses of Bryozoa.

Si02 . ........................

(Al,Fe)203 -.-- ----------------

MgO..........................

CaO.................... ........

rn

Organic matter+HoO .........

Actual analyses.

1

0.29 

.32 

1.20 

50.12 

41.06 

6.88

99.87

9

2.39 

1.47 

2.22 

47.18 

39.51 

7.53

100. 00

SiOa . -. .....................

(Al,Fe)a08 . ..................

MgC08 ... ....................

CaC08 .......... ...............

Keduced analyses.

1

0.31

.34 

2.71 

96.64

100. 00

o

2.58 

1.58 

5.02 

90.82

100. 00

from

The reduced analyses 

In Flustra foliacea 

carbonate, and in a bryozoa,n 

G. Forchhammer 3 on other 

the organisms were not 

have little present value.

From the evidence 

magnesian content of the 

pact coralline forms and hi 

verified by a much larger

were computed by us from Schwager's data.

California H. W. Nichols 2 found 1.23 per cent of magnesium 

from Bermuda 5.35 per cent. Several similar determinations by 

Bryozoa gave less than 0.6 per cent. The other constituents of 

determined, and the figures given for magnesium carbonate therefore

now at hand no broad general conclusions can be drawn. That the 

" Bryozoa varies widely, however, is clear, being lowest in the comghesb in the fernlike varieties. Even this conclusion needs to be 

series of analyses.

A few analyses of bracLiopod 

calty distinct groups—one 

ported and emphasized by 

peculiarities that seem not 

to Dr. W. H. Ball, who selected 

States National Museum, 

in the calcareous group. The

1. Terebratula cubensis Pourtalks. Coast of Florida.

2. Terebratulina septentrwnalis Gray. Eastport, Maine.

3. Laqueus californicu.s Koch. Esteros Bay, Cal.

4. Rhynchonella psittacea Gmelln. Shetland Islands.

5. Crania anomala Muller. Coast of Norway.

BRACHIOPODS.

shells already on record show that they fall into two chemicalcareous, the other highly phosphatic. This conclusion is supthe new data obtained by us, which also bring out some minor 

have been previously observed. For our material we are indebted 

typical specimens from among the duplicates in the United 

First in order come five brachiopods representing as many genera 

analyses are as follows:

to

i Deutsch. geol. Gesell. Zeitschr., p.. 

50364°—17——3

338, 1885. 2 Field Columbian Mus. Pub. Ill, p. 31,1906. s Neues Jahrb., p. 854,1852.
34 INORGANIC CONSTITUENTS OF MAEINE INVERTEBRATES. 

Analyses of calcareous brachiopods.

SiOo ................................................................

(Al, Fe)oO3 ...........................................................

MgO................................................................

CaO. ...............................................................

SO,... ...............................................................

PoO5 .. .............................................................

Loss on ignition. .....................................................

I

0.06

.04

.44

54.96

21

Trace.

44.35

100. 06

43.42

.93

2

0.50

.14

.62

51.79

.66

45.28

98.99

40.55

4.73

3

0.18

.47

.32

54.48

.21

44.46

100. 12 

42.91

1.55

4

0.14

.23

.23

53.76

.31-

.17

44.81

99.65 

42.16

2.65

5

0.21

.26

3.90

48.67

.97

.25

45.38

99.64 

40.88

3.52

Rejecting organic matter and recalculating to 100 per cent, the analyses assume the following rational form:

Reduced analyses.

SiO2 . ...............................................................

(Al,Fe) 203 ..........................................................

MgC03 . .............................................................

CaC03 . .............................................................

CaSO4 ...............................................................

Ca3P308 ... ..........................................................

1

0.06

.04 .93'

98.61

.36

100. 00

2

0.52

.15

1.37

96.78

1.18

Trace.

100. 00

3

0.18

.48

.68

98.30

.36

Trace.

100.00

4

0.15

.23

.49

98.20

.55

.38

100.00

5

0.22

.27

8.63

88. 59

1.72

.57

100.00

For comparison the following analyses of calcareous brachiopods, made elsewhere, are 

significant:

6. Terebratula sp. Collected by Pourtales between Florida and Cuba; S. P. Sharpies, analyst.1

7. Terebratulina cap lit serpentis. Locality not given; F. Kunckell, analyst.2

8. Crania anomala Muller. Locality not given; Kunckell, analyst.

9. Waldheimia cranium Muller. Locality not given; Kunckell, analyst.

10. Waldhe.imia cranium. Collected by the Norwegian North Sea Expedition, station 255; latitude, 68° 12' N.; 

longitude, 15° 40' E.; depth, 624 meters; bottom temperature, 6.5° C.

11. Waldheimia cranium. Lofoten Islands. Analyses 10 and 11 by L. Schmelck.3

Older analyses of calcareous brachiopods.

SiO,.. .......................................................

Fe063 . .....................................................

MgC03 ........ .............................................

CaCO3 ... ....................................................

CaSO4 ......................................................

fla P O

SrO .........................................................

CaO.........................................................

MgO. ......................................................

P Or

6

Trace.

Trace.

98.39

.61

1.00

100. 00

7

1.05

94.6

2.4

2.55

100.00

8

3.4

87.8

2.15

.28

1.8

4.3

99.73

9

96.2

.9

.18

.3

.6

2.0

100.18

10

0.60

.40

1.20

96.20

.85

Trace.

1.24

100. 49

11

(?)

0.15

1.40

95.98

(?)

I9

1.99

99.64

With these analyses ours agree hi a broad, general way, although the older ones vary 

much as regards completeness. KunckelTs analyses, showing free lime and magnesia, are

1 Am. Jour. Sci., 3d ser., vol. 1, p. 168,1871.

2 Jour, prakt. Chemie, 2d ser., vol. 59, p. 102,1899. 

s Norske Nordhavs Exped., No. 28, p. 129, 1901.
BRACHIOPODS. 35

suspicious, but only in this detail; otherwise they have confirmatory value. All the analyses 

show that brachiopods of this group have shells in which calcium carbonate is the principal 

constituent and that the proportion of organic matter is low. The only aberrant one is Crania, 

which is noteworthy on account of its high percentage of magnesia. In this respect, Kunckell's 

analysis, if recalculated to a common basis, agrees approximately with ours. RJiynchonetta, 

is also interesting for the reason that an analysis by Hilger of shells supposed to belong to this 

genus indicates that they art: phosphatic and practically identical in composition with those 

of Lingula. The authenticity of Hilger's material is questionable, and his analysis will not be 

reproduced here.

Four analyses of shells o:

contain a large amount of organic matter, which possibly varies with the age or maturity of 

the animal, we prefer to report our results, as others before us have done, in proximate rather 

than ultimate form. The analvses are as follows:

1. Lingula anatina Gmelin. Co£.st

2. Lingula anatina. Iloilo, Philipp

3. Discinisca lamellosa Broderip.

4. Glottidia (formerly Lingula) p 

analysis incomplete for lack of suffic

phosphatic brachiopods have been made by us. As these shells

of Higo Province, Japan. Organic matter, rejected, 40 per cent, 

ine Islands. Organic matter, rejected, 39.5 per cent. 

Coast of Peru. Organic matter, rejected, 25 per cent.

tmmidata Stimpson, coast of North Carolina. Organic matter, about 37 per cent; 

ent material.

Analyses of phosphatic brachiopods.

SiOo......

(Al,Fe)2 0

MgCO3 ...

CaC03 ....

CaS04 ....

Ca3 P208 ..

1

0.91

.54

2.70

1.18

2.93

91.74

100.00

2

0.50

oq

.79

4.25

4.18

89.99

100.00

2

0.85

.58

6.68

8.35

8.37

75.17

100.00

4

0.49

1.16

1.71

(?)

(?)

74.73

These analyses are noteworthy on account of the unusual proportion of calcium sulphate

reported in them. Discinisca

In the older analyses of

is especially remarkable in this respect and also in its percentage

of magnesium carbonate. Small amounts of sulphates have been found in many mollusks and 

corals as well as in the calcareous brachiopods but in nothing like the proportion given here. A 

new analysis of Discinisca made upon fresh material is much to be desired.

;his group the sulphate seems to have been ignored, or at least

to have escaped attention. Tie figures are as follows:

5. Lingula ovalis. Hawaiian Islands; T. S. Hunt, analyst. 1

6. 7. Lingula ovalis. Locality not given; A. Hilger, analyst.2

8. Lingula anatina. S. Cloez, analyst; 3 recalculated to 100 per cent after rejecting 42.6 per cent of organic matter.

Older analyses of phosphatic brachiopods.

SKX......

MgC03 . .

CaC03 ....

Ca3P208 . . Mg3P_O8 .

Flk>4 .!.

MgO?. . .

5

11. 75

85.79

2.80

100. 34

6

0.18

2.94

10.76

84.94

.77

99.59

7

0.17

3.13

10.86

85.24

.76

100.00

8

Trace.

12.19

77.17

7.03

3.61

100. 00

1 Logan, W. E., and Hunt, T. S., Am. Jour. Sci., 3d ser., vol. 17, p. 237,1854.

2 Jour, prakt, Chemie, vol. 102, p. 418,1867.

8 Jahresb. Chemie, 1859, p. 642; from L'lnstitut, 1859, p. 240.
36 INOEGANIC CONSTITUENTS OF MARINE INVEBTEBBATES.

The relatively high figures for calcium carbonate shown in this table are doubtless due to 

the neglect to determine sulphate. The analysis by Cloez differs from the others principally in 

form—that is, in its mode of calculation. If the phosphoric oxide in it is assigned entirely to 

the lime, then the proportion of calcium phosphate becomes 88.6 per cent, which is well in line 

with the other figures. The amount of calcium carbonate would be correspondingly reduced.

The brachiopods, as stated at the beginning of this section, fall into two distinct groups; 

the shells of one consist mainly of calcium carbonate, with little organic matter, and those of 

the other predominatingly of calcium phosphate, with much organic matter. The two groups, 

although they may be alike structurally, are physiologically quite dissimilar, the chemical 

reactions involved in building the shells being of two different orders. Such a distinction 

ought to be significant to biologists and it is for them, to determine what it means. Geologically, 

however, we can see that the phosphatic brachiopods have probably played some par4" in the 

formation of phosphatic sediments, a function which is shared by vertebrate annuals and some

crustaceans.

MOLLTJSKS.

Numerous analyses of molluscan shells have been published, and they show remarka.ble* uniformity of composition. It has nevertheless seemed desirable to make a liberal series of 

new analyses, which are best classified into groups. Sulphates were not determined, except

in four analyses.

1. PELECYPODS.

The pelecypod shells analyzed are as follows:

1. Astarte crenata Gray. Off Marthas Vineyard, Mass.; depth of water, 668 meters; bottom temperature, 72° C.

2. Callista convexa Say. Vineyard Sound, Mass.

3^. Macoma sabulosa Spengler. Massachusetts Bay; depth, 825 meters; bottom temperature, 5.5° C.

