Liberty and Northstar Petroleum Development Areas 

Beaufort Sea, Alaska 

Literature Summary 

December 1999 – April 2003

Submitted by: 

Battelle 

Waltham, Massachusetts 

Submitted to: 

U.S. Department of the Interior 

Minerals Management Service 

Anchorage, Alaska 

Contract No. 143501-99-CT-30998 

U.S. Department of the Interior

Minerals Management Service

Alaska Outer Continental Shelf Region 
Liberty and Northstar Petroleum Development Areas 

Beaufort Sea, Alaska

Literature Summary 

December 1999 – April 2003

John Brown, Principal Investigator 

Battelle 

255 Bear Hill Road 

Waltham, Massachusetts 02451 

This study was funded by the U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service 

(MMS), Alaska Outer Continental Shelf Region, Anchorage, Alaska, under Contract No. 

143501-99-CT-30998, as part of the MMS Alaska Environmental Studies Program. 

June 2003 

The opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this report or product are 

those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the U.S. Department of the 

Interior, nor does mention of trade names or commercial products constitute endorsement or 

recommendation for use by the Federal Government. 

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Table of Contents 

1.0 Introduction .....................................................................................................................1

2.0 Abstracts..........................................................................................................................2 

3.0 Literature Cited..............................................................................................................56 

List of Figures 

Figure 1-1. Beaufort Sea Northstar and Liberty Prospect Areas 

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1.0 Introduction 

This report, prepared for the U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service 

(MMS), Anchorage, Alaska as part of the MMS program “Arctic Nearshore Impact Monitoring 

In the Development Area (ANIMIDA)”, presents summary abstracts of recently published 

journal articles and gray literature reports of non-MMS studies of the coastal environment in the 

vicinity of the Northstar oil production unit and Liberty prospect, Beaufort Sea, Alaska (Figure 

1-1). Literature associated with the North Slope Beaufort Sea shelf that is relevant to Northstar 

and Liberty project marine environmental concerns is included, as well as, publications from 

other Arctic regions that address general topics of local interest (e.g. whale behavior and 

migration, impacts of underwater noise). 

The literature summary includes publication dates ranging from December 1999 through April 

2003, and is presented as Pro-Cite 5© abstracts. Topics covered in the current review include the 

shoreline, wetlands under marine influence, and the offshore shelf environment. Coastal 

terrestrial subjects are not addressed in this review. Papers that include both marine and 

terrestrial topics are reviewed and abstracts are presented for the portion of the publication that 

includes marine topics. 

A review of previous literature was submitted in this format to MMS (Anchorage) by Arthur D. 

Little, Inc. (ADL, 2000), in which publications through November 1999 were reviewed and ProCite 4© abstracts provided. Additionally, the Final Environmental Impact Statements (EIS) for 

the Northstar Project (USAEDA, 1999), Liberty Development Project (MMS, 2002), and the 

Beaufort Sea Planning Area (MMS, 2003) provide comprehensive reviews of the human 

environmental issues (e.g., sociological, cultural, subsistence, aesthetic), the physical, chemical, 

and biological environments, site-specific conditions, development alternatives, and potential 

development impacts. 

Pro-Cite 5© abstracts of reviewed literature from December 1999 through April 2003 are 

provided in Section 2.0. Abstracts include the references cited, author(s), a keyword index, and a 

summary of the reviewed literature. References cited exclusive of the literature abstracts are 

presented in Section 3.0. 

1 
2.0 Procite Abstracts 

Agena, W.F.; Lee, L.W., and Hart, P.E. 2000. Reprocessing of Multi-channel Seismic 

Reflection Data Collected in the Beaufort Sea. U.S. Geological Survey Open File Report 00-

460. 6 pp. 

Keywords: Beaufort Sea/ Alaska/ seismic-reflection data/ SEG-Y format/ navigational data/ 

SEG-P1 format/ PlotSeis files 

Abstract: Contained on a set of two CD-ROMs are stacked and migrated multi-channel seismicreflection data for 65 lines recorded in the Beaufort Sea by the United States Geological Survey 

(USGS) in 1977. All data were reprocessed by the USGS using updated processing methods 

resulting in improved interpretability. Each of the two CD-ROMs contains the following files: 

1) 65 files containing the digital seismic data in standard, SEG-Y format; 2) 1 file containing 

navigation data for the 65 lines in standard SEG-P1 format; 3) an ASCII text file with crossreference information for relating the sequential trace numbers on each line to cdp numbers and 

shotpoint numbers; 4) 2 small-scale graphic images (stacked and migrated) of a segment of line 

722 in Adobe Acrobat (R) PDF format; 5) a graphic image of the location map, generated from 

the navigation file; 6) PlotSeis, an MS-DOS application that allows PC users to interactively 

view the SEG-Y files; 7) a PlotSeis documentation file; and 8) an explanation of the processing 

used to create the final seismic sections. 

Amstrup, S. C., Durner, G. M., McDonald, T. L., Mulcahy, D. M., and Garner, G. W. 

2001. Comparing Movement Patterns of Satellite-Tagged Male and Female Polar Bears. 

Canadian Journal of Zoology. Dec; 79(12). 

Keywords: Ursus maritimus/ polar bears/ Beaufort Sea/ black bears/ population 

Abstract: Satellite radiotelemetry has provided great insights into the movements and behaviors 

of polar bears (Ursus maritimus). The diameter of the neck of adult male polar bears exceeds 

that of their head, however, and radio collars slip off. This has limited collection of movement 

information to that from radio-collared females. To overcome this difficulty and gather 

information about their movements, we surgically implanted satellite radio transmitters into 7 

male polar bears during 1996 and 1997. We compared movements of implanted males with 

those of 104 adult females radio-collared between 1985 and 1995. Transmitters were implanted 

under the skin on the midline of the top of the neck and were equipped with percutaneous 

antennae. Implanted transmitters operated for up to 161 days providing 3217 satellite 

relocations. While transmitting, radios implanted in males provided a larger proportion of the 

highest quality category of position fixes than was obtained from radio-collared females. 

However, all implanted radios ceased transmitting before reaching their projected life-span. The 

abrupt termination of transmission from implanted radios suggested mechanical rather than 

electronic failure. Mean rates of short-term movement for males (1.18 km/h) were lower than 

for solitary females, females with cubs, and females with yearlings (1.70, 1.84, and 1.95 km/h, 

respectively). Net geographic movements from the beginning to the end of each month were 

comparable for males (mean = 135 km) and females (mean = 114, 152, and 168 km). Mean 

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azimuths of these net movements also appeared to be similar. Monthly activity-area sizes for 

males (mean = 8541 km(2)) were comparable to those for females (mean = 3698, 9397, and 10 

585 km(2)) during the time period of comparison. In contrast to the other movement measures, 

males traveled longer mean distances (387 km) each month than did females (217, 289, and 302 

km). Movements of males, it appears, were more directed than those of females, but males 

confined their travels to similar-sized areas. 

Amstrup, S. C.; Durner, G. M.; Stirling, I.; Lunn, N. N., and Messier, F. 2000. Movements 

and Distribution of Polar Bears in the Beaufort Sea. Canadian Journal of Zoology. Jun; 78(6). 

Keywords: Western Hudson-Bay/ home-range size/ Ursus maritimus/ polar bears/ 

independence/ patterns/ ecology/ mark/ Beaufort Sea 

Abstract: We fitted 173 satellite radio collars (platform transmitter terminals) to 121 adult 

female polar bears in the Beaufort Sea and relocated the bears 44 736 times between 1985 and 

1995. We regularly resighted many instrumented bears so that we could ascertain whether 

changes in movements or distribution were related to reproductive status. Mean short-term 

movement rates were less than 2 km/h for all classes of bears. Maximum movement rates 

occurred in winter and early summer. In the southern Beaufort Sea (SBS), net geographic 

movements from the beginning to the end of each month were smaller for females with cubs of 

the year than for solitary females, and larger in November than in April, May, or July. In May, 

June, July, and August, radio-collared bears in the SBS moved north. They moved south in 

October. In the northern Beaufort Sea (NBS), bears moved north in June and south in March and 

September. Total annual movements ranged from 1406 to 6203 km. Mean total distances 

moved each month ranged from 79 to 420 km. Total monthly movements by SBS bears were 

largest in early winter and smallest in early spring. In the NBS, movements were largest in 

summer and smallest in winter. In the SBS, females with cubs moved less each month than other 

females. Annual activity areas ranged from 7264 to 596 800 km(2). Monthly activity areas 

ranged from 88 to 9760 km(2). Seasonal fidelity to activity areas of bears captured in all parts of 

the Beaufort Sea was strongest in summer and weakest in spring. 

Amstrup, S. C.; McDonald, T. L., and Stirling, I. 2001. Polar Bears in the Beaufort Sea: a 

30-Year Mark-Recapture Case History. Journal of Agricultural Biological and Environmental 

Statistics. Jun; 6(2). 

Keywords: capture-recapture/ covariates/ logistic modeling/ population estimation/ Alaska/ 

Ursus maritimus/ polar bears/ Beaufort Sea 

Abstract: Knowledge of population size and trend is necessary to manage anthropogenic risks to 

polar bears (Ursus maritimus). Despite capturing over 1,025 females between 1967 and 1998, 

previously calculated estimates of the size of the southern Beaufort Sea (SBS) population have 

been unreliable. We improved estimates of numbers of polar bears by modeling heterogeneity in 

capture probability with covariates. Important covariates referred to the year of the study, age of 

the bear, capture effort, and geographic location. Our choice of best approximating model was 

3 
based on the inverse relationship between variance in parameter estimates and likelihood of the 

fit and suggested a growth from similar to 500 to over 1,000 females during this study. The 

mean coefficient of variation on estimates for the last decade of the study was 0.16- the smallest 

yet derived. A similar model selection approach is recommended for other projects where a best 

model is not identified by likelihood criteria alone. 

Amstrup, S. C.; Weston-York, G.; McDonald, T. L.; Nielson, R., and Simac, K. 2003. 

Detecting denning polar bears with Forward Looking Infra-red Imagery (FLIR). Mar. 

Keywords: polar bear/ Ursus maritimus/ Beaufort Sea/ maternal den/ forward-looking infrared/ 

FLIR/ Alaska 

Abstract: Polar bears give birth in snow dens in mid winter, and remain in dens until early 

spring. Survival and development of neonates is dependent on the stable environment within the 

maternal den. Petroleum related activities currently span approximately 200 km of the Alaska 

Beaufort Sea coastal area. New and proposed developments are expected to dramatically expand 

the area influenced by petroleum activities. These activities are a potential threat to polar bears, 

especially as they might disturb denning females. In order to help manage and mitigate potential 

disruptions of polar bear denning, we tested whether we could detect heat, rising through the 

roofs of maternal dens, with forward-looking infrared (FLIR) viewing devices. We tested our 

ability to detect dens by flying transects, over areas where radio-collared females were known to 

be denning, with FLIR equipped aircraft. We recorded flight and weather conditions at each 

observation and tallied whether or not the den was detected. Eight previously unknown dens 

were discovered during searches for 15 dens of radio-collared bears. We surveyed these 23 dens 

on 67 occasions (1 to 7 times each). Nine dens were always detected and 10 dens visited more 

than once were detected on some flights but not on others. Four dens were never detected 

(17%), but 3 of those were visited only under marginal conditions. Models of how detection 

probability varied with environmental conditions revealed the odds of detecting a den increased 

3 fold for every one degree (C) increase in temperature-dew-point spread. The odds of detection 

were 4.8X higher when airborne moisture (snow, blowing snow, fog, etc.) was absent than when 

it was present, and they were approximately 28X higher at night than after sunrise. Data 

suggested some dens never will be detectable with LFIR. Conversely, FLIR surveys conducted 

during conditions that maximize odds of detection could approach detection rates of 90%, and 

can be an important management/mitigation tool. 

Angliss, R. P. and Lodge, K. L. 2002. Alaska Marine Mammal Stock Assessments, 2002. 

NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-AFSC-133. Alaska Marine Science Center. Seattle 

Washington. 

Keywords: Beaufort Sea/ North Slope/ Alaska/ marine mammals/ pinnipeds/ cetaceans/ Marine 

Mammal Protection Act (MMPA)/ Public Law 103-238/ incidental take/ commercial fisheries/ 

native subsistence harvest/ stock assessment/ population estimate/ potential biological removal 

(PBR)/ beluga whale/ Delphinapterus leucas

4 
Abstract: This report provides population information on stocks of seven species of pinnipeds 

and 15 species of cetacean marine mammal Alaska under the jurisdiction of the National Marine 

Fisheries Service. Stock assessment reports for polar bears, pacific walrus, and sea otters, 

published by the U.S Fish and Wildlife Service, are included as an appendix to the report. Public 

Law 103-238, enacted in April 1994, changed provisions within the Marine Mammal Protection 

Act, whereupon interactions between commercial fisheries and marine mammals (including 

incidental takes) are addressed under three new provisions requiring a regional scientific review 

group to advise and report on the status of marine mammals in Alaska waters. This new law 

replaced the interim exemption that had regulated fisheries-related incidental takes since 1988. 

Stock assessments are provided for the beluga whale (Delphinapterus leucas), the bowhead 

whale (Balaena mysticetus), and the polar bear (Ursus maritimus). The beluga whale occurs in 

both nearshore and offshore waters of the North Slope environment in the Beaufort Sea. The 

minimum population size estimate for the Beaufort Sea stock is 39,258 and the stock is 

considered to be stable or increasing. The potential biological removal (PBR) rate is estimated to 

be 649 animals per year. No reports of mortality incidental to commercial fisheries have been 

reported in recent years. The average annual take for Alaska and Canadian native subsistence 

harvest averaged 177 animals per year during the 5year period from 1996-2000. The bowhead 

whales occur in the Western Arctic. Bowhead whales of the Western Arctic Stock migrate 

annually from wintering areas in the northern Bering Sea, through the Chukchi Sea in the spring, 

to the Beaufort Sea for the summer, and then returning to the Bering Sea in the fall. The 

minimum population size estimate for the Western Arctic stock is 7,738 and is considered to be 

increasing at approximately 3% per year. The potential biological removal (PBR) rate is 

estimated to be 77 animals per year. The average annual take for Alaska and Canadian native 

subsistence harvest averaged 52 animals per year during the 5 year period from 1996-2000. A 

stock of polar bears occur in the Southern Beaufort Sea with a eastern boundary south of Banks 

Island and east of the Baillie Islands, Canada and a western boundary near Point Hope. The 

minimum population size estimate for the Southern Beaufort Sea polar bear stock is 1,973 and 

the stock is considered to be stable with little or no growth. The potential biological removal 

(PBR) rate is estimated to be 88 animals per year when adjusted for to account for male harvest 

bias. The average annual take for Alaska and Canadian native subsistence harvest averaged 52 

animals per year during the 5year period from 1995-2000. 

Arctic Research Office (NOAA). 2000. Study of Environmental Arctic Change (SEARCH). 

Report of the Interagency Working Group for SEARCH, To: Interagency Arctic Research 

Policy Committee. June 30. 27 pp. 

Keywords: Arctic/ Arctic oscillation/ Study of Environmental Arctic Change (SEARCH)/ 

greenhouse gases 

Abstract: A complex suite of significant atmospheric, oceanic, and terrestrial changes has 

occurred in the Arctic in the last decades, affecting virtually every part of the Arctic 

environment. Evidence indicates that many of these changes are strongly connected with the 

Arctic Oscillation (AO), which is apparently a natural mode of atmospheric variation that is 

potentially active over a broad range of time scales, including perhaps climatic time scales. 

There is evidence that the AO itself may be strengthened by the anthropogenic rise in greenhouse 

5 
gases. Other potential modes of large-scale human influence on the Arctic include long-range 

transport of contaminants and high rates of biomass removal from the marine environment. 

The Study of Environmental Arctic Change (SEARCH) is a broad, interdisciplinary, multi-scale 

program with a core aim of understanding the complex of recent and ongoing intertwined 

changes in the Arctic environment. SEARCH includes four major types of activities: 1) a longterm observational program to accurately track environmental changes; 2) a modeling program to 

test ideas about the coupling between the different environmental components, and to predict 

their future course; 3) studies to test hypotheses about critical feedback processes; and 4) an 

assessment component to understand the ultimate impact of the physical changes on the 

ecosystems and societies, and to distinguish between climate-related changes and other factors 

such as resource utilization, pollution, economic development, and population growth. 

Attanasi, E. D. and Schuenemeyer, J. H. 2002. Frontier Areas and Resource Assessment: 

The Case of the 1002 Area of the Alaska North Slope. 

Keywords: Arctic National Wildlife Refuge/ petroleum supply/ Area 1002 

Abstract: The U.S. Geological Survey’s 1998 assessment of the 1002 Area of the Arctic 

National Wildlife Refuge significantly revised previous estimates of the area’s petroleum supply 

potential. The mean (or expected) value of technically recoverable undiscovered oil for the 

Study Area (Federal 1002 Area, adjacent State waters, and Native Lands) is estimated at 10.4 

billion barrels of oil (BBO) and for the Federal 1002 Area the mean is 7.7 BBO. Accumulation 

sizes containing the oil are expected to be sufficiently large to be of economic interest. At a 

market price of $21 per barrel, 6 BBO of oil in the Study area is expected to be economic. The 

Assessment’s methodology, results, and the reasons for the significant change in assessments are 

reviewed. In the concluding section, policy issues raised by the assessment are discussed. 

Audubon Alaska. 2001. Migratory Birds and Oil Development in the Coastal Plain of the 

Arctic National Wildlife Refuge. Audubon Alaska Background Analysis. National Audubon 

Society, Anchorage, AK. 7 pp. 

Keywords: Arctic National Wildlife Refuge/ ANWR/ birds/ oil development/ oil pollution/ 

Long-tailed duck/ wetlands/ Common Eider/ Spectacled Eider/ Red-throated Loon/ American/ 

Golden Plover/ Buff-breasted Sandpiper 

Abstract: Concern is expressed for potential negative impacts of North Slope oil and gas 

development upon the 135 species of birds that make use of the coastal habitat within the Arctic 

National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR). Long-tailed ducks (formerly Old squaw) gather in coastal 

lagoons and nearshore waters in mid-summer following the breeding season, at which time they 

molt, are flightless and are vulnerable to oil pollution impinging on coastal lagoons and 

nearshore waters, with the possibility of harm at the population level. Common Eiders and Redthroated Loons are also vulnerable, are experiencing regional population declines, and are on the 

Audubon Alaska “Watch List.” The producing oils at Prudhoe Bay and associated sites are 

spread over an area exceeding 1,000 square miles. Habitat losses in this area have altered the 

6 
distributions of several bird species, including nesting shorebirds such as Dunlin and Stilt 

Sandpipers. In general, concern is greatest for species that are large (e.g., Tundra Swans and 

loons), declining (e.g., Dunlins), or uncommon (e.g., Spectacled Eiders, American Golden 

Plover, and Buff-breasted Sandpiper). 

The greatest risk to birds associated with ANWR is a spill reaching coastal lagoons or nearshore 

waters, possibly as a result of supply barge accidents or rupture of a pipeline crossing the rivers 

that empties into the Beaufort Sea. At risk would be tens of thousands of Long-tailed ducks, 

other waterfowl, loons, and Red-necked Phalaropes. Thousands of shorebirds gathering along 

shorelines, in river deltas, and in coastal wetlands would also be highly vulnerable. 

Becker, P. R. 2000. Concentration of Chlorinated Hydrocarbons and Heavy Metals in Alaska 

Arctic Marine Mammals. Marine Pollution Bulletin. Oct; 40(10). 

Keywords: Alaska-Arctic/ cetaceans/ marine mammals/ chlorinated hydrocarbons/ chlorinated 

pesticides/ heavy metals/ pinnipeds/ polychlorinated biphenyls/ whales/ Delphinapterus leucas/ 

seals/ Callorhinus ursinus/ Lawrence Beluga whales/ organochlorine contaminants/ 

environmental contaminants/ trace-metals/ harbor seals/ west-coast/ tissues/ elements 

Abstract: Over the last decade, a baseline database on anthropogenic contaminants in Alaska 

marine mammals has been developing through the efforts of several independent investigations 

as well as larger research programs, although still somewhat limited in scope, the largest amount 

of data exists for polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), DDT, mercury, and cadmium in walrus, 

beluga whale, bowhead whale, and ringed seal. Because of their relatively large contribution to 

the total chlorinated hydrocarbon levels in Arctic species, chlordane and toxaphene are two 

pesticides that are also gaining attention. Comparison of the Alaska database with the results of 

studies conducted in Canada and Greenland indicates that patterns of many accumulative 

substances are quite similar in species that occur across the North American Arctic. 

Belicka, L.; Harvey, H.R.; Yunker, M.B., and MacDonald, R.W. 2001. Molecular 

Biomarkers as Tracers of the Fate of Primary Production in the Western Arctic Ocean. 

Keywords: Beaufort Sea/ Chukchi Sea/Arctic Ocean/biomarkers/primary production/alkanes/ 

alcohols/fatty acids/sterols 

Abstract: The Arctic Ocean, with a great proportion of shelf area, represents a complex system 

with multiple inputs of organic carbon from primary production, rivers, ice, and anthropogenic 

activity. Organic biomarkers are useful in differentiating these sources and in understanding 

carbon processing in the marine realm. Biomarkers associated with primary production from the 

marine water column were analyzed from surface sediments of the marine-dominated Chukchi 

Sea and from the Beaufort Sea, which receives greater amounts of terrestrial material through 

rivers and ice transport. Biomarkers analyzed included alkanes, alcohols, fatty acids, and sterols. 

Biomarker concentrations in general were higher from the Chukchi Sea, supporting the presence 

7 
of relatively greater terrestrial inputs to the Beaufort Sea and marine production dominance in 

the Chukchi Sea. 

Belicka, L. L.; MacDonald, R. W., and Harvey, H. R. 2002. Sources and Transport of 

Organic Carbon to Shelf, Slope, and Basin Surface Sediments of the Arctic Ocean. Deep-Sea 

Research Part I-Oceanographic Research Papers. Aug; 49(8). 

