Research Note 85-95

AN ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

OF LITERATURE INTEGRATING

ORGANIZATIONAL AND SYSTEMS THEORY

Elaine G. Davis, Gregory D. Foster,

Erica Kirchner-Dean, and Robert W. Swezey

CBehavioral Sciences Research Center

II,-

I for

Contracting Officer's Representative

John Mietus

Leadership and Management Training Area

William W. Haythorn, Chief

MANPOWER AND PERSONNEL RESEARCH LABORATORY

Newell K. Eaton, Acting Director CDT IC

,,_ [' 1 ELE CTE -v

$NOV 5 S85,,.

LU U. S. Army A

Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences

September 1985

Approved for public release; distribution unlimited.

85 11 05 046
S

U. S. ARMY RESEARCH INSTITUTE

FOR THE BEHAVIORAL AND SOCIAL SCIENCES

A Field Operating Agency under the Jurisdiction of the

Deputy Chief of Staff for Personnel

WM. DARRYL HENDERSON

EDGAR M. JOHNSON COL, IN

Technical Director Commading

IThi report. as submitted by the conractor, has been cleared for release to Defens. Technical information Cente, (DISC) to comply with regulatory requirements. It has been given no primary distribution other than to DTIC and will be available only through OTIC or other reference services such as the National Technical Information Service (NTIS). The views. opinimna. and/or findings contained in this report are those of the authorisi and should not be construeJ as an officia; Ciepaltmheh of the Army position, policy, or decision, unless so designated by other official documentation.

• .. -'' . ' ... ' ...... * *' - ... .. ,'" Y '', " -< ... - .i"... * "*'',"*,
UNCLASSIFIED

$CCU PiTY.CLASUI FICATIO4 OF THIS PAGE (when Date Entemed

6REPORT DOCUMENTATION PAGE BFRE FSRUTORM

1. REPORT NUMBER 2. GOVT ACCESSION NO S. RECIPIENT'S CATALOG NUMBER

ARI Research Note 85-95 2i

4. TITLE (did Subtide) 3: TYPE OF REPORT & PERIOD COVERED

AN ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY OF LITERATURE INTEGRATING

ORGANIZATIONAL AND SYSTEMS THEORY

Elaine G. Davis, Gregory D. Foster,

'1 Erica Kirchner-Dean, and Robert W. Swezey M4A 903-79-C-0699

9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAMIE AND ADDRIESS f : -0 PROGRAM ELEMENT. PROJECT. TASK

Behavioral Sciences Research Center'- AREA & WORK UNIT NUMBERS

Science Applications, Inc. 2Q162722A791

McLean, VA 22102

* It. CONTROLLING OFFICE NAME AND ADDRESS 12. REPORT DATE

U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral September 1985

and Social Sciences, 5001 Eisenhower Avenue, 13. NUMBER OF PAGES

Alexandria, VA 22333-5600 339

14. MONITORING AGENCY NAME & AOORESS(i different from Controling~ Office) Is. SECURITY CLASS. (of this report)

Unclassif ied

ISa. OECL ASSI FICATION/ DOWN GRADING SCHEDULE

16. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT (of this Report)

Approved for public release; distribution unliminated. Accesion For

NTIS CRA&M

DCTAB

* 17. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT (of Lo abstract antor~dtn Block 20, It different Mma Report) LIro.;e

* Is. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES

ply&;jb;i Codes

19. KEY WORDS (Continue en towere. add*eit necessary, and identify by block niseber)

* Systems Theory Simulation

* Organizational Behavior Training

Organizational Effectiveness (OE)

*and Development (OD)

20. ASTrNACT M("An si voewoeoe ~I necesay ad identify by block nauab64r) OQUtAL fry

* This -repare )resents a sunmmary of articles on organizational and systems theory

up to and including 1980. The articles are divided into three categories--

(1) Systems Theory, (2) Organizational Behavior, Effectiveness and Development

and (3) Simulation and Training. The primary purpose of this report is to

examine the literature in this area to identify the dimensions of organizational

structure and processes that are related to various organizational outcomes.

it is suggested that the identification. of these dimensions can lead to increased effectiveness of simulations and training programs.

DD W 43 CEvIION OF I NOV 65 1S OSSOLETIE UNCLASSIFIED

SECURITY CLASSIFICATION OF TMIlS PAGE (When -Data Entered)
SECURITY CLASSIFICATION OP ThiS PASEC(I, Data Eateq.

4 a

4 I

.3i

.1

SECURITY CL.ASSIPICATION OP TWIS PAGgrIlbes Des. ~"'e..0 I
* TABLCOF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION..................... .. . . .... ... .. .. .....

* PLAN OF THE REPORT ....................... . .. ..... 9

ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

I. SYSTEMS THEORY....................11

* II. ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR, EFFECTIVENESS

& DEVELOPMENT. .. ............ . .. .. ... 99

III. SIMULATION AND TRAINING ............... 263

40
* INTRODUCTION

The Behavioral Sciences Research Center (BSRC) of Science

Applications, Inc., is pleased to submit this annotated bibliography

*in fulfillment of Item No. 0002AC: Interim Report of Abstracts of

Literature, under US Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and

Social Sciences Contract No. MA 903-79-C-0699. This report represents

a summary of the documents to be integrated into a forthcoming theory-

* based review of current literature on organizational and systems

theory in support of the aforementioned research effort.

Guidance for the development of this annotated bibliography

wa's derived from two principal sources: the scope of the research

and the theoretical framework, as specified in the Statement of Work.

The primary task of this portion of the effort was "to examine the

literature to identify the dimensions of organizational structure,

* organizational processes, and other organizational parameters that

have either theoretical or previously demonstrated theoretical

relationships with organizational outcomes." The identification of

these dimensions served as the initial step in accomplishing the two

* long-term goals of the overall effort: experimentation through

simulation and increased effectiveness through training. As an

experiment, this effort seeks to develop a strategy for (1) investigating organizational functioning through the manipulation of

* important independent and intervening variables, and (2) developing

testable hypotheses concerning organizational pathologies that are

potentially responsive to management intervention. The strategy

specified for development toward this end is simulation. Additionally,

4P this effort seeks to provide, through simulation, the potential for

training organization members to behave more effectively through

feedback of their performance results. The scope of this research

effort, therefore, is three-dimensicnal: theoretical, experimental,

* and pedagogical.
rrw

rW W . 

 wrW r 7 C--- ..- Ww Cr n w KC. -R tow. -- .. -- -

2J

As a first step in identifying the critical variables involved in

organizational behavior, relevant key words were extracted from review

articles contained in :he Hancbock -f ndustrial and -ranizatona

Psychology, AnnuaZ Review of Psychoioay Psycho . o gica Review, and

several widely-used textbooks. This survey yielded approximately

350 terms related to various aspects of organizational functioning,

simulation and training. While many of the concepts were common to

all of the reviews (e.g., structure, environment), many others were

found to be theory-specific (e.g., alienation, homeostasis). A

cursory review of the conceptual frameworks characterizing organiza-

*. tional theory revealed a significant number of different -- if not

unreconcilable -- perspectives on the nature and behavior of organizations. Careful thought was given to the advantages and disadvantages

of the major theoretical frameworks in the context of the goals and

expectations of this investigation. Systems theory was selected as

the most promising.

While systems theory is a truly holistic perspective -- combining

and integrating all disciplines -- the orientation of this research

effort focuses only on those systems-based concepts related to the

functioning of the organization. In this light, a second list of key

words was formulated and juxtaposed against the first. The latter

list served as a honing mechanism for the establishment of a final

list of variables. The criteria established for inclusion or

exclusion of terms were as follows:

""Variables selected should constitute, as

nearly as possible, a comprehensive representation of all recognizable facets of

organizational behavior and performance;

on the other hand, where multiple terms

have accepted meanings that are virtually

synonymous, parsimony should be the over-

.. riding consideration.

-2-
" Variables selected must be an integral

component of, coincident with, or readily

adaptable to accepted systems-theoretic

concepts.

" Variables selected should focus on systemic/

subsystemic attributes rather than on

* essentially individual psychological states

or manifestations, e.g., alienation, attitudes, bias, cognition, emotion, morale,

motivation, etc. While such characteristics

have been recognized as important factors

in organizational behavior and performance,

* they have not been integrated satisfactorily

to date into the conceptual logic of systems

theory.

The variables selected for inclusion are presented in Figure 1.

The methodology followed in developing this annotated bibliography was comprised of four major tasks: (1) Development of key

word list, (2) Identification of sources, (3) Document retrieval,

* and (4) Abstracting.

1. Development of Key Word List

The first task in identifying documents for review was to adapt

the list of variables into a hierarchical list of key words by which

documents could be recognized. Three steps were involved in the

development of the key word list:

* 1. The major concerns of the research effort

were categorized into five general areas:

" Systems Theory

" Organizational Behavior

" Organizational Effectiveness (OE)

and Development (OD)

rw e Simulation

" Training

It is important to note that each of these

areas was considered only as it relates to

the understanding of organizational behavior

and performance.

Cr -3-
SI. Absenteeism 29. Efficiency 57. Maturity (maturation)

2. Adaptability (adaptation, 30. Environment 58. Open System

coping, flexibility 31. Equifinality 59. Optimization

3. Authority 32. Equilibrium (balance, 60. Organization (cohesion,

4. 3oundary homeostasis, steady- negative entropy)

5. Capability (capacity, state) 61. Output (product)

potential) 33. Feedback 62. Performance Evaluation/

6. Centralization 34. Goals (objectives, Appraisal

7. Certainty requirements) 63. Plan/Planning (strategy/

8. Change (innovation) 35. Goal Attainment (per- strategize) .formance, 

S9. Change Agent productivity) 64. Power (coercion, dominance) 36. Goal Displacement

Channel (network)Process (conversion, imple37. Goal Setting (expectancy) mentation, throughput,

11. Climate (organizational 38. Goal Succession (ideal- transformation)

climate/health/pathology seeking) 66. Resource Allocation/Dispersonality) 39. Dynamice 66. tribution

12. Closed System 39. Group Dynamics 40 Grwt 67. Response (reaction)

13. Communications (bargaining/ 40. Growth

information exchange) 41. Hierarchy 68. Responsibility

69. Rigidity (change resiscance)

14. Communication 3arriers/Filters 42. incentive (reinforcement)

15. Competence 43. Independence (autonomy, 70. Role (relationship)

16. Complexity (dimensionality) totipotentiality) 71. Sensing (cognition, fore- casting, intelligence.

17. Conflict (role conflict, 44. Influence scanning)

value conflict, competition, 45. Information (experience, simliity

confrontation) knowledge, learning) 72. Simplicity

18. Conflict Regulation 46. Initiat.ve "proaction) 7 Size

19. Consensus (agreement) 47. Input (contributlon, 7 Stand;ris (:ritical variables

20. Control (accountability, com- resources) norms, rules, regulations)

pliance, conformity, regula- 48. integration (symbiosis) 75. Salzacture (design, form formtion) 49. Interaction (cooperation, aliation

21. Creativity coordination, human 76. Subcatimization (enuity;

22. Decentralization relations, participation) 77. Subsystem (componen:, grocp)

23. Decision-Making (choice, 50. Interdependence (parti- 78. Synergism (gestalt, holism)

problem-solving) potentiality) 79. Task

24. Development (dynamic equilibriur 51. Intervention (third-party

heterostasis, evolution) intervention) SO. Technology

25. Differentiacion (division of 52. Job (function) 81. Training

labor, specialization) 53. Job Enrichment/Enlargement 82. Turnover

26. Direction (intentionality) 54. Job/Task Analysis 83. Uncertainty (risk)

27. Disorganization (entropy) 55. Leadership 84. Values

2S. Effectiveness 56. Management

Figure 1. List of variables for investigation.

U- -4-

_.0.0.,:...,.
2. The 84 variables previously identified were

*organized under the most appropriate of the

five "umbrella" terms, from most to least

specific.

3. Additional terms were added under the

simulation and training categories. These

0 included: free simulation, experimental

simulation, computer simulation, gaming,

team training and management training.

The resulting list of 90 terms is believed complete, yet comprehen0 hensive, enough to identify documents most relevant to this study.

2. Identification of Sources

Extensive use was made of both computerized retrieval

systems and manual searches to identify relevant documents. Following a comparative analysis of several available search services,

the Lockheed/DIALOG online information system was selected for use.

It appeared to offer the greatest breadth of coverage, compreheniveness, and cost-effectiveness. Of the 70 databases accessible

through the Lockheed/DIALOG retrieval system, six were selected as

the most relevant:

• * PASAR (Psychological Abstracts Search and

Retrieval)

* NTIS (National Technical Information Service)

" Social SciSearch (Institute for Scientific

6Information)

* SSIE (Smithsonian Current Research)

" Management Contents

" Sociological Abstracts.

Searches were conducted into each data base using appropriate key

words to identify documents dated during the 1960-1980 timeframe.

Every attempt was made to be parsimonious where computer costs were

involved, while insuring an exhaustive search of relevant databases.

Is-5- %i
To supplement the computer searches, manual searches were conducted

at several of the area university libraries. Indices of relevant

journals for the period 1960-1980 (wherever possible) were examined,

* as well as review articles and bibliographies. The key word list

* was used as a guide in this search as well. The following major

journals are represented:

A cade.-u of Manageent ;~crna:

Academu. o ' Manacemen-t Review

Adminitra-tive Science uarteriy

American Sociological Review

Annual Review o-.' Psychoocu~ Annual R eview of Socio Zogy

3ehaviora 1 Science

3rit ish JoUrra' 1 o' Psycho logy

Catalog of Selected Documents i n Psycho'logy

Cybernetics

Ergonomics

Gjeneral Systems Yearbook

Group and Organiczation Studies

Harvard 3usiness Rev iew

HYuman Relations

Journal o., Arrlied 3ehavioral Science

Journal of Anrlied Psucholoau

Jiourna Z of IrrZ-es Social Psychobogy

Journal of Confict Resolution

journal of M1anaaernent Studies

journal of Persona lity. and Social Psychoo ay

Organizational 3ehavior and Huiman Perf'ormance

Organizational Dynamics

Personnel Psychologyi

?sycho logical 3u,112e -;n

Psychological Review

Psychological' R'eorts

Psychonornic Science

S.imnulotion and 3acmes

:heory and :ecian

rng and Dvbr-etJourna7

Over 30 other journals.

-6-
3. Document Retrieval

Three criteria were developed for the selection and retrieval

of documents: currency, completeness and representativeness. In

order to meet each of these criteria in a manageable, useful collection

of literature, certain trade-offs had to be made. On the issue of

currency, it was decided that this review should reflect current stateof-the-art research and theory on organizational behavior and its

implications for simulation and training. Greatest emphasis was

* placed, therefore, on selecting documents from the 1970-1980 timeframe.

Less, but substantial, emphasis was then placed on procuring literature covering the 1960-1969 period. A careful study was made of

the reference sections of major articles written during this 20-year

span; any seminal works consistently referenced were identified and

retrieved. The reader interested in research conducted prior to 1960

is directed to those documents including extensive reviews of 'his

earlier literature (e.g., Roeckelein, 1967 and Steers, 1977).

The criteria of completeness was addressed on two fronts.

(1) Sources. Over 100 primary sources were surveyed, including refereed journals, professional society journals and proceedings,

* university publications, theses and dissertations, books, and technical reports of federally- and privately-funded research. Special

attention was paid to selecting the most relevant works of key

researchers/theorists in each area. (2) Breadth of coverage. Using

the key word list, over eighty specific dimensions of organizational

behavior, effectiveness, development, simulation and training were

investigated, as well as the full spectrum of systems concepts

related to human organizing. In keeping with the implicit purpose

of this research effort, emphasis was placed on selecting documents

which related these concerns to the military environment.

* -7-
V

The final criterion, representativeness, was used as the basis

for any trade-offs that haQ to be made between completeness and

manageability/feasibility. While this bibliography is not exhaustive

of literature pertaining to each constituent variable, it is believed

to be representative of current thinking on the problem as it is

defined in this particular effort.

4. Abstracting

For abstracting purposes, the documents were categorized into

four types: experimental (including quasi-experimental and correlational studies), theoretical, opinion, and literature review. Because

the documents differ in format and intent across these four types,

the abstracts were tailored in such a way as to best summarize the

significant contributions of each. Abstracts of experimental

research reports highlight the principal components of the research:

background, hypotheses, experimental design (i.e., sample, method,

statistical tests), results and practical or research implications.

No personal interpretations or evaluations of research results are

given.

Theoretical and opinion articles were abstracted in a somewhat

different manner. The purpose of these abstracts is to summarize,

in the first case, the logical development and key constructs of

a particular theory; and in the second, the main arguments or insights

forwarded by the author. If the document treats a topic (e.g., systems

theory, simulation or training) in a general sense, an attempt was

made to include in the abstract those elements of the discussion

pertaining only to organizational behavior or performance. Again,

*' no personal evaluation is made of the contents of these documents.

Several literature reviews are included in this bibliography,

either as separate documents or as sections of more extensive works.

In both cases, the abstract is designed to summarize the findings

of the review as they impact on current and future organization

theory.
Books have been abstracted within the same guidelines used for

journal articles. In many instances, the book is divided into its

constituent parts; the significant aspect of each described separately.

It should be noted that several of the books on systems theory have

been abstracted in more-than-typical detail. Two reasons account for

the inclusion of this additional information. First, the pivotal

role of systems theory as the theoretical framework within which the

entire research effort is being conducted warrants a very detailed

account of the concepts driving this theoretical perspective.

Second, the newness of the application of systems theory to the understanding and improvement of organizational performance necessitates

an adequate explanation of the theoretical and methodological

concepts proposed in the literature.

PLAN OF THE REPORT

This annotated bibliography is divided into three categories,

paralleling the major concerns defined in this effort.

1. Systems Theory - This section summarizes over

100 articles, books and proceedings on

systems theory as it applies to the organization.

2. Organization Behavior, Effectiveness, and

.Development - Represented in this section are

over 250 articles, books, technical reports,

and other documents concerned with the dimensions of organizational behavior and performance

identified for investigation.

3. Simulation and Training - In the context of

simulation as a potential methodology for

studying and improving organizational functioning, this section includes approximately

100 theoretical and research reports on

various applications of this technique as

an educational and research tool. Also included

in this section is a representative sample of

documents treating the issues involved in

team and management training.

-9-

01~.
'N

1%91S

'a

-10-
I. SYSTEMS THEORY
~.-4

..

*1

N

-A

1%

41

4%

As,

.4

-12-

4/

- * . '.5
Ackoff, R. L. Towards a system of systems concepts. Management

* Science, 1971, 17, 105-112.

This article is an attempt to systematize systems terms and

concepts. First, system is defined as a set of interrelated elements;

in other words, an entity composed of at least two elements and a

relation that holds between each of its elements and at least one

* other element in the set. Distinctions are made among abstract

and concrete systems; the state of a system, the environment of a

system, and the state of a system's environment; closed and open

systems; system events; and static (one-state), dynamic (multi-state),

and homeostatic systems.

* System changes are characterized as acts, reactions,

responses, and behaviors. Further, systems may be classified as (1)

state-maintaining systems, whose behaviors are variable but determined

(reactive), and whose outcomes are fixed; (2) goal-seeking systems,

whose behaviors are variable and chosen (responsive), and whose

outcomes are fixed; (3) multi-goal-seeking and purposive systems,

40 whose behaviors are variable and chosen, and whose outcomes are

variable but determined; and (4) purposeful systems, whose behaviors

are variable and chosen, and whose outcomes are variable and

chosen. An ideal-seeking system is a purposeful system which, on

attainment of any of its goals or objectives, then seeks another

goal and objective which more closely approximates its ideal.

Finally, an organization is defined as a purposeful system

that contains at least two purposeful elements which have a common

purpose relative to which the system has a functional division of

labor; its functionally distinct subsets can respond to each other's

behavior through observation or communication; and at least one

* subset has a system-control function.

Ackoff, R. L. Beyond problem solving. GeneraZ. Systems, 1974, XIX,

237-239.

The author calls for moving beyond what traditionally has

been one of the primary objectives of the decision sciences: to

improve the efficiency and effectiveness of problem solving. First,

he suggests that we must think in terms of "tmesses", rather than

merely isolating the independent, component problems that comprise

them. Second, he calls for the devotion of more attention to improving solutions to messes over time. The point made is that many

of the problems we try to sol1ve change - environmental changes and

value changes - even while we are trying to solve them. Finally, he

offers a plea for the study of the aesthetics of decision-making as

well as its logic, economics, and ethics. There is a tendency to

ignore the problem-solution-problem dynamic, i.e., the fact that

solutions give rise to new problems.

-13-
Ackoff, R. L. & Emery, F. E. On ideal-seeking systems. 'rerera,-

Systems, 1972, XVII, 17-24.

It is a peculiarity of man and of some of the social systems

of which he is a part that they can pursue outcomes and states that

they know cannot be obtained. Yet, they draw satisfaction from

approaching states that cannot be reached. The approach is called

progress and the end-state is called an ideal. It therefore seems

reasonable that man and systems be able to formulate objectives that

can be pursued without end but which can be continually approached.

The authors of this article seek to define and describe the

characteristics of the ideal-seeking individual or system. In so

doing, they begin by describing the various environmental responses

'1 of systems according to their structural and functional properties.

Purposeful individuals and systems are those that can produce the

same functional type of outcome in one or more structurally different

classes of environment in structurally different ways, and can produce

functionally different outcomes in the same and different structural

environments. They choose both means and ends. Human beings and

social groups are the most familiar examples.

A purposeful system or individual is ideal-seeking if, on

attainment of any of its objectives, it chooses another objective

which more closely approximates its ideal. Omnipotence is identified

as the meta-ideal, the highest of all possible ideals. Progress

toward omnipotence requires progress toward the maximization of

(1) the availability of efficient choices (the politico-economic

state of plenty) (2) the efficiency of choices made (the scientific

state of truth) (3) the compatibility of outcomes obtained (the

ethico-moral state of goo); and (4) the relative values of these

outcomes (the aesthetic state of beauty).

Alschuler, L. R. Status equilibration, reference groups, and social

fields. 'generaL Systems, 1973, 99-116.

This article attempts to integrate and formalize the

relationships among four bodies of social theory: status equilibration,

cognitive dissonance, reference groups, and social fields. With

the aid of a formal model, the author demonstrates the necessity

of reference group identification. The reference group provides

status equilibrium norms of distributive justice by which the

* individual defines his situation. Cognitive dissonance is a

result of the definition of the situation. A dissonant definition

* of the situation in terms of over- and under-rewardedness, or overand under-achievement, largely determines the behavioral tendencies

toward dissonance reduction.

'LI -14-
Among the major statements deriving from the various

fields of theoretical thought are the following: (1) From status

theory: individuals are evaluated according to prestige along

dimensions of social status. (2) From status equilibration theory:

an individual holds statuses on several dimensions simultaneously.

(3) From reference group theory: equilibrated configurations of

statuses are defined by reference groups. (4) From cognitive

dissonance theory: perceived status disequilibrium is cognitively

dissonant and stressful, including behavioral attempts to reduce

the dissonance. (5) From social field theory: an individual

stands in a field of social forces, some of which are the stresses

resulting from status disequilibria.

Bahm, A. J. General logic of concrete systems. Systems Science and

Science. Proceedings of the 24th Annual North American

Meeting of 'the Society for General Systems Research, 1980,

520-525.

By focusing on concrete or actually existing systems, instead

of abstract systems, this paper proposes a complex hypothesis about

sixteen characteristics common to all concrete systems: eight thought

of more as structural (whole-part interrelations, interdependence,

unity and plurality, simplicity and complexity, opposition, complementarity, and organicity) and eight thought of more as dynamic

(permanence and change, causation, emergency, whole-part causation,

organic causation, multilevel causation, adaptation, and dialectic).

The paper is significant because it emphasizes the wholepart and unity-plurality characteristics essential to systems,

characteristics too often neglected, ignored, and even denied by some

theorists. Universality is claimed for these characteristics, not in

the sense that we can observe all existing systems, but in the sense

that, predictively, they can be found present in all systems observed.

Bailey, K. D. Types of systems. Systems Science and Science.

Proceedings of the 24th Annual North American Meering of

the Society for General Systems Research, 1980, 26-34.

There is general agreement on the basic definition of a

system. However, a number of different types of systems have been

defined in the contemporary systems literature. These include conceptual systems, abstract systems, abstracted systems, physical

systems, concrete (also referred to as "real" or "veridical") systems,

acting systems, and pattern systems. The author of this paper contends that the existence of these different types creates the potential

for much confusion. His purpose, therefore, is to eliminate confusion

among types by delineating the dimensions upon which types of systems

are defined. -

-15-

* a'.*.. . .
The author defines system as "a set of objects spatially

located within recognized systems boundaries, with the further condition that the attributes of these objects are related." Further, he

argues that there is only one real type of system - the type generally

called a "concrete" or "empirical" system. Terms such as "conceptual

system" or "abstracted system" are unduly confusing and probably not

needed. In no case should they be used in lieu of the definition of

an empirical system. However, if used in conjunction with the definition and analysis of am empirical system, and if their relations to

that system are made clear, concepts such as conceptual and abstracted

systems may have analytical or heuristic value.

Banathy, B. H. The dynamics of integrative design. General Systems

* .4 Research: A Science, a Methodology, a Technology.

.roceedinqs of the 1979 7orrh .A-merican Meeti--n f the

Society for General Systems Research, 1979, 191-197.

Design is defined by the author as a creative, disciplined,

and decision-oriented inquiry carried out in interactive cycles.

The focus of the paper is on the design of human systems. The

author's contention is that the design solution space is surrounded

by the knowledge space and the problem and experience spaces.

Designers constantly explore these spaces and integrate information

and knowledge with emerging images of the solution.

An ideal system model approach is characterized, and the

dynamics of integrative design are elaborated. This elaboration

includes the notions of (1) the designers' moving among the various

spaces of the design inquiry; (2) the spiralic/interactive and

interactive nature of the process; (3) feedback-feedforward; (4)

divergence-convergence; (5) design embracing various system levels;

and (6) including parties of various positions and values (participative design).

Baumgartner, T., Burns, T. R., & DeVille, P. Industrial democracy,

self-organization and meta-power. The General Systems

Paradigm: Science of Change and Change of Science.

Proceedings of the Annual. North American Mee-;ing o"f the

Society for GeneraZ Systems Research, 1977, 292-300.

In capitalist and socialist industrialized countries, there

is continuing debate about alterations in the ways in which workers

may exercise influence in work organizations. Concepts and terms

abound; different ideological views, social interests, and academic

theories are involved in the debate. The authors present an analytical framework to organize and relate the different concepts. They

then introduce the concepts of self-organization (implies that workers

-16-

-- L
demand and create through their own actions at the base the institutions which allow them to exercise increased control over their

environment) and legislated institutionalization (characterizes the

introduction of elements to increase workers' influence through

contractual agreements and legislatory acts agreed upon on higher

levels of a hierarchical control system). The compatibility of these

concepts with others is investigated.

Various industrial democracy concepts (work councils and job enrichment programs, profit-sharing and ownership participation) are

analyzed for their morphostatic and potentially morphogenic qualities.

The conclusion points to a possible model underlying the analysis

which also could be applied usefully to the same analysis of transition strategies (including worker control, self-management, and

autogestion) and alternative system states.

Beer, S. Brain of the firm: A development in .anagement cybernetics.

New York: Herder and Herder, 1972.

In most fundamental terms, this book concerns managing large

and complicated systems, particularly the corporate enterprise. Part

I offers a new perspective on how to approach management's primary

task of organization and control: cybernetics. In Part II, cybernetics is put to work to create a model of the management of any

viable system. That model is the human body.

The essence of the book, however, is Beer's presentation of

the neurophysiological-cybernetic model of the firm. This model views

the firm as consisting of five integrated and interactive levels. The

basic operating entity in this conception is the division, which is

run by its own directorate. These two elements comprise System One.

The directorate reports to corporate management, from which instructions are received, and is responsible for managing the division.

Essentially, this means that it controls activities in a "line" sense,

i.e., it assumes responsibility for programming, planning by objectives,

and normative planning throughout the division. The division thus is

more-or-less autonomous, operating as it likes but limited by three

practical managerial constraints: (I) It must operate within the

objectives and intentions of the company as a whole. (2) It must

operate within the coordinating framework of System Two; in other

words, it must accept the existence of other divisions, on whose inter4W action the corporate synergy depends. (3) It must submit to the

automatic control of System Three, i.e., on occasion it must sacrifice

its own needs for the needs of other divisions. In short, System One

controls the division in response to policy directives and overriding

instructions from above, in reaction to the direct demands of the

external world upon it, and in awareness of the needs of sister divisions. The management tool of the Divisional Directorate is the

-17-

el

. .. .. .. .. .. . " .. *" . . . . . " . ' . " .7""" .." " .. .. ". .
Divisional Regulatory Center, where the monitoring and filtering

functions for input data, and the strategic planning and tactical

programming functions for output data, jointly reside.

System Two is the metasystem subsuming all Systems One. It

operationalizes in the interlinking of the individual Divisional

Regulatory Centers. It thus is an elaborate interface between System

One and Three and the only means by which uncontrolled oscillation

between divisions can be prevented. System Two operates on the basis

of continuous communications (as opposed to continuous planning) and

collaborative effort. As any change in the state condition of a

particular division occurs, it is transmitted immediately from the

Divisional Regulatory Center to the Divisional Directorate, to other

regulatory centers, and to the Corporate Regulatory Center, which

takes the hi-her-order view of the situation and reports the infor-mation to System Three if required.

System Three is the highest level of autonomic management

and the lowest level of corporate management . Its function is primarily to govern the stability of the internal environment of the

organization. It does this by handling three kinds of information

systems which converge on it: (1) The first of these belongs to the

vrertical command axis. Since System Three is part of corporate management, it therefore is a transmitter of policy and special instructions to the divisions. It also receives information about the

internal environment, which it handles in three ways - as a metasystemic controller downwards, as the most senior filter of somatic

news upward, and as an algedonode. (2) System Three is the only

recipient of information filtered upward from System Two. (3) System

Three handles the parasympathetic (right of direct access) information

circuits which are antithetic to those of the sympathetic (System Two)

circuits. System Three is distinguishable from Systems One and Two

because it alone has a System Four input and thus is the only competent

regulator of organic homeostasis. One and Two are regulators (or

error-controlled feedback servos), but only of the external environment

of their own respective divisions, not of the company's external

environment. System Three therefore can generate the requisite variety

that Two alone cannot. System Three is designed to make use of every

kind of optimizing tool in its direction of current operations, from

inventory theory to mathematical programming.

'hereas the focus of System Three is on current, internal

matters, that of System Four is on the external environment and the

future; anid, whereas System Three mediates inputs to System Five,

Systr~m Four serves as a "big switch" for those inputs. It is always

present and represents the set of activities feeding the company's

highest decision-making level. System Four is singularly vital to

the effective functioning of the total system, for it is the nexus of

the system's information links. Through it passes the steady stream

of appropriate instructions descending the central command axis

.1Z
necessary to ensure successful operation of the autonomic system

(Systems One, Two, and Three). Furthermore, effective decision-making

* at System Five depends on proper representation of the autonomic

condition, reflected by the filtered information ascending the central

axis. Finally, System Four is the source of input from the firm's

external environment to System Five. System Four models the organization and operates like a "'war room", acquiring and evaluating

information, proposing solutions, and implementing adaptive planning

* processes.

System Five - the Multinode - consists of the Board of

Directors and the President and is organized to deliberate policies

and make decisions.

3eer, S. Deci7.sion andl contrai: Thne mearing o: operational research

-nd management cybernetics. Chichester: Wiley & Sons, 1966.

This book is about the uses management can make of science -

40 specifically operations research and cybernetics - to help solve

problems of decision and control. The book's first part is a general

discussion of the possible interactions between science and management.

It is urged that management is not a scientific topic, just as science

is not in essence managerial. But, the area of overlap, where management may draw on science, is identified. Here, says the author, lies

* the scope for operational (operations) research. The second part of

the book investigates the workings of operations research, while Part

III is a continuation of that line of thinking, with special emphasis

on the science of cybernetics. The final part is a discussion of

possible outcomes for industry, automation, government, and management

science.

In Part I, "The Nature of Operational Research", the first

chapter points to the novelty of scientific applications in management.

In Chapter 2, the ways in which belief is fixed are shown to be based

on mechanisms which, though rational, are not logical. They derive

from biological necessity, not from intellectual processes, and result

in decisions which have more to do with learning to survive than with

the objective analysis of profitability. In light of this, Chapter 3

introduces operations research (OR), its relevance and historical

development. Chapter 4 investigates six major aspects of OR which are

cotmmonly misunderstood: the stereotyped notions of what the scientist

is like, the nature of the problem to be solved, what science itself

is like, what sort of solution counts as appropriate, what a study's

payoff should be, and what counts as success. In Chapter 5, some of

the questions raised about OR's applicability to management are

answered, a modern OR study is described, and OR is officially defined.

IL

( -19-

~7
Part II, "The Activity of Operational Research", is an exposition of how OR does what it tries to do. Chapter 6 investigates the

way managers solve problems and contrasts this with the OR approach.

It shows how the predictive quality of thinking is critical to a

successful decision or policy and expounds the concept of a model as

the basis of insight and prediction. The theoretical nature of models

is examined with the aid of detailed explanation and practical illustrations. These examples are augmented in Chapter 7. Chapter 8

describes models in more rigorous terms; it specifies the role of

mathematics as handling quantity, of mathematical statistics as

handling probability, and of symbolic logic as handling qualitative

relationships. Chapter 9 explores the nature of the problem situation

that OR must penetrate: the manager's responsibility for control of

some system(s). Examples of how this can be approached scientifically

are presented. Specifically, notes the author, solving the problem of

prediction within these systems is the nub of the management task.

Chapter 10 therefore addresses forecasting and the OR techniques that

can be used to help, particularly modeling.

Part III, "The Relevance of Cybernetics", introduces cybernetics, the science of control and commounication. With cybernetics as

the science of control and management as the profession of control, we

may recognize the subject of management cybernetics, a rich provider

of models for doing OR. In Chapter 11, a start is made in exploring

the nature of the large, complex, and probabilistic systems which

management must control. Ways of describing and measuring such

systems are discussed. The argument is continued in Chapter 12.

Against this background, Chapter 13 deals with the control of operations. A cybernetic critique of orthodox practice is offered as is a

new model of cybernetic control. Chapter 14 extends cybernetic

thinking and discusses self-organizing systems, the properties of

which form the basis, in Chapter 15, for improving company or organizational designs.

Chapters 16 through 19 of the book, contained in Part IV,

provide explicit applications - historical and speculative - of OR and

cybernetics in industry, automation, government, and management science.

The book ends (Chapter 20) with concluding thoughts on what counts as

practical management and practical science in this era of difficulty

and change.

-20-
Berrien, F. K. Jeneral and social systems. New Brunswick, N.J.:

* Rutgers University Press, 1968.

The author's challenge in this book is to provide an economical description of the human organization. How do such ordered

complexities evolve from random behaviors? He builds a propositional

framework, starting from Miller's "Living Systems" as a base, but

* modifying and elaborating where appropriate. He places great emphasis

on "becoming" - the nascent organization, the evolution of a new subsystem, the preliminaries to conflict, etc. Thus, the empirical

findings most critically discussed come from social psychology, the

intent apparently being to find appropriate heuristics, models, and

even theories from outside the circle of investigators of human groups.

* Many physical and biochemical analogues are presented.

The core of the book is an external view of adaptation in

human groups, with discussion of such factors as uncertainty, evolution, homeostasis, boundaries, and growth. Berrien provides a

graphical approach to the representation of group phenomena. His

specific problem is to discover a non-arbitrary procedure for identifying the properties of a quantity called group need satisfaction

(GNS) and to distinguish it from another called formal achievements

(FA). "GNS can be thought of in the first instance as a reverberating

feedback loop initiated by the proximity and necessary interactions of

the components . . . the 'bonding' of individuals is a necessary consequence of such interactions, the strength of the bonds being a

function partly of the predispositions (memories and states) of the

individuals and partly a function of the interactions themselves."

The formal achievements (.FA) are defined by signals coming from the

supra-system and represent the degree to which outside expectations

are met. En a task-oriented group, they are represented by production

6 or physical output.

An interesting argument is that the ratio GNS/FA is held

roughly constant by system-suprasystem interaction. Different groups,

even those doing the same task with identical equipment (e.g., day and

night shifts in a factory), will maintain markedly different ratios.

This means that increases in morale (a major component of GNS) are

likely to be accompanied by increases in production (a major component

of FA).

-21-
SBerrien, F. K. A general systems approach to organizations. In

Dunnette, M. D., (Ed.). Handbook of industr ia and

organizational psychology. Chicago: Rand-McNally, 1976,

41-62.

The author reviews the basic elements of general systems

theory (GST) and discusses its application to the study of organizations. Systems are described as sets of interacting subsystems,

distinguished by boundaries which select the kind and rate of flow

of inputs from, and outputs to, the environment. Constructs of system

boundaries, inputs and outputs of various types, adaptation, growth,

and resource storage are defined and their impact on system viability

discussed.

Berrien presents his social system model of organizations,

notir ; that the basic components are role behaviors, interacting with

other role behaviors generating Group Need Satisfactions (GNS) which

provide a major but not exclusive source of maintenance. The boundary

is the set of social norms characteristic of the group. Signal inputs

are related primarily to the Formal Achievement (FA) output of the

group; that FA must be acceptable to some other system if the system

is to survive. Whatever the group produces that is not acceptable to

other systems are wastes.

The social system model proposed here is compared with other

organizational models, and the point is made that whether organizational performance is viewed primarily in manager-leader or total

system terms is a function of the perspective of the conceptualizer.

Some of the most prevalent criticisms of GST - its reliance on analogy

and its inability to provide a basis for prediction, for example - are

reviewed. Currently, it is noted, hierarchical open systems models of

organizations appear promising for explaining human behavior within

and across organizations. Both the explanatory and the predictive

power of GST for organizations may be enhanced if more rigorous

operationalizations can be developed for such constructs as social

needs satisfaction, systems inputs, and other organizational transactions.

-

: -22- .
Bertalanffv, L. v. jeerz sJstern :r?eory. New York: Braziller,

1968.

The initial premise of this book is that systems theory has

tended to evolve primarily as a mathematical field, offering novel

and sophisticated techniques and allied closely with computer science.

What may be obscured in these developments, however, is the fact that

systems theory is a broad view which far transcends technological

problems and demands, a reorientation that has become necessary in

science in general and in the gamut of disciplines from physics and

biology to the behavioral and social sciences and to philosophy. It

is operative, with varying degrees of success and exactitude, in

various realms, and heralds a new world view of considerable impact.

0 This book is an introduction to general systems theory and

* systems thinking. The author points out that an introduction to the

field is possible in two ways. First, one can accept an available

* model and definition of system and rigorously derive the consequent

theory. On the other hand, one can - as this book does - start from

* problems as they have arisen in the various sciences, to show the

necessity of the systems viewpoint, and to develop it, in more or less

detail, in a selection of illustrative examples. In so doing, the

author identifies the three main aspects of the systems perspective

that must be considered: (1) systems science (scientific exploration

and theory of "systems" in the various sciences - physics, biology,

40 psychology, social sciences - and general systems theory as a doctrine

of principles applying to all systems); (2) systems technology (the

problems arising in modern technology au.d society, comprising both the

"hardware" of computers, automation, self-regulating machinery, etc.,

and the "software" of new theoretical developments and disciplines);

and (3) systems philosophy (the reorientation of thought and world

* view ensuing from the introduction of "system" as a new scientific

paradigm, in contrast to the analytic, mechanistic, one-way causal

paradigm of classical science; this has three parts - systems ontology,

systems epistemology, and values).

The author defines the major aims of general systems theory:

* (1) There is a general tendency towards integration in the various

sciences, natural and social. (2) Such integration seems to be

centered in a general theory of systems. (3) Such theory may be an

important means for aiming at exact theory in the nonphysical fields

of science. (4) Developing unifying principles running "vertically"

through the universe of the individual sciences, this theory brings

L us nearer to the goal of the unity of science. (5) This can lead to

a much-needed integration in scientific education.

The main body of the book is a tour d'horizon of the multidimensional and multidisciplinary facets of general systems theory:

its conceptualization in elementary mathematical terms; the view of

L the organism as a physical system; the model of the open system;

applications in biology, human sciences, and psychology and psychiatry.

-23-
Bertalanffy, L. v. Perspectives on generaL systems thecry:oc~e.- -

V and philosophical studies. (Taschdigian, E. and von

Bertalanffy, M. Eds.). New York: Braziller, 1975.

This is a collection of essays, most of which derive from

papers originally published in German language periodicals between

1926 and 1950. The early chapters, particularly the essays

"Perspectives in Art and Science" (1946) and "New Patterns of Biological

and Medical Thought" (1960), represent a tour d'horizon of the

transdisciplinary scientific and philosophical bases of general systems

theory, as well as its relationship to cybernetics.

Chapters 6 through 12 reflect Bertalanff?'s growing conviction

of the interdisciplinary powers that general systems concepts offer.

Beginning with "Homology as a Concept" (1934), the section progresses

to the fully matured summary of Bertalanffy's conceptual framework

encompassing both science and philosophy, "History and Development

of General Systems Theory" (1971). The chapters between consider

*% the "enormous number of elements and processes" characteristic of

Sorganic systems and "follow laws that can already, at least partly,

be expressed today in mathematical formula." The key question is are

these organizational laws the same as, or different from, physical

laws?

Later chapters, "Theoretical Models in Biology" (1965) and

"Biological World View" (1967), offer ideas sketched out in "The

Organismic Conception" 25 years before. "Open Systems in Physics and

Biology" provides further evidence in support of a general systems

theory. "Evolution: Chance or Law" (1969) considers the ultimate

"reduction of the phenomenon of life to the molecular properties of

DNA promised in popular accounts," as something less than convincing

"because the conventional categories, concepts and models in physics

and chemistry do not deal with organismic characteristics." He

outlines seven problems which have not been resolved by conventional

theory. These, he says, deserve empirical research and conceptual

evaluation to achieve a "revision of the so-called mechanistic

* ." approach to science as a whole."

Starting with "A Historical Prelude," the concluding chapter

summarizes the foundations of general systems theory, trends in

general systems theory, and systems science -- mathematical systems

theory, systems technology, and systems philosophy.

-24-

.o e 
Braham, M. A. General theory of organization. generaZ Systems,

* 1973, XVIII, 13-23.

This article is an attempt to develop a general theory of

organization. The author suggests that there may be something more

primitive than mutation, recombination, and selection in evolution and

in nature-at-large. This is the principle of organization. The prin-

* ciple of organization involves two terms: organizing and organization.

The first refers to the process through which discrete units or individuals develop their internal structures and functions and at the

same time associate, or form relationships, with other units or

individuals for some outcome or function. Organization, in turn,

refers to the product that results from the organizing process. The

40 "principle of organization" refers to the fact that organizing and

organization are ineradicable features of nature, such that, lacking

organization, there can be no existence.

The author hypothesizes that the process of organization

follows a regular sequence of events of limited reversibility and may

0 well be isomorphic for all organizations and at all levels of complexity. He conceives the process as being cyclic in nature, involving

alternating periods of divergence (origination, differentiation, and

structure) and convergence (integration, conflict, and concentration).

The completion of a cycle leads to the attainment of a stage of

complexity. The number of stages required by any organization to

0 reach its optimum state will differ according to its genotypic (or

programmed) characteristics. At the level of human organization, no

optimum state is inferred since, beyond the physiological, no known

limits can be attributed on a genotypic basis. Further discussion is

devoted to the relationships between organization on the one hand and

0 energy and environment on the other.

Buckley, W. Socio7-ogy anzd nodern systems theoryj. Englewood Cliffs,

NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1967.

0 This book is an exposition of the ideas of general systems

theory and a discussion of their applicability to theoretical sociology. The first two chapters present a critique of existing models

of social structure and process, specifically the "equilibrium" and

"lorganic" models of society, symptomatic of a basically conservative

bias, i.e., a tacit assumption that social changes and conflict are

somehow anomalous or pathological. Chapters 3 and 4 deal with the

basic concepts of systems theory and an interpretation of certain

directions in social psychology in light of these concepts. Chapter

5 deals with organization and institutionalization. The last chapter

treats social control, process, legitimacy, and bureaucracy.

-25-

L I ..
Special attention is devoted to what the author calls the

morphogenetic process, the determination of development by the

transformation of the constituent parts of the system through internal

and external interactions. This process, as implied by systems theory,

underlies the transformation of society, the development of the embryo,

and the evolution of a species. The analogy is not merely impressionistic but instead is a consequence of including information processing

and various principles of adaptation, natural selection, growth, etc.,

in the analysis of system behavior.

Busch, J. A. Cybernetics III: A system-type applicable to human

beings. General Systems Research: A Science, a Methodology,

a Technology. Proceedings of the 1979 3orth Amerscan Meetinq

of the Society for generaZ Systems 3esearch, 1979, 230-233.

In recent years, a number of theorists have suggested that

one can best understand human nature by viewing the human socialpsychological system as a morphogenic (structure-changing) system.

What is meant by morphogenesis is questioned in this paper, and it

is suggested that there may be more than one form of morphogenesis.

The question of how open systems maintain themselves in a negentropic

state is raised. It is suggested that some open systems are such

because their structure involves a positive feedback cycle. The

remaining types of open systems must have a control subsystem which

monitors the environment and leads to appropriate action via the

effector subsystem. Distinctions are made between system-types which

use various forms of iconic and indexical controls. It is argued

that there are profound differences between such morphostatic

(structure-maintaining) and morphogenic system-types and the highly

morphogenic Cybernetics III, which involves highly variable controls

capable of processing symbols.

Campbell, D. T. Variation and selective retention in socio-cultural

evolution. -eneral Systems, 1969, 69-85.

This article presents an advocacy of one type of socialevolutionary theory. While there currently is a revival of interest

in theories of socio-cultural evolution, the rejection of such

theories in the recent past has been so overwhelming that it seems

desirable to distinguish carefully among types of evolutionary

doctrines and to examine reasons for the rejection of the once

dominant thesis of social evolution.

In reviewing the current relevance of the concept of sociocultural evolution, the analogy to the variation-and-selectivesurvival mechanism is regarded as more valid and more valuable than

the analogy to a progressive direction of increased size and complexity

-26-
of integration per se. In line with this, the author attempts to

spell out the societal counterparts of variation, selection, and

* retention that would make an evolutionary process possible at the

societal level. The primary sources of doubt, it is noted, lie in

the selection process. This comes not only from the variety of

intertwined selection processes but also from the difficulty of

specifying the selection criteria independently of what seems to

have been selected.

Nonetheless, the author assumes that some socio-cultural

evolutionary process takes place. Unavoidable organizational

requirements in the coordination of individuals in collective action,

and specific payoffs from social life, are seen as part of the

selection criteria involved. From these, certain requisite social

values may be inferred.

Cavallo, R. E. The roie of systems rethodology in sociai science

research. Hingham, MA: Martinus Nijhoff, 1978.

While the conceptual significance of general systems approaches long have been recognized with respect to research in the

social sciences, its transformation into working approaches has

remained relatively undeveloped. This book develops and presents

* an integrated conceptual and operational general systems methodological framework directed to the special needs involved in the investigation of complex social and humanistic systems.

The framework not only provides specific procedures and

working methods for the investigation of social systems but also

* establishes an organized and well-formulated problem-solving approach

which integrates these and other methods. The integration effectively

associates the working methods and operational tools with fundamental

systems concepts such as behavior, state, structure simplification,

complexity, and decomposition. These concepts then are associated

with their counterparts in specific "real-world" social systems.

An extensive example which demonstrates the utility of the

framework for social science research is presented. In this example,

the ability of the framework - and thus of results in general systems

research - to extend and augment the investigative capabilities of

researchers in specific areas is demonstrated.

-27-

-'" " . - . '' "], , " "" " ' " " ' "".... ,' ' " " ' """"'"" i ' '"i : " -.

" " " " };? ."'"""" 2 : 
Chakraborty, S. k general systems approach to redesigning corporate

organization structures. Systems Science and Science.

Proceedings of the 24th Annual Nlorth American Meeting of the

Society for General Systems Research, 1980, 549-556.

This paper outlines a methodology for redesigning corporate

organization structures. The approach has been developed and successfully applied to redesigning a midsized, capital-/technology-intensive

Canadian company. Four goals for corporate design are identified:

(1) to provide a stable yet adaptive environment in which employees

can do their jobs; (2) to develop and maintain a collaborative effort

among individual employees necessary for successful operations; (3)

to enhance the sense of individual accountability, responsibility,

and motivation in visible ways; and (4) to create an organization that

is cost-effective -- one that achieves the other goals with minimal

duplication of effort.

Benchmarks, or criteria, for improving effectiveness and

efficiency of work flows, information flows, and decision structures

are defined. The two dominant general systems concepts guiding the

organization change-problem solving/redesigning activity are identified

and described: (1) a Managerial Problem Solving Methodology, and

(2) a Process Hierarchy Framework-based information structure. The

Managerial Problem Solving activities consist of preliminary analysis,

synthesis, analysis, constraint identification and minimization, and

implementation. The main activities of the redesign itself are

(1) defining the existing organization structure, (2) defining the

ideal organization structure, (3) defining the target organization

structure, and (4) defining the program of change.

Clapham, W. B., Jr. Human ecosystems: role of the social system in

the human environment. Systems Thinking and the Quality of

Life. Proceedings o., the 1975 AnnuaZ North A.mercanY eeting

of, the Society for General Systems Research, 1975, 334-338.

This paper focuses on the human ecosystem, defined as an

ecosystem whose readily observable characteristics are largely a

function of human intervention or management. It is most meaningfully

viewed as a stratified multilevel hierarchical system with natural

- . and social components. The natural stratum is recognized as setting

constraints on the ecosystem structures that can be maintained, while

.8 the social strata perform the functions of control and coordination.

The range of possible configurations of human ecosystems is much broader

than for natural ecosystems; it is a function of the resources of

the social system acting within the constraints set by the natural

stratum. Within the social strata lies a decision structure which

directs the development of human ecosystems. The secure supply of

ecosystem resources depends both on this decision structure's recognizing the constraints set within the natural stratum and on the stable

integration of the subsystems comprising the social strata.

-28-
Conant, R. C. How much information is enough? The general systems

paradigm: Science of Change and Change of Science.

Proceedings of the Annual North American Meeting of the

Society for Genera'i Systems Research, 1977, 204-21b.

After a warning about a common confusion between several

information measures (e.g., entropy vs. entropy rate, transmission vs.

transmission rate), this paper derives and briefly discusses a law

which partitions the total information flow rate in a system into

several components (Hierarchic Decomposition Identity, Sequential

Decomposition Identity, and Pyramidal Decomposition Identity). The

underlying condition for this law is the desirability of reducing

internal communication to the minimum consistent with the viability of

the system.

This law carries implications for system architecture.

Various architectures are explored (chain, ring, crystal, commune, 4

star, one-level hierarchy, and tree) and for each the viability for

an information-processing system is investigated. Last, the case in

which subsystems obtain input from a common source is discussed, and

it is proposed that the bulk of human communication is in fact via

a common source rather than direct.

Coulter, N. A., Jr. Toward a theory of teleogenetic control systems.

General Systems, 1968, XIII, 85-89.

This article represents an initial step by the author in a

process of attempting to develop "a mathematical theory of neurotic

and psychotic processes" in order to allow more precision in theories

of psychiatric and psychosomatic disorders. Since mere teleological

(goal-seeking) systems cannot describe the minimum necessary complexity

for this purpose, a basic theory of teleogenetic (goal-producing)

systems is introduced.

The minimum requirements for a teleogenetic system are

(1) teleological behavior, the ability to control outputs to conform

to a "goal signal"; (2) teleogenesis, the ability to propose goals;

(3) forecasting, the ability to predict outcomes given adoption of a

discrete goal; (4) evaluation, the ability to assign values to forecast

outcomes; and (5) decision, the ability to choose the best goal.

ro In order to perform these functions, a minimum number of

system components are required. in addition to the input sensors,

output servos, and environmental field that would comprise a conventional servomechanism, a teleogenetic control system also would

include: (1) an "apperceptive manifold" to identify, monitor, and

-29-

%4
categorize objects or situations; (2) an "executive" to generate

specific goals under general guidance of the "director", compare the

goals with data from the apperceptive manifold, and command appropriate

action; (3) a "forecaster" to predict external situations both independent of and in consideration of possible executive actions; (4) an

"evaluator" to judge the value of each alternative action based on the

forecasts; and (5) a "director" to formulate generic goals for the

system and decide whether to seek more data about a solution or to act.

Coulter, N. A., Jr. Contribution to a triadic theory of development

of teleogenic systems. Systems Science and Science.

Proceedings of the 24th Annual North American Meeting o- the

Society for JeneraL Systems Research, 1980, 75-80.

Classical approaches to human development emphasize hereditary

and environmental factors as the determinants of development. Teleogenic systems theory - the theory of systems able to generate their

own goals - demonstrates the existence of a third component. This

component is neither genetically fixed nor controllable by environmental inputs; it emerges as part of a unique process that is invisible

from the perspectives of reductionist science. It is not, however,

autonomous; its developmental space, though enormous, is genetically

prescribed; and its particular qualities depend in part on historical

environmental input sequences.

This paper argues that all three components - hereditary,

environmental, and teleogenic - comprise a system, which must be

viewed both analytically and holistically to be understood adequately.

An important feature of this system is the occurrence of interactions

which are synergic - promoting two or more functions while impeding

none. Equally important are interactions that promote one function, 4. but impede another. These interactions play a crucial role in the

development of teleogenic systems.

DeGreene, K. B. SociotechnicaZ systems: Factors in analysis, i

and '-unagement. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1973.

The many ailments of all today's societies are symptoms of a

common underlying problem: the failure to comprehend things as a

whole. Accordingly, economic, social, personal, and environmental

costs are increasingly prohibitive and program successes increasingly

.77- few. This book, a response to these apparently overwhelming problems,

is an introduction to the entire field of sociotechnical systems, and

a first book to cover an emerging field definitively. It is interdisciplinary; behavioral science provides an integrating theme. It can

also be thought of as a book in "systems science: biological, behavioral, and social" as opposed to "systems science: physical."

-30-
The term "sociotechnical system" had a very specific meaning

as originally defined by Emery and Trist of the Tavistock Institute

in London. In this book, the original concept is extended gree:ly to

3 include not only intraorganizational and organizational probleme, but

also large-scale societal problems and political behavior in technological societies. Numerous examples and cases show how managers must

face problems, find relationships between technology and people as well

as between their organizations and the outside world, and how this

information can influence their decisions. The cases for the most part

indicate how systems theory and methods, and a bridge between theory

and method, can be utilized to ameliorate social, economic, environmental, and political problems engendered by technology.

The major emphases of the book are (1) a review, comparison,

* evaluation, and integration of relevant theories, and an advancement

of new theoretical concepts; (2) provision of a behavioral and social

"cement" for a wide variety of political, economic, environmental, and

technological material; (3) a definition of problems, methods, and

data sources and their usefulness, as well as an evaluation of further

data needs; (4) an evaluation of technological developments and projections and forecasts thereof, as well as the impacts of such

developments; (5) an interrelating of inra-and extrasystem or

organization features associated with people, technology, and environments, whether they be social, physical, or natural ("ecological");

(6) a utilization of complex systems models, including models of

society, and determination of at least correlative and at best cause-

*B effect relationships between independent and dependent variables; and

(7) determination of principles, particularly predictive principles,

for the management of complex organizations, including the management

of society.

DeGreene, K. M. Models of man in systems in retrospect and prospect.

'gonomics, 1974, 17, 437-446.

This article presents a number of historical and current

theoretical and working, or operational, models. It is maintained by the

author that none of these models, by virtue of limitations to only a

part of human behavior, is completely valid for systems planning and

design. Integrated models of man within systems and within environments are required. The need is stressed to develop general systems

models capable of describing and predicting individual and collective

human behavior of varied populations in a wide variety of systems and

environments. Man-machine, sociotechnical, and social systems

involving military, industrial, and civil applications must be

considered.

The author contends that our models should be reconcilable

with models involving man in organizations and with ecological and

C economic models. Models must reflect the changing tenor of the times

-31-

. ...
with regard to evolving social thought and practice. Criteria therefore must include quality of life and limits to growth as well as

economic costs and performance effectiveness. Increasingly, there

must be considered in systems development the impact of the system

on the environment, not just the environmental constraints on the

system. Ideas of stressful environments thus must be amended to

include stressful systems. Concepts of open systems theory are of

particular value.

Our new models further must be consistent with the dynamic

properties and forces within complex systems. Increasingly, motivations, attitudes, values, complex learning and problem- solving, and

other aspects of higher-order hierarchical organization must be

reflected in systems development. These issues, with an emphasis on

working models, are discussed in relationship to problems of education, research, systems effectiveness, and system-environment interactions.

DeGreene, K. B. Limits to societal systems adaptability. Systems

Science and Science. Proceedings of -he 24th Annu-al 4'Vorth

American Meetina orl' the Society 'or general Systems Research,

1980, 234-241.

In this paper, two recent theoretic approaches in physical

science are reviewed briefly with an eye toward obtaining constructs

applicable to the evolution and adaptability of societal systems.

These approaches are the modern field theory of critical phenomena

in physics and the theory of fluctuations and self-organization of

physical chemical systems far from equilibrium. A number of major

constructs are identified and applied to the description of biological,

behavioral, and social phenomena and processes.

Some characteristics of the world-system field in the next

two decades are envisioned and several situations that can limit

societal systems adaptability discussed. The distinction between

natural societal evolution and human desires and ability for regulation

and control is stressed. The author's main thrust is that complex

living systems are characterized by a number of interrelated dynamic

processes which, until recently, have scarcely been recognized. In

toto, these processes underlie the evolution of living systems. How-

* ever, evolution, especially of ecosystems and societies, may be more

a reconfiguration of the total field than a matter of neat change in

variables. And, the natural course of evolution of the world-system

is unlikely to be what most participants want.

-32-

.1%
Dolgoff, T. Models of organizational growth and development. Systems

Thinking and the Quality of Life. Proceedings of the 2975

* AnnuaZ :7orth ,-! eeting -. the Society f:sr 3enera

Systems Research, 1975, 310-316.

Most research and speculation about small group behavior are

based on linear-progressive models which assume that group prototypically develop in a time-bound sequence: testing and dependence

• (forming), intra-group conflict (storming), d.velopment of group

cohesion (norming), and functional role relatedness (performing).

Some writers reject this model by assuming a recurring or cyclical

tension between the group members' ambivalent desires for fusion in

the group and the assertion of personal autonomy and individuality.

Pendular or recurring cycle models avoid serveral pitfalls when

* findings of small group behavior are extrapolated to complex organizations. This paper focuses on the extent to which these models are

congruent with general systems concepts of (1) boundary creation,

(2) maintenance, (3, transformation, and (4) dissolution at intrapsychic, interpersonal, and organizational levels.

CP

Duncan, D. M. Training business managers in general systems concepts,

in Rubin, M.D., (Ed.). Man in Systems, New York: Gordon and

Breach, 1971, 271-322.

W This paper describes a program undertaken at the General

Motors Institute (GMI) to inculcate practicing managers with a general

systems view of the organization. At the outset, the author suggests

that managers and scholars of the business organization hold mental

models, or images, of the organization. Five such mental models are

identified: the firm as (1) an instrument of personal power, (2) an

*• economic amplifier, (3) a mechanistic object, (4) a social-psychological phenomenon, or (5) a vehicle of social responsibility. Individually and collectively, these traditional models are inadequate. It

therefore is the author's contention that a model of the organization

as a living system is more appropriate.

C The author describes a management development program undertaken at GMI, the objectives of which were (1) to help managers view

the organization as an integrated system, (2) to provide managers with

skill in analyzing and designing organizations from the systems framework, and (3) to apply the systems viewpoint and solve organizational

problems. Participants were taught that the systemic mental model

L can be obtained by detailed understanding of their organization's

environment, mission, subsystems, geographical units, relationships,

and system-wide processes. In the author's mind, this served to

engender new insights: Using the systemic framework, the business

organization may be viewed as a discernible level consisting of an

-33-
integrated organized complexity. Holistic characteristics may be

Ibserved apart from the characteristics of subsystems which are

staticallv and dvnamicailv related. Adjustment processes requiring

flows and decisions operating under multiple causation obtain and

maintain steady state. Termination is likely under such circumstances. Finally, the author posits hypothetical answers to several

questions about future effects of this systemic perspective.

Duncan, D. M. James G. Miller's living systems theory: Issues

for management thought and practice. Academy of Management

journaZ, 1972, 15, 4, 513-523.

This article is essentially an abbreviated recapitulation

of James G. Miller's early works on living systems theory, particularly

his January 1972 Behavioral Science article, "Living Systems: The

Organization".

Using the fundamentals of (1) space and time, (2) matter and

energy, and (3) information as building blocks, Miller identifies

three kinds of systems: conceptual (thought), concrete (measurable

in space/time), and abstract. To be considered a living system,

a concrete system must meet the following criteria: (1) be open

and exchange commodities with its environments; (2) be able to

repair internal breakdown and thereby maintain certain levels of

energy and order; (3) be complex beyond a certain minimum degree;

(4) evidence some program, template, or originating blueprint;

(5) be composed largely of protoplasm; (6) contain a decider

subsystem; (7) carry out 19 critical subsystem processes to survive;

and (8) be integrated totalities with the characteristic of selfregulation, the capability of development and reproduction, and

the trait of having purposes and goals.

Miller identifies seven distinct levels of living systems:

(1) the cell, (2) the organ, (3) the organism, (4) the group, (5)

the organization, (6) the society, and (7) the supranational

system. Each of these levels has similar salient characteristics

and can be described in terms of five major elements: structure,

process, subsystems, relationships, and systems processes.

Duncan points out that living systems theory will be

extremely attractive to organization and management theory and

practice. He suggests that its viability will occur empirically,

by comparison with other theory -- the classical school, the human

relations school, the decision theory school, behavioral science,

and value theory -- and by application to practical affairs.

a. -34-
Duncan, D. M. Systems perspectives for practicing managers.

Orcanization & Administrative Sciences, 1975, 6, 89-99.

In this article, the author suggests that practitioners

are leading the field of management thought, that the conceptual

tools available to these practitioners are inadequate, and that

*general systems theory should be made available to them as soon as

possible.

The author describes the practicing manager (1) as an

information processor who (2) is aware of some general principles

which apply to most organizations and (3) sees the organization as

* an integrated, interrelated whole in which a perturbation at one

point can spread and show consequences at numerous distant points.

This practicing manager wants a theoretical perspective that is

concrete, generic, comprehensive, holistic, and capable of

describing managerial behavior. Duncan therefore suggests Miller's

living systems model as an effective operating paradigm.

Adoption of the living systems perspective would serve

a number of purposes. It would attune managers to the idea of

differentiating between systems by levels. It would sensitize

managers to the importance of spatial relationships. It would

* afford a better understanding of the organization-environment

* interface. It would legitimate and formalize the organizational

design function. It would provide management a better understanding

of the dynamics of growth. It would facilitate an understanding of

change at different levels. It would provide new insights for

designing organizational command networks. It would force managers

to pay greater attention to information processing. It would

* improve organizational level decision-making. Finally, it would

underscore the manager's role as one of entropy control.