4. PectendislocatusSay. Charlotte Harbor, Fla.

5. Pecten ventricosus Sowerby. Head of Concepcion Bay, Lower California.

6. Venericardia ventricosa Gould. Off Point Concepcion, southern California; latitude, 34° 25' N.; depth, 447 

meters; bottom temperature, 7.3° C.

7. Cardium substriatum Conrad. Long Beach, _,Cal.

8. Calyptogena pacifica Ball. Clarence Strait, Alaska; latitude, 55° 46'N.; depth, 589 meters; bottom temperature, 5.8° C.

9. Nucula expanser Hancock. North of Bering Strait.

10. Adla mirabilis ^dams and Reeve. Japan Sea, off the coast of Chosen (Korea); depth, 128 meter:?: bottom 

temperature, 16° C.

11. Placuna orbicularis Retzius. Off Luzon, Philippine Islands. /•.'

Analyses of pelecypod shells.

SiQ«. .............

(Al,FeU>3 ---------

MgO.. ."...........

CaO.. ............

P o

CO, needed .......

Organic matter, etc.

1

0.25

.08

.00

53.92

44.79

99.04

42.37

2.42

2

0.18

.11

Trace.

53.67

.03

44.77

98.76 

42.10

2 67

3

0.29

.22

.00

43.77

Trace.

44.62

98.90 

42. 25

2.37

4

0 qi

.08

.46

53.68

Trace.

44.34

98.87 

42.69

1.65

5

0.14

.15

.34

54.13

44.36

99.12 

42.90

1.46

6

0.12

.08

.00

54.16

Trace.

44.65

99.01 

42.55

2.10

7

0.11

.09

Trace.

53.99

Trace.

44.85

99.04 

42.41

2.44

8

0.08

.04

.00

53.95

Trace.

44.93

99.00 

42.39

2.54

9

0.33

.46

Trace.

51.18

.17

46.67

98.81 

39.86

6.81

10

0.09

.03

.00

53. 36

Trace.

45.59

99.12 

41. 93

3.66

11

0.00

.08

.32

53.80

Trace.

44.10

98.30

41.73

2.37
MOLLUSKS. 

Reduced analyses.

37

SiCv ............

(Al,Fe)203 --------

MgCO3 ...........

CaCO,.. .........

Ca3P208 - ---------

1

0.26

.09

.00

99.65

Trace.

100.00

2

0.19

.12

Trace.

99.62

.07

100.00

3

0.30

.23

.00

99.47

Trace.

100.00

4

0.32

.08 i no

98.60

Trace.

100.00

5

0.14

.15

70

OR OR

Trace.

100.00

6

0 13

OR

no

QQ 7O

Trace

100. 00

7

, 0.11

no

Tra^p

QQ RO

Trace.

100.00

8

0.09

04

.00

QQ R7

Trace.

100.00

9

0.36

50

Trace.

98.74

.40

100.00

10

0.10

AQ

AA

QQ 89

Trace.

lOO.OO1

11

0.00

.08

.70

99.22

100,00

2. SCAPHOPODS AND AMPHINEUBANS.

Under this heading we have only two analyses to offer, as follows:

12. Dentalium solidum Verrill. Off Georges Bank, east of Cape Cod, Mass.; depth of water, 2,361 meters; bottom 

temperature, 4.5° C.

13. Mopalia muscosa Gould. Santa Barbara, Gal. A chifon.

Analyses ofscaphopods and amphineurans.

Analyses. Reduced analyses.

SiO2 ............. ..............

(Al,Fe)A--------------------

MgO..... .......... ............

CaO..... ......................

so3 ............. n .............

P305 ---------------------------

12

0.39 

.26 

.09 

53.89

Trace.

44.48

99.11 

42.44 

2.04

13

0.59 

.21 

.25 

53.42 

.20 

Trace. 

44.74

99.41 

42.13 

2.61

Si02 .... ............. .........

(A^Fe)^. ------------------

MgCO,... ............ .........

CaCO3 ........... .............

CaSO4 ....... ................

Ca,PaO8 -- — — — •—••••••••

12

0.40 

.27 

.20 

99.13

Trace.

100.00

13

0.61 

.22 

.45 

98.37 

.35 

Trace.

100.00

3. GASTROPODS.

14. Purpura lapillus Linne". Eastport, Maine.

15. Aporrhais occidentalis Beck. Off Marthas Vineyard, Mass.; depth of water, 435.5 meters; bottom temperature, 5.5° C.

16. Buccinum undatum Linne. Narragansett Bay, R. I.; depth, 53.3 meters; bottom temperature, 9° C.

17. Natica duplicata Say. Cape Lookout, N. C.

18. Olivia literata Lamarck. Sarasota, Fla.

19. Fasciolaria distans Lamarck. Sarasota, Fla.

20. Crepidula onyx Sowerby. San Pedro, Cal.

21. Antiplanes perversa Gabb. Off Bodega Head, Cal.; latitude, 38° 23' 35" N..; depth, 112.5 meters; bottom 

temperature, 9° C.

22. Nassa californiana Conrad. Monterey Bay, Cal.; latitude, 36° 47' 50" N.; depth, 67.7 meters; bottom temperature, 11.3° C.

23. Nassa tegula Reeve. Musgrove Island, Magdalena Bay, Lower California.

24. Nassa insculpta Carpenter. Cortez Bank, Cal.; latitude, 32° 20/ 30" N.; depth, 165 meters,' bottom temperature, 9.5° C.

25. Turritella gonostoma Valenciennes. Mulege, Gulf of California.

26. Volutometra alaskana Call. Off Unalaska, Alaska; latitude, 55° N.; depth, 143 meters; bottom temperature, 

4.5° C.

27. Pyrolofusus bar pa Morch. Unalaska, Alaska.

28. Plid/usus dims Reeve. Sitka Harbor, Alaska.

29. Tachyrynchus erosa Couthouy. Avatcha Bay, Kamchatka.

30. Ranella pulchra Gray. China Sea, north of Prabas Island; depth, 256 meters; bottom temperature, 14.2° C.

31. Cerithium aluco Linnet Reef opposite Cebu, Philippine Islands.

32. Strombus canarium Linne". Subig Bay, Luzon, Philippine Islands.

33. Cavolina longirostris Lesueur. Off Adyagan Island, Philippines; depth, 247 meters.
38 INORGANIC CONSTITUENTS OP MARINE INVERTEBRATES.

Analyses of gastropods.

SiO,. ....................

{Al,^e)303 .. ...............

MgO.....................

CaO.........l....... ......

so.............. ..........

PoOB ................... .

Organic matter, etc .......

SiO3 .... ..................

(Al,Fe)308 ... .............

MgO......................

CaO.....................

SO3 . .....................

.PA— .-..---- --------

14

0.14

.15

.19

cq 04 (?)

Trace.

45.33

99.15 

49 19

q 91

24

0.47

.47

.77

49.32

(?)

.04

48.00

99.07 

39.51

8.49

15

1.27

99

Trsirp

52.84

flQ

Trapp

44 AQ

98.50 

41.52

2.57

25

0.25

1.83

.20

52.57

.11

Trace.

43.51

98.47 

41.46

2.05

16

0 04.

.41

.12

J>9 77

(?)

Tr&CG

44 4Q

98.73

A~\ PiQ

2.90

26

0.07

.17

Trace.

53.88

(?)

Trapp

44.60

98.72 

42.33

2.27

17

0.00

.05

Tr&cG

54.83

(?)

Trace

44 99

99.10 

43.08

1.14

27

0.08

.08

Trace.

54.23

(?)

Trace

44 49

98.81 

42.61

1.81

18

0.05

.04

nn

KA QQ (?)

Trapp

44 4fi

98.93

49 7^1

1.73

28

0.16

22

.11

52.66

(?)

Trace.

45.83

98.98 

41 50

4.33

19

0

00

.04

.06

53.87

(?)

TrQr»p

44 4Q

98.79

49 QQ

2.10

29

0.23

.81

.44

49.30

(?)

.36

47.60

98.74 

38.54

9.06

20

n I e

.11

Trace

53.63

nn

Trace.

44 40

98.29 

42.14

2.26

30

2.20

.61

.23

52.63

(?)

Trace

43.31

98.98 

41.64

1.67

21

0.46

.11

Trace

M nc

(?)

Trace

44 IK

98.78 

42.48

1.67

31

0.00

.09

Trace

54.47

(?)

Trace.

44.37

98.93 

42.80

1.57

22

0.27

.12

.17

KO on

(?)

Tra/tp

44 84

98.60 

41 99

2.85

32

0.08

.20

Trace.

54.04

(?)

Trace.

44.31

98.63 

42.46

1.85

23

2.07

QQ

.20

5130

(?)

.08

44 ye

98.74 

4O ^7

4.39

33

0.71

.39

.09

53.73

(?)

.38

43.82

99. 12 

41.96

1.86

Reduced analyses.

Si03 ............ ..........

(Al,Fe)308 ................

MgC03 .. ..................

CaCO... ..................

CaSO4 . ....................

Ca,Pa08 ......... ..........

Si03 ..... .................

(Al,Fe)803 ... .............

MgCO,...— ..............

Ca008 . ............. ......

€aSO4 .... .................

Ca3P208 .. .................

14

0.15

.16

.41

99.28

(?)

Trace.

100. 00

24

0.52

.52

1.78

97.08

(?)

.10

100.00

15

1.32

.23

Trace.

98.30

.15

Trace.

100.00

25

0.26

1.89

.44

97.21

.20

Trace.

100.00

16

0.98-

.43

.26

98.33

(?)

Trace.

100. 00

26

0.07

.18

Trace.

99.75

(?)

Trace.

100.00

17

0.00

.05

Trace.

99.95

(?)

Trace.

100. 00

27

0.08

.08

Trace.

99.84

m (?)

Trace.

100.00

18

0.05

.04

.00

99.91

(?)

Trace.

100. 00

28

0.17

.23

.24

99/36

(?)

Trace.

100.00

19

0 34

.04

.14

99.48

m (?)

Trace.

100.00

29

0.26

.90

1.02

97.00

(?)

.82

100.00

20

0.16

.11

Trace.

99.73

.00

Trace.

100.00

30

2.26

.63

.51

96.60

(?)

Trace.

100.00

21

0.48

.11

Trace

99.41

(?)

Trace.

100.00

31

0.00

.10

Trace.

99.90

(?)

Trace.

100.00

22

0.28

.13

.37

99.22

(?)

Trace.

100. 00

32

0.09

.21

Trace.

99.70

(?)

Trace.

100. 00

23

2.19

.35

.44

96.84

(?)

.18

100.00

33

0.73

.40

.20

97.82

(?)