Keywords: lipids/ biomarkers/ fatty acids/ sterols/ sediments/ Chukchi Sea/ Beaufort Sea/ Arctic 

Ocean/ Antarctic/ sea-ice/ fatty-acid/ lipid-composition/ Laptev Sea/ Phaeocystis pouchetii/ 

sequential treatments/ diatom communities/ Beaufort Shelf/ matter sources/ spring bloom 

Abstract: Lipids in surface sediment transects across the Arctic Ocean were identified to define 

the sources of organic carbon and the transport of material in the ocean basin. Sterols 

representing diatoms (24-methylcholesta-5,24(28)-dien-3beta-ol, 24-methylcholesta-5,22-dien3beta-ol) and dinoflagellates (4alpha,23,24-trimethylcholest-22-en-3beta-ol) together with algal 

polyunsaturated fatty acids (20:5, 22:6) demonstrated the importance of primary production to 

organic matter inputs on the Chukchi Shelf. The presence of terrestrial biomarkers including 

long-chain n-alkanes and mono- and dicarboxylic acids in shelf sediments indicated that while 

the fraction of terrestrial biomarkers was small compared to marine material, the transport of 

allochthonous material impacts carbon cycling on the shelf. Algal biomarkers were found in all 

surficial sediments from the central Arctic basins, demonstrating that some fraction of primary 

production reached bottom sediments despite ice cover and light limitation. Marine markers 

represented a small fraction of the total lipids in central basin sediments. This implies that the 

basins are less productive than shallow waters, significant degradation occurs before the organic 

matter reaches the sediment-water interface, and substantial amounts of vascular plant material 

are exported to the central Arctic. Circulation and topographical features, such as the Transpolar 

Drift and the Lomonosov Ridge, appear to have an important influence on the transport and 

focusing of terrestrial material in the Arctic Ocean basins. 

Bird, K. J. and Houseknecht, D. W. 2002. U.S. Geological Survey 2002 Petroleum Resource 

Assessment of the National Petroleum Reserve in Alaska (NPRA). 

Keywords: National Petroleum Reserve/ petroleum resources/ natural gas/ Alaska 

Abstract: A new USGS assessment concludes that NPRA holds significantly greater petroleum 

resources than previously estimated. Technically recoverable, undiscovered oil beneath the 

Federal part of NPRA likely ranges between 5.9 and 13.2 billion barrels, with a mean (expected) 

value of 9.3 billion barrels. An estimated 1.3 to 5.6 billion barrels of those technically 

recoverable oil resources is economically recoverable at market prices of $22 to $30 per barrel. 

Technically recoverable, undiscovered non-associated natural gas for the same area likely ranges 

between 39.1 and 83.2 trillion cubic feet, with a mean (expected) value of 59.7 trillion cubic feet. 

The economic viability of this gas will depend on the availability of a natural-gas pipeline for 

transport to market. 

8 
BP Exploration (Alaska) Inc. 2000. Black Brant (Branta bernicula nigricans). Tech. Brief: 

Alaska’s Northslope Oilfields. 4 pp. 

Keywords: North Slope/ Alaska/ petroleum/ oilfields/ barrier islands/ Colville River Delta/ 

Black Brant/ Branta bernicula nigricans/ distribution/ abundance/ productivity/ habitat loss/ 

habitat alteration/ nesting success/ predation 

Abstract: Several hundred to more than a thousand black brant (Branta bernicula nigricans) 

annually nest in the North Slope oilfield region of Alaska between the Colville and 

Saganavirktok river deltas. With development of the petroleum industry, wildlife managers have 

expressed concern for potential impacts upon brant from 1) loss of nesting or brood-rearing 

habitat through the construction of oilfield facilities and roads; 2) displacement of brant from 

preferred habitats in response to disturbance from human activities; 3) increased predation from 

elevated predator populations; and 4) potential mortality from an oil spill. 

Overall, habitat loss or alteration and human-generated disturbances from oilfield development 

on the North Slope have not had detectable impacts upon distribution, abundance, or productivity 

of black brant. However, increased predator populations may be having an impact upon nesting 

success. Although brant goslings on the North Slope have been reported to grow at significantly 

greater rates than those in the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta due to a greater abundance of 

vegetation, nest success is chronically low in the oilfield regions. 

BP Exploration (Alaska) Inc. 2001. Boulder Patch Kelp Community. Tech. Brief: Alaska’s 

Northslope Oilfields. 4 pp. 

Keywords: Alaska/ Beaufort Sea/ Steffanson Sound/ North Slope/ Endicott development/ 

Boulder Patch/ kelp/ Laminaria solidungula/ petroleum exploration/ drilling fluids/ NPDES 

permit/ environmental impacts/ biological community 

Abstract: In the early 1970s anomalous seafloor sites were discovered in Steffanson Sound, 

Beaufort Sea, Alaska. Characterized by dense rock cover, ranging from pebbles to boulders 

comprising >25% seafloor cover, the mixed rock/sediment habitat harbors a rich biological 

assemblage of algae and invertebrates, dominated by the kelp species Laminaria solidungula. 

This area, designated as the “Boulder Patch,” is recognized as the most diverse biological marine 

community in the central Alaska Beaufort Sea. The Boulder Patch is not affected by high rates 

of sedimentation due to its location below the depth of sea ice freezing and its protection from 

ice-scour by a seaward fringe of barrier islands and shoals. These requisites for kelp existence 

are rare along the Alaska Beaufort Sea coast, and the existing kelp population is several hundred 

kilometers from its nearest known population. 

The Boulder Patch is located over potentially rich oil and gas reserves and Endicott, the first 

offshore oil and gas development in the North Slope region, is located nearby. The Endicott 

Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) developed by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 

suggested that significant adverse impacts upon the biological community of the Boulder Patch 

were unlikely. Protection of the habitat has been overseen by a task force consisting of local, 

state, and federal agencies and by criteria established by the U.S. Environmental Protection 

9 
Agency (EPA) for disposal of drilling fluids in its vicinity. The Endicott National Pollution 

Discharge Elimination (NPDES) permit allows no discharge within 1,000 m of the Patch or 

between individual units of the Patch that are separated by less than 5,000 m. 

Endicott pre-construction monitoring, followed by six years of annual monitoring data, described 

the effects of Endicott development on kelp health and growth, and species diversity within the 

Patch. Summary reports, which have synthesized seven years of data, have documented no 

significant adverse impacts of petroleum development upon the Boulder Patch biological 

community. 

Brower, C. D.; Carpenter, A.; Branigan, M. L.; Calvert, W.; Evans, T.; Fischbach, A. S.; 

Nagy, J. A.; Schliebe, S., and Stirling, I. 2002. The Polar Bear Management Agreement for 

the Southern Beaufort Sea: an Evaluation of the First Ten Years of a Unique Conservation 

Agreement. Arctic. Dec; 55(4). 

Keywords: polar bears/ Beaufort Sea/ management/ agreement/ North Slope Borough/ Inuvialuit 

Game Council/ mark 

Abstract: Polar bears (Ursus maritimus) of the southern Beaufort Sea population, distributed 

from approximately Icy Cape, west of Point Barrow, Alaska, to Pearce Point, east of Paulatuk in 

Canada, are harvested by hunters from both countries. In Canada, quotas to control polar bear 

hunting have been in place, with periodic modifications, since 1968. In Alaska, passage of the 

United States Marine Mammal Protection Act (MMPA) of 1972 banned polar bear hunting 

unless done by Alaska Natives for subsistence. However, the MMPA placed no restrictions on 

numbers or composition of the subsistence hunt, leaving open the potential for an over-harvest 

with no possible legal management response until the population was declared depleted. 

Recognizing that as a threat to the conservation of the shared polar bear population, the 

Inuvialuit Game Council from Canada and the North Slope Borough from Alaska negotiated and 

signed a user-to-user agreement, the Polar Bear Management Agreement for the Southern 

Beaufort Sea, in 1988. We reviewed the functioning of the agreement through its first 10 years 

and concluded that; overall, it has been successful because both the total harvest and the 

proportion of females in the harvest have been contained within sustainable limits. However, 

harvest monitoring needs to be improved in Alaska, and awareness of the need to prevent overharvest of females needs to be increased in both countries. This agreement is a useful model for 

other user-to-user conservation agreements. 

Burruss, R. C.; Lillis, P. G., and Collett, T. S. 2003. Geochemistry of Natural Gas, North 

Slope, Alaska: Implications for Gas Resources, NPRA. 

Keywords: North Slope/ natural gas/ National Petroleum Reserve Alaska/ NPRA 

Abstract: The North Slope of Alaska contains a significant volume of natural gas. The known 

amount of gas within the oil and gas fields is large and the estimated amount of undiscovered 

resource is even larger (Bird, 2002a). Increasing demand for gas as a relatively clean fossil fuel 

10 
is driving plans to develop this resource either through a pipeline to the lower 48 states, LNG 

shipments, or gas-to-liquids technologies. 

To increase confidence in U. S. Geological Survey (USGS) estimates of undiscovered gas 

resources there is a need to understand the role of natural gas in the petroleum systems of the 

North Slope. Of particular interest to resource estimates in the National Petroleum Reserve in 

Alaska (NPRA) is whether the petroleum systems of that part of the North Slope are gas-rich. 

Current exploration targets are oil reservoirs, but the historic drilling experience indicates that 

gas is abundant in the western part of the North Slope within NPRA. 

Initial drilling by the U.S. Navy in 1944 to 1953 tested gas in a number of wells and discovered 

small accumulations at Barrow, Meade, Square Lake, and Wolf Creek and adjacent to NPRA at 

Gubik as shown on the North Slope location map in Figure 1. Of the three oil accumulations 

discovered by the Navy, the largest, Umiat, tested gas in a deeper reservoir horizon than the oil 

accumulation. Later drilling by the U.S. Navy and the USGS in 1973 to 1981 discovered gas 

accumulations on the Barrow Peninsula at Walakpa and Sikulik, and tested gas from a number of 

potential reservoirs at other locations, some at depths greater than 10,000 ft. 

This paper addresses several natural gas resource questions based on a summary of the 

geochemistry of natural gas across the North Slope of Alaska. First, is there evidence of distinct 

gas-rich petroleum systems? Second, is there any evidence of unique gas systems in the foothills 

of the Brooks Range? Third, are there any potential problems with the quality of gas (significant 

quantities of non-hydrocarbon gases) in undiscovered gas accumulations? 

To address these questions we present evidence for the source and maturity of the known natural 

occurrences. In particular we will examine the effects of microbial gas generation, microbial 

alteration of thermogenic gas, and the role of mixing of gases of various origins in controlling 

the present day composition of gas. Finally, we will examine the extent to which nonhydrocarbon gases, carbon dioxide and nitrogen, affect the quality of North Slope gas. Carbon 

dioxide is particularly important because a large fraction (5 to 18%) of the gas cap of the 

Prudhoe Bay field and surrounding satellite fields is CO2 and may amount to as much as 5 

trillion cubic feet (TCF) of gas. Although this amount of CO2 is beneficial for current practices 

of miscible flooding for enhanced oil recovery in Prudhoe Bay, marketable natural gas must 

contain 4 % or less CO2. Therefore, gas from the Prudhoe Bay field gas cap will require 

processing or dilution with low CO2 gas before it is marketable. Costs associated with gas 

processing or dilution may impact the economics of natural development on the North Slope. 

Carmack, E. C. and MacDonald, R. W. 2002. Oceanography of the Canadian Shelf of the 

Beaufort Sea: a Setting for Marine Life. Arctic. 55. 

Keywords: Beaufort Sea/ global warming/ upwelling/ sea ice/ nutrients/ sediments/ whale/ 

Balaena mysticetus/ Prince Albert Sound/ Arctic Ocean/ Mackenzie Shelf/ Northwest Territories/ 

climatic change/ Phoca hispida/ fresh water/ ringed seal/ inner shelf 

11 
Abstract: Conservation of marine biodiversity in the Beaufort Sea demands that we understand 

what individual organisms require of their physical and geochemical environments in order to 

survive. Specifically, how do the extraordinary spatial and seasonal variations in ice cover, 

temperature, light, freshwater, turbidity, and currents of the Beaufort Sea define unique places or 

times critical to marine life? We start with the traditional "bottom-up" approach, which is to 

review the strongly seasonal physical forcing of the system, and from it to infer the resultant 

oceanographic regimes and seasons. This approach, while valuable, remains incomplete: this is 

due partly to limitations of the data and partly to our limited understanding of this complex 

system. The oceanographic features (e.g., upwelling regions, recurrent polynyas, coastal 

currents, sediment types and distributions) define the backdrop that animals “know and 

understand” in the sense of interacting with one another and finding food and habitat. We 

therefore seek clues to the underlying oceanographic processes in the behavioral patterns of fish, 

marine mammals, and birds. This “top-down” approach also has limitations, but it offers the 

opportunity to seek those connections in the system where climate change is likely to have its 

greatest impact on biological populations. 

Clark, C. W. and Ellison, W. T. 2000. Calibration and Comparison of the Acoustic Location 

Methods Used During the Spring Migration of the Bowhead Whale, Balaena Mysticetus, Off Pt. 

Barrow, Alaska, 1984-1993. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America. Jun; 107(6). 

Keywords: Megaptera novaeangliae/ quantitative analysis/ Point Barrow/ census/ bowhead 

whale/ Balaena mysticetus

Abstract: Between 1984 and 1993, visual and acoustic methods were combined to census the 

Bering-Chukchi-Beaufort bowhead whale, Balaena mysticetus, population. Passive acoustic 

location was based on arrival-time differences of transient bowhead sounds detected on sparse 

arrays of three to five hydrophones distributed over distances of 1.5-4.5 km along the ice edge. 

Arrival-time differences were calculated from either digital cross correlation of spectrograms 

(old method), or digital cross correlation of time waveforms (new method). Acoustic calibration 

was conducted in situ in 1985 at five sites with visual site position determined by triangulation 

using two theodolites. The discrepancy between visual and acoustic locations was <1%-5% of 

visual range and less than 0.7 degrees of visual bearing for either method. Comparison of 

calibration results indicates that the new method yielded slightly more precise and accurate 

positions than the old method. Comparison of 217 bowhead whale call locations from both 

acoustic methods showed that the new method was more precise, with location errors 3-4 times 

smaller than the old method. Overall, low-frequency bowhead transients were reliably located 

out to ranges of 3-4 times array size. At these ranges in shallow water, signal propagation 

appears to be dominated by the fundamental mode and is not corrupted by multipath. 

Cooper, L. W.; Larsen, I. L.; O'Hara, T. M.; Dolvin, S.; Woshner, V., and Cota, G. F. 

2000. Radionuclide Contaminant Burdens in Arctic Marine Mammals Harvested During 

Subsistence Hunting. Arctic. Jun; 53(2). 

12 
Keywords: Cs-137/ contamination/ marine mammals/ North Slope Borough/ radioactivity/ 

radionuclides/ Resolute/ Ag-108m/ subsistence hunting/ sediments/ environment/ Yenisei/ 

caribou/ rivers/ Pb-210/ metals/ sea/ Alaska 

Abstract: We conducted gamma spectrometric analyses on more than 200 arctic marine mammal 

tissue samples. These samples were primarily provided by subsistence hunters from northern 

Alaska, with a smaller number of samples from the Resolute region in Canada. The majority of 

samples (>90%) had detectable levels of the anthropogenic radionuclide Cs-137, with a mean 

level observed in all samples of 0.67 Bq kg(-1) dry weight +/- 0.81 (SD). Converted to wet 

weight, the mean was 0.21 Bq kg(-1) +/- 0.19 SD. The median activity observed was 0.45 Bq 

kg(-1) dry weight (0.18 Bq kg(-1) wet weight) with a range from detection limits to 6.7 Bq kg(-

1) dry weight (1.1 Bq kg(-1) wet weight). These findings confirm expectations that current 

anthropogenic gamma emitter burdens in marine mammals used in the North American Arctic as 

subsistence food resources are well below activities that would normally merit public health 

concern (similar to 1000 Bq kg(-1) wet weight). Some differences among species and tissues 

were observed. Beluga tissues had slightly higher mean burdens of Cs-137 overall, and 

epidermis and muscle tissues in bowhead and beluga whales typically had higher burdens than 

other tissues analyzed. Low levels of the neutron activation product Ag-108 (half-life 418 yr.), 

probably bioaccumulated from bomb fallout sources, were observed in 16 of 17 beluga livers 

analyzed, but were not found in any other tissues of beluga or in any other species sampled. A 

subset of 39 samples of various tissues was analyzed for the alpha and beta emitters Pu-239.240 

and Sr-90. Plutonium levels were near the threshold of detectability (similar to 0.1 Bq kg(-1)dry 

weight) in 6 of the 39 samples; all other samples had no detectable plutonium. A detectable level 

of Sr-90 (10.3 +/- 1.0 Bq kg(-1) dry weight) was observed in only one of the 39 samples 

analyzed, a bowhead epidermis sample. Although the accumulation of Ag-108m has not been 

previously reported in any marine mammal livers, all of our analytical measurements indicate 

that only very low levels of anthropogenic radioactivity are associated with marine mammals 

harvested and consumed in the North American Arctic. 

Dickson, D. L. and Gilchrist, H. G. 2002. Status of Marine Birds of the Southeastern Beaufort 

Sea. Arctic. 55. 

Keywords: Beaufort Sea/ sea ducks/ seabirds/ Brant/ harvest/ distribution/ population status/ 

conservation/ red-throated loons/ Somateria mollissima/ common eiders/ Uria lomvia/ ice edges/ 

Alaska/ survival/ king eiders/ scoter/ behavior 

Abstract: This summary and update of information on the marine birds of the southeastern 

Beaufort Sea is intended to support discussions on how to improve management of marine 

resources in the Canadian Beaufort Sea region. Perhaps the most outstanding use of the Beaufort 

Sea by marine birds is the staging during spring migration by hundreds of thousands of eiders 

and long-tailed ducks in the early open water off Cape Bathurst and Banks Island. During 

midsummer, tens of thousands of long-tailed ducks, scoters, scaup, and mergansers molt in the 

sheltered bays and behind barrier beaches and spits. Although several species of geese, ducks, 

loons, gulls, and terns nest on islands and in wetlands along the Beaufort Sea coast, this region 

has relatively few nesting seabirds compared to eastern Arctic Canada and the Bering Sea. Two 

13 
possible reasons for this are a shortage of cliffs suitable for nesting and a lack of pelagic fish. 

The five most common sea duck species that occur in the region, long-tailed duck, king eider, 

common eider, surf scoter, and white-winged scoter, have all declined in numbers since the mid1970s. Western Arctic brant populations have also declined, although their status within the 

Beaufort Sea region is unclear. Brant and king eider are the only marine bird species harvested 

there in substantial numbers. Other threats to Beaufort Sea marine bird populations include oil 

spills, global warming, coastal development, and contaminants. Certain threats can be managed 

at a local level since they are a result of local economic development, but others, such as global 

warming or loss of critical wintering areas, stem from environmental problems outside the 

region. Solving these issues will require mutual understanding and commitment on the part of 

numerous countries. 

Drobot, S. D. and Maslanik, J. A. 2002. A Practical Method for Long-Range Forecasting of 

Ice Severity in the Beaufort Sea - Art. No. 1213. Geophysical Research Letters. Apr 15; 29(8). 

Keywords: North Pacific/ variability/ cover/ anomalies/ record/ ocean/ Beaufort Sea/ sea ice 

Abstract: A linear regression model is used to forecast end of summer ice conditions in the 

Beaufort Sea with a few months lead-time. The model retains four sea ice and atmospheric 

parameters, where decreased spring total and winter multiyear ice concentrations, negative 

October East Atlantic phases, and positive March North Atlantic Oscillation phases are 

associated with lighter sea ice conditions. Monte Carlo simulations suggest that the results are 

not adversely affected by artificial skill, while Durbin-Watson and Variance Inflation Factor 

statistics imply the final model is statistically valid. Cross validation diagnostics indicate that 

variations in the four predictors are related to 85% of the variation in sea ice conditions, 

suggesting that a relatively simple ice-atmosphere statistical model can be used to forecast end of 

summer ice conditions in the Beaufort Sea. 

Duesterloh, S.; Short, J. W., and Barron, M. G. 2002. Photoenhanced Toxicity of Weathered 

Alaska North Slope Crude Oil to the Calanoid Copepods Calanus marshallae and Metridia 

okhotensis. Environmental Science & Technology. Sep 15; 36(18). 

Keywords: polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons/ Prince William Sound/ Exxon Valdez Oil/ Gibba 

L G-3/ photoinduced toxicity/ petroleum hydrocarbons/ solar radiation/ Daphnia pulex/ 

sediments/ anthracene 

Abstract: This study investigated the synergistic toxicity of aqueous polyaromatic compounds 

(PAC) dissolved from crude oil and ultraviolet radiation (UV) in natural sunlight to the calanoid 

copepods Calanus marshallae and Metridia okhotensis. These copepods were first exposed to 

low doses (similar to 2 mug of total PAC/Q of the water-soluble fraction of weathered Alaska 

North Slope crude oil for 24 h and subsequently to low or high levels of natural sunlight. 

Responses included mortality, impairment of swimming ability, and discoloration of lipid sacs. 

There was 80-100% mortality and morbidity of C. marshallae exposed to UV and oil as 

compared to less than 10% effect in oil-only or UV-only treatments. In M. okhotensis, 100% 

14 
mortality occurred in the UV and oil treatment, 43% mortality and 27% morbidity in the UVonly treatment, and less than 5% effect in the oil-only treatment. Bioaccumulation factors were 

similar to 8000 for C. marshallae and similar to 2000 for M. okhotensis. The interaction of the 

effect of PAC and UV radiation was highly significant (P < 0.005) in both experiments. 

Dunton, K.H. and Schonberg, S.V. 2000. The Benthic Faunal Assemblage of the Boulder 

Patch Community. Chapter 18, pp. 371-397, In: The Natural History of an Arctic Oil Field. J. 