* Duncan, D. M. The definition of management: A convergence of

theoretical and operational perspectives. The General

Systems Paradigm: Science of Change and Change of Science.

?:r^1ceeJdi as 0." the A4nul' .7r,;h Amnerican~Me z - h

.:)r .erer- Sis-;e~s ?ese=,ok, 1977, 82-95.

This paper starts fromi the premise that managers are continI ually looking for new insights that will enable them to untangle the

threads of organizational life. They don't feel that the tools they

have or the tools they are being provided come to grips with the

issues they wrestle with in the midst of increasingly complex environments. The author therefore proposes a marriage of Mfiller's Living

Systems Theory and Beer's neurophysiological model of management

(Brain of the Firm, 1972.). He feels that the identification of

U4 -35-
Miller's subsystems processes within the components of the Beer model

can be-achieved with both conceptual systems remaining intact.

The author sets forth eight reasons that this theoretical

integration is likely to coincide with managers' mental images of

the real world. Among the most significant reasons given are the

following: (1) Miller's concept of the organization includes both

the matter-energy and information processing aspects of the organization. Managers reject dictums which ignore the presence and

consequence of complex technologies, budgets, delivery pressures,

resource shortages, and the nuts-and-bolts of daily organizational

life. (2) Beer's scheme clarifies the notion that a manager will

operate from a number of different perspectives: superior, subordinate, peer.

Durkin, J. E. The structure of autonomy: Boundarying in living

groups. Systems Science and Science. Proceedings of

the 24th :%nnua North AIrerican eeting o"' the Socierz

-or :enero- Sistems Research, 1980, 634-645.

In this paper, von Bertalanffy's concept of boundarving

(opening/closing) model of biological life is generalized in general

systems theory (GST) to the autonomous living structure, embodied

from cell to society. Like several other scientific doctrines,

GST is undergoing a paradigm shift because of new outlooks and

discoveries and the inability of the paradigm of objectivity to deal

with living structure. The foundational ideas of autonomy are called

forth as a new conecptual framework for understanding living structure:

(1) complementarity of action and language structure, (2) free selfhierarchicalization both up and down, (3) linear and metabolic selfreferential control, and (4) boundarying with opening/closing as the

basic operation of autonomy. Applying this model to therapy groups,

says the author, leaders should (1) use a physical boundary, (2)

shift back and forth from content to structure levels, (3) use

their own living structure as a tool, and (4) engage in summing and

systeming by being closed to closedness and open to openness.

Emery, F. E. & Trist, E. L. The causal texture of organizational

environments. Haran ReLaliors, 1965, 18, 21-32.

A main problem in the study of organizational change is

that the environmental contexts in which organizations exist are

themselves changing -- at an increasing rate, under the impact of

technological change. This means that they demand consideration for

"-, their own sake. Towards this end a redefinition is offered, at a

social level of analysis, of the causal texture of the environment.

-36-

."7-
The authors classify four "ideal types" of environment

according to the degree of "system connectedness" that exists

among components of the environment. Components are incorporated in

relation to the systems' actual and potential transactional interdependencies (both input and output). The four ideal types are (1)

the placid, randomized environment; (2) the placid, clustered

environment; (3) the disturbed-reactive environment; and (4) the

turbulent field (environment). This fourth type is new and important

in understnading the setting of modern and future organizations.

The turbulent environment consists of "dynamic properties arising

not simply from the interaction of identifiable component systems,

but from the field itself (the ground). The turbulence results from

the complexity and multiple character of the causal interconnections.

Individual organizations, however large, cannot adapt successfully

simply through their interactions."

The authors contend that organizational adaptation to the

turbulent environment promises to be the most significant factor in

the effectiveness of tomorrow's organizations. In simple environments,

predetermined solutions and strategies guide human actions and involve

little risk, but in the complex, turbulent environment the adoption

of a determined action includes a high degree of risk because

future events always present new, often unforeseen, possibilities for

solving problems. Thus, continuous monitoring of the turbulent

environment normally will have the effect of continually modifying

organizational goals and policies by implying the need for new

methods or by requiring new ways of doing things to meet various

challenges. This reveals both the promise and the risk of the adaptive

organization.

Emery, F. E. Systems thinking. Middlesex, England: Penguin, 1969.

This book is a collection of readings designed to depict the

emergence and clarification of the view that living systems are essentially "open systems" and not "closed systems". It focuses primarily

on the question, "What systems thinking is relevant to the thinking

required for organizational management?" The editor at the outset

cites six principles that provide the philosophical orientation of the

book: (1) The primary task of management is to manage the boundary

conditions of the enterprise. (2) The goals or purposes of an enterprise can be understood only as special forms of interdependence

between the enterprise and its environment. (3) An enterprise can

achieve a "steady state" only when there is constancy of direction

toward the same end(s) and a rate of progress that falls within

tolerance limits. (4) The task of management is governed by the need

to match constantly the actual and potential capacities of the enterprise to the actual and potential requirements of the environment.

(5) In a human organization, the two requirements for a steady state,

-37-
unidirectionality and progress, can be achieved only by leadership

and commitment. (6) An enterprise can only achieve the conditions

for a steady state if it allows to its human members a measure of

autonomy and selective interdependence.

N Part I, "Precedents to Systems Theory", contains early

papers that explicitly or implicitly argue for a new logic in the

study of complex systems that display purposive or adaptive behavior.

The selections only partly argue their case by pointing to principles

of system action that can be inferred from their definition of a

system.

Part II, "Properties of Open Systems", contains representative attempts to describe the characteristics of open and living

systems. One key point made is that, given the importance of system

properties, it does not follow that maximum scientific payoff comes

from seeking to identify the most general of these. To pursue this

goal is to risk masking the environmental characteristics and the

nature of the component parts that enter into the adaptive success or

failure of concrete systems or classes of concrete systems.

Part III, "The Environment of a System", recognizes the

importance of attempting to characterize the environments within

which systems must adapt to survive or duplicate themselves. It is

pointed out that boundary conditions or exchange processes are as

much subject to the heteronomous processes in the environment as they

are to processes within the system. Thus, open systems analysis

cannot hope to stop with a specification of an exchange equation; it

can hope to approach adequacy only where there is some characterization of the environment. Past reluctance to tackle environmental

analysis appears to reflect environmental complexity and the incommensurability of systemic and environmental processes.

Part IV, 'Hwnan Organizations as Systems", points out that

analyses of human organizations. typically confine themselves to such

abstract dimensions as economic allocation, information flows, and

allocation of power and responsibility. It is usual to find (a) a

closed-systems approach and (b) an either-or perspective to the

analysis of social and technical systems.

Part V, "Systems Management", highlights the point that the

principle guiding the management of separate but correlated systems

seems to be "joint optimization". It is suggested, however, that the

principle of "the leading part", i.e., optimizing conditions for the

part of the system which is for the time the leading part - even at

the expense of the other parts -might be the best way for attaining

the ends of the system.

* -38-
Eoyang, C. K. Requisite variety in organizations. Avoiding Social

Catastrophes and Maximizing Social Opportunities: The

* General Systems Challenge. Proceedings of -the 22nd AnnuaL

Worth American Meeting of the Society foor General Systems

Research, 1978, 369-378.

This paper attempts to apply Ashby's Law of Requisite Variety

to the field of organizations. It examines the formulation of the law

4P and suggests several extensions and elaborations of the cybernetic

paradigm. Parallels between this view and current theories of

organizations indicate significant isomorphisms. Organizational

variety is suggested to be a meaningful concept in interpreting the

diverse literature on interactions between organizations and their

environments.

Ashby defines variety as the number of distinguishable elements in a given set. Systems variety is defined as the number of

distinct actions in the set of alternatives available to the system;

similarly, environmental variety may be thought of as the number of

alternatives, or action states, that the environment can assume with

respect to the system. Systems can achieve greater utility from

interactions with their environments if they increase the variety in

their own behavior, decrease the variety exhibited by the environment,

or modify the consequences or utilities of the interactions.

The author feels that one of the basic reasons for the failure

* of organization research to utilize fully the theoretical contributions

of cybernetics, game theory, information theory, etc., has been the

difficulty of translating theoretical constructs into testable organizational variables that have available measures.

Eoyang, C. K. & Haga, W. J. Old wine in new bottles. 3e; -v1*jrCii

Science, 1977, 22, 53-55.

This is a critique of Toronto's 1975 Behavioral Science

article, "A general systems model for the analysis of organizational

change." Toronto sought to apply general systems theory to the study

of organizations; a recurring theme was that organizational change is

so complex that only a general systems perspective can unravel it.

Eoyang and Haga contend that Toronto's application demonstrated

neither the utility of general systems theory nor the complexity of

organizational change. His approach is characterized by (a) descriptions of peculiar data, (b) methodological errors, and (c) questionable

generalizations. Among Toronto's substantive conclusions that are

questioned are the following: (1) "Permanent change in system

activity data requires a change in and the subsequent equilibration

of both the system and its suprasystem." (2) "The major authority

figure in a system is the critical locus of any organizational change

program." (3) "Crucial aspects of social systems cannot be discovered

by taking them apart. Organizational change, therefore, cannot be

studied in isolation by extracting a small portion from the whole but

it must be studied in toto."

* -39-

-. ., . . . . .
Feit, E. Insurgency in organizations: A theoretical analysis.

•general Systems, 1969, XIV, 157-168.

This article attempts, using mathematical reasoning, to

design a general model of insurgent behavior in social organizations.

Social organization can be considered as a dynamic, autonomous system

made up of organizations of various kinds and sizes. In view of its

complexity, neither it nor any other organization can be described

fully. Internal communications in such a system are fully predictable

as long as all organizations act in accordance with a schedule based

on values given priority within the system as a whole and mediated by

a government. The schedule sets the constraints within which each

organization is free to set its own goals. When the system is

functioning properly, there is minimal internal interchange of

information between the organizations, information being defined as

statistically unexpected communications.

For human organizations, order and predictability contribute

to security; therefore, all organizations aim at a state of zero

entropy, where no information is exchanged. In such a system, all

actions and changes are completely predictable. This "ideal" state

is never achieved.

The object of the insurgents is to intorduce information; and,

as the level of information is a measure of disorder, the insurgent's

goal is to increase the flow of information to the point where the

government can no longer maintain order. This is evidenced when the

government is forced continually to transgress its own schedule. The

government is compelled to act to maintain order for the rest of the

system while maximizing disorder for the insurgents, and this causes

intense strain in the organization of the government, which can be

called a dissonance in entropy. The winner in the conflict is likely

to be that organization that can best harness the entropic dissonances

of its opponent while retaining cohesion in its own organization.

Fried, J. A transdisciplinary model of technological and social

organization. General Systems Theorizing: An Assessment

and Prospects for the Future. Proceedings of the 2976

nnua N7orth American Meeting of the Society for general

Systems Research, 1976, 85-91.

This article presents a model which describes how changes

in technological, social, and cultural conditions produce impacts

on social institutions. The model is based on the central premise

that while specific institutions of a technological order or a

socio-cultural order (kinship, legal, political, religious, etc.)

are differentiated into institutions, all institutions per se

operate on the basis of organizing people, materials, and resources

-40-

. r. "- •

"
in some sort of pattern in order to attain a desired end. Therefore,

the central analytic concept is that abstract modalities of organization can be used to model the behaviors of any institution or

social entity. For the policy planner, the model offers the possibility of measuring the differing abilities of competing strategies

of change to achieve necessary levels of institutional and managerial

responses to match the nature of the tasks that technologies create.

Geyers, R. F. Alienation and stress: A review of their modern forms

from the perspective of general systems theory. Systems

Thinking and the Quality of Life. Proceedings of the 1975

AnnuaZ North American Meeting of the Socie7y for Genera0 Systems Research, 1975, 73-82.

This paper discusses similarities and differences between

alienation and stress. Alienation is conceived as a generic term for

information processing disturbances of individuals. Isomorphisms are

identified between five dimensions of alienation and the elements of a

* system-environment interaction model. General systems theory also,

it is noted, can be applied to the causes of alienation. Modern forms

of alienation are seen as consequences of a recently increased complexity differential between the individual and his environment: scanning

and selection problems (input); assimilation of new experiences (state

functions); flexibility, identification, and overchoice problems

0 (decisional functions); and self-actualization problems (output).

The following hypothesis is posited: communication problems over

and above those caused by specific personality structures ("psychiatric"

alienation) and socialization in specific (sub)cultures ("sociological"

alienation) exist between those who live in environments of different

complexity, and/or who differ in their perception of this complexity,

0 and/or who have a differential ability to cope with it.

Glanville, R. The form of cybernetics: whitening the black box.

General Systems Research: A Science, a Methodology, a

6 Technology. Proceedings of the 1979 North American

Meeting of the Society for erera Sysrems Research,

1979, 35-42.

Among cyberneticians, there has developed a deep intellectual

divide, occasioned by what has come to be called the "New Cybernetics,"

(the "Cybernetics of Cybernetics," or "Second Order Cybernetics."

Essentially, this divide derives from examination of observing as

well as observed systems. The purpose of this paper is to discuss

observing and observed systems, in order to shed light on both sides

of the divide, and to explain the psychological relevance and power

of the concepts generated.

-41-
The author's principal argument is that both the observer of

a cybernetic system and the observed system itself comprise a

unitary, mutually interactive whole. The actions of an (experimenting)

observer are actions involving control and co-mmunication between the

observing and observed systems. Not only does the observer describe

the system, including its feedback property, he also describes and

changes the input, and describes the output. Furthermore, his

description of the output causes him to act, possibly changing the

input.

Glimell, H. Designing interactive systems for organizational chance.

Goteborg: Foretagsekonominska Institutionen, 1975.

This report concerns the introduction of an interactive,

computer-based management information system, MARKISETT, designed

to support and improve interactive, unstructured decision-making.

The author develops hypotheses concerning the introduction of new

i. thought patterns and analytic tools into existing organizations.

The hypotheses, a combination of project experience and published

theory, are to form the core of emerging substantive theory for

introductory interventions.

Glimell's key idea is that there exists something called

unstructured decision-making where the decision-maker must use

information with unclear cause-effect relations and where the underlying reality is incompletely and ambiguously mapped. In the

intervention discussed, he hoped to introduce a management information

system which would support interactive decision-making where the

user " . . . inquires the available information system and where

subsequent responses stimulate further steps or redefinitions of the

problem."

The author draws upon various domains of theory and literature

to guide both the intervention and MARKISETT's design. From the

seriality and limited quantity of human information processing

comes a guideline calling for highlights, emphases, and summaries

in information displays. From cognitive and personality styles

there is a requirement for flexible methods of accessing the data

base along with built-in cues for further inquiry. From organizational change theory come guidelines about the user's involvement

• in planning and designing the system's capabilities.

The key theoretical framework is decision theory. Inadequacies in unstructured decision-making are identified: (1)

sequential attention to goals and actions, (2) satisfactory rather

than optimal levels, (3) overuse of standardized operating procedures,

(4) misaggregation of data, (5) undue confidence in early trends,

-42-

JA-,-..V
(6) biased judgements of probability, and (7) defense mechanisms.

ZMARKISETT's solution to these problems is to support the search and

* storage functions of problem solving, act as an extended shortterm memory, and invite the use to use multiple perspectives in

analyzing the problem.

Perhaps the most useful part of the book is the discussion

of the failure of this intervention, due to such things as over-

* high client expectations, improper use of the system, reorganization,

and time and cost overruns.

Gomez, P. Organic problem-solving in management: Systems-methodology

applied to the design of viable systems. The General Systems

0 Paradigm: Science of Change and Change of Science.

Proceedings of -the Annual North American Meeting of the

Society for General Systems Research, 1977, 243-252.

In the most general sense, management can be characterized

as problem-solving in order to control complex, probabilistic, and

self-regulating systems. Organic problem-solving in sociotechnical

systems demands a methodology that accepts their complexity, uncertainty, and self-regulation in the process of modeling as well as in

the development of problem-solutions. This paper presents a systemsmethodology that instructs the manager how to model the problem

* situation from the point of view of his own possibilities of control

and how to act as a catalyst or constraint-engineer when designing

problem solutions. This methodology also allows the integration of

special reference frames to deal with the self-organizing capabilities

of sociotechnical systems in the process of their organization.

Groff, G. K. System theory and organizational decision making.

General Systems Theorizing: An Assessment and Prospects

for the Future. Proceedings of the 9?6 Annual North

American Meeting o~fthe Soit 'Or ':eneral. Systems

Research, 1976, 92-94.

This paper explores the interface between general systems

research and organizational studies. Organizational problem areas

f or which advances in general systems theory are needed and the

existing concepts and methodologies that are of greatest value are

ip discussed. The author contends that existing tools for studying

organizations and management are inadequate. They need to be

embedded in general solution strategies, or planning processes, that

are more effective in opening up solution spaces and in providing

efficient means for examining these spaces. Guidance, for example, is

needed in establishing organizational goals and in devising innovative

organizational strategies. A larger and more effective theoretical and

methodological base is needed, and the development of this knowledge

must be forthcoming from those such as general systems researchers

who are not wedded to the analytical paradigm and who are concerned

with behavioral, structural, and functional adaptation.

-43-
Haberstroh, C. J. & Gerwin, D. Climate factors and the decision

process. 'generaL Systems, 1972, XVII, 129-141.

This article is an attempt to deal with the theoretical

and empirical aspects of the concept of external organizational

climate -- an explicitly conceptualized dimension of the environment

that materially affects the functioning of a whole organization.

Categories include resource availability, technology, social values,

community expectations, and total structure. The theoretical

content of the article describes the complex process by which the

:N, authors believe climate factors, and especially their changes,

influence the strategy of an organization. The empirical content

of the article is aimed at providing examples of climate factors,

climate states, and policy reactions, as well as highlighting

areas for potential model refinements. Both of these aspects

concentrate on the decision-making processes by which the organiza-

'p *tion informs itself, develops explicit cognitions of the structure

of the environment and of its own operations, and synthesizes

strategy for future operations.

The authors suggest the following: (1) An explicit problem

list exists within the executive group of any organization. (2)

The sources of these problems lie in results pressure, including

anticipation thereof. (3) Where changes in climate are believed

to be associated with problems, explicit information channels

that carry information on climate will be found to exist. (4) These

may be embodied in search processes that select and filter climate

information and draw implications. (5) Policy responses will be

attributed to specific problems or changes in climate, thus forming

a complete episode, information processing sequence, or functional

action. (6) Conceptualization within the organization of such

episodes should predispose it to "standardized" responses, i.e.,

a specific fix to a specific problem, based on standard, known

technology, and exerting minimal influence on ongoing operations.

Q

Halal, W. E. The corporation evolving. Avoiding Social Catastrophes

and Max~imizing Social Opportunities: The General Systems

N Challenge. Proceedings -f the 22nd Annual .17orth American

Meeting of the Sccietzd -vr 9enerai Sy'stems Research, 1978,

2 16-220.

In this paper, the state of the large business corporation

is analyzed using general systems concepts in order to forecast its

role in the future. Using an open system model which describes the

firm as a social institution, it is seen that the corporation is

beset by a turbulent environment in which its various constituent

groups are becoming active elements in establishing corporate

policy. The thrust of the changes confronting the corporation is

-44-
to move it from its past concern with more rudimentary, physical,

financial matters into a new realm of larger, more subtle and more

complex affairs involving the firm as a holistic economic system.

Thus, the corporation seems likely to evolve into a larger holistic

system that integrates its constituent subsystems into an economic

community of shared interests.

Harries, T. E. Stress-related system/environment interaction and the

law of requisite variety. Avoiding Social Catastrophes and

Maximizing Social Opportunities: The General Systems

Challenge. Proceedings of the 22nd Annral Nor h .4rericz

Meevina o - '

he Socie- ir -renera- Systems Research, 1973,

349-359.

Stress is experienced when inadequate intra-system variety

limits a system's capacity to resolve cultural complexity into manageable arrangements. Both the system and its environment must be

included in stress analysis. This paper suggests such analysis by

means of a living systems paradigm overlaid by three analytical grids:

(1) basic human agendas - genetically determined and culturally reinforced dominance behaviors which insure that security, identity, and

stimulation agendas will be fully satisfied; (2) information significant events - the "meaning" of events and symbols which are constructed

by the observing system from direct experience (i.e., referent events);

and (3) information processing competence - the capacity of an observing

system to resolve relevant environmental complexity into appropriate

constructs, adapted to the perceived complexity, i.e., the capacity to

respect the Law of Requisite Variety.

It is suggested that cultural complexity/stress is created by

extensions of the detecting and effecting capacities of human systems

without a corresponding increase in selecting or judgment capacities.

In-depth public awareness of stress-related variables is a precondition

for emergence of effective stress-reducing policies or programs.

Jantsch, E. Desi, for evolution: Self organization and ^lrnina in

the l f of hman systems. New York: Braziller, 1975.

This book is an exploration into the acquisition and use of

knowledge for human purposes. It elaborates on the theme that rational

knowledge cast into the form of internally consistent, logically

constructed and closed models of science constitutes a useful, but

by no means sufficient, tool for dealing with matters of human design

for a human world. In such matters, the "know-how" of ordering and

implementing well-perceived, goal-oriented action, the very domain

in which the objectivating models of science are helpful, constitutes

the lowest level in a hierarchy of knowledge for human purpose. The

-45-

L
author's principal aim is to forge the beginnings of a new paradigm

expressing the life of human systems and transcending traditional

modes of thought. He seeks (1) to extend the principle of "order

through fluctuation" that governs physical and biological systems to

human and knowledge systems; and (2) to lay a modern foundation for the

profound truth that "the evolution of mankind forms a meaningful

and integral part of a universal evolution -- that mankind is an

agent of this universal evolution..

* Part 1, "The Challenge of a Dynamic World", lays a foundation

for the remainder of the book. In Chapter 1, the author scans possibilities for the setting of policies, or rules for regulation, and

concludes that the emerging task is not to select and fix another

rigid policy but to understand that regulation in times of rapid and

significant change depends on flexibility. Chapter 2 expresses the

thought that not only can there be no one-sided resolution of the

tension between opposites, but that this tension constitutes the very

energizing factor keeping the human system in continuous motion.

Chapter 3 surveys various evolutionary world views and brings forth

the principle of "order through fluctuation". Chapter 4 links the

idea of evolution to recent notions about the self-organization of

human systems.

Part II, "Design: The Human Way of Relating to the World",

concerns basic notions underlying individual, social, and cultural

creativity, the sources from which the life of human systems feeds.

Chapter 5 introduces one of the basic concepts used throughout the book:

the triplicate structure of levels of perception, or inquiry - rational

(separation between subject and object), mythological (feedback relation

between subject and object), and evolutionary (union of subject

and object). Complementary views of reality result which permit the

elevation of the reductionist view (quantity) obtained at the rational

level toward a holistic (quality) and ultimately toward a nondualistic,

four-dimensional space/time view (process). In Chapters 6 and 7,

the author develops a model of the basic human design process, depicted

as the interaction of processes in a toroidal model. This model is

composed of elements arranged in two planes as ternary systems. One

of them links physical, social, and spiritual domains, the other

consciousness, the "appreciated world", and reality in each of the

above domains.

Part III, "Consciousness Evolving", deals with the feedback

processes shaping human consciousness. In Chapter 8, the author

tries to show how the processes playing between consciousness and

reality realize innate normns which become explicit at the three levels

/ of perception/inquiry. Chapter 9 introduces notions beyond the grasp

of conventional science, e.g., intuition, spiritualism, etc. Chapter

10 concerns the balancing of consciousness through apperception between

the processes on both sides -- reality and the appreciated world.

- -46-
Part IV, "The Appreciated World Evolving", deal with some of

the major processes by which we extend our basic experiences into

the future -- by which we plan. Chapter 11 focuses on the crucial

6 feedback process leading to the formation of subjective models, which

then return in the disguise of objective myths. Chapter 12 is a

review of the basic planning processes in light of a moral systems

approach -- in other words, the postulate of an ethics of whole systems.

Chapter 13 is devoted to an investigation of interdisciplinary and

inter- and transexpimental forms of inquiry necessary to elevate

planning to the mythological level.

Part V, "Reality Evolving", elaborates on some of the implications the new paradigms seem to hold for human systems. Chapter 14

views the organization of the human world as passing through successive

* "waves" of dominant forms of organization -- from ecological over social and cultural to psychic organization. Chapter 15 is a discussion

of implications for the phase of organization the Western world is

passing through, in particular the requirement for more flexible

institutional role playing.

rIn the "Epilogue", the author identifies planning and love

as the two essential and complementary aspects of human design. Where

planning, the masculine element, aims at stabilization which in turn

makes it possible to act out power or focused energy, love, the feminine

element, introduces the instabilities which elevate the plane of human

action to over-new dynamic regimes, thereby ensuring the continuously

• renewed conditions for human creativity, for the life of human systems.

Thus the design process itself seems to work by the ubiquitous basic

principle of "order through fluctuation", like all aspects of evolution. Human design for evolution is not only a distinct possibility -

it is also the foremost element of hope in times already marked by

increasing fluctuations and turbulence.

Jantsch, E. & Waddington, C. H., Eds. rvoLutior and consciousness:

Hu-an szstems in transi/>cn. Reading, MA:: Addison-Wesley,

1976.

The evolutionary paradigm is still almost totally neglected

by a social science which finds its purpose in reducing the human

world to the equilibrium perfection, structural unambiguity and

permanence, hierarchical control, and predictability of machine-like

structures. In contrast, the contributions to this book try to

develop a new understanding of an evolving world of human systems

characterized by the same aspects of imperfection, nonequilibrium, and

nonpredictability, of differentiation and symbiotic pluralism,

which seem to govern life in all its manifestations. The authors

argue that the human world, analegous to physical and biological

evolution, incorporates a basic principle of "self-transcendence",

-47-

. . . . .
of venturing out by changing its own phsycial, social, and cultural

structures -- above all, by changing its own consciousness. What is

real in this drama of continuous self-renewal and self-expression are

self-bounding processes rather than the elusive and transitory

structures which arise from their interaction in ever-changing forms

and complexities.

Part I of the book deals with the evolutionary paradigm in an

emergent perspective. Chapter 1 summarizes the recent thrust of evolutionary theory in the subhuman domain. Chapter 2 discusses the basic

characteristics of living systems and the possibility of their representation through science. Chapter 3 is an attempt to link the

concepts developed in the book by discussing evolution as self-realization through self-transcendence.

Part II deals with formal approaches to evolving systems

which are based on process thinking and therefore, in contrast to

structure-oriented mechanical and behavioral approaches, are capable

of representing to some degree that basic characteristic of life which

expresses itself as "continuity in change". Chapter 4 concludes from

empirical studies of natural ecological systems that their dynamics

cannot be explained by an equilibrium-centered view. Nonequilibrium

also emerges as a principle inherent in life in Chapter 5. Discussing

systems of interactive populations -- systems with a history -- in

a sweeping view from physical-chemical systems through animal aggregations and societies to natural ecosystems and further to human sociocultural systems, the concept of "order through fluctuation" emerges

',- as a basic nonequilibrium ordering principle governing dynamic aspects

of evolving systems at many levels. Chapter 6 discusses macrodynamics

S-and morphogenesis in the light of still other recent theoretical and

experimental developments, namely, catastrophe theory and the

observations made with the macroscope. Chapter 7 discusses recently

developed approaches to the simulation of interactive natural processes

characterizing self-renewing systems (such as cells) with a view to

their potential application to human systems management.

Part III deals with selected aspects of sociocultural

evolution in the human domain. Chapter 8 discusses process and

structure in socio-cultural systems with the help of cybernetic models

.-'- of a single system, of two geopolitical systems in interaction, and

of the successive stages of emergent geopolitical systems with an

impending switch from nation-state to planetary scope. Chapter 9

presents the cognitive modality, or method, of scientific inquiry.

Chapter 10 discusses the development of heterogeneity, or pluralism,

in sociocultural systems. Chapter 11 traces the transformation of

human consciousness by discussing five examples: cultural revitilization, sicentific revolutions, heroic mythology, psychotherapy, and

general creativity. Chapter 12 discusses the evolution of images

of man in connection with the processes of integration and differentiation

J in three "waves": grounding, socialization, and individuation.

-48-
Johnson, R. A., Kast, F. E., & Rosenzwveig, J. E. The theory and

management of systems. (3d Ed.) New York: McGraw-Hill,

1973.

The vast growth in size, complexity, and diversity of operations of the modern organization has made the managerial task

exceedingly difficult, but more essential to the success of the

enterprise. It is the contention of this book that today's largescale organization should apply the systems approach to cope with

* the growing complexities and proliferation of operations. It provides a framework within which the manager can integrate his operations more effectively.

Part I develops the theoretical framework for the systems

approach and sets the stage for subsequent discussion. Chapter 1

* sets forth conceptual foundations and shows how general systems

theory is applicable as a framework for scientific investigation and

understanding in a wide variety of fields or disciplines. It then

traces the transition from a general systems theory to systems concepts for management. Attention is focused on the relationship of

the systems approach to organizational subsystems - strategic,

0 coordinative, and operating. The next four chapters discuss the

relationship between systems concepts and the primary managerial

functions - organization, planning, control, and information/communication. Chapter 6 concerns the merging of the theoretical systems

concepts with practical applications.

0 Part II is concerned with the implementation of the systems

approach in the management process. Chapter 7 covers systems design,

one of management's most vital functions. This concerns, among other

things, the strategic considerations of relating the organization to

its environment and developing comprehensive systems and plans.

* Chapter 8 considers the contributions of quantitative techniques to

the implementation of the systems approach. One type of simulation,

network analysis, is the subject of Chapter 9. The impact of the

systems approach on people is covered in Chapter 10. The discussion

includes such points as the human need for systematic relationships,

the need for systems change, and how people resist change.

Part III provides examples of the application of systems

concepts. Chapter 11 is concerned with flow systems for both goods

and services. Chapter 12 discusses automation and describes a recent

development in producing machines - numerical control. Chapter 13

deals with the program management concept, the management of large

*P scale, complex programs, from design to production to delivery to

utilization. Chapter 14 is concerned with planning-programmingbudgeting systems (PPBS). Chapter 1.5 reviews the role of data processing in keeping track of organizational transactions, as well as

in providing information for managerial decision-making.

*Part IV concerns future applications. Although the past

provides a limited basis for evaluating future trends, the authors

attempt to "crystal-ball" the future by pointing up some of the most

important applications, innovations, and problems that may arise from

the utilization of the systems approach.

* -49-
Kaiser, L. R. The ecosystem model: designing organizational environments. Systems Thinking and the Quality of Life. Proceedings

a-' the 1975 Annual NVorth American Meeting of the Society 4

,'or General Ssy tems Research, 1975, 304-309

* The quality of life in America is increasingly dependent

upon the qulity of life in its organizations. The main purpose of

-* an organization is the conversion of social ideas into institutional

realities. This paper outlines a seven-stage ecosystem model for the

intentional design of social environments.

Initially, a philosophy underlying ecosystem design is set

forth. The philosophy is based on nine assumlptions, the dominant

one of which states that "the organizational environment should be

deliberately designed to effectively and efficiently fulfill its

societal role as well as provide a vehicle for the self-actualization

* of its residents." Based on this, the seven-stage design process is

detailed: valuing, goal-setting, programming, fitting, mapping,

observing, recycling.

The organizational environment is viewed as an outer space,

i.e., the stimuli originate outside the person. In the same way,

stimuli that originate inside the person's consciousness constitute

inner space. A person in an organization may be viewed as a living

interface between outer space and inner space. A hierarchy of nine

levels of consciousness existing within the organization is defined:

exploitive, subsistive, contractual, paternalistc, interactive, selfactualizing, exclusive, inclusive, synthetic. In turn, the organization

is conceptualized as moving through six developmental stages:

unconscious, conscious, egocentric, ecological imbalance, inclusiveness,

synthesis. Finally, organizational form building is viewed as a

seven-step process: creation, implementation, leadership, administration, evaluation, extrapolation, engineering.

Kast, F. E. & Rosenzweig, J. E. General systems theory: applications

for organization and management. zdm

* -our-'ai, 1972, 15, 447-463.

The authors introduce the reader to g~eneral systems theory by

reviewing briefly its historical evolution and summarizing its most

prominent concepts. While systems theory has been embraced for its

* potential in studying organizations, its application and exploitation

has been much less than perfect. One of the reasons for this is

the perhaps inappropriate analogy that has been drawn between the

organization and the organism. Similarly, the distinction between

organization and "an organization" too rarely has been recognized.

Another dilemma has been the tendency to dichotomize all systems as

open or closed, without recognizing that most social organizations
are a matter of degree. Other difficulties have been continued

subsystems thinking, the fact that we know more about certain relationships than we can fit into a systems framework, the failure to delineate

specific systems for consideration, and the applicability of systems

theory to "contrived systems". Finally, the distinction between

system effectiveness and organizational effectiveness has not always

been made.

The authors maintain that systems theory provides a new

paradigm for the study of social organizations and their management,

but that we are not sufficiently sophisticated to use it. Sophistication will come when we have a more complete understanding of organizations as total systems, so that we can prescribe more appropriate

organizational designs and managerial systems.

Kast, F. E. & Rosenzweig, J. E. The modern view: Systems and

contingency concepts, in Orcanization and "anaaement:

A systems and contingency aproach. New York: McGrawHill, 1979, 97-119.

This chapter of the Kast and Rosenzweig book reviews the

elements of the systems approach, its utility to organization theory

and management practice, and its integration with the contingency

approach. System is defined and the key concepts of systems

theory reviewed: subsystems or components; holism, synergism,

organicism, Gestalt; open systems view; input-transformationoutput model; boundaries; negative entropy; steady state, dynamic

equilibrium, homeostasis; feedback; hierarchy; internal elaboration;

multiple goal seeking; and equifinality.

The historical development of systems theoretic insights in

organization theory is reviewed. Additionally, an elaboration of

the organization as an open system is offered. This provides the

basis for an integrated view of the organization as a sociotechnical

system composed of five subsystems: the goals and values subsystem,

the technical subsystem, the psychosocial subsystem, the structural

subsystem, and the managerial subsystem. This suggests a substantially

different role for management than the one it played in traditional

theory. In traditional theory, the emphasis was on economictechnical rationality. In the systems view, however, management

assumes the vital role of perceiving and determing environmental

relationships and designing internal subsystems to meet the objectives

of effectiveness, efficiency, and participant satisfaction.

Finally, an attempt is made to marry the systems and

contingency approaches. Systems concepts are directed toward

-51-

v_
providing a broad model for understanding all organizations.

Contingency views recognize that the environment and internal

subsystems of each organization are somewhat unique and provide a

basis for designing and managing specific organizations. Contingency

views represent a middle ground between (1) the view that there are

universal principles of organization and management and (2) the

view that each organization is unique and that each situation must

be analyzed separately.

Katsenelinboigen, A. Vertical and horizontal mechanisms in complex

systems. Avoiding Social Catastrophes and Maximizing Social

Opportunities: The General Systems Challenge. Proceedings

o. the 22nd Annual North American Meeting -,he cietz or

enera. Sysems Research, 1978, 276-280.

The formation and integration of the variety of units seems

to be the leading function of a system. The variety of units is

determined first of all by the search for more effective ways of

performing a variety of operations. This paper suggests that any

complex system requires a synthesis of vertical (control relationship)

and horizontal (independent relationship) types of mechanisms in view

of the inexpediency or impossibility of preserving just one class of

mechanisms. An unsophisticated approach to the functioning of a

complex system will be to attempt to unify the various mechanisms.

This is particularly characteristic of certain authoritarian social

systems.

x The author presents different structures - Acracy, Totacracy,

Plurocracy, and Deocracy - that result from combinations of functions

.which form and integrate the variety of units with given classes of

mechanisms. It is pointed out that vertical and horizontal mechanisms

may have invariant structures, i.e., integration of a system with the p. help of coordinators. The paper reveals some conditions under which

it would be inexpedient or impossible to utilize only vertical

mechanisms.

Kefalas, A. G. & Smith, A. W. The future of the corporation: An

Awl overview. Avoiding Social Catastrophes and Maximizing

Social Opportunities: The General Systems Challenge.

?roceedings of -he 22nd Annua Vor-,h . .... 1ei

the Societ for general Sysv;ems Research, 1978, 208-215.

In the past two decades, there has been a marked growth in p research on the future. Little of that research, however, has dealt

witb the future of the corporation. This article, by comparing

popular characterizations of the future with current thinking about

private enterprise, asks where tomorrow's corporation should head.

-52-

'" " [' %* '*

" ?"%' " .' " ' " "' " "'"" "' " "." '-" '"'" %'' " ". ',%% % % "- " " " • • •' " 
Popular characterizations of the future have tended to

coalesce around the following principles: (1) conservation, (2)

* safety, (3) leisure, (4) freedom, (5) participative decision-making,

(6) quality environment, (7) guaranteed employment, (8) laborintensive technology, (9) adequate housing, and (10) participation in

ownership of the wealth-creation mechanisms. In one sentence:

Maximization of the Quality of Life.

* In contrast, current thinking about private enterprise

embodies the following principles: (1) maximum production and

distribution of goods and services; (2) maximum utilization of

renewable and non-renewable resources; (3) minimum expenditure of

money and managerial talent for "nonproductive" activities (e.g.,

environmental quality and social responsibility); (4) maximum

* concentration (vertical and horizontal); (5) location of plant facilities within or near urban centers; (6) capital-intensive technology;

(7) planned obsolescence of products; (8) ownership by the few;

(9) maximization of profits; and (10) continuous growth. In one

sentence: Maximization of Stockholder Wealth.

Kim, J. Y. Communication models, the image of cybernetic man, and

human behavior. Systems Thinking and the Quality of Life.

Proceedings of the 7975 Annual North American Meeting D' thSociety for Senerai Systems Research, 1975, 532-538.

S

The concept of feedback, originating in the hard sciences,

has been utilized widely in theorizing about human communication. The

feedback model of communication, however, creates the image of cybernetic man: man as a feedback automata. At first, a feedback system

may appear to be an open system because it seems to engage in mutual

* exchange of information or energy with environment. But, a careful

second look at the principle of feedback would reveal that it is not:

a feedback system actually reacts to its own output. It has a specific

goal; the control center actuates its effector, whose action is then

monitored back to the control center through the receptor; then the

control center again acts upon the results of the output (own behavior),

• and so on. Such is a very closed system phenomenon.

What is needed, says the author, is a new conceptual tool

with the properties which would account for the other category of

teleology, to account for the goal-seeking, purposeful yet non-teleological behaviors. The author proposes teleogeny for this purpose.

The difference between teleology with its feedback principles and

teleogeny is conceptually subtle yet crucial. In teleological feedback,

the goal is externally and passively given; teleogeny has its feedback

system internally and actively generate its own goal. Thus, the concept

of teleogenic feedback is able to account for the unique ability of

open, living systems to increase their negentropy level with the power

of internal organization in their interaction with an ever-entropic

environment.

-53-
Klir, G. J. An approach to general systems theory. genera: Systemns,

1968, XIII, 13-20.

Many attempts have been made to establish a clear and precise

meaning of the concept of the system. The author attempts to elaborate

a general systems theory whose generality and content would be in

an adequate equilibrium with regard to its applications. In order to

retain an essential content of special systems in general systems,

the concepts of general systems theory are established and elaborated

by an inductive procedure.

The theory proposed is characterized by the following

properties: (1) The theory is based on precisely defined concepts.

Vague concepts (the object, the device, the whole, etc.) are rejected.

(2) The theory is based on a consistent set of definitions of general

systems, each of which is applicable for a particular problem. (3)

The theory is applicable to every scientific or engineering discipline

where the concept of system is used. (4) The theory is applicable

to all systems with the exception of systems with infinite number of

quantities or infinite number of elements. It thus is valid for all

bounded systems. (5) The theory is applicable for both the description of system properties and the solution of systems problems, i.e.,

both the descriptional and operational points of view are included.

(6) The universality of the theory does not oppose the multiplicity

of general systems. (7) The theory is based on fundamental traits

obtained by successive generalization up to a reasonable level in

order to reach a proper compromise between its generality and its

content (effectiveness in application). (8) No a priori classification

of external quantities to input and output quantities is generally

required. (9) The theory does not exclude teleological formulations

of behaviors.

Klir, J. The general system as a methodological tool. generaL

Systems, 1965, X, 29-42.

In this article, the author asserts early that "the system

concept is utilized by different scientific disciplines in different

ways, and used for the solution of different problems." He suggests

that the notion of the general system is useful in cutting across the

various disciplines because, generally, "in our experimental investigation of objects, we concentrate on the observation of a distinct set

of quantities at a given resolution level, on the relations between

these quantities, and the search for the properties . . . which determine the relations mentioned." The implied goal of research, therefore, is to search for relations and properties in a systemic framework.

-34-
The author states that the behavior of a system can be specified if one knows the elements of the universe of the system, certain

laws of superposition in which the system operates, and the environment

of the system. He then outlines rules for defining a general system,

using concepts previously defined; specifically, a general system

(1) should be based on characteristic traits assumed to be completely

known; (2) should be based on constant traits; and (3) should be based

on those traits by which it is possible to determine (logically) all

* the other constant traits. Thus, a general system can be uniquely

determined by the set of external quantities, resolution level,

permanent behavior, and real structure.

Once the system has been specified, the payoff comes from

being able to surmise causal relations, themselves a function of tiire-

* invariant relations. Klir tends to couch reality in terms of "wellordered pairs of cause (leading to) result." Quantities independent

of the system, or in a research context variables manipulated by Tihe

researcher, are called independent quantities (variables), while those

produced by the system - a result of the independent quantities - are

the dependent quantities (variables). An automaton is a special case

* of a causal system in which the independent quantities are inputs and

the dependent quantities are outputs (an input-output machine). This

understanding can be used to help solve the three fundamental systems

problems: analysis, which matches behavior to corresponding structure;

synthesis, which matches structure to corresponding behavior; and the

"black box" problem, in which both structure and behavior are unknown

4D but can be experimentally manipulated.

Kramer, N. & Smit, J. Systems thinking: Concerts and notions.

Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff, 1977.

ID

There is no generally accepted, clearly delineated body of

knowledge concerning systems thinking. The multiplicity of thinking

is well illustrated by the various names such as (general) systems

theory, systems thinking, systems approach, systems analysis, systems

synthesis, systems engineering, etc. These terms refer to various

60 fields of knowledge that either overlap or are completely different.

For this reason, the authors consider it useful to try to develop a

common language, a common set of concepts. This book is an attempt

to develop such a common language.

Chapter 1 is an introductory chapter that describes the

general concept of a system, provides historical background concerning the evolution of systems appreciation, clarifies the objective of systems thinking, and identifies the parallels between

systems thinking and theories of organization and management.

6.3
Chapter 2 presents concepts designed to enable description

of the inner structure and behavior of systems. "System" is distinguished from "aggregate", and definitional clarification is offered

concerning entities, relations, structures, states, and sub- versus

aspect systems.

Chapter 3 concerns the system's environment and involves

discussion of the key elements which define that subject: system

boundaries, open and closed systems, and the environment itself

("that set of entities outside the system, the state of which set is

affected by the system or which affects the state of the system

itself.").

Chapter 4 focuses on the behavior and characteristics of the

system. Discussion centers on the concepts of system process,

* system states (transient, steady state, and equilibrium), equif inality, and stability.

Chapter 5 concerns information and entropy. Information is

% described in terms of (1) its role in communication; (2) syntax,

semantics, and pragmatics; (3) signal and message; (4) redundant,

relevant, and irrelevant information; and (5) mathematical information

theory. Entropy is clarified via discussion of both its thermodynamic

and statistical forms. Finally, the relation between information and

entropy is discussed.

Chapter 6 describes the modeling process and the importance

of models to systems thinking. "Model" is defined and the concepts

of isomorphism and homomorphism clarified. The model construction

process is summarized, and the typological classification of models

is specified: (1) based on the nature of systems, (2) according to

function, and (3) according to method or working principle. Other

discussion concerns the quantitative description of systems, the

concept of the "black box" (ideal model), and the importance of understanding system response (the system 's reaction to a specific input

or change in input, measured by the output).

Finally, Chapter 7 is devoted to a particular group of

systems: cybernetic systems. The concept of control is elaborated

fully to include a description of various control systems (e.g.,

cause-control and error-control) and examples of such systems (e.g.,

technical systems and man-machine systems).

-56-
Krippendorff, K. Communication and the genesis of structure.

General Systems, 1971, XVI, 171-185.

This article is an attempt to state and give evidence for a

fairly definite, basic, and general law involving communication

processes in animals, machines, men, or society. In the context of

society, the law could read: any communication process, once initiated and maintained, leads to the genesis of social structure -

* whether or not such structure is anticipated or deemed desirable.

Structure in this context is defined as a non-decomposable relation

at any one moment in time or with possible time differences between

the relata ignored. Communication, in turn, is regarded as a process

of transmission of information between two or more parts of a system

that are identifiable in time and space regardless of the materiality

* of the parts.

* A summarization of the law suggests that: Whenever the

behavior of the individual components of a system exhibit some

regularity, e.g., can be characterized by conditional preferences, by

statistical biases in response to stimuli, by rational choices, etc.;

*• whenever communication is circular though not necessarily closed

against communication from the outside, irrespective of the number of

components or the temporal length of the circle; whenever communication is somewhat permanent and maintained without significant alteration of the communicators involved . . ., then the very process of

communication causes a structure among the communicating parts of a

system to emerge, whereby the certainty of structural genesis

increases with the complexity of the situation, both in terms of the

number of communicators involved and the number of states or messages

distinguishable by each; whereby the speed of structural genesis

decreases with the level of awareness and the number of messages

*controlled by each communicator, irrespective of whether the result

is anticipated or desirable.

Kristiansen, E. G. General systems methodology - Applied to corporate

development. Systems Science and Science. Proceedias o."

tw 7 e f4t h jnnua 4~i~ !ei~Y~e tr S:X111*7 A

?rera. Sysvms Resea-r, 1980, 557-568.

This paper presents an integration of concepts from general

systems theory, informatics, and cybernetics in a pragmatic methodology

for the control of systems and future systems. First, the system

components that must be specified in a system analysis are identified:

hierarchical structure, cybernetic structure, relational structure,

and temporal structure. Next, the general systems development philosophy is described: to be able to overview and control the functions

and dynamics of the system in order to be able to achieve the desired

state at a given period of time.

-57-

,.,. . - . - . . . ., . ., .. Z , .% '- , .. . . " . - .. ' .. . . . . .- . N...A 
The paper describes the steps involved in corporate development:

(1) system analysis (present operation, control system, present

information system, environment, hierarchical structure, matter/

energy/information flow, goals and expected results, effectiveness),

(2) system synthesis (scenario, conditions, design), (3) development

analysis, and (4) development synthesis (consequence analysis, development planning). Next, the general procedure for system management -

those steps necessary to monitor the performance and effectiveness of

the organization and to plan and control the changes or redesign of the

corporate system/subsystem -- is delineated: analysis, functional

design, media analysis, and assessment. Each of these is defined

in terms of its sequential realization: functional, technical, construction, implementation, follow-up.

Kuhn, A. Boundaries, kinds of systems, and kinds of interactions.

Organizaticn &~ A,4 nistrative 5cien_-es, 1975, 6, 39-46.

This article establishes theoretical relationships between

boundaries and systems. Boundaries may be either spatial, functional,

or analytic; they are set by the observer, rather than by the nature

of the thing observed. Nonetheless, the nature of the thing observed

will make certain boundaries more workable than others, and the

category of the system being studied is an important part of its

nature.

* Clear analysis requires that a system be bounded by reference

to the kind of system and the kind of interaction(s) involved. Concerning type, systems analysis should be applied only to actng

systems, not to paten systems. Furthermore, components of the

system al-so should be acting systems. Having restricted one's analytical focus to acting systems, attention then should be directed to

whether the systems involved are controlled (having goals) or uncontrolled (having no goals) . If the system of interest is controlled,

it is essential that its detector, selector, and effector subsystems

be identified rather precisely. If the system is uncontrolled,

boundary definition is both more difficult and less important.

The nature of the interaction also must be considered.

Since different kinds of interactions occur at different locations

within the system, analysis will be clearest if the system is bounded

4 at the point(s) where relevant input or output enters or leaves.

Finally, if a system interaction actually occurs between a subsystem

and the environment of the main system, analysis will be clearest if

the system is bounded at the level one might otherwise consider a

subsystem, thereby avoiding extraneous entities or variables.

-58-
Kuhn, A. Natural-social vs. system-based categories of science.

General Systems Theorizing: An Assessment and Prospects

for the Future. Proceedings of the 1976 Annual North

.4mericn .Vee-inc f' the Society fKr enerai S stems

7esearch, 1976, 76-84.

'he author contends that we should not categorize 5yst -r

studies as natural vs. social, but as dealing with (i) controlled

(cybernetic, or goal-oriented) or uncontrolled systems, (2) simple

or sophisticated information processing, (3) intra- or intersystem

focus, or (4) an idiographic (pertaining to an individual concept

or isolated case which defies mathematical description or classical

empirical validation) or nomothetic (pertaining to the abstract,

the recurrent, and the universal which are used in formulating

general statements and scientific laws) approach.

Except for ecosystems, he asserts, most uncontrolled systems

require only matter-energy (and not information) science. But,

controlled systems also need a special syllogistic causal explanation

and an expanded science of pattern match. A bias is urged toward

considering systems as uncontrolled until a control mechanism is

clearly identified.

The dichotomy of information/matter-energy is of little use

for understanding the human-level parallels of semantic communication

and value-based transactions. An important question, about which the

author is skeptical, is whether "systems analysis" should include

interactions between systems.

Kuhn, A. Is there life beyond organisms? Systems Science and Science.

Proceedings of the 24th Annual North American Meeting af -he

Society for General Systems Research, 1980, 185-189.

This paper takes the position that sharp differences in

decomposability between organismic and social systems question the

advisability of considering the latter "living". There are also

questions about when to build a science around a whole system and

when around its control subsystem (decider) alone. Social sciences

can probably do best, says the author, by attending solely to the

control subsystems of their actors. What he sees is not a true

central control mechanism, per se, but rather a separate control

subsystem for each defined function. It further seems possible that

some system variables are not monitored at all, but simply fall where

they happen to fall under the multifaceted circumstances achieved by

the monitored subsystems. The author sees the whole as only modestly

centralized - an exquisitely tuned mutual ecological adaptation in

which each part helps to produce and maintain an environment that is

highly congenial for some other part(s).

-59-

............................................................................................................................................................................. '-
There seems to be a sharp discontinuity in the meaning and

form of the dichotomy of matter-energy vs. information when one moves

from biological systems or their components to systems involving

* multiple humans. This discontinuity enlarges doubt about putting

social systems too solidly in the same category with "living" systems.

Finally, both biological and social systems require more attention to

ecological relations.

* Laszlo, E. introduction to systems phiZosorhy. New York: Gordon

and Breach, 1972.

Systems philosophy is an attempt to discover, or provide,

the basic philosophical foundations for special systems and the basic

structure (system) of the universe as a whole. The author sees systems

philosophy as reintegrating "the concept of enduring universals with

transient processes within a non-bifurcated, hierarchically differentiated realm of invariant systems, as the ultimate actualities of a

self-ordering world".

The volume has two parts. Part One outlines a general theory

of natural systems with applications not only to the physical, biological, and social sciences, but also to the mind and cognitive systems.

Laszlo proposes his own theory of natural systems, "mapping explicitly

but a handful of systems properties". These include four "independent

variables": ordered wholeness in the state of ,-.he system resulting

from coactive relation of parts ("systemic state property"'); -reestablishment of a previous steady state in the system resulting from

the function of adaptation to environmental disturbances ("system

9..4"cybernetics I"); reorganization of the system's state resulting from

adaptation to disturbances, involving, with a high degree of probability,

an overall gain in the system's negentropy and information content

("system cybernetics II"); dual functional-structural adaptation, i.e.,

with respect to subsystems (adaptation as a systemic whole) and suprasystems (adaptation as a coacting part) ("holon property"). "The

hierarchy concept conserves its appeal on the basis of its supreme

potential as an ordering principle, relating through invariant

hierarchical relationships, empirically dissimilar phenomena."

Part Two, "Studies in Systems Philosophy," explores consciousness and the mind-body problem (concluding with "biperspectivism"),

hierarchy ("emergence" and "evolution"), cognition, and freedom

("interdetermined natural systems correlated with self-determined

cognitive systems in biperspectival natural-cognitive systems"), value

("normative values to be correlates of certain states of a system

within the system-environment continuum, defined by the degrees of

adaptation of the system to its environment, rather than by its level

of organization"), survival ("What we need today is a new morality

the adaptation of mankind, as a global system, to its new environment"),

and metaphysics (the search for ultimate principles).

-60-

.................................. *,,*~ C-~'. 4...,,~V .
Laszlo, E. A general systems view of evolution and invariance.

g ereral 5ystems, 1974, XIX, 37-43.

This article offers a scientific reaffirmation, based on

general systems theory, of the concept of a continuous, even if

internally highly differentiated, process of evolution. This view

of evolution derives from two, initially oppo'sing, currents of thought

within 19th century science: (1) Darwin's theory of the origin of

* species and (2) the early formulations of the laws of thermodynamics.

The second law of thermodynamics is especially insightful in this

regard, suggesting as it does that instead of building up, the universe as a whole is inevitably running down. Every process dissipates

energy and renders it unavailable for performing work. The great

arrow of evolution, therefore, points not toward increasingly differ-

* entiated and complex things, but toward progressively disorganized,

simple, and random aggregates. These concepts are linked to that of

the "dissipative structure" - a structure which dissipates energy in

the course of their self-maintenance and self-organization.

The author contends that the new general systems concept of

evolution allows that the second law of thermodynamics is an adequate

description of the real universe only if it is integrated with the

concept of "hidden" or "potential" strata of stability upon which the

flows can hit. Every system in nature is the actualization of some

such stratum of stability. The result of evolution on earth is a

multilevel hierarchy which encompasses atoms on the one end and

large-scale multi-organic systems on the other. The higher systems

are composed of integrated sets of lower-level systems. Systemic

interactions among systems yield higher systemic units; other types

of interactions produce differentiation and lead to specialization.

Evolution proceeds from a state of partly ordered chaos - energy

fluxes interacting with some relatively stable configurations of

flows. It tends toward higher levels of organization in structures

of greater complexity.

Lawrence, P. R. & Lorsch, J. W. Organization and environm'ent:

M4dna--'na dif-"ferentiation and inteca tion. Homewood, IL: 1

Irwin, 1969.

This book describes a research study that attempts to determine what types of internal organizational characteristics will be

effective under different kinds of environmental change, especially at

different rates of economic and technological change. The authors

recognize that organizations differ in the manner in which they achieve

functional status of differentiation and integration under different

external conditions. Organizations are viewed as "open systems"~ in

which the behaviors of the members are themselves interrelated and

interdependent with the formal organization. In order for these

-61-A XLkV .
systems to function as they become larger, they must differentiate

into parts, and the functions of these parts in turn must be integrated

if the entire system is to remain viable.

The authors define differentiation as "the difference in

cognitive and emotional orientation among managers in different functional departments" and integration as "the quality of the state of

collaboration that exists among departments that are required to

achieve unity of effort by the demands of the environment."

Phase 1 of the study is a comparison of six firms operating

in the same industry and environment (the plastics industry). Phase

2 is a comparison of a successful and less successful firm in two

other industries (container and food packaging). Phase 1 demonstrated

that there is an inverse relationship between differentiation and4

* integration: the more similar in structure and orientation of personnel, the more effective is integration, whereas the more different,

the more difficult. Further, direct confrontation seems to be the

most effective method of conflict resolution at all levels within the

plastics industry.

Phase 2 showed that, while all the organizations studied

favor direct confrontation for conflict resolution, this occurs at

different levels depending on the organization. This demonstrates

how integration becomes more difficult and requires more elaborate

formal devices as one proceeds from a relatively undifferentiated

organization to a highly differentiated organization.

The authors suggest a "contingency theory of organization" as

conceptual framework for designing organizations according to the

tasks they are trying to perform.

Locker, A. & Coulter, N. A., Jr. A new look at the description and

prescription of systems. 3ehavioraZ 5cie~nce, 1977, 22,

197-206.

The present day status of general systems theory makes it

appropriate to propose the notion of a kind of system that is able to

generate the goal(s) for its own activity, a teleogenic system. This

concept may apply to all levels and types of concrete systems. Some

prerequisites for conceiving of such a system, and eventually founding

L a theory dealing with it, are outlined in this article.

The intimate relations that exist between system and observer

are underscored. Any alleged property ascribed to reality is relative

to the perspective of the observer. Description is facilitated

through iterative modes of reflection and the concomitant setting of a

_62-
context. This permits distinguishing between a local and a global

description. It is shown that the former tends to assume a causal

aspect, whereas the latter is in conformity with a final aspect. It is

necessary to distinguish between an unconcerned observer and a concerned

observer or designer. The former only designs models to explore the

system he observes, while the latter also builds the system he prescribes.

The interplay between descriptive language and prescriptive

language is considered. Any description is not only a representation of

a reality, but, conversely, any reality exists for the observer/

designer, in the description made. In order to obtain a global view,

one encompassing the meaning or significance of a description for the

observer/designer, the assumption or prescription of goals is inevitable.

According to the role goals assume, it is necessary to distinguish

between goal-directed, goal-selecting, and goal-generating systems.

Louis, M. R. A clash between homeostatic and adaptive systems:

Socialization and recruitment in organizations. Systems

Science and Science. Proceedings of the 24th Annua .orth

American Meeting of the Society for General Systems Research,

1980, 594-599.

This paper suggests that there is evidence of a natural

tension between two input-processing systems found in most modern

organizations. Recruiting of new organizational members serves

adaptive purposes, while socialization of new members serves homeostatic

purposes. In addition to natural systemic tensions between them,

dysfunctional tensions or clashes have been fostered by trends in the

practical conduct of recruiting and socialization. A common element

underlying the sources of tension is interdependence. At a basic

sytems level, recruiting and socialization are complexly interconnected.

However, in practice, mutual design and intersystem coordination almost

never occur.

Recruiting is oriented almost solely on filling posi:ions; 6.N

in order to do so, there is a tendency to glamourize and "sell"

(or oversell) the organization to prospective members. The result

is short-sighted, narrow, and suboptimal strategies and practices.

The author maintains that, instead of merely filling positions,

recruitment should be aimed at individuals. To do this would require

reintegration of overlapping socialization functions. It is in and

through socialization that discrepancies between the glorified

images of life in the organization engendered during recruitment and

the organizational realities are experienced.

- 3

-63-"-

..............

%* ..
C .McIntosh, S. S. Equilibrium and stability: Conceptual distinctions

and methodological analysis. Organization & Administrative

Sciences, 1975, 6, 67-79.

This article defines and distinguishes between the concepts

of equilibrium and stability as they relate to dynamic systems.

Equilibrium is defined as the expected range of responses within

which the members of a system react and within which they expect

interaction. This implies, for example, that an organization in a

dynamic context will possess a predetermined amount of resources to

handle situations over a given time period. A system is stable, in

turn, when it is able to maintain its activities by obtaining additional resources, even though those resources were not originally

allocated to that system. This assures that the equilibrium range

falls within the bounds of the stability range. Three system states

are suggested: stable-equilibrium, stable-disequilibrium, or

unstable-disequilibrium. Several graphical presentations are used

to describe the nature and parameters of these conditions.

Martin, W. H. A generaL systems modei for measuring organizationaZ

effectiveness. (Doctoral dissertation). Washington:

The George Washington University, June 1976.

This study concerns the development of a model, grounded in

general systems concepts, for measuring organizational effectiveness.

At the outset, the report describes the development of the conceptual

framework. Approaches for developing a taxonomic organizational

structure are detailed. Primitive taxonomies that were rejected

and a functional structure compatible with general systems theory

are discussed.

Characteristics of the model for measuring organizational

effectiveness are defined. This includes a rationale for the estimating relationships of each organizational function and state selected.

The empirical data collection effort, including data sources and

procedures, is discussed. A summary of variable values obtained for

each organization analyzed is presented, along with a discussion of

problems encountered and data refinements.

Actual model development is described. This includes

evaluation of hypothesized estimation relationships for organizational

states and functions and derivation of relevant variable coefficients

contributing to an overall measure of organizational effectiveness.

A sample organization is used to validate the model. Estimates for

that organization and an error analysis are detailed.

-64-

;L; , i Z
Finally, the need for the research is reiterated, with

discussion of the appropriateness of the model for that purpose.

The effect of model limitations on the results are discussed and

areas for future research suggested. Some implications of the study

are anticipated.

Maruyama, M. Causal meta-types in social and biological theories.

Systems Science and Science. Proceedings of the 24th

Annual North American Meeting of the Society for General

Systems Research, 1980, 190-194.

The author of this paper compares four meta-types of causality:

non-reciprocal causal models; independent-event causal models; homeostatic causal loop models; and morphogenetic causal loop models. The

first sees evolution as having one path and in hierarchical competitive

terms, and history as progressing in leaps. The second sees evolution

as due to random changes, occurring in leaps. The third sees evolution

and culture as arriving at and maintaining perfected, mutually beneficial interaction patterns among heterogeneous elements under a given

external condition, and changes occurring in leaps. The fourth sees

evolution as a continuous process of heterogenization and symbiotization.

'S

Maslow, A. H. Eursychian management. Homewood, IL: Richard D.

Irwin, 1965.

This book is a journal of notes and observations made by the

author during the course of a summer of study and consultation with a

commercial firm involved in industrial and managerial psychology. It

is a sampling of normative or ideal social psychology. The author has

coined the work Eupsychia and defined it as "the culture that would be

generated by 1,000 self-actualizing people on some sheltered island

where they would not be interfered with." Then, by contrast with the

classical Utopian and Dystopian dreams of fantasies, the questions

become quite real: How good a society does human nature permit? How

good a human nature does society permit? How good a society does the

nature of society permit?

Since, the author notes, we know more about the heights to

which human nature can attain, it is possible to extrapolate to the

"higher" forms of interpersonal and social organization which this

taller human nature makes possible in principle. We might, he says,

call this simply "planning". Or we might get more flossy and call it

the History of the Future, or use the newly coined word "cybercultural".

-65-

* -.- ... - - . . . -. . .
7 .,R.

Maslow prefers "eupsychian" as implying only real possibility and

improvability rather than certainty, prophesy, inevitability, necessary

progress, perfectibility, or confident predictions of the future.

The author suggests further that the word eupsychia can also

be taken in other ways. It can mean "moving toward psychological

health" or "healthward". It can imply the actions taken to foster and

* .1 encourage such a movement, whether by a psychotherapist or a teacher.

It can refer to the mental or social conditions which make health more

likely. Or it can be taken as an -deal limit, i.e., the far goals of

therapy, education, or work.

Miller, J. G. Living systems. New York.: McGraw-Hill, 1978.

This seminal work is the culmination of over 20 years of

developmental work by the author and ccasists of a complete explication of his general living systems theory. While general systems

theory is a set of related definitions, assumptions, and propositions

which deal with reality as an integrated hierarchy of organizations

of matter and energy, general living systems theory (LST) is concerned

with a special subset of all systems: the living ones.

Miller defines system as a set of interacting units with

relationships among them. There are three types of systems: (1)

conceptual (words, numbers, other symbols), (2) abstracted (relationships conceptually selected by an observer in light of his interests,

theoretical viewpoint, or philosophical bias), and (3) concrete (a

A' nonrandom accumulation of matter-energy, in a region in physical

space-time, which is organized into interacting, interrelated subsystems or components). Living systems are a special subset of

concrete systems, composed of the plants and the animals. Such living

systems have the following characteristics: (1) They are open systems.