.85

100.00
MOLLUSKS.

4. CEPHALOPODS.

34. Nautilus pompilius Linne". Mindanao, Philippine Islands.

35. Argonauta argo Linne; the paper nautilus. High seas, Pacific Ocean.

36. Sepia ep.; cuttle-fish bone. Port Tataan, Tawi Tawi group, Philippine Islands.

Analyses of cephalopods.

39

SiOa ........... ..........

(Al,Fe)203 --------------

MgO.............. .......

CaO.... .................

p n

Organic matter, etc. .....

34

0.18

.14

.07

52. 44

Trace.

46.65

99.48 

41.28

5.37

35

0.08

12

2.58

46.78

Trace.

49.16

98.72 

42.30

6.86

36

0.00

.06

.66

47.42

51.63

99.77 

38.65

2.98

Reduced analyses.

SiO2 .....................

(Al,Fe)203 . .............

MgC08— ................

CaOOg........ ...........

CaaPaOg..................

34

0.19

.15

.16

99.50

Trace.

100. 00

35

0.09

.13

6.02

93.76

Trace.

100.00

36

0.00

.06

1.62

98.32

Trace.

100.00

For comparison a series of four analyses of cephalopocl shells by O. Biitschli 1 is worthciting in full. They are as follows:

1. Nautilus pompilius. 2. Argonauta argo. 3. Spirula peronii. 4. Sepia officinalis.

Analyses of cephalopods by Butschli.

CaCOg. ..........

MgCOg. ..........

Phosphate. ........

CaSO4 .2H2O.......

H2 0..............

Organic matter. . .. 

Sand..............

1

94. 75

.16

.20

2.62

2.03

99.76

o

85.07

5.08

3.06

1.75

2.92

2.43

100. 31

3

90.43

.46

3.20

.48

2.17

2.32 

.33

99.39

4

87.36

.21

2.26

.78

4.89

5.36

100. 86

Exactly what is meant by "phosphate" is not clear. Assuming it to mean calcium phosphate and reducing the analyses to uniformity with ours, they take the following form:

ButscJili's analyses reduced.

CaCO..............

MgCOa-. .........

CaP3O8 ............

CaSO4 ............

1

99.66

.17

.17

100. 00

2

89.93

5.37

3.24

1.46

100. 00

3

95.75

.48

3.39

.38

100. 00

4

96.58

.23

2.50

.69

100.00

1 K. Gesell. Wlss. Gottingen Abh., No. 3, 1908. Biitsrhli also gives analyses of three other mollusks, Pinna japonita, Patella t 

Purpura lapillus, but they show no unusual features.

, and
40 INORGANIC CONSTITUENTS OF MARINE INVERTEBRATES.

The unusual proportion of magnesium carbonate in Argonauta is confirmed by our analysis, 

but the high phosphate in three of Biitschli's analyses is unlike anything in our series. Possibly 

the calcium sulphate is really present in the hydrated form, that is, as gypsum, but that is 

uncertain. However, it is not necessary to make that assumption, and to do so would complicate the comparison of analyses.

From the evidence now at hand and from many older data it is clear that molluscan shells 

consist almost entirely of calcium carbonate with quite insignificant impurities. The only 

notable exception is Argonauta, which contains 6 per cent of magnesium carbonate, bnt the 

paper nautilus has no importance as a contributor to the marine sediments. The mollusks 

generally are of immense importance, a fact to which their fossil remains abundantly testify. 

In composition they resemble the corals and millepores, so much so that an analysis from one 

group might readily pass for an analysis from the other.1

CRUSTACEANS.

The 19 crustaceans analyzed in the course of this investigation fall into two distinct groups. 

First, the barnacles, which have shells composed mainly of calcium carbonate with very little 

organic matter. Second, a group of the more familiar crustaceans, such as crabs, shrimp s, and 

lobsters. These have shells containing notable amounts of calcium phosphate and much 

organic matter. The analyses of the first group cover the following species:

1. Lepas anatifera Linne*. Florida.

2. Lepas ansenfera Linne". Woods Hole, Mass.

3. Mitella polymerus Sowerby. Pacific Grove, Gal.; latitude, 36° 36' N.; longitude, 121° 55' W.

4. Balanus hameri Ascanius. Georges Bank, east of Cape Cod, Mass.

5. Balanus amphitrite niveus Darwin. Cape May, N. J.

6. Balanus eburneus Gould. Smiths Creek, Potomac River. Md.

7. Scalpellum regium Wyville Thomson, and Hoek. Albatross station 3342; off Queen Charlotte Islands; latitude, 

52° 39' 30" N.; longitude, 132° 38' W.; depth of water, 2,906 meters; bottom temperature, 18° C.

The analyses are as follows:

Analyses of barnacles.

Si02 . ..............................................

(Al,Fe),Oa .. .........................................

MgO...............................................

CaO.................. .............................

P O

CO2 needed ........................................

1

0.04

.19

1.14

52.33

Trace.

44.50

98.20

42.37

2.13

2

0.04

.56

.86

52.53

.34

43.90

98.23

41.82

2.08

3

0.08

.30

.94

50.83

Trace.

46.18

98.33 

40.97

5.21

4

0.03

.14

.35

53.57

, .00

44.39

98.48

42.47

1.92

5

1.99

.68

.73

50.09

Trace.

44.84

98.33 

40.16

4.68

G

0.39

.22

.76

53.23

Trace.

44.28

98.88 

42.67

1.61

7

• 0.73

1.03

52.65

Trace.

44.79

99.20

42.48

9 31

Reduced analyses.

SiOo

(Al,Fe)2Os ...... .....................................

MgC03 ..... ........................................

CaCOv .............................................

Ca3P2O-8 ... . .............................:..........

1

0.04

.20

2.49

97.27

TTVar/i

100.00

2

0.04

.58

1.87

96.74

.77

100.00

3

0.09

QQ

2.11

97.47

Trace.

100. 00

4

0.03

.15

.75

99.07

.00

100. 00

5

2.12

79

1.63

95.53

Trace.

100. 00

6

0.40

99 ,

1.65

07 79

TYar>p

loo. do

7

} 0.75

2.23

97.02

Traop

100.00

1 For additional data see L. Schmelck, Norske Nordhavs Exped., No. 28, p. 129, 1901. Fourteen analyses of molluscan shells a~e given, of 

the genera Buccinum, Astarte, Neptunea, and Pecten, all from the North Sea. The highest percentage of magnesium carbonate fourd was 0.78, 

the lowest 0.26. For ten complete analyses of oyster shells see Chatm, A., and Muntz, A.,Compt. Rend., vol. 120, p. 531,1895. For eleven analyses 

of land shells see an inaugural dissertation by A. Coring, Gottingen, 1872. Several determinations of magnesium carbonate, maximum 1 per 

cent, are given by G. Forchhammer in Neues Jahrb., 1852, p. 854.
CEUSTACEANS. 41

Sulphates and soluble salts were not determined. Except for the slightly higher magnesia, 

these analyses closely resemble those of molmsks.

One analysis of a barnacle, Balanus tintinnabvlus, by Butschli,1 is essentially similar to ours. 

His figures are—

CaC03 ...................................................................................... 94.44

MgCO......................................................................................... 1.20

CasPaOg...................................................................................... .36

CaSd4 .2HaO................................................................................... 2.06

98.06

In all the analyses calcium carbonate is the main constituent, and there are only minor 

impurities. We have found no other analysis of a barnacle recorded.

In the second group of crustaceans the following species were analyzed:

1. Tryphosa pinguis Boeck; sand flea. Woods Hole, Mass.

2. Pagurus rathbuni Benedict; hermit crab. Bering Sea; Albatross station 3531; latitude, 50° 55' N.; longitude, 

174° 17' W.; depth of water, 105 meters; bottom temperature, 1.7° G.

3. Callinectes sapidiis M. J. Rathbun; blue crab. Ranges from Cape Cod to Florida.

4. Homarus amerieanus Milne Edwards; common lobster. Vineyard Sound, Mass.

5. Pandalus platyceros Brandt; shrimp. Off Monterey Bay, Cal.; Albatross station 3129; latitude, 3&° 39' 40" N.; 

longitude, 122° 01' W.; depth, 49.4 meters; bottom temperature, 6.5° C.

6. Lithodes maia Linne"; spider crab. North Atlantic coast, precise locality of specimen unknown.

7. Libinia emarginata Leach; spider crab. Vineyard Sound, Mass.

8. Munidairis Milne Edwards; long-armed munida. Off Chesapeake Bay; Albatross station 2420; latitude, 37° 03' 

20" N.; longitude, 74° 31' 40" W.; depth, 190.3 meters; bottom temperature, 8.7° C.

9. Crago dalli Rathbun; a shrimp. Off Cape Stroganoff, Alaska; Albatross station3294; latitude, 57° 16' 45" N.; 

longitude, 159° 03' 30" W.; depth, 54.9 meters; bottom temperature, 5° C.

10. Panulims argus Latreille; spiny lobster. West Indies.

11. Chloridella empusa Say; mantis shrimp. Ranges from Cape Cod to Florida.

12. Penseus brasiliensis Latreille; edible shrimp. Ranges from New York to Brazil.

Analyses of crustaceans.

Si02 ... ............

(Al,Fe)208 .........

MgO... ............

CaO...- ...........

p o

so,... ............

Organic matter, etc.

1

0.62

.37

1.27

28.63

4.56

.23

64.73

100.41 

19.53

45.20

2

0.16

.15

1.55

29.11

3.25

.75

64.50

99.47 

21.14

43.36

3

0.04

.04

2.06

33.42

4.26

.23

58.89

98.94 

24.43

34.46

4

0.00

.21

2.35

31.35

3.04

.45

61.82

99.22

24.08

37.74

5

0.32

.26

1 44

18.56

4 60

.54

73.81

99.53

11.58

62.23

6

0.00

.15

1 QO

24.15

3.51

.63

69.00

99.34 

17.46

51.54

7

2.61

.78

2.81

32.79

2.73

49

57.07

99.28 

26.05

31.02

8

0.32

.16

2.58

31.28

1.87

.47

62.29

98.97 

25.41

36.88

9 ,

0.62

.20

1.01

Q Q5

2.65

.47

83.70

98.60 

6.20

77.50

10

0.16

.13

3.15

25.36

2.09

.41

66.69

97.99 

21.23

45.46

11

0.02

.17

2.60

15.38

7.75

1.07

72.35

99.34

7.15

65.20

In No. 12, the common edible shrimp of the Washington (D. C.) markets, the shell was so thin 

that the available material was too small for complete analysis. Only P2O5 , 3.07 per cent, was

determined.

Redwed analyses.

Si02 .... ...........

(Al,Fe)a08 .........

MgOOs... ..........

OaC03 . ............

Ca3P208 ------------

OaSO4 ....... .......