C. Truett and S. R. Johnson (Eds.). Academic Press, San Diego, CA, 422 pp. 

Keywords: Alaska/ Beaufort Sea/ North Slope/ Steffanson Sound/ Prudhoe Bay/ Boulder Patch/ 

benthic infauna/ epilithic fauna/ algae/ biological diversity/ biomass 

Abstract: The Boulder Patch, an area of cobbles and boulders that supports abundant algae and 

invertebrate life, was discovered in Steffanson Sound, Alaska, by marine geologists in the 

summers of 1971 and 1972. The Boulder Patch is located over potentially rich oil and gas 

reserves, and consequently has been extensively studied for potential impacts of petroleum 

exploration and development. Joint biological and geological investigations commencing in 

1978 have revealed it to be the most diverse biological community yet discovered in the 

American Beaufort Sea. 

Approximately 140 species of benthic infauna from 11 invertebrate phyla characterized the 

sedimentary habitat between and under rocks, ranging respectively from 4,134 m-2 to 5,525 m-2

in abundance and from 27 to 33 gm m-2 in wet-weight biomass. The sediments consisted of 

sandy silts and mud. The epilithic fauna inhabiting rock substrates consisted of 158 species, with 

an average abundance of 18,441 organisms m-2 and wet-weight biomass of 238 gm m-2. 

Dominant major invertebrate taxa on rocks were sponges, mollusks, crustaceans, cnidarians, and 

bryozoans, many of which are suspension- or filter-feeders that are sensitive to high levels of 

turbidity. Predominant species of algae included the kelp Laminaria saccharina (42 gm m-2) and 

the red alga Phycodrys rubra (43 gm m-2). 

Durner, G. M.; Amstrup, S. C., and Fischbach, A. S. 2003. Habitat Characteristics of Polar 

Bear Terrestrial Maternal Den Sites in Northern Alaska. Arctic. Mar; 56(1). 

Keywords: Arctic National Wildlife Refuge/ den habitat/ maternal den/ National Petroleum 

Reserve-Alaska/ polar dear/ Ursus maritimus/ Prudhoe Bay/ Beaufort Sea/ area 

Abstract: Polar bears (Ursus maritimus) give birth to and nurture their young in dens of ice and 

snow. During 1999-2001, we measured the structure of 22 dens on the coastal plain of northern 

Alaska after polar bear families had evacuated their dens in the spring. During the summers of 

2001 and 2002, we revisited the sites of 42 maternal and autumn exploratory dens and recorded 

characteristics of the under-snow habitat. The structure of polar bear snow dens was highly 

variable. Most were simple chambers with a single entrance/egress tunnel. Others had multiple 

chambers and additional tunnels. Thickness of snow above and below dens was highly variable, 

but most dens were overlain by less than 1 meter of snow. Dens were located on, or associated 

15 
with, pronounced landscape features (primarily coastal and river banks, but also a lake shore and 

an abandoned oil field gravel pad) that are readily distinguished from the surrounding terrain in 

summer and catch snow in early winter. Although easily identified, den landforms in northern 

Alaska were more subtle than den habitats in many other parts of the Arctic. The structure of 

polar bear dens in Alaska was strikingly similar to that of dens elsewhere and has remained 

largely unchanged in northern Alaska for more than 25 years. Knowledge of den structure and 

site characteristics will allow resource managers to identify habitats with the greatest probability 

of holding dens. This information may assist resource, managers in preventing negative impacts 

of mineral exploration and extraction on polar bears. 

Erbe, C. and Farmer, D.M. 2000a. Zones of impact around icebreakers affecting Beluga 

whales in the Beaufort Sea. J. Acoustical Soc. Amer. 108(3):1332-1340. 

Keywords: Beaufort Sea/ Alaska/ marine mammals/ Beluga whale/ Delphinapterus leucas/ 

underwater noise impacts/ underwater acoustics/ icebreakers/ behavior/ disturbance 

Abstract: A software model estimating zones of impact on marine mammals around man-made 

noise was applied to the case of icebreakers affecting beluga whales in the Beaufort Sea. Two 

types of noise emitted by the Canadian Coast Guard icebreaker Henry Larsen were analyzed: 

bubbler system noise and propeller cavitation noise. Effects on beluga whales were modeled both 

in a deep-water environment and a near-shore environment. The model estimated that the 

icebreaker was audible to beluga whales over ranges of 35 to 78 km, depending on location. The 

zone of behavioral disturbance is only slightly smaller. Masking of beluga communication 

signals is predicted within a 14 to 71 km range. Temporary hearing damage can occur if a beluga 

stays within 1 to 4 km of the icebreaker for at least 20 minutes. Bubbler noise impacts over the 

short ranges quoted; propeller cavitation noise accounts for all of the long-range effects. Serious 

problems may arise in heavily industrialized areas where animals are exposed to ongoing noise 

and cumulative anthropogenic noise sources. 

Erbe, C. and Farmer, D.M. 2000b. A software model to estimate zones of impact on marine 

mammals around anthropogenic noise. J. Acoust. Soc. Amer. 108(3): 1327-1331. 

Keywords: underwater acoustics/ animal behavior/ marine mammals/ anthropogenic noise 

impacts 

Abstract: Anthropogenic noise impacts marine mammals in a variety of ways. In order to 

estimate the range of conditions over which these impacts occur, an understanding of the 

propagation of noise through the ocean away from the noise source is needed, along with an 

understanding of the relationship between received noise levels and impact thresholds. A 

software package combining both aspects is presented that includes 1) a sound propagation 

model based on ray theory to calculate received noise levels as a function of range, depth, and 

frequency, and 2) predictions of zones of impact on marine mammals around industrial sources 

based upon current knowledge of noise impact thresholds. 

As input parameters, the software package requires the source level and spectrum of the noise of 

interest; physical oceanography data about the local ocean environment such as bathymetry, 

16 
bottom and surface loss data, and sound speed profiles; and bioacoustical information about the 

target species in the form of an audiogram, critical auditory bandwidths, spectra of typical animal 

vocalizations, reported sound levels of disturbance, and criteria for hearing damage. As output, 

the software produces data files and plots of the zones of audibility, masking, disturbance, and 

potential hearing damage around a noise source. 

 

Fechelm, R.G. 1999. The effect of new breaching in a Prudhoe Bay causeway on the coastal 

distribution of humpback whitefish. Arctic 52 (4): 386-394. 

Keywords: Beaufort Sea/ Alaska/ Prudhoe Bay/ West Dock Causeway/ Colville River/ 

Coregonus pidschian/ Humpback Whitefish 

Abstract: West Dock is a solid-gravel petroleum production causeway 4.3 km long that was 

constructed along the Beaufort Sea coast near Prudhoe Bay, Alaska, in the late 1970s. In the 

winter of 1995-96, a breach 200 m wide was constructed 1 km from the base of the causeway. 

Fish monitoring studies conducted during the summers of 1996 and 1997 indicated that the catch 

of adult (>200 mm fork length) humpback whitefish (Coregonus pidschian) had increased 

significantly east of West Dock relative to levels observed in the 11 previous years. Data suggest 

that humpback whitefish dispersing eastward along the coast from their overwintering grounds in 

the Colville River had been blocked from moving east of West Dock and that construction of the 

breach has allowed these fish to extend their summer foraging range farther to the east. 

Fechhelm, R. G.; Martin, L. R.; Gallaway, B. J.; Wilson, W. J., and Griffiths, W. B. 2001. 

Estimating the Hydrographic Effects of Prudhoe Bay Causeway Breaches Using the BeforeAfter Control-Impact (BACI) Analysis. Arctic. Jun; 54(2). 

Keywords: breaching/ causeways/ hydrography/ mitigation/ Prudhoe Bay/ water quality/ 

whitefish 

Abstract: A Before-After Control-Impact (BACI) analysis was used to test the effects of new 

breaches constructed in two Prudhoe Bay causeways on hydrographic conditions during the 

open-water summer season. At West Dock, under east wind conditions, significant crosscauseway differentials in salinity and temperature at the surface (1 m depth or less) were 

observed in all eight pre-breach cases tested. In the years following construction of the breach, 

there were no significant cross-causeway differentials in seven of those eight cases. At Endicott 

Causeway, under east wind conditions, significant cross-causeway differentials in surface 

salinity and temperature were observed in all eight pre-breach cases tested. Significant crosscauseway differentials continued in all eight cases following construction of the new breach. 

Results suggest that the new breach at West Dock has successfully mitigated cross-causeway 

hydrographic differentials, and that the new breach at the Endicott Causeway has had no 

observable effect. The possible reasons for this disparity include different hydrographic 

dynamics in the vicinity of each causeway. 

17 
Federal Register, Department of the Interior Fish and Wildlife Service. 2000. Marine 

Mammals; Incidental Take During Specified Activities. Final Rule. 50 CFR Part 18. 

Keywords: polar bears/ Pacific walrus/ incidental take/ Alaska/ Beaufort Sea 

Abstract: These regulations authorize the incidental, unintentional take of small numbers of 

polar bears and Pacific walrus during year-round oil and gas industry (Industry) exploration, 

development, and production operations in the Beaufort Sea and adjacent northern coast of 

Alaska. 

We made a finding that the total expected takings of polar bear and Pacific walrus during oil and 

gas industry exploration, development, and production activities will have a negligible impact on 

these species and will have no unmitigable adverse impacts on the availability of these species of 

subsistence use by Alaska Natives. We base this finding on results from 6 years of monitoring 

interactions between marine mammals and Industry and using oil trajectory models and polar 

bear density models to determine the likelihood of impacts to polar bears should an accidental oil 

release occur. 

Ferguson, S. H.; Taylor, M. K.; Rosing-Asvid, A.; Born, E. W., and Messier, F. 2000. 

Relationships Between Denning of Polar Bears and Conditions of Sea Ice. Journal of 

Mammalogy. Nov; 81(4). 

Keywords: annual ice/ den use/ dormancy/ seasonality/ sheltering/ Ursus maritimus/ Eastern 

Beaufort Sea/ fasting endurance/ southern ocean/ life history/ free period/ serum urea/ homerange/ seasonality/ creatinine 

Abstract: We examined shelter and maternity dens used by 97 adult female polar bears (Ursus 

maritimus) in relation to conditions of sea ice. Obligate use of maternity dens for pregnancy, 

birth, and lactation varied little with latitude or area. In contrast, timing of facultative use of 

shelter dens switched from autumn in the southern area (<70 degrees N) to winter in the northern 

area (>75 degrees N). For the southern area, 13 of 16 female polar bears used shelter dens in 

autumn versus winter (median dates of entry and exit, 11 September and 2 November; total = 56 

days), whereas in the northern area, 11 of 17 bears used shelter dens in winter versus autumn 

(median dates, 24 December and 2 March; total = 65 days). Difference in facultative use of 

shelter dens was associated with conditions of sea ice, southern regions had no sea ice when 

polar bears used shelter dens. In contrast, northern areas had more constant ice conditions that 

included presence of ice throughout the year. Southern regions seem to have greater primary 

productivity and more seals as a result of a pronounced seasonal cycle of annual ice. Polar bears 

in northern areas responded to the more constant ice conditions and less productive environment 

with use of shelter dens during the period with lowest seal accessibility. 

Ferrero, R.C.; DeMaster, D.P.; Hill, P.S.; Muto, M.M., and Lopez, A.L. 2000. Alaska 

Marine Mammal Stock Assessments. NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-AFSC-119. 

Alaska Marine Fisheries Service, Alaska Fisheries Science Center. Seattle, Washington. 

18 
Keywords: Beaufort Sea/ North Slope/ Alaska/ marine mammals/ pinnipeds/ cetaceans/ Marine 

Mammal Protection Act (MMPA)/ Public Law 103-238/ incidental take/ commercial fisheries/ 

native subsistence harvest/ stock assessment/ population estimate/ potential biological removal 

(PBR)/ BelugaWhale/ Delphinapterus leucas 

Abstract: This report provides population information on stocks of seven species of pinnipeds 

and 15 species of cetacean marine mammal Alaska under the jurisdiction of the National Marine 

Fisheries Service. Public Law 103-238, enacted in April 1994, changed provisions within the 

Marine Mammal Protection Act, whereupon interactions between commercial fisheries and 

marine mammals (including incidental takes) are addressed under three new provisions requiring 

a regional scientific review group to advise and report on the status of marine mammals in 

Alaska waters. This new law replaced the interim exemption that had regulated fisheries-related 

incidental takes since 1988. Stock assessment is provided for the beluga whale (Delphinapterus 

leucas), which occurs in both nearshore and offshore waters of the North Slope environment in 

the Beaufort Sea. Population size estimate for the Beaufort Sea population is 39,258 and the 

stock is considered to be stable or increasing. A productivity rate is not available. The potential 

biological removal (PBR) rate is estimated to be 649 animals per year. No reports of mortality 

incidental to commercial fisheries have been reported in recent years. The average annual take 

for Alaska native subsistence harvest averaged 61 animals for the years 1993 to 1997. 

Garbarino, J. R.; Snyder-Conn, E.; Leiker, T. J., and Hoffman, G. L. 2002. Contaminants 

in Arctic Snow Collected Over Northwest Alaskan Sea Ice. Water Air and Soil Pollution. Sep; 

139(1-4). 

Keywords: Alaska/ anions/ Arctic/ atmospheric/ Beaufort/ cations/ chlorpyrifos/ Chukchi/ 

contaminants/ mercury/ metals/ organochlorine/ snow/ aerosol chemical components/ plasma 

mass spectrometry/ atmospheric mercury/ trace-elements/ seasonal variations/ heavy metals/ 

polychlorinated biphenyls/ toxicological assessment/ peregrine falcons/ pollution aerosol 

Abstract: Snow cores were collected over sea ice from four northwest Alaskan Arctic estuaries 

that represented the annual snowfall from the 1995-1996 season. Dissolved trace metals, major 

cations and anions, total mercury, and organochlorine compounds were determined and 

compared to concentrations in previous arctic studies. Traces (<4 nanograms per liter, ng L-1) of 

cis- and trans-chlordane, dimethyl 2,3,5,6-tetrachloroterephthalate, dieldrin, endosulfan II, and 

PCBs were detected in some samples, with endosulfan I consistently present. High chlorpyrifos 

concentrations (70-80 ng L-1) also were estimated at three sites. The snow was highly enriched 

in sulfates (69-394 mg L-1), with high proportions of non-sea salt sulfates at three of five sites (9 

of 15 samples), thus indicating possible contamination through long-distance transport and 

deposition of sulfate-rich atmospheric aerosols. Mercury, cadmium, chromium, molybdenum, 

and uranium were typically higher in the marine snow (n = 15) in relation to snow from arctic 

terrestrial studies, whereas cations associated with terrigenous sources, such as aluminum, 

frequently were lower over the sea ice. One Kasegaluk Lagoon site (Chukchi Sea) had 

especially high concentrations of total mercury (mean = 214 ng L-1, standard deviation = 5 ng L1), but no methyl mercury was detected above the method detection limit (0.036 ng L-1) at any 

19 
of the sites. Elevated concentrations of sulfate, mercury, and certain heavy metals might indicate 

mechanisms of contaminant loss from the arctic atmosphere over marine water not previously 

reported over land areas. Scavenging by snow, fog, or riming processes and the high content of 

deposited halides might facilitate the loss of such contaminants from the atmosphere. Both the 

mercury and chlorpyrifos concentrations merit further investigation in view of their toxicity to 

aquatic organisms at low concentrations. 

Gibson, J. A. E.; Vincent, W. F.; Nieke, B., and Pienitz, R. 2000. Control of Biological 

Exposure to UV Radiation in the Arctic Ocean: Comparison of the Roles of Ozone and Riverine 

Dissolved Organic Matter. Arctic. Dec; 53(4). 

Keywords: Arctic/ CDOM/ DNA/ global change/ ozone depletion/ phytoplankton/ Siberia/ 

transparency/ ultraviolet radiation/ fresh water balance/ natural waters/ Laptev Sea/ Lena River/ 

carbon/ phytoplankton/ inhibition/ absorption/ depletion 

Abstract: Reports of severe stratospheric ozone depletion over the Arctic have heightened 

concern about the potential impact of rising ultraviolet-B (UV-B) radiation on north polar 

aquatic ecosystems. Our optical measurements and modeling results indicate that the ozonerelated UV-B influence on food web processes in the Arctic Ocean is likely to be small relative 

to the effects caused by variation in the concentrations of natural UV-absorbing compounds, 

known as chromophoric dissolved organic matter (CDOM), that enter the Arctic basin via its 

large river inflows. The aim of our present study was to develop and apply a simple bio-optical 

index that takes into account the combined effects of attenuation by atmospheric ozone and water 

column CDOM, and photobiological weighting for high-latitude environments such as the Arctic 

Ocean. To this end, we computed values for a biologically effective UV dose rate parameter 

(“weighted transparency” or T*) based on underwater UV measurements in high-latitude lakes 

and rivers that discharge into the Arctic Ocean; measured incident UV radiation at Barrow, 

Alaska: and published biological weighting curves for UV-induced DNA damage and UV 

photoinhibition of photosynthesis. The results underscore how strongly the Arctic Ocean is 

influenced by riverine inputs: shifts in CDOM loading (e.g., through climate change, land-use 

practices, or changes in ocean circulation) can cause variations in biological UV exposure of 

much greater magnitude than ozone-related effects. 

Harris, R. E.; Miller, G. W., and Richardson, W. J. 2001. Seal Responses to Airgun Sounds 

during Summer Seismic Surveys in the Alaskan Beaufort Sea. Marine Mammal Science. Oct; 

17(4). 

Keywords: ringed seal/ Phoca hispida/ Beaufort Sea/ Alaska/ Arctic/ seismic disturbance/ 

airgun array/ underwater noise/ behavior/ harassment/ underwater 

Abstract: Numbers, sighting distances, and behavior of seals were studied during a nearshore 

seismic program off northern Alaska in July–September 1996. We observed from the seismic 

vessel for 885.6 h, including all periods (day and night) when airguns operated and many periods 

without airguns. Of 422 seals seen, 421 were seen in daylight; 91.8% were ringed seals, 7.3% 

20 
were bearded seals, and 0.9% were spotted seals. About 79% were first seen within 250 m of the 

seismic boat, and sighting rate declined rapidly at lateral distances >50 m. During daylight, seals 

were seen at nearly identical rates (0.60–0.63/ h) during periods with no airguns firing, one 

airgun, and a “full-array” of 8– 11 120-in3

 airguns. However, seals tended to be farther away (P

< 0.0001) during full-array seismic. There was partial avoidance of the zone <150 m from the 

boat during full-array seismic, but seals apparently did not move much beyond 250 m. 

“Swimming away” was more common during full-array than no-airgun periods, but relative 

frequencies of five behaviors did not differ significantly among distance categories. Airgun 

operations were interrupted 112 times when seals were sighted within safety radii (150–250 m). 

The National Marine Fisheries Service specified these radii in the Incidental Harassment 

Authorization issued for the project; they are based on a 190 dB re 1 Pa (rms) criterion for 

broadband received level. Methods for estimating numbers of seals potentially affected by the 

seismic program are described, and effectiveness of monitoring and mitigation is discussed. 

There is an urgent need for more data on effects of strong seismic pulses on seals. 

Headley, J. V.; Marsh, P.; Akre, C. J.; Peru, K. M., and Lesack, L. 2002. Origin of 

Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Lake Sediments of the Mackenzie Delta. Journal of 

Environmental Science and Health Part a-Toxic/Hazardous Substances & Environmental 

Engineering. 37(7). 

Keywords: PAHs/ Mackenzie River/ alkylated PAHs/ sediment/ mass spectrometry/ Beaufort 

Sea/ river/ Canada/ shelf 

Abstract: The concentrations and distribution of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were 

assessed in sediment cores from among 14 lakes from three regions comprising a transect across 

the central Mackenzie Delta. PAHs were consistently found in the lake sediments, with parent 

concentrations in the 20-200 ng/g range. Concentrations were generally independent of depth in 

the sediment cores and this pattern was similar among the 3 regions of the delta. Concentrations 

increased in a westerly direction among the regions. For some lakes, the concentration of PAHs 

decreased with decreasing flooding frequency, and decreasing sedimentation rates. For the 

latter, maximum concentrations occurred at shallower depths within the sediment cores as 

flooding frequency among the lakes decreased. The distributions of C-0-C-4 alkylated 2- and 3- 

ring PAHs were consistent with a petrogenic origin, while the corresponding distribution of 4-

ring PAHs appears to be more consistent with a biogenic or pyrogenic origin. Based on relative 

contributions to the overall PAH budget, a petrogenic source appears to be dominant. However, 

the pyrene/fluoranthene ratio is more consistent with a source derived from peat. The alkylated 

PAH profiles are inconsistent with those in the Athabasca River system, and support a previously 

published hypothesis that the contribution of PAHs from the Athabasca oil sands to the lower 

Mackenzie River is minimal. A double ratio plot of chrysene vs. dibenzothiophene, diagnostic of 

weathering, suggests most weathering occurred before the sediments were deposited in the lakes, 

while a double ratio plot of dibenzothiophene vs. phenanthrene suggests a common source of 

PAHs across the delta, despite differing water sources from east to west across the delta. PAH 

inputs to the delta appear to mirror sediment inputs documented in previous work, where high 

sediment input from the Mackenzie mainstem during high floods dominates the delta sediment 

influx and masks any influence of the Peel River. 

21 
Hequette, A.; Desrosiers, M.; Hill, P. R., and Forbes, D. L. 2001. The Influence of Coastal 

Morphology on Shoreface Sediment Transport under Storm-Combined Flows, Canadian 

Beaufort Sea. Journal of Coastal Research. Summer; 17(3). 