(2) They use inputs of foods or fuels to restore their own energy and

repair breakdowns in their own organized structure. (3) They have

more than a certain minimum degree of complexity. (4) They contain

genetic material or have a charter, or both. One or both of these is

the template - the original "blueprint" or "program" - of their

structure and process from the mcment of their origin. (5) They are

composed largely of protoplasm. (6) They have a decider, the essential

critical subsystem which controls the entire system, causing its subsystems and components to interact. (7) They also have certain other

f2 specific critical subsystems, or they have symbiotic or parasitic

relationships with other living or nonliving systems which carry out

,. ,.the processes of any such subsystem they lack. (8) Their subsystems

are integrated together to form actively self-regulating, developing,

reproducing, unitary systems, with purposes and goals. (9) They can

exist only in a certain environment. Any change in their environment ? . of critical variables outside a relatively narrow range produces

stresses to which they cannot adjust, and under which they cannot

survive.

-66-
Living systems can be classified in a hierarchy of levels,

with systems at each being composed of systems at lower levels.

Seven levels are identified: cell, organ, organism, group, organization, society, and supranational systems. The fundamental distinction

between groups and organizations is that organizations have formal

echelons of decision-making responsibility while groups do not. An

echelon differs from a level, the former being defined only with

respect to decision-making (as in chain of command). In other words,

* echelons are system components which make different types of decisions or different parts of an overall decision.

One of the central postulates of LST is that 19 subsystems

are essential for the survival of a living system at any level. A

subsystem is a component or group of components that carries out a

* particular process in a system. The processes carried out are those

which keep system variables within their steady state ranges. In

complex systems, one or more subsystem processes may be carried out

for a system by another system which is not part of it; such subsystems are said to be dispersed either upwardly to a higher level

system or downwardly to a level below a system's own subsystems. The

0 only process which cannot be dispersed to another system is decisionmaking; a living system ceases to exist independently if it cannot

make decisions. Subsystem processes also can be dispersed laterally,

if they are accomplished by several components of the system, which

together make up the subsystem. Of the 19 critical subsystems, two -

reproducer and boundary - process both matter-energy and information,

eight process only matter-energy - ingestor, distributor, converter,

producer, matter-energy storage, extruder, motor, and supporter - and

the remainder process only information - input transducer, internal

transducer, channel and net, decoder, associator, memory, decider,

encoder, and output transducer.

In every living system, a large number of subsystem and

systemwide variables fluctuate continuously. Adjustment processes

work to keep one or more variables in a steady state within a normal

range of stability. Approximately one dozen variables per subsystem

are suggested by Miller, and they can be categorized into six classes:

matter-energy input, internal, and output variables, and information

input, internal, and output variables. Most of the variables can be

operationalized within the context of various subsystems and can be

measured by some instrument or technique, called an indicator.

An additional important part of LST is the development of

cross-level hypotheses concerning identities between various levels

of living systems. Such hypotheses give the theory predictive as

well as descriptive power. The central cross-level hypothesis is

that 19 subsystems are critical for survival at each system level.

-67-

lz
Miller provides 173 additional cross-level hypotheses which are

supported to varying degrees by experimental evidence. The hypotheses

are categorized as either systemwide or applicable to specific subsystems, and each is purportedly true at at least two levels.

Examples are (1) that higher level systems have a higher cost per

correct information unit processed, and (2) that two or more systems

which interact become alike in storing and processing common information.

Mitroff, 1. 1. & Sagasti, F. A systems approach for the analysis

and design of stimuli, responses, and experiments.

'reneraZ Systems, 1973, XVIII, 14~9-160.

The purpose and plan of this paper is fourfold. First,

the authors show that the concepts stimulus (S) and response (R)

* can be defined in systems terms. This enables the authors to

demonstrate that the terms S and R can be given a purely abstract,

conceptual interpretation in addition to their having a concrete

(physcial) interpretation. This provides the basis for making

the point that SIR can never exist as isolated, independent

entities. They can only be defined and given meaning by reference

to the surrounding system of which they are a part or with which

they are in contact.

Second, the authors discuss some basic (archetypal) kinds

of systems. This allows them to indicate explicitly the range of

possible kinds of distinct S's and R's that can exist. SiLr>e these

systems derive from epistemology, this step facilitates indicating

some philosophies of science particularly appropriate for the

behavioral sciences.

Third, the authors develop a matrix of S and R permutations.

This step indicates the basic kinds of distinct SIR experiments

that can exist.

Fourth, the authors indicate some of the archetypal kinds

of experiments that result from their classification.

In effect, the first two steps permit explicit acknowledgement

of the fact that there are a multiplicity of ways for defining

S's and R's and that each of these ways is equally valid; the last

two steps provide a rich enough conceptual framework to see how

each of these ways relates to and builds on the others. The last

two steps also show how the range of conceivable experiments has

been greatly limited by our failure to recognize, develop, and utilize

the full range of conceivable SIR types.

-60-

~3
Myers, K. C. Rationale for a corporate resilience strategy. Systems

Science and Science. Proceedings of the 24th Annual North

0 American Meeting of the Society for General Systems Research,

1980, 540-547.

Based on ecological studies, Holling (1976) suggests that

collapse in human organizations can be brought about by maximizing

stability and resisting fluctuations. He recommends that organiza0 tions relax this fail-safe strategy and adopt a safe-fail strategy in

which the allowance of fluctuations and mini-failures increases the

system's ability to persist. Holling's argument is related to existing

management orientations, and his theories help explain examples of

corporate collapse. This paper assesses some implications of a safefail strategy in corporate planning.

Resilience (a measure of the ability of a system to absorb

changes and still persist) is offered as the preferred alternative to

stability (the ability of a system to return to an equilibrium state

after a temporary disturbance). Resilience lies at the heart of the

safe-fail strategy. This is best facilitated by the adoption of an

* adaptivizing philosophy (finding new structures, objectives, and

alternatives which allow performance closer to the ideal), rather than

the more common optimizing or satisficing philosophies. Adaptivizers

in contrast to satisficers, do not accept routinized decision procedures which produce merely adequate outcomes, nor do they, like the

optimizers, spend an inordinate amount of resources to search out the

best decision within a given situation.

Nelson, C. W. & Smith, E. V. A frame of reference for the measurement

of institutional leadership concepts and the analysis of

0 system states. Human Relations, 1976, 29, 589-606.

This article sets forth a conceptual and methodological

approach for effecting change strategies in social institutions. The

authors first identify the subsystems that comprise any general system

and function to maintain its existent state. These elements are called

0GIST, for Group (G) processes and the Individual (I) in roles, which

together constitute the informal organization, and for formal legal

Structure (S) and the Technology (T) of production, which together

constitute the formal organization.

Next, the authors present a hierarchic taxonomy of values

underlying the social-psychological identification of system states.

Four different leadership orientations are identified: bureaucratic,

technocratic, idiocratic, and democratic; additionally, four basic

individual needs are defined: security, self-esteem, self-actualization,

and significant membership status; finally, four general styles of

-69-
interaction based on the leader's assumptions concerning subordinate

motivation are suggested: regulative, directive, manipulative, and

integrative. From these are derived a number of leadership styles that

reflect appropriate organizational values: (1) the Bureaucratic-Regu-

* lative Concept, (2) the Technocratic-Directive Concept, (3) the

Idiocratic-Manipulative Concept, and (4) the Democratic-Integrative

- Concept.

The authors then discuss an approach for measuring system-state

values via a leadership attitude scale.

-Nelson, E. G. & Machin, J. L. J. Management control: Systems

thinking applied to the development of a framework for

empirical studies. Journal of Management Stiudes, 1976,

13, 274-287.

This article outlines the basis upon which a new framework

for analyzing the management control process has been developed, and

then describes the application of the framework in a managerial study

of a major organization. The authors believe that, by bringing

together a selected number of the developed threads within control

theory and some of the elements of general systems theory, a framework

can be developed that will go some way towards helping managers analyze

the complexity of the management control process. They then can both

determine the potential opportunities available to them for raising

the level of control, or adjusting the balance of controls within the

organization, and then, subsequently, explain and demonstrate the

results of the decisions they make.

The authors develop an analytical framework based on (l)

objects of control - assuring effective interaction, assuring coordinated functioning, and assuring efficient operations - and (2) categorles of constraint - resource utilization, commitments, and

relationships. They apply the framework to the analysis of the

nursing services in a large group of hospitals and conclude, among

other things, that formal procedures can be introduced into an

organization in such a way that a greater degree of control on the

management process can be effected without raising the level of

constraint. At the same time, the part of the organization into which

formal procedures were introduced became more open to external sources

of information and influence. This suggests that increases in the

level of control are not inconsistent with open systems qualities.

-70-

P. %W ft r.'?--. -* 0. r. . .

SS~LP'*z: 4

~.%
Oppacher, F. GST and ethics. Avoiding Social Catastrophes and

Maximizing Social Opportunities: The General Systems

Challenge. Proceedings of the 22nd Annual North American

Meeting of the Society for General Systems Research, 1978,

395-400.

This paper sketches arguments for some high-level values and

norms from the perspective of general systems theory (GST). Speci-

* fically, it is argued that survival presupposes harmony, which

presupposes variety or complexity, which presupposes decentralization.

Decentralization leads to cultural diversity, decentralized communities, and soft technology. Decentralized communities lower impact on

the environment and enhance internal controls and social integration.

Soft technology, while also lowering impact on the environment, increases employment and possibly job satisfaction. Internal controls

and social integration seem to be capable of reducing alienation and

crime rates and increasing participation in the political process.

In light of the many studies supporting the hypothesis that emphasis

on decentralized decision-making and individual responsibility

increases self-esteem, esteem of others, and quality of performance,

it seems correct to maintain that the above factors correlate strongly

with the so-called quality of life.

Peery, N. S. General systems theory: An inquiry into its social

philosophy. Academy of Management Journal, 1972, 15, 4,

495-510.

This essay examines some of the values and assumptions of

general systems theory (GST) in an attempt to show that: (1) many

GST concepts constitute nonrefutable hypotheses which serve the

purposes of social philosophy as well as those of science; (2)

the basic tenets of GST are held in common with structural-functionalism,

making it subject to the same criticisms commonly associated with the

functionalist approach within sociology; and (3) the premises of

consensus, growth, and hierarchy are basic to GST formulations found

within administrative theory.

These values and assumptions cause theories developed within

the GST paradigm to be ideologically biased toward an order perspective which emphasizes stability and system maintenance rather than

change. Also, the order perspective views conflict as dysfunctional

rather than as a source of organizational adaptation.

-71-
Pieuta J.A. A dynamic of cross level behavior. Systems Thinking

and the Quality of Life. Proceedings of' the 21975 AnnuaL

N orth American Meeting of the Society -for 'reneral 55yst ems

* Research, 1975, 275-2h1.

This paper is an introduction to the functions and properties

of triads (or triangles). It is the author's position that roles

and practices of the past are no longer acceptable (or at least are

held suspect); as these practices change, so too will the patterns

-~ of interaciton and relationship system. A two-person (dyad) system

is an unstable system that immediately forms a series of interlocking

triangles.

The author attempts to summarize the work of Caplow (1968)

and Bowen (1966, 1971, 1974) and apply their findings to various levels

* of organized social systems, e.g., family and organizations. Various

properties and dynamics of triads are considered: power, coalition,

and catalysis. Eight basic types of power triads are identified.

-~ * The triadic coalition is suggested as an operative and helpful concept

in explaining human behavior in the context in which it occurs. If

the dynamics and binds of triangles were better understood, we could

anticipate and perhaps avoid some problems and counteract much of the

potential stress in social systems.

Platt, J. Hierarchical restructuring. General Sy~stems, 1970, XV,

49-54.

This article emphasizes that sudden changes of structure

appear to be important phenomena of living systems. Generally, these

changes are described as the sudden formation of larger integrated

systems from malfunctioning or conflicting subsystems. They occur at

all systemic levels - individual, societal, and universal. If we wish

to channel the world in the direction of a more humane and meaningful

future, this hierarchical restructuring must be understood.

The author explores the phenomenon of sudden transitions of

the flow systems that comprise the universe to new self-maintaining,

stable arrangements. The general pattern is that of a stable hierarchical structure (level i) with stable patterns at the lowest levels

(i-I) which changes ("grows") to a new structure (i-f.) because it

comes in contact with new information and/or organisms. Level i will

* become unstable until it breaks apart or restructures at the i+1 level

to make a new stable pattern encompassing the larger experience. This

self-restructuring is not teleological (purposeful) but teleonomica'l

* (with the appearance of purpose). It is neither externally designed

(like a watchmaker) nor internally designed (like a flower); rather,

it is a self-transformation to better organized levels of structure

that did not exist before.

-72-
Conmmon characteristics of hierarchical jumps are as follows:

(1) Jumps are always preceded and accompanied by cognitive dissonance.

ID (2) Jumps result in an "overall" and expanded restructuring. (3) Jumps

occur very quickly. (4) The direction of the jumps is always toward

simpler and more general explanations. (5) En the process of restructuring, subsystems generally must jump across the system level to the

new supersystem being formed.

* It is not clear whether self-structuring hierarchical jumps

can be anticipated or guided. By examining their inner workings,

there is a chance that purposive participation or intervention can

direct the restructuring toward creative and fruitful, rather than

destructive, results.

Ragade, R. K. Optimization in general living systems. General

Systems Research: A Science, a Methodology, a Technology.

Proceedings of the 1979 North American Mleeting of -the

Society for genera- Systems Research, 1979, 159-164.

40 In this paper, the authir cites Miller's General Living

Systems Theory as offering a new conceptual approach to understanding

and managing many facets of complex systems. For its applications,

one needs critical general measures which allow characterization of

both system pathologies and system improvements. The author proposes

* the use of thermodynamic entropy for matter-energy processes and

informational entropy for the information processes in general living

systems. Natural evolution of general systems is seen as a complex

strategy of balancing various local entropies.

It is hypothesized by the author that "system well-being is

* increased, whenever the pathology in one of its subsystems (or components) is removed, without creating new pathology or increasing

existing pathology in any of its other subsystems or components." He

suggests further that, whenever feasible, an informational entropyproducing activity is generally more desirable than a thermodynamic

entropy-producing activity. This happens, for example, when living

* societies consciously substitute communication for transportation,

and when peaceful negotiations are substituted for violent conflict

resolution.

4P
Richards, L. D. Beyond planning: Controllability vs. predictability.

The General Systems Paradigm: Science of Change and Change

of Science. Proceedings of the Annual North 'merican Meeting

of the Society for 'enerai Systems Research, 1977, 314-323.

This paper challenges the appropriateness of the currently

popular rational planning paradigm to the types of environment

evolving in today's world. Four phenomena that contribute to this

conclusion are discussed: (1) the closure resulting from selective

perception, (2) the self-reinforcing cycle of planning and technology,

(3) the recursive nature of richly-joined environments, and (4) the

irresolvability of conflicting goals. An allegory is used to illustrate

the argument. The alternative is to place emphasis in social design

on controllability rather than predictability; controllability refers

to the degree of flexibility, predictability to the deviation from a

specified line of behavior. The concept of negative planning is

introduced to describe a process for shifting from a rational planning

-. paradigm to a paradigm for designing flexibility.

Rosen, N. A. Open systems theory in an organizational sub-system:

A field experiment. Organizational Behavior and Hurnan Performance, 1970, 5, 245-265.

This article reports on a leadership change experiment conducted in a major component part (sub-system) of a manufacturing

organization (system). The purpose of the experiment was to test

certain central aspects of open systems theory as applied to formal

organizations.

The study was conducted in the upholstering department of a

factory within a large furniture manufacturing organization. The

leaders (foremen) in seven of eight groups comprising the department

were reassigned on two days' notice in accordance with an experimental

plan designed by the author. By means of a questionnaire administered

to workers prior to the experiment and again on a later occasion after

the experiment, the following measures were obtained: (1) group

attraction or cohesion, (2) foreman preference, (3) status consensus

on foreman, and (4) group money motivation. The following additional

measures were developed from organizational records: (1) group

productivity levels, (2) post-experimental percentage change in group

productivity, and (3) mean length of longest style run for relevant

"'3 time periods.

The findings lend support to the following: (1) Negative

feedback to a stable system (or sub-system) from its environment,

coupled with a substantial manipulation of a central variable within

the system (leadership in this case), will create disequilibrium and

-74-
lead to corrective energy mobilization. (2) Feedback mechanisms

(weekly paychecks reflecting incentive earnings) within the system

will assist it to right itself and establish a new equilibrium.

(3) The essence of the system component relationships, after its

temporary disruption, will restabilize in a form closely resembling

its initial state.

Rousseau, D. M. Technological differences in job characteristics,

employee satisfaction, and motivation: A synthesis of job

design research and sociotechnical systems theory.

Organizationa Behavior and Hwnan Perfoynance, 1977, 19, 18-42.

A review of job design research and sociotechnical systems

theory suggests that both of these approaches to organizational change

converge in their emphasis on a common set of job characteristics

important to employee satisfaction and motivation (skill variety/

learning, feedback from agents, dealing with others, task identity,

feedback from job, and autonomy). This article reports on a study

undertaken to examine the relationship of job attitudes and motivation

to the aforementioned job characteristics. Additionally, the study

examined variations in job attitudes and characteristics of work

content across technological classifications.

Job characteristics were examined in a survey of employees

in 19 production units, classified into three technological categories:

long-linked or serially interdependent technologies (assembly line

producers), mediating technologies (banks), and intensive or custom

technologies (engineering firms, nursing staff). Significant differences were found between job characteristics, employee satisfaction, and motivation across technology. Additionally, there were

substantial positive relations between job characteristics, satisfaction, and motivation. The job characteristics Variety and Task

Significance were found to be particularly important to employee

satisfaction and motivation.

D Rousseau, D. M1. Assessment of technology in organizations: Closed

versus open systems approaches. ca'e- o Mangement

Review, 1979, 4, 531-542.

The primary theme of this article is that tehcnology is a I

multiphasic, multilevel input/output mechanism that is interdependent

with its environment. Past research on technology generally has

reflected static, closed systems thinking. It has lacked a systematic

framework for technology assessment, instead focusing for the most

part on different phases of the same transformation process. It

generally has ignored input and output activities as well as

critical energy exchanges between the technology and the environment.

-75-
The author proposes a framework for assessing technology in

organizations, based on organizational levels (individual, subunit,

organization) and phases (input characteristics, input control,

conversion, output control, and output characteristics). She asserts

that the environment shapes an organization's technology in at least

two ways: (I) through the relationship of the environment to inputoutput activities, and (2) through the effect of the technological

environment and management's perceptions of the environment on

technological choice. Thus, the suggested framework provides a basis

for research evaluating both the relationship of technology to the

environment and traditional concerns such as the links between

technology and structure.

Ruben, B. D. & Kim, J. Y. Generl systems tbeory and hwuan comnnnication. Rochelle Park, N. J.: Hayden, 1975.

This book offers indirect argumentation in anthological

form for an integrated theory of human communication within the

framework of general systems theory (GST). The book's first

section provides a recapitulaiton of basic GST concepts. A distinc-

" tion is made between hard and soft definitions of a system. The

hard definition of a system is one that permits an unambiguous

recognition of the components of things defined. Aspects of

human communication are concomitant with this formulation. Most

research in the language sciences concurs with the soft definition

of a system with its heavier emphasis on intuition and intent.

Section Two provides various p.rspectives for analyzing

the organization of human communication. The biological model, in

-. which language is viewed in terms of code systems, is contrasted

with the intrapersonal organizational, sociological, and cultural

models. The discussion of intrapersonal organization is particularly

informative, suggesting as it does that communication is more than

the mere structural arrangement by which messages are coded. A

necessary emphasis is placed on the tacit assumptions of the speaker

and the unquestioned expectations of the hearer.

The remainder of the book (Section Three) consists of

commissioned articles on human communication from a systems theoretic

perspective. Krippendorf provides a convincing argument that different

modes of inquiry not only exist within the systems approach to

communication, but that these modes necessarily represent different

levels of knowledge and even require different criteria of validation

and interpretation. The role of the individual in the communication

process is discussed by Ruben, in terms of the sociology of knowledge,

transactional psychology, and symbolic interaction.

7,' -76-

K " ' ' ' -.-.. -,- .- -. .--.-,. , ---. .-. .-..- ,. ... -, .., ..., -.
Other articles in the final section include a discussion of

the prospects offered by GST for a unifed theory of human communication. Fisher argues for an integrated theory. Kim discusses the

role of feedback as a fundamental concept in the social science.

Mickelson speculates about the organic model and finds similarities

with communication systems. Finally, Thayer provides an epistemological

overview of knowledge, order, and communication.

Sagasti, F. A conceptual and taxonomic framework for the analysis of

adaptive behavior. GenerZ Systems, 1970, XV, 151-160.

The author's primary objective is to suggest a framework for

studying different concepts of adaptive behavior. Adaptation is

defined as a series of two or more events, the first of which is the

stimulus and the following ones the response, such that whatever modification of the functional properties of the system was induced by the

event called stimulus, it becomes neutralized by the events called

response, either by maintaining or modifying its function.

Adaptation may be either structural or functional. Structural

adaptation occurs when any modification of a system's structure or

structural properties "is followed by some other changes in its structure in such a way that the functional properties of the system are

not altered." In other words, a specified class of entities, Y, is

produced again at a later time (the function of the system remains the

same, but the structure has been modified). The author identifies four

types of structural adaptation: Darwinian-External, Darwinian-Internal,

Singerian-External, 

Functional 

and 

adaptation, 

Singerian-Internal. 

in turn, is when a modification 

I

of a

system's structure or structural properties is followed by a change in

the system's functional properties so that a new class of entities, Y,

is produced (the function of the system is modified). The author

homogeneous 

utilizes 

purposive, 

Ackoff's 

or 

systems, 

purposeful. 

interpretation 

in which 

Further 

the 

of 

function 

differentiation 

systems 

of 

as 

the 

either 

elements 

is made 

goal-seeking, 

between

of the system

I

is to serve the function of the whole, and heterogeneous systems, where

the functions of the elements are served by the function of the whole.

-.

".4,

-77- "
Schon, D. A. Beyond the stable state. New York: W. W. Norton, 1971.

Schon contends that in any society in which people believe

the situation to be stable, any change will provoke a transition that

will create a zone of crisis and instability. The societal response

to this crisis usually will force change in the vital elements of the

system, or the stable state. This, in turn, will threaten to disrupt

the stable state, the achievement and maintenance of which historically

has been a central theme to the existence of the organization.

The author suggests further that we are living in a period of

unprecedented and accelerating change. In the past, the illusion of a

stable state was created by the amount of time required for the diffusion and adaptation of a new concept. The purpose of this book,

therefore, is to show that "the loss of the stable state means that our

society and all of its institutions are in continuing processes of

transformation . . . . That we must learn to understand, guide, influence, and manage these transformations . . . . The way for doing

this is to invent and develop institutions that are learning systems ...capable of bringing about their own continual change. Therefore

the task that is imperative is to learn about learning."

The principal organizational level focused upon by Schon is

the social syst em, defined as "a complex of individuals which tends to

maintain its boundaries and its patterns of internal relationships."~

Social systems are characterized by (1) structure, the relation of

control and interaction among the functional units; (2) thor, the

view held within the social system about its purpose, operation,

environment, and future; and (3) technology, the tools and techniques

used to perform the social system's major function(s). These elements

are interdependent, having evolved in relation to one another, and a

change in one induces change in the others.

Schon discusses the concept of "dynamic conservatism"~ - the

forces within the system that resist change through the strategies of

ignoring it, attacking it, trying to contain it, or yielding to it.

The amount of change permitted through dynamic conservatism is related

proportionally to the structural level threatened by change. Organizations, and people, constantly strive to protect their stability and

interests by responding to, and protecting themselves from, external

change-inducing forces. The author argues that while "d.c." organizations can survive their own failures to adapt and change, what are

needed are more organizations with built-in adaptive learning tendencies

I rather than ingrained conservative tendencies. Business firms, because

they are the primary vehicles for diffusion of innovation, should be F:: agents of social learning for society at large.

-78-
Scott, W. G. Organization theory: A reassessment. Academyi of~

Management Journal, 1974, 17, 242-254.

During the 1960s, the management paradigm was elaborated by

systems theory. Whereas the then-accepted classical model was considered deterministic, closed, mechanistic, inflexible, narrowly

adaptable to change, and oriented toward hierarchy as the means of

coordination and control, the systems model was viewed as probabil-

* istic, open, organic, flexible, broadly adaptable to change, and

oriented toward lateral and diagonal organizational interfaces as

the source of coordination and control. The author contends that the

two models actually differ only in their operational premises,

not in their underlying values. The failure to discern these

values has fostered two analytical errors: (1) ignoring the ambience

* in which organization theory exists, and (2) treating classical and

systems theory as essentially different organizational models.

Growth, abundance, and consensus are singled out as the

paradigmatic values thac control both the classical and systems

models. The author suggests, however, that old values are eroding.

* He refers to declining reserves of natural resources, resistance to

environmental contamination, changes in work expectations, and

declining confidences. These changing values may produce a paradigmatic revolution that produces a radical model based on the values

of stability or decay (rather than growth), scarcity (rather than

abundance), and conflict (rather than consensus).

Scott, W. G. Organicism: The moral anesthetic of management.

Academyr of Management Review, 1979, 4, 21-28.

*Scott contends that systems theory was adapted to the

management paradigm in America during an era of unparalleled

growth. The problem is that the post-World War II period fueled

our expectations toward unlimited economic growth, while current

conditions signal a decline in the material and financial resources

that fuel growth. Thus, there is reason to believe that management

* is on the verge of experiencing a crisis of legitimacy, for while an

end of growth is likely to diminish material affluence, it is

unlikely to lessen proportionally organizational size, power, and

ubiquity.

Systems thoery, as it has been adapted to the management

paradigm, can tell us little about management's present dilemma over

its legitimacy. Management has seen fit to concern itself merely

with the growth phase of the organic model, conveniently ignoring the

less pleasant aspects of the life-cycle -- stability, decline, and

demise. With its constrained vision about the full meaning of

organicism, it is not surprising that management's interest is

* directed toward processes that pertain to growth and toward the

outcomes of these processes that include consensus, harmony, and

cooperation. The author suggests a much-needed reorientation.

-79-
Shrode, W. A. & Voich, D., Jr. Organization and management: 3asic

system..s concepts. Homewood, IL: Richard D. Irwin, 1974.

Organization and management theory and practice have been

* undergoing considerable change due to the rapidly changing nature

and growing complexity of the environment. Unprecedented scientific

discoveries and technological innovations are redirecting our educational systems in order to keep pace with an expanding knowledge base,

increased professionalism, and a greater concern for social-human

values. Traditional management theory, with its reliance on formal

authority and structure, has been unable to cope effectively with

these changes. More sophisticated managerial concepts and techniques,

including the systems perspective, are evolving. The purpose of this

book is to present managerial concepts essential for managers of the

future, with special emphasis on the systems approach.

Part I is an introduction to the nature of organization and

management. Chapter 1 views an organization as composed of five basic

elements: people, techniques, information, structure, and purpose.

Chapters 2 and 3 describe the recent managtameuit science and behavioral

science revolutions and their impact upon the structure and process of

management.

Part 11 is an introduction to systems philosophy. Chapter 4

discusses the systems revolution as a natural outgrowth of the management science and behavioral science revolutions. Problems related to

* the increasing complexity of the environment, the knowledge explosion,

increased specialization, and changing social-human values have placed

additional burdens upon traditional management theory and practice

that require a more integrated, dynamic, and viable approach to

management. Basic systems concepts and language are described in

Chapter 5, as background to the view of organization and management

as systems in Chapter 6. This view serves as the systemic framework

for the assumptions and working principles of management by system

presented in Part III.

Part III focuses on the basic assumptions and working principles for Management by System in relation to the organizational

* . elements of purpose, techniques, structure, people, and information.

A The assumptions and working principles developed are derived from the

systems philosophy described in Part II, specifically the notion that

organization and management are systems in a dynamic environment.

Chapters 7 and 8 discuss the necessity of searching for and identifying

equitable values to define organizational purpose. Management by

Objectives as a general principle for achieving organizational purpose

also is discussed. In Chapters 9 and 10, the need for objectivity and

rationality in making optimal decisions is discussed in the context of

the scientific method and its techniques, refinements, and limitations

-80-
in a changing environment. Chapter 11 examines techniques for

achieving organizational flexibility. It contrasts the characteristics

of systems organizations with traditional organizational structures and

presents some examples of systems organizations, including project and

matrix forms. Chapters 12 and 13 examine the basic assumptions and

working principles for developing integrative attitudes, and behavioral

concepts and techniques are presented for achieving integration and

effective management by people. Chapters 14 and 15 discuss the design,

communicative, and analytical functions of information, together with

modern developments in management information systems.

Part IV, "Toward the Theory of Management by System,"

emphasizes that the Theory of Management by System ultimately will

be derived from scientific analysis, testing, and synthesis of the

assumptions and principles pertaining to the management of organizational systems. This will result from an integrative and interdisciplinary set of developments. These developments can be expected

to culminate in theoretical constructs related to the systemic

properties of purposive behavior, openness, input-output transformation, interaction and interface, integration, and self-regulation.

Simon, H. A. The architecture of complexity. 3nra Sstes, 1965,

X, 63-76.

This article provides insights gained from the behavioral

sciences concerning complex systems. The author notes that the

complexity or simplicity of a structure depends critically upon the

way in which we descri~-e it. Most of the complex structures found

in the world are enormously redundant, and we can use this redundancy

to simplify their description. But to use it, to achieve the

simplification, we must find the right representation.

The author's contention is that one path to the construction

of a non-trivial theory of complex systems is by way of a theory

of hierarchy. Empirically, a large proportion of the complex

systems we observe in nature exhibit hierarchic structure. On

theoretical grounds, we could expect complex systems to be hierarchies

in a world in which complexity had to evolve from simplicity. In their

d :namics, hierarchies have a property -- near-decomposability -- that

greatly simplifies their behavior. Near-decomposability also

simplifies the description of a complex system and makes it easier

to understand how the information needed for the development or

reproduction of the system can be stored in reasonable compass.

The notion of substituting a process description for a

state description of nature has played a central role in the development

of modern science. Dynamic laws, expressed in the form of systems

of differential equations, have in a large number of cases provided

the clue for the simple description of the complex. The author

attempts to show the purpose and utility of this characteristic.
Skvoretz, J. & Fararo, T. J. Languages and grammars of action and

interaction: A contri',tion to the formal theory of action.

Behavioral Science, 1980, 25, 9-22.

The languages of action and interaction studied in this article

arise from a formalization of the concept of a "production system" found

in several recent empirical studies of human action. From a systems

viewpoint, the concern is with the temporal structure of the activity of

living systems - organisms, groups, and/or organizations. The theory is

applicable at any of these levels to the extent that actions of units at

each level can be specified appropriately.

The article starts with the idea that acts of an acting unit

are evoked only when certain conditions are satisfied. An action is

identified as an act together with the class of conditions under which

it is evoked. Formal interest centers on action strings (concatenations

of actions that meet criteria derived from episode constraints relating

actions) and how well-formed they are. An episode constraint holds

between two actions if one of the associated acts establishes a condition

in the class evoking the other act. Two basic types of episode constraints are identified, several propositions proved, and conjectures

advanced about the type of automaton that will accept only well-formed

action strings under various assumptions about the type and number of

constraints that obtain. The approach then is generalized to n-party

interaction.

Slawski, C. Love, power and conflict: A systems model of interparty

negotiation. The General Systems Paradigm: Science of

Change and Change of Science. Proceedings of the Annual

North American Meeting of the Society for *General Systems

Research, 1977, 17-26.

This paper presents a number of basic hypotheses and corresponding definitions in an effort to define the relationship among

three of social science's most basic concepts: love (relating deeply with or toward another in a potentially fulfilling, personal, and/or

social way), power (the probability that A can get B to do what A

wants B to do), and conflict (opposition or disagreement of any kind

on the part of one party in relation to the other). Four hypotheses

% are posited: Hi: Conflict in an ongoing relationship leads to love.

Hz: The state of attraction is the basic determinant of .I) the

influence potential (or quasi-power base) of A over B, and (2) the

favorability of the power aim. H3 : A will have more potential influence (or quasi-power) over B, the more B loves A. H4 : The * ultimate probability of a solution to conflict, as well as the

proximate resolvability of an issue, varies with (1) the reconcilability of the issue, (2) optimum knowledge, (3) integrative

bargaining, (4) channel(s) for dissent, ai.d (5) sharing depth.

-82-

A* %
The model proposed is designed to be applicable to both

micro and macro levels of analysis. A flow diagram facilitates

visualization of the theory. A partial application illustrates the

procedure and some of the basic hypotheses. Recommendations for

promoting love and avoiding harmful conflict are made.

Stamps, J. S. Metapatterns: Levels and complements. Systems Science

and Science. Proceedings of the 24th AnnuaL Vorth American

Meeting of the Society for General Systems Research, 1980,

533-539.

This paper reports on a study of the common concepts,

principles, and laws of general systems theories. Levels and complements are identified as the metapatterns (patterns of connection

common to a diversity of general models) in comprehensive evolutionary

models. Level structure refers to hierarchy and has long been an

important systems idea - organisms composed of organs composed of cells,

etc. Although it appears less explicitly in the literature, complementarity has always been implicit in the development of the systems

concept, particularly in the recognition of a second (to entropy) universal process - i.e., negentropy, order, syntropy, morphic tendency,

anamorphosis. Some complements in human life include right/left brain

lateralization, freedom/responsibility, and good/evil.

Three archetypal variations of these patterns are described:

genesis, emergency, and succession. Six additional subpatterns are

outlined which together constitute a theory of emergent evolution:

beginning, emergence, inclusion, complexity, chaos and acceleration.

The pattern of evolution is elaborated further in a four-stage cycle

of emergence: slow change; accelerated change; peaks, regressions,

and novelties; and stabilization and emergence.

The paper concludes with the suggestion that levels and

complements might be considered a synthetic rule of thumb, subsuming

the analytic prescription of repeated fragmentation.

Stein, A. The administration and management of organizations in a

cybernetic and humanistic milieu. Systems Thinking and the

Quality of Life. Proceedings of the L975 AnnuaZ 7or-h

American Meeting of the Society for eenerai Syst ems

i esearch, 1975, 324-330.

The author of this paper asserts that anticipated profound

transformations in every dimension of mankind's development present

a complex question regarding the possible cybernetic and humanistic

quality 3f our future. Two disciplines are of central relevance:

philosophy and history. A perception emerges of the administration and

management of organizations as process, profession, and science. The

-83-
fusion of general systems theory and cybernetics and an elaboration of

"Theories of General Cybernetic Systems," with primary emphasis on

design, development, and control, are proposed. Humanism and neohumanism are compared, and the significance of the latter in light

of Pitirim Sorokin's thesis concerning the "ideational" culture

("a unified system of culture based upon the principle of a supersensory

and superrational God as the only true reality and value") is stressed.

The author suggests that the primary task of administration

and management is to become a science with an explicity neo-humanistic

orientation. "If administration and management are cybernetic, if

human beings are perceived to be subsystems, elements of all social

organizations, and if these organizations are operating in a truly

cybernetic mannter, then the process is humanistic and in harmony

with the enveloping humanistic milieu. A necessary condition, though

not a sufficient condition, is the presence of as full a flow of

information as is possible into, through, and out of these organizations."

Sutherland, J. W. Systems: Analysis, adniniaoration, ard architectwre.

New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1975.

This book is designed to give the widest possible overview of

the system sciences to the widest possible audience. As such, the

subjects selected for discussion are those aspects of the system

sciences that are context-independent. The book is an inventory of

system concepts that blends the mathematical, statistical, and engi-

*' neering bases of the system sciences with the qualitative, deductive,

metaphysical, and idiographic capabilities normally associated with

the social or behavioral sciences.

In the first chapter, a brief attempt is made to set forth

some of the more basic and important aspects of the system approach

itself. Particularly stressed are the imperatives for the interdisciplinary attack on complex problems and the necessity for not being

d" bound to any particular methodological alternative. The key concept

of the isomorphism is introduced (a property shared between two or

more superficially different systems that tends to allow us to approach

them as a defined "class" of phenomena). In Chapter , the author

*1.. approaches the identification and exploitation of isomorphisms by

exploring the several different structural modalities that most realworld systems tend to exhibit. He then moves on, in Chapter 3, to the

several different behavioral or dynamic isomorphisms that predominate

among real-world phenomena. Also introduced is the concept of the

analogy, for which isomorphisms provide the building blocks. Chapter

4 delves into the realm of integrated systems- those phenomena in

which structural and behavioral properties are treated simultaneously.

-84-

J * *O* .. * * * 4 * * *.**
The author approaches the difficult and critical task of treating

complex systems as "wholes" through the use of the hypotheticodeductive method.

The book's next section involves consideration of the methods

and instruments available to the system scientist and a detailed

discussion of the procedural and operational aspects of system sciences.

Chapter 5 concerns the concept of "analytical congruence", the effi-

* ciency and effectiveness of the instruments employed in the production

of information pertinent to the solution of a decision or policy

problem. It is shown that the attempt to use instruments that are not

powerful enough in the face of the properties of a particular problem

leads to a condition of ineffectiveness (where the instruments simply

cannot get the information required for an adequate comprehension of

* the Problem). On the other hand, the use of instruments that are too

powerful results in inefficiency or "overkill", which is tantamount to

a misallocation of analytical resources. This chapter also introduces

the concept of the learning curve, whereby it is possible empirically

to audit the rate and efficiency of learning about a problem.

* Chapter 6 introduces what is called the "system architecture"

platform. This, basically, is a procedural paradigm for problemsolving, with special emphasis on a systematic approach to the solution

of extremely complex problems. Chapter 7 offers a system-based

methodology for policy-setting and decision-making. The significant

differences between these two activities are discussed and suggestions

* offered for joining them in a single procedural framework.

The last section of the book deals with system administration

and control. The immediate potential of system sciences for extending

the bounds of managerial rationality - in both the commercial and noncommercial sectors - is stressed.

Sutherland, J. W. Societal systems: Mlethodology, 'node lirg, and

'nanagement. New York: North-Holland, 1978.

* A societal system is a collection of individuals, bound

together by complex and possibly amorphous sets of interests, pursuing

a complex and possibly indeterminate set of ambitions. In the past,

societal systems have been ill-studied largely because of their basic

incompatibility with the preferred procedures of social science -

because (1) societal systems are not always empirically accessible in

all their components, (2) their critical properties are not always

amenable to precise measurement, either directly or through surrogation, and (3) being essential "organic" entities, societal systems

cannot be taken apart and studied analytically in a laboratory

environment. Because societal systems represent the highest level of

analytical challenge, they are a Proper subject for the system

* scientist.
The author of this book takes the position that the analysis

and management of societal systems implies some minimal innovation, but

relies primarily on an amalgamation of skills, data, and techniques

that already have a long and honored history. He therefore sets out to

attack societal phenomena by providing syncretic (a process of inquiry

which seeks to reconcile competitive paradigms by raising the subject

of inquiry to a higher level of abstraction) and interdisciplinary

interfaces among existing disciplines; he restores the hypotheticodeductive method to parity with inductive procedures, and pays

constant attention to the empirical dictate that all constructs

eventually should be validated through experimentation; and he attempts

to establish critical linkages between qualitative and quantitative

constructs to produce levels of insight and discipline that neither

could obtain in isolation.

Part I concerns methodological matters. Chapter 1 reflects

the great diversity of opinion and presumption about societal phenomena

and suggests that at least some of-this diversity is due to the operation of parochial perspectives that social scientists sometimes adopt.

Syncretic analysis is proposed as a technology for producing paradigms

that are less tendentious than the individual perspectives from which

they are constructed. Chapter 2 assesses the utility of the dialectical method as a means of societal system inquiry.

Part II concerns the problem of modeling societal systems.

Chapter 3 attempts to show how the fundamental structures of societal

systems are essentially responses to the behavioral predicates of the

individuals involved. The need is to define the bases by which both

ideological and non-ideological systems organize and maintain themselves. It further is argued how the deductive model components

* employed might be subjected to reality testing. Chapter 4 attempts

to generate an array of ideal-type social referents that, as fully as

possible, exhausts the real-world societal systems apparent to us from

empirical (historical) study. These ideal-types provide the basic

theoretical vehicles for societal system science and promote efficiency.

2 What is necessary is to link these essentially qualitative ideal-types

with quantitative implications. This is accomplished by the establishment of a behavioral matrix that sees societal transformation in terms

of simple Markov processes and allows the technician to assume his

proper role in studying societal phenomena.

En the book's last section, the author suggests that prophets

(as opposed to economists or sociologists or anthropologists, who all

* have their own biased perspectives) are perhaps best suited to be

entrusted with societal management. The section attempts to show how

prophets might prepare themselves.

-86-

~~7r
Swogger, G., Jr. Small group phenomena - A systems approach.

Systems Thinking and the Quality of Life. Proceedings

of the 1975 Annual North American Veeting of the Society

for General Systems Research, 1975, 282-290.

This paper attempts to develop a heuristic theory of small

groups. The development of small groups and the transactions of

members are conceptualized in terms of information processing and

systems thory. A theory of human communication which includes emotion

and behavior is developed from information theory. The author points

out that, in attempting to use such ideas in a systems approach to

groups, it is necessary to move from the analysis of fragments of

communication to larger patterns. In thinking of a group as a system,

it can be seen that (1) to a significant degree, the components

become a system via the development of a pattern of information

processing; and (2) the degree of "systemness" is something to be

investigated rather than assumed. It varies from one group to the

next and in the same group over time.

As the author notes, an individual in isolation interacts

with his physical environment, receiving information, acting on the

environment in terms of his goal complex, modifying it on the basis

of new information and feedback. In contact with other individuals,

other possibilities exist: achieving one's goals through modifying

the goal complex of others, modification of one's own goal complex

through interaction with others, and the possibility of a system of

shared goal complexes, with shared meanings and codes. It is this

shared goal complex that makes a group of individuals a system. It

further is suggested that routine, coordinated tasks require groups

of essentially homogeneous individuals, whereas creative, complex

tasks require essentially heterogeneous individuals.

Thayer, F. C. A enda to -ierarchy! An end to competition! New

York: FrankliuL Watts, 1973.

In this book, the author proposes a third alternative to the

current choices of unorganized anarchy or rigid bureaucracy. He

advocates "a social process carefully designed to preserve the best

of our past while casting aside the repression of hierarchy and the

destructiveness of competition." Hierarchy and competition are the

bases upon which contemporary capitalist democracies organize their

governmental and corporate systems. Thayer calls for an organizational revolution that will eliminate both.

Democratic government is bureaucratic and thus hierarchical.

In this hierarchy, says Thayer, individuals are instruments of

the organization and become alienated by doing merely what they are

told. The only way to self-actualize is to violate instructions --

-87-

u
an unacceptable condition. Hierarchy initially creates alienation,

competition reinforces both, and then alienation reinforces both

itself and hierarchy and competition. Consequently, competitionprovides no benefits, but instead is merely wasteful.

Thayer feels that we must remove the authority of individuals

to make decisions by themselves. He calls for a new social order

in which the organization will consist of innumerable small face-toface groups characterized by "openness, trust, and intensive interpersonal relations." Optimum group size will be five. Decisionmaking will be by consensus. Decision processes will resemble

ongoing sensitivity sessions; sexual overtones will be suppressed.

Elected officials will act only as members of policy processes, and

there will be an end to representative government and political

parties. There will be a shift away from production and toward

distribution. With hierarchy removed, income and employment will

become separate, and salaries will equalize. Traditional concepts

of promotion will disappear. There will be collective ownership,

whereby individuals will not accumulate wealth and property.

Organizations that retain the traditional hierarchical

structure will wither away, according to Thayer. The trends, he

feels, are becoming apparent: first, there are the "transorganiza-

* tional processes" (groups from different companies working together

temporarily), which enable individuals to influence what goes on in

organizations other than their own; second, "organizational development"

(group actualization) is working within organizations to eliminate

status differences between managers and employees.

Thayer, L. Informatics, ideology, and discombobulation: More on

popular intellectual delusions. Systems Thinking and the

Quality of Life. Proceedings of the Z975 Annua: Vorth

American Meeting of the Society~ for .7ene-ra Szisterms Research,.

19 75, 539-54 5.

With more information available to more people than ever

before in history, why is the quality of our lives increasingly

questionable, and why is our utter survival in jeopardy? These and

other questions may serve to reveal the underlying issues relating

to information systems and the quality of life: (1) If more - or

better - information is made available to people, will they make

"better" decisions (or judgments or policies, etc.)? (2) If more

information is made available to more people, will that enhance the

quality of life? (3) If, by newer and more powerful networking technologies, more and more people are thereby empowered to "conmmunicate"

with more and more people, will this contribute to the achievement of

a more humane existence ror more people on earth?

* -88-
The author of this paper contends that we need to answer

these questions in order to do the right thing for mankind and to

give us wisdom in the design of social systems. We are plagued by

a number of popular misconceptions about the communication process:

(1) that information or knowledge can be conveyed by any medium;

(2) that a sophisticated information system can compensate for the

inadequacies of its intended users; (3) that all truths are relative;

and (4) that we should assume endless "progress" and achieve some

ultimate state of maximum capacity of our information systems. The

ultimate test of the efficacy or human value of any system designed

to serve the long-range interests and ends of mankind, says the author,

is not how well it serves the worst of us, or even the "average" of

us, but how well it serves the best of us.

Toronto, R.. S. A general systems model for the analysis of org~anizational

change. 3ehavioraZ Science, 1975, 20, 145-156.

In this article, a model of organizations is developed using

the concepts of general systems theory (GST). The model provides a

set of logical assertions about causality in organizations and a

framework for the detection and analysis of organizational change.

Four major propositions derive directly from the model: (1) the

level proposition, (2) the constraint proposition, (3) the permanent

change proposition, and (4) the predominance proposition. The

propositions give rise to specific organizational hypotheses.

Two major limitations of systemic hypothesis testing of

organizational change are discussed. First, dynamic production

organizations cannot tolerate experimental controls, making the

question of causation more difficult than in traditional designs.

Second, testing hypotheses stemming from a general systems model,

the basis of which is holistic reasoning, requires the investigator

to take an almost clinical approach in his interpretation. This

renders his conclusions vulnerable to judgmental error and experimenter

bias.

Three hypotheses are tested using the methodological

orientation of OST -- holistic reasoning -- to demonstrate three

systemic methods of research: (1) The method of weak causal inference

makes an assertion of causality from trends in a set of data to a

series of antecedent events. (2) The method of strong causal inference

compares different kinds of data from different kinds of systems

and infers causality to the change interventions. (3) The method

of parallel trends compares indices, infers a causal relationship

between their trends, and infers causality to antecedent events.

-89-
vn Gigch, J. D. gerera-i se 3Stve s :ery. New York: Harper

Row, 1974.

This book is an attempt to espouse and clarify the concepts

of general systems theory (GST) in an applied organizational context.

As the author points out, "system" in this sense refers not to data

processing or information systems but to the set of systems of

"organized complexity" and to one of its subsets - the organizations

in which man lives, works, and plays. While the problems discussed

are those faced by all types of organizations, large and small, public

or private, social and/or political, they are not those normally

treated in books on management principles, organization theory, or

decision analysis. The issues are of a more general and pervasive

nature. They underlie the philosophy of organizations and may even

constitute their raison d'$tre.

Chapter 1 provides an introduction to and examples of the

systems approach. "System" is defined and the distinction made between

systems improvement and systems design; particular emphasis is placed

on the traditional shortcomings of systems improvement fostered by

"closed-systems" thinking. A methodology for systems design is proposed and relited to the perspective of the manager. Finally, an

example of the application of the approach to the criminal justice

system is described.

Chapter 2 describes the major aspects of applied GST and

outlines the main properties of systems and system domains. A comparison is made between the assumptions underlying both the analyticalmechanistic and systems approaches and the inadequacy of the former

for treating problems in the biological, behavioral, and social

domains emphasized.

Chapter 3 concerns the crucial role of decision-making in

the systems design process. The general decision-making process is

described, and issues are raised concerning the search for alternatives and programmed versus non-programmed decisions.

Chapter 4 discusses the importance of understanding the

various aspects of goals, priorities, and tradeoffs. In addition to

definitional distinctions and examples of the aforementioned terms,

the author points out the fallacy of the classic profit maximization

goal of the firm and discusses the difficulties of defining goals for

public enterprises.

Chapter 5 explores certain aspects of value theory and the

morality of systems". Costs and utility as measures of value are

discussed, as are the ethics involved in causing change, determining

,..-
goals, etc. The morality of systems is analyzed in terms not of

judging individual actions but of the effects of system design on

those individuals.

Chapter 6 is an initial discussion of the "what" and "why"

of quantification and measurement. Problems of semantics, specification, standards, accuracy, and control are described.

* Chapter 7 deals with problems of measurement in the social

sciences. The role of measurement in "hard" and "soft" systems is

discussed, and the forms of measurement admissible in the various

sciences are explored.

Chapter 8 focuses on the problems of measuring such things as

* gross national product, productivity, poverty, and crime and delinquency. Social indicators and social accounts are introduced as

evidence of new efforts to measure the performance of social systems.

Chapter 9 is a description of six types of decision models.

ro Chapters 10 and 11 deal with optimization and suboptimization

respectively. The point is made that optimization should be viewed as

embodying the formulation of the whole system rather than merely

input-output conversion. Suboptimization represents a middle ground

between our inability to define adequately the complexity of many

systems on the one hand and incrementalism, satisficing, and partial

* solutions on the other. The issue is how to find the "best" suboptimization.

Chapter 12 is an attempt to come to grips with complexity -

what it is and how to cope with it. Decomposable, nearly decomposable,

and non-decomposable systems are described.

Chapter 13 concerns implementation. Problems confronting

change agents - particularly the inevitable confrontations between

scientist and manager - are explored.

Chapter 14 discusses the importance and dimensions of consensus and expertise in facilitating change implementation. Methods

and models for obtaining agreement are presented.

Chapter 15 addresses the criticality of control - the regulation of the system once implemented. The control cycle is described

and the concepts of feedback and centralization versus decentralization elaborated.

-91-
Chapter 16 is a discussion of program planning and budgeting,

specifically the planning, programming, and budgeting system (PPBS).

The philosophical orientation is that budgets should be viewed as

plans rather than as control, management, or performance tools.

Finally, Chapter 17 is an appraisal of the success of the

systems approach to date, in light of existing orientations, methodological capabilities, and resource constraints.

van Giach, J. P. Information processing rates as measures of stress

and complexity in work systems. Systems Thinking and the

Quality of Life. Proceedings of the 1975 Annual North

* American Meeting of the Society for General Systems Research, 1975, 317-323.

In this paper, a general system model of production systems

is proposed in which total system complexity can be categorized

according to whether it can be identified with the main components

of the production systems: (.1) the manpower or individuals who perform

work; (2) the tasks to be carried our; (3) the organization which

determines the conditions and standards by which the work is performed;

(4) the productive system which is considered the integrating link

between individuals, tasks, and the organization. Attributes and

parameters for four different categories of complexities (objective

* complexity, subjective complexity, environmental complexity, and

systemic complexity) are shown to lead to appropriate yardsticks

for measurement.

Information processing rates which measure the entropy content

of work and the information handling capacity of the operators are

suggested as providing at least partial measures of the objective

complexity of work. Information processing rates also appear suitable

for assessing the subjective complexity of work, inasmuch as they can

reflect changes caused by conditions of stress in workers. The author

observes that mechanization tends to increase mental demands through

increases in work flow rates. Automation affects the entropy content

displayed in each sequence as well as the repetition rates of the work

4 sequences and thus have a double-barrel effect on information processing

rates.

-92-

5~%
van Gigch, J. P. & Nowakowska, M. A formalized approach to planning

* and freedom. General Systems Research: A Science, a

Methodology, a Technology. Proceedings of the 1979 North

American Meeting of the Society for General Systems Research,

1979, 30-34.

This paper is an extension of earlier work by the authors

concerning the possibilities of planning for freedom. Freedom is

conceptualized as the state of a "freedom function deriving from

conditions prevailing in a planning system. These conditions are the

result of the actions of planners formalized as action functions

resulting in various states of monopolization. Action functions

are subject to objective functions spelling the planner's goals. En

0 turn, how planners decide on goals depends on their world-views or

the assumptions and values which they and their clients hold.

The authors attempt to present a Formal Theory of Freedom

(FTF). They discuss (1) freedom functions (assumptions, conditions,

* opportunities/barriers), (2) objective functions (binding constraints

over the space of feasible solutions), (3) assumptions (rationality,

values), (4) action functions (assignments of power -- equalityinequality -- and positions -- participation-alienation), (5)

conditions prevailing in the system (equality, participation

expertise, technology, change, responsiveness, conflict, control,

iptimality, and morality), and (6) opportunities (which enhance

0 freedom) and barriers (which hinder it).

Weick, K. E. The Social Psychology of Organizing. Reading M. A..

* Addison-Wesley, 1969.

The author's stated purpose is to help the reader learn

about organizations, rather than what they are. He defers defining

organization, maintaining that organizational change occurs so

rapidly that such definitions are easily outdated. Rather than

* assuming complexity and the total difference of the organization

from smaller groups, the reader is asked to assume the existence of

* processes that create, perpetuate, and dissolve social collectivities.

These processes constitute organizing and their execution is the

* organization.

C The book's first chapter describes organizing -- alliance

formation, splitting into factions, and leader selection. Barnard's

idea of the upward delegation of authority by subordinates is

underscored, as is the suggestion that group associations form more

around primitive individual considerations (emotion) than around

abstract intellectual considerations.

-93-

3 .- - * ,. i Z4-. 
Chapter 2 highlights some of the problems of contemporary

organization theory, such as the methodological shortcomings of case

studies and field experiments. Such methods tend to focus on the

unusual and irregular, rather than the routine; they concentrate

on short, rather than long, time spans; and in defining the problem

* - at hand, they tend to reinforce managerial perspectives.

Chapter 3 delineates seven changes needed in existing organization theory: (1) Processes involved in organizing must continually

be reaccomplished. (2) Control is a prominent process within

organizations, but it is accomplished by relationships, not by

people. (3) Goal consensus is not a precondition of order and

regularity. (4) Triads are the basic unit of analysis in organization theory. (5) Attentional processes are a crucial determinant

of human organizing. (6) Organizations continue to exist only to the

* degree that they are able to maintain a balance between flexibility

and stability. (7) Organizing is directed toward removing equivocality

from the informational environment.

libecjentdiscussion is devoted to elaboration of these

points. The author concludes by suggesting a number of practical

considerations for future thinking about organizations and organizing:

* (1) Don't panic in the face of disorder. (2) You never do one thing

all at once. (3) Chaotic action is preferable to orderly inaction.

(4) The most important decisions are often the least apparent. (5)

You should coordinate processes rather than groups.

Weinberg, G. M. An introduction to general systems thinking. New

York: Wiley, 1975.

This book is an introduction to general systems concepts

intended for three different audiences: the general systems theorist,

the specialist, and the general reader. The book begins by stating the

problem area addressed by general systems thinking: those systems too

complex to be treated by traditional reductionist scientific methods

and too organized to be treated by statistical methods. Chapter 2, in

turn, defines the general systems approach to organized complexity,

focusing on the concept of analogy; the author suggests that analogy,

used properly, that is to say not merely to simplify but to develop

precise, explicit, predictive models, is the basic tool of the general

Systems approach.

In Chapter 3, titled "System and Illusion", the author

introduces the main theme of the book: the role of the observer. A

system is defined as a set of objects, the relationships between the

objects and between their attributes, and the relationships between

* the objects, attributes and relationships, and the observer. There

is no way to eliminate the observer.

-94-
II The next two chapters deal with one of two main approaches

to studying systems: the black box approach. Two major points are

made. The first has to do with the scope and grain of observation;

these must be decided. But, because we are finite beings, scope and

grain must be limited for all observers. This, unhappily, leads to

the phenomenon of complementarity. Any two observers, observing the

same thing, are bound to differ to some degree. Secondly, the

technique of decomposition is limited in its usefulness, simply

because all complex systems cannot be decomposed adequately.

Chapter 6 deals with the other approach to studying systems:

the structural white box approach, the most interesting example being

simulation, of which Weinberg discusses strengths and shortcomings.

In the final chapter, the author previews the major areas of

S general systems theory not covered in this book but for which future

books are promised. This book attempts to deal with the first of

* three questions which, the author says, govern general systems

thinking: "Why do I see what I see?" Two questions remain: 'Why

do things stay the same?" and "Why do things change?"

40

* Wenninger, E. P. Entropy, equilibrium, and organizations: Problems

of conceptualization. Organization & Administrative

Sciences, 1975, 6, 23-31.

* This article addresses the appropriateness of two general

systems concepts - entropy and equilibrium - for the study of social

systems. Social systems, such as organizations, are characterized by

a greater degree of functional autonomy - i.e., of independent action

among elements, components, or members - than are natural or artificial systems.

The author concludes that organizations are sustained by

communicative processes and the transmission of information. He is

forced to reject the concept of entropy as a useful metaphor because

of the lack of definitional precision and rigor. Similarly, he

rejects the concepts of equilibrium and disequilibrium. Few organi4; cations reach true equilibrium states. The alternative concept of

steady state, based on the dynamics of open systems, is felt to be

more useful and applicable to the study of organizations. An organization in an equilibrium state can be regarded as a closed system

with maximum entropy and minimum free energy. No energy is needed

for its maintenance, nor can energy be obtained from it. Work can

only be obtained from a system that is open and in a steady state -

a system tending toward equilibrium but never reaching it. An open

system maintains a steady state as it takes in energy-rich and

information-rich material whose contents are transformed into work.

-95-
In human organizations, what are needed are inputs of members rich

in energy and/or information but organizationally inert in the sense

that they will neither push the system toward equilibrium nor cause

it to disintegrate.

Wenninger, E. P. Systemic stress, group functioning, and individual

mental health. Systems Thinking and the Quality of Life.

Proceedinas of the 1975 Annual North AmericanfMeeting of the

Society for -general Systems Research, 1975, 383-388.

While social systems are becoming more planned, more "intentional", the human components are less willing to accept roles as

system components on the basis of custom or tradition or social

pressure. Increased rationalization of the social order has its

impacts at the individual as well as the collective level. Individuals

have increased awareness of themselves as entities with legitimate

needs and with rights to have those needs met independent of system

needs. They also are becoming less able to cope with the intense

information processing demands of our increasingly organized urban

systems.

In this paper, problems of coupling of components at several

levels are explored. Hypotheses are suggested which, once tested,

may move general systems theorists further towards a theory of intentional systems. The author refers to three alternative design options

for organizations: (1) reduce individual functional autonomy and

increase tightness of coupling; this tends to threaten adaptability and

stability; (2) permit individual functional autonomy only in consonance

with functioning of larger system; this tends to be infeasible in

human systems; (3) differentiate functional autonomy so that autonomy

in one sector does not interfere with the functional activities needed

to perform in another sector. An hypothesis worthy of further investigation is that systems function most effectively under tight coupling

of components and relatively high degrees of functional autonomy; but

functional autonomy tends to generate pressures which, over time,

loosen the degree of coupling, permitting more and more components to

engage in activities counter-productive to principal system functions.

The system deteriorates, resulting in a strain toward tighter coupling,

and the cycle repeats.

-96-
Wickenden, T. H., II. Informational requirements of social choice

mechanisms. The General Systems Paradigm: Science of

Change and Change of Science. Proceedings of the Annual

* ANorth American Meeting of the Society for General Systems

Research, 1977, 211-218.

This paper describes an application of information theory to

problems of social choice. Social choices are defined in terms of the

transmission of information between parts of a social system and

are shown to be problematic whenever an interconnected environment

makes the outcome of an action taken by one individual or group

contingent upon the action taken by others. Using game theory to

represent contingent environments, the informational requirements of

social choice mechanisms are examined as problems of regulation and

problems of control. Solutions to these problems are generated by

6 extending the Law of Requisite Transmission to encompass complex

variables describing strategies, outcomes, and preferences.

The author stresses that the findings presented should be

construed with regard to internal social control through collective

rp social choice mechanisms. He observes that (1) the information

required for a desired degree of social control may not be available,

and (2) far more information is transmitted within a social system

today than is required for optimal social control.

tiilbanks, T. J. Distance, diversity, and stability. Systems

Thinking and the Quality of Life. Proceedings of the

1975 Annual North American Meeting of the Society for

General Systems Research, 1975, 607-614.

Ecologists hypothesize that a more diverse system is a more

stable one. The topic of this paper is the relationship between the

shrinking of space - an effect of modern transportation and communication technology - and cultural stability or instability. In seeking

the diversity-stability hypothesis of ecology with cultural systems

and geographic theory about diffusion processes; (2) briefly considers

whether or not the framework is consistent with the evidence; and

(3) considers the overall implications of this analysis.

The paper suggests that the diverstiy-stability hypothesis

may apply to lack of interaction between locations within the system.

Space-shrinking encourages interaction, therefore tending to reduce

diversity, and thus can cause a cultural system to become less stable.

This speculative line of reasoning seems both true and untrue, partly

because the diversity-stability relationship is complex; but, to the

extent that it is true, it suggests a need for the preservation of

cultural variety as a contribution to cultural stability.

-97-
Zeleny, M. Organization as an organism. The General Systems Paradigm:

Science of Change and Change of Science. Proceedings of ,"he

Annual North American Meeting of the Society 'or G3eneral

Systems Research, 1977, 262-170.

An organization can be viewed as the kind of order achieved

by arranging the relations between the parts according to a preconceived

plan. Such a view implies a deliberate coordination effort on the

part of man, a process of organization design. Although this statement

* is obviously inadequate for characterizing biological and other

natural systems, the traditional approach to dealing with social

systems and institutions places major reliance on the processes of

optimization, prescription, design, and arrangement. This paper

points out that social organizations actually are a complex mix of

both spontaneous and artificial (man-designed) processes of interaction.

Much too little effort to date has been expended toward understanding

the spontaneous aspects of human institutions.

A simulation analogy of a simple process of component

interaction is presented. It views the manager as the catalyst rather

than the designer of an organization. The resulting organism, though

the result of human action, thus has not been created by men deliberately

arranging the elements in a preconceived pattern.

Zwick, M. Closed systems also show equifinality. Systems Science

and Science. Proceedings of the 24th Annual North American

Meeting of the Society for General Systems Research, 1980,

205-207.

This paper addresses a possible source of confusion, which

appears often in the systems literature, of "closed" systems.

Specifically, the literature commonly states that "open" systems

exhibit the property of equifinality, wherein a particular final

state of the system may be reached via different routes from different initial states; this stands in contrast to "closed" systems,

where different initial states always result in correspondingly

different final states.

The author points out that much confusion is created in

translating the thermodynamic concepts of isolated (exchanging

neither matter nor energy with their environments), closed (exchanging

energy but not matter), and open (exchanging both matter and energy)

systems into dynamic systems terms. He contends that the distinction

commonly drawn between open and closed systems is incorrect, unless

one arbitrarily chooses to describe the former thermodynamically and

the latter dynamically. Further, the property of equifinality concerns only the possibility of arriving at a final state from different

initial states. It does not represent the essence of the value of the

openness concept for explaining phenomena of living systems.