1

1.12

.67

4.84

74.64

18.02

.71

100. 00

2

0.28

.27

5.80

78.03

13.55

2.07

100.00

3

0.06

.06

6.69

78.14

14.45

.60

100. 00

4

0.00

.34

8.02

79.50

10.91

1.23

100. 00

5

0.87

.70

8.09

60.94

26.94

2.46

100.00

6

0.00

.31

8.35

73.07

16.03

2.24

100. 00

7

3.82

1.14

8.65

76.44

8.73

1.22

100. 00

8

0.52

.27

8.71

82.64

6.57

1.29

100.00

9

2.94

.95

10.05

54.83

27.44

3.79

100.00

10

0.31

.25

12.58

76.87

8.68

1.31

100.00

11

0.06

.50

15.99

28.56

49.56

5.33

100.00

K. Gesell. Wiss. Gottmgen Abh., No. 3, 1908.
42 INORGANIC CONSTITUENTS OF MAEINE INVERTEBRATES.

The crustaceans of this second group are very different in composition from the barnacles. 

They are distinctly phosphatic, a fact which was already known, and they are also notably 

magnesian, a peculiarity which, with a single exception, to be noted later, seems to have escaped 

serious attention hitherto. The proportion of magnesium carbonate appears to be somewhat 

dependent on temperature, as was shown in our analyses of echinoderms and alcyonarians; 

but the evidence for such a variation is not conclusive. Analysis 2, of a crab from Bering Sea, 

is low in magnesia; analysis 10, of a West Indian specimen, is high. Analyses 5, 6, 7, and 8 are 

intermediate in their magnesian content, and so far as can be determined from the evidence before 

us, they represent specimens from waters of intermediate and similar temperatures. Unfortunately the records for some specimens are defective as to precise localities and temperatures Furthermore, the large amounts of organic matter and water render the reduced analyses to some 

extent unsatisfactory. This is especially true of analysis No. 9, in which the inorganic portion 

amounted to only 21 per cent. In reducing such an analysis the unavoidable analytical errors 

are multiplied, and the percentages of magnesium carbonate, calcium carbonate, and calcium 

phosphate may be uncertain, by as much as 1 per cent each. In no case is the order of 

magnitude seriously changed, but the accuracy of the figures is not what we should wish it to be. 

The variation in the percentages of magnesium carbonate is, however, suggestive, in snite.of 

all real or apparent irregularities.

The older analyses of the shells of crustaceans are more or less unsatisfactory, but they all 

agree as to the phosphatic character of these organisms. C. Schmidt,1 for example, gives three 

analyses, as follows:

1. Astacus fluviatilis; fresh-water crawfish. 53.27 per cent inorganic.

2. Lobster; probably either Homarus vulgaris or Palinurus. 77.06 per cent inorganic.

3. Squilla mantis; a shrimp. 37.17 per cent inorganic.

Schmidt's analyses of crustaceans.

CasPA- .. .......

CaCO3 .............

1

13.17

86.83

100.00

2

12. 06

87.94

100.00

3

47.52

52.08

100.00

The figures given here are for the inorganic matter alone. Schmidt mentions magnesium 

phosphate as present but gives no determinations of it.

Two analyses of crustacean shells by E. Fremy 2 are also worth citing:

1. "Langouste"; Palinurus vulgaris.

2. "Ecrevisse"; probably the crawfish, Astacusfluviatilis.

Fremy's analyses of crustaceans.

CaaPaOg... .........

CaCOs. ....-.-..--.

Organic matter. . . .

1

6.7

49.0

44.3

100.0

2

6., 7

56.8

36.5

100.0

Here, again, the determination of magnesia has been neglected. If we reject the organic 

matter, the percentages of calcium phosphate in the inorganic part of the shells become 12.03 

and 10.55, respectively.

1 Annalen Chemie Pharm., vol. 54, p. 303,1845.

2 Annales chimie et phys., 3d ser., vol. 43, p. 94,1855. Fremy also gives many analyses of vertebrate bones, both recent and fossil.
CBUSTACEANS. 43

Astacus fluviatilis seems to have received more attention from chemists than any other crustacean. H. Weiske * found in fresh shells 4.97 to 5.31 per cent of calcium phosphate and in 

old shells, partly cast off, 9.16 to 9.21 per cent. In " Krebsteine," the concretions found in the 

shells, the percentages ran from 10.73 to 11.28 per cent. The total inorganic matter varied 

between 61 and 67 per cent.

Astacus has also been studied by Agnes Kelly,2 who also analyzed a myriapod, Julus 

(lulus). Her figures are as follows:

Analyses by Agnes Kelly.

CaO... ............

on

P,O6 ...............

Astacus.

30.44

21.23

2.79

54.52

Julus.

36.29

21.60

3.37

56.26

In an analysis of Astacus fluviatilis by O. Biitschli 3 magnesia was actually determined. 

We append his analysis, together with our own reduction of it:

Butschli's analyse of Astacus.

Actual analysis.

CaCOg..................... 47.51

MgC03 ................... 1.38

Phosphate............. .. 6.77

CaS04 .2HoO.............. 1.66

H20......"................ 1.34

Organic matter............ 40. 60

99.26

Reduced analysis.

CaCOg.................... 83.40

MgGO,................... 2.42

Ca3P2Os?.................. 11. 88

CaS04 .................... 2.30

100.00

In this analysis the low percentage of magnesia is very significant. Astacus is a fresh-water 

crustacean, whereas the analyses in our series are all of marine forms. In fresh water—the 

average river water—calcium is 6 times as abundant as magnesium, but in ocean water magnesium is 3J times as abundant as calcium. This difference in the environment may possibly 

explain the difference between the fluviatile and the marine shells, 2.42 per cent of MgCO3 in 

one and 4.84 per cent in the lowest of our determinations.

One more determination of phosphoric oxide in a crustacean remains to be noted. In the 

shell of a lobster, Homarus vulgaris, W. H. Hudleston 4 found 3.26 per cent of P3O5 . This is 

equivalent to 7.12 per cent of Ca3P3O8, or, if the organic matter was about the same in amount 

as in our analysis of the American lobster, 11.44 per cent in the inorganic portion alone. This 

is not far from the figure given in our reduced analysis No. 4, namely, 10.91 per cent.

Although the crustaceans are not of great importance as contributors to the marine sediments, they are more important than appears at a casual glance. A crab or lobster sheds its 

shell annually and grows a new one, so that an old individual has contributed many times. A 

single shell might count for little, but when multiplied by a dozen or more the contributions 

become significant. How significant they may be is for zoologists to determine.

iLandwirthschaftliche Versuchsstafcionen, vol. 20, p. 45,1877.

2 Jenaisches Zeitschr., vol. 35, p. 429,1901.

3 K. Gesell. Wiss. GOttingen Abti., No. 3,1908. 

< Geol. Soc. Quart. Jour., vol. 31, p. 376,1875.
44 INORGANIC CONSTITUENTS OF MARINE INVERTEBRATES.

CALCAREOUS ALGJE.

The calcareous algae are so important as reef builders that, although they are not marine 

invertebrates in the ordinary acceptance of the term, it seemed eminently proper to include 

them in this investigation. In many places they far outrank the corals in importance, and 

of late years much attention has been paid to them. To Dr. Marshall A. Howe, Of the New 

York Botanical Garden, we are indebted for a fine series of algae, and to him we express1 our 

thanks.

For the purposes of this research the calcareous algss fall into two groups. One of these, 

of which Lithothamnium is the most familiar example, is-highly magnesian; the other, represented by Halimeda, is almost free from magnesia. These groups are best considered separately, and under the first one we have the following species:

53

1. Lithothamnium gladale Kjellman. Topsail, Conception Bay, Newfoundland; latitude, 48° N.; longitude, 

W.

2. Lithothamnium erubescens Foslie. Haingsisi, near Timor, East Indian Archipelago.

3. Archseolithothamnium episporum Howe. Point Toro, near Colon, Isthmus of Panama.

4. Lithophyllum craspedium Foslie. Palmyra Island, in the Pacific Ocean, west of south from Hawaii; latitude, 

5° 49' N.

5. Lithophyllum pallescens Foslie. Bay of La Paz, Gulf of California; latitude, 24° 16' N.

6. Lithophyllum dsedalium Foslie and Howe. Salinas Bay, near Guanica, Porto Rico; latitude, about 18° N.

7. Lithophyllum antillarum Foslie and Howe. Culebra Island, Porto Rico; latitude, about 18° 20' N.

8. Lithophyllum oneodes Heydrich. Coetivy Island, in the Indian Ocean, northeast of Madagascar; latitude, 7° 

6' S.; longitude, 56° 30' E.

9. Lithophyllum intermedium Foslie. Fort Kingston, near Clarence, Jamaica.

10. Lithophyllum pachydermum Foslie. Dollar Harbor, South Cat Cay. Bahamas; latitude, about 25° N.

11. Lithophyllum tamiense Heydrich. New Guinea.

12. Amphiroa fragilissima Lamouroux. Lemon Bay, near Guanica, P. R.

13. Phymatolithon compactum Foslie. Torbay, Newfoundland.

14. Goniolithon acropetum Foslie and Howe. Culebra Island, P. R.

15. Goniolithon strictum Foslie. Bernini Harbor, Bahamas.

16. Goniolithon strictum. Soldiers Key, Fla.

The actual analyses are as follows:

Analyses of algae.

Si02 ... .............. ......................

(Al,Fe)2O3 .. . ..............................

MeO

CaO.......................................

PaO8 ... .................................... s68 .................. .......................

Ignition. ...................................

SiOa ........ ...............................

(Al,Fe)208 .......................... .......

MgO. ......................................

CaO.......................................

p o

S03 ............... ...........................

1

0.41

.23

4.78

45.41

Trace.

.14

48.00

98.97 

40.86

7.14

9

0.27

.21

7.25

42.55

Trace.

.02

48.63

98.93 

41.89

6.74

2

0.19

.12

7.52

42.J96

.61

47.89

99. 29 

41.69

6.20

10

0.04

.08

6.47 4.9 fin

.00

.59

49.55

99.33 

40 94

9.31

3

1.47

.89

5.93

44.80

.53

45.69

99.31 

41.43

4.26

11

0.12

.16

8.81

41.07

Trace.

.69

48 77

99.62 

41.58

7.19

4

0.03

.09

8.64

41.56

.03

.15

48.37

98.87 

42.04

6.33

12

2.82

1.31

6.71

34.82

Trace.

.56

48.78

95.00 

34.43

14.35

5

1.01

.22

6.42

40.34

.11

.71

49.94

98.80 

38.31

11.63

13

0.10

.23

4.02

38.19

.10

.52

55.42

98.58 

35.05

20.37

6

o:is

.08

8.14

40.48

Trace.