Keywords: shoreface sediment transport/ combined flows/ storm surges/ Beaufort Sea/ Canada/ 

Continental Shelf/ Atlantic Bight/ currents/ model/ beach/ spit 

Abstract: Wind, wave and current measurements were carried in the nearshore zone of the 

Canadian Beaufort Sea at two coastal sites having distinct morphologies. The first site is a sandy 

beach backed by a low bluff, while the second site consists of low-lying barriers. Computation 

of potential sediment transport using a numerical model for combined flow conditions (Li and 

Amos, 1993) suggests that coastal morphology may play a significant role on circulation and 

sediment transport on the shoreface during storm events. Downwelling near-bottom currents and 

offshore sediment transport were observed at all sites during storm surges, but with some 

variations in the shoreface current patterns and sediment transport. According to the numerical 

model used in this study, offshore sediment transport is more significant where the beach is 

backed by a bluff acting as a natural barrier. Such condition appears to be favorable to the 

development of strong seaward-directed horizontal pressure gradients that drive offshore bottom 

currents. Along low barriers that are easily submerged and overwashed, sediment transport is 

mainly directed obliquely offshore due to more limited set-up of sea level at the coast during 

storm surges. These results suggest that coastal morphology may be responsible for variable 

offshore sediment dispersal on the shoreface during storms. Our results show that sediment may 

be transported offshore to depths from which fairweather waves may not be capable of returning 

the material onshore. Consequently, a loss of material to the offshore may be greater where 

overwashing is restricted due to the presence of a coastal feature that acts as a boundary for 

onshore-driven surface waters. 

Hoekstra, P. F.; Dehn, L. A.; George, J. C.; Solomon, K. R.; Muir, D. C. G., and O'Hara, T. 

M. 2002. Trophic Ecology of Bowhead Whales (Balaena mysticetus) Compared with that of 

Other Arctic Marine Biota as Interpreted from Carbon-, Nitrogen-, and Sulfur-Isotope 

Signatures. Canadian Journal of Zoology. Feb; 80(2). 

Keywords: stable isotopes/ tissues/ fractionation/ delta-C-13/ zooplankton/ delta-N-15/ 

migration/ turnover/ growth/ diet 

Abstract: In this study, stable carbon (delta(13)C), nitrogen (delta(15)N), and sulfur (delta(34)S) 

isotope ratios were measured in muscle tissue from the Bering-Chukchi-Beaufort Sea population 

of bowhead whales (Balaena mysticetus; n = 84) and various marine biota between 1997 and 

2000. In previous investigations, stable carbon and nitrogen isotope ratios in baleen from this 

population have been used to elucidate age, migratory behavior, and feeding ecology. However, 

information on delta(13)C, delta(15)N, and delta(34)S isotope patterns in bowhead whale muscle 

tissue and variability within the Bering Sea population is limited. Stable sulfur isotope values 

did not vary with delta(13)C enrichment for three consecutive seasons (n = 53) and this suggests 

22 
that habitat selection by bowhead whales was consistent over the sampling period. We found 

that in contrast to other studies, seasonal differences (spring versus fall) in delta(13)C values 

were not associated with seasonal changes in delta(15)N values, suggesting either that bowhead 

whales maintain a consistently lower trophic position relative to other marine mammals or that 

stable carbon and nitrogen isotope fractionation is tissue-dependent and (or) isotope-dependent 

within this species. Seasonal fluctuation in delta(13)C values was consistent for all age classes 

of bowhead whales and suggests that the Bering and Beaufort seas are both important regions for 

feeding. 

Hoekstra, P. F.; O'Hara, T. M.; Pallant, S. J.; Solomon, K. R., and Muir, D. C. G. 2002.

Bioaccumulation of Organochlorine Contaminants in Bowhead Whales (Balaena mysticetus) 

from Barrow, Alaska. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology. May; 42(4). 

Keywords: technical toxaphene/ Atlantic right whale/ marine food web/ Northwater Polynya/ 

persistent organochlorines/ Balaenoptera acutorostrata/ polychlorinated biphenyls/ Eubalaena 

glacialis/ aquatic biota/ bowhead whale/ Balaena mysticetus/ Alaska/ DDT/ chlordanes/ 

chlorobenzene/ hexachlorocyclohexane/ DDE/ biomagnification/ bioaccumulation 

Abstract: Bowhead whale (Balaena mysticetus) blubber (n = 72) and liver (n = 23) samples were 

collected during seven consecutive subsistence harvests (1997-2000) at Barrow, Alaska, to 

investigate the bioaccumulation of organochlorine contaminants (OCs) by this long-lived 

mysticete. The rank order of OC group concentrations (geometric mean, wet weight) in 

bowhead blubber samples were toxaphene (TOX; 455 ng/g) > polychlorinated biphenyls 

(SigmaPCBs 410 ng/g) > dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane-related compounds (SigmaDDT; 331 

ng/g) greater than or equal to hexachlorocyclohexane isomers (SigmaHCHs; 203 ng/g) greater 

than or equal to chlordanes and related isomers (SigmaCHLOR; 183 ng/g) > chlorobenzenes 

(SigmaClBz, 106 ng/g). In liver, SigmaHCH (9.5 ng/g; wet weight) was the most abundant 

SigmaOC group, followed by SigmaPCBs (9.1 ng/g) greater than or equal to TOX (8.8 ng/g) 

greater than or equal to SigmaCHLOR (5.5 ng/g) > SigmaClBz (4.2 ng/g) greater than or equal 

to SigmaDDT (3.7 ng/g). The dominant analyte in blubber and liver was p,p'-DDE and alphaHCH, respectively. Total TOX, SigmaPCBs, SigmaDDT, and SigmaCHLOR concentrations in 

blubber generally increased with age of male whales (as interpreted by body length), but this 

relationship was not significant for adult female whales. Biomagnification factor (BMF) values 

(0.1-45.5) for OCs from zooplankton (Calanus sp.) to bowhead whale were consistent with 

findings for other mysticetes. Tissue-specific differences in OC patterns in blubber and liver 

may be attributed to variation of tissue composition and the relatively low capacity of this 

species to biotransform various OCs. Principal component analysis of contaminants levels in 

bowhead blubber samples suggest that proportions of OCs, such as beta-HCH, fluctuate with 

seasonal migration of this species between the Bering, Chukchi, and Beaufort Seas. 

Hoekstra, P. F.; Wong, C. S.; O'Hara, T. M.; Solomon, K. R.; Mabury, S. A., and Muir, D. 

C. G. 2002. Enantiomer-Specific Accumulation of PCB Atropisomers in the Bowhead Whale 

(Balaena mysticetus). Environmental Science & Technology. Apr 1; 36(7). 

23 
Keywords: polychlorinated biphenyl congeners/ Narwhal monodon monoceros/ Delphinapterus 

leucas/ organochlorine contaminants/ Balaenoptera acutorostrata/ marine environment/ 

Mediterranean Sea/ cytochromes P450/ food chain/ metabolism/ bowhead whale/ balaena 

mysticetus

Abstract: Blubber (n = 40) and liver (n = 20) samples from the bowhead whale (Balaena 

mysticetus) were collected during the 1997-1998 Native (Inuit) subsistence harvests in Barrow, 

AK. Bowhead tissues and zooplankton were analyzed for polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) 

concentrations and the enantiomeric fractions (EFs) of eight chiral PCB congeners (PCB 91, 95, 

135, 136, 149, 174, 176, and 183) to quantify the enantiomer-specific accumulation of PCBs in 

this cetacean. PCB concentrations in bowhead blubber were low (mean +/- 1 SE: 610 +/- 54 ng 

g(-1) lipid) relative to other cetaceans. The accumulation of several chiral PCBs (PCB 91, 135, 

149, 174, 176, and 183) in bowhead blubber was enantiomer-specific relative to bowhead liver 

and zooplankton, suggesting that biotransformation processes within the bowhead whale are 

enantioselective. The EFs for PCB 95 and 149 were significantly correlated with body length in 

male and female whales, while EFs for PCB 91 correlated with length in males only. Despite 

evidence for enantioselective biotransformation, all three congeners bioaccumulated in the 

bowhead relative to PCB 153. Results suggest that enantioselective accumulation of PCB 91, 

95, and 149 is influenced by PCB concentrations, age, and/or the modification of an 

uncharacterized stereoselective process (or processes) during sexual maturity. 

Hudak, D. R. and Young, J. M. C. 2002. Storm Climatology of the Southern Beaufort Sea. 

Atmosphere-Ocean. Jun; 40(2). 

Keywords: ice cover/ El-Nino/ Tuktoyaktuk/ hemisphere/ features/ Canada/ trends/ cycles/ 

water/ warm/ Beaufort Sea 

Abstract: Building on the expertise from the Beaufort Weather Office, an objective method of 

identifying storm periods in the southern Beaufort Sea area based on surface wind speed criteria 

was developed. Algorithms that used hourly observations from Tuktoyaktuk and Sachs Harbour 

were trained to identify storm periods over the southern Beaufort Sea. The Master List produced 

by Eid and Cardone (1992) was used as a training set to tune the algorithms. A check with 

independent observations taken by a drilling platform verified the soundness of the approach. 

The National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP) reanalysis dataset was used to 

characterize storm type. In doing so, upper air data were introduced to the classification process. 

The important variables were 50-kPa wind speed and direction, and the 85-kPa temperature. The 

former variable is a reflection of the steering current of the storm systems while the latter is 

related to airmass characteristics within the storm system. The algorithms were applied to the 

1970 to 1995 time period for the months of June to November inclusive. On the average, there 

were 14 storms per storm season, with a standard deviation of 5. The years 1976 to 1982 were 

the most stormy with an average of 19 storms per storm season. There was no discernable trend 

in the storm frequency over the 25-year period. By month, October had the highest storm 

frequency, July the lowest. The average 50-kPa wind direction during storm periods was used to 

classify the storms as Arctic, Pacific or Irregular. The three storm types were further subdivided 

based on the average 50-kPa wind speed and the 85-kPa temperature change. Overall, 58% of 

24 
the storms were Arctic, 27% Pacific and 15% Irregular. There was an indication that Pacific 

storms have become less frequent in recent years. This decrease was the result of an absence of 

Pacific storms associated with relatively small net 85-kPa temperature changes. The data were 

then stratified by El Nino episodes. There were more storms during El Nino years because of an 

increase in Arctic storms. However, despite this overall increase, there was a decrease in the 

percentage of Arctic storms associated with strong cold air outbreaks. This storm information 

was used to aid in the interpretation of two studies related to conditions in 1994. The first was 

the Beaufort and Arctic Storms Experiment and the second the 1994/95 water year of the 

Mackenzie River basin. 

Krembs, C.; Eicken, H.; Junge, K., and Deming, J. W. 2002. High Concentrations of 

Exopolymeric Substances in Arctic Winter Sea Ice: Implications for the Polar Ocean Carbon 

Cycle and Cryoprotection of Diatoms. Deep-Sea Research Part I-Oceanographic Research 

Papers. Dec; 49(12). 

Keywords: Arctic/ sea ice/ polysaccharides/ exopolymers/ diatom/ carbon/ dissolved organicmatter/ nutrient concentrations/ microbial biofilms/ particles tep/ Weddell Sea/ pack ice/ water/ 

growth/ brine/ temperatures 

Abstract: Exopolymeric substances (EPS) produced by microorganisms play important roles in 

various aquatic, porous, and extreme environments. Only recently has their occurrence in sea ice 

been considered. We used macroscopic and microscopic approaches to study the content and 

possible ecological role of EPS in wintertime fast ice near Barrow, Alaska (71 degrees 20' N, 

156 degrees 40' W). Using Alcian blue staining of melted ice samples, we observed high 

concentrations of EPS in all samples examined, ranging from 0.79 to 7.71 mg xanthan gum 

equivalents (XGEQV)1(-1). Areal conversions to carbon equivalents yielded 1.5-1.9gCm(-2) ice 

in March and 3.3-4.0gCm(-2) in May (when the ice was thicker). Although EPS did not 

correlate with macronutrient or pigment data, the latter analyses indicated ongoing or recent 

biological activity in the ice within temperature horizons of -11degreesC to -9degreesC and 

warmer. EPS correlated positively with bacterial abundance (although no functional relationship 

could be deduced) and with dissolved organic carbon (DOC) concentrations. Ratios of 

EPS/DOC decreased at colder temperatures within the core, arguing against physical conversion 

of DOC to EPS during freezing. When sea-ice segments were maintained at representative 

winter temperatures (-5 degrees C,-15 degrees C and -25 degrees C) for 3-14 months, the total 

EPS content increased significantly at rates of 5-47 mug XGEQV1(-1)d(-1), similar to published 

rates of EPS production by diatoms. Microscopic images of ice-core sections at these very cold 

temperatures, using a recently developed non-invasive method, revealed diatoms sequestered in 

spacious brine pockets, intact autofluorescent chloroplasts in 47% of the (pennate) diatoms 

observed, and indications of mucus in diatom-containing pores. The high concentrations of EPS 

detected in these winter ice cores represent a previously unrecognized form of organic matter 

that may contribute significantly to polar ocean carbon cycles, not only within the ice but after 

springtime release into the water column. The EPS present in very high concentrations in the 

brine of these microhabitats appear to play important buffering and cryoprotectant roles for 

microorganisms, especially diatoms, against harsh winter conditions of high salinity and 

potential ice-crystal damage. 

25 
Krutzikowski, G.K. and Mate, B.R. 2000. Dive and surfacing characteristics of bowhead 

whales (Balaena mysticetus) in the Beaufort and Chukchi Seas. Can. J. Zool. 78: 1182-1198. 

Keywords: Beaufort Sea/ Chukchi Sea/ bowhead whale/ Balaena mysticetus/ ice cover/ whale 

diving depth/ whale diving duration 

Abstract: We received data from eight bowhead whales instrumented with satellite-monitored 

radio tags for 3 to 33 days. Of 42,306 dives made by eight whales during 1,695 h, 9,573 were 

sounding dives (>1 min). Mean duration of sounding dives for individuals varied from 6.9 to 

14.1 min ( = 10.4 ± 2.4 min, n = 8). Five whales recorded dives „61 min; longest dives for the 

other three were 56, 45, and 32 min. Five tags measured maximum depths of 29,499 dives during 

1220 h and time-at-depth during 1228 h. All five whales dived >100 m; the deepest dive was 352 

m. Whales spent most of their time at depths £16 m, but three whales spent most of their time 

>48 m during some sampling periods. Mean surfacing rates ranged from 18.2 to 47.0 

surfacings/h ( = 26.2 ± 9.0, n = 8). Tags were exposed to air 4.0 to 7.3% of the time ( = 5.5 ± 

0.95, n = 8), and whales were potentially visible from aircraft 8.5 to 16.4% of the time ( = 11.1 ± 

2.4, n = 8). Three whales made longer sounding dives and had lower surfacing rates when in ice 

cover >90%. No consistent diet patterns were found. 

Kucklick, J. R.; Struntz, W. D. J.; Becker, P. R.; York, G. W.; O'Hara, T. M., and 

Bohonowych, J. E. 2002. Persistent Organochlorine Pollutants in Ringed Seals and Polar Bears 

Collected From Northern Alaska. Science of the Total Environment. Mar 15; 287(1-2). 

Keywords: ringed seal/ polar bear/ Alaska/ Arctic/ persistent organochlorine pollutants/ 

organochlorines/ bioaccumulation/ polychlorinated biphenyl congeners/ marine food chains/ 

Phoca hispida/ Ursus maritimus/ Northwest Territories/ contaminant levels/ temporal trends/ 

bowhead whales/ pesticides/ blubber 

Abstract: Blubber samples from ringed seal (Phoca hispida; n = 8) and polar bear subcutaneous 

fat (Ursus maritimus; n = 5) were collected near Barrow, Alaska in 1996 as part of the Alaska 

Marine Mammal Tissue Archival Project (AMMTAP) and retained in the National 

Biomonitoring Specimen Bank at the National Institute of Standards and Technology in 

Gaithersburg, Maryland (USA). The samples were analyzed for a variety of persistent 

organochlorine pollutants (POPs) including polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), 

hexachlorocyclohexanes (HCHs), chlordane and metabolites, hexachlorobenzene (HCB) and 

DDTs and metabolites. The geometric mean, on a wet mass basis, of SigmaPCBs (sum of 29 

congeners and congener groups) were 732 +/- 282 ng/g (1 SD) in seals and 3395 +/- 1442 ng/g in 

polar bears. The geometric mean of SigmaDDTs, SigmaHCHs (alpha-, beta- and gamma- HCH) 

and HCB concentrations (wet mass basis) in seals and bears were 562 +/- 261 ng/g vs. 74.8 +/- 

39 ng/g, 380 +/- 213 ng/g vs. 515 ng/g, and 17.4 +/- 10.1 ng/g vs. 183 +/- 153 ng/g, respectively. 

The geometric mean sum of chlordane (Sigmachlordane, sum of cis- and trans-chlordane, cisand trans-nonachlor, oxychlordane and heptachlor epoxide) and dieldrin concentrations in ringed 

seals and polar bears were 753 +/- 617 ng/g vs. 720 +/- 315 ng/g and 38.6 +/- 22.8 ng/g vs. 130 

26 
+/- 65 ng/g, respectively. Apparent bioaccumulation factors (polar bear/ringed seal POP 

concentrations) were lower in the animals sampled near Barrow, Alaska than in those from 

locations in the Canadian Arctic. This suggests that polar bears are also preying on marine 

mammals from lower trophic levels than the ringed seals with correspondingly lower 

organochlorine levels, such as bowhead whale carcasses. PCB congener patterns in the samples 

demonstrated the metabolism of certain PCB congeners in the polar bear relative to the ringed 

seal in agreement with previous studies. Regional comparisons of animals collected in Alaska 

and Arctic Canada are presented. 

Kumar, K. S.; Kannan, K.; Corsolini, S.; Evans, T.; Giesy, J. P.; Nakanishi, J., and 

Masunaga, S. 2002. Polychlorinated Dibenzo-P-Dioxins, Dibenzofurans and Polychlorinated 

Biphenyls in Polar Bear, Penguin and South Polar Skua. Environmental Pollution. 119(2). 

Keywords: Antarctic/ Arctic/ PCBs/ PCDD/ DF/ polar bear/ penguin/ South Polar Skua/ isomerspecific analysis/ Mediterranean Sea/ breeding season/ risk assessment/ marine mammals/ PCBs/ 

Antarctica/ pollution/ seabirds 

Abstract: Concentrations of 2378-substituted polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs), 

dibenzofurans (DFs) and non- and mono-ortho-substituted polychlorinated biphenyls (dioxin-like 

PCBs) were measured in livers of polar bears from the Alaskan Arctic and in eggs of Adelie 

penguin and south polar skua and weddell seal liver, fish and krill from Antarctica. This is one 

of the first reports to document the concentrations of PCDDs/DFs in polar bear livers from 

Alaska, and in penguin and skua eggs from Antarctica. Concentrations of total PCDD/DFs in 

livers of polar bears ranged from 8 to 66 (mean: 26) pg/g, on a lipid weight basis. 

Concentrations of total PCDD/DFs in Antarctic samples were in the increasing order on a lipid 

weight basis; weddell seal liver (8.9 pg/g) < fish (11-17 pg/g) < krill (27 pg/g) < penguin eggs 

(mean: 23 pg/g) < south polar skua eggs (mean: 181 pg/g). Concentrations of dioxin-like PCBs 

(including two di-ortho congeners) in polar bear livers were in the range of 1080-3930 ng/g, lipid 

wt. Concentrations of dioxin-like PCBs in Antarctic samples were in the following order on a 

lipid weight basis; south polar skua eggs (mean: 1440 ng/g) > > penguin eggs (30 ng/g) > seal 

liver (57 ng/g) >fishes (6.2 ng/g) > krill (0.9 ng/g). Concentrations of 2378-tetrachlorodibenzop-dioxin equivalents (TEQs) calculated based on the WHO TEFs were higher in the eggs of 

polar skua (mean: 344; range: 220-650 pg/g, lipid wt.) from Antarctica than in polar bear livers 

from Alaska (mean: 120; range: 69-192 pg/g). In general, concentrations of PCDFs were greater 

than those of PCDDs in polar organisms. 23478-PeCDF is one of the dominant congener found 

in several samples. Concentrations of TEQs in polar bear livers and skua eggs were close to 

those that may cause adverse health effects. Dioxin-like PCBs, particularly, non-ortho coplanar 

PCBs were the major contributors to TEQ concentrations in penguin and skua eggs whereas 

mono-ortho PCBs accounted for a major portion of TEQs in polar bear livers. 

Kumar, N.; Bird, K. J.; Nelson, P. H; Grow, J. A., and Evans, K. R. 2002. A Digital Atlas 

of Hydrocarbon Accumulations within and Adjacent to the National Petroleum Reserve Alaska 

(NPRA). 

27 
Keywords: National Petroleum Reserve Alaska/ NPRA/ Alpine Field/ petroleum reserves 

Introduction: The United States Geological Survey (USGS) has initiated a project to reassess the 

hydrocarbon potential of the NPRA. Although exploration for hydrocarbons in the NPRA was 

initiated in 1944, it has taken fifty years for the first commercial discovery to be made. That 

discovery, the Alpine field (projected recoverable reserves of 430 million barrels), was made in 

1994 along the eastern boundary of the NPRA. This field produces from a formation heretofore 

considered to be mostly a source rock. The Alpine discovery made such a reassessment 

necessary. As part of this assessment, we have compiled stratigraphic, structural, petrophysical, 

and seismic data related to nineteen accumulations within and nearby the NPRA. The goal is to 

provide basic documentation and a set of analog accumulations for the new assessment. 

The first two displays of this atlas consist of a location map and a stratigraphic column showing 

the stratigraphic settings for the primary reservoir and source rocks for these accumulations. The 

third display is a table listing each accumulation and providing the hydrocarbon fluid type, 

reservoir, operator, status, and discovery well and date for each. Compilation of basic 

information for each individual accumulation follows these displays. A typical compilation 

includes a structure contour map on or near the reservoir horizon, a log display of the discovery 

well with reservoir characteristics along with figures for recoverable volumes, and one or two 

seismic lines across or near the accumulation. 

Marquette, W. M. 2002. Annotated bibliography of the bowhead whale, Balaena 

mysticetus, 1767-1983. 