-98-
II. ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR,

EFFECTIVENESS & DEVELOPMENT

-99-
-fS!lZ

Sj

V.q~

'II
Adams, J. S. The structure and dynamics of behavior in organizational

boundary roles. In Dunnette, M. D. (Ed.). Handbook of industrial and organizational pyschology. Chicago: Rand McNally, 1976.

The need for effective organizational boundary functions

increases as the turbulence of an organization's environment increases.

At present, turbulence is high and will increase, probably exponentially,

* in the future. Attention to boundary functions and to behavior in

boundary roles is, therefore, indicated.

Presented in this chapter are: (1) a discussion of organizational boundary functions and of boundary role behavior; (2) a

structural model of organizational boundary systems: (3) a discussion

*of important variables of which boundary role behavior is a function;

(4) a limited discussion of experiments and untested hypotheses

relating to these variables; and (5) an analysis of the dynamic

interactions among the variables. The chapter concludes with a

brief statement on the conceptual status of behavioral disciplines

in the larger scheme of things.

S

Alderfer, C. P. An organizational syndrome. Adiministrative Science

*,uarterly, 1968, 12, 440-460.

* In this study the concept of organizational climate was

operationally defined as a series of relationships between need

satisfactions and organization variables. The needs studied include:

pay, respect from superiors, and use skills and abilities; the organization variables are job complexity and seniority. A field study

was carried out over a period of three months in the largest divison

* of a manufacturing organization. Measurements were taken on needs

(pay, respect from superiors, and skills) and organizational variables

(job complexity and seniority). Approximately 300 randomly selected

* employees were asked to complete either an interview or a questionnaire.

The results of correlations and regression analyses

performed on the data were: (1) Satisfaction with respect from

superiors decreased as job complexity increased and as seniority

increased. (2) Satisfaction with use of skills and abilities

increased as job complexity increased. (3) Compared with employees

holding analogous but narrowly delimited jobs, the employees holding

L enlarged jobs showed less satisfaction with respect fro6 superiors

and more satisfaction with opportunities to use their skills and

abilities. Two explanations are offered for the decay in superiorto-subordinate relationships. First, the more complex jobs required

more interpersonal competence of both superior and subordinate and,

-101-

Z.................. z. Z*
Alderfer, C. P. Change processes in organizations. In Dunnette, M. D.

(Ed.). Handbook of industriaZ and organizatiorai psychoLogy.

Chicago: Rand McNally, 1976.

Social technology is more advanced than theory building for

applying behavioral science to organizations. In this chapter,

boundary permeability and relationship mutuality, two concepts from

open systems theory, are formulated to explain steady and changing

states of individuals, groups, and organizations. Each level of

human unit is examined from both internal and external perspectives;

several cross-level hypotheses are proposed. Optimal boundary

. .permeability occurs when mutual relationships are established among

subsystems and between the system and its environment. Interpersonal

and intergroup mutuality tend to be positively associated. Planned

change programs in organizations are analyzed according to this

., "boundary-relationship" perspective. Organizations change in order

to satisfy human needs more fully. Therefore, change programs

introduced by applied behavioral scientists are fueled by the energy

of human needs, but they vary according to the level of human unit

they take as change target. The chapter closes by proposing a series

of conceptually based guidelines for applying behavioral science

to organizations.

Alderfer, C. P. & Brown, L. D. a.rn" -a r *nhainz: .A- "

of open systems theory to organizational diagnosis and

change. Yale University: Department of Administrative

Sciences, 1973. AD771-423.

This study reports on a four-year organizational diagnosis

and change program. A theory of organizational research methods

with application to both basic research and diagnosis is presented,

and three methodological studies employing the theory are discussed.

Three diagnostic chapters reveal the investigators' initial clinical

impressions, the effects of the system on the individuals, and the

effects of the system on the key group. A theory of consultation

is delineated, and examples from this entire study are used to

make its meaning operational. Survey feedback was employed as a

link between diagnosis and action, and the impact of the intervention

was evaluated. Other developmental interventions are described which

include the establishment of internal change agents, the alteration of

*' .socialization practices, and the change of governance procedures in

the institution.

Evaluation of the project proceeds in two streams: (i) an

assessment committee from the organization reviewed the consultation

activities and prepared a report for the system; and (2) a repeated

and brief questionnaire compared the state of the system after

intervention with that during diagnosis. The final chapter assesses

the broad contributions and limitations of the study.

-102-
in the particular company studied, this job demand was not being

adequately met. Second, rapid company growth and technological

* change provided continuing source of career anxiety and thus put

additional strains on superior-to-subordinate relationships. It

is suggested that this climate is neither unique to the particular

organization, nor general, but rather reflects some of the consequences of rapid change, and as such, contains implications for

planning both organizational and technological innovations.

Alderfer, C. P. Hz:aan needs and organizational development.

Yale University: School of Organization and Management,

1975. ADA017-407.

* This final report reviews and summarizes the research

produced during a project conducted for the Office of Naval Research.

The foci of this research were on human needs in organizational

settings and the theory and methods of organizational devleopment.

Research emphasis was placed on the latter. Eight technical reports

emanating from this study are summarized.

TR-1 deals with change processes in organizations. The

report is a systems theory-oriented literature review aimed at

identifying key variables that explain stability and change in

human systems. TR-2 presents a new social technology for the

conduct of survey feedback. The peer-group - intergroup model

developed herein departs from the traditional family group model by

recognizing that system-wide dynamics influence and are influenced

by the relations among groups as well as within groups. TR-3

is a critical analysis of problems which have arisen in the practice

of OD because of the misunderstandings in transferring learning

from laboratory education to organizational change. TR-4 describes

the use of practices derived from change process theory to construct

a relatively unique experimental social psychology laboratory which

permitted experimental testing of hypotheses drived from ERG need

theory. TR-5 provides an in-depth case study of organizational

change conducted in a boarding school, emphasizing the value of

confronting the tensions between research and action within a

single investigation. TR-6 presents evidence that clients may

transfer their attitudes from a previous to a subsequent intervention effort -- the HEWEGA effect. TR-7 provides a theoretical

framework for organizational diagnosis by relating change process

theory to events that occur at each phase of the diagnostic process.

Finally, TR-8 describes how an intergroup communications group was

designed in accord with principles derived from change process theory

and the key events which occurred during the life of the group.

-103-
Aldrich, H. & Herker, D. Boundary spanning roles and organizational

structure. Academy of Management Review, 1977, 2, 217-230.

This paper examines the creation, elaboration and functions of

boundary spanning roles, with attention to environmental and technological sources of variation in their structure. In the open systems

framework used, the interaction between an organization and its environment, and so the existence of boundaries, are taken as givens. What

remains problematic, however, is the boundary spanning activity. An

examination is made of the functions served by boundary roles, the

generation of boundary units and roles relating to organizations and

their environments, and the environmental and organizational sources

of variation in the structure of boundary roles. While existing

literature is used in the arguments presented, the discussion is largely

speculative.

The picture of boundary spanning roles portrayed in this

article has two implications for the study of formal organizations.

First, this view of organization-environment interaction is in contrast

to current literature which sees organizations responding as "wholes"

to environmental influence. In this study boundary spanning roles are

seen as the critical link between environmental characteristics and

organizational structure. Because the organization faces multiple

environments, it can have a variety of boundary roles of units with

different structural characteristics. Second, it suggests the need

for further empirical studies of changes in boundary spanners' performance and roles under different environmental conditions and over time.

4N

Alexander, E. R. The design of alternatives in organizational

contexts: A pilot study. A1%d'iniat(.-raz~se ccience auar :er~y,

1979, 24, 382-404.

A review of decision research suggests that the design

stage is a neglected aspect of the decision-making process. This

study develops a conceptual model for analyzing the design of alternatives in organizations, and applies it in three case studies. The

decision process is modelled as a sequence of three stages: (1)

perception of the need for a decision and goal articulation; (2)

development of alternatives; and (3) choice and implei'entation of the

preferred action.

The model has two basic dimensions which may affect the

range and quality of options generated in the design process. One

is the mix and type of creativity and search; the other is the degree

and type of closure to other phases of decision-making. Comparative

analysis of the cases offers qualified support for the hypotheses

and clear evidence that the impact of alternatives design on decision

outcomes warrants greater attention to this stage of the decisionmaking process.

-104-
Argyris, C. &nderstndn raitoaibevi. Homewood, IL:

The Dorsey Press, Inc., 1960.

This book focuses on the diagnosis of organizational behavior.

It begins with an exposition of the theoretical framework at work in

this analysis, and then considers the various elements of organizational behavior through an examination of empirical research. A model

of organizational behavior is presented through a series of propositions

* regarding task (work) specialization, chain of command, unity of direction, span of control, and rationality. The model conceptualizes the

organization as a grand strategy which individuals create to achieve

objectives that require the effort of many. Guideposts to research

methodology in this framework are discussed.

* The remainder of the book deals with the diagnostic procedures

and data analysis appropriate to research on organizational behavior.

The semistructured research interview is discussed in detail as the

model best suited for the particular types of problems studied and the

models reported in this book. Models for analyzing the data gathered

from interviews are reviewed and exemplified in transcripts from actual

programs conducted in various organizations. Four examples are given

of the usefulness of the framework in organizational research. The

first is an example of deepening our understanding of the organization;

the other three are of concrete predictions about future human behavior

in the organization.

Argyris, C. Organization and innovation. Homewood, IL: Richard D.

Irwin, Inc. 1965.

This book has three principal objectives: (1) To present the

preliminary findings of studies on the influence of varying degrees

of interpersonal competence among top managers on an organization's

innovativeness, risk-taking and problem-solving effectiveness -- as

perceived by the participants. (2) To present a new system of

* categories which can be used to observe variables related to interpersonal competence and with which useful predictions can be made

and tested. (3) To develop a model, based on the three studies and

a review of the literature, which relates the degree of interpersonal

competence with innovation. The hypothesis tested in this framework

is that the degree of interpersonal competence observed in the organizations studied is low enough to be a major cause of the deterioration

of innovation in organization.

Several research and development companies were selected for

observation. Based on an open systems model of the organization, a

model of R&D deterioration was developed as follows: An input of

-105-
relatively low interpersonal competence (with high technical competence)

leads to participants experiencing low feelings of essentiality and

success on the interpersonal level. This results in low problemsolving effectiveness on technical issues that involve the participant's

self-esteem or organizational security. As problem-solving effectiveness decreases, the need for people, resources and time increases

as do the researcher's frustration and rigidity towards change. The

feedback loop between management and researchers carries dissatisfaction, low morale, and concern over increased costs. Intergroup conflict

and competition result, and with it the practice of hiding bad news

from the management. The increasing mistrust and lack of communication

'C leads to a feedback activity that supports and reinforces a relatively

low interpersonal competence. The loop is closed, and self-maintaining

system becomes slowly less effective and innovative.

The objective of this book is not aimed at solving the

problem of innovation deterioration in R&D companies. Rather, it

offers a conceptual framework, grounded in systems theory, and a

series of propositions as means of understanding the dynamic at work

in such organizations. Suggestions are made for both further

research and change pro-rams which offer potential amelioration of

this problem.

Argyris, C. Managemnent and orcanizationaL deve'Lornert. New York:

McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1971.

This book focuses on the human resources of an organization.

It asks how a quality of life can be created and maintained within an

organization which allows the participants to become more efficient

decision-makers. The book describes the journey of three organizations

9 from XA toward YB. XA stands for Theory X, Pattern A - a denotation

given by McGregor to a set of assumptions management has about its

* people (X), and by the author to a set of behavioral patterns associated

with Theory X (A). YB is its antithesis. Theory X denotes a set of

assumptions by management that people cannot be trusted, and prefer to

be controlled by, and to be dependent upon, their management for all

actions. Pattern A represents the interpersonal behavior, group %% dynamics and organizational norms associated with Theory K. Theory Y

denotes a set of management assumptions about man as an active contributor to his and to the organization's well-being. Pattern B represents

the interpersonal, group and organizational dynamics associated with

this view of man. This book, in emphasizing the difficulty of the path

from XA to YB, offers the professional consultant suggestions on how to

deal with some of the problems and frustrations that will be encountered.

-106-
Argyris, C. intervention theoryg andm'ethod: A b~ehavio ai scence

* view. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, 1973.

0 This book represents the author's first attempt to construct

a theoretical framework for consulting, which he names "intervention"

The three primary tasks of any intervention activity are: free choice,

valid and useful information, and internal commitment. Change is not

a primary task. The ultimate goal of intervention is the facilitation

6 of competent, effective system functioning. The six criteria by which

attainment of this can be assessed are: (1) awareness of relevent

* information, (2) understanding by the relevant parts, (3) manipulability, (4) realistic cost, (5) leading to a solution that prevents

recurrence of the problem without deteriorating, and (6) preferably

increasing the problem-solving, decision-making and implementing

40 processes. In order to achieve these criteria, it is necessary to

develop certain minimal conditions among individuals (e.g., selfacceptance, trust, etc.), about valid information, among groups, and

of system norms that support these activities. Inquiry is made into

the probabilities that client systems will tend to manifest these

conditions; they seem to be low. To make matters more difficult, the

4ip very research and diagnostic methods used by the interventionist may

also inhibit his effectiveness. Conditions under which interventionists

will probably work in human systems are examined, along with the conditions that tend to lead to ineffective intervention activity.

The remainder of the book focuses on the practical concerns

* of choosing a client system and the diagnostic methods most appropriate

to a particular type of organization. This book deals primarily with

the initial phases of intervention: the theory and method issues. A

later volume will examine the later phases, including evaluation.

Arroba, T. Y. Decision-making style as a function of occupational

group, decision content and perceived importance. Journ'alof Occurationai Psychology, 1978, 51, 219-226.

This study investigates group decision-making style in situ

in order to determine some of the factors which influence differential

decision-making behavior in different situations. This approach differs

from the widely held view of decision-making style as analogous to a

personality variable which is consistent over different types of

* decisions. Rather, relevant determining factors are believed to be

the occupation of the decision maker, the content area of the decision,

and its subjectively perceived importance. The relationships between

* these and decision-making style are discussed.

-107-
Thirty-five managers and 29 manual workers were asked to

list 16 decisions which they had already made and to rate these for

perceived degree of importance. The content of the decision, workrelated or personal, was noted. In subsequent interviews, details

were obtained on the decision-making behavior used in 523 decisions,

which were assigned to a style category: 'no thought', 'complaint',

'logical', 'emotional', 'intuitive', or 'hesitant'. Analysis of the

four-way contingency table showed that occupational group, content

of the decision and perceived importance were each independently

associated with decision-making style. Occupational group was also

related to the content of the decisions listed, and with use of the

'no thought' and 'logical' styles; content of the decision was related

to use of the 'logical' and 'emotional' styles; and perceived importance

was associated with use of the 'emotional', 'intuitive', 'no thought',

and 'logical' styles.

Baidridge, J. V. & Burnham, R. A. Organizational innovation:

Individual, organizational, and environmental impacts.

Administrative Science Quarterly, 1975, 20, 165-176.

Research on the iiffusion of innovation and organizational

change has too often focused on the wrong clusters of variables. A

more productive analysis of the change process would shift focus from

individualistic variables to roles, organizational structure, and

environmental factors. The results of two research projects on

organizational change are presented.

The first study examined 20 randomly selected schools in 7

districts in the San Francisco Bay Area. The second, a year later,

focused on a random sample of 264 school districts in Illinois. The

dependent variable in both studies was innovation; the independent

variables, organizational size and complexity and environmental

variability. Correlations were calculated among the variables.

Results support the theoretical argument. The findings indicate:

(1) Individual characteristics (e.g., sex, age, personal attitudes)

do not seem to be important determinants of innovative behavior

among people in complex organizations. However, administrative

positions and roles do seem to have an impact on the involvement of

an individual in the innovation process. (2) Structural characteristics of the organization (e.g., size and complexity) strongly

affect the organization' s innovative behavior. (3) Environmental

input from the community and other organizations is a major determinant

of an organization's innovative behavior.

-108-
Barrow, J. C. The variables of leadership: A review and conceptual

framework. Academy of Management Review, 1977, 2, 231-251.

The primary objective of this article is to develop an

empirically-based conceptual framework of leadership by reviewing

much of the existing literature, identifying variables involved in

a leadership situation, categorizing the variables via factor analytic

techniques, and structuring the resulting factors into a framework

which exhibits both the factors and their potential interrelationships.

A review is made of empirical studies of leadership which have been

classified into four primary orientations: leader behavior investigations, leadership effectiveness theories, situational and reciprocal

causation investigations, and normative leadership approaches.

A leadership effectiveness framework is constructed as a

result of a factor analysis of the variables identified in the reviewed

studies. This model is trichotomous, interrelating three sets of

variables: leader characteristic factors, leader behavior factors,

and environmental factors. It is argued that such a framework

provides a partial mechanism for overcoming the four problem areas

that currently plague leadership research. (1) It delineates

numerous environmental influences which impact on leadership effectiveness. (2) It identifies numerous leader characteristics. (3) It

conceptualizes leadership effectiveness as a function of complex

interactions rather than as linear relationships. (4) It serves to

integrate the findings of research to date, providing a conceptualized

summary of the factors to be identified in a study of leadership.

Future planned development of this framework is described.

Bartee, W. M. & Cheyunski. F. A methodology for process-oriented

organizational diagnosis. The Journal of Applied Behaviorai

Science, 1977, 13, 53-68.

This paper presents a specific methodology for organizational diagnosis, which in order to be successful, requires that an interventionist as a third-party facilitator attend to many very specific

(though sometimes subtle) process aspects. The traditional techniques

used for organizational diagnosis -- questionnaires, interviews, and

participant observation -- are criticized as being content-influential.

The process-oriented methodology presented involves the interventionist's interaction with the client in designing groups that

Wrepresent four different consitituencies of a particular organization.

These constituencies are: resource-providers, technology-developers,

direct-service providers, and service-acquirers. The initial

diagnosis and the initial intervention are achieved by conducting

a problem diagnosis workshop. Some pragmatic aspects concerning

an effective diagnostic intervention learned through extensive

* research experience are reported herein.

-109-
Bass, B. M. organizational A systems survey development. research Th.e feedback Journal for of management Applied and

BehavioraL Science, 1976, 12, 214-229.

This paper represents an approach to research in social

psychology where subjects gain practical on-the-job self-knowledge

directed toward change, and the researcher gains new understanding

leading to model building and theory development of the factors that

describe supervisory behavior in various situations. This approach

is known as survey feedback. A questionnaire completed by a manager

and his immediate subordinates generates scores on organizational,

group, task, personal and interpersonal factors; management styles;

and outputs of effectiveness and satisfaction. After the raw

data from a particular workgroup or system are analyzed, the manager

obtains a computerized printout called a PROFILE of the discrepancies

between his subordinates and himself as well as normative data to

help him plan change. This constitutes the feedback phase of the

OD intervention. Initial follow-up suggests that the PROFILE

procedure is seen to promote change particularly in situations

where subordinates had no decision-making input and perceived

conditions as disorderly and poorly managed. Correlational

analyses of past data suggest that authoritative managerial direction ft. is more frequent when situations are regular, clear and structured;

but such direction is perceived to be more effective under reverse

conditions. Manipulative bosses are downgraded, while consultative

superiors are favored. -"4

3as, 3. M., Farrow, D. L., Valenzi, E. R. & Solomon, R. J.

Management styles associated with organizational, task,

personal, and interpersonal contingencies. Journal of

Applied Psychology, 1975, 60, 720-729.

Prior studies with subordinates and managers from public

and private agencies resulted in the development of a 31-scale

Profile questionnaire conceptualized in a systems framework of

input, transform, and output variables. In this study, the

Profile was completed by 78 managers and 407 of their subordinates.

Convergent and concurrent validity studies generally supported the

validity of the scales.

Five management styles measures were found to be conceptually

but not empirically, independent. The five management styles -- direction, negotiation, consultation, participation, and delegation --

differentially correlated with organizational, task, intrapersonal and interpersonal variables, as well as with measures of workunit effectiveness and satisfaction. Results of a stepwise regression

analysis showed that direction was most likely to appear with structure

and clarity, negotiation with short-term objectives and authoritarian

subordinates, consultation with long-term objectives and intragroup .amon,, participation with clarity and warmth, and delegation

..i:h warmth and lack of routine tasks.

-110-
Beckhard, R. Organization development: Strategies and nodes.

Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., 1969.

This book provides a relatively systematic description of

the state-of-the-art in organization development, and sets up some

criteria upon which an OD practitioner can make decisions on the

planning and conduct of OD programs and activities. Chapter I

introduces the bakcground and causes for the increased concern with

* organization development. Changes in the social and business

environment as well as changes in values are placing demands on the

organization to adapt and remain flexible. Chapter 2 defines organization development as an effort which is planned, organization-wide

and managed from the top aimed at increasing organizational effectiveness and health through plnaned interventions in the organization's

processes, using behavioral science knowledge. This phenomonen

is then compared to management development, training, and operations

research.

Chapter 3 reviews and describes the types of strategies,

tactics, and activities that are used in organization development

efforts. These include strategies aimed at team development, maximizing intergroup relationships, and facilitating goal-setting and

planning activities. Chapters 4 through 8 cite actual cases of

organization-wide planned change efforts. Chapter 9 goes on to

analyze the strategies used in each of these cases in order to determine the conditions and characteristics of successful and unsuccessful

OD efforts. Chapter 10 is devoted to the actual managing of OD

efforts, including the use of outside sources. The final chapter

looks ahead at the major influences in the field of OD in the next

decade.

Beehr, T. A. Aierarchical cluster analysis of the Profile of

Organizational Characteristics. JournaZ of AppLied

PsychoZogy, 1977, 62, 120-123.

Likert's Profile of Organizational Characteristics has been

used frequently in organizational development efforts. The purpose

of this study is to determine whether the theoretical dimensions of

this instrument could be replicated empirically by hierarchical

cluster analysis. The survey was administered to 592 salaried employees of a Canadian continuous process plant. The hierarchical

cluster analysis solution at the step most closely resembling the

theoretical dimensions of the instrument contained clusters resembling the instrument's dimensions of leadership, communication, and

control. The instrument's decision-making dimension was divided

into two clusters; the clusters representing the instrument's

dimensions of motivation, interaction-influence, and goal-setting

were not present. Suggestions are offered for further development

of the instrument.

-111- -III
Beer, M. The technology of organization development. In Dunnette,

M. D. (Ed.). Handbook of industial and oraanizationaZ

psycho-logy. Chicago: Rand McNally, 1976.

This chapter presents a framework for conceptualizing and

evaluating the growing social technology of organization change and

development (OD). The historical foundations for OD are discussed

briefly. The many techniques and methods of OD are described within

an organizing framework and evaluated in terms of current research

and theory. The first type of technique discussed is structured

and unstructured laboratory training. The reasons for its success

and failure are offered, and its role in OD is placed in perspective.

Diagnostic methods, including survey feedback, interview feedback,

confrontation meetings, and others, are also discussed. Process

interventions, including team building, meeting processing, intergroup

meetings, counseling, task forces, and interpersonal peacemaking are

described, and relevant research and theory provided. Structural

interventions and inventions, such as job enrichment, matrix

structures, the Scanlon Plan, and Human Asset Accounting are described

and evaluated. Finally, the problem of integrating techniques

into an overall OD strategy is addressed. Pre-programmed strategies,

such as Grid OD, are contrasted with more organic consultant-centered

strategies in this regard.

Benne, K. D. & Birnbaus, M. Principles of changing. In Bennis, W. G.,

Benne, D. K. & Chin, R. (eds.). The q'.nninq o; change. (2nd

Ed.). New York: Holt, Rinehart ', Winston, Inc., 1969.

This article supports the contention that change in an

institution or organization can be planned. It is argued that

N" although most people are unaware of the factors that trigger processes

of change in their work situation, members and leaders of organizations cannot evade responsibility for attempting to extend their

awareness and knowledge of what determines change. Under more

planful and rational control, organizational members can gain the

power to bring about the processes of change.

Several principles of strategy for effecting institutional

change are formulated. (1) To change a subsystem or any part of a

subsystem, relevant aspects of the environment must also be changed.

(2) To change behavior on any one level of a hierarchical organization,

it is necessary to achieve complementary and reinforcing changes in

organization levels above and below that level. (3) The place to

begi- change is at those points in the system where some stress and

strain exist. Stress may give rise to dissatisfaciton with the

status quo and thus become a motivating factor for change in the

-112-

.' ..,'.,., %- ,.. " 9 -' '.i i .2.-,-.1 t" <'i.'[. .I'.I . -I - -" . '.'--'-7'.7'.. ° . . .f .--i¢.'< -P..,- ' 'PL'-J.- 
system. (4) In diagnosing the possibility of change in a given

institution, it is always necessary to assess the degree of stress

and strain at points where change is sought. One should ordinarily

avoid beginning change at the point of greatest stress.. (5) If

throughgoing changes in a hierarchical structure are desirable or

necessary, change should ordinarily start with the policy-making

body. (6) Both the formal and the informal organization of an

institution must be considered in planning any process of change.

* (7) The effectiveness of a planned change is often directly related

to the degree to which members at all levels of an institutional

hierarchy take part in the fact-finding and the diagnosing of

needed changes and in the formulating and reality-testing of goals and

programs of change.

Bennis, W. G. Theory and method in applying behavioral science to

planned organizational change. Journal of' Applied

40 BehaviorzLi Science, 1965, 1, 337-360.

This paper is concerned with the strategic, methodological,

and conceptual issues brought about by the emergence of the action

role of the behavioral scientist. Three assumptions underlie the

discussion: (1) the proportion of contemporary change that is planned

* or that issues from deliberate innovation is much higher than in former

times; (2) man's wisdom and mundane behavior are somewhat short of

perfection insofar as they regulate the fate and selective adaptation

of complex human organization; and (3) behavioral scientists in

increasing numbers are called upon to influence organizational functioning and effectiveness.

Planned change is introduced as a linkage between theory and

practice, knowledge and action. It is compared with Operations

Research -- another type of deliberate change. Eight traditional change

programs are discussed and shown to suffer from four types of bias:

rationalistic (no implementation of program), technocratic (no spirit

of collaboration), individualistic (no organization strategy), and

insight (no manipulability). A principal shortcoming of many of the

traditional change programs is their lack of a systems approach.

Alternative change agents/programs are discussed which overcome these

problems.

-113-
Bennis, W. G. Changing organizations. In Bennis, W. 3., Benne,

D. K. & Chin, R. (Eds.) The - nninr o- carge. "2nd Ed.).

New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1969.

The author's look into the future of organizational change

reveals that there will be new shapes, patterns, and models emerging

in the conduct of the corporation and of managerial practices in

general. The next 25 to 50 years should witness the end of bureaucracy as it is now known and the rise of new social systems better

suited to 20th century demands of industrialization.

Reasons for these foreseen changes are discussed and related

to current literature. The article concludes with a forecast of

organizations for the future, based on changes in six dimensions of

the organization. (1) The environment: interdependence rather than

competition, turbulence rather than steadiness, and large-scale

rather than small-scale enterprises. (2) Population characteristics:

increased education and job mobility. (3) Work values: greater

intellectual commitment, autonomy, and "other-directedness".

(4) Tasks and goals: more technical and complicated tasks requiring

more intellect than muscle. Goals requiring more collaboration of

specialists. (5) Organization: a more "temporary" social structure.

In general, adaptive, problem-solving, temporary systems of diverse

specialists, linked together by coordinating and task-evaluating

specialists in an organic flux will be the organizational form that

will gradual!> replace bureaucracy. This can be called an organicadaptive ;tructure.

Bennis, W. G. Oraznization deveiopment: its nature, ori-ns, .nd

orospecrs. New York: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., 1969.

This book is designed as a primer on organization development. It rests on three basic propositions: (1) An evolutionary

hypothesis that every age develops an organizational form most

appropriate to it and that certain changes taking place in the

culture necessitate parallel changes within the organization. (2) The

only viable way to change organizations is to change their culture,

that is, to change the systems within which people work and live.

Changing only individuals simply will not work. (3) A new social awareness is required by people in organizations to accompany the

prevailing self-awareness that typically exists.

.,'-I .* -

" " *,= '-" " ." = . . . . .'. ... " s .~-e. . V" .*' .. "............. .,*.' ..
Chapter I attempts a definition of organization development.

Essentially, it is conceived of as an educational strategy employing

* the widest possible means of experience-based behavior in order to

achieve more and better organizational choices in a highly turbulent

world. Chapter 2 focuses on the conditions which lead to the inevitability of organization development: rapid and unexpected change,

growth in size, increasing diversity, change in managerial behavior,

and the like. Chapters 3 and 4 are designed as question-and-answer

S dialogues which confront the common questions asked about organization

development. Chapter 5 evaluates sensitivity training and laboratory

training as possible OD strategies, emphasizing the problems

associated with both. Chapter 6 poses several research questions

which require further attention.

Bennis, W. G. Theory and method in applying behavioral science to

planned organizational change. In Bennis, W. G., Benne, D. K.

& Chin, R. (Eds.). -The niannina of Thanae.(2nd Ed.). New

York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, Inc., 1969.

This paper is concerned with the strategic, methodological and

conceptual issues brought about by the emergence of the action role of

the behavioral scientist. Three assumptions underly this study: (1)

the proportion of contemporary change that is planned or that issues

from deliberate innovations is much higher than in former times; (2)

man' s wisdom and mundane behavior are somewhat short of perfection

insofar as they regulate the fate and selective adaptation of complex

human organization; and (3) behavioral scientists in increasing numbers

are called upon to influence organizational functioning and effectiveness.

Some generalizations about planned change are presented.

(1) The number of planned change programs aimed at less bureaucratic,

more participative open-system and adaptive structures will increase

in the future. (2) A good deal is known about the adoption and acceptance criteria for planned change programs; however, (3) very little is

* known about implementation - a process which includes the creation of

understanding and commitment toward a particular change and devices

whereby it can become integral to the system's operations. Four elements are necessary for successful implementation: (1) the control

system must understand the changes and their consequences and have

influence in developing and controlling the form of the change;

(2) the change effort should be perceived as being self-motivated and

voluntary; (3) the change program must include emotional value as well

as cognitive (informational) elements for successful implementation;

and (4) the change agent should be conscious of reducing the resistance

to change.

-115-
Bernardin, H. J. & Alvares, K. M. The effects of organizational level

on perceptions of role conflict resolution strategy.

Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 1975, 14, 1-9.

The purpose of this study is to examine perceptions of forcing,

compromise, and confrontation on behavioral strategies of the firstline supervisor in role conflict situations. It is predicted that

perceptions of these behaviors will differ as a function of organizational level. This difference could be used to explain the discrepant

ratings of first-line supervisory effectiveness from levels above

and below him.

One hundred and twenty-nine employees of a large manufacturing

company participated in the study. Each subject was given a folder

containing four descriptions of conflict situations, each followed

by a description of three behavioral strategies for dealing with

the conflict. Participants were asked to rate each description on

a seven-point scale from extremely ineffective to extremely effective

in terms of that particular conflict. Correlational analyses were

used to compare the individuals' ratings. The results of this

study indicate that perceptions of role conflict resolution strategies

are a function of organizational level and conflict type. These

findings point out the need to investigate the relationship between

important behaviors elicited by a leader and perceptions of those

behaviors from positions above and below him. It is believed that

rather than studying hypothetical constructs (e.g., consideration and

structure) to explain leader behavior, consideration of behaviors in

situations zharacteristic of the samples involved will result in

more useful and generalizable information.

Blake, R. R., Mouton, J. S., Barnes, L. B. & Greiner, L. E. Breakthrough in organizational development. Harvard 3usin-ess

Review, 1964, 42, 37-59.

This article describes how behavioral science concepts of

team learning form a link between individual learning and total

organization development. The link is important because it suggests

some answers to a long-standing problem in industry: how to test

and demonstrate the large-scale usefulness of human relations

research and teaching. In the process, the article also describes

a rather new approach to management development and, more broadly,

to organizational development.

-116

'" . ". . ." . . . . . .. ". . . " '" . ,. " ' . . ... . .. ..... ' ... . .
The first part of the article deals with the way a Grid

Program should work. A detailed description is given of the six-

* phase program typifying the organizational development program based

on a Managerial Grid approach. The first two phases stress management development, so that the last four phases can help managers

work toward the 9,9 goals of organization development. The second

section of the article describes the way the Grid Program did work,

through a presentation of the early findings and conclusions of a

* research study which evaluated the Sigma plant's program in

organization development. The article concludes with the management

impolications of this approach to organization development.

Bonoma, T. V. Conflict, cooperation and trust in three power systems.

Behavioral Science, 1976, 21, 499-514.

The variables of power, conflict, cooperation and trust

have traditionally been explored in a context-irrelevant fashion as

40 general theoretical explanations for many social phenomena at the

levels of organisms, groups, organizations, societies and even

supranational systems. This paper questions the assumed high crosssystem applicability of these concepts by outlining three different

prototypical power systems which seem to find frequent expression

in everyday life: (1) the unilateral power system, in which a

* strong source imposes influence on a weak target; (2) the mixed

power system, in which partially equivalent interactants bargain

to aggreement or deadlock; and (3) the bilateral power system, in

which interactants are in unit relation and formulate joining

policy programs. Power, conflict, cooperation and trust are

all found to require substantially different definition and treatment

* when considered in one as opposed to another of these prototypical

systems.

A context sensitive approach to conflict research is

recommended, in which concepts are articulated with specific regard

for the interactional system in which they will be applied. A

GO preliminary effort is made to outline the nature of the variables

in each system. The dual issue of bias toward context-irrelevant

theory coupled with unrepresentative empirical forays are suggested

as potentially debilitating problems for every subdiscipline concerned

with social inquiry.

-117-
Bourgeois, L. J., III, McAllister, D. W., & Mitchell, T. R. The

effects of different organizational environments upon decisions

about organizational structure. Academy of Management

JournaZ, 1978, 2, 508-514.

This paper reviews three studies designed to test the following

hypotheses: (1) managers who encounter turbulent and threatening

business environments will react by "pulling in the reins"; (2)

stable and supportive environment will result in a manager's "loosening

up" into a more organic style; and (3) given a stable environment

which subsequently becomes turbulent, decision makers will tend

to shift from an organic to a mechanistic structure, and viceversa.

All three studies used a fairly similar paradigm. An

exercise was designed in which scenarios of two organizational

environments, one stable and one turbulent, were presented to the

subjects. The subjects were instructed to assume the role of the

president of a newly-created, autonomous product division of a large

firm, to assess the division's environment and to organize his/her

division for action by making some decisions about the organization's

structure. All three studies used the same stimulus material;

however, the nature of the decision task and the sample population

varied between studies. The findings from the three studies

supported the first two hypotheses, but not the third. Implications

)f r-is study for contingency theorists are discussed.

Bowers, D. G. Perspective- in organiza-ionai deveLopment. University

of Michigan: Institute for Social Research, 1970. AD711-312.

This report reviews aspects of change practice with major

theoretical implications and formulates a series of researchable

questions. Areas of discussion include: the development criteria

for organizational effectiveness; the role of diagnosis in organizational development; and the role of client system's needs.

Approaches to OD in the affect area are discussed in detail,

including sensitivity training, and techniques based on learning theory.

4

-118-

.~ ;..
Bowers, D. G. Develop'ment techniques and organizational change:

An overview of results from the Michigan Inter-Company

Longitudinal Study. University of Michigan: Institute

for Social Research, 1971. AD731-667.

Data collected by use of the Survey of Organizations questionnaire from more than 1,000 respondents in 23 organizations participating

in the Inter-Company Longitudinal Study are analyzed in terms of the

organizational development treatments which intervened between pre-and

post-measures. Four "experimental" treatments (Survey Feedback,

Interpersonal Process Consultation, Task Process Consultation, and

Laboratory Training) and two "control" treatments (Data Handback and

No Treatment) are compared to determine their comparative associations

with improved organizational functioning. The results indicate that

Survey Feedback was associated with a significant frequency of improvement, that Interpersonal Process Consultation was associated with

questionable improvement, that Task Process Consultation was associated

,with little or no change, and that Laboratory Training was associated

w~ich significant deterioration in organizational functioning.

Bowers, D. G. Development techniques and organizational climate: An

evaluation o-f the conroarative importance of two potentia'

forces f or organizational change. University of Michigan:

10 Institute for Social Researcn, 1971. ALi731-666.

This technical report explores two issues related to development

techniques and organizational climate: (1) Do treatments (i.e.,

OD activities) produce organizational change? If so, what are their

comparative magnitudes and directions? and (2) Is change in organizational

climate itself an effect of treatment, an independent, additional cause

of behavior change in work groups, a conditioner of change success,

or a coincidental variable? The focus of the research reported here

was on the work group, consisting of the superior and his immediate

subordinates. The data for this report were drawn from 15 organizations

in 6 companies, and the basic data units are 888 work groups, representing many different kinds of functions and industries. A series of

correlation studies between organizational climate changes, change

treatments, and supervisor and subordinate measures were used to

assess the value of four development techniques. Survey Feedback

and Interpersonal Process Consultations emerge as beneficial treatments; Laboratory Training and Task Process Consultation as nonbeneficial strategies.

-119-
Bowers, D. G., Franklin, J. L., Pecorella, P. A. A taxoncmvo

intervention: The science of organizational development.

Michigan University, 1973. AD762-085.

A theory of organizational development is presented which takes

into account the nature of problematic behaviors, precursors to the

problematic behaviors, and impingement modes. This theory is based

on the general systems view of the organization. In this framework,

organizational change, or development, to be successful, must be

systematic in nature. Organizational development is a state in

which additional or alternative inputs are provided to alter the

throughput process in such a way as to generate additional outputs per unit of input. Effective leadership (managerial and peer), communications, decision-making, and intervention strategies are evaluated in

this framework. From the theoretical discussion a taxonomy of interventions, classified by impingement mode, is developed.

Bowers, D. G. & Seashore, S. E. Predicting organizational effectiveness with a four-factor theory of leadership. Aziinistrative

* Science Quarterly, 1966, 11, 238-263.

This paper presents a review of the conceptual structure

resulting from several programs of research in leadership practices,

and a reconceptualization that attempts to take into consideration

all of these earlier findings. In order to assess the usefulness

of this reconceptualization, it is applied to leadership and effectiveness data from a recent study. Recent research in the area of leader- ship points to the existence of four basic dimensions of leadership:

support, interaction facilitation, goal emphasis, and work facilitation.

This conceptualization is based on the data collected from the Ohio

State Leadership Studies, the Early Survey Research Center Studies

(University of Michigan), studies at the Research Center for Group

Dynamics and the research of Katz and Kahn (1951), Likert (1961), and

others.

A recent study of 40 agencies of one of the leading life

insurance companies is used to evaluate this conceptual model. It

focuses on the impact of both supervisory and peer leadership upon

outcomes of satisfaction and factorial performance measures. Data was

collected from 20 index measurements obtained through questionnaires

and 7 factorial measures of agency performance obtained from company

*r records. Correlational analyses were conducted among all relevant

variables. The results support the utility of this conceptual model.

It appears that leadership's relation to organizational outcomes -- . may best be studied when both leadership and effectiveness are

considered multidimensional.

-120-
3rowning, L. D. Diagnosing teams in organization settings. ;r,.-z

and Organization Studies, 1977, 2, 187-197.

This paper provides examples of actual work teams encountered

in organizations and suggests ways to view teams by diagnosing why

they exist in organizations originally and what impact differences

in membership have on their functioning. The exemplar work groups

include: Production team, Problem-conflict group, Staff meeting,

* Budget-approval panel, Peer-managers group, Clerical pool, and the

Complaint-review group. Eight motivations for group formation are

described, providing distinctions between groups as they exist in

organizations. Six aspects of group membership are described,

facilitating a view of the work group from the inside. Emphasis

is placed on the OD consultant's awareness of these dimensions of

* the work group.

Campbell, J. P. Contributions research can make in understanding

*0 organizational effectiveness. In Spray, S. L. (Ed.).

Organizational effectiveness. Kent, OH: Kent State

University Press, 1976.

A systematic analysis of conceptual and measurement developments in the area of organizational performance is presented. The

* analysis is based on the contention that organizational effectiveness

is a construct having no direct operational definition, but which constitutes a model or theory of what an effective organization is. The

functions of such a model would be to identify the kinds of variables

to be measured and to specify the interrelationship between these

components of effectiveness.

The literature contains two general perspectives as to what

constitutes organizational effectiveness: the goal-centered view (the

organization is in the hands of a rational set of decision-makers who

have in mind a set of goals which they would like to pursue) and the

natural systems view (the organization adopts the overall goal of

maintaining its viability or existence without depleting its resources).

Other models of effectiveness do exist which are not as widely supported.

No judgments are made about the relative efficacy of these models.

Several lessons that can be learned from previous research are

discussed. First, it is probably counterproductive to follow the

4ir multivariate approach idea in the development of effectiveness measures;

it is not physically or economically possible to conduct such a study

in ways that will yield significant results. Second, there is no

utility in searching for objective measures of organizational effectiveness. Third, it is probably a mistake to concentrate on attempts

to develop results-oriented measures; it is too difficult to :ease out

those variables which control the terminal outcomes of organiza tional

-121-

. . .
functioning. Fo-urth, a large number of the variables studied (e.g.,

satisfaction, morale, climate) are perceptions of individuals; yet,

most organizations are so complex that averaging over everybody in the

class covers up so many individual differences that it renders the

indicators useless. The type of research activities which seem to

offer the most potential are: (1) recovery of operative goals and

criteria; (2) direct judgment, (3) indirect judgment, (4) critical

incident methodology; (5) theory capturing, and (6) non-judgmental

research, such as simulations. The study of organizational effectiveness needs an increased emphasis on so-called "criterion-capturing"

research, followed by a much greater emphasis use of simulations and

case studies.

Campbell, J. P., Bownas, D. A., Peterson, N. G., & Dunnette, M. D.

The measurement of organizational effectiveness: A review

of relevant research and opinion. (TR 75-1). Minneapolis,

MN: Personnel Decisions, Inc., 1975. AD786-462.

This technical report represents a compilation and distillation of literature dealing with organizational effectiveness. The

principal topic addressed is defining organizational effectiveness.

While no succinct definition is provided, two principal constructs

of organizational effectiveness are recognized: goal-centered and

natural systems. Existing theory, research and practice surrounding

these constructs is evaluated and current measurement techniques

are catalogued along with summaries of various theories and models.

Alternative methodological approaches and manifest characteristics

of organizations in terms of effectiveness are considered. A compilation of independent, dependent, and intervening variables is presented.

Suggestions are offered for future research in the Navy setting in the

area of organizational effectiveness.

Campbell, J. P., Dunnette, M. D., Lawler, E. E., III, & Weick, K. E.,

Jr. Environmental variation and managerial effectiveness.

In Campbell, J. P. (Ed.). Managerial behavior, perforiance,

and effectiveness. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company,

1970.

This article attempts to identify some of the conceptual

difficulties inherent in investigating situational effects, review

research dealing with taxonomic efforts, and review the empirical

evidence on situational effects. On a conceptual level, there is

3i :ol.-ot f variables that can be subsumed under the rubric the

"situation". These have been grouped under the following four headings:

-122

N. ,a . . . . .
(I) structural prooerties, (2) environmental characteristics,

(3) organizational climate, and (4) formal role characteristics. The

relationship of a situational variable to managerial performance may

be conceptualized as an experimental main effect, a predictor (in a

correlational sense), a moderator, or some combination of these.

Research studies have tended to focus on only one of the three at

any one time. There are also serious problems regarding the level

of explanation associated with the relationship between a situational

variable and managerial performance.

Most of the taxonomic research has centered around dimensions

of organizational climate. Four factors appear common to them:

(1) autonomy, (2) structure, (3) general reward level, and (4)

warmth and support. Further research should build on these efforts

and attempt to determine the nature of the factor structure in

different settings and its interaction with individual differences.

At the empirical level, it appears that research has not progressed

very far. One of the most important findings to emerge is the

importance of the initial job assigned to an individual. In sum,

the "situation" has been shown to encompass an exceedingly complex

set of variables, especially when their dynamic and interactive

properties are considered. While not much research has been

forthcoming, there is considerable promise for the future.

Champion, J. T. Sehavioral science technoiogy and oranizaviona

effectiveness: An exampZe and a normative prescription.

(Report No. AU-AFIT-SL-1-73) The Air Force Institute of

Technology, School of Systems and Logistics, 1973. AD759-156.

The trend toward an increased application of behavioral

science technology in business, industry and government is spurred

by an expanding consciousness of the need for social and personal

responsibility on a number of dimensions, among them the creation of

opportunities for individuals to strive for human dignity in their

working environments. Before adopting any specific technique or

program, however, managers should carefully evaluate and compare their

own objectives, values and assumptions about the nature of man with

those of the specific program under consideration. The central

hypothesis of this article is: The greater the degree of incongruence

between the objectives, values and assumptions of the leaders in

a given organization and those of the behavioral scientists and

their technology, the greater is the probability that the program

objectives will not be achieved and that adverse consequences will

Oe incurred.

-123-

k-
To illustrate the importance of careful program evaluation,

a review of the literature and an evaluation of the effectiveness

and problems of sensitivity training comprise the body of this

discussion. The article concludes with the prescription that the

failure to face squarely the value issues of behavioral technology

may result in the degradation of an organization's ability to survive,

thereby defeating the purpose for which the particular program

-as -instizuted in the first place.

Chin, R. The utility of system models and development models for

practitioners. In Bennis, W. G., Benne, D. K. & Chin, R.

(Eds.). -The rannina cl" chana'e. (2nd Ed.). New York:

Holt, Rinehart & Winston, Inc., 1969.

The purpose of this paper is to present concepts relevant to,

and the benefits to be gained from using, a systems and a development

model in thinking about human events. Both approaches are compared as

to their assumptions about and approaches to five organizational

variables: (1) content (stability, change); (2) causation (source of

change, causal force); (3) goals (direction, set by); (4) intervention

(confronting symptoms, goal of intervening); and (5) change agent

(place, role).

The discussion of this paper centers on the utility of models

for the analysis of change and of changing human processes. Because

the practitioner needs to know how to change the system, rather than

to predict what would happen if a new variable were introduced, he

needs a "theory of changing" the system. A theory of changing requires

the selection, or construction, of thought-models appropriate to their

intended purpose. The systems and development models offer such

frameworks. There are, however, some limitations to the utility of

models. First, models are abstractions from the concreteness of events,

and at tinmes the fit between the model and the actual thought and

diagnostic processes of the change-agent are not close. Second, there

are modes of diagnosing by intervening which do not fall neatly into

models. Considering the advantages and limitations of models, the

author concludes that some elements from both the systems models and

the developmental models should be united into a model for practitioners, * using a format of the intersystemn model which includes the change-agent

and his relationships as part of the problem to be solved.

-124-
i

Cohen, S. L., et al. Results of an organizational diagnostic survey

of an Army field facility work environment. Alexandria, VA:

U. S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social

Sciences, (Technical Paper 272). 1976. ADA020-934.

This study is based on the contention that the aim of organizational effectiveness research is to increase human performance effectiveness in an organization and to improve teamwork and job satisfaction,

by developing diagnostic instruments to identify problem areas,

intervening with organizational development techniques to correct

problems, and finally evaluating the intervention results in terms of

productivity and job satisfaction. A diagnostic Work Environment

Questionnaire (WEQ) was developed and validated over a 3-year period

at an Army field installation. It elicited from both supervisors and

* subordinates their attitudes and perceptions of their job duties,

training, performance standards and consequences, organizational

supervision, work group, job importance, and feedback. Data from a

1972 pretest and 1973 survey supplementing the 1974 WEQ survey are

reported.

*Seven major organizational problem areas were identified in

both 1973 and 1974; peer group norms which failed to encourage good

performance, insufficient performance feedback, the need for training

in supervisory techniques, role ambiguity and conflict, inadequate

intergroup communication patterns, lack of clear performance-reward

relationships, and ambiguous performance evaluation standards. A

* program of active intervention has been designed and implemented to

reduce these problems. A resurvey has indicated that the intervention

did successfully decrease certain problems and increase job satisfaction

and performance.

Cohen, S. L. & Turney, J. R. Intervening at the bottom: Organizational

development with enlisted personnel in an Army work-setting.

PersonneL PsychoZo'yj, 1978, 31, 715-730.

If organizational development technology is expected to have

an effect on soldier perceptions, attitudes and performance, it must

be assured that OD interventions adequately penetrate to their

level. This may not be likely to occur in a multi-layered Army

organization. This study examines the effects of a series of OD

techniques in an Army organization where penetration was assured Dy

dealing directly with the troops at the lowest levels.

The site for this study was an Army communications processing

facility. The focus was on enlisted soldiers at the lowest levels

Of the organization who were most directly responsible for the final

-125-
production outputs. This site permitted a focus on work groups with

clearly delineated task requirements, having the traditional hierarchical

structure characterizing all Army units. The results of this study show

that a series of OD techniques introduced into an Army orgnaization at

the lowest structural level can yield significant positive changes in

soldier job satisfaction and performance. The impact was the product

of an effort incorporating three OD techniques: survey feedback,

management training, and job enrichment. An analysis of variance

done on the level of satisfaction and performance of a control group

vs. several experimental groups showed significant changes between

these -rours from pre- to post-tests. The results of this study are

not believed to be conclusive. Many research quesitons are surfaced

which need to be addressed.

Comrev, A. L., Pfiffner, J. M., & High, W. S. Tact3crs i'n- 3i

.....io 'ffe,-ctiveness. University of Southern

California, 1964. AD042-272.

The problem addressed in this research project is that of

determining some of the factors which are related to criteria of

organizational effectiveness. The research was carried out in three

main stages: (a) development of hypotheses and instruments for

measuring variables related to OE; (b) administration of these

instruments in a series of organizations; and (c) correlation of variables

with the measures of OE. The research methodology is discussed in

detail, along with the criterion problems. Critical incident

analysis was found to have several advantages for this type of

research.

The results of all studies which met specified criteria of

statistical significance are discussed in detail. The variables

ccncerned are presented as groups of questionnaire items for which

validity evidence is given. The dimensions are divided into

supervisor-self, situational, and supervisor evaluations. The

interrelationships among dimensions are presented. During the course

of the project, the dimensions were subjected to iterative item

analysis procedures, and correlations computed for the surviving ones

for three different samples. The implications of this research for

management are discussed.

%I

- 126-
Connolly, T., Conlon, E. J. & Deutsch, S. J. Srganizational effc1 tiveness: A multiple-constituency approach. Academy of

Management Review, 1980, 5, 211-217.

This article is based on the authors' contention that current

approaches to organizational effectiveness are conceptually conflicting

and empirically arid. Researchers appear handicapped by a desire to

produce a single effectiveness statement about any given organization.

The authors of this paper attempt to define a broad perspective of

organizational effectiveness that encompasses rather than conflicts with

existing perspectives. The proposed perspective does not attempt to

prescribe research directions or methodology. Rather, it attempts to

define areas of convergent theorizing and rich empirical domains.

* This proposed approach is named a "multiple-constituency"

approach. It explicitly assumes that an organization's different

constituencies will form different assessments of its effectiveness.

The approach treats organizations as systems generating different constituencies, each biased toward the assessment of organizational activities in terms of its own exchanges within the loop. In this way,

it is an alternative to the arid debate between the "organizational goals"

theorists and the "systems" theorists as to which theory possesses the

key to the effectiveness question. In essence, the authors argue that

neither theory does, and that the problem is primarily an artifact of

a single, generaily unstated assumption made by both: That a single

statement about OE is to be sought. No such assumption is, in their

Wview, necessary or desirable. Rather, goal and systems theories should

be treated as special cases of the general, multiple-constituency approach. On the grounds of conceptual clarity and empirical promise,

then, the multiple-constituency approach appears to provide a more

fruitful formulation of the effectiveness problem.

*~nnor, P. E. & Becker, B. W. Values and the organization:

Suggestions for research. Ac of n ,

1975, 18, 550-561.

Despite long interest in human values, few investigators have

focused on values and organizational process. Questions regarding

how values relate to reward structure, upward mobility, goal commit-

,ent, and control remain largely unresolved. This article attempts

not to answer these questions, but to pose them as a series of

hypotheses to be tested. It is a call for further research in this

area.

The problem facing the researcher in the area of values and

the organization is two-fold. First, there is a need for researcliers

to 3ettle upon a commonly accepted operational definition of a value.

d

-127-

,.........................................,.-.......................

-' ~~~~~..'........................................ "' "". ". " " " . . ". . . . .
Resear hers must realize that values cannot fruitfully be operationalized as attitudes, or goals, or objectives; they are fundamental to,

but not identical with, these processes. Second, there is a need to

explore the relationships among various organizational processes and

the values of the organizational actors.

The paradigm offered for such research is chat of the general

systems model of organization. It brings to the fore several classes

of questions which yet remain unanswered: (1) the relationship between

values and organizational context, e.g., hierarchy and technology;

(2) the relationship between values and organizational processes, e.g.,

conflict, communication and cooperation; (3) the relationship between

values and managerial action, e.g., leadership, control and goals;

and (4) the relationship between values and organizational performance,

e.g., output quality, organizational climate and adaptability. Research into these areas is very important for a more complete understanding of the underlying processes in organizational functioning.

Cowsert, G. T. §ranzawtionai envirorent .nd preferences :or

Seadershir nd oower -in ;he wffcer orrs. (Masters thesis)

Fort Leavenworth, Kansas: U.S. Army Command and General

Staff College, 1974. ADA043-748.

*This study analyzes the relationship between the endorsement

of values judged to characterize the Army organizational environment

and the preferences expressed for leadership and power options by

officers in supervisory settings. The subjects were 99 active Army

majors and lieutenant colonels in a resident Command General Staff

College class at Fort Leavenworth. Operational definitions limit

leadership to actions designed to gain the willing cooperation

of one's subordinates, and power, conversely, to actions that can

' force the subordinates' compliance in spite of their opposition.

The organizational environment is defined in terms of structure,

authority, regulations, and leadership training and shown to be

typical of closed organizational systems.

A questionnaire was developed that assessed one's preference

for leaderhsip or power on one part, and one's endorsement of

organizational values on another. The hypothesized negative relationship between preferences for leadership and endorsement of these

organizational values was shown to exist. The main conclusions

are that few officers realize the military environment may be

inhibiting their use of leadership, that the environment does not

reward leadership as defined herein, and therefore does not encourage

its develooment outside the classroom, and that leadership doctrine

*' is in conflict with the environment.

-128-

4
Crockec, W. J. Introducing change to a complex organization. En

* Hacon, R. (Ed.). PersonaL and o qanizationaZ effectiveness.

New York: McGraw-Hill, 1972.

This article describes two major change efforts in the

Department of State during the author's five years'service as a

manager in that agency. The article is autobiographical in style,

and discusses these change efforts through the personal perspective

* of the author. The motivation for such change dates back to the

early 1960s when the Department's reputation for operational effectiveness in policy and administration was at a low point with both

the Congress and the Executive Branch.

The first attempts at change were in the form of directives

W issued from above. Several failures convinced the members of the

Department that the authoritarian method of changing operational

responsibilities and systems in the organization was not the most

effective, due to its inability to ensure people's acceptance of

change and enthusiastic and effective accomplishment of tasks. In

response to this dilemna, a new approach to organizational change was

developed, named "Action Program of Organizational Development" (ACORD).

The implementation of this program is discussed in detail. The

principal changes involved: an elimination of many hierarchical levels

with the organization, an intensive management training program,

numerous "team building" sessions, and the establishment of internal

change agents or consulting teams. These changes were short-lived,

however. Upon the author' s retirement, a new administrator assumed

controlwho, disapproving of the new structure, terminated the ACORD

program. Lessons learned during the ACORD period are discussed with

implications for other organizations.

Cunrlingh-an, i. 3. Approaches to the evaluation of organizational

effectiveness. Academ~y of M.Aanacement Review, 1977, 2, 463-474.

Several alternative strategies are presented for assessing

organizational effectiveness: (1) the Rational Goal Model, which

focuses on the organization's ability to achieve its goals; (2) the

Systems Resource Model, which defines effectiveness as the degree to

which the subsystems are in harmony and are coordinated to work

together; (3) the Mfanagerial Process Model, which evaluates effectiveness by the ability to perform effectively certain managerial functions,

such as decision-making and planning; (4) the Organizational Development Model, which sees effectiveness in terms of the organization's

problem-solving and renewal capabilities; (5) the Bargaining Model,

which conceives of organizational effectiveness in ter-ms of exchanges

and transactions of individuals and groups pursuing a diversity. or

goals; (6) tlhe Structural Functional Model, whizh attempots to

-129-
N!.

dnderstand _rganizational effectiveness through the structural

paucerns developed by the organization to maintain itself and grow;

and (7) the Functional Model, in which effectiveness is determined

by the social consequences of its activities.

The strengths and weaknesses of each model are discussed. It

is concluded that the applicability and relevance of each approach

depends on the particular organizational problem that has to be

resolved. No one model can provide the decision-maker with information

about every aspect of organizational behavior.

Cunningiam, J. B. A systems-resource approach for evaluating

organizational effectiveness. Ywrran ?eiaions, 1978,

31, 631-656.

The purpose of this study is to illustrate how open systems

theory can be applied in the evaluation of organizational effectiveness. Specifically, concepts of open systems theory, drawn from the

works of Katz and Kahn (1966) and Yuchtman and Seashore (1967), are

*. used to develop a systems-resource model of organizational effectiveness.

The major thesis of this model is that all organizations, in

order to survive, must be able to fulfill certain basic needs. These

needs relate to: (1) the organization's ability to search out and

respond to the properties of the external environment; (2) the orzanization's ability to use its resources to produce outputs and to maintain and restore the system; and (3) the organization's ability to

bargain and optimize its use of resources in an environment with a

number of decision-makers, each with different objectives.

Seven local government organizations are evaluated in terms

of these effectiveness criteria. Data collection entailed (G) use

of a panel of experts to predict problems and events occurring within

each organization's external environment; (2) a computer simulation

which predicted the possible environments; (3) an accounting of the

resources available to each local government department; and (4) a

gaming simulation experiment which measured the decision-maker's

efficiency and bargaining capability. Results are given for subsystem efficiency and bargaining capability of each organization.

Conclusions about the relative efficiency of these seven organizations and their subsystems are discussed.

-130-

-s %-e-~y.- L:- .2:
Dabis, T. R. V. & Luthans, F. Leadership reexamined: A behavioral

approach. Acadermj of Management Review, 1979, 4, 237-248.

Leadership is examined in this study from a behavioral

perspective. Though a large assortment of different theoretical

frameworks have been developed to identify component elements of

leadership, the fundamental problem of operationalizing leadership

still has not been solved. This paper outlines some of the reasons

Vfor this failure. It argues the need (as Argyris and Dubin have

done) to focus leadership research on observable behavior rather

than on questionnaire responses reflecting perceptions of behavior

and vague inner states. The primary problem with leadership research

heretofore is that it largely builds on normative preconceptions

about leadership and provides no prediction and control of performance behavior.

A behavioral model of leadership is presented that examines

both the macro andmicro contingencies affecting leader-subordinate

behavior. An expanded functional analysis that includes both overt

and covert contingencies is presented. This approach stresses the

need to reduce all major forms of influence impacting on the leader

and subordinates to manageable behavioral contingencies. These

contingencies can be identified through a proposed S-0-B-C (S -

antecedent stimulus; 0 - organism's covert processes, B - behavior;

C - consequence) functional analysis. Specific guidelines for a

behavioral approach to the study and practice of leadership are

provided.

Davis, S. M. Two models of organization: Unity of command versus

balance of power. SZoan Management Review, 1974, 16, 29-40.

Business enterprises usually are organized either by function,

product, or area; and the benefits of each are considered mutually

exclusive. The traditional basis of each form is the pyramid, with

one hierarchy of power and a unity of command. To derive simultaneously

the benefits of two or all three structural bases, however, a dualistic

or pluralistic model, involving a balance of interest and a sharing of

power, is required. The grid structure represents such a model. This

article describes how and why business management adheres to the

pyramid model in principle, while in reality it behaves according to a

balance of power model.

The principles of unity of command and balance of power imply

very different things for the organization. The centralized staff

functions chaaracteristic of the unity of command design serve to

equate the manager's authority and responsibilitv. The grid structure

illustrates explicitly that in most cases more responsibility, than

-131-
a:hority is ielegated. The other principal difference between the

two designs is in the management of conflict. While a pyramidal-based

organization acknowledges and attempts to resolve conflict among

members, the source of the conflict is ascribed to human rather than

structural foibles. The grid structure, being a greater conflict

generator than the pyramidal form, puts a heavier burden on behavioral

mechanisms for achieving coordination. It demonstrates that structure

itself is a major contributor to organizational conflict. A manager's

responsibility is to manage the inevitable conflict, not to try to

resolve it. It is further emphasized that a better correlation between

administrative theory and practice would reduce the gap between

management's preference for the unity of comand and the business

environment's requirement for interdependence and shared power.

Derr, C. 3. Vajor cause3f - o'rnizationai can$ct: Diagncsis for

ac;ion. Monterey Naval Postgraduate School, 1975. ADA013-472.

The emphasis of this article is on the major areas of dispute

that occur within career-oriented organizations. Six causes of

organizational conflict are delineated: individual stress, role

conflict, power struggles, differentiation, interdependence, and

external pressures. Implications for managing these conflicts using

collaboration, bargaining, and power plays are pointed out. A

conflict management paradigm indicating which mode of conflict

management works best for which cause is presented. An extensive

bibliography of conflict management literature is provided at the

conclusion of the report.

Diereriy, D. L. & Schneider, B. The effect of organizational environment on perceived power and climate: A laboratory study.

Organizatiora2 3ehavicr and Hieran Perfor'znce, 1974, 11,

316-337.

Subject perceptions of their own power and organizational

climate were investigated as a function of three characteristics

of the organizational work environment. The dimensions of power

used as dependent variables in this study were: referent power,

expert power, legitimate power, coercive power, and reward power.

The four aspects of climate used as dependent variables included:

individual autonomy, position structure, reward orientation, and

consideration and support. The independent variable, work environment,

was divided into three aspects: level of formal position, degree

of participation in decision making, and philosophy of the organization toward customers. The 2 x 2 x 3 (level of participation,

stockholder or customer orientation, and position level, respectively)

design (N=20) was carried out in a laboratory setting.

IN -132-

-'.-. .

"2 ., '"• "." -"." • ; " . " " ,, ': " . '" .. " -" ' - x". .. '"'" v \ '.L"'' <' L \. , \ "" " .
The results indicate that climate and power perceptions were

not strongly related to each other. Level of participation appeared

* to be the main contributor to self-perceived power both as a main

effect and in interaction with stockholder/customer orientation and

position level. Stockholder/customer orientation was the main

contributor to climate perceptions, generally in interaction with

one or the other environmental variables but also as a main effect.

Participative decision-making results in decreased self-perceived

power for occupants of higher positions. A customer orientation

combined with participative decision-making leads to positive climate

perceptions. The study, although highly controlled, yielded some

results which are related to other research of this type.

DL-Marco, N. & Norton, S. Life style, organization structure, congruity

and job satisfaction. Personnel Psychoiog#, 1974, 27, 581-591.

This study is concerned with predicting job satisfaction

from the congruity between the employee's life style and his perception

of the organizational structure. Three dimensions of life style

were identified: formalistic (control through rules), sociocentric

(interpersonal interaction), and personalistic (personal experience).