.44

49.99

99.31 

40.51

9.48

14

0.06

.04

8.27

40.60

.18

.62

49.56

99.33 

40.50

9.06

7

0.04

.10

7.24

43.34

Trace.

.57

48.11

99.40 

41.70

6.41

15

0.02

.01

10.39

38. 54

Trace.

.60

49.91

99.47 

41.38

8.53

8

0.09

.12

8.07

42.57

.08

.27

47.96

99.16 

42.11

5.85

16

| 0.05

10.93

38.03

T-ace.

.61

49.91

99.53 

41.56

8.35
CALCAREOUS ALGJE. 45

The low summation of No. 12, a very fragile form, is due to inclosed salts, mainly alkaline 

chlorides and sulphates. These were determined as 5.40 per cent, which brings the summation 

up to 100.40.

Reducing the analyses, as usual, to standard form, we have the following table:

Reduced analyses.

SiOo

(Ai;Fe)263 . ...............'.................

MeCO

OaC03 ....................................

CaaP,08 . ..................................

CaS(54 . ....................................

Si(X....... ................................

(Al,Fe)oO3 . ...........................:.... MSco3 :. ..................................

CaCO,.... ..................................

Ca3P,08 . ..................................

Ca8(54 . ....................................

1

0.45 

.25 

10.93 

88.11 

Trace. 

.26

100. 00

9

0.30 

23 1&59

82.85 

Trace. 

.03

100. 00

2

0.20 

.13 

16.96 

81.69 

Trace. 

1.12

100. 00

10

0.04 

.09 

15.08 

83.68 

Trace. 

1.11

100. 00

3

1.55 

.94 

13.09 

83.47 

Trace. 

.95

100. 00

11

0.13 

.17 

20.02 

78.43 

Trace. 

1.25

100. 00

4

0.03 

.10 

19.60 

79.92 

.08 

.27

100. 00

12

3.50 

1.62 

17.47 

76.23 

Trace. 

1.18

100. 00

5

1.16

.25 

15.46 

81.48 

.26 

1.39

100. 00

13

0.13 

.30 

10.93 

87.21 

.29 

1.14

100.00

6

0.20 

.09 

19.03

79.85 

Trace! 

.83

100. 00

14

0.07 

.05 

19.24 

79.05 

.43 

1.16

100. 00

7

0.04 

.11 

16.35 

82.46 

Trace. 

1.04

100. 00

15

0

24 

74 

Tra 

1

100

02 

01 

00 

85 

ce. 

12

00

8

0.10 

.13 

18.17 

80.93 

.18 

.49

100.00

16

| 0.06

25.17 

73.63 

Trace. 

1.14

100. 00

In No. 12, AmpJiiroa, the high silica and sesquioxides are evidently impuritie 

are rejected, the percentage of magnesium carbonate rises to 18.41. 

Of Halimeda, four species were analyzed, as follows:

17. Halimeda opuntia Lampuroux. Key West, Fla.

18. Halimeda simulans Howe. East of Guanica Harbor, Porto Rico.

19. Halimeda tridens Lamouroux. Cayo Maria Langa, Bay of Guayanilla, Porto'Rico.

20. Halimeda monile Lamouroux. Same locality as No. 19.

Analyses of Halimeda.

. If they

\

SiO,. ......................................................

(Al,Fe),O3 . .................................................. kgo./:..3... ................ ................................

CaO........................................................

P,0S ........................................................ st>3 ?. ......................................................

C02 needed .................................................

Organic matter, etc ..........................................

17

0.37 

.20 

.01 

50.32 

Trace. 

.07 

48.20

99.17 

39.47 

8.73

18

0.44 

.18 

.19 

50.20 

Trace. 

.23 

48.38

99.62 

39.53

8.85

19 .

0.88 

.58 

.44 

45.32 

Trace. 

.49 

51.94

99. 65 

35.83 

16.11

Reduced analyses.

SiO.,. .......................................................

(Al,Fe)203 - ..................................................

MgC03 . .....................................................

CaC03 . .....................................................

Ca3P,O8 . ................................./..............,...

Ca80"4 . ......................................................

17

0.41 

.22 

.02 

99.21 

Trace. 

.14

100. 00

18

0.48 

.20 

.44 

98.45 

Trace. 

.43

100. 00

19

1.04 

.68 

1.09 

96.21 

Trace. 

.98

100.00

20

1.90 

1.10 

.45 

48.21 

Trace. 

.02 

47.56

99.24 

38.35 

9.21

20 .

2.11 

1.22 

1.04 

95.58 

Trace. 

.05

100.00
46 INORGANIC CONSTITUENTS OF MARINE INVERTEBRATES.

After allowance is made for obvious impurities the essential identity of these four analyses 

becomes clear. The inorganic portion of Halimeda consists of calcium carbonate and an insignificant amount of magnesia. In the first group of algae, Nos. 1 to 16, magnesium carbonate 

is conspicuous, more so than hi any other class of organisms so far analyzed. In Goniolithon 

strictum especially it ranges from 24 to over 25 per cent, or more than half way to dolomite 

These algae are probably the largest contributors of magnesia to the marine limestones.

It is also noteworthy that the two algse of the first group, Nos. 1 and 13, are from the cold 

waters of Newfoundland, and that the others are from tropical or subtropical regions. Several, 

if not all of them, are shoal-water organisms and were collected on reefs, or rocks, or on sands 

near low-tide levels. It is desirable that Arctic species should be carefully studied—at least 

more carefully than hitherto. The older published data leave much to be desired, especially 

as to definiteness of species and localities.

Of the earlier analyses of calcareous algae those "by A. Damour 1 are the most complete 

and most nearly comparable with ours. Five species were analyzed, as follows:

1. Lithophyllum sp. Mediterranean Sea.

2. Melobesia sp. Coast of Algeria.

3. Amphiroa tribulus. Antilles.

4. Halimeda opuntia. Red Sea.

5. Galaxaurafragilis. Antilles.

Damour's " Mittepora cevricornis," of which he gives an analysis, is not included here on 

account of its doubtful character. (See p. 18.)

Damour's analyses of algae.

CaCO3 . .............................................................

MgC03 .. ............................................................

Na O

K n

FeaOa-.... I........................................ .................

so3 ... ---...-..--..--..-...-...--..-...-.........-..--.-...........

p n

Gl. ................................................................

CaS04 .. .............................................................

H20 ...............................................................

SiO2 . ...............................................................

Sand...............................................................

1

77.36

11.32

.55

.27

.08

.95

.32

.60

4.70

1.46

1.36

98.97

2

72.78

12.32

1.75

.65

.20

1.25

.38

.34

3.95

1.40

4.28

99.30

3

70.83

16.99

.89

.39

.93

.27

.53

.20

6.40

1.38

98.81

4

86.17

.56

1.13

.54

(?)

< ?L

.84

55

8.30

.90

98.99

5

72.56

.86

.73

1.02

(?)

(?

1.17

1.80

17.50

.95

2.20

98.79

In these analyses Na2O, K2O, Cl, and SO3 evidently represent sea salts. Rejecting them 

as impurities, together with the organic matter, water, and sand, and recalculating to 100 per 

cent, we have the following reduced analyses, which are similar to ours:

Damour's analyses reduced.

Si02 . ...............................................................

Fe203 . ..............................................................

MgC03 .. ............................................................

CaC03 . .............................................................

Ca,,P208 ... ..........................................................

CaSO4 .. .............................................................

1

0.09

12.76

86.36

.79

100.00

2

0.23

14.44

84.36

.97

100.00

3

19.29

79.81

.67

.23

100.00

4

0.64

98.73

(?)

,63

100.00

5

9 84

1.11

QO 70

(?)

2.32

100.00

Compt. Rend., vol. 32, p. 253,1851.
CALCAEEOUS ALG-E. 47

Three of these algae are highly magnesiaii; HcMimeda and Galaxaura are not. 

Two analyses of algse by A. Schwager were published by J. Walther 1 in 1885. There is 

also one by C. W. Giimbel, 2 and these three may be combined in one table, as follows:

1. Lithoihamnium sp. Bay of Naples; Schwager, analyst.

2. Lithothamnium ramulosum. Bay of Naples; Schwager, analyst.

3. Lithothamnium nodosum. Locality not stated; Giimbel, analyst.

Actual analyses of algss.

Si03 ............... .......................................................

A1»O8 .. ...................................................................

Fe.,03.... .................................................................

MnO........ ............................................................

MgO. . ..................................................................

CaO..... .................................................................

CO«. ....................................................................

P2 f35 . ...................................................................

1

1.59

3.36

.28

Trace.

1.90

48.09

39.87

5.06

100. 15

2

1.91

3.61

.41

Trace.

3.06

45.88

39.41

5.57

99.85

3

2.55

2.66

47.14

40.06

.06

4.96

2.57

100.00

Reducing these to uniformity with our analyses we have the following table:

Reduced analyses.

Si02 ..... .................................................................

(Al,Fe)203 .... .................. J... .....................................

MgGQs ...... ............................................................

CaCO8 ............. .......................................................

CagP-jOg.... ...............................................................

1

1.68

3.83

4.19

90.30

100.00

2

2.03

4.26

6.81

86.90

100.00

3

2.76

6.06

91.04

.14

1 100.00

In these analyses, all of Lithothamnium, the percentage of magnesium carbonate is remarkably low. Why this should be so is not clear, but it may be due to differences in the age of 

the plants; that is, young specimens may have secreted less magnesia proportionally to lime 

than older, more mature examples. This suggestion might well be tested by special analyses 

of properly selected material. Until that has been done the suggestion can carry little weight.

Eleven partial analyses of Lithoihamnium, made by A. G. Hogbom,3 assisted by R. Mauzelius, N. Sahlbom, and J. Guinchard, are curiously irregular. The percentages of magnesium 

carbonate vary enormously, and with no apparent or even probable relation to temperatures. 

The data given are as follows:

Lithoihamnium sp. Spitzbergen. ..........................................................

Lithothamnium polymorphun. Kattegat. ...................................................

Lithothamnium ramulosum. Naples. ......................................................

Lithothamnium soriferum. Arctic Ocean. ........................:..........................

Lithothamnium sp. Bering Islands. ........................................................

Lithothamnium racemus. Naples. ..........................................................

Lithothamnium sp. Bermuda. .............................................................

Lithothamnium glaciale. Arctic Ocean. . ....................................................

CaCO3.

72.03

83.60

84.83

74.22

84.01

63.00

80.90

74.24

77.39

82.44

83.10

MgC03.

3.76

6.53

8.67

9.10

9.39

9.46

9.56

4.94

11.33

12.37

13.19

» Deutsch. geol. Gesell. Zeitschr., p. 338,1885.

3, K. bayer. Akad. Wiss. Abh., Matb.-phys. Classe, vol. 2, p. 26.

s Neues Jahrb., 1894, Band 1, p. 262.
48 INORGANIC CONSTITUENTS OF MAKINE INVERTEBRATES.