Keywords: bowhead whale/ Balaena mysticetus/ Alaskan Eskimos/ whaling/ bibliography 

Abstract: The bowhead whale, Balaena mysticetus, is now an endangered species following an 

intensive commercial fishery for this cetacean for about 300 years, first in the North Atlantic 

Arctic from 1610 to 1910, then in the North Pacific Arctic from 1848 to 1910. The intensive 

annual hunt by hundreds of whaling vessels reduced the estimated residual bowhead population 

in the North Atlantic Ocean to a few hundred animals and that in the North Pacific Ocean to one 

or two thousand. Because of the precarious status of the bowhead, beginning in 1972 the 

Scientific Committee of the International Whaling Commission (IWC) expressed concern about 

the lack of information on the status of the western Arctic bowhead, especially because of the 

continuing annual harvest by Alaskan Eskimos for subsistence and cultural purposes. The IWC 

was specifically concerned by the lack of information on population abundance, on the size of 

and trends in the subsistence harvest, and on the number of whales which were struck and lost 

during the hunt. As part of a research program begun in 1973 by the National Marine Mammal 

Laboratory, an extensive search of the literature was conducted to obtain information needed by 

scientists studying the natural history and historical record of the shore-based whaling effort and 

catch for this endangered species. References on commercial whaling also were collected. The 

results of the literature search are presented here as an annotated bibliography of selected 

references on the bowhead whale covering the period of 1767 to 1983. 

28 
Masterson, W.D. 2000. Petroleum generation, migration, and filling history models for the 

Prudhoe Bay, Kuparuk, and West Sak fields, North Slope, Alaska. Amer. Assoc. Petrol Geol. 

Annual Meeting, New Orleans, Louisiana, April 16-19. 

Keywords: North Slope/ Alaska/ Prudhoe Bay/ Kuparuk/ West Sak/ petroleum generation/ 

Shublik formation/ Kingak shale 

Abstract: The petroleum generation and migration history of the central Alaskan North Slope 

coast between the Canning and Colville Rivers was reconstructed with map-based burial history 

models. Regional structure maps of 6 horizons were combined with source rock oil generation 

kinetics for Triassic marine carbonate (Shublik Formation), Cretaceous marine shale (HRZ 

Formation), and Jurassic marine shale (Kingak Formation) to model the filling history of the 

Prudhoe Bay, Kuparuk, and West Sak fields. Maximum burial of source rocks in the central 

Alaskan North Slope occurred between Middle Eocene and Late Oligocene time (~ 45 to 23 

myBP). Shublik source rock is buried less than 500 feet deeper than the Kingak Shale source 

interval, but generated hydrocarbons much earlier because Shublik kerogen is sulfur-rich and 

transforms to hydrocarbons at lower temperatures than the marine shales of the Kingak 

Formation. 

Prudhoe Bay field oil in the Triassic Ivishak sandstone reservoir was generated primarily from 

Shublik and HRZ source rocks to the south and east. Oils in Jurassic Sag River sandstone 

reservoirs on the northwestern side of the Prudhoe Bay field are mixtures co-sourced from 

Shublik carbonate and Kingak shale. Kuparuk field oils migrated vertically through faults that 

connect their predominant Shublik source with the Lower Cretaceous Kuparuk River Formation. 

West Sak field oil is a moderately biodegraded oil mixture that spilled from the Prudhoe Bay 

field into Upper Cretaceous West Sak sandstone reservoirs, and a lightly biodegraded secondary 

gas/condensate charge that leaked up faults from the underlying Kuparuk field. 

Masterson, W. D.; Dzou, L. I. P.; Holba, A. G.; Fincannon, A. L., and Ellis, L. 2001. 

Evidence for Biodegradation and Evaporative Fractionation in West Sak, Kuparuk and Prudhoe 

Bay Field Areas, North Slope, Alaska. Organic Geochemistry. 32(3). 

Keywords: evaporative fractionation/ biodegradation/ isotopes/ Alaska/ Kuparuk/ West Sak/ 

Prudhoe Bay/ petroleum migration/ biomarkers/ GC/ IRMS/ light hydrocarbons/ natural gas/ 

geochemical characterization/ isotopic fractionation/ compositional changes/ crude oils/ 

petroleum/ carbon/ degradation/ reservoir 

Abstract: Oils from the West Sak, Kuparuk, and Prudhoe Bay fields on the North Slope of 

Alaska display geochemical evidence for a complex petroleum filling history that includes 

multiple sources and alteration by evaporative fractionation and biodegradation. Source-specific 

biomarkers in West Sak oils indicate generation from the same source rocks in approximately the 

same proportions as Prudhoe Bay field oil, consistent with the hypothesis that oil spilled from the 

deeper Prudhoe accumulation and remigrated about 10 miles laterally and 5000 feet vertically 

into the West Sak Field. West Sak oils are moderately biodegraded but exhibit anomalously high 

concentrations of gasoline-range saturate and aromatic compounds interpreted as a secondary 

29 
gas/condensate charge that arrived after biodegradation of the spilled Prudhoe oil. The 

shallowest West Sak oils have less secondary gas/condensate charge, lower API gravities, and 

reduced concentrations of methylcyclopentane, benzene, cyclohexane, 3-methylhexane, heptane, 

methylcyclohexane, and toluene relative to the deepest West Sak Zone A oils. The carbon 

isotopic compositions of these C-6 and C-7 compounds in the shallowest West Sak reservoirs are 

heavier than those of the deepest West Sak oil reservoirs by up to 3 parts per thousand and the 

isotopic compositions of saturate compounds are altered more than those of aromatic 

compounds. The heavier isotopic compositions of C-6 and C-7 compounds in the shallow West 

Sak reservoirs are interpreted to result from a kinetic isotope shift caused by light biodegradation 

of the secondary gas/condensate charge. West Sak field solution gas is also interpreted as 

biodegraded, based upon its dryness (>98% methane), relatively high isobutane/n-butane ratio, 

the presence of isotopically heavy carbon dioxide acid isotopically light methane, and propane 

that is isotopically heavier than either ethane or butane. The isotopic compositions of methane 

and carbon dioxide in West Sak gas suggest that biogenic methane was generated during CO2 

reduction under anaerobic conditions. The isotopic compositions of C-6 and C-7 compounds in 

the deepest, least biodegraded West Sak oils are nearly identical to those of the underlying oils 

from the Kuparuk Field but differ from the Prudhoe Bay Field oils. The Kuparuk Field is 

therefore postulated as the source of the secondary gas/condensate charge observed in oils from 

the West Sak Field. Ratios of toluene/heptane and heptane/methylcyclohexane in Kuparuk oils 

provide independent evidence for loss of gas and condensate from the Kuparuk reservoir by the 

process of evaporative fractionation, and the oils subjected to the most evaporative fractionation 

are isotopically heavier in the C-6-C-7 range. The isotopic compositions of West Sak zone A C6 

and C7 hydrocarbons suggest that a slight (similar to 0.8 parts per thousand) isotopic 

fractionation resulted from evaporative fractionation of the gas/condensate charge from the 

Kuparuk Field oil accumulation. North/northeast-striking faults that connect the Kuparuk and 

West Sak reservoirs provide a potential migration pathway for the secondary gas/condensate 

charge through 3000 feet of intervening shale. This model of West Sak oil biodegradation, 

subsequent secondary gas/condensate charge, and further biodegradation has implications for 

development of North Slope West Sak oil reserves, because heavily biodegraded West Sak oils 

that lack a secondary gas/condensate charge may be too viscous to develop by conventional 

waterflooding methods. 

Mate, B. R.; Krutzikowsky, G. K., and Winsor, M. H. 2000. Satellite-monitored movements 

of radio-tagged bowhead whales in the Beaufort and Chukchi Seas during the late-summer 

feeding season and fall migration. Can. J. Zool. 78: 1168-1181. 

Keywords: Beaufort Sea/ Mackenzie River Delta/ Chukchi Sea/ bowhead whale/ Balaena 

mysticetus/ satellite monitoring/ migration 

Abstract: From 30 August to 6 September 1992, 12 juvenile bowhead whales were tagged with 

Argos satellite-monitored radio tags in the Canadian Beaufort Sea off the Mackenzie River 

Delta. Eight tags documented 9,820 km of movements between 392 locations during 111 whaletracking days. The whales did not move in unison. Individual movements and average speeds 

(1.1 to 5.8 km/h) varied widely. One whale stayed in Mackenzie Bay for 23.5 d while the rest 

stayed an average of only 2.4 d. The majority of locations for all whales were in shallow water: 

30 
65% in <50 m and 87% in <100 m. Seven whales went into water >100 m and four were in water 

>500 m. The whale with the longest record traveled „3886 km to Siberia in 32.5 d, averaging 5.0 

km/h. Its westerly route through the Beaufort and Chukchi Seas was between 70 to 72†N and 

primarily in heavy ice (ca. 90% coverage), which was continuous west of 151†W. This whale’s 

speed was not significantly slower in heavy ice than in more open water. This is the first 

documentation of the detailed route and speed for a bowhead whale during its fall migration 

from Canadian to Russian waters. 

Matthiessen, J.; Kunz-Pirrung, M., and Mudie, P. J. 2000. Freshwater Chlorophycean Algae 

in Recent Marine Sediments of the Beaufort, Laptev and Kara Seas (Arctic Ocean) as Indicators 

of River Runoff. International Journal of Earth Sciences. Dec; 89(3). 

Keywords: Arctic Ocean/ Beaufort Sea/ Laptev Sea/ Kara Sea/ recent sediments/ chlorophyte 

distribution/ freshwater discharge/ St-Erth Beds/ Southwestern England/ Western Kara/ ice/ 

water/ shelf/ assemblages/ entrainment/ microalgae/ quaternary 

Abstract: Freshwater chlorophycean algae are characteristic organic-walled microfossils in 

recent coastal and shelf sediments from the Beaufort, Laptev and Kara seas (Arctic Ocean). The 

persistent occurrence of the chlorophycean algae Pediastrum spp. and Botryococcus cf. braunii

in marine palynomorph assemblages is related to the discharge of freshwater and suspended 

matter from the large Siberian and North American rivers into the Arctic shelf seas. The 

distribution patterns of these algae in the marine environments reflect the predominant deposition 

of riverine sediments and organic matter along the salinity gradient from the outer estuaries and 

prodeltas to the shelf break. Sedimentary processes overprint the primary distribution of these 

algae. Resuspension of sediments by waves and bottom currents may transport sediments in the 

bottom nepheloid layer along the submarine channels to the shelf break. Bottom sediments and 

microfossils may be incorporated into sea ice during freeze-up in autumn and winter leading to 

an export from the shelves into the deep sea. The presence of these freshwater algae in sea ice 

and bottom sediments in the central Arctic Ocean confirm that transport in sea ice is an important 

process which leads to a redistribution of shallow water microfossils. 

Moore, S. E. 2000. Variability of Cetacean Distribution and Habitat Selection in the Alaskan 

Arctic, Autumn 1982-91. Arctic. Dec; 53(4). 

Keywords: Alaska/ Arctic/ Beaufort Sea/ bowhead whale/ Chukchi Sea/ gray whale/ habitat 

selection/ white whale/ Cod/ Boreogadus Saida/ interannual variability/ Bering Strait/ Chukchi 

Sea/ climatic change/ aerial surveys/ ice extent/ waters/ ocean 

Abstract: Ten years (1982-91) of autumn sighting data from aerial surveys offshore northern 

Alaska were analyzed to investigate variability in cetacean distribution and habitat selection. 

Habitat selection indices were calculated for bowhead, white, and gray whales in heavy, 

moderate, and light ice conditions; and for high, moderate, and low transport (inflow) conditions 

at Bering Strait. Bowhead whales selected shallow inner-shelf waters during moderate and light 

ice, and deeper slope habitat in heavy ice conditions (chi (2), p < 0.05 - 0.001). White whales 

31 
selected slope habitat (chi (2), p < 0.001), and gray whales selected coastal/shoal and 

shelf/trough habitat (chi (2), p < 0.025 - 0.001), in all ice conditions. In the Alaskan Beaufort 

Sea, bowheads selected shelf waters and white whales chose slope waters, without regard to 

transport conditions (chi(2), P < 0.01 - 0.001). In the northern Chukchi Sea, gray whales 

selected coastal/shoal habitat in high transport conditions (chi(2), p < 0.005), and shelf/trough 

habitat (chi(2), p < 0.001) during moderate and low transport conditions. Variability in 

distribution and habitat selection among these species is likely linked to prey availability at 

dissimilar trophic levels, although this hypothesis has yet to be rigorously tested. 

Moore, S.E.; DeMaster, D.P.; and Dayton, P.K. 2000. Cetacean Habitat Selection in the 

Alaskan Arctic during Summer and Autumn. Arctic 53(4): 432-447. 

Keywords: Alaska/ Arctic/ Beaufort Sea/ Chuchki Sea/ bowhead whale/ Balaena mysticetus/ 

white whale/ Delphinapterus leucas/ gray whale/ Eschrichtius robustus/ habitat selection 

Abstract: Ten years (1982 to 1991) of sighting data from aerial surveys offshore of northern 

Alaska were analyzed to investigate seasonal variability in cetacean habitat selection. Distinct 

habitats were described for bowhead whales (Balaena mysticetus), white whales (Delphinapterus 

leucas), and gray whales (Eschrichtius robustus) on the basis of habitat selection ratios 

calculated for bathymetric and ice-cover regimes. In summer, bowheads selected continental 

slope waters and moderate ice conditions; white whales selected slope and basin waters and 

moderate to heavy ice conditions; and gray whales selected coastal/shoal waters and open water. 

In autumn, bowheads selected inner-shelf waters and light ice conditions; white whales selected 

outer-shelf and slope waters and moderate to heavy ice; and gray whales selected coastal and 

shoal/trough habitats in light ice and open water. Habitat differences among species were 

significant in both seasons (ANOVA F > 28, p < 0.00001). Interseasonal depth and ice-cover 

habitats were significantly different for bowhead whales (p < 0.00002), but not for gray whales 

(p > 0.35). White whale depth habitat was significantly different between seasons (p < 0.00002), 

but ice cover was not (p < 0.08). 

Moran, S. B. and Smith, J. N. 2000. Th-234 as a Tracer of Scavenging and Particle Export in 

the Beaufort Sea. Continental Shelf Research. Jan; 20(2). 

Keywords: thorium/ scavenging/ particles/ Beaufort Sea/ particulate organic carbon/ Western 

Arctic Ocean/ disequilibria/ seawater/ nitrogen/ profiles/ water/ flux 

Abstract: Water column measurements of Th-234 were made at three stations in the shelf-slope 

regime and one offshore station in the Beaufort Sea, August-September 1995, to quantify rates of 

scavenging and particle export. Large-volume water samples (200-6001) were collected in situ 

and dissolved and particulate Th-234 activities determined at-sea. Th-234/U-238 disequilibrium 

was evident at all locations. The distribution of the total Th-234/U-238 activity ratio reveals a 

transition, centered at the shelf break, from low values (0.4-0.6) over the shelf to elevated values 

approaching secular equilibrium offshore. These results further constrain the extent to which 

shelf scavenging and lateral transport contribute to Th-234/U-238 disequilibrium in the Arctic 

32 
interior. Residence times of dissolved Th-234 range from similar to 25-50 disequilibrium in the 

shelf and slope waters to similar to 150 d offshore, compared to similar to 12-18 d for particulate 

234Th. Estimates of POC export from the upper 50 m derived from Th-234 range from similar 

to 4-7 mmol C m(-2) d(-1) over the shelf to similar to 1-2 mmol C m(-2) d(-1) in the slope waters 

and central Beaufort. 

Moulton, V. D.; Richardson, W. J.; McDonald, T. L.; Elliott, R. E., and Williams, M. T. 

2002. Factors Influencing Local Abundance and Haulout Behaviour of Ringed Seals (Phoca 

hispida) on Landfast Ice of the Alaskan Beaufort Sea. Canadian Journal of Zoology. Nov; 

80(11). 

Keywords: breeding habitat/ Northwest Territories/ Barrow Strait/ out patterns/ harp seals/ 

predation/ Vitulina/ Groenlandica/ Svalbard/ females/ Beaufort Sea/ ringed seals/ Phoca hispida

Abstract: This study investigates how the local abundance of ringed seals (Phoca hispida) on 

landfast ice of the central Alaskan Beaufort Sea is related to habitat factors and how the haulout 

behaviour of seals is influenced by temporal and weather factors. An understanding of these 

relationships is required before the potential impacts of industrial activity on ringed seals can be 

assessed. Intensive and replicated aerial surveys employing strip transect methodology were 

conducted during the springs of 1997-1999. Data were examined with chi(2) tests and Poisson 

regression. The overall observed densities of ringed seals over water depths >3 m was 0.43, 

0.39, and 0.63 seals/km(2) in 1997-1999, respectively. Significantly more seals occurred over 

intermediate water depths, especially 10-20 m. In all years, seals were widely distributed on the 

landfast ice, but during breakup, higher numbers of seals occurred near the ice edge. Densities 

were significantly lower in areas with high ice deformation and extensive melt water. There was 

no consistent relationship between seal sightings and time of day within the 10:00-18:00 period 

with surveys. The peak period of haulout occurred around 1 and 2 June. Significantly more 

ringed seals were observed on warm, cloudy days. There was no indication that limited winter 

industrial activity, including ice roads and Vibroseis, occurring within the study area in 1997-

1999 significantly affected ringed seal density in spring. 

Naidu, A. S.; Cooper, L. W.; Finney, B. P.; MacDonald, R. W.; Alexander, C., and 

Semiletov, I. P. 2000. Organic Carbon Isotope Ratios (delta C-13) of Arctic Amerasian 

Continental Shelf Sediments. International Journal of Earth Sciences. Dec; 89(3). 

Keywords: Arctic Amerasian Shelf/ sediment carbon and nitrogen isotopes/ Chukchi Seas/ 

trophic relationships/ delta-N-15 analysis/ surface sediments/ coastal sediments/ margin 

sediments/ Mackenzie River/ food webs/ matter/ ocean 

Abstract: Organic matter origins are inferred from carbon isotope ratios (delta C-13) in recent 

continental shelf sediments and major rivers from 465 locations from the north Bering-ChukchiEast Siberian-Beaufort Sea, Arctic Amerasia. Generally, there is a cross-shelf increase in delta 

C-13, which is due to progressive increased contribution seaward of marine-derived organic 

carbon to surface sediments. This conclusion is supported by the correlations between sediment 

33 
delta C-13, OC/N, and delta N-15. The sources of total organic carbon (TOC) to the Amerasian 

margin sediments are primarily from marine water-column phytoplankton and terrigenous C-3 

plants constituted of tundra taiga and angiosperms. In contrast to more temperate regions, the 

source of TOC from terrigenous C-4 and CAM plants to the study area is probably insignificant 

because these plants do not exist in the northern high latitudes. The input of carbon to the 

northern Alaskan shelf sediments from nearshore kelp community (Laminaria solidungula) is 

generally insignificant as indicated by the absence of high sediment delta C-13 values (-16.5 to -

13.6 parts per thousand) which are typical of the macrophytes. Our study suggests that the 

isotopic composition of sediment TOC has potential application in reconstructing temporal 

changes in delivery and accumulation of organic matter resulting from glacial-interglacial 

changes in sea level and environments. Furthermore, recycling and advection of the extensive 

deposits of terrestrially derived organic matter from land, or the wide Amerasian margin, could 

be a mechanism for elevating total CO2 and pCO(2) in the Arctic Basin halocline. 

National Marine Mammal Laboratory (NOAA). 2000. Summary Report. Workshop on the 

design of studies needed for the evaluation of cumulative impacts of oil and gas exploration and 

production on fall migrating bowhead whales and the fall bowhead whale subsistence hunt. In: 

Workshop Proceedings, Cumulative Effects of North Slope Oil and Gas Activities, Deadhorse, 

Alaska, July 9-14, 2001. U.S. National Academy of Sciences, Division on Earth and Life 

Studies. 19 pp. 

Keywords: Beaufort Sea/ oil & gas exploration/ bowhead whale/ Balaena mysticetus/ 

cumulative impacts/ subsistence harvest/ behavior/ acoustic integration model/ industrial noise 

Abstract: Workshop objectives are summarized for development of an approach to evaluate 

cumulative oil and gas exploration impacts in the Beaufort Sea upon bowhead whales for 1) the 

fall whale migration; 2) the fall subsistence harvest; 3) individual whale behavior (e.g., changes 

in breathing rates, swimming rates, and vocalizations); 4) use of feeding areas; and 5) whale 

contaminant loads. The workshop group determined relative study priorities, concluding that a 

multiyear study of noise impacts was the first priority with impacts related to air/water quality 

and visual disturbance being of lower priority. Cumulative impacts were defined as occurring 

from a single source over many years or from many sources within a single year. An acoustic 

integration model was presented to examine and predict changes in swimming behavior in 

response to noise sources. Types of data that are available and that are needed for an integrated 

model were discussed, with a recommendation that any model results be confirmed by follow-up 

monitoring. The workshop concluded that no survey methods currently exist which detect smallscale changes in bowhead migration paths (e.g., 1 to 2 km). An approach to designing a multiyear study to assess impacts on the whale subsistence hunt was discussed, including impacts to 

the hunt as it takes place on the water, as well as socio-cultural impacts from alteration of 

hunting patterns and potential loss of resources. Recommendations were presented for means of 

studying changes in individual whale behavior in response to industrial noise. 

Noel, L. E.; Johnson, S. R., and O’Doherty, G. M. 2002. Aerial surveys of molting longtailed ducks and other waterfowl in the barrier island-lagoon systems between Spy Island and 

34 
Brownlow Point, Alaska, 2001. Report for BP Exploration (Alaska) Inc. by LGL Alaska 

Research Associates, Inc., Anchorage, Alaska, USA. 122 p. 

Keywords: central Alaska Beaufort Sea/ Clangula hyemalis/ eider/ glaucous gull/ Larus 

hyperboreus/ long-tailed duck/ marine waterbirds/ Melanitta perspicillata/ coter/ Somateria 

mollissima v-nigrum

Abstract: There is concern about declines in sea duck populations in western North America and 

Alaska. We collected aerial survey data for molting sea ducks and other waterfowl in central 

Alaskan Beaufort Sea barrier island-lagoon systems collected during July-August 2001. These 

data add to the 15 years of long-term monitoring data collected on the same survey transects over 

the 25-year period since 1977. Our study objectives were to determine current distribution and 

abundance of molting sea ducks and other waterfowl, and to compare current and historical 

numbers and distributions of long-tailed ducks (Clangula hyemalis) in the barrier island-lagoon 

system between Spy Island and Brownlow Point, Alaska. Three low-level aerial strip-transect 

surveys were conducted between 23 July-11 August 2001, covering 1986 linear km and 790 km2. 