Paralleling these were three dimensions of organizational structure:

bureaucratic (authority according to position in hierarchy), collaborV ative (authority in norms of work group), and coordinative (selfdirection). It is hypothesized that if tension results from life

style-organization structure incongruity, such tension could affect

the individual's satisfaction with the job itself. This study,

therefore, tests the hypothesis that life style-organization structure

* congruity explains variance in job satisfaction.

The subjects for this study were 78 staff employees drawn

from six large manufacturing organizations. Three measures were used:

The Life Style Questionnaire, the Organization Structure Questionnaire,

and the Job Reaction Survey. Multiple regression analyses were

performed on the data. The findings indicate that job satisfaction

decreases as the bureacraticness of the organization increases. Job

satisfaction was also found to be positively related to PersonalisticCoordinative congruence. It appears, therefore, that organizations

pursuing the goal of job satisfaction should focus on developing

environments with a low bureaucratic orientation. In addition, an

attempt should be made to either select or develop, through training,

individuals high in personalistic orientation and to provide an

environment high in coordinative characteristics.

-133-
Donaldson, L. Woodward, technology, organizational structure and

performance: A critique of the universal generalization.

The Journal of Management Studies, 1976, 13, 255-273.

This paper critically reviews the controversy over the

relationship between technology, organizational structure and performance which was stimulated by the work of Woodward. A discussion is

presented of the Woodward approach and the debate between it and

the Aston approach. The most recent replication of the Woodward

study, by Zwerman, is offered as a refutation of many of Woodward's

conclusions.

This review of the current literature shows that out of the

results which Woodward originally found, none of the trivariate

relationships between structure, technology and performance have been

confirmed by the sole attempt at replication to date, that of Zwerman.

Of the bivariate relationships which Woodward found, none have been

confirmed by three major studies (Zwerman; Hickson, et. al.; and

Child and Mansfield). The conclusion is that the universal generali- * zations about technology, structure and performance proported by

Woodward have not been substantiated by empirical evidence. Though

the validity of the Zwerman replication study is open to debate, the

authors interpret it as evidence for disconfirming the core aspects of

Woodward's thesis.

Dossett, D. L., Latham, G. P. & Mitchell, T. R. Effects of

assigned versus participatively set goals, knowledge of

results, and individual differences on employee behavior

when goal difficulty is held constant. Journal of AppZied

Psychology, 1979, 64, 291-298.

Female clerical personnel (N=60) were randomly assigned to

participative, assigned, and "do best" goal conditions on a clerical

test. Specific goals led to higher performance than did the "do

best" goals. With goal difficulty held constant, there was no

significant difference between the assigned and participative

conditions on performance or goal acceptance. Goal attainment, however, was higher in the assigned condition than it was in the participative condition. No main or interaction effects were found

for knowledge of results (KR) or for individual difference measures

with performace or goal acceptance. However, high self-esteem

individuals who received KR attained their goals more often than

did individuals with low self-esteem when the goals were participatively set.

A second study was conducted with employees from the same

sample in a performance-appraisal setting over an eight-month time

period. Assigned goals resulted in higher performance and greater

goal acceptance than did participatively set goals. There was a

positive linear relationship between goal difficulty and performance

in the participative condition only.

-134-

~%
Downey, H. K., Keliriegal, D., & Slocum, J. W., Jr. Congruence between

individual needs, organizational climate, job satisfaction, and

performance. Academyi of Management Journal, 1975, 18, 149-155.

The purpose of this paper is to test the proposition that organizational climate interacts with individual personality in influencing

job satisfaction and performance. Ninety-two managers from one industrial firm were used as subjects for this study. Climate and performance measures were taken by the Job Performance Index, Job Description

Index, Bernreuter Personality Inventory, and six factor-analyzed scales

of organizational climate. A multivariate design was used to test the

hypothesis, which included eight independent factors (six climate and

two personality) and six dependent variables (five job satisfaction

and one performance). The NYBM(UL Analysis of Variance program was used

to calculate the F-ratios to test the congruency argument concerning

each dependent variable.

The results of this study suggest that congruency is a salient

concept; job satisfaction is a function of the interaction between the

personality characteristics of the individual and the perceived environment (organizational climate). The congruency notion holds true to a

lesser degree for a manager's job performance. Suggestions for future

research are offered.

Drexler, j. A., Jr. Organizational climate: Its homogeneity within

organizations. Jlournal of Arp lied Psychology, 1977, 62,

38-42.

Climate as an organizational attribute was examined to determine

* whether it has organization-specific variance. Additionally, the

relative strength of organizational versus subunit (departmental)

effects were tested. The measure of climate, descriptive of organizational conditions and procedures, was a composite of the climate

indices in the Survey of Organizations. The data were obtained

from 1,256 groups representing 6,996 individuals in 21 organizations.

F-tests were conducted on the climate data from each organization.

A main effect of organization was found, which explained

42.2% of the variation. Tests using more homogeneous subsamples

resulted in similar findings and ruled out a selection-effect interpretation. Subunit effects were also found, but were much weaker than

the organizational effects. The conclusions drawn from these results

are meant to encourage researchers to consider organizational

climate as an organizational attribute.

-135-
Duncan, R. B. Multiple decision-making structures in adapting to

environmental uncertainty: The impact on organizational

effectiveness. PersonneL Psycho logy, 1973, 26, 273-291.--.

A great deal of discussion in organizational theory has

emphasized that organizations need to adapt to their environment in

order to remain viable social systems. One of the central issues

in this adaptation process is coping with the uncertainty in the

organization's environment. The research presented here provides

an initial test of some components of the model by identifying

. ~ the processes by which organizations adapt to their environment and

V. the relationship between these adaption processes and organizational

effectiveness.

Twenty-two decision units were studied in three manufacturing

organizations and three research and development organizations.

Uncertainty was measured by a 12-item Likert-type scale, and perceived

influence over the environment by a 4-item Likert-type scale. The

data was evaluated in terms of profile analyses and analyses of

variance. The results indicated that there was a high correlation

of the differences between a decision unit's routine and non-routine

decision profiles and the decision unit's effectiveness. As

perceived uncertainty increased and perceived influence over the

environment decreased, there were high correlations between the

two profile difference measures and the dimensions of decision effectiveness. This research confirms the contingency theory of organization, indicating that different types of organizational structures

(i.e., in decision-making) are appropriate for different types of

situations. This research further demonstrates that the same

decision unit implements different organizational structures -- these

different structures being related, particularly under conditions of

high uncertainty, to the decision unit's effectiveness.

Duncan, R. What is the right organizational structure? Decision

tree analysis provides the answer. OrganizationaL Dynamics,

1979, Winter, 59-80.

This article discusses the purposes of organizational

structure and presents a decision tree analysis approach to help

managers pick the right organizational structure for their situation.

Organizational structure has two objectives: (1) it facilitates the

flow of information within the organization in order to reduce the

uncertainty in decision-making; and (2) it facilitates effective

coordination and integrati.on across different organizational levels.

There are many possible, viable, organizational designs, depending on

the environment and objectives characterizing the organization.

Decision tree analysis is described as one method for choosing the

appropriate structure.

-136-
The advantages to managers in using the design decision

tree are as follows: (1) It provides a broad framework for identifyU ing the key factors a manager should think about in considering an

organizational design. (2) It forces the manager to diagnose the

decision environment. (3) It causes managers to consider the degree

of interdependence among segments of the organization. (4) It points

out what can be done to meet the need for information through the

use of lateral relations. The successful implementation of this

method for managers is cited.

Dunn, . N. & Swierczek, F. W. Planning organizational change: Toward a

4 grounded theory. The Journal of Applied 3ehaviorai Science,

1977, 13, 135-156.

Distinctions between "logico-deductive" and "grounded"

theory capture a range of critical problems facing practitioners

of planned organizational change. The development and application of

0 grounded theories is likely to improve the quality of findings

obtained from given change efforts. Among available research strategies,

retrospective case analysis -- together with procedures for the

continuous coding and comparison of case materials -- appears to

have considerable potential as a method for generating grounded

theories of planned change. V

In this paper, retrospective case analysis is applied to a

sample of 67 successful and unsuccessful change efforts. Results of

bivariate analysis suggest that only 3 out of 11 leading hypotheses

about conditions of successful change efforts (i.e., those involving

collaborative modes of interventions, participative change-agent

* orientations, and strategies emphasizing high levels of participation)

are weakly to moderately supported by available evidence. While

findings must be approached cautiously, the further development and

application of retrospective case analysis is likely to contribute to

grounded theory and, thus, to the alleviation of present gaps between

theory and practice.

-137-
England, G. W., Agarsal, N. C., Rydel, N. L., and Olsen, K. A.

?ersonal value sysvems and their relationship to adminstrative

behavior simulations and nerceptions of organ onal

effectiveness of Naval officers. (Report No.

University of Minnesota, 1972. AD735-948.

This study is a part of a research program aimed at

describing and measuring the personal value systems of Naval officers

and their relevance to behavior. Responses of 258 Naval officers to

a Personal Values Questionnaire, a Job Incidents Questionnaire and an

Organizational Effectiveness Questionnaire were utilized. The principal

methodology finding of this study is that meaningful relationships

between personal values and reported behavior are found only when

value groups are formed through a combination of conceptual distinctions made from theory (primary orientation and operative value

notions) and empirical distinctions (hierarchical cluster analysis

)methods).

Other findings of the study show that there are at least two

groups of Naval officers who differ markedly in their personal value

systems. One of these groups places high value on "military concepts"

and the other group on "individualistic concepts". The same two

groups of Naval officers seem to differ significantly in their

reported behavior as measured by responses to the Job Incidents

Questionnaire and unit effectiveness measures. No significant

differences were found, however, among various value groups of Naval

officers in the evaluation of the overall effectiveness of their

own individual units.

England, G. W., Olsen, K. A., Agarwla, N. C. & Rydel, N. L.

Administrative behavior simulations and nercertions of

organizational effectiveness of Naval o ficers. University

of Minnesota, 1971. AD729-114.

This study is part of a research program aimed at the description, measurement, and understanding of the personal value systems

of Naval officers and their relevance to behavior. The reported

behavior of 276 Naval officers in several areas, including problemsolving and perceptions of organizational effectiveness and its achievement by a work unit, is described. To the extent that actual

behavior might be inferred from reported behavior, this group of

Naval officers would be expected to make few unwarranted assumptions

in making decisions, to take action rather than to procrastinate, to

withhold delegation of complete responsibility, and to be lenient

with respect to disciplinary action. In addition, an open style of

communication was noted, with officers requesting information and

explaining the reasons for actions to subordinates. Perceptions of

overall work effectiveness of the officers' present units were not

-138-
related to problem-solving styles. Officers also tended to view the

importance of various characteristics to work effectiveness of a

unit similarly, even though they were members of very different

types of units and their perceptions of the overall effectiveness

of these units varied. Finally, homogeneous groups of Naval officers

were identified and described on the basis of: (1) ratings of the

importance of 15 variables to the work effectiveness of a unit; and

(2) in-basket scores.

Evan, W. M. Hierarchy, alienation, commitment, and organizational

effectiveness. Human Relations, 1977, 30, 77-94.

Four dimensions of organizational hierarchy are identified:

inequality of skills and knowledge, inequality of rewards, inequality

of authority, and inequality of information distribution. The

prevailing, but largely untested, hypothesis that hierarchical

structure is postively related to organizational effectiveness is

challenged. An alternative hypothesis - that they are negatively

related -- is offered in its place. This latter hypothesis is linked

to a causal model interrelating hierarchical structure with work

alienation, organizational commitment, and organizational effectiveness.

This hypothesis is then used to assess the literature on industrial

democracy.

"Shop-floor democracy" is studied as an example of destratification with respect to all four dimensions of hierarchy. It is one

viable method for increasing participation, and thereby reducing

worker alienation. In view of the trend towards rationalization in

organizations, a destratification-rationalization hypothesis is

formulated. It states that as the positive slope of the relationship

between these two clusters of variables increases, organizational

effectiveness increases and work alienation decreases. Although the

model and empirical studies presented here deal exclusively with

industrial organizations, there is no intrinsic reason why this model

is not generalizable to all non-industrial organizations as well. In

fact, it could be highly applicable to the military organization, due

to the hierarchical nature of its structure.

-139-

4'.. ..
Etzioni, A. A oor7vara~tive coazasis of' complex ozcanizations. NTy:

The Free Press, 1975.

This book contributes to the formulation of models for the

comparative study of organizational types. The basis for comparison

chosen for this study is the nature of Compliance in the organization.

Compliance is defined as a relationship consisting of the power

employed by superiors to control subordinates and the orientation of

the subordinates to this power. The notion of compliance combines

the structural and motivational aspects of organizations: structural

because it speaks of the kinds and distribution of power; motivational because it is concerned with the differential commitment of

actors to organizations.

Compliance is shown to be related to many other organizational variables. Organizations which differ in their compliance

structure tend to differ also in the goals they pursue, the location

and power of their elites; the communications and socialization

employed to attain consensus; in recruitment, scope and pervasiveness,

and in the way in which they allocate tasks and power over time.

Compliance is therefore taken as the core variable of organizational

analysis; all other variables are related to it.

Part One of this book introduces the concepts and classification scheme. The interrelationships of power, involvement and

compliance are defined and are used as a basis for comparison!

classification of various kinds of organizations. Part Two relates

this comparative base to a number of variables considered central to

organizational analysis: organizational goals, the distribution of

power, consensus, the influence of the social environment, and cohesion. The emphasis in Part Three switches from the compliance of

lower participants to that of the higher participants. The many

dimensions of charisma and charismatic power in the compliance

structure are discussed. The final section is devoted to the

development of compliance structures over time and the suggested

lines for the development of a study of compliance. The authors

.6.4 caution that no attempt is made in this book to test propositions.

Rather than being a validation study, this work represents an

exploratory attempt to construct one segment of a new theory.

Propositions invalidated by available data are not included; however,

no new data are presented to support the propositions presented.

-140-
Farace, R. V. & McDonald, D. New directions in the study of organizational communication. Personnel~ ?sychc'logy, 1974, 27,

1-15.

Although the study of human communication process in organizations has progressed considerably in the past two decades -- with

important developments in predictively fruitful concepts and useful

methods -- much of the work remains isolated and unintegrated. The

purpose of this paper is to describe important concepts for analyzing

"El, communication processes in organizations, and to point out some of

the methodological developments related to these concepts. The

essential concepts related to organizational communication are studied

in three dimensions: structure, function and system level.

The structure of organizational communication is defined in

terms of the message exchange patterns among organizational members,

rather than on alternative bases for defining structure, such as

authority or power. Research in this area has developed along three

traditions: (1) the study of artificially constructed networks

operated in experimental laboratory settings, (2) the application of

sociometry to communication relationships, and (3) the study of the

movement of messages in organizations.

The function dimension of communication focuses on the

actual messages which move in an organization. Most of the research

in this area to date is reflective of a message-centered approach.

There are several problems with this approach, however, and the authors

recommend an alternative suggested by Katz and Kahn (1966). This

approach involves investigation of the effects of communication in

terms of particular members of the organization.

Most of the research on organizational communication is

* at the level of the individual. Typically, individual differences

in communicative and other behaviors have been examined apart from

consideration of the larger setting, which provides constraints and

context within which individual behaviors can often be best interpreted. The authors propose that this tradition should be broken,

and that research should now focus on the dyad -- the simplest

interpersonal system. Such research would encompass an additional

set of concepts not found when studying individuals in isolation.

-141-
Farris, C.F. &Lim, F. G., Jr. Effects of performance on leadership,

cohesiveness, influence, satisfaction, and subsequent

performance. *Jcurrai o.' .4rvhied Pay.cho logy, 1969, 53, 490-497.

This article describes a study designed to determine the

ways in which performance affects leader behavior. Two hundred

management students role played the "Change of Work Procedure" case -

a technique which has been used extensively for research purposes in

the past. Factor analysis was used on the leadership data supporting

Bowers and Seashore's (1966) four-factor theory. Experimental and

control group performance was compared using t-tests.

The findings of this study show that past performance affects

most aspects of leader behavior, especially his support, interaction

facilitation, and goal emphasis. Also, high past performance and

the resulting leader behavior are associated with greater subordinate

influence in decision-making, greater group cohesiveness, and higher

satisfaction. No clear relationships were found between past performance, associated leader behavior and estimates of subsequent change

in group performance. The results of this study are believed to be

generalizable to "real world" leadership situations. This contention

is Supported byv a longitudinal study conducted by Farris (1969).

Fiedler, F. E. & Leister, A. F. Leader intelligence and task

performance: A test of a multiple screen model. Orcanz-zational Behazvior and Human Performance, 1977, 20, 1-14.

This paper proposes a model to explain the generally low and

inconsistent correlations between leader intelligence and task performance. It postulates a series of screens of variable permeability

which the leader's intellectual output must traverse before task

performance can be affected. A screen is defined as a variable which

can partly or completely block the leader's intelligence from

contributing to the performance of the task. The model posits that

a high correlation between leader intelligence and task performance

depends on the permeability of the various screens. Four screen

varaibles studied in this research are: leader motivation, leader

experience, leader-boss relations, and leader-group relations.

This model was tested in a field study of an entire Army

division. The sample included 158 Army infantry squad leaders, who

were measured on each of the four screen variables and intelligence.

Correlational analyses were conducted on the data collected from

the measurement tests. The results support the hypothesis; all but

one correlation was significant. The exception was the leader-group

relations index based on group members' perception. The status of

this measure as a screen variable is thus in doubt. This study is

only partial validation of the model; it is highly likely that

there are other screen variables which were not identified or

cested in this research.

.1.'A
Fisher, C. D. Transmission of positive and negative feedback to

subordinates: A laboratory investigation. JournaL of App-ied

Psychology, 1979, 64, 533-540.

This study was designed to verify empirically that superiors

are often unwilling to give feedback, positive or negative, to their

subordinates. Confirming evidence is cited from a review of the

relevant literature, and numerous exemplar cases in which feedback

was withheld, delayed or distorted. The partial reason for this

is that superiors anticipate that giving negative feedback will be

unpleasant because receiving it is unpleasant for the recipient.

A laboratory study was undertaken to discover if and when

delay and upward distortion of feedback occurred. It was expected

that feedback to moderately low performers would be delayed longer

and distorted upward more than would feedback to moderately high

performers. Further, superiors of moderately low performers were

expected to anticipate a less pleasant reaction to feedback by their

subordinates and to believe that their subordinates liked them less

than superiors of moderately high performers. A 2 x 2 design was

used with the factors of feedback versus no feedback and moderately

high versus moderately low subordinate performance. One hundred

and sixty-eight students served as superiors of a subordinate who

was a confederate. Subjects monitored and rated their subordinate's

performance, giving feedback at a time of their own choosing. All

hypotheses were supported with the exception of the delay hypothesis.

The results are discussed in terms of their implication for performance

appraisal in organizations.

?:rd. J. D. & Slocum, J. W., Jr. Size, technology, environment, and

the structure of organizations. Academd of Management Review,

1977, 2, 561-575.

A review of the literature on the relationships of size,

technology, and environment to organization structure points out

areas of agreement and disagreement as well as research needs. A

review of structure identifies its major elements as complexity,

formalization, centralization and administrative intensity. The

relationship of these elements to technology is discussed in terms

of the literature. Two principal issues emerge: First, there is no

unanimity that technology affects organizational structure, and

second, there is little consistency in the measurement of technology.

A review of the relationship between size and structure ooints

out three major issues: First, size may not be the only factor that

influences administrative intensity; second, there is no consensus

-143-
as to .,.ow size should be measured; and third, the relationship

*becween iize- and structure is not clear -- while some argue for ts

causal nature, others have found no such relationship or argue for

its being a consequence. Finally, the literature dealing with the

relationship between environment and structure is reviewed. Four

issues emerge here: First, very few studies thoroughly discuss or

make explicit the term "environment"; second, most researchers, in

treating the environment as a cause of organization uncertainty,

preclude the possibility of viewing particular environmental characteristics as dependent variables and thus subject to manipulation by

the organization; third, the impact of environmental uncertainty on

internal operations of the organization is likely to be confined to

managers at the institutional level or in boundary spanning positions;

and fourth, a problem remains as to how environments become known to

managers. Future research needs and directions are offered in the

following areas: measurement, unit/level of analysis and the nature

of variable's independence and dominance.

Forehand, G. A. & Gilmer, B. H. Environmental variation in studies

of organizational behavior. ?s:coo o o9.a .

62, 361-382.

This article explores the possibility of incorporating

environmental variation into research designs. There have been

a number of attempts to operationalize the concept of organizational climate in studies of organizational behavior. These provide a

variety of methods for assessing environmental variation and yield

data relevant to hypotheses regarding the interaction of persons and

environments. Methods for observing climate variation include field

studies, assessments of participant's perceptions, observations of

objective indices and experimental control of organizational

variables. Conditions seem to affect behavior by determining

stimuli, restraining freedom of response, and rewarding and punishing

behavior. Illustrative of the organizational properties meriting

further study are size, structure, systems complexity, leadership

pattern, and goal directions. A selected, but extensive, bibliography

indicates how studies of organizations make possible the variation

D:- both person and climate variables.

-144-

r7,

I4............................................ -l .
Franklin, J. L. Caracteristics of successf . and .nsucess'"

organizactions. University of Michigan, Institute for Social

Research, 1974. A087-097.

Several characteristics of organizations, their environments,

and development efforts are evaluated to determine their association

with successful and unsuccessful change in 25 organizations. Four

groups of characteristics differentiating between successful and

unsuccessful change efforts indicate: (1) commitment to and use of

*. survey feedback and interpersonal process consultation interventions

are associated most closely with success in OD efforts while an

emphasis on sensitivity training is most closely associated with

unsuccessful organizations; (2) organizations that are more stable

and staid are less likely to be successful in their OD efforts

than are those which are expanding and open to change; (3) internal

resource persons who are less carefully selected, receive changeagent training previous to the OD effort, and do not possess assessment-prescriptive skills are found in the unsuccessful organizations;

and (4) more specific interests and greater commitment to the OD

efforts are associated with successful change.

Franklin, J. L. & Wessner, E. S. The Arrre a fn nooninj grnizarihon: A diagnosis. University of Michigan, Institute for

Social Research, 1975.

The Survey of Organizations questionnaire was used in this

study to diagnose the current state of functioning of the Army

organization. The purpose of this survey-based diagnosis is to attempt,

*by sifting and analyzing tabulated data, to arrive at an understanding

of the manner in which the various functional parts of the organization

fit together, work, and contribute to its strengths and problems.

Three conditions in the organization serve as foci for this diagnosis:

climate, supervisory leadership and peer leadership. It is shown

that if these conditions are positive, the groups function well,

and members are satisfied with various aspects of their work lives

and are productive. Negative conditions results in groups which

function poorly.

The study used an Army sample of about 2500 respondents,

selected in such a fashion as to include organizational units at

least three hierarchical levels tall. The factors of climate,

supervisory leadership, peer leadership, group process and satisfaction were measured and compared across the following variables:

geographical location, pay grades, functional units, and Armv vs.

navy,. Analyses of Army organizational functioning in each of these

areas are offered.

-145-
Freeland, J. R. & Stabell, C. B. Allocation of managerial effort:

An investigation of the relationship between decision

strategies, environment, and performance. 3ehaviorai

Science, 1978, 23, 234-255.

The work presented in this paper concerns the decisionmaking process in complex organizational systems. The structure

and relationship between decision environment, manager, and decision

strategies are modeled in stochastic terms, andthe resulting performance is studied using Monte Carlo simulation. The basic analytical

framework, initially developed by Radner and Rothschild, focuses on

a manager responsible for n activities. At the beginning of each

time period, the manager must decide how to allocate his time among

competing activities. If at time t the manager devotes all effort

to activity i, its performance will improve or remain unchanged

according to a stochastic rule. Likewise, if no time is allocated

to an activity, its performance deteriorates or remains unchanged.

Different decision strategies are investigated including putting

out fires, adaptive random selection, and constant proportions. *The goal is to gain insights which are useful in both describing

and prescribing managerial behavior in organizations. Limitations

of the model and future work are discussed.

French, W. L. & Bell, C. H., Jr. Oracoization deve 0v-ent: 3ehavi'r-Z

* science interventions for organization imrovement. Englewood

".. Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1973.

This book is an attempt to summarize the state-of-the-art in

organization development theory and practice. The review is guided by

the belief that it is possible for the people within an organization

collaboratively to manage the culture of that organization in such a way

that the goals and purposes of the organization are attained at the

same time that human values of individuals within the organization are

furthered. In this framework, organization development is the emerging

applied behavioral science discipline that seeks to improve organizations through planned, systematic, long-range efforts focused on the

organization's culture and its human and social processes. The goal of

organization development is to make the organization more effective,

more viable, and better able to achieve both the goals of the organization as an entity and the goals of the individuals within the organization.

Part I introduces the field of organization development by

citing five illustrative examples of OD efforts in various types of

organizations which map out the history of OD theory and practice. Part II focuses on specific issues confronting the discipline. The

underlying assumptions and values about people and organizations are

-146-

'. -. .- . '. . '. . .' . ' . -. . .v " .. . . ." " " " . .. . . " . . " -
discussed along with the relevant systems concepts providing the framework for organizational theory. A variety of interventions are

evaluated (team, intergroup, total organization, and interpersonal)

in terms of the types of techniques most successful in a particular

case. State-of-the-art techniques, such as survey feedback, grid OD,

RAT, etc., are discussed in detail. Recommendations for the future

direction of organization development are offered.

Friedlander, F. & Brown, L. D. Research on organization development:

A synthesis and some implications. In Burke, W. W. (Ed.).

Current issues and strategies in organization deveiocment.

New York: Human Sciences Press, 1977.

The main body of this article is a review of studies in OD,

and is divided into two major categories. The first deals with technostructural approaches to OD. Theories and interventions included in

this category deal with the technology (e.g., task methods and processes)

and structure (e.g., relationships, roles, arrangements) of an organization. OD strategies under this heading include sociotechnical systems

perspectives, job design and enlargement, and job enrichment. Work done

at the Tavistock Institute exemplifies such an approach. The second

category is the human process approach to OD. Human process intervention focuses on the human participants and the organization processes

(e.g., communication, problem-solving, decision-making) through which

they accomplish their own and the organization's goals. Techniques

characterizing this approach are: survey feedback, group development

intervention, and intergroup relations development.

Based on this review, a definition of OD as a planned change

effort where the intervention is at the individual and process levels

or the technological and structural levels emerges. Excluded from this

concept of OD are change efforts which deal with only one organizational

component (i.e., individuals, technology, structure) to the exclusion of

others. It is concluded that in general, human-processual approaches

have a number of positive effects on the attitudes of those involved.

However, there is little evidence that organizational processes actually

change, or that effectiveness is increased by such techniques. Of the

techno-structural approaches, sociotechnical systems has the clearest

effect on performance, while all three methods tend to increase work

satisfaction. It is believed that increased integration of the two

approaches will increase the capacity of OD to influence organizational

effectiveness toward both human fulfillment and task accomplishment.

However, OD still lacks a framework to encompass the various technologies, relationships and values characterizing organizations.

-147-
Friedman, Y. & Segev, E. The decision to decide. The Journal of

"Management Studies, 1977, 14, 159-168.

This paper suggests a strategy for the optimal allocation of

top management time in the decision-making process. It is based on

the view that decision-making is not only an essential activity of

managers, but is synonymous with managing. A quantitative model is

described which indicates the possiblity of budgeting top management's

time. A decision rule for selection among decision problems is presented

along with the time expected to be devoted to the decision process.

Different management styles are expressed by the set of decision

.. problems management decides to face. The importance of the expected

decision-making process time as a criterion for choosing among decision

problems is emphasized in this model. Top management must be aware

that the size of the potential outcome may mask or exaggerate the

relative contribution to the organization of facing a specific

decision problem (i. e., relative to the amount of time spent on

making the decision). Moreover, each decision-making process cannot

be optimized independently; top management has to allocate time to

each one while knowing that other potential decision problems compete

for the same time.

The application of this decision rule to real life situations

is discussed. The most important requirement of the model is data.

The input values can either be estimated by the managers on the basis

of past data and forecasts, or (less ideally) by subjective evaluation

of top management based on past experience, "feel", and expectations.

The important element is that decision-making be rationalized and

systematized wherever possible.

organizat.onaL Change. University of Michigan: Institute for

Social Research, 1970. AD713-231.

cv A model is developed in this study outlining the three stages

through which a planned social change will move: unfreezing a

system, moving a system, and refreezing a system to insure a stabilized

change. There are two interrelated thrusts in this study. One deals

with the nature of "unfreezing", and the second with "freezing". Since

both areas are relatively unresearched, this study examines the two

areas individually as well as their interrelationships. A review of the

literature on the first and final stages of organization development

is presented. A model paralleling the Lewinian model is developed

which poses several hypotheses about the relationship between tension,

search, integration and change. The hypotheses are tested in a study

of the sales organization of a firm producing and marketing consumer

goods. The organization was divided into four parts: each partici- paced in a survey and feedback, but was assigned a different

intensity of consultation. Fourteen job-related dependent variables

developed from research and theory were used. The results from the

study are discussed in detail, along with implications for OD

practice and research.

-143-

9. . " ,y ...," '.'%.. ' < ', -'.,\> ..',\ 'v,, -. , " -. ' ,-v , .
Frobman, M. A., Sashkin, M. & Kavanagh, M. J. Action-research as

applied to organization development. In Spray, S. L. (Ed.).

3 OrganzizationaZ e,'"ectiveness. Kent, OH: Kent State

University Press, 1976.

A model of organization development, called action-research

OD, is developed to correct the deficiencies characterizing current

models of OD: nonsystematic approach, overemphasis on content, and

lack of adaptive flexibility. This report is aimed not at a comparative analysis of the processes and outcomes of different OD approaches,

but merely as an explanation of the action-research approach.

Action-research OD is a comparatively long process which

* requires a great deal of flexibility and willingness on the part of

the participants. It can be divided into eight phases: scouting,

entry, data collection, data feedback, diagnosis, action planning,

action implementation, and evaluation. Each of these phases is

discussed in detail. There are five processes or methods of operation

basic to and continuous throughout the application of the actionresearch model. They are: client-consultant collaboration, client

learning for internal resource development, monitoring and evaluation,

interaction and link between research and action, and flexibility.

Four case studies are presented which illustrate the processes of

action-research OD.

Frost, P. 5., Crandall, N. F., Mahoney, T. A. & Weitzel, W. F.

'r-anization size azs an infZ'uence on organization behazvior.

(Technical Report No. 7003). University of Minnesota:

Industrial Relations Center, 1971. AD747-951.

The research reported here investigates the impact of company

size and size of unit (department, division) within a company on

each of 18 empirically developed dimensions of organizational

behavior. The study included 283 units from 13 general business

firms and 103 R&D units within an additional four companies. Three

organizational dimensions were found to be related to size: Staffing

(personnel flexibility among assignments, development for promotion

within the organization); Delegation (work responsibilities delegated

by supervisors); Results Emphasis (results, output and performance

emphasized rather than procedures). The relationship between size and

the effectiveness of a unit was examined. Size was found to have

no direct relationship with effectiveness. It appears to act indirectly

on effectiveness through its influence on organizational characteristics,

such as delegation. Implications for managerial practice are discussed.

-149-
A Gavin, J. F. Organizational climate as a function of personal and

organizational variables. JoUrnal of App-iei PsychoLogy,

1975, 60, 135-139.

This study examines the personal and organizational correlates

of climate perceptions and assess how personal and organizational

variables might interact in the determination of climate perceptions.

Questionnaires were completed by 140 managerial-level employees in

a medium-sized bank which measured (1) organizational climate

factors: clarity and efficiency of structure, hindrance, rewards,

N esprit, managerial trust and consideration, and challenge and risk;

and (2) four organizational variables: personnel composition,

organization, task content, and physical environment. A clustering

technique was employed to group participants based on their biographical

data.

Based on the three biographical clusters and the three organizational clusters, a 3 x 3 multivariate analysis of variance with

the six climate dimensions as dependent variables was conducted.

The findings failed to support the expected interaction of personal

and organizational measures, but did indicate that personal and

organizational variables alone accounted for significant amounts of

variance in climate perceptions.

Georgiou, P. The goal paradigm and notes towards a counter paradigm.

Admninistra.rive Science ;~uarterly, 1973, 18, 291-309.

This paper suggests that the commitment to a goal paradigm

which has characterized organization theory to date has retarded

analysis by requiring the disassociation of conceptual scheme from

incompatible research findings on organizations. Barnard's incentive

system analysis Is seen as providing the foundations of a counter

paradigm, and suggestion are made for its development. Organizations

are not viewed as analytically distinctive social units given meaning

by their goals, but as arbitrary foci of interest -- marketplaces

whose structures and processes are the outcomes of the complex accotmmodations made by actors in exchanging a variety of incentives and

pursuing a diversity of goals.

-150-
Georgopoulos, 3. S. & Tannenbaum, A. S. A study of organizational

* effectiveness. American Sociological Review, 1957, 22,

534-540.

The objective of this study is to examine and define the

concept of organizational effectiveness and to investigate some of

its operational aspects by developing and testing criteria in an

*industrial setting. The study was conducted on a retail merchandise

delivery service. Data were collected through questionnaires on

supervisory and non-supervisoy employees' judgments of various

aspects of the organization's performance. Through rank-order

correlations and F-tests, the criteria of flexibility, inter-group

strain and productivity were compared with effectiveness. These

* criteria of effectiveness stem from a commonly accepted view of

organizational requirements and are generally applicable across

organizations. In this research study, organizational effectiveness

was conceptualized as the extent to which an organization, as a

social system, fulfills its objectives without incapacitating its

means and resources and without placing unbearable strain upon its

4 members. Research on OE requires, then, that an emphasis be

placed on the means-ends dimension of organizations, and that these

three criteria be taken into consideration. The conceptual and

operational aspects of organizational effectiveness here are intended

to fill the gap which has heretofore existed between the theoretical

and empirical approaches to OE research.

Gerwin, D. & Tuggle, F. D. Modeling organizational decisions

using the human problem solving paradign. Academy of

*~Yanaaement Review, 1978, 3, 762-773.

The status of human problem solving theories of organizations is evaluated along philosophical, methodological and theoretical

dimensions. The Human Problem Solving (HPS) Paradigm is built along

three vertices: Vertex One represents theories of individual human

problem solving; Vertex Two, the organizational applications of

the paradigm; and Vertex Three, the application of problem solving

concepts for design in organizations. It appears that at all three

vertices, present research concentrates on problems of the routine or

well-structure variety. HPS models of innovative decision-making

are exceedingly rare.

The group of philosophical problems with the HPS model

includes concerns that (1) they are only partial explanations of the

phenomena of human behavior; (2) human behavior may not be as rulelike as the HPS model depicts it; (3) EPS models are at best misleading,

for they divert attention from the value-laden part of the decision

-* 0roblems: and (4) HPS models ignore many important organizational

~-151-
ohenomena which they are unable to explain (i.e., intraorganizational

ca)flict). Methodological problems question the ability of HPS

modeiers to gather enough of the right type of data to produce

adequate models and to put them to a sufficiently rigorous test. It

is beleived that the process of making unstructured, innovative

organizational decisions is too complex to be accurately tracked.

Theoretical problems with KPS models concern aggregation, generalizability, the perceptual process, and normativism. Due to the

inductive nature of HPS models and the complexity of the process

they reveal, there is no agreed-upon calculus for aggregating lowlevel HPS models into higher-level ones. Possible trends in future

research and the positive implications of HPS for analyzing

organizational decision-making are discussed.

Giblin, E. J. Organization development: Public sector theory and

practice. -PubLic Personnel Management, 1976, 5, 108-118.

This article poses a philosophy of organization development

relevant to public organizations. The purpose of OD is to enlarge the

capacity of the organization to perform its work more effectively.

Three propositions are offered which describe OD efforts in the public

sector and which have implications for the actions of OD consultants

operating in similar types of organizations. (1) The low degree of

organizational effectiveness in public organizations necessitates that

the initial goals set for an OD effort be both modest and operationally

oriented. (2) Where a fundamental change in organizational climate is not

feasible in the short run, the OD effort may initially use existing

bureaucratic structure, rules and accepted customs for achieving the

desired (short-term) changes. (3) Given the complex and generally

unfavorable environments for change in public organizations, an OD

effort should concentrate on the local operating level, and take steps

to assure that its influence penetrates the higher levels of the organization.

Several of the propositions offered represent deviations from

generally accepted theory and practice. They are presented not to

devalue current research, but to suggest alternatives that may be more

applicable in severely ineffectual public organizations. Research is

needed to operationalize and empirically test these propositions.

-152-
Gillespie, D. F. & Mileti, D. S. Technology and the study of organizations: An overview and appraisal. Academy of Management

Review, 1977, 2, 7-16.

This article reviews major approaches to the concept of

technology, appraises its conceptual and methodological problems, and

proposes a heuristic scheme for guiding the analysis of technology.

A review of the literature indicates that a major conceptual problem

associated with the technology factor is its status as an independent

variable. Restricting attention to this perspective reinforces the

reification of the concept. While it is reasonable to treat technology as as an independent variable under some conditions, there are

situations in which it could be viewed as a dependent variable. In

* the latter case, technology is a function of changes in the number

or nature of the demands made upon the organization by some aspect

of its environment.

Another problem in technology literature stems from the traditional conception of organizations as having holistic, all-en:ompassin%_

*technologies. The possibility that different levels or subsystems

within an organization can have different degrees of technological

complexity, and even different technologies, has been grossly

neglected by social psychologists and structuralists alike. Some

of these dilemmas can be reduced by the heuristic scheme suggested

here. This framework encompasses variable theoretical statuses,

*different levels of analysis, application to both product and service

type organizations, and a means of clearly identifying technological

efforts. No details are given of the model.

Gillett, R. Collective indecision. Behavioral Science, 1977, 22,

383-390.

A desirable property of a collective choice procedure in

human groups is that its outcome should be clear-cut. The plurality

and Condorcet procedures are investigated under a variety of conditions to determine their susceptibility to indecisiveness. Both

plurality indecision and Condorcet indecision can attain a large

likelihood of occurrence when group size is small. However, both

likelihoods, but especially the latter's, prove highly volatile in

the presence of minor variations in group size when group size is

small. In general, the relative decisiveness of the two procedures

fluctuates as a function of the pattern of the group's preference

probabilities. An exception is groups of four and six members

where plurality indecision is always less likely than Condorcet

indecisive. When it is required that the plurality winner receive

rmore than 50 percent of the votes, the probability of Condorcet

indecision is always less than or equal to the probability of plurality

indecision, irrespective of the pattern of the group's preference

-robabilities.

~-133-
C -iisson, S. A. Dependence of technological routinization on structural

variables in human service organizations. Adminiarrative

Science Quarterly, 1978, 23, 384-395.

Writers have traditionally conceptualized structure as

dependent on technology. In this study, the adequacy of that conceptualization for human service delivery systems is questioned, and a theoretical

basis is provided for considering the effect of implemented organizational

structure on technological routinization. Review of the structuretechnology literature points out the relative contributions and

inadequacies of earlier models proposed by Woodward (1965), Khandwalla

(1974), Perrow (1967), Hunt (1970) and others. An alternative model

is hypothesized, which specifies technological routinization in a

dependent relationship with structure.

Thirty human service organizations participated in this study.

By way of questionnaires answered by staff personnel, measurements

were made on four dimensions: participation in decision making and

hierarchy of authority (centralization) and division of labor and

procedural specification (formalization). A path analysis of the

hypothesized model, based on OLS regression, shows the interrelationship

of the structural dimensions with routinization as the dependent

variable. It is noted that the directions of causality among the

variables have not been empirically established by this research effort,

but they do provide tentative support for a model of human service

organizations which conceptualizes technological routinization by

.orkers as dependent on certain dimensions of organizational structure.

Golembiewski, R. T. Renewing organizations: The 7aborator' approach

to oLanned c-anqe. Illinois: F. E. Peacock Publishers,

Inc., 1972.

This book is concerned with history's challenge to man and

his institutions, and the way in which both will adapt or change in

response. Such changes occur in either of two ways: revolution or

renewal. It is the thesis of this book that a renewal effort must be

seriously undertaken to change organizations before one resorts to

revolution. A theoretical basis and practical guide to effective

organization renewal is offered. Through its emphasis on a technology

for renewal and change, this book attempts to enlarge the manageable

and meaningful choices open to individuals and organizations in

dealing with their freedom while minimizing the future shock inherent

in the effort.

Four themes characterize this volume: (1) Laboratory Approach

as a Genus - a way of learning which is at once convenient and potent.

-154-
The laboratory approach involves a "learning how to learn", and attempts

to induce changes with regard to the learning process itself and to

communicate a particular method of learning and inquiry. (2) Organization Development as Value-Loaded. OD efforts must be critically

judged in terms of two kinds of moral frameworks: the internal values

related to organizational processes that inhere in the OD practitioner's~

theoretical framework and the external values that relate to organizational purposes. OD practitioners are seen as carriers of humane

values and likewise, OD applications carry moral implications because

they relate to the quality of life. (3) OD is characterized by focus,

locus, and designs. OD programs focus on one or a variety of diagnosed

problems, which have a locus at one or more levels of social organizations. Also, OD programs rely on a broad range of laboratory learning

designs or interventions, intended to cope with various diagnosed

problems, typically at several levels of organization. (4) The basic

OD bias: group-oriented strategies. Changes in group level phenomena

such as social norms and values are seen as the primary motivators of

organizational change, via their influence on the behavior of individuals. While there are other approaches to change, that of the grouporiented strategy is believed to have a variety of general advantages

for many OD purposes. These are discussed and applications given.

Goodman, P. & Pennings, J. Toward a frxrework of arqanizatiLona-,

effectiveness. Pittsburgh, PA: Carnegie-Mellon University,

1976. ADA029-327.

This report summarizes five original essays on organizational

effectiveness presented at an OE workshop at Carnegie-Mellon Univer- * sity in June 1976. The first paper, by J. P. Campbell, entitled

"The Structure of Organizational Effectiveness" is a major review of

different effectiveness frameworks, with emphasis on the goal and

systems approaches. A strategy for OE research is presented. The

second paper, "On the Effectiveness of Studies of Effectiveness"

* by Richard Scott examines the concept of goals and its relationship

to organizational effectiveness criteria. Scott argues that research

should center on a more limited set of criteria, and should avoid

general models to explain effectiveness. M. Hannan and J. Freeman's

article, "Obstacles to the Comparative Study of Organizational

Effectiveness" deals with some of the methodological issues in

studying OE. The problem of nonspecificity of goals as well and

of weighting multiple goals and short-versus long-term payoffs are

discussed. The concept of organizational survival as an alternative

approach to OE is presented. The fourth essay, "Toward a Framework

of Organizational Effectiveness", by J. Pennings and P. Goodman,

elaborates on the nature of complex organizations and the concept

of organizational effectiveness in an open systems theoretical

framework. The final paper by K. Weick, "On Re-Punctuating the

Problem of organizational Effectiveness", explores eight sets of

conditions which are associated with effectiveness. The basic

focus of this paper is on adaptability rather than on goal attainment as a measure of effectiveness.

* -135-
. D. K. Participation in context: Towards a synthesis

of the theory and practice of organizational change. Part II.

Zhe Journa. o2 Manaaement Studies, 1979, 16, 139-170.

This paper is a reformulation of the "paradox of change".

This notion states that to be effective, the design of a change

program can only take place when the power systems, modes of

behavior, etc., of the organization are fully understood; and these

cannot be properly understood until some processes of change have

been introduced and the reactions observed. In order to resolve

this paradox, the emphasis must turn from a concern with prediction

to a concern with evaluation. The paradox of change results from

treating organizational change in terms of the dominant scientific

paradigm, i.e., positivism plus prediction.

An attempt is made to synthesize the theory and practice

of planned organizational change within the theoretical framework

provided by contextualism. Contextualism is operationalized in

terms of three facets of contingency theory: the "as is", "should

be" and "as if" propositions. The paper discusses in depth the role/

characteristics of change agents and the contextual determinants to

planned organizational change. The authors conclude that the paradox

of change cannot be completely avoided, especially when the theories

and activities of change rest on formal "as is" type models.

Green, S. G. & Nebeker, D. M. The effects of situational factors and

leadership style on leader behavior. Organizational

Behavior and Human Performance, 1977, 19, 368-377.

Simulated leadership situations were employed to test Fiedler's

(1972) hypothesis that relationship-motivated (High Leader's Esteem

for the Least Preferred Co-Worker (LPC) score) and task-motivated

(low LPC) persons differ in their responses to favorable and unfavorable leadership situations. Approximately 200 male subjects from the

University of Washington undergraduate psychology pool served as

subjects for this simulation. The subjects responded to simulated,

pre-recorded situations which varied in their degree of situational

favorableness.

As predicted, when the situation was unfavorable the relationship-motivated leaders behaved in a more interpersonally-oriented and

less task-oriented manner than did the task-motivated leaders. When

the situation was favorable, the task-motivated leaders emphasized

interpersonal behavior more and task behavior less than the relationshipmotivated leaders. Leader LPC by situation interactions indicates that

both leader personality and the situation are important determinants

in leader behavior and that LPC and situational favorability may be

helpful in understanding this interaction.

-136-

--. . . .- .'. . . . . . . . . . . . .
Greller, M. M. Evaluation of feedback sources as a function of role

and organizational level. Journal of ArvZied Ps'gcholoac,,

* 1980, 65, 24-27.

This study examines the degree to which supervisors recognize

the value subordinates attach to different sources of feedback.

Supervisors (N=26) and subordinates (N=63) in a metropolitan transit

authority were asked to rate the usefulness of six sources of

feedback for the subordinates' job. These included: formal rewards,

information assignments, supervisors' comments about subordinates'

performance, co-workers opinions, comparisons individuals make of

their own work to that of others, and task feedback. Ratings

were made using a 7-point scale ranging from completely useless to

* extremely useful. The research was structured in a 2 x3 x6 analysis

of variance. The three factors included: role (subordinate and

supervisor), job in question (repairman, foreman, or first level

manager) and source of feedback. Results indicate that the value of

the source of feedback did not vary as a function of rank in the

organization, but supervisors consistently underestimated the importance subordinates attach to feedback from the task, comparisons

to the work of others, and co-worker's comments. They overestimated

the imoorcance of formal rewards, informal assignments, and comments

from the supervisor.

Grelier, M. M. & Herold, D. M. Sources of feedback: A preliminary

investigation. Or-'anizatioral 3ehavior and Human Performance, 1975, 13, 244-256.

This research used a deductive strategy to assess the

importance of five different potential sources of job performance

information. The worker is viewed as an information receiver in

an environment capable of providing a variety of information from

different sources. Given this view of the worker as a feedback

perceiver, it becomes necessary to posit and investigate some of

the possible sources of feedback information. Five were selected

for consideration here: the formal organization, supervisor, coworkers, the task, and one's own self. These sources were evaluated

as to their informativeness about job requirements (referent)

and the extent to which they were met (feedback).

Questionnaires were collected from 150 evening-class

students in an urban community college. They were asked to rate

each of these five sources of information in each of the two capacities.

Several analyses of variance were conducted on the data in order to

determine the value of these sources of feedback. Findings indicate

that there is a greater reliance on intrinsic sources (sources

psychologically "closer" to the individual) than on more external

sources for feedback information, this reliance being reduced for

referent information. These findings are discussed in terms of job

description items which indicate that various characteristics cf

the external sources are associated with a reduced reliance on

intrinsic sources. Implications for future research are discussed.
Griffin, R. W. Task design determinants of effective leader behavior.

-1 -zden of 'aaaerent ?e!iew, 1979, 4, 215-224.

The theoretical and empirical research literature on task

design and path-goal theory of leadership is reviewed. It is

suggested that task design and individual variables interact to

form a construct called individual-task congruence. A model is

then developed which depicts leader behavior as a moderating variable

between individual-task congruence and satisfaction and performance.

In theoretical terms, this model is a modification of the

path-goal theory of leadership. While traditional path-goal theory

stresses that appropriate leader behavior is contingent, in part, on

the structure of the task being performed, the primary thrust of

job design research has been to demonstrate that individual characteristics moderate the relationship between job and outcome variables.

Therefore, this model can be viewed as an attempted integration of

job design literature and the path-goal theory of leadership.

The practical significance of the model is its implications

for organizational change. A task design change effort offers the

opportunity, and may even require, that other organizational changes

be initiated. Specifically, if the relationship between the task

and the incumbent is changed, it may be necessary for the leader to

alter his behavior in order to be more consistent with subordinate

needs and expectations. Other implications of this model are discussed.

Grimes, A. K. Authority, power, influence and social control: A

theoretical synthesis. .4c-demyz ;- .%anageernt ?e,)Eew, 1978,

3, 72-4-735.

This article reevaluates the concept of power and analyzes

its implications for authority and leadership in an organization.

Power is conceptualized as influence and social control, the former

reducing and latter reinforcing authority. Authority and power are

viewed in this framework as end points on a single continuum. 'What

legitimizes authority is the promotion or pursuit of collective

gloals associated with group consensus. The polar opposite, power,

is pursuit of individual or particularistic goals associated with

group compliance. In terms of influence and social control, the

two concepts are the inverse of each other: authorities are the

initiators of social control and the recipients of influence;

partisans, the initiators of influence and the target of social

control. The implications of this view of power for understanding

authority and leadership are then examined.

-158-
•7 1

Haner, L. M. & Muchinsky, P. M. Work as an information environment.

Organizational, Behavior and Hwran Performance, 1978, 21,

47-60.

This study examines the nature of work information environments regarding source, types and reliability of information received

and the relation of these factors to job satisfaction. A primary

purpose of this research is to confirm and extend previous work done

on the nature of sources of information in a work environment (i.e.,

Greller & Herold, 1975).

Questionnaires were distributed to 387 faculty members at a

large midwestern university concerning the informativeness of five

sources of information in providing referent and appraisal information.

These sources included: the formal organization, supervisor, coworkers, the task itself, and personal thoughts and feelings. While

important distinctions related to theoretical issues existed, both

statistical (F-test) and graphic results were highly similar to

previous reserach on this topic, thus validating these as sources of

information. Also, factor analysis of these items along with the Job

Descriptive Index scale scores indicated that participants were able

to make meaningful distinctions between job satisfaction and the work

information environment as constructs. The possible value of the

concept of work as an information environment as an aid to the

understanding of job enrichment and participative management programs

is suggested as a concern for future research.

Harreil, al.pert k. B. The need for autonomy among managers.

.-caari of Management Review, 1979, 4, 259-267.

This article focuses on the need for autonomy in business

managers, especially as it relates to MBAs. If it was possible to

identify n Aut, MBAs could make judicious job choices, and companies

could select MEAs with high n Aut for jobs that demand independence

of operation. Autonomy is defined in comparison with related needs,

and is related to various managerial situations which allow it to

be realized or which frustrate it. The individual's needs are then

related to the organizational possibilities of better management,

by an appropriate fit, taking into account the force of the need.

The results of this investigation are that autonomy may

be one important variable among many, such as n Pow and n Ach, to

be considered by both the MBA (or other prospective management)

candidate and the organization seeking to hire a manager. For the

prospective manager, it is the personal n Aut that affects his or

her performance. For the organization, it is the candidate's relative

level of need when compared with the amount of autonomy necessary

to get a job done (or the amount that can be permitted). Size of

the organization is the most obvious variable controlling the degree

of autonomy possible to the manager. Another variable is the

extent tn -.hicl' a job requires independent action. I!icati cat

)f this -, iaomenon to managerial selection are presented. -

-159-. ,

... ... , ,, . .. .. . , . . . •,- ,-. % ,- , .-. ° , ,. w . . - - .. ' -
41

Harrison, F. L. Decision-making in conditions of extreme uncertainty.

The Jour-nra of Management Studies, 1977, 14, 169-178.

This paper describes some observations on how companies

handled decision-making under uncertainty made during a S.S.R.C.-

sponsored research project on the influence of computer methods in

planning and decision-making. The following observations were made:

(1) Managers were consciously handling uncertainty by evaluating their

major decisions in the light of several possible alternative forecasts.

(2) Statistical decision theory was not used because, though in theory

it was ideally suited for this situation, in practice management had

the following objections to its use: (a) it assumed an accuracy of

subjective probability estimates which were unrealistic in real

life; (b) it required the use of artificial criteria of choice which

were totally unacceptable to senior management; and (c) it oversimplified

the decision-making process. (3) Management was using a systems

analysis approach to decision-making, involving the use of decision

trees to structure the decision. Thereafter, instead of carrying out

a probabilistic analysis, a full evaluation to determine the quantitative and qualitative results would be carried out for each feasible

path through the tree. This would be followed by an iterative elimination process. (4) Management also endeavored to cope with uncertainty

by being more adaptive and flexible in their decision-making and by

developing contingency strategies. Plans were not looked on as

rigid blueprints, but more as loosely linked frameworks of decision

trees with the actual path through the decision tree dependent on

future events.

Hellriegel, D. & Slocum, J. W., Jr. Organizational climate: Measures,

research and contingencies. Acadeny of Managemenz JournaL,

1974, 17, 255-280.

This article critically reviews the notion of organizational

climate. The general strategy of the review is to utilize a contingency

perspective within a systems frame of reference. The article begins

with a brief description and analysis of the principal instruments

which have been developed to measure organizational climate. A

representative range of research studies which have made major use

of the organizational climate construct are evaluated in tabular

form. Attention is paid to researcher, measurement technique,

type of sample, level or rigor and type of variable represented by

climate (independent, dependent, intervening), as well as the overall

results of the research.

-160-
Sev ra ~tralconclusions are drawn from this review.

First, while on a conceptual level the organizational climate construct

suggests considerable potential for understanding individual behavior

0 in organizations, the movement from the conceptual to the measurement

level has posed many yet unresolved problems. Second, most researchers

have not specified the external environment impinging upon the

subsystem, type of technology, or the interaction of these variables

on the individual's perception of climate. For example, the climate

in subsystems with simple and static environments may be different

from that in subsystems with dynamic and complex environments; and

the criteria for success operating in these two environments may

be very different. Third, research should concentrate more on the

causal links between climate and measures of job performance,

turnover, etc. Finally, research must strive to achieve a higher

* degree of rigor if it is to yield useful results.

Hiermnan, i. 3. & Hiulin, C. L. Studying organizational attitudes from

individual and organizational frames of reference.

Organizational Behavior and 7uman Performance, 1972, 8,

84-108.

Attitudinal data were gathered on 307 managerial personnel

from a large midwestern manufacturing company. The respondents represented different functional divisions, levels in the hierarchy,

and departments in the organization. Discriminant analyses were

done for groups formed on the basis of these organizational structure

variables and the individual difference characteristics of age, tenlire, and years of education.

* Group differences were highly significant for all analyses

and multidimensional in all but one solution. The estimated power

of the organizational structure groupings to account for individual

attitude differences as .60, .43, .82, respectively. The power

for the individual characteristic groupings ranged from .40 to .37.

In addition to the apparent differences in the power of the struc-

* ture versus individual characteristic solutions, the primary

interpretation of group differences varied in the two sets of

analyses. Groups formed on individual characteristics differed

mainly in terms of job satisfaction. The differences between the

organizational structure groups were more complex involving evaluations of line-staff relations, production management, and supportive

* services. Job satisfaction variables accounted for less of the

between-group differences in the structure analyses.

-161-
Hersey, P. & Blanchard, K. H. Cultural changes: Their influence on

organizational structure and management behavior. Training

and DeveLopment Journal, 1970, 24, 2-3.

The purpose of this article is to suggest a re-evaluation

of the role of management, given the cultural changes now affecting

organizational structure. The view of a manager's role as one of

planning, organizing, motivating and controlling was and may still

be appropriate at the organizational levels comprised of unskilled/

uneducated workers. However, with the increase in educated, highly

skilled workers, this role has become too restrictive. The "Linking

Pin" concept developed by Likert is offered as an alternative model

of managerial behavior. Freed from the demands of constant control

and supervision, the manager should now turn his attention from his

role as supervisor to that of subordinate at the next higher level

of organizational hierarchy. Increased awareness of the cultural

changes by management could make organizational structures and

management behavior more relevant to workers, thereby maximizing

their productivity.

Hickson, D. J. A convergence in organization theory. AIinstrative

Science Quarterly, 1966, 11, 224-237.

This review of the theories on the structure of organizations

reveals that they repeatedly reduce to a single aspect of role

expectations; namely, the degree of specificity (or precision) of

role prescription, and its obverse, the range of ligitimate discretion. Three points emerge: First, a linear relationship between

degree of role prescription and other behavior variables is almost

universally taken for granted. Second, and most important, relatively

little work is being done to devise measures of role prescription.

Third, unless organizational scientists are more aware of their preoccupation with this single concept, the development of new ideas

may be inhibited.

Hitt, J. A. & Morgan, C. P. Organizational climate as a predictor

of organizational practices. Ps ;choicica Reporrs, 1977,

40, 1191-1199.

This study investigates the relationship between organizational climate and certain organizational practices. A study was

conducted using 84 salaried employees of a large industrial

organization. The Litwin and Stringer Improved Climate Questionnaire

was used to measure perceptions of organizational climate dimensions,

and scales from House and Rizzo's Organizational Practices Questionnaire were used to measure perceptions of certain organizational

prac:ices. rhe six organizational practices studied were: adaptability,

-162-

A-_2
planning adequac%, work-flow coordination, conflict and inconsistency,

decision delay, and distortion of information and suppression. Stepwise analysis regressions were used to determine whether the dimensions of

climate were predictive of these six organizational practices.

The findings indicate that dimensions of organizational

climate are predictive of the six organizational practices. For

the three positive organizational practices of adaptability, planning

adequacy, and work-flow coordination, reward was the most important

climate dimension serving as a predictor. Reward, identity, structure

and standards were predictive of conflict and inconsistency.

Responsibility was not a predictor of any of the six organizational

practices studied. It is concluded that reward may be the most

important climate dimension for the six organizational practices.

House, R. J. & Mitchell, T. R. Path-goal theory of leadership.

J ournal o., 9onuemnwcra 3usiness, Aut, 1974, 81-97.

This article discusses an integrated body of conjecture by

students of leadership, referred to as the "Path-Goal Theory of

Leadership". According to this theory, leaders are effective because

of their impact on subordinate's motivation, ability to perform

effectively, and satisfaction. The theory derives its name from

its major concern of how the leader influences the subordinates'

perceptions of their work goals, personal goals, and paths to

goal attainment. A leader's behavior is deemed motivating or satisfying to the degree that such behavior increases subordinate goal

attainment and clarifies the paths to these goals.

The article begins with a discussion of expectancy theory --

the theoretical foundation of the path-goal approach. Several

propositions are then stated concerning the nature of leadership

behavior and the contingency factors which moderate the relationship

between the leader's behavior and subordinate satisfaction. Empirical

support for this theory is documented. The characteristics of leadership which have been tested and found to correlate with subordinate

satisfaction and performance are: leader directiveness, supportive

leadership, achievement-oriented leadership, and participative

leadership. Suggestions for the direction of future research in

leadership theory are discussed.

-163-
House, R. J. & Rizzo, J. R. Role conflict and ambiguity as critical

variables in a model of organizational behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Performnce, 1972, 7, 467-505.

The purpose of this study is to report on the development

and testing of a model of organizational behavior. The model

describes relationships between formal and supportive organizational

practices, leader behavior, role perceptions, satisfaction, and

perceptions of organizatioi-1l effectiveness. Measurements of

management practices and leadership behavior were utilized as

predictor variables. Role conflict and role ambiguity were treated

as intervening variables. The dependent variables consisted of

measures of perceived organizational effectiveness, employee satisfaction, anxiety, and propensity to leave the organization.

Questionnaires were completed by 9 vice-presidents and 56

quasi-professional and managerial employees selected by the vicepresidents. This measurement gave a characterization of the firm

in theoretical terms. Inferences from this characterization were

used to construct a model of behavior of the members of the organization. Using this model as a guide, four specific hypotheses were

stated: (1) Supportive team-oriented employee-centered supervision

and supportive employee-centered organizational practices will be

correlated positively -Tith employee satisfaction and negatively with perceptions or organizational problems, anxiety, and propensity

to leave. (2) Formal organization practices and task oriented

leadership will be negatively correlated with role conflict and role

ambiguity. (3) Role conflict and ambiguity will in turn be correlated

negatively with perceptions of organizational effectiveness and

satisfaction and positively correlated to anxiety and member

propensity to leave. (4) The independent variance in the role

dimensions will account for a significant amount of the correlations

between formalization practices and the dependent variables. The

first three hypotheses were tested using Pearson product-moment

correlations; the fourth by comparing the zero-order c rrelations

with their own partial correlations holding each of the role dimensions constant. Findings showed that predictors tended to relate

in expected directions to role measures and dependent variables.

Role measure hypotheses were generally supported, and role ambiguity

was a better predictor and intervening variable than role conflict.

-164-4

-24.
Hoawac, G. & London, M. Attributions of conflict management strategies

in supervisor-subordinate dyads. JournaL of~ AprZied

?szucholoay, 1980, 65, 172-175.

This study examines the extent to which measures of conflict

management and interpersonal relations are attributed to individuals

who perceive conflict. Data were collected from one supervisor and

one subordinate in 113 park and recreation agencies. Correlations

between supervisors' ratings on one variable and subordinates'

ratings on another were calculated. Regression analyses were also

conducted, treating the ratings of conflict frequency as the

independent variable and attributions of conflict management and

interpersonal relations as the dependent variable.

The results support the hypothesis that perceived conflict

frequency is associated with attributions of conflict. Supervisors 4 and subordinates who perceived higher conflict frequency tended to

be seen by each other as using force, a strategy indicative of

conflict intention. Supervisors who perceived higher conflict

frequency were viewed by their subordinates as likely to withdraw

from conflict, whereas subordinates who perceived higher conflict

freuqency were viewed by their supervisors as likely to avoid

confrontation and compromise. Perceptions of conflict frequency were

negatively correlated with ratings of the favorability of interpersonal

relations. The need for further investigations of the relationship

between the occurrence of conflict and conflict attributions is

discussed.

Huber, G. P., Ullman, J. & Leifer, R. Optimum organization design:

An analytic-adoptive approach. Academzj of Management

Review, 1979, 4, 567-578.

4 This article offers a formal approach to designing organizations, and reports in some detail on a case in which the approach

was implemented on a large scale. The introductory section discusses

O the concept of "optimum organization design". It refers to the

particular set of levels of structural and technological variables

that, if established, would maximize achievement of the organization's

goals. A review is made the various approaches to organizational

design found in the literature. The major approaches reviewed are:

classical management theory, open systems theory, contingency theory,

organizational experimentation, team theory, and informational theory.

A final approach -- the analytic-adoptive approach -- is descirbed

in detail and applied to a specific case. This approach includes

* -165-
some aspects of ooen systems theory as well as the incorporation of

knowledge from organizational members and from organizational experimentation. The essence of the approach is to (1) analyze the relationships between the levels of potentially controllable structural or

technological variables and the levels to which certain organizational

goals are achieved, and then (2) adopt those levels of the controllable

structural or technological variables that maximize goal achievement.

Several features of this approach are appealing to administrators

and compatible with the values of many applied scientists; namely,

performance orientation, hard data, minimal cross-organizational

extrapolation, and minimal artistry.