In this series the percentages of magnesium carbonate are much lower than those found by 

us, and there is uncertainty hi six examples as to the exact species. Hogbom, however, points 

out the importance of these algae in respect to the formation of dolomite, which was the real 

subject of his investigation. In Halimeda sp., from Labuan, only a trace of magnesia was found.

In LitTiothamnium racemus, from the Bahamas, H. W. Nichols 1 found 5.35 per cent of 

magnesium carbonate, but without rejection of organic matter, etc., undetermined. This 

percentage is remarkably low. A similar low figure for magnesium carbonate—5.85 per cent— 

was found by E. W. Skeats 2 in Lithothamnium phillipi v&T.funafutiensis Foslie. The specimen 

was taken on the atoll of Funafuti.

In a very fresh Halimeda opuntia Skeats found 0.60 per cent of MgCO3 and 86.50 of CaCO3 , 

but hi a mass of fronds dredged up from a depth between 50 and 60 fathoms the percentages 

were 4.0 MgCO3 to 93.59 CaCO3 . The increase in magnesia may have been due to concentration by leaching. These data are given by J. W. Judd,3 who also cites an analysis of dead 

Halimeda fronds made for him by C. G. Cullis, who found hi them 1.39 per cent of MgC03 and 

98.32 of CaCO3 . Judd also quotes an analysis of Halimeda, cited by Payen in his Flora, which 

contained 5.50 per cent of MgCO3 and 90.16 of CaCO3 . The character of the specimen represented by the last analysis, whether fresh or old, is uncertain. The best analyses agree in 

assigning little magnesium to Halimeda.

In an important memoir on Melobesia Madame P. Lemoine 3 gives several analyses of calcareous algae. The analyses, made for her by M. Charf, are not very complete, but they are, 

nevertheless, of distinct value. The data are as follows:

1. Lithothamnium calcareum. St.-Vaast-la-Hougue, Manche, France.

2. Lithothamnium calcareum. Isle Glenan, Finistere, France.

3. Lithothamniumfornicatum. Norway.

4. Lithophyllum incrustans. Gatteville, Manche, France.

5. Lithophyllum incrustans. Mazagan, Morocco.

6. Lithophyllum tortuosum. Genoa.

7. Lithophyllum craspedium. Tahiti.

To the analyses as reproduced in the following table we venture to add a line for reduced 

or corrected magnesium carbonate, computed on the basis of 100 per cent for the two carbonates alojie. , '

Lemoine 1 s analyses ofalgse.

Soluble in H2O. . ...................................

Insoluble in HC1. ....................................

CaCO,. .......... ...................................

MgC03 ..... .......................................

1

2.3

.0

80.9

11.8

5.0

100.0 

12.7

2

3.0

.0

75.2

10.7

11.1

100.0 

12.5

3

1.2

.0

,81.6

9.3

7.9

100.0 

10.2

4

1.7

.0

84.4

10.8

3.1

100.0 

11.3

5

3.8

.0

77.7

9.8

8.7

100.0 

11.2

6

5.7

6.2

73.4

9.3

5.4

100.0 

11.2

7

3.2

.0

75.4

15.9

5.5

100.0 

17.4

In this series the highest magnesia is in the alga from Tahiti and the lowest in that from 

Norway. This tendency toward increased magnesia in algae from warm regions, as compared 

with those from cold waters, was noticed by Madame Lemoine, but only incidentally. The 

subject was not given any detailed consideration by her. ' Madame Lemoine also cites the older analyses of algae, including three by J. Chalon, as 

follows:

1. Lithothamnium calcareum. Roscoff, Finistere, France.

2. Lithophyllum incrustans. Banyuls, France, on the Mediterranean.

3. Lithophyllum tortuosum. Naples.

1 Field Columbian Mas. Pub. Ill, p. 31,1906.

2 The atoll of Funafuti, pp. 376, 377, London, The Royal Society, 19(M.

3 Idem.

3 Inst. oc<5anographique Monaco Annales, vol. 2, fasc. 2,1911.
CALCAREOUS ALG.SJ. 

Chalon's analyses of algae.

49

CaC03 ..................................................... v .............

MgCCV- ...............................................................

Organic matter. . ............................................ i. .............

\X7oi" QT*

1

82.41

11.80

4.30

.86

99.37 

12.52

2

76.06

14.38

7.38

1.72

99.54 

15.90

3

82.20

11.57

5.26

.80

99.83 

12.35

These recent analyses, from the memoir of Mkdame Lemoine, agree well with ours and, 

notwithstanding Hogbom's divergent data, strengthen the suggestion that the proportion of 

magnesia in the algae is influenced by temperature.

The material studied by us was carefully chosen by Dr. Howe, with direct reference to the 

purpose of our investigation. Every species was thoroughly identified, its locality was definitely 

stated, and the specimens were remarkably clean and free from misleading impurities. The 

results obtained by us are therefore as nearly trustworthy as it is practicable for us to make 

them. The significance of the algae in reference to dolomite was already well established by 

previous workers, but our new data strengthen the conclusions which our predecessors had 

drawn.1

ADDENDA^

Since the foregoing pages were written three fiiore calcareous algss have been submitted 

for analysis by T. Wayland Vaughan. The specie^, with analyses by A. A. Chambers, are as 

follows:

1. Goniolithon fratescens Foslie. Cocos-Keeling Islands, in the Indian Ocean, latitude 12.5° S.; longitude 

96.53° E.

2. Goniolithon orthoblastum (Heydrich) Howe. Murray Inland, Torres Straits, Australia.

3. Lithophyllum kaiseri Heydrich. Cocos-Keeling Islands.

Analyses ofafyse.

SiO2 ,ALO3?Fe203. .......................................................

MgO ....................................................................

OaO ........................................................ t ............

P n

s63 .... .................................................................

i

0.07

6.29

46.16

Trace.

.00

46.70

99.22 

43.19

3.51

3

0.11

5.71

42. 39

Trace.

.00

50.97

99.18 

39.59

11.38

3

0.28

7.09

45.92

Trace.

.00

45.72

99.01 

43.88

1.84

Reduced analyses.

SiO,,Al2O3 ,Fe303 . ........................................... MgcV..3 :..!..3 .............................................

OaCO.......................................................

CagP-jOg. ....................................................

CaSO4 ......... ..............................................

-

1

0.07

13.80

86.13

Trace.

.00

100. 00

2

0.12

13. -66

86.22

Trace.

.00

100.00

3

0.29

15.33

84.38

Trapp

. .00

100.00

i On the importance of algse as reef builders see an interesting paper by Dr. Howe in Science, new ser., vol. 35, p. 837, 1912. He cites much 

other literature.

50364°—16———4
50 INORGANIC CONSTITUENTS OP MARINE INVERTEBRATES.

These algse are much lower in magnesia than our specimens from similarly warm regions. 

The two species of Oonioliihon contain little more than half as much magnesium carbonate 

as the species from Florida and the West Indies. For this difference we have no explanation 

to offer.

GENERAL DISCUSSION.

In the foregoing pages we have reported 250 new analyses of marine invertebrates and have 

cited many other analyses made elsewhere. These data shed much light upon the chemistry 

of the marine sediments, and they also suggest various problems, some of .them biological, 

which are yet to be solved. The limitations of our research have been pointed out in the introduction to this memoir, and are taken for granted in the following general discussion of the 

results that we have obtained. First in order we may consider the distribution of the essential 

constituents of the invertebrate skeletons, taking each one separately.

Silica.—The skeletons of radiolarians and diatoms and the spicules of siliceou^ sponges 

consist almost entirely of opaline silica. The radiolarian and diatom oozes of the Challenger 

expedition show the importance of these organisms. In our own work we have studied only 

the sponges, and our results show nothing new. Our analysis of Euplectetta, hc^ever, is 

probably more complete than any previous analysis of a siliceous sponge. We hp,ve found 

recorded in the literature only partial analyses of sponge spicules.

In nearly all our analyses, in every group of organisms, silica appears, generally in small 

but exceptionally in rather large proportions. Some of this may be essential, but in most cases 

it is an impurity. In fact, sand grains were distinctly visible in some of the specimens analyzed 

but were not readily removable.

Alumina and iron oxide.—In most of our analyses alumina and iron oxide wer*» usually 

determined but they are to be regarded generally as impurities due to adherent silf. or mud. 

Iron is doubtless a normal constituent in small amounts.

Lime.—The most important base in nearly all marine shells or skeletons, whet] or vertebrate or invertebrate, is lime. Only the siliceous organisms are free from it. JTolluscan 

shells, the stony corals, the hard parts of millepores, some brachiopods, and the barnacles are 

composed almost entirely of calcium carbonate and contain only minor impurities- In the 

other series of marine invertebrates, with few exceptions, it is the dominant inorganic constituent. Calcium phosphate and sulphate were also determined in most of our analyses, but 

they will be considered in other paragraphs.

Magnesia.—One of the most interesting results of our investigation is the discovery that 

magnesium carbonate is much more widely distributed as an essential constituent of marine 

invertebrates than it has hitherto been supposed to be. In the Foraminifera, alcyonarians, 

echinoderms, crustaceans, and coralline algse it is especially important, and some otlr^r organisms contain it in notable proportions. Its peculiar relations to temperature have been noted 

in several sections of this work and will be discussed more fully later.

Our determinations of magnesia, however, are subject to at least one small correction. 

Many of the specimens analyzed contained inclosed or,adherent sea salts and in a few of them it 

could not be estimated. They rarely amounted to more than 2 per cent but in one analysis 5 

per cent was found. Sea salts contain magnesium, and its equivalent in magnesium carbonate 

must therefore be deducted from the percentages of magnesium carbonate given in our reduced 

analyses. The maximum correction to be thus applied is about 0.4 per cent but 0.1 per cent 

would be the more common amount. In our work such a correction is negligible, for the proportion of magnesium carbonate in our important magnesian series ranges from 5 to 25 per 

cent. The small quantities of magnesia found in most mollusks and corals, however, may be 

due in part, if not entirely, to saline impurities.

Phosphorus.—In nearly all our analyses phosphoric oxide appears, but generally in trifling 

quantities. It is abundant, however, in the series of phosphatic brachiopods, tin crustaceans, and the alcyonarians. Some worm tubes also are notably phosphatic. In reducing the 

analyses to standard form we have assumed that the phosphoric oxide is best represented
GEFEBAL DISCUSSION. . 51

in combination as tricalcium phosphate, although the assumption is not absolutely proved. 