Long-tailed ducks comprised 78% of the avian fauna in July-August 2001. This is slightly lower 

than results since 1977 (80-98%) across this same survey area. Eiders, primarily common eiders 

(Somateria mollissima v-nigrum), were more abundant in the eastern lagoon system (west of the 

Arctic National Wildlife Refuge; mean density ± standard error; 5.0 ± 2.13 eiders/km2); while 

scoters, primarily surf scoter (Melanitta perspicillata ), were more abundant in the western 

lagoon system (west of Prudhoe Bay; 1.8 ± 0.43 scoters/km2). Geese and swans were most 

abundant along the mainland shoreline in the western lagoon (6.0 ± 2.04 geese/km2

) and on 

tundra transects south of the eastern lagoon (4.1 ± 2.28 geese/km2). Gulls, primarily glaucous 

gulls (Larus hyperboreus), were more abundant in the western lagoon system (1.5 ± 0.78 

gulls/km2), compared to the eastern lagoon system (0.8 ± 0.61 gulls/km2). During July-August 

2001, density of long-tailed ducks was highest in the eastern lagoon system (18.5 ± 15.26 

ducks/km2), followed by Stefansson Sound (9.5 ± 6.93 ducks/km2), the western lagoon system 

(8.1 ± 7.75 ducks/km2), and tundra (0.1 ± 0.10 ducks/km 2). Throughout the survey area the total 

number of long-tailed ducks increased from 23 July (n = 8,973) to 8 August (n = 14,736) and 

then decreased on 11 August 2001 (n = 3,169). Mean density of long-tailed ducks within the 

entire survey area (combined western and eastern lagoons) during July and August declined from 

1978-2001 (P = 0.018). Mean areal density declined for 9 of 16 western lagoon transects, 1 

offshore, 4 barrier island, 2 lagoon, and 2 mainland, through the 3 summary time periods (1978-

1984, 1989-1991, 1998-2001) between 1978 and 2001. In the eastern lagoon, mean long-tailed 

duck density decreased on 3 barrier island transects and 1 lagoon transect from 1989-1991 to 

1998-200, while density on 2 mainland shoreline transects increased. 

Noel, L. E.; Johnson, S. R.; O’Doherty, G. M., and Helmericks, J. W. 2002. The status of 

snow geese in the Sagavanirktok River delta area, Alaska: 2001 monitoring program. Report for 

BP Exploration (Alaska) Inc. by LGL Alaska Research Associates, Inc., Anchorage, Alaska, 

USA. 40 p. 

Keywords: Alopex lagopus/ arctic fox/ Chen caerulescens caerulescens/ grizzly bear/ Howe 

Island/ lesser snow goose/ nesting colony/ Ursus arctos/ Sagavanirktok River 

35 
Abstract: The Sagavanirktok River delta population of lesser snow geese (Chen caerulescens 

caerulescens) was the only established nesting colony of this species in Alaska and the United 

States and the only nesting colony in proximity to an active oilfield for many years. A 

monitoring project was established in 1980 to investigate potential effects of the Endicott 

Development Project on the Sagavanirktok River delta snow goose population and has continued 

through 2001. The purpose of this long-term monitoring project is to census the nesting colony 

on Howe Island, assess productivity and disturbance effects, and document the distribution and 

movements of snow geese during molting and brood-rearing. We conducted an aerial photo 

survey of nesting lesser snow geese on Howe Island, Duck Island and other East Channel islands 

in the Sagavanirktok River delta on 17 and 22 June 2001, and ground-based nest searches on 9 

July 2001. There were 428 and 474 snow geese observed in the 17 and 22 June 2001 photo 

surveys of Howe Island, Duck Island, and islands in the east channel of the Sagavanirktok River, 

respectively. Based on the ground nest search and aerial photo survey, we estimate 146 active 

snow goose nests were present in the Sagavanirktok River delta: 124 nests on Howe Island, 6 

nests on Duck Island, and 16 nests on the east channel islands. Snow goose nesting effort in 

2001 is lower than nesting efforts in the mid-1990’s. Most snow geese failed to produce 

goslings in the Sagavanirktok River delta in 2001 as a result of nest predation by grizzly bears 

(Ursus arctos), arctic foxes (Alopex lagopus), glaucous gulls (Larus hyperboreus), and raven 

(Corvus corax). Grizzly bear predation on snow goose eggs during the June nesting period has 

been implicated in the total production failures on Howe Island in 1992, 1994, 1998, 2000, and 

2001, and partial failure in 1999. Prior to 1989, there was little evidence of predation on Howe 

Island. Multiple nesting failures of the Howe Island colony, displacement of nesting activities to 

other islands in the Sagavanirktok River delta, and new oil and gas developments near 

traditionally used coastal brood-rearing areas have raised concerns about the status of the snow 

geese in the Sagavanirktok River delta. 

Noel, L. E.; Rodrigues, R. J., and Johnson, S. R. 2002. Nesting status of the common eider in 

the central Alaskan Beaufort Sea, summer 2001. Report for BP Exploration (Alaska) Inc., by 

LGL Alaska Research Associates, Inc., Anchorage, Alaska. 66 p. 

Keywords: arctic tern/ Sterna paradisaea/ driftwood habitat/ egg depredation/ glaucous gull/ 

Larus hyperboreus/ Somateria mollissima v-nigrum/ common eider/ Beaufort Sea 

Abstract: Global sea duck populations appear to be in decline, including the Pacific race of the 

common eider (Somateria mollissima v-nigrum). Whether or not this decline is expressed in nest 

numbers found in the vicinity of Alaska’s North Slope oilfields is not known. To assess the 

nesting status of common eiders in this region, common eider, glaucous gull (Larus 

hyperboreus), and arctic tern (Sterna paradisaea) nests were located on 9 barrier islands along 

the central Alaskan Beaufort Sea coast from Thetis Island to the Stockton Islands during 12-16 

July 2001. Common eider nest were most numerous accounting for 82% (110 of 134) of all 

active nests within the approximately 308.1-ha area searched. Glaucous gull and arctic tern nests 

represented approximately 16% (21 of 134) and 2% (3 of 134), respectively, of all active nests. 

Mean and 95% confidence intervals of clutch size for common eider nests were 2.7 ± 0.43 eggs 

per nest (n = 43) and for glaucous gulls 2.4 ± 0.39 eggs per nest (n = 16). Active common eider 

36 
nests were not distributed evenly across islands and island groups searched during 2001 either in 

proportion to island surface area (P < 0.001), or in proportion to the available island area with 

driftwood habitat (P < 0.001). In both cases, there where more active nests on the McClure 

Island and Lion Point than expected, and fewer actives nests on the Stockton Islands than 

expected. Of the islands searched during 2001, Narwhal Island supported the most active 

common eider nests (27%, 30 of 110) although nest density was highest on Duck Island #1&2 

and on Lion Point. Duck Island #1&2 also supported the highest number and density of 

glaucous gull nests. Of the 620 active and failed common eider nest sites with habitat data, 3 

nest sites (<1%) were within buildings, 23 nest sites (4%) had no driftwood, 307 nest sites (49%) 

were located in low-density driftwood, 218 (35%) were in medium-density driftwood, and 69 

(11%) were in high-density driftwood. More active nests, than depredated nests, were found in 

high-density driftwood, and fewer were in low-density driftwood on islands searched during 

2001 (P < 0.001). Active and depredated nests were distributed similarly within medium-density 

and no driftwood habitats. Predation by arctic fox and glaucous gulls at the islands searched in 

2001 had a marked impact on nesting success of common eiders (82% of 620 nests were 

depredated). Because common eiders are long-lived and exhibit remarkable fidelity to nest sites, 

it seems reasonable to concentrate nest searches on those islands which consistently support 

large numbers of nesting eiders. The most productive nesting islands from 1970-2001 have 

included Cross Island (mean = 116.8 nests/year), Pole Island (mean = 59.1 nests/year), Stump 

Island (mean = 48.9 nests/year), Egg Island (W) (mean = 45.8 nests/year), Lion Point (mean = 

48.0 nests/year), and Thetis Island (mean = 39.4 nests/year). During the period 1970-1991, 

many islands had 14 or more years of data. During the period 1998-2001 most islands had 3 

years of data. The mean annual number of nests for 25 islands was lower during 1970-1991 (485 

nests/year) than during 1998-2001 (589 nests/year). Variation for individual islands was high 

and the paired difference for 1970-1991 (19 ± 11.6 [95% confidence limit] nests/islands) and 

1998-2001 (24 ± 13.3 [95% confidence limit] nests/island) by individual island was not 

significant (P = 0.236). Variation in timing of nest searches across years may influence the 

number of active nests counted because of missed late-initiated nests, early failed nests, or not 

recognizing some empty nests as hatched. 

Outridge, P. M.; Hobson, K. A.; McNeely, R., and Dyke, A. 2002. A Comparison of Modern 

and Preindustrial Levels of Mercury in the Teeth of Beluga in the Mackenzie Delta, Northwest 

Territories, and Walrus at Igloolik, Nunavut, Canada. Arctic. Jun; 55(2). 

Keywords: mercury/ beluga/ Delphinapterus leucas/ walrus/ temporal trends/ teeth/ Odobenus 

rosmarus rosmarus/ dated sediment cores/ lake sediments/ heavy metals/ Delphinapterus leucas/ 

Arctic lakes/ trace metals/ contaminants/ sea/ accumulation 

Abstract: Mercury (Hg) concentrations were compared in modem and pre-industrial teeth of 

belugas (Delphinapterus leucas) and walrus (Odobenus rosmarus rosmarus) at sites in the 

Canadian Arctic so that the relative amounts of natural and anthropogenic Hg in modem animals 

could be estimated. Mercury levels in the teeth of Beaufort Sea belugas captured in the 

Mackenzie Delta, Northwest Territories, in 1993 were significantly (p = 0.0001) higher than 

those in archeological samples dated A.D. 1450-1650. In terms of geometric means, the Hg 

levels in modem animals were approximately four times as high as pre-industrial levels in 10-

37 
year-old belugas, rising with age to 17 times as high in 30-year-olds. Because Hg levels in 

modem teeth were highly correlated with those in soft tissues, including muscle and muktuk, 

which are part of traditional human diets, it is likely that soft-tissue Hg has increased to a similar 

degree over the past few centuries. The increase was not due to dietary differences over time, as 

shown by analysis of stable-C and -N isotopes in the teeth, and was unlikely to be due to sex 

differences or to chemical diagenesis of historical samples. Industrially related Hg inputs to the 

Arctic Ocean and Canadian Arctic Archipelago may be the most likely explanation for the 

increase. If so, then 80-95% of the total Hg in modern Beaufort Sea belugas more than 10 years 

old may be attributed to anthropogenic activities. In contrast, tooth Hg concentrations in walrus 

at Igloolik, Nunavut, were no higher in the 1980s and 1990s than in the period A.D. 1200-1500, 

indicating an absence of industrial Hg in the species at this location. 

Overland, J. E.; Wang, M. Y., and Bond, N. A. 2002. Recent Temperature Changes in the 

Western Arctic During Spring. Journal of Climate. Jul; 15(13). 

Keywords: North Atlantic oscillation/ winter/ trends/ reanalysis 

Abstract: The lower troposphere of the western Arctic (eastern Siberia to northern Canada) was 

relatively warm during spring in the 1990s. Based on the NCEP-NCAR reanalysis, 

supplemented by the Television Infrared Observational Satellite (TIROS) Operational Vertical 

Sounder (TOVS) Polar Pathfinder dataset, this warmth is a result of a recent increase in the 

frequency of warm months, compared to the previous four decades. The primary difference 

between four notably warm springs in the 1990s and four cold springs in the 1980s was the sense 

of the horizontal advection term in a lower-tropospheric heat budget for northern 

Alaska/southern Beaufort Sea. While the horizontal advection of heat was highly episodic, it 

was related to changes in the mean circulation at low levels, in particular a shift from anomalous 

northeasterly flow in the 1980s to anomalous southwesterly flow in the 1990s during March and 

April. This change in the low-level winds in the western Arctic coincided with a systematic shift 

in the Arctic Oscillation (AO) near the end of the 1980s, and reflects the equivalent barotropic 

nature of the AO. The stratospheric temperature anomalies associated with the AO were greatest 

in March; the low-level wind anomalies brought about near-surface temperature anomalies in 

northern Alaska that peaked in April. In addition to substantial decadal differences, there was 

considerable month-to-month and year-to-year variability within the last two decades. 

Patenaude, N. J.; Richardson, W. J.; Smultea, M. A.; Koski, W. R.; Miller, G. W.; Wursig, 

B., and Greene, C. R. 2002. Aircraft Sound and Disturbance to Bowhead and Beluga Whales 

During Spring Migration in the Alaskan Beaufort Sea. Marine Mammal Science. Apr; 18(2). 

Keywords: bowhead whale/ Balaena mysticetus/ beluga whale/ Delphinapterus leucas/ Beaufort 

Sea/ Alaska/ Arctic/ aircraft disturbance/ aircraft sound/ underwater noise/ helicopter/ behavior/ 

hearing thresholds 

Abstract: Short-term behavioral responses of bowhead whales (Balaena mysticetus) and beluga 

whales (Delphinapterus leucas) to a Bell 212 helicopter and Twin Otter fixed-wing aircraft were 

38 
observed opportunistically during four spring seasons (1989-1991 and 1994). Behaviors 

classified as reactions consisted of short surfacings, immediate dives or turns, changes in 

behavior state, vigorous swimming, and breaching. The helicopter elicited fewer detectable 

responses by bowheads (14% of 63 groups) than by belugas (38% of 40). Most observed 

reactions by bowheads (63%) and belugas (86%) urred when the helicopter was at altitudes less 

than or equal to 150 m and lateral distances less than or equal to 250 m. Belugas reacted 

significantly more frequently during overflights at lateral distances less than or equal to 250 m 

than at longer lateral distances (P = 0.004). When the helicopter was on the ice with engines 

running, 7 of 14 groups of belugas reacted, up to 320 m away, sometimes with small-scale (less 

than or equal to 100 m) diversion; only 1 of 8 groups of bowheads reacted. 

For the fixed-wing aircraft, few bowheads (2.2%) or belugas (3.2%) were observed to react to 

overflights at altitudes 60-460 m. Most observed reactions by bowheads (73%) and belugas 

(70%) occurred when the fixed-wing aircraft was at altitudes less than or equal to 182 m and 

lateral distances less than or equal to 250 m. However, the proportions reacting, especially to 

low-altitude flights (e.g., less than or equal to 182 m), were underestimated for both species 

because observation opportunities were brief. Even so, reactions were more common when the 

aircraft was low (less than or equal to 182 m): P = 0.009 for belugas, P = 0.06 for bowheads. 

There was little if any reaction by bowheads when the aircraft circled at altitude 460 m and 

radius 1 km. 

Aircraft sounds measured underwater at depths 3 m and 18 m showed that a Bell 212 helicopter 

was 7-17.5 dB noisier than a Twin Otter (10-500 Hz band). Belt 212 sound consisted mainly of 

main rotor tones ahead of the helicopter and tail rotor tones behind it. Twin Otter sound 

contained fewer prominent tones. Peak sound level as received underwater was inversely related 

to aircraft altitude, and received levels at 3 m depth averaged 2.5 dB higher than at IS m depth. 

The dominant low-frequency components of aircraft sound are presumed to be readily audible to 

bowheads. For belugas, these components may be inaudible, or at most only weakly audible. 

Mid-frequency sound components, visual cues, or both, are probably important in eliciting 

beluga reactions to aircraft. 

Petersen, M. R. and Flint, P. L. 2002. Population Structure of Pacific Common Eiders 

Breeding in Alaska. Condor. Nov; 104(4). 

Keywords: Alaska/ Pacific common eider/ population structure/ Somateria mollissima v-nigrum/ 

winter/ spectacled eiders/ Somateria mollissima/ harlequin ducks/ at-sea/ Anatidae/ patterns/ 

birds/ Beaufort Sea/ Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta 

Abstract: We used satellite telemetry to study the migration routes and wintering areas of two 

allopatric breeding populations of Pacific Common Eiders (Somateria mollissima v-nigrum) in 

Alaska: the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta, and the western Beaufort Sea coast. Only 6% (2 of 36) 

of females wintered within the wintering area of the other breeding population. Both breeding 

populations wintered in the closest available ice-free habitat, perhaps to minimize migratory 

distance. Two Beaufort Sea females wintered in areas used by Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta 

females, implying potential gene flow among breeding areas. Yet, we conclude that these two 

39 
populations are largely geographically isolated throughout the annual cycle and the 

environmental factors influencing survival and reproduction likely differ between these groups 

of birds. Thus, regardless of the potential gene flow among breeding populations, we suggest 

that birds from these two breeding areas should be managed as separate populations. 

Poltermann, M. 2001. Arctic Sea Ice as Feeding Ground for Amphipods - Food Sources and 

Strategies. Polar Biology. Feb; 24(2). 

Keywords: cod /Boreogadus saida/ sympagic macro-fauna/ Barents Sea/ trophic relationships/ 

covered waters/ Frobisher Bay/ Beaufort Sea/ Crustacea/ behavior/ mechanisms 

Abstract: The amphipod species Gammarus wilkitzkii, Apherusa glacialis, Onisimus nanseni

and O. glacialis live permanently associated with the Arctic sea ice. Qualitative and semiquantitative investigations of gut contents and faeces showed that all four species use detritus as 

the main food source. Detrital lumps from the underside of sea ice had the same item 

composition as amphipod gut contents and faeces. Crustacean remains and ice algae were 

additional food items, but overall they were quantitatively less important. All species are 

omnivorous; however, differences in gut contents, behavioural observations and functionalmorphological studies of the mandibles suggest a differentiation within this feeding strategy. G. 

wilkitzkii is a detritivorous-carnivorous-necrophagous-suspension-feeding species and shows the 

most complex feeding strategy. O. nanseni and O. glacialis are predominantly detritivorousnecrophagous, whereas A. glacialis is characterised as a more herbivorous-detritivorous species. 

By using a variety of the available food sources under Arctic sea ice, the amphipods are well 

adapted to the under-ice habitat and are less influenced by temporal and spatial variations. 

Furthermore, the wide food spectrum of all four species reduces the intra- and interspecific 

competition in a habitat where certain food sources are limited or only seasonally available. 

Proshutinsky, A.; Pavlov, V., and Bourke, R. H. 2001. Sea Level Rise in the Arctic Ocean. 

Geophysical Research Letters. Jun 1; 28(11). 

Keywords: sea level/ Arctic Ocean/ sea ice 

Abstract: About 60 tide-gauge stations in the Kara, Laptev, East-Siberian and Chukchi Seas 

have recorded the sea level change from the 1950s through 1990s. Over this 40-year period, 

most of these stations show a significant sea level rise (SLR). In light of global change, this SLR 

could be a manifestation of warming in the Arctic coupled with a decrease of sea ice extent, 

warming of Atlantic waters, changes in the Arctic Ocean circulation, and an increase in coastal 

erosion and thawing of permafrost. We have analyzed monthly mean sea level data and assessed 

the role that different factors may play in influencing the process of sea level change in the 

Arctic Ocean. Analysis of the observational data and model results shows that changes in the 

patterns of wind-driven and thermohaline circulation may account for most of the increase of sea 

level in the Arctic Ocean and their cumulative action can explain more than 80% of the sea level 

variability during 1950-1990. 

40 
Proshutinsky, A. Y. and Johnson, M. 2001. Two Regimes of the Arctic's Circulation from 

Ocean Models with Ice and Contaminants. Marine Pollution Bulletin. Jan-Jun 30; 43(1-6). 

Keywords: variability/ sea level/ Pacific Ocean/ Arctic Ocean/ ice drift 

Abstract: A two-dimensional barotropic, coupled, ocean-ice model with a space resolution of 

55.5 km and driven by atmospheric forces, river run-off, and sea-level slope between the Pacific 

and the Arctic Oceans, has been used to simulate the vertically averaged currents and ice drift in 

the Arctic Ocean. Results from 43 years of numerical simulations of water and ice motions 

demonstrate that two wind-driven circulation regimes are possible in the Arctic, a cyclonic and 

an anti-cyclonic circulation. These two regimes appear to alternate at 5-7 year intervals with the 

10-15 year period. It is important to pollution studies to understand which circulation regime 

prevails at any time. It is anticipated that 1995 is a year with a cyclonic regime, and during this 

cyclonic phase and possibly during past cyclonic regimes as well, pollutants may reach the 

Alaskan shelf. The regime shifts demonstrated in this paper are fundamentally important to 

understanding the Arctic's general circulation and particularly important for estimating pollution 

transport. 

Proshutinsky, A. Y.; Johnson, M. A., and Proshutinsky, T. O. 2001. Understanding Climatic 

Controls on Sea Ice Transport Pathways in the Arctic Ocean. 33. 

Keywords: sea ice/ ocean/ Atlantic/ circulation/ temperatures/ models/ Arctic Ocean 

Abstract: The primary goal of this paper is to demonstrate the dependence of Arctic Ocean seaice transport pathways on climate variations. We build our analysis on the results of 

Proshutinsky and Johnson (1997), Johnson and others (1999), Polyakov and others (1999) and 

Proshutinsky and others (1999), where we have shown that wind-driven ice motion and upper 

ocean circulation alternate between anticyclonic and cyclonic states. Shifts between regimes 

occur at 5-7 year intervals, resulting in a 10-15 year period. The anticyclonic circulation regime 

has been observed in our model results for 1946-52, 1958-62, 1972-79, 1984-88, and 1998-

present. The cyclonic circulation regime prevailed during 1953-57, 1963-71, 1980-83, and 1989-

97. The regime shifts are fundamentally important to understanding the Arctic’s general 

circulation and particularly useful for estimating pollution transport by sea ice and surface 

waters. It is important to pollution studies to understand which circulation regime prevails. 