'N

Huse, E. F. & Bowditch, J. L. 3ehavior in organizations: A systems

approach to managing . Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley

Publishing Company, 1977.

This book, written in textbook format, is intended to develop

an understanding of behavior in organizations. The organization is

examined from three viewpoints: First, from a structural-design viewpoint; second, from a dynamic perspective focusing on what happens to

information when it enters the organization; and third, from a human

perspective, focusing on what people perceive, what they say, and how

they operate in groups. The third perspective is the major focus of

this text. The framework used to describe the operations of individuals, groups, and organizations is the systems approach.

Within the systems approach, the various characteristics of

the organization are examined on the micro level. These include:

motivation, perception and communication, group and intergroup activities, leadership, and management. A micro and macro look is also taken

at the environment. The concept of organizational change and develop-

'.4 ment is examined in terms of the human perspective, while organizational

improvement is examined in terms of the structural-design perspective

and the work-flow perspective. Advantages and disadvantages of each

Approach are evaluated.

.% Ilgen, D. R., Fisher, C. D., & Taylor, M. S. Consequences of

individual feedback on behavior in organizations. JournaZ

of Aplied PsychoZogy, 1979, 64, 349-371.

The literature on feedback was reviewed with respect to

its effect on the behavior of individuals in performance-oriented

organizations. Although contemporary views of individual behavior

in organizations stress that feedback is necessary for effective

role performance, !.it.tie ittaencion is given to the psychological

processes affected by it. This review focuses on the multidimensional nature of feedback as a stimulus and addresses the process

-166-

4N*
by which f~dakinfluences behavior. It attempts to delineate

*the nature o-- 4-edback more specifically than other process models

and to integrate human performance and information processing research

on feedback into a more general process orientation.

Each component of the feedback process is reviewed in

detail. Emphasis is placed on those aspects of feedback that

influence (a) the way it is perceived, (b) its acceptance by the

recipient, and (c) the willingness of the recipient to respond to

the feedback. Several implications arise from the review: (1)

Two variables affecting the reception of feedback which have been

heretofore ignored in research must be considered: the source (poser

relationships, credibility, etc.) and the nature of the feedback

message (misperception vs. non-acceptance). (2) Several instances

are identified where increasing feedback frequency may not only fail

to improve performance, but actually may be detrimental to it.

(3) The need to take into account individual differences in reactions

to feedback must be considered. The general conclusion is that it

46 is very confusing to relate feedback directly to behavior.

Rather, the effects of feedback can be better understood and predicted

through an analysis of what occurs between the administration of

the feedback and the subject's selection of a response.

fo Indik. 3. P. The relationship between organization size and supervision

ratio. A, rinistrat-ive SCien-ce ur,;r~ri? 1964, 9, 301-312.

Parkinson's Law states that as the size of the organizational

unit increases, the ratio of supervision will tend to increase. The

* research described here explores the empirical validity of this concept

through an investigation of five different types of organizations. The

alternative hypothesis guiding the investigation states that as the

size of the organizational unit increases, the ratio of supervision

will tend to decrease, as long as the complexity of the task of

lower-level individuals does not increase.

Data were collected from literature on five types of organizations: (1) package delivery stations (N-32); (2) automobile dealerships (N-36); (3) Volunteer fire companies (N-12); (4) industrial

labor unions (N-8); and (5) nonpartisan political organization chapters

(N-28). The datawere then plotted on semilogarithmic scales. In the five

sets of organizations studied, the relationship between organization

unit size and supervision ratio was logarithmic in form and negative

in slope, thus providing support for the second hypothesis. Several

reasons for this finding relevant to each type of organization are

offered; however, no rationale has yet been experimentally proven.

-167-

Ila * . *i
Ivancevic, J. M. & Donnelly, J. H., Jr. Relation of organizational

structure to job satisfaction, anxiety-stress, and performance. Administrative Science QuarterLy, 1975, 20, 272-280.

This paper presents data about the relationships between

organizational structure and the variables of job satisfaction, anxietystress, and performance. Five hypotheses regarding these relationships

are formulated: They state, respectively, that if the organizational

respect to self-actualization, autonomy, opportunities for innovativeness, security, and social interaction; (2) will perceive less jobrelated anxiety-stress; (3) will be absent from their jobs less: (4)

will perform better on such measures as efficiency rating and route

coverage index; and (5) will show a more significant relationship

between satisfaction and the effectiveness measures than will those

in medium and tall organizational structures.

A study was conducted of 295 trade salesmen in three large

national organizations to test these hypotheses. A Berry & Sadler

ratio was used to derive the steepness ratio of organizational

structure, and various widely accepted scales were used as measurements of the dependent variables. ANOVA and correlational tests

*' were conducted on the data. The findings support a positive

relationship between a flat organizational structure and salesmen's

satisfaction relating to autonomy and self-actualization, anxietystress level, and performance. They failed to show significant

differences on satisfaction facets such as opportunities for

innovativeness, social interaction, security, pay and absenteeism.

There were only moderate to low relationships between satisfaction and

performance.

Jacobs, T. 0. Leadership and social exchange. (HumRRO-PP-17-72).

Alexandria, VA: Human Resources Research Organization, 1972.

This paper presents a definition of leadership in relation

to power and authority and in terms of the impact of various types

of influence attempts in formal organizations. The actions and the

reactions of superordinates and subordinates occur in terms of cultural

values, group norms, and social responses derived from the social

learning processes. Leadership is a type of role behavior that is

learned and executed better by some than by others. Social exchange

theory seems to provide a useful framework for analysis of the impact

of superordinate influence attempts.

i-

" -168-
James, L. R. & Jones, A. P. Organizational climate: A review of

theory and research. ?sychcoqoicai Bulierin, 1974, 81,

1096-1110.

Previous organizational climate research, definitions, and

measurement approaches are reviewed and differentiated into three

categories: (1) a multiple measurement-organizational attribute

approach, (2) a perceptual measurement-organizational attribute

approach, and (3) a perceptual measurement-individual attribute

* approach. Similarities and differences between these approaches

are discussed in an attempt to address a number of theoretical

and psychometric concerns.

A major focus of this paper is the extent to which organizational climate duplicates other organizational and individual

* domains. Recommendations are made for future research which include

a rationale for differentiating between organizational climate and

psychological or individual climate and an emphasis upon the

distinction between level of measurement and level of explanation

as related to future definitions of climate.

James, L. R. & Jones, A. P. Organizational structure: A review of

structural dimensions and their conceptual relationships with

individual attitudes and behavior. Organizational Behavior

and Human Performance, 1976, 16, 74-113.

This paper reviews aspects of organizational structure in

terms of the conceptual relationships between organizational structure

and individual attitudes and behavior. The review covers literature

in four areas: (1) the rationale underlying the development of organiv zational structure; (2) the dimensions of organizational structure;

(3) the interrelationships between these dimensions; and (4) the

conceptual relationships between organizational structure and individual attitudes and behavior.

The major conclusions based upon this review relate to the

need to identify the parsimonious constructors of organizational

structure and to use more sophisticated integrating models in relating

organizational structure to individual attitudes and behavior. The

open systems model is discussed as one which emphasizes the dynamic

nature of events, and hence, structure. In this framework, the

dimensions of structure are considered on a subsystem level, rather

than on a total organizational level. These dimensions are identified

as: total organizational size, centralization of decision-making and

authority, configuration, formalization, specialization, standardization, and interdependence of organizational components. A potential

model is proposed for studying the relationship between organizational

structure and individual attitudes and behavior. No empirical evidence

is offered for the applicability of this model, but speculative

attempts are made to demonstrate its usefulness.

-169-
Jaog, A. G. & Vroom, V. H. Hierarchical level and leadership -tvle.

Oranizational 3ehavior cznd Huirnan Perforrance, 1977, 18,

131-145.

This research investigates the relationship between the

hierarchical level or managerial personnel and individual differences

in their leadership styles, specifically the degree to which they

are disposed to use participative, as opposed to autocratic, decisionmaking strategies. Data was collected from four consecutive levels

in the organization: technical professionals (N=134), supervisors

\" with managerial responsibility (N-105), section heads (N-72), and

division heads (N=43).

Analysis of self-report data collected from these managers

suggests a greater propensity for use of participative methods at

higher organizational levels. Subordinate descriptions of their

immediate superiors further support this relationship. However,

members asked to describe this relationship reveal perceptions

incongruent with the direction of effect implied by the betweenlevcl group differences. Reasons for this incongruity and its

implications for the organization are discussed.

-i7 M. Technology, organizations and contingency. f

Manaaement Review, 1977, 2, 17-26.

This article surveys relevant studies of technology, environment, and organizational contingency in order to construct a synthesis

of theory and to suggest directions for further research. The basic

configuration of the proposed model places environments, technology

and infrastructure in interaction with one another and with organizational structure. The infrastructure takes its shape from the necessity

of providing a dual fit, both with the core technology it buffers and

with the external environment; but it, too, has its own technologies

and environments. These technologies and their implied interdependencies

must be chosen for this dual fit. The choice of the intervening

technology implies choices in structure and management devices,

constrained by the core technology and its interdependencies. The

basic configuration (environment-infrastructure-tecnnolog) provides

a frame or skeleton of increasing specificity and control, to be fleshed

out with multiple intervening technologies meeting various aspects of

the core technology's buffering needs. The components of this model

and the interrelationship between its elements are discussed in

detail.

-170-

. - . .. . .. . . . . . . . - - .. .. . . .. ...
i-l

Johannesson, R. E. Some problems in the measurement of organizational

climate. Organizationa1 Behavior and Human Performance,

1973, 10, 118-144.

This paper, through literature review and logical argument,

questions the independence of climate factors from those identified

in research on work attitudes. The arguments suggest that job

satisfaction and perceptually measured organizational climate are,

to a large degree, redundant. Specifically, it is hypothesized

* that climate factors can be readily accounted for by satisfaction

factors which have had the benefit of a history of careful study

and repeated investigation.

Two measures of job satisfaction and one measure of organizational climate were administered to a primary sample of 499 employees

* of two large manufacturing corporations. Each subject completed a

booklet containing the 78-item SRA Employee Inventory, 90 perceptual

organizational climate items, and the JDI measure of job satisfaction.

The data were divided into three subsets, and a Cumulative Communality

Cluster Analysis was performed on each measure. The results of this

study tend to support the hypothesis. It is concluded that, on the

whole, organizational climate as measured in this study failed to

add new or different variance to commonly identified satisfaction

factors. It is therefore suggested that alternative methods for

assessing the quality of organizational environments be explored.

Several alcernatives are discussed.

Johnson, R. A., Kast, F. E. & Rosenzweig, J. E. The theory and

'- naaerrent of systerrs.(2nd Ed.). New York: McGrawHill Book Company, 1967.

The primary objectives of this book are to provide a conceptual

model for the systems concept, to suggest certain applications, and

to explore some of the means of implementing this approach. It is

written in textbook format; each chapter includes a number of case

studies and concludes with a list of review questions. The book is

divided into four parts.

Part 1 develops the theoretical framework for systems

concepts and defines the relationship between them and the primary

managerial functions (planning, organization, control, information and

communication). The last chapter of this section draws together the

ideas on the utilization of a systems approach in the four management

functions to form an integrated systems concept for organizations.

This discussion is the most vital section of the book. Part 2

presents four case studies in which systems concepts have been

applied. They are: weapon and space systems, distriution si-scems.

production systems, and data-nrocessing systems. The first or~anizati n

-171-
is used to illustrate the program management concept: the second,

ahe integration of the production and marketing functions into a

single material-flow system; the third, a structured, closed-loop

system where inputs are measurable and outputs are predictable; and

the last, the use of integrated data processing and real-time

processing as systems for managing information.

Part 3 is concerned with the implementation of the systems

concept in the management process. Simulation is presented as a

technique for implementing systems design, and network analysis is

specifically discussed as a tool which helps managers to design

better systems and to plan and control operations effectively and

efficiently. Systems design is discussed as one of management's most

vital functions. Part 4 discusses the implications of systems concepts

for the future. It is proposed that organizations must utilize

systems theory and concepts in the future to integrate their operations

if they are to survive in a dynamic environment. Possible applications of the systems concepts in management, motivation and job

satisfaction and organizational adaptation are discussed.

Kahn, R. Organizational development: Some problems and proposals.

The Jozr..7 c; Ac-i e ehaviorai Science, 1974, 10,

485-502.

An examination of the current body cf OD literature reveals

that much of its research is redundant and without refinement or

validation, and that the term "organizational development" itself

remains scientifically undefined and hence primarily a convenient

label for a variety of activities. A further observation is that

the OD literature as a whole is more autobiographical than organizational in focus and scope. Work toward resolution of these three

problems, the author suggests, would help the practice of OD base

itself on a more mature and usable set of principles and procedures

for organizational change. The author also questions the adequacy

and utility of the traditional dichotomy between organizational

process and structure evident in the literature and discusses a

reconceptualization of organizational structure that permits

clarification of key issues in the practice and theory of organizational change.

-172-

.I.br 1"
Karasek, R. ?., Jr. Job demands, job decision latitude, and mental

strain: Implications for job redesign. Administrative

Science Quarteriy, 1979, 24, 285-308.

S

A stress-management model of job strain is developed in this

study which postulates that psychological strain results not from

a single aspect of the work environment, but from the joint effects

of the demands of a work situation and the range of decisionmaking freedom available to the worker facing those demands. The

* model was tested first with recent national survey data results from

Sweden and the United States. Dependent variables were compared

through regression analysis and three-dimensional diagrams. Another

test was conducted with longitudinal data from the Swedish data, and

similar statistical tests used.

* The model appears to clarify earlier contradictory findings

based on separate effects of job demands and job decision latitudes.

The consistent finding is that the combination of low decision

latitude and heavy job demands is associated with mental strain. This

same combination is also associated with job dissatisfaction. In

addition, the analysis of dissatisfaction reveals a ccmplex interaction

of decision latitude and job demand effects that easiiv could be

overlooked in a conventional linear, unidimensional analysis. The

major implication of this study is that redesigning work processes

to allow increases in decision latitude for a broad range of workers

could reduce mental strain, and do so without affecting the job

demands that may plausibly be associated with organizational output

levels.

Katz, D. & Kahn, R. L. 7he .3oci~ rs'acau ;:" ... ' :ras New

* York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1966.

This book proposes that the resolution of the theoretical

difficulties rampant in organizational research can best be achieved

by means of open systems theory. Open systems theory is believed to

permit breadth without oversimplification. It emphasizes, through

the basic assumption of entropy, the dependence of the organization

upon its environment. The open system concepts of energic input and

maintenance point to the motives and behavior of individuals who are

the carriers of energic input for human organizations; the concept of

output and its necessary absorption by the larger environment also

links the micro- and macro-levels of discourse. For these reasons,

it is seen as the most viable framework for the consideration of

organizational behavior.

-173-

.................... .*............
This book defines all of the concepts characterizing open

systems theory and applies them to the various functions of organizations. Empirical research is cited to support the theoretical

constructs developed in this study on the topics of: organizational

structure and effectiveness, roles, power and authority, communication,

policy formulation and decision-making, leadership, and change. The

theoretical framework developed and applied in this volume has placed

it as one of the cornerstones of thinking in organizational theory.

Kaufman, R Organizational improvement: A review of models and an

attecupted synthlesi. 3z'uO zrad OraanizaTion S3uais, 1976,

1, 474-495.

Organization development and improvement models, like the

people they intend to help, come in a bewildering array of sizes,

)[ shapes, types and intentions. Many have been developed; but few seem

*- to do the job for which they were intended. This paper and the conceptual model it offers help to identify the major varieties of models

and methods and to analyze the characteristics of some of the best

understood and recognized among them. The author proposes that most

models are only descr 4 ptive and fail to offer the predictive and

control aspects considered central to success.

A predictive synthesis, termed "Transactional Life-Cycle

Theory", is offered as an alternative model of organization development.

It is a combination of existing models, including selected aspects of

Hersey and Blanchard's Life-Cycle Theory, some role behavior aspects

of Transactional Analysis and some aspects of Greenwald's Direct

Decision Therapy. Some additional considerations of this model are

presented, including one relating to sexism and sex-role stereotyping.

Keller, R. T. Role conflict and ambiguity: Correlates with 'ob

satisfaction and values. -rsnn.! Psuchoscy, 1975, 28,

57-64.

This research studv was conducted to test some hypotheses

generated from the Kahn, et. al. theory of role dynamics, and to

extend and refine the relationships between role conflict, ambiguity,

and job satisfaction by using a multi-dimensional conception of job

satisfaction. The basic hvotheses state that role conflict and

ambiguity will be negatively related to dimensions of job satisfaction,

while personality-related values will be positively related to role conflict and ambiguity, as well as to the dimensions ' ,)b satisfaction.

-.

-- -174-
Datawere gathered from questionnaires distributed to 51 professional employees of an applied science department in a large

government research and development organization. A correlational

* analysis was conducted between the role conflict and ambiguity scales

and the five dimensions of job satisfaction. The results of this

study tend to partially support the Kahn, et al. theory of role

dynamics. The data indicated that role ambiguity was related to intrinsic sources of job satisfaction, while role conflict was related

to extrinsic satisfaction sources. However, the second hypothesis is

not supported by this study; values were found to be generally unrelated

to role conflict and ambiguity as well as to job satisfaction.

Implications for personnel practice are indicated.

Keller, R. T., Slocum, J. W., Jr. & Susman, G. I. Uncertainty and

type of management system in continuous process organizations. The Academj of Management -ournaZ, 1974, 17,

56-67.

This paper examines the thesis that environmental uncertainty

affects the type of management system most appropriate to successful

performance in continuous process technologies. The sample used in

this study consisted of 44 plants using continuous process technologies.

Data were collected by questionnaires and telephone interviews on

organization size, capital intensity, location, and management style.

Through factor analysis, the 22 resulting items measuring the

management system were put into three clusters: impersonal hierarchy,

group decision-making, and rules for decision-making. Other instruments were used to measure economic success and uncertainty.

W The major result of this study was that an organic management

system was found to be significantly more successful overall. However, there were important distinctions between autonomous and

nonautonomous organizations. The implication is drawn that in small,

nonautonomous organizations, an organic system will lead to economic

success. Rather than a reliance on impersonality and a hierarchy of

authority, management should encourage the development of face-toface informal relationships. Other implications for organization

theory, research, and managerial practice are discussed.

-175-
. "

Kerr, S., Schriesheim, C. A., Murphy, C. J. & Stogdill, R. M. Toward

a contingency theory of leadership based upon the consideration and initiating structure literature. DrganizationaL

Behavior and Human Performance, 1974, 12, 62-82.

The Ohio State Leadership Studies have been criticized on

the grounds that they lack a conceptual base and fail to take

situational variables into account. This article reviews the

published literature on the leader behavior dimensions "Consideration"

and "Initiating Structure" for the purpose of developing some situational propositions of leader effectiveness. Among the variables

found by researchers to significantly moderate relationships between

leader behavior predictors and satisfaction and performance criteria

are: subordinate need for information, job level, subordinate

expectations of leader behavior, perceived organizational independence,

leader's similarity of attitudes and behavior to managerial style

of higher management, leader upward influence, and task characteristics, including pressure and provision of intrinsic satisfaction.

The article concludes by presenting ten situational propositions, and linking them to form two general postulates of leadership

effectiveness. (1) The more subordinates are dependent upon the

leader for provision of valued or needed services, the higher the

positive relationships between leader behavior measures and subordinate

satisfaction and performance. (2) The more the leader is able to

provide subordinates with valued, needed, and expected services, the

higher the positive relationship between leader behavior measures

and subordinate satisfaction and performance.

Khandwalla, P. N. Environment and its impact on the organization.

International Journal of Management rnd Organization,

1972, 2, 297-313.

This paper sets forth several testable hypotheses relating

properties of the environment to the responses of the organization.

A review of the literature suggests that the three features perceived by researchers to be the most important environmental

properties affecting the organization are uncertainty, hostility,

and heterogeneity. The principal differences in the impact of these

three environmental features on the organization are expressed in

three hypotheses. (1) The response to uncertainty is a spectrum

of complex uncertainty reduction, organizational differentiation, and

organizational integration mechanisms. (2) The response to environmental hostility or malevolence is different-- primarily an attempt

at organizational integration through the mechanisms of centralization

and standardization, with possible reinforcement of goal congruence

-176-
and short time perspective. (3) The response to heterogeneity is

similar, but more circumscribed-- primarily organizational differentiation and integration.

No empirical support is offered in this study. However, it

is argued that if these speculations are borne out in research,

organization theory would enjoy a stronger empirical base and would

move towards a contingency explanation of organizational behavior

in which the nature of the task would assume the same importance as

the nature of the individual as an explanation of organizational

functioning. Implications of this new direction in organization

- :scussed.

Kh>ndwalla, ?. N. The techno-economic ecology of corporate atrategy.

The Journal of Managenent Studies, 1976, 13, 62-75.

This study explores the notion of corporate strategy through

a contingency framework. Corporate strategy is viewed as a set of

guidelines or policy heuristics developed as a response to the

contingencies faced by a firm. If the environment is rich in contingencies, as when it is dynamic, complex, and uncertain, the firm's

corporate strategy is likely to be comprehensive or multi-faceted.

If the environment is not rich in contingencies, as when the environment is stable or predictable, the strategy is likely to be quite

limited in scope.

Data from a study conducted with 79 firms are consistent with

this contingency view of corporate strategy. The sample for this

study, while not random, was felt to be fairly representative of

medium sized, non-diversified American manufacturing firms. The

study reports questionnaire results from the presidents of these

firms, rating the intensity of price competition in the industry, the

intensity of competition in promotion and distribution, the intensity

of competition in product quality and variety, and the importance of

each of these to their firm's profitability. When the perceived

importance of each of several activities was correlated with the

perceived magnitudes of the different forms of competition and technological change experienced by the firm, itwas found that (1) the

associations between these techno-economic environmental variables

and the importance of these activities are generally positive; (2)

there are striking differences, as between the techno-economic

variables, in their relationships with the importance of four areas

of strategic import that are secured by classifying these activities

by function. The observed relationships are explained in terms of contingencies that the techno-economic variables may create for the

fir-'. Plans for further research are briefli outlined.

-177-
Kim, J. S. & Hamner, W. C. Effect of performance feedback and goal

setting on productivity and satisfaction in an organizational

setting. JourmaZ of Applied PsychoZogy, 1978, 61, 48-57.

This study investigates the comparable effects of performance

feedback and goal setting on productivity and satisfaction. A quasiexperimental design was used to investigate the interaction of these

variables in a large telephone company. Three experimental groups

received either extrinsic feedback and intrinsic feedback alone, or

extrinsic and intrinsic feedback with goal setting, while a fourth

* group received only goal setting instructions. The results show that

it is possible for goal setting alone to enhance performance without

a formal knowledge-of-results program. This yields external validity

t0 Lsu b LlCury of goal settiag. However, ceSulLs also huw that

when evaluative and non-evaluative feedback were added to a goalsetting program, performance was generally enhanced beyond that found

in the goal-setting only group. Future research should look into the

additive effect of goal setting with evaluative and descriptive

knowledge-of-results on task performance.

Kimberly, J. R. & Nielsen, W. R. Organization development and change

in organizational performance. Ac.7inistrative Science

"uarterZy, 1975, 20, 191-206.

This study examines the impact of a planned change program

on organizational performance using a model of causal linkages which

appears to underlie the OD approach to organizational intervention.

The study is based on the implementation of an OD program in an

' 1 automotive division of a large, multiplant, multidivisional corporation. The program was carried out in seven phases: initial diagnosis,

team skills training, data collection, data confrontation, action

planning, team building, and intergroup building. Data was collected

through questionnaires given periodically throughout the study;

indices of organizational performance were compiled on a daily basis.

These data met the qualifications for a modified time-series

experiment design. Analyses performed on the data included t-tests,

F-tests, and correlations.

The results presented suggest two important generalizations

about organization development as an organizational change modality.

First, they indicate (given the limits of this design) that OD can

result in directed change. Second, they suggest some parameters

within which OD may be expected to be effective and outside of which

such expectations may be unwarranted. The determinants of an

effective OD program include the expectations of the participants and

the internal characteristics of the organization as much, if not more, 2i than the particular strategy chosen. One shortcoming of this model

is that it is based on a closed-system approach; this may prove of

narrow use in future OD research. Other implications of this study

for future research into planned change programs are discussed.

-178-
Kirchhoff, B. A. Organization effectiveness measurement and policy

research. Academyz of Manaqernent Review, 1977, 2, 347-355.

0 The theoretical and empirical research literature on organization effectiveness measurement reveals that empirical methodologies,

developed primarily by psychologists and sociologists, do not

adequately express the complexity of effectiveness measurement. This

article suggests a more accurate methodology, cautions researchers

about oversimplifying concepts of effectiveness, and offers directions

* for future research.

The two principal approaches to organization effectiveness

measurement discussed are the goal approach models and the evaluative

models. The goal approach models struggle with the- 4dentirf.cat~on of

appropriate goals and multivariate methodology in an attempt to

0 integrate multiple goals into an ultimate criterion that will be

applicable to more than one organization or even within one organization.

Evaluative models use evaluations of overall effectiveness that are

operational over numerous organizations but lack the basic requirements

of validity and reliability. The conclusion drawn from this review is

that there is no ultimate criterion of effectiveness. Complex organizations pursue multiple goals. Real effectiveness, therefore, can

only be measured relative to a particular set of derived or prescribed

goals. Policy research is seen to have a contribution to make in

ameliorating these problems in OE measurement. The published empirical

research on business policy is devoid of reference to a theory of an

* ultimate criterion of effectiveness, and multiple goals are taken as

an integral aspect of business organizations. While policy research

does not hold all the answers, it does point out that the key to

successful research is to avoid generalizing effectiveness from

~asu~entof a single goal.

Knowles, 11. C. Interdependence among organizational variables.

FHwrar Relations, 1975, 28, 431-450.I

This study investigates the interrelationship among a

variety of organizational variables. A matrix analysis was conducted

in which 14 work organizations (sections) within a company were

assessed on ten variables: production, quality, costs, job satisfaction of operatives, job satisfaction of supervisors, work anxiety,

accidents, absence, labor turnover, and industrial unrest.

When the sections were ranked on the individual measures,

wide and consistent differences were found between the sections;

within the sections, the variables were clearly interrelated. This

effect is named the interdependence phenomenon of organizational

behavior. This property was most pronounced in one group of sections

characterized by high oerformance achievement, favorable attitudes

-179-
and organizational stability, and in another group of sections

characteriztd by low achievement, considerable dissatisfaction and

organizational instability involving high levels of accidents,

absence, labor turnover or industrial unrest. The data illustrated

how processes operating within the functional and dysfunctional

work organizations tended to be self-reinforcing and the situations

y self-perpetuating. The psychological impact of being a member of the

different work organizations was marked, and the more dysfunctional

the work organization, the more prevalent were the manifestations

of withdrawal behavior.

Kochan, T. A., Cummings, L. L., & Huber, G. P. Operationalizing the

concepts of goals and goal incompatibilities in organizational

benavior research. Human Relations, 1976, 29, 527-544.

This paper demonstrates the theoretical relevance and validity

of using utility models and scaling techniques as an approach to

operationalizing the concepts of goals and goal incompatibilities.

On the basis of a literature review, it was concluded that (1) the

concepts of goals and goal incompatibilities play important, but

- controversial, roles in organizational behavior, and (2) there has

been very little empirical research directed toward operationalizing

these concepts.

This belief was tested with questionnaire data from municipal

government officials in 380 cities, to test the propositions that (1)

structural differentiation in organizations is associated with goal

incompatibilities, and (2) goal incompatibilities are correlated with

conflict in organizations. The results of the correlations and ANOVA

computed on the data supported both propositions. Goals which were

shared across units tended to be of moderate importance to organizational

decision makers within these units, while disagreements regarding

agoals were found to focus on power preservation and procedures.

Kochen, M. & Deutsch, K. W. Delegation and control in organizations

with varying degrees of decentralization. 3ebviorc7

Science, 1977, 22, 258-269.

The concepts of decentralization, delegation, control,

13. participation, and responsibility are defined operationally for

the analysis of hierarchically structured large organizations or

service systems. These include hospitals, libraries, or governmental agencies, all of which involve the coordination of several

resources or activities. Delegation of certain classes of decisions .!to a particular agent or echelon is translated into nroviding this

agent with the means to make decisions at tolerable levels of error

and delay. That is, the agent must have adequate zommunication

-180-

'. "' - *.' " .-.... ". . ' .'.y."......,. . ..... . .. .. . .
chiannels, memorv facilities and other information processing

capa,:ities. The change in the utility of the decision performance

of the organization after the delegation has been made is compared

to the change in costs caused by providing or shifting the requisite

facilities. The effects of a long-term increase in service loads

upon the optimum levels of decentralization and delegation are

examined.

* Four general principles regarding delegation and control are

proposed: (1) Communication channels should be two-way, to facilitate

feedback, and short, to allow for immediate responses. (2) Communication channels, control units, processors, input-output terminals and

memories should be protected against excessive cost of errors,

abuses and overloading. (3) Wherever possible, decisions should be

* delegated downward to the lowest level where they can be adequately

made, so as to increase participation. (4) Clients and third parties

substantially affected by the outcome should be involved in the

making of decisions.

Korb, L. J. The organizational and political problems of implementing

change in governmental organizations. Educational Technolcay,

1978, -18, 45-49.

40 This article deals with the problem of producing and sustaining change within American governmental organizations. Its goal is

to point out some perspectives which are often overlooked in implementing such change. The focus of the discussion is on the Marine Corps

Recruit Training and Navy Helicopter Training programs.

1P The political decision-maker in any government organization

is motivated by rational, organizational, and political factors. A

Rational Model of behavior holds that behavior is motivated by a

conscious calculation of advantages based on an explicit and internally

consistent value system. An Organizational Model of Behavior sees

motivation derived from a belief about what will be good for maintain-

* ing the essence of the organization, rather than the society at large.

The decision-maker operating in a Political Model sees the need to

consider who the players are, their stands, and their influence,

before constructing a strategy to bring about a desired solution.

This article proposes a fourth model which combines the perspectives

of the three described above. Only with such a broad scope will the

decision-makers be able to effect change in the American political

§ystem.
Na,

Kocter, J. P. Power, success and organizational effectiveness.

Organizational Dynamics, 1978, 6, 27-40.

Power-oriented behavior describes behavior directed primarily at developing or using relationships in which other people are to

some degree willing to defer to other's wishes. This article argues

that the importance of power-oriented behavior to managerial career

A, success varies depending on some factors that define the managerial

jobs involved. The major defining factor is job-related dependence,

which is in turn determined by organization size, environmental

uncertainty, environmental dependencies, organizational goals,

technology, formal structure, measurement systems, and reward

The author attempts to show when and why power-orierted

behavior promotes organizational health and effectiveness and when

and why it does not. It appears that the relationship between

power-oriented behavior and organizational effectiveness depends

on at least three intervening variables: job-related dependence,

managerial goals and values, and top management behavior. Emphasized

is the importance of a technique called PDA (power/dependence analysis)

as a means of identifying and mapping out the dependence inherent in

a managerial job and the way the incumbent generates and uses power

to cope with that dependence. It permits identification of what

job dependencies should be and what kind of power-oriented behavior

is needed from the point of view of organizational effectiveness.

LaFollette, W. R. & Sims, H. P., Jr. Is satisfaction redundant with

organizational climate? OrganizationaZ 3ehavior and

Hw.fan Performance, 1975, 13, 257-278.

.I-, This research investigates the question raised by Johannesson

(1973) as to whether organizational climate is redundant with job

satisfaction. The study was conducted at a major medical complex

with a sample of 1161 employees. The categories and measurements used

in the study were: (1) Organizational Climate - as measured by the

Climate Questionnaire; (2) Organizational Practices - as measured by

* the Organizational Practices Questionnaire: (3) Job Satisfaction -

.as measured by the Job Descriptive Index; and (4) Job Performance

Evaluation. The means, standard deviations, and split-half reliabilities

were used in a series of Spearman-Brown correlations.

dd The results indicated that organizational climate and organization practices were found to be related to 4ob satisfaction.

However, climate and practices related to performance in a different

'4

.5

."

-182-

%,%- . ' ':- . ',i,.% -...",,:. .. ,'. ". . . ."."' '.",",',. -,-,r," -',- ,, .. i. i- ':'"-'-*
manner ::ian che satisfaction/performance relationship, which did not

tend to support the redundancy hypothesis. Johanesson's research

methodology was evaluated, and the redundancy hypothesis was found

to rest on judgmental assumptions, rather than causal or longitudinal

analysis. In addition, other research was evaluated which tended to

support the climate-causes satisfaction hypothesis as opposed to the

redundancy hypothesis. The need for further longitudinal research

to evaluate causality is emphasized.

Langford, W. D. Ornqanizationa :eveiormen;: Fnv-,r on 7,n _- pesres

the military settinc, and -he uZtimate test. Master's Thesis.

......... y, C.1: Naval Po.StgidLu SChol, i78. kDA057-908.

This thesis provides a context for looking at OD in the

military by analyzing the environmental pressures and the current OD

effort in the three major services. To develop the proper climate

to analyze the problem of OD in combat, three distinctly separate

areas are researched: military sociology, military history, and

organizational development. A review of the literature in each of

these areas is presented. The author's conclusion is that any

change program attempted in the military environment must address each

of the variables uncovered by these three disciplines. An attempt

is made, therefore, in this thesis to integrate these variables into

a multi-faceted OD program.

The author identifies the likely benefits and potential

dangers of using such a change approach in the combat setting, and

makes recommendations on how to accomplish the goal of improving

organization functioning using OD consultants.

Latham, G. P. & Saari, L. M. Importance of supportive behavior in

goal setting. Jouzinai of .ipiied Psychoiogy, 1979, 4, 151-156.

This study empirically demonstrates the three key aspects of

a System 4 (Likert, 1967) management theory: supportive relationships,

participative decision-making, and goal setting. The importance of

supportive behavior by an authority figure when setting goals was

tested using a brainstorming task. Ninety college students were

randomly assigned in a 2 x 3 design to a supportive or nonsupportive

condition and to one of three goal-setting conditions (assigned,

participative, and "do your best"). Goal difficulty was held constant

between the assigned and the participative conditions.

Supportive behavior resulted in higher goals being set than

nonsupportive behavior. Participately set goals led to better

performance than assigned goals. Participation appears to be important

in increasing the understanding of task requirements. The assumption

that "the differences, if anv, :hat exist between an industrial and

a university setting are minimal'. hc,,7ever, is 2uestionable.

-183-
Lawler, E. E. III. Control systems in organizations. In Dunnette,

M. D. (Ed.). Handbook o- industrial and orcanizaticnal

psychology. Chicago: Rand McNally, 1976.

The impact of control systems on the behavior of individuals

in organizations is analyzed. A thermostat model of control is

developed and related to the absence or presence of five behaviors:

(1) resistance to control systems, (2) bureaucratic behavior, (3)

falsifying control system data, (4) intrinsic motivation, and (5)

extrinsic motivation. A review of the literature shows that how

control systems are structured strongly influences whether these

behaviors will be present in organizations. Particularly important

in deteriinig Lh impacL of a control system seems to be its reiationship to the organization's reward system. WLen extrinsic rewards are

related to the control system measures, extrinsic motivation, falsification of data, resistance, and bureaucratic behavior are all present.

The research also suggests that control systems which are effective

in producing extrinsic motivation are often poor for the purposes of

planning and coordination.

Lawler, E. E. III, Hall, D. T., and Oldham, G. R. Organizational

climate: Relationship to organizational structure, process,

and performance. Crganizational 3ehavior and Hwnan

P rformance, 1974, 11, 139-155.

The present study was designed to test the view that

organization structure and process are related to organizational climate, which is in turn related to organizational performance

and employee satisfaction. A questionnaire was administered to the

Directors of Research in 117 R&D laboratories and to 291 scientists

in a subsample of 21 of these organizations. Data were collected

on (1) structural variables (span of control, size, levels, steepness,

Ai and hierarchy); (2) process variables (performance reviews, professional autonomy, assignment generality, collaboration support,

budget account); performance (technical, administrative, and overall);

and (3) organizational climate and need satisfaction. Correlational

tests were conducted between the various sets of variables. Results

show that several organizational process variables (but no structural

variables) were significantly related to the climate of the organization as perceived by the scientists. Perceived climate in turn was

shown to be significantly related to measures of organizational

performance and to job satisfaction.

4'.,

-184-
Lawrence, P. R. & Lorsch, J. W. Differentiation and integraiton in

complex organizations. Administrative Science Quarteru,

1967, 12, 1-47.

A comparative study was made of six organizations operating

in the chemical processing industry. The subsystems in each

organization were differentiated in terms of formal structures,

member's goal orientation, member's time orientations, and member's

interpersonal orientations. This differentiation was related to

the requirements of the particular subenvironment with which each

subsystem dealt. A relationship was found between the extent to

which the states of differentiation and integration in each

organization met the requirements of the environment and the relative

economic performance of the orgnaizations. Within each organization,

the degree of differentiation of behavior and orientation between the

various subsystems was found to be inversely related to the degree

of integration obtained between these subsystems. Since this

environment required that economically high performing organizations

be both highly differentiated and well integrated, an investigation

was also made into how effective organizations attained both of

these antagonistic states.

This study demonstrates the feasibility and usefulness of

simultaneously examining the differentiation and integration of

major subsystems in complex organiztions. This has important

implications for future research because it suggests the desirability

of studying these phenomena under other environmental conditions to

learn more about the relationship between organizational states

and iifferent environmental requirements.

Leifer, R. & Delbecq, A. Organizational/environmental interchange:

A model of boundary spanning activity. Acadera of M!anagement Review, 1978, 3, 40-50.

A theoretical framework is developed for analyzing the determinants and functions of activity at the boundaries of organizations.

Boundary spanning activity (BSA) is defined as the linkage between

organizational behavior and its external environment. The framework

developed is based on eighteen propositions relating the nature of

BSA to their determining factors in the organization and the environment. The organizational characteristics posited as determinants of

the BSA function include: structure (open vs. closed), goals (clear

vs. unclear; varied vs. singular), and the need for information (regular vs. irregular; anticipated vs. unanticipated). The environmental

factors include: perceived environmental uncertainty, environmental

complexity, and availability of information.

-185-

. . . . . . . . . * ..***** . . ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

J.-* 
7he model developed to describe BSA focuses on the organizacional/environmencai information interchange process. Four implications for the study of organizations result from this model. First,

it defines BSA as the mechanism by which an ozganization interacts

with its task environment and through which information relevant to

that environment enters the organization. Second, it suggests how

individuals acting as boundary spanners function vis-a-vis the organization. Third, it focuses attention on the subsystem, rather than

the organization as a whole, because each subsystem has its own structure, processes, and organizational/environmental transaction structure. Foruth, it suggests the need for further empirical research on

BSA. The authors view their model as tentative, stimulating further

-' theoretical and empirical work.

Likert, R. _':I ,' -- :rZ i-s-z n: i anaae,-en; ana vaue. New

York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1967.

A new system of management is described, based on over twenty

years of research in the Institute for Social Research of the University

of Michigan. Through an extensive review of management systems in

various organizations, four types of systems emerged: System 1:

Exploitive-Authoritative; System 2: Benevolent-Authoritative; System 3:

Consultative; and System 4: Participative. Empirical data shows that

management systems approaching System 4 are more productive and have

lower costs and more favorable attitudes than those approaching System 1.

A science-based management, such as System 4, however, is appreciably

more complex than other systems. The basic principles of System 4

management and their effects on performance are examined thoroughly.

They include: (1) the use by the manager of the principle of supportive

relationships, (2) his use of group decision making and group methods of

supervision, and (3) his high performance goals for the organizations.

The implementation of these principles and their relationship to organizational effectiveness is discussed. The remainder of the book is

devoted to developing a plan for managers for improving fiscal management, human asset management, and coordination. Future trends in

scientific management are discussed.

-L86-
Q .

Lindell, M. D. & Drexler, J. A., Jr. Issues in using survey methods

for measuring organizational change. cademy o.f Management

Review, 1979, 4, 13-19.

Organizational development (OD) practitioners have become

increasingly interested in the precise specification of what it is

that changes as a result of their efforts. Investigators have begun

to question the utility of survey methodology for investigating

organizational change. This paper evaluates this method, and the

theory of change types upon which it is based, as to its usefulness

and feasibility.

The theory of change types presented distinguishes between

three types of change: alpha change (behavioral change); beta

*change (response scale calibration); and gamma change (change in

state). Psychometric principles and a contrived data set are used

to explore these change types. The results of this study indicate

that the theory's implications have been substantially overstated

by its proponents. While experimental methods could be devised to

test for the presence of one or another kind of change, testing

for each type of change in individual organizational development

efforts is not presently feasible. Current measurement technology

does not provide the tools necessary to make such discriminations

among types. It is concluded that using changes in judgmental

measures as indicators of real organizational changes still appears

to be the most reasonable assumption to make when using survey

*technology to assess organizational change.

Locke, E. A. The supervisor as "motivator": His influence on

employee performance and satisfaction. In Bass, B. M.,

* Cooper, R., and Haas, J. A. (Eds.) Managing for accorplishmerit. Lexington Books, D. C. Health & Company, 1970.

This article explores the scope of a supervisor's influence

on an individual's job satisfaction and motivation to produce. An

individual's degree of satisfaction with his job reflects the degree

*to which he believes explicitly or implicitly that it fulfills or

allows the fulfillment of his job values. It follows that a supervisor can influence employee satisfaction by facilitating or blocking

subordinate value attainment. The ways in which this influence can

be exerted in task and non-task values are discussed.

rIt is hypothesized that there is no causal connection between

satisfaction with the job or supervisor and productivity. Rather,

the most direct motivational determinant of an individual's performance

on the job is his specific performance goal or intention. If a

supervisor is to influence the job performance of his subordinates,

it follows that he must implicitly or explicitly influence the goals

6they set and/or their commitment to them. Four ways of doing this

are discussed, including: instructions, participation, rewards

and punishment, and example setting.

-187-
Lorsch, J. W. Environment, organization and the individual. In

Negandhi, A. R., (Ed.). .odern orgcization theory:

ContextuaZ, environmental, and socio-cultural variabZes.

Kent, OH: Kent State University Press, 1973.

This article examines the impact of differing market and

technological conditions on organizational structures, interpersonal

behavior, individual satisfaction in work, and related variables of

organizational effectiveness. This focus on the relationship among

organizational, individual, and environmental factors facilitates

the bridging of the concerns of macro-organizational theorists with

organizational and environmental variables and the focus of psychologists on the individual as the unit of analysis. Such a bridge

requires a broader range of methodology and concepts than are presently

characteristic of either side. This paper discloses the preliminary

results of an attempt to develop a conceptual model of the organization- - environment interface and a model of the individual to explain the

impact of variations in environmental and organizational characteristics

on the individual's desire to perform the work required of him by the

organization.

The initial results indicate that what is related to effective unit performance and feelings of competence is a congruence not only

between the organization and the environment, but also between these

two sets of factors and the individual. This does not imply any simple

unidirectional cause-and-effect relation, but rather the complex interaction of variables with several feedback loops. The relationships

• .characterizing this interaction are discussed in detail. This study

provides evidence for the validity and value of a contingency approach

to the study of organizational phenomena.

Lorsch, J. W. Organization design: A situational perspective.

OrganizationaL 3ynamics, Aut 1977, 2-14.

The approach to organizational design presented in this

article is a conceptual framework, based on situational theory,

intended to facilitate the understanding of the complex interrelationship among variables that affect the way people behave in an

organization. Emphasized are: (1) the importance of the fit

between task, people, and organization; and (2) the necessity of

making the organization design consistent with top management's

preferred style of leadership. The blueprint for organizational

design is completely dependent on the contextual variables of the

organization in question.

1..

• -188-
Several factors of organizational design are discussed. The

first is the fit between the design structure, measurement and

reward practices, the nature of the task to be done, and the psychological

* make-up of the workers. The second involves the differentiation

between units. Any organizational design must permit differences

between subunits so that the members of each unit can deal effectively

with the specific nature of their part of the environment. The

third factor relates to the inverse relationship between differentiation and integration. The more differentiation, the greater the

difficulty in achieving integration; yet both are needed for effective

goal achievement. The solutions posed are qualified and tentative.

* Lorsch, J. W. & Lawrence, P. The diagnosis of organizational problems

In Bennis, W. G. , Benne, D. K. & Chin, R. (Eds.).

The Planning of change. (2nd Ed.). New York: Hiolt, Rinehart

& Winston, Inc., 1969.

This article discusses an approach to organizational change

* which puts considerable weight on the diagnosis of organizational

problems prior to the change effort. Two aspects of diagnosis

are identified: first, the question of what data is gathered, and

second, the manner in which the data is interpreted and presented.

difficulties associated with diagnosis are discussed.

0 An analytic scheme used by the authors in diagnosing

organizational problems is discussed as an alternative approach to

those currently used. The analytic scheme is called the Differentiation and Integration Model. The assumption underlying this scheme

is that effective organizational performance is related to the presence

of both the differentiation and integration that are required by

the characteristics of their immediate environment. By extracting

and analyzing data relative to these organizational processes, the

types of problems which affect its efficiency and effectiveness

can be isolated. If change is to occur, more emphasis must be

placed on the diagnosis of organizational difficulties in this

domain. Moreover, by emphasizing diagnosis'and data feedback,

the management group is left with a new set of tools which they

* can to apply to similar future problems. The importance of managemnent' s understanding and participation in the diagnostic and change

processes is emphasized.

-189-
Lund'berg, D. D. 'z!pothesis creation in organizational behavior

research. Academy of MIanagement -Review, 1976, 1, 5-12.

This paper is concerned with the growing emphasis attributed

A to hypothesis testing as opposed to hypothesis generation in organizational behavior research. The major cause of this is believed to

be related to the training given to researchers. Two factors are at

the root of the inadequacy of this training: First, it is argued

that the basic methods of research are being ignored, and the methods

v taught are probably obsolescent Procedures. Also, some techniques

which have led to progress are mistakenly being taken as kind of

master key to all inquiry. Second, the literature tends to give young

Vresearchers a misleading view of research. Both the context and the

logic which are by custom the proper format for reporting projects

have little to do with the initation of research projects.

The author discusses how useful research ideas are discovered

and the prerequisites for hypothesis creation. Suggested criteria

for acting on new research ideas and questions are: extensity,

professional encounter, mental experiments, and timing.

Luthans, F. Crgaziza-:ional Behavior. (2nd Ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill

Book Company, 1977.

This book provides a conceptual framework for the study and

understanding of organizational behavior through a blending of behavioral

science and management. It is divided into five major parts. (1) In-

* troductory framework. This section lays down a historical, behavioral

science, management, and environmental foundation. A specific conceptual framework for organizational behavior is presented which incorporates

both cognitive and behavioral concepts and perspectives. (2) Major

structural process variables of formal organizations. This section

discusses both classical and modern organizational theory and structure

with specific attention to the management processes of decision-making,

communcation, and control. (3) Psychological variables in human

behavior. An examination of the psychological processes of perception,

learning, motivation, and personality theory is presented. (4) Dynamics

of organizational behavior. This section discusses groups and informal

organizations, conflict, work motivation, and leadership and power.

(5) Techniques and applications for human resource management. This

last section evaluates the latest application techniques for selection,

job design and appraisal, behavioral analysis and organization development.

4 -190-
Luthans, F. & Stewart, T. I. A general contingency theory of

management. Academy of Management Review, 1977, 2, 181-195.

*Recent formal recognition of situational influences on the

management of complex organizations has led to an increasing number

of contingency models, but a comprehensive and integrative theoretical

framework for contingency management has been lacking. This article

introduces a General Contingency Theory (GCT) of Management as an

overall framework to integrate the diverse process, quantitative

* and behavioral approaches to management, to incorporate environmental

factors, and to bridge the gap between management theory and practice.

The General Contingency model of the organization is a

systems paradigm with three primary levels of organizational

"building blocks". The primary system variables include environmental

variables, resource variables and management variables. The

secondary system variables are situation variables, organizational

variables, and performance criteria variables. The tertiary system

variables include the system performance variables. The relationship

among these three levels is discussed in detail. The contingency

approach to management and planned change is discussed in terms of

the proposed model.

MacCrimon, K. R. & Taylor, R. N. Decision-making and problem-

* solving. In Dunnette, M. D. (Ed.). Handbook of indus;riai

and organizational psychology. Chicago: Rand McNally, 1976.

The intent of this chapter is to consolidate evidence from

a variety of disciplines into a more unified view of decision making.

The central sections of the chapter examine strategies available to the

*decision maker in dealing with environments characterized by uncertainty, complexity, and conflict. The more than seventy strategies

identified are presented within each section in an order which

reflects the extent of required interaction with the environment

(e.g., modifying perceptions requires minimal interaction, structural

changes require a high amount of interaction). In addition to these

* three core sections, there are sections on types of decision problems

and on the characteristics of decision makers which influence the

use of the various strategies.

Organizing studies of decision-making and problem-solving

in the form of strategies rather than by the traditional format

Cshould help in applying the existing knowledge and also in indicating major needs for future studies.

-191-

~~! s
Mahoney, T. A. & Frost, P. J. The role of technology in models of

organizational effectiveness. Organizational Behavior and

Human Performance, 1974, II, 122-138.

This article is based on the contention that research to date

has not provided a conclusive picture of the role of technology in a

model of organizational behavior. Traditional theory has emphasized

technology only as a causal variable in the formulation of organizational structure and behavior. Two difficulties contribute to this

inadequacy: (1) a problem in obtaining a satisfactory operational

definition of technology; and (2) the difficulty in establishing the

appropriate unit of analysis within which to study technology variance.

An operational definition of technology is developed and

applied in this study, building from a typology of technologies proposed by J. D. Thompson. Analysis was conducted on 197 organization

units (departments, divisions) from within a diverse sample of 17

business and industrial firms. The organization units were classified

among three varieties of technology, specified as long-linked,

mediating and intensive. Units were also described in terms of several

dimensions of organizational behavior developed in earlier research.

Direct and indirect relationships involving technology, 14 dimensions

of organizational behavior, and organization unit effectiveness were

investigated in several analyses. The findings from these analyses

support the hypothesis that the criteria of effectiveness of an

organization unit vary with the nature of the technology of the unit.

The nature of intra-technology models of organizational effectiveness

are generally supportive of the variation expected from the Thompson

theoretical analysis. No direct technology-organizational effectiveness relationship was observed. The model of organizational effectiveness

observed within each of the three technological categories are

described and the implications of their differences and similarities

are discussed.

1Mahoney, T. A. & Frost, P. J. The role of techno.ccui in ofaeIs

organizational efjectiveness. (TR 7005) University ot

Minnesota: Industrial Relations Center, 1972. AD747-953.

Technology has been depicted, in recent years, as an important

causal variable in some theoretical formulations of organizational

structure and behavior. Much of the difficulty in studying technology

can be traced to the problem of obtaining a satisfactory operational

* % definition. A related problem is that of establising the appr-priate

unit of analysis within which to study technology variance.

An operational definition of technology is developed and

applied in this study, building from a typology of technologies

proposed by J. D. Thompson. Analysis was conducted on 297 organization

e'V -192-
4.

units Adepar:ment. divisions) from within a diverse sample of 17

business and industrial firms. The organization units were classified

among three varieties of technology, specified as long-linked,

mediating and intensive. The units were also described in terms

of several dimensions of organizational behavior developed in earlier

research. Direct and indirect relationships involving technology,

14 dimensions of organizational behavior, and organization unit

effectiveness were evaluated in several analyses.

*The findings from these analyses support the hypothesis that

the criteria of effectiveness of an organization unit vary with the

nature of the technology in that unit. The nature of the intratechnology models of organizational effectiveness are generally

supportive of the variation expected from the Thompson theoretical

analysis. No direct technology-OE relationship was observed.

The models of OE observed within each of the three technology

categories are described and the implication of their differences

and similarities are discussed.

Mahoney, T. A., Frost, P., Crandall, N. F. & Weitzel, W. The conditioning influence of organization size upon managerial

practice. Orcanizational Behavior and 2.iran Perf orance,

1972, 8, 230-241.

* The purpose of this study is to define those organizational

variables which are related to organization size. The data analyzed

were derived from earlier studies of organizational effectiveness

criteria by Mahoney (1967) and Mahoney & Weitzel (1969). Eighteen

dimensions of organizational characteristics were identified and

related to management style within each definable unit. The results

*of this study show that only three dimensions were related to organization size: staffing, delegation, and results emphasis. Each of these

dimensions concern interrelationships among members within the organization -- an element which would be sensitive to the number of

individuals comprising the unit. It is further noted that unit size

was more closely related to these characteristics than was organization

size. This study provides support for the hypothesis that organization/

unit size is a relevant variable in understanding organizational

phenomena -- especially those concerned with managerial practices.

-193-

%J
Mahoney, T . A., Wei tzetI, W. & Kref tin g, L. r "-c r efec7 ve'nesaa '~V ea7r2- r$gflzatirns. (Technical Report 7000)

University of Minnesota: Industrial Relations Center, 1970.

AD718-820.

Managers apply implicitly held models of organizational

effectiveness in the evaluation of subordinate organization units.

Twenty-four variables have been identified as applicable in these

models. This study of managers of research and development unito

has identified a model of organizational effectiveness underlying

their evaluations of subordinate units. This model is compared with

a related model identified in studies of managers in more general

business settings, and several differences are discussed. The research

and development managers place more emphasis on staff and organizational

capacity and less emphasis upon productivity than do the general

business managers. These differences probably underlie much of the

misunderstanding between general business managers and research and

development managers. It is argued that these differences tend to

reflect differences in the technology and production cycle of the two

settings rather than personal differences in the groups of managers.

Marks, M. Organizational adjustmnent to uncertainty. The JournaL f

74ana-ement Studies, 1977, 14, 1-7.

Emphasis has traditionally been placed on the way external

pressures change an organization's objectives and operational

practices. In this paper, different aspects of the adaptation process

are examined, including the changes wrought in the firm's internal

structure and organization. The main thesis is that the achievement

of congruence between the external challenges and opportunities and

the internal organization of the firm is one of the crucial factors

in long-term survival. Planning, in its broadest sense, can make

an important contribution to this adaptive process. The level tasked

with this responsibility is top management.

A period of heightened uncertainty increases the need to

plan. The rise in uncertainty and risk presents the organization with K the need to resolve two paradoxes. First, the more difficult it is

to forecast, the more important it is to plan. Second, the more

difficult it is to plan, the less necessary are full-time professional

planners. The solution lies in a reevaluation of the planning

activities/structure by the organization. While there is no blueprint

for the most successful planning system, there are three general

themes which should be taken into consideration: (1) The planning

system must be concerned with the development of strategy. (2) The

development of strategy must be an interactive process in which most

levels of management are aware of outside pressures, implications of

alternative environmental changes, and the role they must play in

coping with this change. (3) Planning must be designed so that it

A can be comfortably used by top management in the fulfillment of what

is their major task.

-194-
Mawhinney, T. C. & Ford, J. D. The path goal theory of leader

effectiveness: An operant interpretation. Academy ocfr

,1cznagement Review, 1977, 2, 398-411.

This article provides an operant interpretation of path

goal theory by reviewing basic operant terms, concepts, principles,

and laws and then comparing path goal and operant interpretations of

path goal propositions and hypotheses. While the path goal motivation

model focuses on what the subordinate is doing or will do in response

* to a particular situation as a function of his/her history in that

situation, this alternative model focuses on what the leader should

do in a given situation vis-a-vis his/her subordinates. The latter

model is based on a correlation-based law of effect.

The applicability of operant conditioning terms to leader

* effectiveness is discussed in terms of their value as an alternative

source of information about behavior and its determinants. The

advantages of this approach over path-goal theory are discussed with

s-iggestions for further research.

McConkie, M. L. A clarification of the goal setting and appraisal

processes in t4BO. Academy of Management Review, 1979,

4, 29-40.

* Under the guise of Management by Objectives (MBO), the

notions of goal setting and performance appraisal have assumed many

different shapes and purposes. To help clarify much of the confusion surrounding MBO, this article synthesizes from the works of

leading MBO experts the coimmon elements of their respective descriptions and definitions of how goals should be set and how performance

* appraisals should be conducted under the XBO rubric.

A review of the literature confirms the diversity of opinion

regarding MBO. However, a solid notion of what MBO is generally

thought to be can be extracted from the commonalities in the research

to date. With regard to goal setting, there is consensus regarding

Co the importance of an organization adopting objectives which are

specific, measurable, placed in a time framework, prioritized, and

joined to an action plan. Also, most experts emphasize the criticality

of subordinate involvement in goal setting to an integration of

individual and organizational goals, as well as need for goal flexibility

in facilitating organizational change. Regarding performance appraisal,

4b, it is generally agreed that appraisals be held periodically, and that

they be conducted on the basis of objective performance standards

which are mutually agreed upon by both superiors and subordinates.

Such commonalities can serve to give a more general, widely applicable,

definition of MBO.

-195-
McKelvey, B. Guidelines for the empirical classification of organizations. Administrative Science Quarteriy, 1975 20, 509-525.

After a brief review of organizational classification,

iltivariate approaches toward the empirical identification of such

classifications are discussed. Ten guidelines for conducting future

multivariate classificatory studies are presented, supported by

critiques of two published large-scale empirical studies. Taxonomic

development is viewed as a critical element in the future health of

organization science.

The ten guidelines are, briefly: (1) Define the broadest

possible population of organizations or base it on a significant

cultural unit. (2) Use a probability sampling plan .aithout any

stratification for selecting a sample of organizations. (3) Define

as inclusive a population of organizational attributes as is possible.

(4) Use a probability sampling plan for selecting a sample of organizational attributes. (5) Define the population of observers of organizational attributes to be as inclusive as possible. (6) Use a stratified

probability sampling plan for selecting observers. (7) The sample of

attributes must be no larger than the input capacity of the multivariate

analysis program. (8) Each attribute must rot be overrepresented in the

input stream of the multivariate program and must be independently

measured. (9) Criteria guiding unavoidable decisions in using multivariate analysis must be publicly described and consistently applied.

(10) Classificatory breaks in ordering type concepts should come at

points optimizing parsimony and intraclass homogeneity.

Melcher, A. J. (Ed.). GeneraL systems and organization theor4:

MethodoogicaZ aspects. Kent, OH: Kent State University

Center for Business and Economic Research, 1975.

This book concentrates on some of the methodological problems

that must be solved if the promise of systems theory is to be realized.

Three strands are developed. The first focuses on the concepts of

systems theory. W. Buckley presents an introduction to the systems

model through a careful definition of the component terms. E.

Wenninger, R. Glassman, A. Kuhn, T. Condon, and T. Milburn discuss

present usage of key systems concepts and propose more analytical

definitions of these variables.

A second focus is on the methodology for analyzing the complex

interdependent relationships among variables in a systems framework.

D. Fry develops alternative modes that can be used in moving from

static to dynamic analysis. S. McIntosh focuses upon conceptual and

methodological problems in analyzing the equilibrium and stability

interrelationships. This latter concern is further discussed by

J. Wills.

-196-
The third set of essays evaluates the degree to which the

present development of systems theory can be or is being applied to

*practical problems. D. Duncan develops the thesis that systems

theory is useful for practical managers, and that academicians are

falling behind practitioners in the development of systems concepts.

E. Burack expresses the concern that directing energies toward

revising systems concepts is a non-additive activity. D. Robey shows

how a systems perspective can redress otherwise misleading analyses.

* R. Hough provides a framework for communicating the basic approach of

using systems analysis on applied problems. A. Negandhi evaluates the

utility of using selected systems concepts to develop a mid-range

theory of organization that extends beyond the simplifying assumptions

of traditional theory, yet is short of the goal of total systems theory

of organizations. Finally, D. Fraley develops the need to relate

* systems theory to practice if further developments are to be made.

Mickelson, J. S. & Campbell, J. H. Information behavior: Groups with

* varying levels of interpersonal acquaintance. rgniz;na.

Behavior and Human Performance, 1975, 13, 193-205.

This study examines the information processing behavior of

groups characterized by varying levels (or degrees) of cohesiveness.

The study attempts to determine the extent to which the possession

* of information by group members about one another enhances the

predictability of language patterns within the group system. The

assumption is made that possession of information reduces entropy

within groups and is a useful behavioral index of other characteristics of behavior systems. It is hypothesized, therefore, that as

the cohesiveness of groups increases, their language behavior

* becomes more redundant, hence, relatively more efficient.

Groups of people were selected who could be compared on the

basis of the relational density or cohesiveness (many reciprocal

choices) in the groups. These groups then responded to partially

mutilated, or deleted, texts. A determination was made as to

whether groups with high relational density showed response patterns

more similar, in terms of words chosen to reconstruct mutilated

messages, than groups of lower relational density. Kendall Partial

Correlations were used to calculate the relationship between RD and R

(relational density/redundancy) against various variables. Results

indicate that redundance increases with increasing cohesiveness so

long as messages are consistent with the task environment where

cohesiveness is developed. It is further concluded that language

systems in a complex environment can be studied using this type of

design.

-197-
Miller, D. Strategy, structure, and environment: Context influences

upon some bivariate associations. The jcurnai o' .4anaemenr

Studies, 1979, 16, 294-315.

In studying organizational adaptation most researchers have

tended to draw sample-wide conclusions about the relationships among

strategic, structural, and environmental variables. More often

than not, the findings of different investigators are in conflict.

Particular variables are said by some to covary positively, while

different studies demonstrate a negative relationship. This

paper attempts to show that the direction and significance of

bivariate product-moment correlations may vary significantly,

logically, and systematically according to the adaptive approach

used by firms.

A sample of firms is segmented into four parts, which are

internally homogeneous in the evolutionary patterns among environmental,

organizational, and strategy-making variables. The findings from a

correlational analysis of each sub-sample indicate how some common

discrepancies in the literature show the promise of being resolved

when the differences in the contexts of the bivariate relationships

are examined. Thus, it is hazardous to focus on bivariate relationships in isolation. Researchers must also examine these relationships

within carefully defined contexts. Only then will findings be

sufficiently precise to be generalizable to a particular sub-group

of organizations.

Miller, D. & Friesen, P. H. Strategy-making in context: Ten

empirical archetypes. The Jo uaL of M.a ner. ties,

1977, 44, 253-280.

A more encompassing form of contingency theory is proposed

to study organizations and their decision-making behavior. Instead

of looking at bivariate relationships between environmental,

organizational and decision-making style variables, it is suggested

that researchers attempt to find a number of causal models which

represent archetypal, or frequently occurring, relationships among

a broad host of such variables. In this manner, relationships are

qualified by their context, anda more complete picture of organizational functioning emerges. A methodology for isolating archetypes

is presented which demonstrates that it is possible to expand the

research scope of organizational studies without encountering

unmanageable complexity. Such a methodology is based on a multivariate approach to organizational analysis. Some findings which

portray strategy-making behavior under different environmental

and organizational states are discussed.

-198-

. -!",--..
Miller, J. A. Structuring/destructurina: Leadership in oven systems.

(TR-64) University of Rochester, Management Research Center, *g 1973.

A cybernetic open systems view of leadership and organizational effectiveness is presented. The opening discussion deals

with the nature of organizational processes and their relationship

to leadership acts. Processes are seen as constraints on the

* utilization of energy or information, modified by leadership acts.