It is a pure convention, adopted for the sake of uniformity and to simplify the comparison 

of analyses. It is of course possible that magnesium phosphates may exist in some of the 

organisms and that a part of the phosphorus may be contained hi then" organic matter. Magnesium phosphates, however, are very rare as minerals, whereas calcium phosphate is extremely common. The organic matter decomposes after the death of the animals and its phosphorus would doubtless appear in the sediments as a phosphate. In any case the dead organisms are likely to be buried among calcareous sediments, where calcium phosphate should 

be formed. Even the phosphatic worm tubes, in which the calcium is insufficient to form a 

tribasic salt, would probably follow this rule. Lime from the sediments would supply the 

deficiency.

Sulphur.—In many of our analyses sulphur was determined as sulphur triqxide and recalculated into the form of calcium sulphate. Part of the sulphur may really exist in organic 

combination, especially in the phosphatic brachiopods, and another part may be derived from 

sea salts, but this part is extraneous and should not be considered as contributory to the sediments. A correction for them would be like that which we have regarded as applicable to 

the magnesia and of the same order of magnitude. In the marine sediments generally calcium sulphate is'of minor importance.

Other constituents.—Among the inorganic constituents of invertebrates there are other 

elements than those which we have determined. The most important one of these is fluorine, 

which is probably present in small amount hi all living organisms. P. Carles, 1 for example, 

has detected fluorine in the shells of mollusks—as much as 0.012 per cent in oyster shells. In 

combination with calcium phosphate fluorine may form a compound analogous to or identical 

with apatite. Its presence in vertebrate bones is well known. Boron also is widely distributed in the animal kingdom. G. Bertrand and H. Agulhon 2 detected it in crustaceans, mollusks, and echinoderms, as well as in vertebrate animals. The presence of manganese has 

been reported in sponges and mollusks 3 and the element is probably of common occurrence in 

other organisms. Copper has long b^en recognized in oysters, and was found by L. B. Mendel 

and H. C. Bradley,4 together with jainc, iron, magnesium, and phosphorus, hi the liver of 

another mollusk, Sycotypus. M. Henze 5 also detected copper hi the liver of cephalopods. In 

two corals G. Forchhammer e found traces of copper, silver, and lead. The blood of ascidians, 

according to Henze,7 contains vanadium. In short, a systematic search for minor metallic 

constituents in marine invertebrates would probably show that they contain many other 

elements. This subject, however, lies outside the scope of our investigation, and these few 

citations are enough for present purposes.

For the intensive study of coral reefs the analyses furnished by us together with those 

cited from others are of great significance. The limestone immediately below the zone of 

living forms owes its composition to all the organisms that flourished on the reef. Algae, corals, 

alcyonarians, Foraminifera, and other forms of less importance contribute their remains to the 

building of the limestone, which may vary in composition as the life upon it varies. Corals 

may predominate in one place, algse in another. Each reef must therefore be studied on its 

individual merits if its chemical character is to be understood. Precipitated carbonates, 

whether of bacterial origin or not, must also be taken into account, and their quantity may 

be large. At Funafuti, where the limestone has been studied with unusual thoroughness, 

the order of importance of the leading organisms is estimated by A. E. Finckh,8 as follows:

1 Compt. Rend., vol. 144, pp. 437,1240,1907.

2 Idem, vol. 156, p. 732,1913.

s See Cotte, J., Soc. de biologie, Compt. rend., vol. 55, p. 139,1903; Bradley, H. C., Jour. Biol. Chemistry, vol. 3, p. 151, 1907; idem, vol. 8, 

p. 237,1910.

* Am. Jour. Physiology, vol. 14, p. 313,1905.

5 Zeitsehr. physiol. Chemie, vol. 33, p. 417,1901.

« Philos. Trails., vol. 165, p. 203,186.5.

" Zeitsehr. physiol. Chemie., vol. 72, p. 401,1911; idein, vol. 86, p. 340,1913.

»The atoll of Funafuti, pp. 125-150, London, The RQyal Society, 1904.
52 . INORGANIC CONSTITUENTS OF MARINE INVERTEBRATES.

1, Lithotham,nion; 1 2, Halimeda; 3, Foraminifera; 4, the corals, including Heliopora and other 

alcyonarians and the millepores. Here the corals are subordinate to the algse, and even the 

Foraminifera outrank them. To call the Funafuti rock a coralline limestone would therefore 

be somewhat misleading.

Chemical analysis, however, is not the only factor of importance in determining tt e composition of a marine limestone. The crystalline character of the shells and skeletons, whether 

calcitic or aragonitic, must also be considered. For this purpose the well-known reaction 

with cobalt nitrate, the "Meigen reaction," is commonly employed, especially by W. Meigen 

himself, who has studied a considerable number of organisms, both recent and fossil, and some 

of his determinations 2 relate to genera examined by us. For these, excluding fossil forms, 

the data are as follows:

Calcite. Aragonite.

Lithothamnium. Alga. Halimeda. Alga. 

Lithophyllum. Alga. Galaxaura. Alga. 

Polytrema. Foraminifer. Millepora. Hydromedusa. 

('Orallium. Alcyonarian. Distichopora. Hydromedusa. 

Tubipora. Alcyonarian. Heliopora. Alcyonarian. 

Serpula. Annelid. Spirula. Cephalopod. 

Terebratula. Brachiopod. Sepia. Cephalopod. 

Argonauta. Cephalopod. 

Balanus. Crustacean.

Of these genera, so far as they have been studied chemically, all in the aragonite column 

are almost completely nonmagnesian. The trifling amounts of magnesia which they contain 

may be due to impurity or to alteration. Two in the calcite column, Terebratula and Balanus, 

are also nonmagnesian, and the others are all rich in magnesium carbonate. Meigen also tested 

twenty zoantharian corals, all aragonitic and nonmagnesian, and a considerable number of 

mollusks. Some of the molluscan shells were aragonitic and some were calcitic, but all except 

Argonauta were nearly free from magnesia. One echinoderm in Meigen's list, of a genus not 

represented in our series of analyses, was calcitic, and so too were ours. All the echinoderms, 

so far as we know, are distinctly magnesian. In short, it seems probable, in the light of existing 

evidence, that all aragonitic organisms are essentially nonmagnesian; and that those characterized by the presence of much magnesia are calcitic. Many calcitic forms, however, are 

practically free from magnesia. The general relation thus brought out is very suggestive. 

Magnesium carbonate associates itself only with calcite, with which it is isomorphous, rather 

than with aragonite of different crystalline form, but why some organisms should secrete 

calcite and others aragonite in building their shells or skeletons is as yet unexplained, although 

the difference may be of physiologic origin, and may perhaps be correlated with differences of 

structure.

The considerations presented in the preceding pages bear directly upon the problem of 

the origin of marine dolomite. We now know what classes of organisms supply magnesia to 

the limestones and something also of what may be called their mineralogic nature. TJ x o dolomite ratio between the two carbonates is, however, never directly reached; there is always at 

first a large excess of calcium over magnesium, and a mixture is formed instead of the true 

double salt. To produce dolomite the original limestone must either be enriched by iragnesia 

derived from sea water or else concentrated by leaching away of lime; furthermore, its two 

component carbonates must be somehow forced to combine. These processes may be operative 

simultaneously, but it is more probable that the change from magnesian limestone to cfolomite 

is brought about by a series of steps, taken one at a time.

In this connection the report on Funafuti, already cited, is remarkably suggestive. On 

that atoll or island a committee of the Royal Society put down a boring 1,114 feet, in limestone all the way. The rock throughout contained organic remains and was studied both

1 The term Lithothamnion as used in the Funafuti report is general, and includes not only Lifliothamnium, but also LithophyUum, GonioliHion, 

and perhaps other genera. See Atoll of Funafuti, p. 332, London, The Royal Society, 1904.

2 Naturf. Gesell. Freiburg Ber., vol. 13, p. 40, 1903.
OENEEAL DISCUSSION. 53

microscopically and chemically. At a depth of 4 feet from the surface it contained 4.23 per 

cent of magnesium carbonate, and at 15 feet 16.4 per cent. To this point a concentration 

by leaching is indicated, even if not absolutely proved, and it is probable that the relatively 

soluble nonmagnesian aragonitic structures had been in part at least dissolved away. The 

unstable aragonite is more easily dissolved than calcite, a relation so well established that it does 

not need to be discussed here. 1 The fact that many sections of the core are described as "cavernous" in structure is additional evidence that solution had occurred. Solution is also aided 

by the carbonic acid generated during the decomposition of the organic matter of the organisms, 

and through its agency calcite would be dissolved also. Magnesium carbonate is much less 

readily removed.

At a depth of 25 feet the core contained 16 per cent of magnesium carbonate, but the 

specimen examined consisted largely of Liihothamnion remains, which accounts for its composition. On the other hand, the core at 40 feet carried only 5.85 per cent of magnesium carbonate and was in great part composed of Heliopora and Millepora, both originally nonmagnesian. 

The core sections evidently varied in composition according to the variations in the organisms 

from which they were formed. A sample taken only a few feet away from the boring might 

have had a different composition. Some fluctuations in the series of analyses may be accounted 

for in this way.

Below 40 feet the magnesian content of the rock diminished rapidly, falling at one 

point to 0.79 per cent of magnesium carbonate. Between 40 and 637 feet the composition of 

the rock was about that of an ordinary limestone, but at the latter depth crystals of dolomite 

began to appear.2 At 640 feet the percentage of magnesium carbonate was 26.33, and it 

increased, with some fluctuations, to the final depth of 1,114 feet. At 950 feet it reached 43 

per cent and at the lowest depth it was 41.05 per cent. From 640 feet downward the rock was 

essentially dolomite, although it contained an excess of calcite. Pure dolomite contains 45.65 

per cent of magnesium carbonate, a figure that was very nearly approached.

The column of rock represented by the Funafuti boring thus appears to be divisible into 

three fairly definite zones. The surface layer is about 25 feet thick, and its composition is 

directly determined by the organisms living above it. In this zone the evidence of concentration by leaching is quite clear. From 25 feet down to 640 feet the rock is essentially a 

limestone, with very little magnesia. The lowest zone, from 640 feet downward, is dolomite, 

and the dividing line between this aid the limestone above is very distinct. Within 3 feet 

the proportion of magnesium carbonate in the rock rises from 2.44 to 26.33 per cent.

To account for all the differences* in the Funafuti column does not fall within the scope 

of this investigation, even if it were possible to explain them. Possibly the limestone of the 

middle zone was laid down during n period when nonmagnesian organisms were relatively

much more abundant than they are 

the sudden change from limestone to

In order to partly explain theso changes we venture to offer some purely speculative 

suggestions, believing that speculation is legitimate if it tends to stimulate investigation or to

provoke a closer scrutiny of existing e

of equilibrium, then followed, during

much of the dolomitization took place

The period of rest was succeeded

now. This supposition, however, does not account for 

dolomite in passing from the second to the lowest zone.

iderice.

The lowest portion of the Funafu i rock is, of course, the oldest, and it contains fragments 

of Lithothamnion and other organisms which flourish abundantly only at moderate depths. 