Initially, we simulate trajectories of a non-reactive, conservative soluble tracer. Results from this 

research demonstrate realistic potential flow pathlines and we describe how those pathlines 

change in response to climate forcing. These results can be used to aid current and future 

scenario risk assessments and may provide management agencies with the tools to determine 

where risks from contaminants might exist. 

Rachold, V.; Grigoriev, M. N.; Are, F. E.; Solomon, S.; Reimnitz, E.; Kassens, H., and 

Antonow, M. 2000. Coastal Erosion vs Riverine Sediment Discharge in the Arctic Shelf Seas. 

41 
International Journal of Earth Sciences. Dec; 89(3). 

Keywords: Laptev Sea/ Beaufort Sea/ coastal erosion/ fluvial sediment discharge/ sediment 

budget/ Canadian Beaufort Sea/ Laptev Sea/ ice/ ocean/ circulation/ permafrost/ topography/ 

evolution/ nutrients/ transport 

Abstract: This article presents a comparison of sediment input by rivers and by coastal erosion 

into both the Laptev Sea and the Canadian Beaufort Sea (CBS). New data on coastal erosion in 

the Laptev Sea, which are based on field measurements and remote sensing information, and 

existing data on coastal erosion in the CBS as well as riverine sediment discharge into both the 

Laptev Sea and the CBS are included. Strong regional differences in the percentages of coastal 

erosion and riverine sediment supply are observed. The CBS is dominated by the riverine 

sediment discharge (64.45x10(6) t a(-1)) mainly of the Mackenzie River, which is the largest 

single source of sediments in the Arctic. Riverine sediment discharge into the Laptev Sea 

amounts to 24.10x10(6) t a(-1), more than 70% of which an related to the Lena River. In 

comparison with the CBS, the Laptev Sea coast on average delivers approximately twice as 

much sediment mass per kilometer, a result of higher erosion rates due to higher cliffs and 

seasonal ice melting. In the Laptev Sea sediment input by coastal erosion (58.4x10(6) t a(-1)) is 

therefore more important than in the CBS and the ratio between riverine and coastal sediment 

input amounts to 0.4. Coastal erosion supplying 5.6x10(6) t a(-1) is less significant for the 

sediment budget of the CBS where riverine sediment discharge exceeds coastal sediment input 

by a factor of ca. 10. 

Richard, P. R.; Martin, A. R., and Orr, J. R. 2001. Summer and Autumn Movements of 

Belugas of the Eastern Beaufort Sea Stock. Arctic. Sep; 54(3). 

Keywords: Beluga/ Delphinapterus leucas/ Beaufort Sea/ Chukchi Sea/ satellite-linked tracking/ 

autumn migration/ survey biases/ white whales/ abundance 

Abstract: Beluga whales of the eastern Beaufort Sea stock were tagged with satellite-linked 

time-depth recorders and tracked during summer and autumn in 1993, 1995, and 1997. Whales 

occupied the Mackenzie estuary intermittently and for only a few days at a time. They spent 

much of their time offshore, near or beyond the shelf break and in the polar pack ice of the 

estuary, or in Amundsen Gulf, M'Clure Strait, and Viscount Melville Sound. The movements of 

tagged belugas into the polar pack and into passages of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago suggest 

that aerial surveys conducted in the southeastern Beaufort Sea and Amundsen Gulf may have 

substantially underestimated the size of the eastern Beaufort Sea stock. Ranges of male and 

female belugas were somewhat segregated in two of the three years of study. In late July of 

1993 and 1995, most males were located in Viscount Melville Sound, while females were 

primarily in Amundsen Gulf. Movement patterns of males tagged in late July in 1997 were 

different from those of males tagged in early July in 1993 and 1995. In September, belugas 

migrated westward along the continental shelf and farther offshore in the Alaskan Beaufort Sea. 

The tracks from 1997 show that the western Chukchi Sea is an autumn migratory destination and 

that at least some belugas continued their migration south towards the Bering Strait in 

November. Some conclusions from this study about beluga ecology challenge conventional 

42 
wisdom, in that estuarine occupation appears to be short-lived, belugas travel long distances in 

summer to areas hundreds of kilometers from the Mackenzie Delta, and they do not avoid dense 

pack ice in summer and autumn. 

Richardson, W. J. 2001. Offshore Oil and Gas Industry Noise and Marine Mammal Behavior. 

From: Workshop Proceedings, Cumulative Effects of North Slope Oil and Gas Activities, 

Deadhorse, Alaska, July 9-14, 2001. U.S. National Academy of Sciences, Division on Earth and 

Life Studies. 28 pp. 

Keywords: Arctic/ Alaska/ North Slope/ Prudhoe Bay/ underwater acoustics/ petroleum 

exploration / seismic surveys/ biological impacts/ ringed seal /Phoca hispida/ bowhead whale/ 

Balaena mysticetus

Abstract: Underwater sounds generated by petroleum industry seismic survey airgun arrays and 

from offshore production facilities are reviewed with respect to potential impacts upon behavior 

and distribution of bowhead whale (Balaena mysticetus) and ringed seal (Phoca hispida) living 

in nearshore marine waters of Alaska’s North Slope environment in the Beaufort Sea. Studies 

were conducted in years 1996 through 2001. 

Acoustic effects of seismic surveys on whales and seals were examined during the open-water 

season. Effects of offshore production facilities on seals were examined during the ice-covered 

season, and upon whales during the open-water season. 

Airgun arrays generate low-frequency sound pulses with most energy generated in the range of 

10 to 150 Hz. While airgun arrays are designed to direct sound downward, considerable sound 

propagates horizontally and pulses may be detectable 50 to 100 km away and are usually strong 

(e.g., >160 dB re 1 μPa rms) within several km. Received levels and properties at long 

horizontal ranges vary widely depending on propagation conditions, with attenuation usually 

more rapid in shallow water. 

The National Marine Fisheries Service has established that whales and seals should not be 

exposed to pulsed sounds with received levels of 1,800 and 190 dB re 1 μPa (rms), respectively, 

ruling that hearing damage may occur above these levels. However, no specific data exist 

regarding how much exposure to airgun pulses any marine mammal can tolerate before 

temporary or permanent hearing impairment occurs. 

Bowhead whales avoided areas within 20 km of small-moderate airgun arrays, with some 

evidence of avoidance up to 30 km. Almost all bowheads stayed well beyond “safety radius” 

levels of 180 dB (re 1 μPa rms), while whales were observed approaching the 20 km radius, 

receiving pulse levels of approximately 115 to 135 dB re 1 μPa rms (and other weaker pulses). 

These are well below levels of pulsed seismic sounds previously known to elicit avoidance by 

baleen whales. Bowheads tended to re-occupy areas within 12 to 24 hours after termination of 

airgun operations. 

43 
Seal results from 1996 to 1999 monitoring in the Beaufort Sea indicated that seals regularly 

remained inside a 190 dB re 1 1 μPa rms radius from noise airgun arrays. Average sighting 

distances were only slightly greater when airguns were operating and avoidance reactions were 

limited. It cannot be assumed that seals will stay outside of a “safety radius” of 180 dB. 

Underwater sounds during construction of the offshore Northstar oil and gas development project 

near Prudhoe Bay were detectable under the ice out to a few kilometers. There was no indication 

of reduced densities of ringed seals near the facility in late spring 2000 after intense winter 

construction. Spring 2001 data await analysis. A slight displacement of the southern edge of the 

bowhead corridor is expected from Northstar operations. Further analysis is required for testing 

of this hypothesis. 

Schick, R. S. and Urban, D.L. 2000. Spatial components of Bowhead whale (Balaena 

mysticetus) distribution in the Alaskan Beaufort Sea. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic 

Sciences 57:2193-2200 

Keywords: Beaufort Sea/ Alaska/ petroleum exploration/ bowhead whale/ Balaena mysticetus/ 

spatial analysis/ correlation/ Mantel Test/ habitat loss 

Abstract: Bowhead whales (Balaena mysticetus) on their fall migration are exposed to oil 

exploration activities in the Alaskan Beaufort Sea. To account for the presence of spatially 

autocorrelated and intercorrelated data, a suite of spatial analysis techniques (random 

resampling, Mantel Tests) were utilized to assess the distribution of bowhead whales around 

active drilling rigs in 1993. Results from the resampling tests indicated whales were distributed 

farther from the drilling rig than they would be under a random scenario. Results from the 

Mantel Tests indicated that in 1993, the spatial pattern of bowhead whale distribution was highly 

correlated with distance from the drilling rig, indicating that the presence of the drilling rig 

resulted in a significant temporary loss in available habitat. 

Solomon, S.; Mudie, P.J.; Cranston, R.; Hamilton, T.; Thibaudeau, S.A., and Collins, E.S. 

2000. Characterization of marine and lacustrine sediments in a drowned thermokarst 

embayment, Richards Island, Beaufort Sea, Canada. International Journal of Earth Sciences 

89(3): 503-521. 

Keywords: Beaufort Sea/ Mackenzie River Delta/ thermokarst/ Kittigazuit sand/ microfossils/ 

geochemistry/ sedimentation rate/ radiocarbon dating 

Abstract: A multidisciplinary study was made of lakes and lagoons in a thermokarst embayment 

on Richards Island, Canadian Beaufort Sea, in order to investigate the response of the Mackenzie 

Delta shoreline to changing hydrological influences. Seismo-acoustic profiles made from an 

amphibious vehicle, combined with sediment core data, show that the deepest lakes contain up to 

10 m of transparent or stratified silty mud overlying the Kittigazuit sand basement. Palynological 

and microfossil data from 21 surface samples allow delineation of freshwater, saltmarsh, tidal 

flat and subtidal assemblages. These modern reference data allow distinction of freshwater and 

marine facies in the cores and subsequent interpretation of geochemical content (carbon, 

44 
ammonia, and sulphate). Radiocarbon dates and 137 Cs show that sedimentation rates have 

increased by an order of magnitude since drowning of the embayment during the past 

millennium, and that most of this sediment is from the Mackenzie River plume. 

Stirling, I. 2002. Polar Bears and Seals in the Eastern Beaufort Sea and Amundsen Gulf: a 

Synthesis of Population Trends and Ecological Relationships Over Three Decades. Arctic. 55. 

Keywords: polar bear/ ringed seal/ Beaufort Sea/ harvest/ climatic fluctuation/ Ursus maritimus

populations/ growth layer groups/ Western Hudson Bay/ Phoca hispida/ Northwest Territories/ 

Arctic Ocean/ movements/ abundance/ mark 

Abstract: In the eastern Beaufort Sea and Amundsen Gulf, research on polar bear populations 

and their ecological interrelationships with seals and sea ice conditions began in the fall of 1970. 

Analysis of movement data from mark-recapture studies and tracking of adult female bears with 

satellite radio collars indicated that there are two populations of polar bears in the area, one that 

inhabits the west coast of Banks Island and Amundsen Gulf and a second that is resident along 

the mainland coast from about Baillie Islands in Canada to approximately Icy Cape in Alaska. 

Polar bears throughout the Beaufort Sea and Amundsen Gulf were severely over harvested 

before the establishment of quotas in Canada in 1968 and the cessation of all but subsistence 

polar bear hunting in Alaska in 1972. Since then, both populations have recovered, and the 

population estimates currently used for management purposes are 1200 and 1800 for the 

Northern and Southern Beaufort populations, respectively. However, these population estimates 

are now dated and should be redone. Most female polar bears in the Beaufort Sea breed for the 

first time at 5 years of age, compared to 4 years of age in most other populations, and cubs 

normally remain with their mothers for 2.5 years prior to weaning. Heavy ice conditions in the 

mid-1970s and mid-1980s caused significant declines in productivity of ringed seals, each of 

which lasted about 3 years and caused similar declines in the natality of polar bears and survival 

of subadults, after which reproductive success and survival of both species increased again. The 

changes in the sea ice environment, and their consequent effects on polar bears, are demonstrable 

in parallel fluctuations in the mean ages of polar bears killed each year by Inuit hunters. In 1989, 

the decadal-scale pattern in fluctuations of ice conditions in the eastern Beaufort Sea changed in 

response to oceanographic and climatic factors, and this change has resulted in greater amounts 

of open water in recent years. In addition, climatic warming will be a major environmental 

factor if greenhouse gas emissions continue to increase. It is unknown whether the ecosystem 

will return to the pattern of decadal-scale change exhibited in previous decades, or how polar 

bears and seals will respond to ecological changes in the future, but research on these topics is a 

high priority. 

Stout, J. H.; Trust, K. A.; Cochrane, J. F.; Suydam, R. S., and Quakenbush, L. T. 2002. 

Environmental Contaminants in Four Eider Species from Alaska and Arctic Russia. 

Environmental Pollution. 119(2). 

Keywords: Alaska/ contaminants/ eider/ heavy metals/ sea ducks 

45 
Abstract: Population declines in four species of eider; common (Somateria mollissima), king 

(Somateria spectabilis), spectacled (Somateria fischeri) and Steller's (Polysticta stelleri), have 

raised concerns about exposure to contaminants. Livers and kidney tissues were collected from 

eiders in Alaska and Russia for organic and elemental analyses. Results showed that 

organochlorine and many elemental levels were below toxic thresholds; however, in many cases, 

cadmium, copper, lead and selenium appeared high relative to other waterfowl and may warrant 

concern. With the exception of lead, local anthropogenic sources for these elements are not 

known. Although adverse physiological responses have not been documented in eiders, these 

four elements cannot be ruled out as contaminants of potential concern for some eider species. 

Suydam, R. S.; Dickson, D. L.; Fadely, J. B., and Quakenbush, L. T. 2000. Population 

Declines of King and Common Eiders of the Beaufort Sea. Condor. Feb; 102(1). 

Keywords: Beaufort Sea/ common eider/ king eider/ mortality/ population trend/ Somateria 

mollissima v-nigra/ Somateria spectabilis/ Alaska 

Abstract: King (Somateria spectabilis) and common eiders (S. mollissima v-nigra) wintering off 

western North America migrate past Point Barrow, Alaska and across the Beaufort Sea to nest in 

northern Alaska and northwestern Canada. Migration counts were conducted by various 

researchers at Point Barrow during 1953, 1970, 1976, 1987, 1994, and 1996. We examined 

population trends by standardizing the analysis of the migration counts in all years. Based on 

this standardized procedure, the king eider population appeared to remain stable between 1953 

and 1976 but declined by 56% (or 3.9% year(-1)) from approximately 802,556 birds in 1976 to 

about 350,835 in 1996. The common eider population declined by 53% (or 3.6% year(-1)) from 

approximately 156,081 birds in 1976 to about 72,606 in 1996. Reasons for the declines are 

unknown. 

Troy, D.M. 2000. ShoreBirds, Chapter 14, pp. 277-303, In: The Natural History of an Arctic 

Oil Field. J. C. Truett and S. R. Johnson (Eds.). Academic Press, San Diego, CA, 422 pp. 

Keywords: Alaska/ North Slope/ Arctic Coastal Plain (ACP)/ Arctic National Wildlife Refuge 

(ANWR)/ National Petroleum Reserve/ shorebirds/ plovers/ sandpipers/ population density/ 

petroleum development impacts/ habitat loss/ predation 

Abstract: In northern Alaska, where shorebirds dominate the avifauna in numbers of individuals 

and species, two families regularly occur – the plovers (Charadriidae) and the sandpipers 

(Scolopacidae). At least 18 species nest on Alaska’s Arctic Coastal Plain (ACP) in the area of 

existing and potential petroleum development between the Colville and Channing Rivers. 

Arctic-breeding shorebirds undertake extensive migrations, with wide ranges onto other 

continents, and wide ranges during the breeding season, extending into Canada and Russia. 

Breeding occurs after snowmelt in late May or early June. 

Distribution within the ACP oil-field region is not uniform. Extensive studies in the Prudhoe 

Bay oilfield have exhibited abundance gradients both perpendicular to and parallel with the 

46 
coast. Abundances generally decline proceeding eastward into the Arctic National Wildlife 

Refuge from the area between Milne Point and the Sagavanirktok River. To the west, in the 

National Petroleum Reserve, densities tend to be higher than in the central ACP. 

With the exception of the Dunlin, which has exhibited a decline in abundance throughout 

northern Alaska in recent years, data from Prudhoe Bay agree with population data from other 

regions: that shorebird species appear to have stable, long-term population trends. 

Impacts upon populations from human activity and oil-field development may occur due to road 

and pad development (e.g., gravel fill), alterations to adjacent areas (changes in drainage pattern, 

fugitive dust, thermokarsting, noise, and traffic) and from general habitat fragmentation. Since 

shorebirds of the ACP are all parts of large, widespread breeding populations, there is a general 

presumption that population level threats from human development are minimal. Within the 

oilfields, the extent to which the network of roads and facilities has affected the number of 

shorebirds is unresolved. Since numerous mammalian and bird predators pose a significant 

threat to shorebird breeding success by preying on eggs, and since these predators typically have 

enhanced populations in areas of human development (due to supplemental food supplies), it is 

suggested that efforts to minimize the impact of predation may be of greater benefit to shorebird 

populations than would be efforts to minimize habitat loss. 

United States Department of Energy (USDOE). 2000. Potential Oil Production from the 

Coastal Plain of the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge. Report SR/O&G/2000-02. Energy 

Information Administration, Office of Oil and Gas, U.S. Department of Energy, Washington, 

D.C. May. 

Keywords: Energy Information Administration/ petroleum/ oil & gas reserves/ Alaska/ North 

Slope/ Artic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR)/ 1002 area/ petroleum production estimates 

Abstract: The Energy Information Administration (EIA) Office of Oil and Gas Reserves and 

Production Division, is a policy-neutral agency within the U.S. Department of Energy. EIA 

projections of future daily production rates for recoverable natural gas and oil are presented for 

the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR) coastal plain. The coastal plain includes 1.5 

million acres designated as the 1002 area, comprising 8% of total ANWR lands, and extending 

out to the 3-mile limit offshore. Representing the largest unexplored, potentially productive 

onshore basin in the United States, it lies along the geologic trend that is productive in the 

Prudhoe Bay area, 60 miles to the west. 

The U.S. Geological Service made the following estimates in 1998 of technically recoverable oil 

and gas from the ANWR coastal plain: 1) a 95% probability that at least 5.7 billion barrels of oil 

are recoverable; 2) a 5% probability that at least 16 billion barrels of oil are recoverable; and 3) a 

mean (expected value) estimate of 10.3 billion barrels of recoverable oil. For comparison, total 

U.S. proven reserves of crude oil in 1998 were estimated to be 21 billion barrels. 

EIA estimates of yearly development rates for this region were: 1) yearly development rates 

ranging from 250 to 800 million barrels; 2) peak ANWR production rates ranging from 650,000 

to 1.9 million barrels per day; 3) a projection that initial ANWR production could occur around 

47 
2010, if leasing approval occurred within the next few years; and 4) potential ANWR oil 

recovered would have a value between $125 and $350 billion (in 1998 dollars), based upon a 

projected refiner acquisition cost of $22.04 (1998 dollars) in the year 2020. 

United States Department of Energy (USDOE). 2001. Future Oil Production for the Alaska 

North Slope. Report DOE/EIA-0627, Distribution Category UCC-950. Energy Information 

Administration, Office of Oil and Gas, U.S. Department of Energy, Washington, D.C. May. 

Keywords: Energy Information Administration/ petroleum/ oil & gas reserves/ Alaska/ North 

Slope/ Artic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR)/ National Petroleum Reserve-Alaska (NPR-A)/ 

petroleum production estimates 

Abstract: The Energy Information Administration (EIA) Office of Oil and Gas Reserves and 

Production Division, is a policy-neutral agency within the U.S. Department of Energy. The EIA 

provides a range of plausible production scenarios for the North Slope area of Alaska based on 

the decline of existing production, the anticipated start-up of identified field development 

projects and future discovery and development of the remaining undiscovered oil resources for 

the area. Production of oil (total liquids) from Alaska North Slope (ANS) oil has declined from 

the 1988 peak rate of over 2.0 million barrels per day (MMbbl/d). In 2000 production was 1.1 

MMbbl/d, accounting for 16% of total domestic production. Cumulative ANS production 

through 2000 was 13.306 billion barrels (Bbbls). In the absence of additional development, 

3.707 Bbbls remain to be produced from the currently on-stream fields. 

USGS data were utilized to provide estimates of undiscovered resources for the area between the 

Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR) and the Northeast National Petroleum Reserve-Alaska 

(NPR-A). Production projections are derived from three inputs: anticipated future production 

from currently on-stream fields, production from anticipated development of identified fields, 

and projected volumes of production from technically recoverable undiscovered resources. 

Production scenarios are based on USGS 95% probability of occurrence criteria. 

The range of remaining and undiscovered ANS oil is 6.1 to 13.3 Bbbl with a mean (expected) 

value of 8.9 Bbbl. Ultimate recovery will range from 19.4 to 26.6 Bbbl. Identified development 

will stabilize ANS production at approximately 1.0 MMbbl/d until 2005. If identified 

development is delayed by factors such as low oil prices or environmental issues, production will 

begin declining before the year 2005. Production of undiscovered NPR-A is assumed to begin in 

2010, causing production to remain close to 1.0MMbbl/d for another five years. 

United States Fish & Wildlife Service. 2001. Water Fact Sheet, Coastal Plain (1002 area), 

Arctic National Wildlife Refuge. From: Workshop Proceedings, Cumulative Effects of North 

Slope Oil and Gas Activities, Deadhorse, Alaska, July 9-14. U.S. National Academy of 

Sciences, Division on Earth and Life Studies. 6 pp. 