Leadership acts are constrained by existing processes, which represent

the cumulative effects of previous leadership acts. The second

section analyzes the transactional nature of the system-environment

relationship. A complex adaptive system is seen to cope most

effectively when its internal processes are structured so as to

constitute an appropriate match with the nature of its environment.

That match is acheived through leadership acts. The ability of

a system to modify its processes without decreasing coping effectiveness depends on the existence of slack.

Observed leadership acts are classified as structuring or

destructuring. Structuring acts constrain member autonomy, enhancing

system stability; destructuring acts relax constraints, enhancing

flexibility. Structuring and destructuring are mutually exclusive;

both kinds of acts may be undertaken in a system by sequencing over

time or in parallel subsystems, but never in the same subsystem at

the same time. Leadership systems are repetitive patterns of similar

acts made necessary by the inappropriateness of existing process

structure. Inappropriately understructured processes give rise to

directive styles, and inappropriately overstructured, to participative.

The more appropriate the process/environment match, the less rigid

and repetitive the styles.

Mitchell, T. R., Larson, J. R., Jr. & Green, S. G. Leader behavior,

situational moderators, and group performance: An

attributional analysis. Organizational Behavior and HwUan

Performance, 1977, 18, 254-268.

The authors propose that many of the findings currently

reported in the leadership literature are confounded by an attributional process. While much leadership research assumes that the

elements associated with higher scores on leader behavior and/or

situational dimensions lead to better group performance, these

authors argue that the causality may actually be reversed.

Specifically, it is hypothesized that perceptions of good group

performance could lead to higher ratings on leader behavior and

situational measures than would perceptions of poor group performance.

-199-

. -" ~~~~~~~~ . .: . ~ * 5;-,c.. 
K

Three studies were conducted in which subjects were led

to believe that a group either performed well or poorly, and then

were asked to rate the leader on The Leader Behavior Description

Questionnaire and some situational variables. Correlational

analyses were conducted on the data from these questionnaires.

Substantial support for the hypothesis was found for the situational

factors while the leader behavior results were mixed, but generally

supportive. The implications of these findings for leadership

research are discussed.

Mobley, W. H., Griffeth, R. W., Hand, H. H. & Meglino, B. M.

Review and conceptual analysis of the employee turnover

process. Psychological Bulletin, 1979, 86, 493-522.

Research on employee turnover since the Porter and Steers

analysis of the literature reveals that age, tenure, overall satisfaction, job content, intentions to remain on the job, and commitment

are consistently and negatively related to turnover. Generally,

however, less than 20% of the variance in turnover is explained.

Lack of a clear conceptual model, failure to consider available

job alternative, insufficient multivariate research, and infrequent

longitudinal studies are identified as factors precluding a better

understanding of the psychology of the employee turnover process.

The primary objective of this article is to clariy and

integrate the concepts traditionally related to employee turnover

and satisfaction into a general model of the individual employee

turnover process. This conceptual model suggests a need to distinguish between satisfaction (present oriented) and attraction/

expected utility (future oriented) for both the present role and

alternative roles. It also points out the need to consider nonwork

values and nonwork consequences of turnover behavior as well as

contractual constraints. The proposed model represents a potential

mechanism for integrating aggregate-level research findings into an

individual-level model of the turnover process.

Moch, M. K. & Morse, E. V. Size, centralization, and organizational

adoption of innovations. American Sociological Review, 1977,

42, 716-725.

This study is concerned with the attributes of organizations

likely to facilitate or inhibit the adoption of innovations. First,

it offers an interpretation of the often-found relationship between

size and adoption frequency. Second, it investigates relationships

between structural attributes -- specialization, function of differentiation and centralization-adoption. Finally, it develops a model which

-200-

• .5-9< ', "Y , . - A': i .'.4:,<'-. " L' ?, .-. [- , ¢'.%" ,.. " , .-. 2" . . , '"'
specifies interaccions between these attributes and the type of innovation adopted. An interaction between size and centralization is also

posited.

The model developed to analyze these relationships is tested

using data gathered from a sample of US hospitals. The findings, on

the whole, are consistent with the hypothesis that adoption of innovations

compatible with the interests or perspectives of lower-level decisionmakers occurs more frequently in large, specialized, functionallydi rdifferentiated and decentralized hospitals. Centralization and the

interaction between size and centralization do not appear to affect

adoption of innovations which are not compatible with the interests of

lower-level decision-makers. The data also indicate that functional

differentiation facilitates adoption of this type of innovation. A

revised model of adoption behavior is suggested, and its implications

for a general theory of organizational adoption behavior are explored.

Molnar, J. J. & Rogers, D. L. A comparative model of interorganizational

* conflict. Adciniatrative Science uarterly, 1979, 24, 405-425.

Two types of interorganizational conflict are investigated in

this study: structural and operating. Structural conflict involves

rules that govern a relationship, whereas operating conflict occurs

over interpretation and application of such principles. Among the

*many factors affecting interorganizational relationships are the

similarities and differences of the interacting units. Comparative

properties represent the fit, congruence, and compatibility of the

interface between organization. The purpose of this study is to

develop a model of interorganizational conflict that incorporates

key aspects of the organizational interface, modeling conflict on

*the basis of the similarities and differences of the interacting

organizations.

The study examined 147 dyadic relationships in networks of

natural resource organizations in five non-metropolitan midwest

counties. The model includes variables measuring domain and administra-

* tive context as well as organizational age differences, as exogenous

factors causally related to interdependence and the two types of

conflict. Correlation results show comparative properties to be

significant determinants of interorganizational conflict. Comparative

variables are primarily related to interdependence and structural

conflict. Implications of comparative properties for the study of

Linterorganizational relationships are discussed.

-201-

6 . .
Motowidlo, S. J. & Borman, W. C. Behaviorally anchored scales for

measuring morale in military units. JournaZ of Apv lied

Psychooy, 1977, 62, 117-183.

V Behavioral examples of how military units express varying

degrees of morale were provided by US military personnel in the

United States and in two foreign locations. From these examples,

* behaviorally anchored rating scales were developed for eight dimensions of group morale. They were used to rate morale of 47 platoonsized units in the US Army stationed in a foreign location. Although errors of leniency and restriction of range did not seem

severe, the ratings did show indications of, halo error and only low

to moderate interrater reliability. Despite these psychometric

deficiencies, correlations with ratings of unit effectiveness and

self-reports of unit members provided some evidence for convergent

validity. Military units rated high on the morale scales were also

rated high on overall effectiveness and low on frequency of lowmorale activities like dissent, drug abuse, and destruction!

sabotage. Members of units rated high on some of the morale scales

N; were more likely to report high morale and intention of reenlisting.

Mott, P. 0. The characteristics of e:ffective organizatiocns. New York:

Harper & Row Publishers, Inc., 1972.

The objectives of the research summ'arized in this book are to

define and develop measures of organizational effectiveness and to

determine some of the characteristics of organizations that influence

their effectiveness. Chapter 1 is devoted to the development of a more

general model of large organizations that is typically found in the

literature. In this model, organizations are conceptualized as collections of centers of power in varying degrees of centralization, related

to one another through interfaces that vary in degree of organization

and directness of connection. One advantage of this model is that it

provides an opportunity to study the conditions that lead to varying

degrees of closure in different organizations. Organizational closure

is believed to be an important variable mediating many of the relationships between other organizational properties and organizational

effectiveness.

The definition and measurement of organizational effectiveness

is discussed in Chapter 2. Organizational effectiveness is defined as

the ability of an organization to mobilize its centers of power for

action -- production and adaptation. Available measurement tools in OE

research are discussed. The remainder of the book is devoted to discussions of relationships between selected organizational characteristics and organizational effectiveness. Variables which are examined in

terms of effectiveness are: decision-making, organizational and

individual needs, leadership and leadership styles, flexibility,

. .- adaptability, and productivity. Conclusions are drawn as to the optimal

conditions for each of these variables in effective, adaptable, and

productive organizations. Recommendations for future research are given.

-202-

L.
Muchinsky, P. M. Organizational communication: relationships to

organizational climate and job satisfaction. Academy of

Management Journal, 1978, 20, 592-607.

This study explores the relationships among measures of

organizational communication, organizational climate, and job satisfaction. Three questionnaires were completed by 1,160 employees of a

large public utility rating the various dimensions of communication,

climate and satisfaction. A questionnaire developed by Roberts and

O'Reilly (1974) was used to measure organizational communication;

Form B of the questionnaire by Litwin and Stringer (1968) to measure

organizational climate, and the Job Descriptive Index developed by

Smith as a measure of job satisfaction. The means and standard

deviations of the 16 communication dimensions, six climate dimensions,

and five job satisfaction dimensions were computed and compared via

correlational analyses.

The results of this study indicate that certain dimensions

of organizational communication are highly related to both organizational climate and job satisfaction, while others are not. The

findings of this study bring into focus some of the problems associated

with broad, multidimensional concepts. Of particular concern is

the construct validity of concepts like organizational communication

and climate. There is a great deal of ambiguity as to unit of analysis

appropriate for research on these concepts. The unit of analysis

(individual vs. organization) is an important determiner of whether

one is talking about psychological vs. organizationalclimate, or

individual vs. organizational communication. The ambiguity in the

results of this study serve as a caution to future researchers

against crossing units of analysis, e.g., relating an individual unit

of analysis in one concept to an organizational unit of analysis in

another concept. The need to establish the construct validity of

such concepts and to identify the parameters of them appears particularly acute.

Nadai. R. A., Duey, W. E., Ray, R. & Schaum, F. W. -rqant'za-cona_

effectiveness in the U.S. Army. Washington, DC: Organizational Effectiveness Study Group, DACS-DM-OE, 1977.

ADA043-500.

This study is an assessment for the Chief of Staff, Army

of Army-wide organizational effectiveness (OE) activities and

training and includes a recommended strategy and courses of action

for institutionalizing the application of this technology. The

study focuses on the long-term development and sustainment of an

Army-wide OE capability from the standpoint of organization,

staffin3, resources and management requirements.

-203-

..,'- v " . % "'.' %' ''".JL%-' .J% ". \J"" """ J . % .''"--v%.-,.'-.-. .: -
Since -ne L950s, advancements in the fields of management

and applied behavioral science in conjunction with successful command

and leadership practices have provided the foundation of OE concepts,

methods and skills. In the broadest sense this use of OE as a

technology in the Army represents a desire to understand the human

-' forces at work in the military and to improve combat readiness,

V., motivation, commitment and personal involvement. Findings and

. recommendations from several different OE efforts are reproted on

in detail.

.ial R., Schwar, J. & Blascak, D. n aracusis ccr~orz

jr--nizati naL develoomen; experience -and ir imp.lications

for the future of the Arry 's organizationaL effectiveness

,rogrui. Carlisle Barracks, PA: US Army War College, 1978. ADA060-968.

The fundamental purpose of this study is to evaluate the

experience of select organizational development user corporations

and compare the results with the Army experience in organizational

effectiveness. Data were gathered from a literature search and

interviews with corporate personnel and academicians.

The recent Army effort, to the extent that it has developed,

compares favorably with the corporate early experience and has the

capacity built into its process to manage the change of the process

itself. The Army is not yet doing two pertinent levels of OD which

- the corporations visited are doing. The strategic OD, accomplished %'0 to systematically address the organizational future in a participatory

way, and the socio-technical areas of OD which are executed to

enhance jobs, redesign work, and increase productivity at the worker

level are not done in the Army at this time. Recommendations follow

that the Army should expand its process, change the role of the

OESO and the content of the OETC, educate manager/commanders at all

levels, and develop a survey feedback system in order to accomplish

strategic and socio-technical functions to vertically integrate the

OE process in the Army.

%A.J

5

" ' -204-
Nealey, S. M. Organizational infZuence: Interpersona! power in

miZita-d organizations. Washington, DC: Battelle Human

Affairs Research Center, 1976. ADA022-603.

Research activities are described over a four-year period

of study of interpersonal influence (leader power) in the military.

The study included two phases. During Phase I, interpersonal influence

questionnaires were administered to three samples of enlisted men

(N-1596) at three stages of their military careers -- new recruits,

basic trainees, and enlisted men with two years of duty. The

questionnaire probed leadership power and leadership climate dimensions. Abstracts of six technical reports of the findings are

reproduced.

* Phase II of the study involved the development and administration of an indirect measure of leadership power attitudes based on

critical incidents in Navy leadership. One hundred and ten officers

and 110 enlisted men served as subjects. Abstracts of three technical

resports describing this activity are reproduced.

Q The major conclusions from the total study is that enlisted

men report heavy reliance by military superiors on leadership power

based on rank, authority, threats and punishment. Enlisted men

favor greater use of leadership power based on knowledge, experience

and mutual respect. This discrepancy between leadership attitudes

and actual leadership behavior remains unanswered. S

Negandhi, A. R. Organization theoy,' in an oven system. New York:

Dunellan Publishing Co., Inc., 1975.

This study reports the findings of empirical research

undertaken in 236 industrial firms in seven countries. Details are

provided on methodology and design definition, conceptualization and

operationalization of major variables, samples, and methods of data

collection. A comparative analysis is made of management practices of

the US parent companies, the US subsidiaries, and the comparable local

5 firms in the seven countries.

The controlling function of management is examined first.

Elements of control investigated are: the nature and scope of policymaking, setting standards for production and clerical employees and

for supervisory, cost budgetary, and quality controls, etc.

Following is an analysis of the long-range planning practices of the

US parent firms, their subsidiaries and the foreign firms and of the

organizational set-up of these companies. A number of organizational

characteristics are discussed, including: departmentalization,

formalization and documentation of policies, authority, layers of

hierarchy, decentralization in decision-making, leadership practices

and the impact of socio-cultural variables on leadership systle, and

management practices (e.g., job analysis and appraisal systems, and

training and development programs). The summary discussion focuses

on the universality of management practices and principles.

-205-

.. ......- .• .. • - --- - " -- - " .-.-- " - "- --- . ' ..- \- - - " -" ''.; - ; .
Negandhi, A. R. & Reimann, B. C. Task environment, decentralization

and organization effectiveness. Human Relations, 1973, 26,

203-214.

Most research has emphasized the importance of actual environmental conditions on the effective functioning of an organization.

However, there are various sociological and behavioral researchers who

emphasize instead the perception of those conditions formed by the

decision makers. The authors of this study contend, like the latter,

that the impact of "true" task envorinoment on organizational functioning and structure may not be direct; rather, it is mediated through

the perception of the decision-makers

Two sets of relationships are explored: (1) organizational

concern toward task environmental agents and the degree of decentralization in decision-making; and (2) the degree of decentralization and

organizational effectiveness. The data used for this study were

collected from 30 manufacturing companies in India. Spearman's rank

correlation and the Kruskal-Wallis Test were used to evaluate the

data. The results support the following hypotheses: (1) there is a

positive relationship between decentralization and organizational

effectiveness; and (2) the autonomy of managerial personnel is a

function of task environment structure, the accessibility of information

about that environment, and the managerial perception of the meaning

of environmental information. Implications for future research on the

impact of the external environment on the functioning of organizations

is discussed.

""chai' n, N. Absence behavior and attendance motivation: A

conceptual synthesis. The v: jrn_- : .T'n~nz ,

1977, 14, 231-252.

This paper proposes a new model and associated methodology

for the analysis and prediction of employee absence. The first part

of the paper briefly reviews theoretical writings on the topic and

concludes that a radically different orientation is needed for any

useful integration to be achieved from the fragmented insights to

be found in these works. A first step toward the building of such

an integrated theory is a consideration of the requirements for an

adequate theory of absence. To discover this, the nature of absence

is explored in a conceptual analysis, leading into a consideration

of methodological and measurement problems.

The "A-B Continuum" is proposed as an answer to these

problems, characterizing absence-inducing events in terms of

their avoidability. It is suggested that the impact of these events

varies from person to person, and that the variation is due to the

mediating influence of attendance motivation. The construct of

"attachment" is introduced as a means of measuring attendance

motivation, and its main constituents are specified. The final

section of the paper attempts to show how the full model may be used

to explain and predict individual differences in attendance behavior.

-206-

S
Nutt, P. Models for decision-making in organizations and some

contextual variables which stipulate optimal use. Academy

0, Maaement Review, 1976, 1, 84-98.

Six organizational decision-making models are described

and critiqued. They include: (1) Bureaucratic Model, (2) Normative

Deicison Theory, (3) Behavioral Decision Theory, (4) Group Decision

Making, (5) Conflict-Equilibrium, and (6) Open System. Advocates

of these models often assume that a particular model should be used

* for most, if not all, decision-making tasks. This paper challenges

that assumption. A counter proposition is offered, stating that

factors characterizing the decision-making environment stipulate

when a particular model can be optimally used. Propositions for

selection of an appropriate decision-making model are derived, based

on: the primary, managerial and institutional layers of an organiza-

* tion, the nature of the organization's key tasks, the types of

dependencies among organizational units, the assessments required

between adjacent layers; and some characteristics of the organization's

environment.

O'Connor, S. i. Farrow, D. L. A cross-functional comparison of

prescribed versus preferred patterns of managerial structure.

Journal of Management Studies, 1979, 16, 222-234.

While numerous studies have found an appropriate match of

environmental and task requirements with organizational structure to

be conducive to high output efficiency, comparable investigations

of the relative satisfaction of employees under these varying conditions

have been notably absent. In recognition of this lack of past data,

the current research is designed to investigate whether those relative

structural levels recommended as best for performance would also be

considered most desirable by production and research incumbents.

A two-stage investigation was designed to clarify this question.

Initially, an exploratory study was conducted with a sample of 258

managers from the US and UK. Based on the results of this pilot

project, an hypothesis was formulated which held that employees

in effective production subunits typically operate in significantly

* more certain external environments and under more structured systems

than do their research counterparts.

A study using two separate samples of 95 and 166 British

managers was conducted to test this hypothesis. Seven tests were

made of differences in the attitudes, preferences and behavioral

self-descriptions of production and research managers. Of these,

six provided signficiant support for the hypothesis. Findings were

consistent for attitude, preference, and for behavioral measures.

Some problems exist with this study, however. Since the results

are based on secondary analyses of previously collected data, the

responses utilized may not meet all the assumptions required to

Justify the use of significance tests. Also, the limited set of

structural dimensions measured and the nature of the programmed

exercised employed to collect the data tend to restrict the

generalizabilitv of the study. Suggestions for further research

are discussed.
O'Reilly, C. A., III & Roberts, K. H. Information filtration in

organizations: Three experiments. 5 :77' ziZZtiCa',Z 32W;

~ £~zn er-9~',_)arce, 1974, 11, 253-265.

There is considerable empricial evidence confirming the

notion that people often distort information as it travels through

organizations. The research reported here focuses on selective

filtration or omission as a mechanism for distortion. Two

independent variables, directionality of information flow and interpersonal trust and influence, are related in three experiments to

nine measures of information filtration.

The subjects for this study were 171 graduate and undergraduate students, randomly assigned across the three experimental

conditions. The subjects were asked to role play positions as

subordinates, superiors, or peers in an organizational hierarchy.

After reading some background information on the organization, the

subjects were told that a problem requiring their immediate attention

had just arisen. The situation required the subject to provide

information for his superior, peer or assistant. To determine the

effects of directionality of flow on respondent information behavior,

a one-way analysis of variance was computed for each of the nine

dependent variables, using each of the three directions of information

flow as independent variables. A 2 x 2 analysis of variance was

4 computed to test the effects of trust and influence, with these

two variables as independent variables and each of the nine types

of information as dependent variables, for each of the three experimental replications. A 2 x 2 analysis of variance was also computed

for the aggregate of the three replications. The results indicate

that senders acted to filter different types of information,

depending on the direction the information was to be sent and the

senders' trust in the receiver.

Offenberg, R. M. & Cernius, V. Assessment of Idiographic Organizational

Climate. Th e J A r - 1978,

14, 79-86.

In preparing an organizational diagnosis, one problem faced

by change agents is the integration of the different perceptions of

the individuals who make up the client organization. In this

study, it is hypothesized that factor analysis and elements of social

exchange theory (cost, reward and commitment) could be used to resolve

* this problem. An instrument prepared in a preliminary study administered to the faculty of two schools (N=50). Quantitative descriptions of each organization were made on the basis of factor patterns.

Simultaneous factor analysis showed that there were systematic

differences in the factor patterns obtained from the two schools.

Faculty who reviewed the descriptions could correctly identify the

one derived from their school's data, indicating that descriptions

were valid. These results indicate that the social exchange and

factor analysis combination is a promising technique for organizational

diagnosis.

-208-
Olmstead, J. A. Factors in organizational effectiveness. (HumRRO-PP1-72). Alexandria, VA: Human Resources Research Organization,

4P 1972.

This article offers an alternative conceptual framework for

the understanding of organizational effectiveness. The author bases

his discontent with traditional organizational theory on Bennis'

(1966) contention that it is "out of joint" with an emerging view of

organizations as adaptive, problem-solving systems, and insensitive

to the critical need of organizations to cope with external stress

and change. Traditional methods of evaluating effectiveness provide

static indicators of output characteristics; proposed here is a measure

of an organization's capacity to cope with continuously changing

environments. The framework developed to describe this is based on

the notion of organizational competence -- the ability of an organization

to sense changes in its external and internal environments, to process

the information sensed, and to adapt operations to the sensed changes.

The data presented to support these concepts result from a

HumRRO project designed to determine the contribution of four factors

(adaptability, reality-testing, identity, and integration) to competence,

and of competence to organizational effectiveness. Subjects used in

this study were 10 groups of 12 experienced officers who participated as

battalion commander, battalion staff, and company commanders in an 8-

.our role simulation of light infantry battalion engaged in internal

* defense operation. Correlations were computed (1) between the arow:

szres of each of seven processes performed (sensing, communicatin2

- --- mation, decision-making, stabilizing, communicating implementa-

-:in, coping actions and feedback) and effectiveness; and (2) bet-eE"

components of competence and effecciveness.

The results of this study show that the processes which occur

in organizations have heretofore been neglected when, in fact, they

appear to be critical determinants of effectiveness. The conceptual

* framework embodied in organizational competence appears to provide

one productive means for overcoming this limitation in both research

* and application. Specifically, the processes that have been identified

provide both a framework for evaluation and bases for training and OD.

Organizational competence, and hence effectiveness, can best be improved

by efforts that focus upon developing the organization as a system, that

is team training of all key personnel together, rather than skill

development with isolated individuals.

-V

* 4-20%-
Olmstead, J. A., Christensen, H. E. & Lackey, L. L. Co~roonents of

oraanizationaL Comnoetence test of conceptual f'ramework.

Alexandria, VA: Human Resources Research Organization, 1977.

The purpose of the Work Unit FORCE is to explore the human

factors within organizations that impede or enhance command and

control activities, with the aim of improving ability to control

these factors. To accomplish this purpose, a conceptual framework

and supporting methodology were developed. The framework was

developed around several concepts that are subsumed under the rubric

"organizational competence". Competence, the capacity of an organiza-

-: tion to cope with continuously changing environment, was conceived

to be a major determinant of organization effectiveness (OE). It

consists of 3 major components: reality-testing, adaptability, and

integration. Where OE is the final outcome, competence is the ability

of the organization to perform certain critical operational functions

that lead to effectiveness.

The analysis of organizational competence reported in this

study is based on a simulation involving ten 12-man groups of Vietnamexperienced infantry officers who participated in an 8-hour role-play

of a light infantry battalion engaged in combat operations in Vietnam.

Zero-order correlations of competence components with effectiveness

resulted in coefficients of .96 for reality-testing, .79 for

adaptability, and .11 for integration. Eight conclusions are drawn

from this and other correlations relating competence and effectiveness.

Implications of this study for improving organizational functioning

are discussed.

Olmstead, J. A., Elder, B. L. & Forsyth, J. M. ^r.anizatonaL

z'rocess and combat readiness: FeasibiZity o' traininc

Sr~izavinal Efectiv'eness _ta *icers to assess

c.r7 ?and rour rer or-ance. (HumRRO IR-ED-78-13). Alexandria,

S., VA: Human Resources Research Organization, 1978.

This report describes the results of the first phase of a

project concerned the relationship between performance of certain

critical organizational processes and combat readiness of US Army

units. The research was devoted to (1) an analysis of the relationship between process performance of battalion command groups and the

combat outcomes of battle simulations in which the battalions

participated and (2) determination of the feasibility of training

OESOs to obser., and assess the process performance of TOE unit

battle staffs and to feedback their observations so that improved

oerformance would result.

-210-

3a
Twelve battalions participated in the simulation during

July and August 1978. A significant correlation was found between

* overall command group process performance and overall combat outcomes

across the four modules of the battle simulation. This confirmed

the strong relationship believed to exist between the quality of

organizational process performance and combat outcomes. Four

conclusions were drawn from this study relating unit effectiveness

to (I) the quality of command group performance, (2) the feedback

*of process observations by OESOs, (3) the ability to train command

groups and battle staffs to improve their process performance

and (4) the ability to train OESOs to better assess and constructively

feed bask observations to the command groups.

Osborn, R. N. & Hint, J. G. Environment and organizational effectiveness. Aciniasvraive Scie*nce ;uarter>,, 1974, 19, 231-2-'5.

This investigation of environmental complexity is based on

a unique conceptual view of organizational environments which distinguishes among broad factors facing many organizations, conditions

unique to a system, and interorganizational characteristics. Environmental complexity is viewed as the interaction between environmental

risk, dependency, and interorganizational relationships.

Research questions concerning complexity in the task environment are investigated in 26 small, rigidly structured social service

organizations. Measurements were taken of overall effectiveness,

task environment risk (degree of heterogeneity among task environment

members on the dimensions of objectives, goals, output, size, and

structure), and interorganizational interaction. Kendall's tau was

* used to examine the relationship among OE, task environment risk, task

environment dependency and interorganizational interaction. A multiple

linear regression approach was used to test a series of propositions

made about the relationships stated above. Results showed that neither

complexity nor risk was associated with organizational effectiveness.

Both task environment dependency and interorganizational interaction

alone and in combination were positively and significantly correlated

with effectiveness. Some of the results may be unique to the sample,

but a separation of internal and external conditions alters typical

interpretations of external impacts. A more careful differentiation

among internal, external and linkage variables is recommended.

-211-

* * . . *
Ottaway, R. N. & Cooper, C. L. Moving toward a taxonomy of change

agents. twies ted of Vana . en . 2nzz 7roizatins, "

1973, 8, 7-21.

This paper reviews some of the existing literature on

change agents and proposes a more comprehensive and sequential

taxonomy which may help in focusing future research efforts. The

viewpoint taken is based on Argyris's (1970) concept of intervention

in conceptualizing change-agent strategies. The assumption is that

change agents often experience rejection in their role, or the

change they are attempting to implement is rejected, because they

follow a plan such as that described by Rogers (1972).

Based on a review of the literature on the conditions

favorable for change and change-agent typologies, a taxonomy of

change agents is proposed. It is based on six assumptions: (1)

everyone is a change agent to some degree; (2) the classification

ranges from the one extreme of scope, focus, number, and benefit

to the other; (3) all the major taxa are required in any change

process; (4,) all major taxa are in chronological order; (5) all

taxa are of equal value; (6) commitment to common values must

permeate all the categories in a particular change process. The

taxonomy develops three major taxa: Change generators: intentional

change implementors; and unintentional change implementors. This

framework is designed to clarify the process of change and to

help unscramble the confusion over the variety of change-agent

roles described in numerous typologies.

Juchi, W. G. The transmission of control through organizational

hierarchy. Acaemy. _.f lanaaement Journal, 1978, 21, 173-193.

This paper addresses the problam of control loss in

hierarchies. The literature supports the contention that all forms

of control may not be equally susceptible to hierarchical loss.

Since it is demonstrably true that organizations achieve five and more

levels of hierarchy, there must he some forms of control which can

operate through mulitple levels. The hypothesis tested in this study

is that control based on outputs is relatively less susceptible to

hierarchical attentuation than is control based on behavior.

Data weragathered on 215 departments (aggregated from

2,363 questionnaires) of retail department stores in the midwest.

The test used is admittedly weak because it does not measure agreement

between levels on the substance of the goals and the exact levels of

'erformance which are considered satisfactory and unsatisfactory-.

The principal measures are of behavior control given, behavior control

.... ';ed. output control given, and output control received. F3r

ieparace uestionnaires were used to measure each Df these factors.

-212-

*$%
1*

A.

Zero-order correlation coefficients were computed among these variables

.2 test their relationship. The findings indicate that behavior

control and output control differ sharply in transmission. Behavior Icontrol shows almost no interlevel consistency while output control is

transmitted through three levels of hierachy with relatively little

loss. Further analysis suggests that behavior control is determined by

local, particularistic conditions and therefore cannot be expected to

show high if.erlevel consistency or transmisssion.

Paine, F. T. & Anderson, C. R. Contingencies affecting strategy

formulation and effectiveness: An empirical study. The

Journal of Managenent Studies, 1977, 14, 147-158.

Recent attempts at clarifying the strategy formulation

problem have centered around managerial perceptions of environmental

uncertainty (the need for information) and perceptions of the need

for internal change. This research empirically tests one such formulation, a four quadrant model incorporating these two perceptual

variables. Data sources were 62 longitudinal case studies involving

a variety of organizations and environments. Characteristics of

strategy-making in each quadrant and differences between successful

and unsuccessful organizations were examined through quantification

of nine strategic variables for each case. These variables included:

perceived uncertainty, internal change, objectives, innovation, risk40 taking, futurity-organization form, role of policy-maker(s), and success.

Findings revealed differences between each quadrant on a number of

strategic properties including risk taking, role performance of the

key policy-maker(s), degree of innovation, extent of futurity in

planning, and success of the organization. Strategic properties

* which predicted differences in success of each quadrant included

perception of uncertainty, maximizing versus satisfying behavior,

innovation, futurity of planning, and role performance of the policy

maker(s). Successful firms in each quadrant tended to follow a

strategic mode appropriate for the prevailing conditions. The four

successful modes identified were adaptive planning, planning, adaptive

entrepreneurial, and entrepreneurial or stress modes. Motivational

aspects of these results and implications for future research are

discussed.

-213-

%
Pasmore, W. A., Gaertner, K., Haldeman, J., Francis, C. & Shani, A.

Sociotechnical sustems: An intc,-ratrd literature review and

anaZyticaZ model.. Case Western Reserve University: Department of Organizational Behavior, 1979. Under contract to

U.S. Army Research Institute.

The purpose of this review is to summarize current knowledge

in the field of sociotechnical systems, with emphasis on its applicability to military settings. Sociotechnical systems theory is eclectic,

drawing upon research in the areas of motivation, industrial engineering,

systems theory, and many other frameworks and disciplines. The apparent

lack of a central set of guiding assumptions in sociotechnical systems

theory is probably due to the fact that the theory has been developed

largely from practice rather than vice-versa.

Experimentation in sociotechnical systems theory are discussed.

A review of more than 120 experiments indicates that sociotechnical

system interventions can be quite successful if those involved maintain

commitment to them. Examples of such interventions are given. A review

of the analytical models for sociotechnical systems follows. The model

developed by Foster (1967) and some of its variations are presented in

detail. The related theoretical concepts of technology, motivation and

cooperation, quality of work life, organizational power, and organizational change are examined in this framework.

The review concludes with a discussion of the applicability of

the sociotechnical systems model in a military setting. In response to

the uniqueness of the military environment, an analytical model is

developed which encompasses the best aspects of traditional sociotechnical systems techniques while adding unique features designed

specifically for the military environment. Experiments are suggested

for testing the validity of this model.

Patten, T. H., Jr. , (Ed.) Emerorinc iensirns a onZcer: A

coilection of papers. NY: American Society for Training and

Development, 1973.

This collection of papers covers a wide spectrum of organization

development issues. (1) T. H. Patten points out that OD and MBO are

complementary parts of an organizational change strategy and should be

integrated with organizations'reward systems if they are to be optimally

effective. Alternate ways of carrying out an organizational change

strategy are discussed. (2) B. T. Alban and L. I. Pollitt provide a

statement on the nature of team building. The issues involved in

starting a total organization change strategy with a team-building

thrust are discussed. (3) R. E. Byrd describes the risk-taking laboratory design used to enable individuals to function more freely and think

more innovatively. Implications for an OD program using this type of

d -214-

e -
laboratory education are discussed. (4) R. R. Blake and J. S. Mouton

set forth ..i nu1ber of interventions managers can use to be effective

in the conduct of their work. A two-dimensional OD grid is presented

(client vs. outcome) which can be used to select an effective intervention style. (5) C. Mrazek recounts an attempt to make OD interventions in a resistant organization. His article points out the need

for external change agents to help obtain the insight and leverage

needed for internal organizational change. (6) G. H. Varney and H. J.

* Lasher recount their personal experiences with an OD intervention in

the academic department of a university. Feedback information on

feelings is presented, along with the Beckhard model upon which the

study was based. (7) M. M. Moore discusses the inner workings of the

commitment to sustained action required of management if change is to

occur. (8) S. D. Anderson discusses in detail his experiences as an

* external change agent. The content of the workshops and the tools used

in them are presented.

Payne, R. & Mansfield, R. Correlates of individual perceptions of

0 organizational climate. Journal of OccuparionaL Psychology,

1978, 51, 209-218.

This paper discusses the possible factors affecting the ways

individuals perceive differently the climate of their employing

organizations, and empirically tests the effects of three sets of

0 possible determinants. Data were gathered from questionnaires

completed by 387 persons working at different work organizations.

The interrelationships between six aspects of climate and the other

variables relating to organizational context, structure and position

were examined using correlational analysis.

* The results of this study tend to show that the perceptions

of significant others may have greater influence than either variables

reflecting the individual's position or objective indicators of

organizational structure or context on individual perceptions of

organizational climate. Also, salary was found to be a better

predictor chan the literature would lead one to expect.

Payne, R. & Pugh, D. S. Organization structure and climate. In

Dunnette, M. D. (Ed.). Handbook of industria, and

organizationaL psychology. Chicago: Rand McNally, 1976.

The purpose of this chapter is to review work focusing on

the concepts of organizational structure and organizational climate.

This involves examining studies which relate the two constructs

themselves as well as studies which explore the determii.ants of

each (e.g., organizational contextual features such as technology

and size). The review is organized around a distinction between

objective and subjective methods of measurement. These two methods

of measurement are not synonymous with structure and climate, and

-215-

fey-.' ,A . ,. 1!L( !o_'
it is ar-ued that both structure and climate can, and have been,

measured by both methods. The validity of structure and climate is

investigated by systematically reviewing studies according to the

various combinations possible for the structure and climate/objective

and subjective distinctions (e.g., objective structure and subjective

structure, subjective structure and subjective climate).

A final section looks at the relationship between measures

of organizational climate and individual factors such as job satisfaction. Attention is drawn to the need to distinguish whether such

studies used the individual or the organization as the unit of

analysis. Consistent patterns are difficult to find, particularly

when subjective measures are used. The reader is invited to draw

his own conclusions about the value of future work on these two

concepts and is helped towards this evaluation by being offered a

pessimistic and an optimistic interpretation of the chapter.

Pedalino, E. & Gamboa, V. U. Behavior modification and absenteeism:

Intervention in one industrial setting. JournaZ of Appied

Psycholoogy, 1974, 59, 694-698.

Behavior modification was used in an attempt to decrease

absenteeism in a sample of 215 hourly employees at a manufacturing/

distribution facility. Employees in four adjoining plants served as

comparison groups. An ABA (baseline, intervention, return to baseline) intervention using a lottery incentive system constituted the

experimental design. Absenteeism decreased significantly following

the experimental group intervention but did not decrease in any of

the four comparison groups. Further, stretching the schedule of

reinforcement did not increase the rate of absenteeism. Findings

are discussed in light of Lawler and Hackman's 1969 study which indicated participation, not the incentive system, decreased absenteeism.

Pennings, J. M. The relevance of the structural-contingency model for

organizational effectiveness. Adninistrative Science

Q uarterly, 1975, 20, 393-407.

This paper examines the structural-contingency model,

relating the environment and technology to the structure of

complex organizations. The implication is that for a given environment or technology, a particular structure is appropriate. Through

both subjective and objective data, this paper explores the degree of

association between measures of structure and environmental uncertainty

and related measures of complexity, resourcefulnes-, competition and

instability.

-216-
The data for the study were collected in 40 widely dispersed

branch offices of a large US brokerage organization. Subjective data

i* were obtained from questionnaires; objective data were collected from

company records and census information. Spearman-Brown correlational

coefficients were computed on the questionnaire measures, and Pearson

product-mement coefficients computed on the environmental and structural

variables tested in the questionnaire and records. Results failed to

support the model. The environment seems to have structural correlates,

4P except for the variables of resourcefulness and complexity. The results

show further that the goodness of fit between environmental and

structural variables fails to explain variance in effectiveness.

0 0 J. M. -oordination ...... Or - I (.IPennings, ianizationar i"ess: 4

canonical analysis. Pittsburgh, PA: Carnegie Mellon

University, 1976. AD264-440.

This paper investigates the relationship between various

aspects of coordination and indicators of organizational effectiveness

* (OE). Canonical correlational analysis represents a multivariate

analysis procedure which can isolate the shared variance of two

sets of variables. A design incorporating this procedure has been

used to relate coordination to OE. This study is a follow-up of

a previous effort in which environmental variables were used in a

contingency framework. The earlier study failed to show that

l variables such as environmental uncertainty and complexity act in

a contingent way upon the coordination-effectiveness variables.

Using data from 40 brokerage offices of a large US brokerage

firm, the author tests six measures of coordination: horizontal and

vertical communication, frequency of two types of meetings, participativeness, and team effort. Measures of effectiveness are: satisfaction and three static indices and three dynamic indices regarding

customers and commission earned. The results indicate that the last

four coordination measures have some predictive power with respect

to effectiveness. There are two pairs of canonical variates. In

the first pair meetings frequency and team effort on the one hand

and commission earned and satisfaction on the other hand dominate.

In the second pair all variables, except horizontal and vertical

communication and active customers dominate. Coordination appeared

sufficiently important to predict effectiveness. Implications of

this study for organizational design are discussed.

-217-

&&
Perrow, C. The analysis of goals in complex organizations. American

Socic ogicaL Review, 1966, 31, 354-366.

This article addresses the lack of distinction between types

of goals in organizational literature. It is argued first that the

type of goals most relevant to understanding organizational behavior

are not the official goals, but rather the operative goals embedded in

the major operating policies and daily decisions of the personnel.

Second, these goals will be shaped by the particular problems or tasks

an organization must emphasize, since these tasks determine the characteristics of those who will dominate the organization.

The article begins with a theoretical discussion of the differences between operative and official goals, and the roles of each

in organizational behavior. The author contends that if one knows

something about the major tasks of an organization and the characteristics of its controlling elite, it is possible to predict its goals

in general terms. The major tasks of every organization are four:

(1) secure inputs in the form of capital sufficient to establish itself, operate, and expand as the need arises; (2) secure acceptance in

the form of basic legitimization of activity; (3) marshal the necessary

skills; and (4) coordinate the activities of its members and the relations of the organizations with other organizations and with clients

or customers. Each of these task areas will not be equally important

at any point in time, and will provide a presumptive basis for control

or domination by the group equipped to meet the problems involved.

Illustrative examples of the different combinations of goals-authority

are evaluated in terms of their impact on organizational behavior. The

examples used are: a voluntary service organization; a non-voluntary

service organization, and a profit-making organization.

Pettigrew, A. M. Strategy formulation as a political process.

ithernatioraZ *Jcurna-Z f Vanagement andi Organizations,

1977, 7, 78-87.

An assumption is made that strategy formulation can be

understood as a process of political decision-making. Because

political processes evolve at both the group and the individual

levels, the political decision process in turn must be understood

as the resolution of conflicting demands from various interested

individuals and groups. The extent of the disparities among these

demands is conditional on the structure of the decision unit,

the complexity and uncertainty of the dilemma, the level of salience

'AS of the dilemma in the organization, the stated value positions, the

external pressures, and the history of relationships among the

decision-makers.

VAII -218-
Mobilization of power is another important aspect of the

political decision-process. A demand is poltically feasible only

W if sufficient power can be mobilized and committed to its support.

6 Thus, an analysis of the power structure and processes within an

organization is crucial to an understanding of its method of

strategy formulation. A key concept in an understanding of power

mobilization is that of legitimacy. The management of meaning is

a process of symbol constuctzion and value use designed to create

40 legitimacy for one's demands and to de-legitimize an opponent's.

Implications of this conceptualization of strategy formulations for

managers are discussed.

40 Pfeffer, J. & Salancik, G. R. Determinants of supervisory behavior:

A role set analysis. Fiwnan ReiZations, 1975, 28, 139-154.

This study explores supervisory behavior along the dimensions

commonly used in studies of leadership behavior, but with emphasis

46 on the extent to which that behavior is determined by constraints

deriving from the supervisor's set of organizational and social

interactions. It is argued that the supervisory behavior is constrained

by the demands of others in his role set.

It was found that the expectations of a supervisor's

* superior and those of his subordinates and peers accounted for a

significant portion of the observed variation in behaviors across 53

supervisors in the housing division of a large state university.

Further, the extent to which supervisors conformed to their superiors'

expectations was related to the number of persons and the proportion

of the time spent supervising, the demands to produce, the supervisor's

* sex, and the proportion of the decisions made by superiors. Multivariate analysis indicated that the expectations of subordinates

were more importnat in influencing social behaviors, while the

expectations of the superiors were more important in determining

work-related behaviors. Results are discussed in terms of Weick's

(1969) finding that individuals in an organization will interlock

* behaviors to obtain a stable mutually satisfying interaction.

-219-
N.1

s%.

Pondy, L. R. Organizational conflict: Concepts and models.

Administrative Science Quarterly, 1967, 12, 296-320.

This article discusses several of the most widely accepted

concepts and models of organizational conflict. It has been argued

that conflict within an organization can be conceptualized best as

a dynamic process underlying a wide variety of organizational

behaviors. The term conflict refers neither to its antecedent

conditions, nor individual awareness of it, nor certain affective

states, nor its over manifestations, nor its residues of feelings or

structure, but to all of these taken together as a history of a

conflict episode. An organization's success hinges to a great

v . extent on its ability to set up and operate appropriate mechanisms

for dealing with a variety of conflict episodes.

Conflict has many sources, possible modes of regulation, and

effects on the organization. Thus, to be useful in the analysis of

real situations, a general theoretical framework for the study of

organizational conflict must at least fit several broad classes of

conflict, some or all of which may occur within the same organization.

This suggests that different ways of abstracting or conceptualizing

a given organization are required, depending on the phenomena to

be studied. Three models of the organization are described which

serve as the basis for a general theory of conflict. They are:

(1) a bargaining model, which deals with interest groups in competition

for resources; (2) a bureaucratic model, which deals with authority

relations and the need to control; and (3) a systems model, which

-'" deals with functional relations and the need to cooperate.

Porras, J. E. & Berg, P. 0. Evaluation methodology in organization

development: An analysis and critique. The JurnaZ o-f'

AcmLied 3ehaviora: Sciences, 1978, 14, 151-173.

This review analyzes and critiques the present state-ofthe-art in empirical research in organizational development. In

so doing, some of the generally shared assumptions about the quality

and character of this body of knowledge are challenged. The search

procedure yielded 35 empirical studies in the OD field for the period

1959-1975. Each study was analyzed according to (a) research design,

(b) data collection procedures (c) subject characteristics, (d)

treatment dimensions, and (e) data analysis approaches.

Findings show that the overall quality of OD research

methodology was spotty. Research designs were relatively strong, with

large percentages of investigators using quasi-experimental desizns.

An excessive reliance on questionnaires as the sole data collection

-220-

- I ..
approach exists. Only a small percentage of studies reported using other

nquantified approaches. Most studies were conducted in one organization

or in situations where n's for units of analysis larger than the I. individual were small (less than 10). The heavy use of laboratory

training intervention techniques is noted, although a strong shift

from process to task orientation has occurred in recent years. Over

75% of the studies reported the use of statistical tests of significance. Although data analysis procedures are becoming more

*Q sophisticated, the vast majority of studies used very simple

analytical techniques. Based on this analysis, a series of

suggestions for improvement of methodological approaches to OD

research is presented.

p.P-rtar, L. W., Lawler, E. E. III, & Hackman, J. R. 32havior ir

organizations. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1975.

This book deals with organizations, individuals, and the

interaction between them, with major focus on the behavior of people

*in work situations. Written in textbook fashion, its treatment of

organizational and individual concepts are grounded in empirical

research findings and behavioral science concepts. Discussion begins

with a consideration of the nature of individuals and organizations

and of the basic forms of their interaction. The discussion then turns

to the emergence and growth of individual-organization relationships

*g how each party chooses the other, adapts to the other, and develops

continuing relationships. The third part of the book delineates the

nature and impact of structural factors -- both organizational and jobrelated-- on the individual's behavior. The topic of organization

design is examined in terms of contextual and structural factors. The

fourth section analyzes the influences of various organizational

* practices and social processes on employee's experiences and feelings

and on their performance. The final section reviews and critically

assesses the methods and goals of changing and developing organizations

and concludes with the authors' personal thoughts on where organizations should be going in the future.

'Porter, L. W. & Roberts, K. H. Communication in organizations.

In Dunnette, M. D. (Ed.). ",zndbook of Us2riaf . a

oraani.izxzional, psfcho~ogy. Chicago: Rand McNally, 1976.

Communication is treated as an important, under-researched

1aspect of organizational functioning. The topic is first examined

from an organizational theory perspective, followed by a critical

review of recent relevant empirical investigations. These studies

include those concerning interpersonal communication in organizations

and those pertaining to the organizational context of communication

C interactions. Methodological aspects of communication studies in the

aggregate are discussed, with some suggestions offered concerning

future research in this area.

-221-

s.$
-O"nciuzions include: (1) no adequate theories exist to

explain cile nature of communication in organization; (2) considerable

extrapolation of relevant research findings from other areas (i.e.,

attitude change) is required when these findings are applied to

organizations; (3) available research findings are of limited usefulness in providing guidelines for effective ways to cope with communi-

•4". cation problems in organizations; and (4) more varied and more

innovative methodologies for studying organizational communication

are necessary for future advances in knowledge in this area.

,a . . - n 

?Pwnail, 3. E. riziona, eG&"an; i r-e. , Carlisle

3 Barracks, PA: Army War College, 1973. AD779-65.

This article addresses the applicability of organizational

development within the military establishment. A definition of OD

is developed as an effort planned, organization-wide, and managed from

the top to increase organizational effectiveness and health through

planned interventions in the organization's "processes" using behavioral

science knowledge. OD is viewed as an effective way to cope with the

rapidly changing environment facing both the industrial and military

communities.

By use of a brief development of management theory coupled with

the need for adapting to change and the knowledge based on five years

of OD practice, an approach to determine whether OD can be used in

the military is supplied. The author's conclusion is that OD can and

should be adopted within the military establishment. Some specific

suggestions are made regarding conditions to look for which favor a

successful OD experience and some conditions which will lead to failure.

Price, J. L. rnnzaricnam .ctiveness: .n imn.enor of

7"ri ' t o . n . Homewood, IL: Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1968.

The purpose of this book is to present the core of what

behavioral scientists know about the effectiveness of organizations.

The format used for this presentation is an inventory of a set of

propositions specifying the determinants of organizational phenomena.

The independent variables in the set are different for each proposition;

the dependent variable, effectiveness, is the same throughout. The

inventory focuses on organizations; i.e., social systems with a specific

purpose. Effectiveness is defined as the degree of goal achievement

specifically, the attainment of operative goals. Diverse measurements

of effectiveness are accepted, and are assumed to classify organizations

no differently than would a standardized measure. For the purpose of

manageability, methodological issues are general!y excluded from

analysis.

_ ~-222-

!7
Three systems of the organization are analyzed: (1) The

economic system - that part of the organization directly involved in

fe producing the output of the system. Organizations likely to have a high

degree of effectiveness are characterized by economic systems which have

high degrees of division of labor, specialized departmentalization

(except where there is a high degree of complexity), and mechanization

(except where there is a high degree of professionalization), and by

continuous systems of assembling output. (2) The political system -

*those components of the organization which make decisions and which

attempt to obtain support for those decisions from the environment.

To maximize effectiveness, the organization's internal political system

should be characterized by: high degrees of legitimate decision-making,

rational-legal decision-making, and centralization with respect to

tactical and strategic decisions (except where there is a high degree

of complexity). The external political system should be characterized

by: a high degree of autonomy, an ideology with high degrees of congruence, priority and conformity, co-optation, major elite co-optation,

a high degree of representation, major elite representation, and a major

elite constituency. (3) The control system - the components of the

organization which motivate conformity to norms. An effective organii* zation's control system is characterized by: a high degree of sanctions,

a norm enforcer-norm conformer relationship which is basically secondary,

a sanction system with a high degree of grade, a collectivistic sanction

system; and high degrees of communication (vertical and norizontal) which

is primarily instrumental, personal and formal.

*g It is emphasized that all the propositions, conditions and

intervening variables presented in this inventory require systematic

verification. This inventory has attempted to state all it can about

the determinants of effectiveness; but it is admittedly incomplete.

The systematic verification required necessitates the future development of standardized measurements of the variables.

Price, J. L. The effects of turnover on the organization. In Spray,

" S. L. (Ed.). Oranizationa" effectiveness. Kent, OH: Kent

State University Press, 1976.

This paper presents a codification and systematic ordering of

the literature on the effects of turnover on the organization. Turnover is defined as the degree of movement across the membership boundary

of the organization. The literature dealing with the effects of turnover seems to have two concerns: (1) the documentation of the costs of

turnover, and (2) the effects of these costs on effectiveness. This

paper reconceptualizes the literature dealing with the costs of turnover

and critically examines the assumption that turnover, by increasing

costs, reduces effectiveness. It also goes beyond this to _eterrnine e

effects of turnover on other organizational variables.

-223-
The effects of turnover on effectiveness are described. In

general, successively higher amounts of turnover produce (1) successively higher proportions of administrative staff members relative to

production staff members, (2) successively higher amounts of formalization, and (3) successively lower amounts of participation in primary

groups. Higher amounts of turnover also serve to increase innovation

and to decrease satisfaction and conformity. The conclusion is drawn

that the relationship between turnover and effectiveness is probably

problematic rather than axiomatic. Suggestions for future research

are discussed.

Pugh. D. S., Hickson, D. J. & Hinings, C. R. An empirical taxonomy

of structures of work organizations. Administrative Science

Quarterly, 1969, 14, 115-126.

The taxonomy of work organization structures presented here

is based on three previously established empirical dimensions:

structuring of activities, concentration of authority, and line control

of workflow. One the basis of a sample of 52 organizations in the

English Midlands, clusters of organizations on these three dimensions

are examined and a sevenfold classification of organization structures

is developed. These are identified as full bureacracy, nascent full

bureaucracy, workflow bureaucracy, nascent workflow bureaucracy,

preworkflow bureaucracy, personnel bureaucracy, and implicitly

structured organizations. Their characteristic contextual features

relating to size, technology, interdependence and ownership are

demonstrated, and a possible developmental sequence suggested. These

results indicate that the concept of a single bureaucratic type is

no longer useful, since bureaucracy takes different forms in different

settinRgs.

Pugh, D. S., Hickson, D. J., Hinings, C. R., Macdonald, K. M., Turner,

C. & Lupton, T. A conceptual scheme for organizational

analysis. Ad-nnistrative Science Quarterly, 1963, 8, 289-315.

A review of the literature indicates that studies of work

behavior have been primarily processual rather than factorial.

There has been a great concentration on the one-case study and little

systematic attempt to relate behavior to contextual and organizational

settings. A survey of the literature on bureaucracy leads to an

analysis of organizational structure in terms of a set of variables

(specialization, standardization, formalization, centralization,

configuration, and flexibility) that are capable of empirical verification.

-224-

-. "". . ".""... ". N-
This study is concerned with the attemot to goneralize and

develop ch, study of work organization and behavior into a consideration

of the interdependence of three conceptually distinct levels of analysis

-* of behavior in organizations: (1) organizational structure, (2) group

composition and interaction, and (3) individual personality and behavior.

A factorial analysis is undertaken to establish the significant

variables at each level and their relationships, and to develop at

each level a processual analysis within the framework thu3 established.

In order to examine the relationships between the structure and

activities of an organization, its social and economic context, and its

other characteristics, a list of contextual variables is developed

to which detailed reference is made. This list is used as a series of

independent variables which could be related to the dependent variables

of organizational structure and functioning. In this way, the effect

of various patterns of these independent variables on organizational

structure can be identified.

Referenze 3ook: Eaecti;ess. Fort Leaven.orth,

Kansas: U.S. Army command and General Staff College, 1979.

This reference book synthesizes the various factsheets,

briefings, and speeches that address organizational effectiveness

in the Army. It begins with a brief introduction to the systems

theoretic concept of OE as it applies to the Army. An article by

MAJ F. Schaum on the evolution of OE in the Army briefly summarizes

some of the major advancements in management and behavioral science

integral to the technology of OE and presents a thumbnail historical

sketch of how organizational effectiveness has evolved in the Army.

A major portion of this reference book is a reprint of the Summary of

OE on the Army Staff, by J. F. Hallen (1977). This report provides

a consulting summary and assessment of OE activity on the Department

of Army staff. It reports in detail on MILPERCEN, one of the most

successful OE efforts achieved in the Federal Government. Several

other articles, letters, and speeches are reprinted which focus on

OE/OD attempts in various Army units and the implications of them for

future efforts in this area.

-225-

IL
Reimann, B. C. Dimensions of structure in effective organizations:

Some empirical evidence. Acczdrm ,.anageren na7

1974, 17, 693-708.

The research reported in this article was designed to

examine the relationship between the underlying dimensions of structure and organizational performance. Two questions in particular were

explored: (1) What differences, if any, exist between the structural

dimensions of relatively high and low performing organizations? and

*" (2) If different from those of low performing organizations, what

are the dimensions associated with the relatively high performing

organizations?

The sample for this study consisted of 29 industrial organizations manufacturing a wide variety of products. Data were gathered

from personal interviews with from four to ten top executives in each

firm, and by consulting relevant corporate documents. Two measures of

effectiveness were used: subjective (financial and non-financial) and

objective (executive turnover). Eleven measures of structure were

used: functional specialization, formalization, lack of autonomy,

delegation, centralization, functional dispersion, hierarchical control,

functional specificity, staff density, administrative density, and

vertical span. Cluster analysis of the correlations among the eleven

measures of structure isolated three relatively independent dimensions --

(a, dencentralization, (b) specialization, and (c) formalization--among

the ten high performing firms, but failed to produce any such independent measures among the low performing firms. .hile the relatively

' high effective organizations can be described by a multidimensional

'' framework along the lines o = that proposed by the Aston group, the

relatively low performing organizations tend to conform more closely to

- .- the Weberian, unidimensional conception. Findings also indicate that

the organizational patterns of high performing firms is one of

independently varying degrees of decentralizations, specialization and

formalization. These independent dimensions may be considered as

S., .* forming a three-dimensional structure space. The authors conclude

-, that one of the reasons for the differences in conclusions drawn by

various researchers regarding the dimensionality of the organizational

structure space may be their failure to analyze the relationship

between an organization's structural arrangements and its performance.

Reimann, 3. C. Organizational effectiveness and management's public

* values: A canonical analysis. Acde.ry ,V age

[,' rnaZ, 1975, 18, 224-241.

This paper introduces a conceptualization of effectiveness --

organizational competence -- which is not tied to the accomplishment

of specific goals and is, therefore, superior to many earlier constructs

in oroviding some comparability between different orzarizations as .7e!'

as different field studies. A new predictor variable is introduced --

managemen:' valiues ,Tith resoect to the crganization's rele:ant

-226-
publics -- which has not received much attention in previous

organizational research.

The sample for this study consisted of 19 American manufacturers competing in a variety of industries. Datza on organizational

structure, effectiveness and situational variables were gathered

from interviews with the top level executives in each organization

and through an inspection of relevant company documents. The

results of a canonical correlation analysis revealed that none of the

* situational (size, dependence, technical change) or structural

(centralization, specialization, formalization) variables were very

strongly related to organizational competence. A strong positive

correlation was found between OE and management values and philosophies

with respect to the organization's publics. The results of this study

must be interpreted with care, however, in view of the fact that

* effectiveness was conceptualized as a function of the degree to

which high ranking decision-makers were satisfied with the relative

performance of their organizations in terms o Eachieving a set of

typical goals. It is quite possible that their value judgements

about the organization' s publics may have been influenced by their

feelings about their own organization's relative effectiveness.

Reimann, B. C. & Negandhi, A. R. Strategies of administrative control

and organizational effectiveness. Human Relations, 1975, 28,

475-486.

Conceptually and empirically, research on the concept of

organizational control is surrounded with conflicting evidence. This

study reports results of a comparative analysis of 30 manufacturing

40 firms in India on: (1) administrative control strategy, including:

degree of decentralization and formalization of decision-making;

and (2) organizational effectiveness, in terms of financial indicators

* (sales, profit) and social-behavior measures (morale, turnover, etc.).

* Pearson's Product Moment and Spearman' s rank correlations indicated

that the indices of decentralization, personnel control, and process

control were significantly and positively related for all 30 firms.

These results support the findings reported by Child (1972).

In this study, most effective organizations tended to choose

a unidimensional strategy of administrative control. This strategy

consisted of the use of formalized procedures to control decentralized

decision-making in terms of both human and material resources. The

least effective firms chose a similar strategy of control, but

emphasized those procedures involving the control of material resources,

while neglecting their human resources in this respect. These results

support a normative theory of administrative control in organizations.

The most effective strategy for maintaining indirect control over a

decentralized decision-making process appears to be one which effectively

integrates the rational material resource controls with the mnore

intangible human resource control mechanisms.

-227-

4 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ .-. ~ *'. ~ ~ ~ A %-..-........-..... 
Renwick, P. A. Perception and management of superior-subordinate

conflict. Organizational Behavior and Human Perforrance,

1975, 13, 444-456.

This study investigates interpersonal conflict occurring

on the job. The purpose of the study is two-fold: (1) to examine

the frequency with which specific topics are perceived as issues of

conflict as well as the frequency with which various sources are

viewed as the determinants of superior-subordinate conflict; and

(2) to investigate the effects of status differences on the management

of conflict and attitudes toward disagreement from the perspective

of both supervisor and subordinate and within the context of organizational climate.

Members of 36 superior-subordinate dyads representing 10

organizational subunits completed the Employee Conflict Inventory

(ECI). An independent sample of 169 employees from the same subunits

completed the Profile of Organizational Characteristics used to

measure organizational climate. Spearman rank order correlation

coefficients were computed for each dyad in a comparison of topics

and sources of conflict. A 2 (status) X 5 (method) analysis of

variance with method of conflict resolution repeated over subjects

was used to investigate the effects of status differences on the

management of conflict. The dependent variable was the likelihood

that each of the five methods of conflict resolution would be used.

Results indicated that dyad members held similar perceptions concerning

the topics and sources of superior-subordinate conflict: technical

and administrative issues were the most frequent topics, and

differences in perception and knowledge were the primary reasons.

Although perceptions of the other party's management of conflict were

similar to the respondent's description of self, they differed

significantly from the other's own self description. Conflict

management was related to status differences as well as to attitudes

toward conflict and corresponded to response styles predicted to

emerge in consultative organizational climates.

Roberts, K. N. & O'Reilly, C. A., III. Some correlations of communication roles in organizations. Academy Of M4anacement JYaZ,,

1979, 22, 42-57.

This paper is part of a large-scale research program concerned

*_ with organizational communication. Its purpose is to examine a set of

variables possibly associated with the communication roles (isolate vs.

participant) occupied by organizational members. The general hypotheses

tested are: (1) there exists significant demographic and personality

differences between isolates and participants in organizational communication networks, and (2) there are significant differences between

role occuDants in their perceptions about communication, their affective responses to work, and their performance. Participation in

-228-
:mmunicaz'on activities is believed to have a positive effect on

2r-anizaionallv relevant outcomes; isolation, a negative effect.

An investigation was conducted on 579 officers and enlisted

personnel in three high technology military organizations. Respondents

were asked to complete a survey instrument containing various questions

concerned with demographic characteristics, perceptions of work environment, and sociometric issues. Data were analyzed through discriminant function coefficients for isolate-participant groups on each

variable described. The results of this study provide strong support

for the hypotheses regarding communication roles. Additional research

is suggested on the causal relationships between participation in

communication networks and role determinations and outcomes. It is

futher suggested that future research be done in other types of

organizations in order to attain more generalized validity for these

findings.

Ross, P. F. lhnovation adoption by organizations. ?ersonne

ZS-2ac-hoLogy, 1974, 27, 21-47.

This article discusses the importance of understanding

adaptation, or learning, by organizations. A review of the current

theory and research on organizational adaptation reveals that no

existing model of the process by which organizations adopt new

practices is general enough to reasonably fit a major fraction of the

innovation adoption histories described in the literature. A general

model is developed to answer this need. According to this model, the

adoption climate in an organization is affected by the presence and

strength of initating mechanisms which import ideas about new

practices and sustaining mechanisms for the creation of an internal

environment favorable to the survival of new ideas. Any combination

of initiating and sustaining mechanisms will foster innovation, but

some of both are essential for adoption to occur. Correlational

studies are cited which support the validity of the hypotheses about

initiating and sustaining mechanisms affecting adoption performance.

While the theoretical implications of this model are assumed generalizable, more research is called for in validating the model empirically.

-229-

.!- . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. ' 
rJ

Rousseau, D. M. Technological differences in job characteristics,

employee satisfaction, and motivation: A synthesis of job

design research and sociotechnical systems theory. Organizational Behavior a..d Human Performance, 1977, 19, 18-42.

A review of job design research and sociotechnical systems

theory demonstrates their points of divergence and convergence. Their

difference occurs primarily in a consideration of the scope of each.

While the sociotechnical systems approach considers the entire system

or organizational unit in planning organizational change, job design

studies have traditionally focused upon interrelated job functions or

single jobs. The latter suffers from a failure to consider the interrelations of jobs in the redesign of work processes. The overlap of

the two approaches occurs in their use of the same job characteristics

as the vehicles for desired organizational change. These are: the

variety of tasks performed and skills employed, responsibility for and

control over the work process, completion of meaningful units of work,

feedback, interpersonal interaction, and learning. Both approaches

emphasize these job characteristics as important to employee satisfaction and motivation.

These job characteristics were examined in a survey of

employees in 19 production companies. The organizational units were

classified into three technological categories: long-linked, mediating,

and intensive. Through MANOVA and ANOVA analyses, significant differences were found between job characteristics, employee satisfaction,

and motivation across technology. In addition, there were substantial

positive relations between the job characteristics, satisfaction and

motivation. The job characteristics of variety and task significance

were found to be particularly important to employee satisfaction and

motivation.

.A Salancik, G. R. & Pfeffer, J. Who gets power - and how they hold

on to it: A strategic contingency model of power. ranzationai Dy/ncmics, Winter, 1977, 3-21.

This article argues that traditional political power, far from being a "dirty business" is, in its most basic form, one of the

few mechanisms available for aligning an organization with its own

reality. Institutionalized forms of power -- authority, legitimization,

centralized control, regulations -- tend instead to buffer the

organization from reality and obscure the demands of the environment.

Political processes, rather than being mechanisms for unfair and

unjust allocations and appointments, tend toward the realistic

resolution of conflicts among interests. And power, while it

eludes definition, can be recognized by its consequences -- the

ability; of those who possess it to bring about the outcomes they

desire.