Magnesia was then concentrated in tie rock, in part directly from living forms and in part 

by leaching, as at present. The thickness of the rock shows that it must have been deposited 

during a long period of depression, which may have submerged the island to a depth at which 

few of the magnesian organisms, especially the algse, could thrive. A prolonged rest, a period

which very little rock was formed, and in this period 

by one of elevation, which brought the dolomitic rock

again to the surface, when reef building began anew, but with relatively fewer magnesian

1 This leaching at Funafuti has alread;

2 See the petrographic report by C. G.

been pointed out by J. W. Judd in The atoll of Funafuti, p. 384. 

3ullis in The atoll of Funafuti, pp. 392-420.
54 INORGANIC CONSTITUENTS OF MARINE INVERTEBRATES.

organisms than formerly. Between 552 and 660 feet the nonmagnesian Halimeda is the main 

constituent of the cores. The new rock, then, was less magnesian than the older, an<1 the 

sharp break between the two zones becomes intelligible. Magnesian organisms wer<> not 

extinct, for their remains appear throughout the Funafuti cores, but they were much less 

abundant than at first. Whether this supposition is true or not might be determined by a 

quantitative study of the thin sections of the rock, which ought to be still in existence. The 

published records of them seem to be purely qualitative, except in so far as they indicate the 

frequency of occurrence of the different organisms. They do not show their relative quantities.1 At present magnesian organisms predominate and their composition is reflected in the 

composition of the surface limestone.

Our assumptions regarding changes of sea level at Funafuti are not altogether im'agrnary. 

In their report upon the geology of the island T. W. E. David and G. Sweet 2 assert that—

the surface geological evidence collected by us proves, in our opinion, that several oscillating vertical movements 

of the above have taken place in the immediate past at Funafuti, and we should not, therefore, be surprised if the 

evidence gained from the core shows that movements of the shore line in both directions have occurred at Funafuti 

at earlier epochs.

The chemical and algal evidence reinforce the physiographic evidence. On the formation 

of "coral reefs "during subsidence or elevation there is an abundant literature, which we eg.n not 

attempt to summarize. We are dealing with a specific instance from a single point of view. 

The subject is one over which there has been much controversy. Our principal assumption, 

which may or may not be sustained, is that the dolomitic zone at Funafuti represents r.n old 

reef upon which the present reef is superimposed. A similar basing of new reefs upon older 

ones has already been pointed out by T. Wayland Vaughan.3

On many other islands in the South Pacific dolomitized limestones which were originally 

reefs are found at elevations hundreds of feet above sea level. A number of these rocks have 

been described by E. W. Skeats,4 who made good series of chemical analyses of them and also 

discussed their origin. Organic and especially algal remains were common in the rocks and 

were clearly recognizable in spite of the fact that in many places they had been much altered 

by the process of dolomitization. In these islands an elevation of the land had clearly taken 

place. Similar limestones from the Fiji, Tonga, Paumotus, and Ladrone islands have been 

studied by R. L. Sherlock,5 who found them to be composed in great part of algal and foraminiferal remains. Among 47 thin sections which he examined, ''Lithoihamnion" was 

found in 35, Polytrema in 21, echinoderm fragments in 17, and corals in 15. In short, fll the 

evidence goes to prove the importance of the algse as limestone builders and the subordinate 

character of the corals. This importance is now fully recognized by students of marine limestones and by paleontologists generally.

It is not our purpose to discuss the origin of dolomite in general, for probably the rock 

originates in more than one way.6 At Funafuti, however, and at other similar localities marine 

organisms have much to do with its origin, and that phase of the dolomite problem may r.ppropriately be considered here. The first step in the process, concentration by leaching, has 

already been described, but that is only a beginning. The living organisms, plant or animal,! 

contain much less magnesia than is required to form dolomite, and its quantity must be increased from some outer source. That source, or at least the only source which we can discover, is found in ocean water, in which magnesium is much more abundant than calcium. 

This source has been recognized by many authorities, and it is generally assumed that r,n exr 

change may occur between the magnesium of the water and the calcium of the limestones, the 

one replacing the other. This assumption is due to J. D. Dana,7 who sought to explain the 

dolomitization of a limestone on the island of Makatea.

1 The atoll of Funafuti, tables on pp. 336-361.

2 Idem, p. 88.

3 Papers from the Tortugas laboratory of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, vol. 5, p. 66,1914. 

* Idem, vol. 42, p. 51,1903.

6 Mus. Comp. Zool. Bull., vol. 38, p. 349,1903.

« For a rather full summary of the subject see Clarke, F. W., The data of geochemistry, 3d ed., U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 616, pp. 559-57:',. 1916.

7 Corals andicoral islands, 3d ed., p. 393 [1890].
CffiNEKAL DISCUSSION. 55

That an enrichment in magnesia Torn sea water is possible is shown by some experiments 

made by C. Element/ who found that a concentrated solution of magnesium sulphate and 

sodium chloride, at 90° C., attacked uragonite and corals strongly, yielding a mixture of carbonates containing as high as 41.9 por cent of magnesium carbonate. Calcite, on the other 

hand, was but slightly altered. In tb.e light afforded by these experiments the nonmagnesian 

aragonitic organisms assume new importance, and are perhaps more influential in the production of dolomite than the distinctly magnesian species. Their solubility is evident in the 

first stage of magnesian concentration; their alterability is effective in the second.

Klement's experiments, however were performed with concentrated solutions and at a 

rather high temperature. Under nabural conditions, with less concentration and at lower 

temperatures, the same reaction may take place very slowly but be equally complete in time. 

Years, or even decades, may be needed to effect such changes as were produced in the laboratory 

within 48 hours. In the study of geochemical processes the time factor must always be taken 

into account.

So far, according to Element, a mixture of the two carbonates has been found. To convert 

them into the double carbonate, dolomite, another step must be taken, and here again time 

may be important. A porous rock has been produced, which is saturated with water and 

buried at a depth which subjects it tol considerable pressure. If the two carbonates of calcium 

and magnesium were perfectly dry, pressure alone would probably not effect their union, but 

under the influence of moisture, with slight solution going on at the surfaces of the solid particles, there would be a degree of molecular mobility which might bring about combination. 

This is probable, although so far as we know it has not been actually proved. The establishment of the facts ought not to be beyond the range of experimental investigation. Views 

similar to ours relative to the formation of dolomite have already been advanced by Ge'ne'ral 

E. Jourdy, who especially recognizes the importance of the algae, of aragonite, and of time. 

Much remains to be done, however, before the problem of dolomitization can be completely 

solved.2

On the subject of phosphate ro^k we have little to say. We have shown that several 

groups of organisms are rich in phosphates, but the extent of their contributions to the sediments is uncertain. At best they can at first form beds of only moderately phosphatic limestone, which may perhaps be concentrated by the leaching away of the excess of carbonates. 

Vertebrate skeletons are also phosphatic and may possibly be more important additions to the 

sediments than invertebrate remains[ In some localities limestones have been phosphatized 

by percolations from beds of guano,8 but that process is not one which needs to be considered 

here. It has no relation to the present research.

In the course of our investigation we have made one very curious discovery, to which 

we have repeatedly called attention, namely, the fact that in certain groups of organisms the 

proportion of magnesium carbonate is dependent upon or determined by temperature. The 

crinoids and alcyonarians show this relation very clearly, and it is also suggested by our analyses 

of Foraminifera, crustaceans, and algae. As a rule the organisms from warm waters are much 

richer in magnesia than those from coH waters, and the observed differences are often strikingly 

conspicuous. This rule, or rather tendency, we are inclined to believe is general, although we 

must admit that there are probably exceptions to it. Whether the increase in magnesia in

passing from cold to warm regions is

the great ocean, 4 per cent on the

absolutely regular or not we do not venture to say, but

apparent irregularities may be due to any one of several different causes. Slight analytical 

errors, uncertainty as to exact temperatures, impurities in the specimens analyzed, and differences in the concentration of sea water may all help to produce irregularities, which, however, 

are not likely to be large. The salinity of ocean water is very variable; it is 3.5 per cent in

southern shores of the Mediterranean, and less than 1

1 Min. pet. Mitt., vol. 14, p. 526,1894. F.W., Centralbl. Mineralogie, 1903, p. 659, and Neues Jahrb., Beilage Band 9, p. 485,1894.

Two separate papers.

2 Soc. g4ol. France Bull., 4th ser., vol. 14, p. 279,1914.

8 In The data of geochemistry: IT. S. Geol. Survey B all. 616, pp. 519-528,1916, a summary of our knowledge of phosphate rock may be found.
56 INORGANIC CONSTITUENTS OF MARINE INVERTEBRATES.

per cent in the Baltic, differences that are great enough to exert some influence upon the vital 

processes of marine animals. Although the ratio between calcium and magnesium is practically constant in all oceanic waters, a concentrated water would contain more magnesium, 

volume for volume, than a water that was more dilute. Whether an organism living in a 

concentrated water would assimilate more magnesia because of its enriched environment r o one 

can say, but conceivably it might do so. The influence of temperature might in that way be 

slightly modified. This is only a suggestion, not a statement of established fact. That warmth 

favors the assimilation of magnesia by marine invertebrates seems to be reasonably certain, 

but why it should be so is not clear. The relation is definite but as yet unexplained. We 

hope it is not inexplicable.

Attempts will probably be made to use our data in studies of climatology, but are such 

attempts likely to be fruitful ? The question is not easy to answer. At a first glance it would 

seem as if warm regions should be more favorable to the formation of niagnesian limestones 

than cold regions, but the evidence is by no means conclusive. A dense population of cold-r 

water organisms might add more magnesia to the sediments than a sparse population of warmwater forms. The massiveness of the animals must also be considered. The alcyonarian 

Paragorgia arborea, as its specific name indicates, grows to treelike dimensions, but its skeleton 

contains only about 9 per cent of magnesium carbonate. Tropical alcyonarians are much 

richer individually in magnesia, but they are not so large. One Paragorgia would therefore 

count for more than many smaller alcyonarians in the formation of magnesian limestone. 

If, however, the warm-water organisms are as abundant as the cold-water forms, and if their 

aggregate mass is as great, then the tropical limestones of marine origin should be more richly 

magnesian than those from higher latitudes. The determination of the facts we must leave 

to zoologists.

In conclusion we must express our thanks to the officers of the United States National 

Museum and the Geological Survey who have aided us by furnishing authentic material for our 

investigations. Messrs. Paul Bartsch, Austin H. Clark, William H. Dall, W. L. Schmitt, and 

T. Wayland Vaughan have all been most generous with their services. Dr. Marshall A. Howe, 

of the New York Botanical Garden, has also been most*kind in supplying us with algae. Without 

the help of these friends our research would have been impossible.

O