48 
Keywords: Beaufort Sea/ Alaska/ North Slope/ Arctic National Wildlife Refuge/ ANWR/ 1002 

Area/ coastal plain/ rivers/ Barter Island/ weather conditions/ spring melt/ British Petroleum 

Alaska/ Phillips Petroleum Alaska/ water resources/ petroleum development 

Abstract: The Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR) coastal plain is an arctic marine habitat 

characterized by short, cool summers, with continuous daylight and winters that are long, dark, 

and extremely cold. Average temperature for the warmest month on Barter Island is 43°F, with 

daily temperatures varying from below freezing to a record high of 78°F. Average January 

temperatures for Barter Island are variable, ranging from 4.5°F in 1981 to –21.8°F in 1983. A 

record low of -59°F was recorded in February 1950. Annual precipitation at Barter Island 

averages 6.3 inches, occurring as light rain or drizzle in summer and light snow in winter. 

Ten small-size rivers and 14 named streams characterize the ANWR 1002 area, which includes 

the coastal habitat, comprising 8 percent of ANWR and extending about 100 miles from the 

Aichiik River in the east to the Canning River in the west and 15 to 20 miles inland from the 

coast. The western boundary of the 1002 area lies about 50 miles east of Prudhoe Bay. The 

larger rivers are braided with extensive gravel bars along the coastal plain. The Arctic climate 

and permafrost are the dominant factors controlling water resources along the Arctic slope. 

Freeze-up typically occurs in mid- to late September. All rivers in the coastal plain freeze to 

substrate. Spring breakup of the ice is the significant hydrological event of the year. Permafrost 

limits infiltration of snowmelt, allowing water to move rapidly to stream channels. In most years 

more than 50% of the average annual discharge to the coastal zone occurs during a 2- to 3-week 

breakup period. 

Based upon operational plans by British Petroleum and Phillips Alaska, Inc., water requirements 

for offshore ice road construction and maintenance for petroleum exploration activities in the 

1002 area will be 1.54 million gallons per mile of road. Ice pad construction may require up to 

3.6 million gallons per pad, while airstrip construction and maintenance and drill rig use (per 75 

days) will require an estimated 8.0 and 1.5 million gallons, respectively. 

United States Geological Service (USGS). 2001. Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, 1002 Area, 

Petroleum Assessment, 1998, Including Economic Analysis. USGS Fact Sheet FS-028-01 

(Supercedes FS-040-98). April. 6 pp. 

Keywords: Arctic/ Alaska/ Arctic National Wildlife Refuge/ ANWR/ 1002 area/ National 

Petroleum Reserve/ economically recoverable petroleum 

Abstract: Using a methodology similar to that used in previous U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) 

assessments in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR) and the National Petroleum 

Reserve, Alaska, the USGS estimates that the total quantity of technically recoverable oil in the 

coastal ANWR 1002 area is 7.7 billion barrels, mean value, which is distributed among 10 plays. 

Plays are volumes of rock that contain similar geological parameters (such as petroleum charge, 

reservoir, and trap). 

49 
Most of the oil is estimated to occur in the western, undeformed ANWR 1002 area, which is 

closest to existing infrastructure. The oil is expected to occur in a number of accumulations 

rather than a single large accumulation. Estimates of economically recoverable oil, expressed by 

probability curves, show increasing amounts of oil with increasing price. At prices less than $13 

per barrel, no commercial oil is estimated, but at a price of $30 per barrel, between 3 and 10.4 

billion barrels are estimated. Economic analysis includes the costs of finding, developing, 

producing and transporting oil to market based on a 12 percent after-tax return on investment, all 

calculated in constant 1996 dollars. 

The amounts of in-place oil estimated for the ANWR 1002 area are larger than previous USGS 

estimates. The increased estimate is primarily due to improved resolution of reprocessed seismic 

data and geologic analogs provided by nearby oil discoveries. 

URS Corporation. 2001. Liberty Development 2001, Sediment Quality Study. Final Report, 

For: BP Exploration (Alaska), Inc. By: URS Corp. Anchorage, Alaska. Aug. 3, Doc. 74-

00000034.00 Task 4000. 

Keywords: Arctic/ Beaufort Sea/ Foggy Island Bay/ Prudhoe Bay/ petroleum development/ 

Liberty Oil Field/ BP Exploration (Alaska)/ dredged material/ sediment/ grain size/ ammonia/ 

total organic carbon (TOC)/ total volatile solids (TVS)/ sulfides, metals (antimony, arsenic, 

barium, cadmium, calcium, chromium, copper, iron, lead, manganese, mercury, nickel, silver, 

zinc)/ high and low molecular weight polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (HPAH, LPAH) 

Abstract: The Liberty Development oil and gas production facilities to be developed by BP 

Exploration (Alaska), Inc. (BPXA) will be placed on an artificial gravel island located at a depth 

of 22 feet in federal waters within Foggy Island Bay, Beaufort Sea, located on Alaska’s north 

slope, east of Prudhoe Bay. A subsurface (buried) oil pipeline will connect to an onshore 

segment to transport oil to the Badami Sales Oil Pipeline. The Liberty Development has been 

evaluated by the U.S. Minerals Management Service (MMS, Anchorage, Alaska) in the Liberty 

Development and Production Plan Draft Environmental Impact Statement (MMS, 2001). The 

Draft EIS evaluated multiple pipeline routes and production island locations, including the 

applicant’s proposed Liberty Island route. 

Geotechnical exploration surveys in 1997 and 1998 along potential pipeline routes collected 18 

sediment borings (exceeding 20 feet) and described seafloor sediments as consisting of three 

primary horizons: an upper Holocene non-plastic silt; an intermediate Pleistocene clayey silt; 

and an underlying granular sand and gravel. No frozen sediments were encountered. Sediments 

typically consisted of sand, silty sand with some soft silt, and many pockets and layers of peaty 

soil. 

Pipeline construction permits administered by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) 

and U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Alaska District (Corps) require that physical and chemical 

properties of sediments be evaluated for potential environmental impacts resulting from pipeline 

trench excavation and fill activities and possible ocean disposal of spoils. In compliance with 

this permitting process, a sediment sampling program was conducted in April and May 2001. 

50 
Utilizing EPA- and Corps-approved methodologies, chemical analyses of sediment borings (to 

15 feet) were collected at 11 sampling stations spaced along three alternative pipeline routes, 

including Southern Island and Tern Island alternate routes (Transects B and C) and the 

applicant’s proposed Liberty Island route (Transect A). Sediments were analyzed from near 

surface and approximately five-foot intervals from the sediment core. 

Chemical analyses conducted on all subsurface and surface samples included ammonia (as 

nitrogen), TOC, TVS, sulfides, metals (antimony, arsenic, barium, cadmium, calcium, 

chromium, copper, iron, lead, manganese, mercury, nickel, silver, zinc), and high and low 

molecular weight polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (HPAH, LPAH). Four additional surface 

samples were collected from three stations along Transect A, and an isolated station to the west 

of all three transects for additional analyses, including pesticides, polychlorinated biphenyls 

(PCBs), semivolatile organic compounds (SVOCs) and select volatile organic compounds 

(VOCs). 

The EPA and Corps do not have specific sediment chemistry guidelines for evaluation of 

dredged sediments in Alaska. EPA Region X (Seattle, Washington) applied guidelines from the 

Dredged Material Evaluation Framework, Lower Columbia River Management Area (1998) to 

the Liberty Development sampling plan and evaluation of results. The evaluation framework 

provided screening levels for all chemicals of concern. 

Ranges for the following sediment chemistry categories, given without comment on screening 

levels, were: ammonia (0.7 to 3.3 mg/kg), TOC (8,000 to 40,400 mg/kg), TVS (12,700 to 

46,500 mg/kg), and sulfides (51.6 to 882 mg/kg). 

The following sediment chemistry categories were evaluated in relation to screening levels: 

1) All sediment metals were measured in surface and subsurface samples at concentrations lower 

than the screening levels prescribed in the Dredged Material Evaluation Framework, 2) 

Measured PAH concentrations were all below the screening level in subsurface samples. In 

surface samples, with the exception of 14 μg/kg phenanthrene measured on the Liberty Transect 

(Sta. ASO3), all polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon compounds (LPAH and HPAH) were not 

detected at levels above the method reporting limit. 

The majority of additional analytes measured in surface samples were not present in measurable 

quantities. Others did not exceed screening levels. Sediment grain-size characteristics along 

transects A, B, and C, with estimated volume removals from pipeline entrenchment, were: 

Transect A – 60% silt and clay (fines), 419,036 cubic yards (cy); Transect B – 52% fines, 

292,984 cy; and Transect C – 63% fines, 489,677 cy. 

Wayland, M.; Garcia-Fernandez, A. J.; Neugebauer, E., and Gilchrist, H. G. 2001. 

Concentrations of Cadmium, Mercury and Selenium in Blood, Liver and Kidney of Common 

Eider Ducks from the Canadian Arctic. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment. Oct; 71(3). 

Keywords: Arctic/ blood/ cadmium/ common eider/ kidney/ liver/ mercury/ metals/ sea ducks/ 

selenium/ Somateria mollissima/ tissue distribution/ spectacled eiders/ Western Alaska/ diving 

51 
ducks/ wild birds/ lead/ contaminants/ accumulation 

Abstract: We determined concentrations of selected trace elements in livers, kidneys and blood 

samples from common eiders (Somateria mollissima borealis) from the eastern Canadian arctic 

during 1997 and 1998. Concentrations of total mercury and organic mercury were generally low 

in the livers of these birds (less than 6 and 4 mug g(-1) dry wt, respectively). Selenium ranged 

between 11-47 mug g(-1) in livers. Renal cadmium concentrations were among the highest ever 

published for this species (range: 47-281 mug g(-1)). The regressions of log-transformed 

concentrations of these trace elements in blood samples on those in liver or kidney were 

significant (all P-values < 0.05) and positive. However, except for organic mercury (R2 = 0.83), 

the co-efficients of determination were low to moderate (range of R2: 0.26-0.52), suggesting poor 

to moderate predictive capability. Furthermore, the relationships between total mercury in blood 

and liver changed between 1997 and 1998, suggesting that it would not be possible to predict 

consistently, concentrations of mercury in blood from those in liver based on samples taken in 

one year. Blood samples can be used to determine concentrations of these trace elements in 

common eiders (and probably other sea duck species as well). The use of blood samples is 

especially warranted when it is undesirable to kill the animal such as when working with rare or 

endangered sea duck species or when the objective is to relate trace element exposure to annual 

survival rates. However, the predictive equations developed here should not be used to predict 

expected concentrations in one type of tissue from those in the other. 

Werner, I. 2000. Faecal Pellet Production by Arctic Under-Ice Amphipods - Transfer of 

Organic Matter Through the Ice/Water Interface. Hydrobiologia. May 15; 426(1-3). 

Keywords: faecal pellets/ Amphipoda/ sea ice/ feeding/ carbon flux/ Greenland Sea/ 

Southwestern Beaufort Sea 

Abstract: The underside of Arctic sea ice is inhabited by several autochthonous amphipod 

species (Apherusa glacialis, Onisimus spp., Gammarus wilkitzkii). The amphipods graze on icebound organic matter, such as ice algae, detritus and ice fauna, and release faecal pellets into the 

underlying water column, thus forming a direct link between the sea ice and the pelagic 

ecosystems. Experiments on faecal pellet production rates showed species-specific differences, 

which were related to size of the animals. The smallest species, A. glacialis, produced the 

highest mean number of pellets (15.4 pellets ind.(-1) d(-1)), followed by Onisimus spp. (2.7 

pellets ind.(-1) d(-1)) and the largest species, G. wilkitzkii (1.1 pellets ind.(-1) d(-1)). Relative 

carbon content of the pellets was very similar in all species (21.2-22.6% dry mass). Juvenile 

amphipods (Onisimus spp., G. wilkitzkii) produced more pellets with less POC than adults. 

Based on field determinations of the POC concentration in the lowermost 2 cm of the sea ice 

(mean: 36.4 mg C m(-2)) and mean amphipod abundances (A. glacialis: 33.8 ind. m(-2), 

Onisimus spp.: 0.5 ind. m(-2), G, wilkitzkii: 9.4 ind. m(-2)) in the Greenland Sea in summer 

1994, the amount of POC transferred from the ice to the water by faecal pellet production was 

estimated (0.7 mg C m(-2) d(-1) or almost 2% of ice-bound carbon). Since this process probably 

takes place in all ice-covered Arctic regions as well as during all seasons, grazing and pellet 

production by under-ice amphipods contributes significantly to matter flux across the ice/water 

interface. 

52 
Winsor, P. 2001. Arctic Sea Ice Thickness Remained Constant during the 1990s. Geophysical 

Research Letters. Mar 15; 28(6). 

Keywords: Arctic Ocean/ North/ ice cover 

Abstract: The ice cover of the Arctic Ocean is considered to be a sensitive indicator of global 

climate change. Recent research, using submarine-based observations, suggests that the Arctic 

ice cover was thinner in the 1990s compared to an earlier period (1958-1979), and that it 

continued to decrease in thickness in the 1990s. Here I analyze subsurface ice thickness (draft) 

of Arctic sea ice from six submarine cruises from 1991 to 1997. This extensive data set shows 

that there was no trend towards a thinning ice cover during the 1990s. Data from the North Pole 

shows a slight increase in mean ice thickness, whereas the Beaufort Sea shows a small decrease, 

none of which are significant. Transects between the two areas from 76 degrees N to 90 degrees 

N also show near constant ice thicknesses, with a general spatial decrease from the Pole towards 

the Beaufort Sea. Combining the present results with those of an earlier study, I conclude that 

the mean ice thickness has remained on a near-constant level around the North Pole from 1986 to 

1997. 

Woshner, V. M.; O'Hara, T. M.; Bratton, G. R.; Suydam, R. S., and Beasley, V. R. 2001. 

Concentrations and Interactions of Selected Essential and Non-Essential Elements in Bowhead 

and Beluga Whales of Arctic Alaska. Journal of Wildlife Diseases. Oct; 37(4). 

Keywords: Balaena mysticetus/ beluga whale/ bowhead whale/ cadmium/ cetaceans/ 

Delphinapterus leucas/ elements/ marine mammals/ mercury/ molar ratio/ selenium/ silver/ 

heavy metals 

Abstract: In this study, we evaluated concentrations of twelve essential and non-essential 

elements (As, Cd, Co, Cu, Pb, Mg, Mn, Hg, Mo, Se, Ag, and Zn) in tissues of bowhead (Balaena 

mysticetus) and beluga (Delphinapterus leucas) whales from arctic Alaska (USA) and 

northwestern Canada. Tissue samples were collected between 1983 and 1997, mostly in 1995-97. 

The essential elements are reported to develop reference ranges for health status determination, 

and to help assess known or suspected interactions affecting toxicoses of cadmium (Cd) and 

mercury (Hg). In some tissues, Cd, Hg, and selenium (Se) were present at concentrations that 

have been associated with toxicoses in some domestic animals. Nevertheless, tissue levels of all 

elements were within ranges that have been reported previously in marine mammals. While 

mean Ag concentrations in beluga whale liver were relatively high (15.91 mug/g ww), Ag was 

not associated with hepatic Se levels or age, contrary to previous findings. Significant 

associations included: Cd with age, Zn, or Cu; Cu with age, Zn or Ag; and Hg with age, Se, Zn, 

or Cu. This study found hepatic Hg:Se molar ratios to be consistently lower than unity and 

different between species. Possible explanations for observed elemental correlations (i.e., 

interactions) and ancillary mechanisms of Cd and Hg detoxification are discussed. 

53 
Yang, J. Y.; Comiso, J.; Krishfield, R., and Honjo, S. 2001 Synoptic Storms and the 

Development of the 1997 Warming and Freshening Event in the Beaufort Sea. Geophysical 

Research Letters. Mar 1; 28(5). 

Keywords: Arctic Ocean/ ice/ Layer/ halocline/ model 

Abstract: The climatic state in the Beaufort Sea in 1997 was characterized by warmer 

atmosphere, smaller areal coverage of sea ice in summer than average, and an oceanic mixed 

layer with a relatively low salinity that persisted into fall and early winter. The most remarkable 

change occurred near the end of 1997 when both salinity and temperature in the upper layer 

varied dramatically in a short-time period. The evolution of the air-sea-ice condition was 

observed by an autonomous buoy. The buoy observation revealed that deep mixing that 

penetrated through the Arctic halocline occurred in response to enhanced wind-stress forcing 

associated with an intense storm and was mainly responsible for the abrupt change of 

temperature and salinity in the mixed layer near the end of 1997. Similar events were inferred 

from storms in the Eurasian basin in 1994. We postulate that synoptic storms play a very 

important role in the variations of the heat and salt budgets in the upper Arctic Ocean. 

Yunker, M. B.; Backus, S. M.; Pannatier, E. G.; Jeffries, D. S., and MacDonald, R. W. 

2002. Sources and Significance of Alkane and PAH Hydrocarbons in Canadian Arctic Rivers. 

Estuarine Coastal and Shelf Science. Jul; 55(1). 

Keywords: PAH/ alkane/ petroleum/ water quality guideline/ sediment quality guideline/ 

hopane/ sterane/ Arctic rivers/ polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons/ Beaufort Sea/ dissolved 

hydrocarbons/ source identification/ organic geochemistry/ mass spectrometry/ coastal sediment/ 

Mackenzie River/ lake sediments/ crude oils 

Abstract: Hydrocarbon measurements have been made on dissolved, suspended particulate and 

sediment samples collected in 1987, 1993 and 1994 from the Mackenzie River delta and shelf 

and in 1993 from 10 smaller Northwest Territories and Nunavut rivers that drain into the 

Canadian Archipelago or Hudson's Bay. Suspended particulate samples from all rivers have a 

resolved higher alkane pattern with a well-defined odd–even predominance consistent with a 

major source in terrestrial, vascular plant material. Particulate samples from the 10 smaller 

rivers have alkane concentrations that are similar to the Mackenzie River during summer, but 

PAH (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon) concentrations are approximately 10 times lower for the 

parent PAHs and 100 times lower for alkyl PAHs. PAHs on suspended particulate from the 

Mackenzie River exhibit a uniform composition typical of mature petrogenic sources, while 

PAHs in the smaller rivers are typical of combustion. The virtual absence of petrogenic PAHs in 

the smaller rivers is the single most important difference between these and the Mackenzie 

River. During summer the alkane and PAH composition of suspended particulate in the 

Mackenzie River is sufficiently homogenous to estimate directly the hydrocarbon load from the 

particulate load. Mackenzie River particulates and sediments have the hopane and sterane ratios 

characteristic of immature bitumens, shales or coals from the Devonian Canol formation that 

outcrops in the lower Mackenzie River valley. The erosion of organic-rich rocks from this 

formation is likely the source of the refractory petrogenic material found in the Mackenzie River 

54 
delta and shelf. Data are insufficient to determine whether the petrogenic lower alkanes and 

PAHs have the same source or whether more mature petroleum also contributes. Because 

sediment samples (suspended and bed) from the Mackenzie delta have natural PAH 

concentrations that exceed the level where adverse biological effects are expected to occur, there 

is an urgent need to establish whether these petroleum-derived PAHs are bioavailable and if they 

are inducing effects in bottom fish and other biota. 

Zhang, J. L.; Rothrock, D., and Steele, M. 2000. Recent Changes in Arctic Sea Ice: the 

Interplay between Ice Dynamics and Thermodynamics. Journal of Climate. Sep 1; 13(17). 

Keywords: North Atlantic oscillation/ Southern Canadian Basin/ numerical model/ Fram Strait/ 

sea ice/ ocean/ cover/ variability/ motion/ water/ flux 

Abstract: It is well established that periods of high North Atlantic oscillation (NAO) index are 

characterized by a weakening of the surface high pressure and surface anticyclone in the 

Beaufort Sea and the intensification of the cyclonic circulation in the eastern Arctic Ocean. The 

response of Arctic sea ice to these atmospheric changes has been studied with a thickness 

distribution sea-ice model coupled to an ocean model. During a period of high NAO, 1989–96, 

the model shows a substantial reduction of ice advection into the eastern Arctic from the Canada 

Basin, and an increase of ice export through Fram Strait, both of which tend to deplete thick ice 

in the eastern Arctic Ocean and enhance it in the western Arctic, in an uneven dipolar pattern we 

call the East–West Arctic Anomaly Pattern (EWAAP). From the period 1979–88 with a lowerNAO index to the period 1988–96 with a high-NAO index, the simulated ice volume in the 

eastern Arctic drops by about a quarter, while that in the western Arctic increases by 16%. 

Overall, the Arctic Ocean loses 6%. The change from 1987 to 1996 is even larger—a loss of 

some 20% in ice volume for the whole Arctic. Both the model and satellite data show a 

significant reduction in ice extent in the eastern Arctic and in the Arctic Ocean as a whole. 

There are corresponding changes in open water and therefore in ice growth, which tend to 

moderate the anomaly, and in lateral melting, which tends to enhance the anomaly. During the 

high NAO and strong EWAAP period, 1989–96, the eastern (western) Arctic has more (less) 

open water and enhanced (reduced) winter ice growth, so ice growth stabilizes the ice cover. On 

the other hand, the increased (decreased) open water enhances (reduces) summer melt by 

lowering (increasing) albedo in the eastern (western) Arctic. The nonlinearity of ice– albedo 

feedback causes the increased summer melt in the eastern Arctic to dominate the thermodynamic 

response and to collaborate with the ice advection pattern to enhance the EWAAP during high 

NAO. 

55 
3.0 Literature Cited

Arthur D. Little, Inc. 2000. Development Areas, Beaufort Sea, Alaska, Interim Literature 

Review. To: U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, Anchorage, 

Alaska. Arthur D. Little, Inc., Cambridge, Mass., Contract No. 143501-99-CT-30998. 

U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, Alaska OCS Region. 2002. 

Liberty Development and Production Plan, Final Environmental Impact Statement. OCS 

EIS/EA, MMS 2002-0019. Anchorage, Alaska. 

U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, Alaska OCS Region. 2003. 

Beaufort Sea Planning Area, Final Environmental Impact Statement. OCS EIS/EA, MMS 2003-

001. Anchorage, Alaska. 

USAEDA (U.S. Army Engineer District, Alaska). 1999. Final Environmental Impact 

Statement, Beaufort Sea Oil and Gas Development/Northstar Project. Volumes I – IV. 

Appendices A – K. Anchorage, Alaska. 

56