-230-

4.O
The model of power advanced in this article is an elaboration

of what haz been called strategic-contingency theory, a view that

40 sees power as something that accrues to organizational subunits

(individuals, departments) that cope with critical organizational

problems. Power is used by subunits to enhance their own survival

through control of scarce critical resources. Because of the

processes by which power develops and is used, organizations become , both more aligned and more misaligned with their environment. An

40 analysis of this contradiction and its implications for managers and

administrators are presented.

Samuel, Y. & Mannheim, B. F. A multidimensional approach toward a

1 typology of bureaucracy. Adrminisrr-tive Science Quarterly,

1970, 15, 216-228.

This study reformulates and measures variables defining

bureaucracy and presents a multidimensional method for classifying

bureaucratic patterns. The suggested approach is to view bureaucracy as

a multidimensional phenomenon characterizing every formal organization,

with each dimension reflecting a specific organizational aspect.

The dimensions should be conceived as a continua of intensities,

showing ranges of variation.

The empirical data used in this study were collected in 30

industrial plants. The Guttman-Lingoes multidimensional scalogram

analysis-I program was employed for establishing the typology, and

six bureaucratic types have been identified: rudimentary, interpersonal, emergent, balanced, technical, and managerial. No claim is

made for the exhaustiveness of the typology, but only for the usefulness

of the approach.

Schein, E. H. & Bennis, W. G. ?.rsonai :n -r! izariomai cbzn

throuzh rcur 7ethods. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,

1966.

This book attempts to describe and conceptualize an educational

strategy which proports to influence the learning of individuals and to

induce change in organizations - laboratory training. Laboratory

training is a method used to promote changes in the learning process

itself and to communicate a particular method of learning to the participants. In this way, it can be thought of as "learning how to learn".

Part I provides a general introduction to laboratory training.

A scenario is developed in which the reader is oriented to the laboratory training experience as he follows a subject through a typical twoweek laboratory. The nature of laboratory training is discussed in

terms of (1) its underlying assumptions; (2) its values and "meta"

-231-
goa_,s; ) is goals and outcomes; (4) some of the necessary conditions

for i arning in a laboratory; (5) two proposed models of learning

(Dilemma-Invention Model and Learner-Change Model); and (6) the

laboratory components which exert a major influence on learning outcomes.

Part II is devoted to the uses of laboratory training. Samples

are presented of some of the most effective sophisticated designs in a

variety of situations. Part III focuses on the recent research which

has been done on the processes and outcomes of laboratory training.

Part IV brings the concept of laboratory training into the realm of

organizational change. The learning theory in which laboratory

training is grounded is presented. The aspect of the theory dealing

with attitude change is identified as an area in which laboratory

training can aid the organization in stimulating this process in its

members. Discussions in this portion of the text are abstract in the

hope that they will serve to develop the beginnings of a testable

learning theory.

Schein, V. E. & Greiner, L. E. Can organization development be fine

tuned to bureaucracies? 3:a' zai " a 1977,

Winter, 48-61.

Firmly embedded in most of the organizational development (OD)

literature is the basic ideology that organizations need to become

more organic systems capable of responding to a rapidly changing

environment. Accordingly, the OD change agent typically employs a

variety of organic-oriented techniques centered around team building,

survey feedback and third-party consultation in all organizations.

However, the preponderance of evidence shows that bureaucratic,

non-organic, structures are still the dominant organizational form.

Such organizations are characterized by pyramidal authority, downward

communications, a workforce largely employed on "rational" functions,

and the omnipresence of specialization of labor. The challenge to OD

is to effect changes within this bureaucratic context.

For OD to enhance its effectiveness within bureaucratic

structures, a conceptual point of view is needed. The absence of

such has long plagued OD efforts. A contingency approach to OD is

proposed, which views organizational problems emanating from bureaucratic structures as uniquely different from those of organic

structure, and hence demanding a specialized kind of treatment. Four

steps are suggested for the "fine tuning" of OD to deal effectively

with bureaucratic structure: (1) adopt a more positive and accepting

attitude toward bureaucratic organizations; (2) acquire a more thorougn

knowledge of bureaucratic operations; (3) adopt a more conceptual and

realistic orientation for understanding bureaucratic behavior; and

(4) develop a more versatile range of OD techniques that apply to

bureaucracies. It is believed that the future growth and impact of

maD hinze on its accentance of the 'ureaucratic structure, ralthr

:.han in continued attemnts to convert all organizations into :rganic

-232 -

-'*. ~ '. r'.
Schneider, B. & Snyder, R. A. Some relationships among and between

measures of emloyee perceptions and other indices of

organizational effectiveness. Maryland University, 1974.

AD781-888.

This study concurrently examines: (1) relationships among

measures of job satisfaction and organizational climate, (2) relationships among more traditional criteria of organizational effectiveness

* (and their temporal reliability), and (3) joint or common relationships

between employee perceptions and these other criteria. Relationships

among two measures of job satisfaction, one of organizational climate,

and seven production and turnover indices of organizational effectiveness were investigated in 50 life insurance agencies (N-52).

It was shown that (a) climate and satisfaction measures were correlated

* for some people but not for others: (b) people agree more on the

climate of their agency than they did on their satisfaction; (c)

production and retention were uncorrelated but size was positively

related to the former and negatively related to the latter; (d)

ratings of agency effectiveness were highly related to gross agency

size; and (e) satisfaction, but not climate, was correlated with

0 retention. Implications of these data for research on climate and

satisfaction as well as organizational change are discussed.

6Schneider, B. & Snyder, R. A. Some relationships between job satisfaction and organizational climate. JournaL of Arlied

Psychology, 1975, 60, 318-328.

This study examines the relationships among employees'

responses to two measures of satisfaction and one measure of climate

0 and effectiveness data on the organizations in which the respondents

were employed. It is argued that a logical and empirical distinction

between the concepts of satisfaction and climate is possible if

(a) both variables are properly conceptualized, and (b) each variable

is assessed according to an appropriate level of analysis. The

distinctions suggested between the two concepts are as follows:

Organizational climate is a summary perception which people have

about an organization. It is a global impression of what the organization is. Juxtaposed to this is job satisfaction, which is a

personalistic evaluation of conditions existing on the job or outcomes

that arise as a result of having a job. It is the perception of

internal responses. This distinction leads to a classification

of climate as organization/description oriented and satisfaction as

individual/evaluation oriented.

-233-
The study was conducted on personnel in 50 life insurance

agencies (N=522). A questionnaire was distributed to respondents

measuring organizational climate, job satisfaction, and need

satisfaction. Effectiveness ratings were accomplished by the six

company personnel most concerned with agency policy on the indices

of gross volume, achieving appointment, agency turnover, and average

volume by staff size. The results showed that (1) climate and

satisfaction measures were correlated for people in some positions

in the agencies but not for others; (b) people agreed more on the

climate of their agency than they did on their satisfaction; (c)

neither climate nor satisfaction were strongly correlated with

production data; and (d) satisfaction, but not climate, was correlated

with turnover data. Implications of these data for research on

climate and satisfaction as well as organizational change are discussed.

Schriescheim, C. A. & Murphy, C. J. Relationships between leader

behavior and subordinate satisfaction and performance:

A test of some situational moderators. Journa- ofAr'i ZiA

Ps:chocoqy, 1976, 61, 634-641.

The purpose of this paper is to examine the moderating

effects of two situational variables, stress and units size. It

also examines the effects of four situational moderators (stress,

unit size, consideration, and role clarity) on the relationships

between (a) leader behavior and subordinate satisfaction and (b)

leader behavior and subordinate performance.

The sample used for this study consisted of 54 respondents

4.° in geographically dispersed units of a national black social services

organization. Each respondent completed a 76-item instrument

measuring his/her perceived job stress, the unit head's leadership

behavior, job satisfactions, and work role clarity. All analyses

on the data were performed on a dyadic basis; that is. relationships

between leader behavior and subordinate satisfaction and subordinate

performance were analyzed on an individual basis, and averaged

scores were not used. To examine the effects of the hypothesized

moderators on relationships between leader behavior and subordinate

satisfaction and performance, subgroup moderator variable analysis

was used. Results indicate that the effect of work unit size was

significant, with leader structure related to satisfaction in larger

units and consideration related to satisfaction in smaller units.

The results confirmed earlier findings that in low-stress jobs consideration enhances satisfaction and performance, where in high

stress jobs, structure is more helpful. Also confirmed were the

results showing that high structure had dysfunctional effects only

when accompanied by low consideration. Finally, role clarity did

not moderate the relationship between leader behavior and subordinate

satisfaction and performance.

-234-

.. J.I
Schuler, R. S. Role conflict and ambiguity as a function of the

task-structure-technology interaction. Organizationa:

3ehavior and Human Perfr-ance, 1977, 20, S6-74.

Based on the premise that organizational behaviors are

phenomena of complex, interacting variables, this study analyzed the

task-structure-technology interaction as a predictor of perceived

role ambiguity and conflict. The hypothesis tested states that

incongruent matches of task-structure-technology are associated with

higher levels of role ambiguity and conflict than congruent matches

of these variables.

The sample was composed of 272 employees of a large public

utility. Role conflict and ambiguity were measured on eight- and

six-item scales, respectively; task characteristics were measured

by the Job Diagnostic Survey, and organizational structure by the

Organizational Practices Questionnaire. The data were compared on the

basis of cell mean and standard deviations, and planned contrasts.

The results support the hypothesis; however, some incongruent

matches were found to result in more role ambiguity and conflict

than others. These results suggest that research on role ambiguity

and conflict should consider the influence of the organization's

structure and technology as well as the incumbent's task.

Schuler, R. S., Aldag, R. J. & Brief, A. P. Role conflict and

ambiguity: A scale analysis. ran-*z-ir- B3evi 'r

and Hw,-,an Peformance, 1977, 20, 111-128.

Role theory has been suggested as the conceptual framework

in which to relate or join the properties of the organization and

the individual. Two major concepts from role theory are role conflict

and ambiguity. These concepts, measured with scales developed by

Rizzo, House and Lirtzman (1970) have been used in most of the recent

studies on role perceptions. Although the scales are frequently

related to attitudinal and behavioral variables, they have remained

relatively unexamined. This paper is an examination of the psychometric properties of the role conflict and ambiguity scales, including

the factor structure, coefficients of congruency, internal reliabilities, test-retest reliabilities, absolute levels of conflict

and ambiguity, and correlations with additional attitudinal and

behavioral variables.

The analysis was conducted across six samples. Data were

collected from 1573 employees from four different organizations. For

each sample, zero-order correlations between role indices and all

other variables were computed. An inter-item correlation matrix

was calculated for the six role ambiguity and eight role conflict

items. Two factor varimax rotations were obtained for each sample,

* and factor congruency values were calculated. In addition, internal

-235-

% % "
reliability estimates were computed for each role scale, and testretest reliabilities were computed for role conflict and ambiguity

with the matched respondents in two of the samples. The results

suggest that continued use of role conflict and role ambiguity

scales appears to be warranted.

Schwartz, D. E. & Jacobson, E. Organizational communication network

analysis: The liaison communication role. rqaniza:ionaw

*. 3ehavior and uman Perforrnce, 1977, 18, 158-174.

'A

This study represents an elaboration of the descriptive

analysis of complex organizations. A field study was conducted

to test the utility of a procedure for describing and analyzing

inclusive networks of communication in complex organizations. In

particular, the role of liaison persons was identified and operationally defined.

Evidence is presented that supports the validity of employing

a sociometric procedure for identifying liaison persons as individuals

who perform a communication linking function among primary groups

in a complex organization. Liaison persons among the 142 professional

staff of a college faculty were compared with nonliaison persons

on demographic, interactional and functional dimensions. Differences

were found that lead to a more detailed and systematic understanding

of the liaison role and the persons who occupy that role.

.- Scc, ., Dornbusch, S. M., Busching, B. C. & Laing, J. D.

Organizational evaluation and authority. Aiinisvr=i.e

Science Quar erty, 1967, 12, 93-117.

This paper presents a conception of authority and authority

systems, as well as a theory predicting the instability of certain kinds

of authority systems. Empirical studies designed to explore the utility

of the conception and to test hypotheses derived from the theory are

presently under way in a number of organizations. The operationalization of the concepts presented here and a report of the empirical

findings ;re presented in a later paper.

In this paper, authority systems in formal organizations are

analyzed in terms of the process by which the performance of organizational participants is evaluated. Authority is viewed as authorization to attempt to control the behavior of others, and rests in four

different kinds of authority rights, each of which is a component of

the evaluation process. Authority systems are defined in terms of

-236-

a..'-
the distr:bution of these rights among participants. The theory

proposed in this paper specifies certain problems in the evaluacion

process which make the authority system incompatible with particiants'

achievement of evaluations acceptable to them. Incompatible authority

systems are postulated to be unstable and to remain so until the

incompatibility is resolved. A set of indices is developed for the

identification of unstable systems. This theory is the basis of a

nt stuly of authorirty% systems in fIve organizations.

- r E. & Yuch:man, E. Factorial ana vsis -f -ra4 i4

perfrmane. i~r~iieScience -urrerly, 19b7, 12,

* 377-395.

The annual performance of 75 insurance sales agencies over

an 11 year period is examined by factorial analysis methods with a

view toward discovering the factorial elements, initially presumed to

be goals, that characterize the behavior of small business organizations. It was discovered that ten factors serve to describe most of

the variance in a set of 76 selected performance indicators. The

investigation included an analysis of the stability of the obtained

factor structure, which is very high, and the stability of the

performance of individual agencies over the period of time, which

proved to be high for some aspects of performance and low for others.

*The factors of performance are of kinds that preclude their being

viewed as respresenting stable goals of the organization, i.e., as

end states or outcomes of instrinsic value. They represent, instead,

the continuing processes of resource acquisition which are characteristic of adaptive open systems. It is proposed that the conventional

concepts of goals and goal attainment are not applicable to organizations. Organizational performance should be assessed and described

in terms of generalized resource-getting capabilities under conditions

of competition for scarce and valued resources.

Shull. F. A., Jr. & Mosely, D. C. The Peter Principle: Personal cr

organizational incompetence? _Te Jo:rna- of ... nagement

Studies, 1974, 11, 21-35.

This article offers the concept of organizational development as a rebuttal to the "Peter Principle". It proposes that

incompetence in management may not be explained so much by terminal

weaknesses of personnel in faulty promotion systems, as it is by

the organizational climate in which managers perform, i.e., by

outmoded supervisory styles and limiting structural relationships.

While organizational development is not a panacea Lor all individual

and organizational ills, it is a vehicle for enabling executives to

remove many obstacles retarding individual and organizational

growth and renewal.

-237-
The Matrix Organization Design is offered as a means of

reconceptualizing the nature and form of collective behavior. The

focus of this design is on sequential social and behavioral changes

over time. Its key notion is that of process. In this context,

OD is defined as an effort which is planned, organization-wide

and managed from the top, designed to increase organizational

effectiveness through planned interventions in the organization's

processes. The fundamental purpose of OD, therefore, is to

amplify or increase the use of managerial competency in terms of

organizational goals. While necessitating the consultation of

responsible OD agents, this notion of organiztional development

heightens the creative potential of organizational members.

Mitigating the possibility of the Peter Principle, therefore, is

dependent upon extensive training and coaching of involved personnel--

not by changes in structure alone.

Simon, H. A. On the concept of organizational goal. Auinistrative

Science ua-rt-erLy, 1964, 9, 1-22.

It is difficult to introduce the concept of organizational

goal without reifying the organization -- treating it as something

more than a system of interacting individuals. On the other hand, the

concept of goal appears indispensable to organization theory. This

paper proposes a definition of "organizational goal" that resolves

this dilemma.

The goal of an action is seldom unitary, but generally

consists of a whole set of constraints the action must satisfy. It

appears convenient to use the term "organizational goal" to refer to

constraints, or sets of constraints, imposed by the organizational

role, that have only an indirect relation with the personal motives

of the individual who fills the role. More narrowly, "organizational

goal" may be used to refer particularly to the constraint sets that

define roles at the upper levels of the administrative hierarchy. In

actual organizations, the decision-making mechanism is a loosely

coupled, partially decentralized structure in which different sets

of constraints may impinge on decisions at different organizational

locations. Although the description of organizational goals is

consequently complex, the concept of goal can itill be introduced in

an entirely operational manner. Operationalizing the concept of

goal necessitates a reference to individual goals, motivations and

roles, as well as to the overall organizational decision-making system

in defining the extent to which goals define the actual courses of

action taken by the organization.

-238-
Slocum, J. W., Jr. & Sims, J. P., Jr. A typology for integrating

technology, organization, and job design. Hwnan ?eavtions,

l 1980, 33, 193-212.

This paper proposes a theoretical model of technology that

consists of three elements: workflow predictability, task predictability, and job interdependence. Various configurations of these

three elements can be formed into cells that describe different

technologies. The different models of managerial control and selfregulation associated with each cell are discussed.

The technology model and Hackman and Oldham's model of

job redesign are combined to form an integrated technology/job redesign

model. Various relationships between technology and job characteristics

* are explored. A major hypothesis is formulated that in order to change

the job characteristics that are associated with a target work system,

the unavoidable introduction of uncertainty is necessary. The

amount of self-regulation and the perceived degree of autonomy are

shown to be critical variables that link technology and job redesign

principles.

Sorensen, P. F., Jr. Control and effectiveness in twenty-seven

Scandinavian voluntary organizations. 7,e Jcurnai of

Management Studies, 1976, 13, 182-190.

This study is concerned with the testing and extension of

control theory, based on utilization of the Control Graph, to a

group of Scandinavian voluntary organizations. The Control Graph

is a theoretical and conceptual tool used to illustrate patterns

* of organizational control by plotting the amount of control exercised

by various levels within an organization. Data were collected, through

questionnaires, from 27 clubs of totally male membership. Four

hypotheses were tested: (1) Organizational Effectiveness (OE) is

positively related to total control; (2) OE is positively related

to democratic control; (3) OE is positively related to agreement on

the distribution and total amounts of control; and (4) OE is

closely associated with the combination of high total control,

democratic distribution of control and high level of agreement in the

perception of control.

Results of correlational tests conducted on the data support

each of these four hypotheses. These results are somewhat contrary

to the findings of previous research into the nature of control and

participation in various types of organizations (i.e., Coodward.

3urns & Stalker). The conclusion is that the aporopriateness e:

4

-239-

. lcx.............................................
cc: ancrol oatterns within an organization needs to be considered within

a contingency framework. Such variables as type of technology,

voluntary vs. non-voluntary, nature of environmental change impacting

the organization, etc., will influence the type of control pattern

most conducive to organizational effectiveness. The need for

additional comparative studies to clarify more precisely the relationship of control patterns to a number of contingency considerations is

discussed.

S~ekman, R. E. influence and information: An exploratory investigation of the boundary role person's basis of power.

The Academy j-i MVnaoement Journra, 1979, 22, 104-117.

This paper examines the boundary role person (BRP) as an

influence agent and investigates an aspect of his potential ability

to influence the decision outcomes of other organizational members.

The sample used in this study consisted of 20 firms from the greater

Chicago area. The focus of the research was on the purchasing

agent and his interaction with members of the buying task group

(BTG) (e.g., those constituents responsible for purchasing related

decisions). Tnrough questionnaires distributed to the purchasing

agents in these firms, two issues were explored: (1) whether the

degree of power attributed to the purchasing agent by other BTG

members is associated with their level of perceived environmental

uncertainty; and (2) the nature of the individual power-related

behaviors of BRPs.

._% The results of the study indicate that as the BRP's

.Z information requirements increase under conditions of higher

perceived environmental uncertainty, the constituent members

attribute to the BRP greater power in the decision-making process.

The results further suggest that, in light of the BRP's position in

the transference of information across the organization's boundary, the

reliance on expert power appears to be the most effective basis of

social power for dealing with other organizational members.

,

-240-

-'"-.,.-"--
Spencer, L. M. Jr. & Cullen, B. J. :axonopnes 0 7raanizarionai

chanae: Literature review and 2nalysis. (ARI TR-78-A23).

Alexandria, VA: Army Research Institute for the Behavioral

and Social Sciences, 1978.

This report presents a taxonomy and data collection methodology for assessing Army organizational effectiveness interventions.

The authors reviewed the literature on organizational development

*S classificatory schema and identified four variable dimensions that

can be used to summarize this literature. These variable dimensions

are: change agent characteristics, competencies and role; client

characteristics and problems; intervention methods and processes; and

outcome objectives and results.

* Most descriptions of intervention methods are found to be

too vague to permit a reviewer to determine exactly what change

agents actually do to produce outcome results. It follows that

research to identify (1) the competencies of effective change agents

and (2) the design elements of successful interventions is likely

to be most fruitful in advancing knowledge in this field. Three

data collection methods designed to capture these variables are

proposed for the development and analysis of Army OE intervention

case studies. Behavioral event and structured interview protocols

used to collect data from internal Army OE change agent and

client subjects are presented with a classification system which can

be used to summarize and code intervention variables.

Starbuck, W. H. Organizations and their environments. In Dunnette,

M. D. (Ed.). Handbook of industrial and organizational

psychology. Chicago: Rand McNally, 1976.

This chapter reviews and evaluates the literature on

organization-environment interaction. It is composed of three main

sections. The first focuses on the notion of boundaries, in which

it is argued that the trend in research to sharply distinguish

(implicitly or explicitly) an organization from its environment is

untenable. The second section deals with domains, roles and territories.

The logical associations between organizational and environmental

characteristics found to be lacking in the literature are discussed.

The general conclusion is that to no small degree, an organization's

environment is an arbitrary invention of the organization itself. The

organization selects the environments it will inhabit, and then

subjectively defines the environments it has selected. The final

section deals with adaptation, evolution and research strategy. It

is generally devoted to the dynamics over time of organization-environment interactions.

-241-

5
Steers, R. M. Problems in the measurement of organizational

'effectiveness. Administrative Science uarterly, 1975,

20, 546-558.

Seventeen multivariate models of organizational effectiveness

are reviewed in terms of their primary evaluation criteria, normative

or descriptive nature, generalizability, and derivation. Little

consistency was found in the evaluation criteria of these models.

Eight problems of such models are discussed which appear to reduce

their utility for the study of organizational effectiveness. These

problems relate to: construct validity, criterion stability, time

perspective, multiple criteria, precision of measurement, generalizability, theoretical relevance, and level of analysis.

An operative goal approach is suggested as an alternative

model which answers some of the problems discussed. The operative

goal approach rejects the notion that effectiveness can be universally

defined or measured in terms of a static set of variables. It also

takes issue with models that view effectiveness as the ability of an

Th' organization to compete successfully in the acquisition of scarce and

valued resources. The operative goal approach defines effectiveness in

terms of goal attainment; that is, the capacity of an organization to

use its resources successfully toward specific ends. In this model,

the critical criterion is goal optimization; effectiveness is measured

*- aginst the feasible goal set, not the desired goal set. This model

1=nis itself to the study of effectiveness through computer simulations

an-' other related techniques.

Steers, R. M. Task-goal attributes, n achievement, and supervisory

performance. Organizational 3ehavicr and Hzeman Perforarnce,

1975, 13, 392-403.

-. This study investigates perceptions of five factor-analytically

derived task-goal attributes as each relates to supervisory performance.

The five attributes are: (1) participation in goal-setting; (2)

feedback on goal effort; (3) peer competition for goal attainment;

(4) goal difficulty; and (5) goal specificity. Previous research

identified these attributes as potentially having an important impact

on resulting performance. Based on this earlier evidence, it was

S.- hypothesized that four of the five attributes (participation,

feedback, goal difficulty, and goal specificity) would be positively

related to performance, while the fifth (peer competition) would

be unrelated to performance.

-242-
Questionnaires were completed by 133 female first-level

supervisors in the Accounting and Customer Service Department of a

large public utility. The questionnaire packet included the Task-

* Goal Attribute Questionnaire, the Adjective Checklist, demographic

data, and performance measures. The data analysis was performed on

two levels. On the first, subject scores for each of the five

* task-goal attributes were correlated with two performance measures

for the total sample. On the second, the sample was divided into

high and low n Achievement Groups by need strengths. Correlational

analyses were run separately for each group between task-goal attributes and performance measures. Before need strengths were taken

into account, little consistent relationship was found between the

* five task-goal attributes and performance. However, after dividing

the group, it was found that performance was significantly related

to increases in feedback and in goal specificity for high n Ach

subjects, and to participation in goal-setting for low n Ach subjects.

* Goal difficulty and peer competition were found to be unrelated to

performance for both groups. These results are then compared to

other similar studies. The conclusion reached is that individual

difference factors, like n achievement, must be taken into account

in any comprehensive theory of goal-setting in organizations.

Steers, R. M. Antecedents and outcomes of organizational commitment.

Administrative Science QuarterLy, 1977, 22, 46-56.

This study proposes and tests a preliminary model concerning

the antecedents and outcomes of employee commitment to organizations

using a cross-validation framework. Organizational commitment is

defined as the relative strength of an individual's identification

with and involvement in a particular organization. The model suggests

that the antecedents of commitment come from the general areas of

organizational life: personal characteristics (need for achievement,

age, education); job characteristics (task identity, feedback); and

work experiences (group attitudes, organizational dependability).

It further suggests that commitment, in turn, leads to several

specific behavior outcomes: desire and intent to remain, attendance,

retention, and good job performance.

The study was carried out among 382 hospital employees and 119

scientists and engineers. Measurement data were gathered through

questionnaires on the antecedent and outcome factors listed above.

Through a series of multiple correlations, regression analyses, and

Pearson Product Moment correlations, the following results were

obtained. Commitment was found to be strongly related to intent

and desire to remain for both samples and moderately related to

attendance and turnover for one sample. Performance was generally

unrelated to commitment. Results are compared with earlier findings

and implications for future research are discussed.

-243-
Fox VA I~ Z T.~ 17 -1- -M W L-V Tt LN Zl L-k 1-6 1 -T~ -viX ~

Steers, R. ', Organizational effectiveness: A behavioral view.

Santa Monica, CA: Goodyear Publishing Company, Inc., 1977.

This book is an examination of the current level of understanding on organizational effectiveness theory and research. The

conceptual framework within which this study is undertaken is Open

Systems Theory. Attention is first given to the nature and quality

of organizational effectiveness. The systems approach used in

exploring this phenomenon facilitates an insight into the influence

of both organizational and environmental factors on ultimate

organizational success. Effectiveness is defined in terms of the

attainment of optimized goals; that is, as the extent to which an

organization can acquire and utilize its available resources to attain

feasible operative and operational goals. Consideration is given

to the important roles played by structure, technology, environment,

- - and personal characteristics as they relate to effectiveness of

.'.- operations.

Chapter 2 focuses on the notion of goals -- organizational

and individual. Two prominent models of organizational goal formulation are reviewed: the Cyert and March Model and the Thompson and

McEwen Model. An integration of these two models leads to the

conclusion that two of the most potent forces in the goal formulation

I. process are relative power distributions and the nature of an

organization's prior commitments. Chapter 3 provides a detailed

analysis of the concept of organizational effectiveness. Eighteen

models of OE are presented and compared as to primary evaluation

criteria used in each. Problems associated with the measurement of

organizational effectiveness are discussed.

The next four chapters focus on developing a conceptual

understanding of how individual, organizational, and environmental

factors can facilitate or inhibit effectiveness. Chapter 4 deals

with the factors of structure and technology, analyzing the impact on OE

of such variables as decentralization, specialization, formalization,

span of control, and organization size. The research of Woodward

and others on the effects of technology on structure are reviewed.

Chapter 5 addresses the relaticship between the environment and OE.

A review of several major studies in this area reveal that predictability, perception, and rationality are all important factors which

affect the environment-organization relationship. Chapter 6 examines

the nature of the internal environment, or organizational climate

in organizational effectiveness: Chapter 7 continues this analysis,

introducing the role of individual characteristics in the internal

:-/ironment as influences on 4ob performance and OE.

The final sections attempt to build upon the conceptual base

i y suggesting several areas for managerial action aimed at improving

effectiveness. Strategic goal setting, resource acquisition and

utilization, performance, communication, leadership and decision-

*' making, and adaptation and innovation are discussed. The overall

-244-
conclusion of this detailed examination is the appropriateness of a

multi-dimensional approach to the study of OE. This approach includes

three interrelated perspectives concerning the nature of the relationships among major elements of an organizational system and the way

these elements interact to facilitate or inhibit the attainment of

feasible organizational goals. All three perspectives -- goal attainment, systems, and behavioral -- must be represented in a model

of organizational effectiveness.

Steers, R. M. & Porter, L. W. The role of task-goal attributes in

employee performance. Psychological 3uiletin, 1974, 81, m 434-452.

This paper systematically reviews the relevant research

dealing with the role played by task-goals in employee performance.

Consideration is initially given to the way in which the goals

of an organization are translated into manageable tasks for employees

to perform. Later, findings of these investigations are placed in

the larger organizational context as they ultimately relate to the

attainment of organization-wide goals. Goal-setting models are

reviewed in this context.

Three hypothetical examples are given of how goal-setting

*O factors can be better understood by placing them within a specific

motivational framework. An examination of each reveals that

performance under goal-setting conditions appears to be a function

of at least three important variables: the nature of task-goals,

additional situational-environmental factors, and individual differences. Thus, individual performance on task-goals must be viewed

* within both a motivational framework and within the larger organizational context. Suggestions for future research are discussed.

Stephenson, R. W., "'aiser, H. F. & Erickson, C. E. 7h _ a.:i;ts

of a "see-saw" model of organizational effectiveness.

(Final Report No. AIR-32900). Silver Spring, MD: American

Institutes for Research, 1974. AD773-951.

A "see-saw" model of organizational effectiveness (OE) was

-IL designed as a result of a systems analysis of previously collected

data describing organizational climates in research and development

organizations. The model distinguishes between variables that have

a generally increasing or decreasing effect on both creativity and

productivity, and variables that have a differential effect in the

sense that they increase creativity at the expense of productivity,

'C or vice-versa. Each of the previously developed organizational

-245-

"L %P 
imace -questionnaire items was rated by twelve psychologists and

crcacivity experts for the extent to which the item would have a

general effect or a differential effect if it were changed. The

two subsets of items were then subjected to factor analysis separately

as well as to factor analysis of all items combined.

The differential-effect clusters of items tended to be mixed

with general-effect clusters of items in all three of the solutions

in which general-effect and differential-effect items were combined.

For a number of practical reasons, solutions in which separate factor

analyses are made for differential effect and general-effect items

are considered to be superior to solutions in which these two kinds

of items are combined. The implications of the study for multivariate

studies in which multiple criteria are involved are discussed.

Stern, L. W. & Sternthal, B. Strategies for managing interorganizational conflict: A labaratory paradigm. Jou-nal. of Appied

Psychotod, 1975, 60, 472-482.

A laboratory paradigm was developed for examining interorganizational conflict and its management. Sixty-two triads (drawn

randomly from 282 business administration students) participated in

two experimental groups. One group acted as manufacturer and the

other as wholesaler - their goal being agreement on the price and

quantity of microscalpels. Conflict was induced by presenting a

profit-loss matrix, a bogus distribution of past groups' earnings,

and contrived information on complementary skills of group members.

Semantic differential responses differed significantly for conflict

management (superordinate goal, exchange of persons) and no-conflict

management groups, indicating lessening conflict in the former groups.

There were no specific differences on in-group/out-group items.

Expressive-Malintegrative Behavior Indexes, derived from Bale's

Interaction Process Analysis, provided further support for the exchangeof-persons strategy.

Three conclusions are drawn, First, these analyses confirm

the previous findings regarding parasimulation as a successful paradigm

for generating an interorganizational conflict situation in a controlled setting. Second, the findings for the exchange of persons program are

consistent with those of Johnson (1967). In situations in which goal

compatability is possible, an exchange or role reversal strategy

enables understanding of a counterpart's position, the finding of

common ground, and ultimately the reduction of conflict. Finally,

the evidence regarding the efficacy of a superordinate goal as a means

" of conflict management is not compelling. Several modifications in

:he existing paradigm are suggested to aid future research.

-246-
Taylor, J. C. The conditioning effects of technolo~' on organizasior,

behavior in planned social change. University of Michigan:

Institute for Social Research, 1969. AD694-995.

A review of the literature suggests that sophisticated

production technology tends to provide forces in the direction of

increased work group autonomy, decision-making and responsibility.

This document presents a brief discussion of technology as a potential

* lever in organizational change. Emphasis is placed on the interrelatedness of subunits in organizational reaction to external change forces.

A hypothesis is offered stating that if sophisticated production

technology leads to greater worker participation, and if this can be

used as a force in planned organizational change in the direction of

greater worker participation, then planned change will be facilitsted.

A new model of technological classification is presented,

which includes elements of raw material input, output control, and

machines. It was hypothesized that the direct effects of sophisticated

technology would be manifest in higher levels of peer leadership and

group process before change programs were undertaken. This was con-

* firmed by the refinery data, not by the insurance company data. A

third major hypothesis is that sophisticated technology would mediate

between planned change attempts on the part of outside change agents,

and employee's reaction to change. The results confirm this effect

rather directly, and provide an unexpected explanatory concept as

well. The results further suggest that technology and its immutable

• situational constraints act to affect organizational change via the

connectedness of subunits in the social system.

aferreberry, S. The evolution of organizational environments.

Administrative Science "uarterly, 1968, 12, 590-613.

This paper argues that evolutionary processes occur in

the environments of organizations. Ideal types of environment,

originally conceptualized by Emery and Trist, are elaborated and

* extended. A review of recent literature gives evidence of the

decreasing autonomy and the increasing interdependence of organizations.

Four approaches to organizational analysis (Evan, 1966;

Levine & White, 1961; Litwak & Hylton, 1962; Thompson & McEwen, 1958)

are reviewed and found inadequate to deal with present-day conditions.

An alternative perspective is offered which allows any organization,

its transactions, and the environment itself to be viewed in a common

conceptual framework. The model proposed views the organization in

a systems theoretic -- in terms of inputs, outputs and semi-permeable

boundaries characterizing the interaction between organizaticn and

-247-

w

%. "
'2,ironm~nt• The model is preliminary, but ooints out the importance

Suh -oncepts as communication, interdependence, and turbulence.

Two hypotheses are discussed in terms of this integrative framework:

(1) that organizational change is increasingly externally induced,

and (2) that organizational adaptability is a funciton of ability to

*. learn and to perform according to changes in the environment.

'ras, K. Conflict and conflict management. In Dunnette, M. D.

(Ed.). Handbook of industrial and organizavironral :schoLay.

Chicago: Rand McNally, 1976.

A balanced view of conflict is emerging in the literature

which recognizes that conflict can have constructive or destructive

effects, depending on its management. To aid in conflict management,

S",two general models of conflict are synthesized from the literature --

a process model and a structural model. The process model focuses

on - the sequence of events within a conflict episode, and is intended

to be of use when intervening directly into the stream of events

of an ongoing episode. The structural model focuses upon the

conditions which shape conflict behavior in a relationship, and is

intended to help in restructuring a situation to facilitate various

behavior patterns. The chapter concludes with some general observa-

- tions on the state of conflict literature, and offers suggestions

for specific areas needing research.

T'cmpson, J. D r-aniza-;:ins i tvl New York: McGraw-Hill,

Inc., 1967.

This book calls attention to the multidisciplinary developments in organizational theory. A central purpose is to identify a

framework which might link at important points several of the now

independent approaches to the understanding of complex organizations.

The focus is on the behavior of organizations; behavior within

organizations is considered only to the extent that it contributes to

an understanding of the entire organization.

Chapter 1 introduces the two strategies used to describe

complex organizations: closed-system and open-system. A new system

qt is introduced to bridge this dichotomy, which views the organization

as an open system, indeterminate and faced with uncertainty, but

subject to criteria of rationality and hence needing certainty. A

detailed discussion of the problem of uncertainty is presented In

Chapter 1, and of rationality in Chapter .

,%

' ,,-2 '8-

" . , -" , ,. .". . "m ". °. " " " "-". - 4 * - "- ". "- "-
Chapter 3 discusses the concepts of domain and self-control.

The domain claimed by an organization and recognized by its environment determines the points at which the organization is dependent,

facing both constraints and contingencies. To attain any significant

measure of self-control, the organization must manage its dependency.

Five propositions are offered relating the nature of task environments

to the amount and type of power exerted by the organization in accomplishing this.

Chapters 4 through 6 consider the elements of organizational

design: size, boundary-spanning, technology and structure. The constraints and contingencies of the environment are shown to be determining factors in the characterization of the organization. Chapter 7

follows with a discussion of the variables involved in the assessment

of organizations. Several propositions are offered relating to the

priorities and activities of organizations with the techniques used to

assess their performance.

Chapters 8 through 12 address the extent to which organizations

gain a measure of certainty or predictability with respect to the

*O behavior of their members and others in the task environment. This is

believed to be of considerable importance if one accepts the fact that

organizations abhor uncertainty while subject to norms of rationality.

The second part of this book explores the administrative process

characterizing organizations in terms of the theoretical foundation

already established in Part One. This book is considered a conceptual

* inventory; recommendations for empirical research are discussed.

Trist, E. L. On socio-technical systems. In Bennis, W. G., Benne,

* D. K. & Chin, R. (Eds.). C' :e o. s-e.(2nd -C Ed.).

New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, Inc., 1969.

This article serves two purposes. First, it applies the

model of open systems to industrial enterprises in order to integrate

the social human systems with the technical activity system. Considt ering enterprises as open socio-technical systems provides a more

realistic picture of how they influence and are influenced by their

environment. It is a frame of reference which points in particular

to the various ways in which enterprises are enabled by their structural and functional characteristics (systems constants) to cope with

the lacks and abundances in their available environment. Unlike

L mechanical and other inanimate systems, they possess the property of

equifinality. Therefore, in coping with internal change they are not

limited to simple quantitative chance and increased uniformity but ma.

and usually do, elaborate new structures and take on ne, functions.

-249-

VI
The second purpose is to demonstrate the way in which sooncauus reorganization toward states of greater heterogeneity and

complexity occurs while work goes on. This is done primarily through

a transformation of the environment. .Management must be concerned

with "managing" both the internal system and an external environment.

If management is to control internal growth and development, it must

in the first instance control the boundary conditions; i.e., forms of

exchange between the enterprise and its environment. Two strategic

considerations can be derived from this paper: (1) major requirements

in organization arise from the engineering and technical aspects of

the enterprise; and (2) the process of organizational growth arises

from system dynamics.

Thggeg F. J. An analysis of employee turnover. .... ,

1978, 23, 32-37.

A model of employee turnover is developed using explanatory

theories and studies of systems at the organization level dealing

with behavior and cost data. The model optimizes the costs associated

Z with turnover and ignores the turnover rates. It is a synthesis of

economic theory and behavioral phenomena. From this model normative

*j guidelines are produced by which the costs due to turnover are balanced

against the costs of the measures needed to reduce turnover. Obtaining

the point of optimality detailed by the model rests upon the organization's knowledge of its costs and the attitudinal disposition of its

employees.

The implications of the model necessitate further research on:

(1) a model which evaluates the causes and costs of other undesirable

organizational symptoms, such as absenteeism or low productivity; and

(2) new approaches to organizational design based on effectiveness,

efficie:ncy and cost, rather than simply optimizing the existing systems.

T :=",. J. R. & Cohen, S. L. iz e mer : ,r i .

:r'as i sec'itc c Ar wor< settings. (Technical Report 275)

Alexandria, VA: U. S. Army Research Institute for the

Behavioral and Social Sciences, 1976. AD028-241.

This report discusses the development and validation of the

Work Environment Questionnaire (WvEQ) used to identify organizational

problem areas and evaluate interventions. The questionnaire defines

organizational effectiveness research as an attempt to increase

human performance effectiveness in an organization and to improve

.eamwork and job safisfaction, by developing diagnostic instruments

:.J iientifry problem areas, intervening with OD techniaues to :-orrect

" robLems, and rinallv evaluating the inten:enti o results in L -_2 0-
terms of productivity and job satisfaction. The WEQ was developed

and validated over a 3-year period as part of an organizational

4P effectiveness program at an Army field installation. Focusing on

individual work motivation and the situational factors affecting this

motivation, it was designed to elicit from both supervisor and

subordinates their attitudes and perceptions on their job duties,

training, etc. Section formats apply to a wide range of Army settings,

but item content is specific to the Army work setting and job. Three

* questionnaires were tailored with job-specific items for a supervisory

NCO position and two different subordinate positions; the three as

a whole comprise the WEQ. Validation procedures significantly

correlated the attitude measuzes with independent measures of performance and effort.

Turney, J. R. & Cohen, S. L. Organizational implications for practicing OD in the Army. PersonneL Psycho~ol, 1978, 31. 731-738.

During the past five years, organizational development has

Gactively entered the military arena. This type of organization has

certain characteristics which have strong implications for the practice

and impact of OD interventions. Drawing specifically upon Army organizations, six of these characteristics are discussed including structure, total immersion environment, personnel rotation, personnel re-

* ductions, military-civilian dichotomy, and organizational objectives.

The central issue addressed in this article is whether the

behavioral sciences do, in fact, provide a sufficiently advanced body

of knowledge on which to base an extensive Army-oriented OD technology.

4 It is the author's belief that research on the impact of OD techniques

* in Army settings has not yet made a strong case for the utility of OD

in that type of organization. This inadequacy is attributed to the

failure of OD techniques heretofore attempted to deal with the characteristics unique to the Army, and to penetrate to the core of Army

organizations as represented by their enlisted troops. The authors

do not offer any solution to this problem. Rather, they conclude that

OD may eventually be able to demonstrate utility in the Army organizational setting -- if the required research is accomplished before time

and resources run out.

-251-
Umstot, D. D. Organizational development technology and the military:

A surprising merger? Academy ofManagement Review, 1980, 5,

189-201.

The results of organization development (OD) efforts in the

.United States military are reported and analyzed. The Army uses a

decentralized approach with strong topmanagement support, participation,

and understanding. The Navy relies heavily on a centralized surveyfeedback model using mandatory participation. The Air Force has

experimented with many OD approaches, the most widely adopted one

being job enrichment. Although considerable resources are committed

to OD, most claims of success are based on testimonials and anecdotal

evidence. There is little empirical evidence that OD either changes

organizations or results in improved performance. In spite of these

weaknesses, the very existence of larger-scale OD in the military

environment raises some interesting issues that revolve around values

and the general applicability of OD technology.

Umstot, D. D., Bell, C. H., Jr. & Mitchell, T. R. Effects of job

enrichment and task goals on satisfaction and productivity:

Implications for job design. jourral of Ap>-ea Ps',chocoy,

1976, 61, 379-394.

Although there has been an increasing interest in improving

the quality of work so that employees are more satisfied, concern

for productivity is still the dominant focus of managers. This study

is based on the assumption that what is needed is an approach to job

design that results in both increased productivity and increased

employee satisfaction. This study reports on a two-phase research

project which investigated the effects of job enrichment and goal

setting on employee productivity and satisfaction in a well-controlled,

simulated job environment.

In the first phase, two conditions of goal setting (assigned

goals vs. no goals) and two conditions of job enrichment (enriched

vs. unenriched) were established, producing four experimental

conditions. The results indicated that job enrichment had a substantial impact on job satisfaction but little effect on productivity.

Goal setting, on the other hand, had a major impact on productivity

and a less substantial impact on satisfaction. In the second phase,

(after 2 day's work), people with unenriched jobs worked under the

*enrichment conditions and people originally without goals were assigned

goals. Again, job enrichment had a positive effect on job satisfaction, while goal setting had a positive effect on performance.

These results are discussed in terms of the current theoretical

aonroaches for understanding emplovee motivation on the job.

-252-

'2'1
Lmscoc, D. D., Mitchell, T. R., & Bell, C. H., Jr. Goal setting and

job enrichment: An integrated approach to job design.

* Academy of Manag'ement Review, 1978, 3, 867-879.

* Productivity and job satisfaction are two dominant concerns

of managers. One approach to designing jobs so that these outcomes

result is to combine job enrichment and goal setting. This article

reviews the empirical literature relating these two techniques in an

* attempt to better define the interrelationship between them. Research

studies are cited which demonstrate the interaction of goals with such

job characteristics as: skill variety, task identity, autonomy, task

significance, feedback, role clarity, job challenge, and individualorganizational goal congruence. The review indicates that because most

of the interactive effects of goal setting and enrichment are positive,

* an integrative approach combining the two seems appropriate to job design.

A general conceptual integrative model of job design is

* developed. Its primary advantage is that it unites goal setting, which

has been consistently related to higher performance, with job enrichment, which has been related more to work satisfaction. A combination

of the two could result in a simultaneous increase in both performance

and satisfaction. Because research in this area is very limited, many

questions are posed by this model. Implications for future field and

laboratory research are discussed.

Vancil, R. F. Strategy formulation in complex organizations.

.'.U -_ncztel .e, 1976, 17, 1-18.

Managers often see strategy formulation in a complex organi4* zation as a one-time event and not as a dynamic process. The purpose

of this article is to provide a detailed description of how strategy

* can be determined so that it can keep pace with changing environments.

* First, the author disassembles the concept of strategy and examines

the interrelationships between the components. The basic elements of

strategy are identified as objectives, constraints and policies, and

G goals and plans. Second, he explores how these components are viewed

by managers who have various strategic responsibilities at the different levels in the corporate hierarchy. The principal levels Of

authority are corporate managers, business managers, and activity

managers. Effective strategy formulation at all levels is characterized by operational guidance, personal commitment, and expectations

of change.

-253-
Finally, the pieces are reassembled, and the author discusses

-nszit'tional strategy as a complicated, connected set of individual

strategies which are formulated and pursued by the managers who are

responsible for making them successful. To be effective, strategy

must personally affect the manager, constraining the scope of his

activities to some extent, yet providing him with enough space to

devise his own strategy within the broader context. One should not

think about the strategy of an organization, but rather of the strategy

as a collection of strategies, one for each manager, linked together

by a progressive series of agreements on objectives, constraints and

policies, and goals and plans. The overall aim of all strategies

must be the adaptation and growth of the organization in a changing

environment.

Vroom, V. H. Leadership. In Dunnette, M[. D. (Ed.).

i Y-usti -nd org nizaiona1. psychcooy. Chicago: Rand

McNally, 1976.

This chapter reviews past research efforts in order to shed

light on the leadership process through empirical studies. The author

begins bv describing the major approaches to the investigation of

leadership, evaluating their theoretical underpinnings and summarizing

the orincipal empirical findings which bear on them. The approaches

discussed conceptualize leadership in terms of (1) personality

traits; (2) behavior; (3) its nature as a role to be played, a job

to be done, or a set of functions to be carried out.

In the second half of the chapter, the author attempts to

sketch some new directions for the study of leadership -- directions

which build on evidence concerning the critical role of the situation

in influencing how leaders behave and in determining the effectiveness

of their actions. The nature of these new directions is then

illustrated thrnugh a detailed examination of one facet of leadershio --

-articiaati-n in Jeciison-maKing.

Virmington, A., Lupton, T. & Gribbing, C. -Ka," "" r r

Reston, VA: Reston Publishing Co., 1977.

The main purpose of this book is to describe and illustrate

a method of detailed organizational analysis, developed in the course

of a program of change, and to describe some techniques and tools

developed from it. The principal concern is to demonstrate their

theoretica! validit.y and 2ractical application. The major contributicn o. this book to organizational change and development literature

is its thesis that effective change can only be made when the needs

--254-

S-[
J4 the 'work face' have been identified, and can best be implemented

tnrough consultation between managers and workers.

Through an account of their work in three contrasting areas

of an organization, the authors develop a framework of analysis

which they call an open sociotechnical systems approach. In their

work, a varied team of managers was formed to devise methods for

investigations, construct explanatory models and involve the members

of each section in explanation, implementation of changes, and

discovery of new concepts of management and new patterns of control.

A critical account is made of the actual effects of changes in the

three case studies. Some questions are posed about the adequacy of

this and any other theories of planned organizational change.

Warner, M. Organizational alternatives: Towards an analvsis of

experimental processes. _71 t? C'.z-e7r lerr;r

1979, 16, 355-367.

40 This article explores the notion of "organizational experimentation." Defined as the manipulation of at least one organizational

variable relating to structure and/or process, this concept has been

considered in too narrow a conceptual framework in the literature to

date. The purpose of this article is to point out the past deficiencies in the treatment of this topic, and to suggest methods for

* broadening future research in this area.

The critique of existing approaches discloses the preponderance

of short-term organizational experiments, the excessive emphasis on

scientific procedure in organizational research, and the narrowness of

the criteria developed to date. In response to these deficiencies, an

alternative model is proposed based on a "building block" approach.

This model enables the researcher to distinguish between cases where

explicit experimentation took place to "design" a new organizational

form and those where novel organizational forms came about through

either "evolutionary" development or random chance.

~;a2~r ~.K. & Hiavens, A. E. Goal displacement and the intangibiir.-

of organizational goals. A r.it7i' cierCe.>re:,

1968, 12, 539-555.

An attempt is made to highlight some of the key problems in

attaining instrumental goals in organizations with social change

and development programs. These activities and programs too often

contribute relatively little to the attainment of the major goals

of the organization. A cormmon form of the tendency to concentrate

on these programs is goal displacement, in which the major goals

claimed by the organization are neglected in favor of goals assoC,.atea

wih Uilding or maintaining the organization.

-255-
Five major hyDotheses and a model of marginal propensity to

jer:orm are suggested wh ich show that goal attainment in organizations

is maximized when goal displacement isjiminimal, and that goal displacement is minimal where goals are tangible. If there is a high degree

of goal intangibility, goal attainment can still be maximized by

keeping tangible goals directed toward the central intangible goals,

but it is reduced by displacing tangible goals to peripheral goals of

system maintenance. A system of evaluation and sanctioning reinforces

both the peripheral displacement of goals and the neglect of the

claimed goals in favor of goals designed to maintain the organization

primarily as an end in itself. The concepts suggested are not readily

operational, nor are the hypotheses empirically proven. It is

believed, however, that such attempts at conceptualization are

necessary prior conditions to research design and analysis.

.a:-rs, L. K., Roach, D. & Batlis, N. Crganizational climate

dimensions and job related attitudes. Rso e ?s2f;:,

1974, 27, 465-476.

The purpose of the present study is to factor analyze 22

perceptually based organization climate scales from three climate

questionnaires, and to relate the dimensions found in the factor

analysis to employees' subjective reports of satisfaction, involvement, intrinsic motivation, effort and performance. The respondents

in this study were 105 employees of seven radio and TV stations.

The climate scales used in this study were: disengagement,

hindrance, esprit, intimacy, aloofness, production emphasis, thrust,

consideration, structure, responsibility, reward, risk, warmth,

support, standards, conflict, identity, conflict and inconsistency,

formalization, adequacy of planning, selection based on ability, and

performance, and tolerance of error. The factor scores included:

effective organizational structure, work autonomy, close impersonal

supervision, open challenging environment, and management and peer

support. These climate variables were then factor analyzed with seven

job-related attitudes: interpersonal relationships, task-involvement, opportunity for recognizable advancement, job involvement,

intrinsic motivation, effort and performance. Detailed analyses of

the relationships between these or anizational anc individual

factors are discussed. No conclusions are drawn beyond a statement

of the correlation coefficients.

.:I

-256-

... -.' .' :.'.. ,..: '..'<:..-..... :.:..$/;.?;'.::.% i.. y,s , ,' .,) . ,- , ' ; ;, '' €%
Webb, R. J. Organizational effectiveness and the voluntary organization.

Academyj aifManagement JournaZ, 1974, 17, 633-677.

The recent increase in the number of writing and research

studies pertaining to organizational effectiveness have not resulted

in a universally acceptable definition, theory, or methodology for the

assessment of OE. This article discusses the goal model and systems

model as they have been used in OE research. The purpose of the present

* study is to identify organizational characteristics acting as determinants of effectiveness of a voluntary organization -- in this case

the institutional church.

The data base for this exploratory study consisted of church

members in a large presbytery. Questionnaires were collected from 117

0 respondents rating church goals on a seven-point Likert scale. The

data were factor analyzed in an attempt to find a smaller set of

underlying factors that could be used as an index of effectiveness.

Six different regression models were developed; one model for each of

the 5 independent indices of organizational effectiveness as well as

an overall general model. The general model included four organizational

* characteristics which accounted for 45 percent of the variance in the

independent judgments of the church members. They were: cohesion,

efficiency, adaptability and support. The relationship between these

characteristics and effectiveness differ markedly from earlier studies

of OE and indicate that organization effectiveness in voluntary organizations may need to undergo rethinking.

,'ed S. E. & Mitchell, T. R. The role of environmental and behavioral uncertainty as a mediator of situation-performance

*relationships. Th e Acade7mj of' Management Journal., 1980,

23, 38-60.

The causes and consequences of two types of uncertainty

(environmental and behavioral) were investigated in a simulated job

environment. Sixty-four randomly selected subjects were divided into

*P 8 experimental conditions. There were two levels of task structure

(ambiguous, structured), two levels of leader style (high IS-lowI

CONS and low IS-high CONS), and two levels of goal setting (no goal, specific goals), resulting in a 2 x2 x2 factorial design. The task

involved three separate designs to be drawn on a blueprint according

to a series of instructions.

The results indicated that the structuring leader and

structured task produced greater certainty than the considerate

leader or the unstructured task. Goal setting had no effect. The

same independent variables and increased certainty resulted in higher

performances.

-257-
Weitzel, W., Mahoney, T. A., & Crandall, N. F. . evsr

view of u~nit effectiveness. (Technical Report 9000).

University of Minnesota: Industrial Relations Center,

1971. AD720-711.

First level supervisor's (N=53) from a cross-section of

business and industrial organizations in a metropolitan city provided

evaluative and descriptive information about the immediate work group

which each supervised. From this information a model was built

-~ depicting first level supervisory perceptions of behaviors which

* lead to work unit effectiveness. This model was compared with a

model based upon higher level managers' perceptions of what leads

to first level unit effectiveness. The overwhelming importance of

production emphasis by both groups and the use of human relations

behaviors in an instrumental fashion by first level supervisors is

discussed in connection with managerial Dhilosonhy. Other similarities

-14~ _14,7ferences between the models from the two or2iizaionai levels

White, S. E. & Mitchell, T. R. Organization development: A review

of research content and research design. Academy of

M4anagement Review, 1976, 1, 57-73.

This article develops a classification system to describe

the types of variables that~ are typically changed by means of an OD

intervention and the variables that are used as criteria to assess

the effectiveness of the intervention. The major criticism of

traditional OD classification systems is that they do not use the

same set of logical criteria for classifying both the independent

and dependent variables. An alternative classification system,

derived from facet analysis, is offered to resolve this dilemma.

An analysis is conducted of the types of research designs

typically employed in empirical efforts to evaluate OD programs.

Because the field of OD is currently embracing various types of

contingency approaches, it is necessary to provide inferences and

conclusions based on sound research techniques in order to accurately

describe the contingencies. Current research techniques are described

and compared in terms of: types of research settings, number of

criterion measurements, types of statistical support, types of

instruments used, and possible experimenter bias. A review of these

methods indicates the need for an increase in sophistication of

research designs, methodology and statistical procedures currently

in use.

-258-
'a. TNWa .jW W

Wof ford, J. C. Factor analysis of managerial behavior variables.

JournaZ of AppZied Psycho Lo~, 1970, 54, 169-173.

9 Research into the leadership function of management has

considered a number of behavioral dimensions. Many of these appear

to overlap in content. This study attempts to identify the basic

dimensions of several areas of managerial behavior in a broad scope of organizational sitations. one hundred of these items were

selected for factor analysis. Analysis of the 100 x 100 correlational

9 matrix yielded five interpretable factors: (1) Behaviors which

concern the care, thoroughness, neatness and accuracy with which the

manager handles the functions of planning, organizing and controlling. (2) Behaviors which relate to the use of authority and control.

(3) Interpersonal relationship that the manager establishes with

* his men. (4) Behaviors which are concerned with reactions to or the

avoidance of insecurity feelings. (5) Behaviors characterizing

managers who are dynamic, aggressive, and self-assured. These

factors provide new insights into the structure of managerial behavior.

R. J. & Carroll, I. M1. Ignorance, error and information in

the classic theory of decision. 2ehaviarat. Sci Fce,

1976, 21, 107-115.

* This paper introduces an additional dimension of incompleteness or inaccuracy of information held by the decision-maker. Up

to this time decision theory, applicable to any level of the living

system, has looked at situations in which there were varying degrees

of knowledge about the connections between actions selected by the

decision maker and the occurrence of states of affairs which the

* decision maker valued. Two new notions are introduced here. The

first is ignorance. A decision-maker is ignorant if there are states

of affairs which may come about as a consequence of actions open to

him, but about whose possibility he is unaware. The second is

error. A decision maker commits error if he makes decisions in the

belief that there is a set of outcomes which may occur, but which,

in fact, includes some states of affairs which cannot occur. The

effects of these two types of divergence between actual and perceived

state of the world are examined. The probability and expected cost

of these mistakes under conditions of certainty, risk, and uncertainty

are investigated. The traditional notion of irrationality, it is

suggested, can be replaced by the behavioral notions of error and

4L. ignorance.

-259-
V,%

coodmran, . . King, D. C. Organizacional climace: science or

folklore? Acyze d of .'fazeen7 Review, 1978, 3, 816-826.

This article reviews the current status of theory and

research on organizational climate. Particular emphasis is placed

on issues raised by research and suggestions for future work.

The article begins with a review of the generally accepted definitions

of organizational climate, pointing out the similarities and differences between them. Research issues are then discussed. Conceptual

*" issues raised in research to date include (1) the relationship

between a situational variable (e.g., organizational climate) and

performance; (2) the relationship of environmental characteristics

to job behavior; (3) the relationship between job satisfaction and

organizational climate; and (4) the appropriate measurement of

organizational climate. A review of the most significant research

on each issue is presented.

7i:zhak, S. 7he roie of social consensus as a Ccnditioner -n

oro-anizational rlanned change. University of Michigan:

Institute for Social Research, 1971. AD731-669.

This document summarizes the major considerations and

results of the first phase of a larger project studying the role of

*. social consensus in conditioning organizational change and development. A concise conceptual, theoretical and methodological scheme

is elaborated at the outset. In this construct, social consensus

is perceived as a collective property reflecting degree of similarity

in a given set of orientations toward an object, behavior or issues.

This conception views the social consensus phenomenon as at least

bi-dimensional, characterized by two main aspects: distance and

stress.

Three hundred and thirty-two groups selected from six main

industrial settings represented by 20 organizations served to test

the relationship between social consensus and organizational change.

Findings demonstrate a direct positive correlation between degree

of consensus and level of participative-collaborative behavior of

supervisors as well as of subordinates. Initial degrees of social

consensus were found to produce differential rates of change over

time in organizational behavior.

-260-

p ' " .. '/ " " ' . . "'; "' .'\ ' . ,-''. , " -. v ': ' .... "
,. & Seashore, S. E. A system resource approach to

organizational effectiveness. Amez-ican Socioloica. Review,

1967, 32, 891-903.

The prevailing formal and implied conceptions of organizatfznal

effectiveness are examined and found deficient. When effectiveness is

defined with reference to goal attainment, there are both methodological

and conceptual problems. The goals are those of persons, not of

the organization itself. There is in principle no possibility for

stable consensus about the nature of the goals. When defined with

reference to societal function, the values and standards for assessing

organizational effectiveness are similarly external to the organization

itself. An improved conceptual framework derived from systems theory

is proposed. The framework emphasizes both the distinctiveness of the

* organization as an identifiable social structure and the interdependence

of the organization with its environment. The interdependence takes

the form of transactions in which scarce and valued resources are

exchanged under competitive conditions. The organization's success

over a period of time in this competition for resources is regarded as

an expression of its overall effectiveness. Since the resources are

*varied, and the competitive relationships (bargaining positions) multiple,

the assessment of organizational effectiveness must be in terms not of

any single criterion, but of an open-ended multidimensional set of

criteria. The implications of this conceptual framework for theory,

emoirical research, and organization management are discussed.

Ziiler, R. C. Toward a theory of open and closed groups.

Psycho loicaL 3ulZetin, 1965, 64, 164-182.

• Four characteristics differentiate groups in which membership

is in a constant state of flux (open groups) as opposed to groups in

which the membership is relatively stable (closed groups). They are:

time perspective, equilibrium, frame of reference, and changing group

membership. The significance of these characteristics for social

behavior is explored. A number of tested and testable propositions

concerning group stability and social behavior emerged from a rapprochement of research, relevant subtheories, and concepts associated with

open- and closed-group behavior. The failure to consider the dimension

of group stability in most previous social-psychological research

poses a question concerning the generality of social-psychological

theories which are based upon research but which ignore the pervasive

dimension of group stability.

-261-

................................................ ...... ....... i...
"-p.

V.

-St.

lb.

V.

AA-s

.V,.

4--.

9*1 S

-4;

-I.. P

4;..'

4.5

* r.

aV. 4.

-26 2-
III. SIMULATION AND TRAINING

-263-
-S A

"'S

A. C

5. A

4,

4m~.

t

'-4

A,, 4

4$P

WA S

f~

-Ms

ad -264-
SIMULATION

Barton, R. F. Desiging simulation laboratories. SimuZ-aticn and 3=nes,

1972, 3, 219-225.

Simulation laboratories range from a small one-way window

between two ordinary rooms to NASA's massive spacecraft docking

simulator. This paper offers a collection of things to consider for

those who may design a simulation laboratory. These items grew out

of visits to simulation laboratories, discussions with persons ad-

* ministering existing laboratories, and the experience of designing one.

The simulation laboratory designer must consider: (1) Flexbility -- the laboratory should be quickly changeable from one use to

another. (2) Space -- future expansion should be an element of planning.

(3) Number of concurrent subjects -- size and number of modules should

* not be restrictive. (4) Number of concurrent observers -- size and

number of observer modules must be ample. Ideally, these two types of

modules should be interchangeable. (5) Floor plan -- the plan should

allow ample room for modules, storage and traffic flow. (6) Physical

features, such as observation glass, ceiling and height of observation

area, climate, lighting, equipment maintenance and operation, and sound

* control. (7) Computer support -- ample power, space, and equipment for

man-computer simulations.

ip Bass, B. M.* Business gaming for organizational research.

Science, 1964, 10, 545-556.

A non-computer business game is described which can be used

to test hypotheses about the effects of different organizational

structures on material and social psychological outcomes. This com-

* petitive game requires firms of about 15 men each to compete in a

common market. In the first three competitions, it was observed that

the simpler organizational structure served more adequately than the

more complex hierarchy that was designed for the problem. Whether

or not a radically different structure, without a hierarchy, worked

well depended upon the extent to which the real-life managers

C. operating the organization had been indoctrinated in the rationale

behind the innovation and had accepted it as desirable.

-265-

.....................................
Bouchard, T. J., Jr. Field research methods: Interviewing,

questionnaires, participant observation, systematic

observation, unobtrusive measures. In Dunnette, M. D.

(Ed.). Handbook of industrial and or.-anizationai

psychoLogy. Chicago: Rand McNally, 1976.

In this chapter it is argued that from the point of view of

both science and society field research is as important as laboratory

research. This is because the field is where the generality, applicability, and utility of psychological knowledge are put to the test.

The field researcher is the mediator of a relevant sociopsychological

science. With this perspective in mind, the methods listed in the

title are discussed. The special characteristics of each method are

discussed in detail and each method's peculiar methodological traps

are explicated. New uses for old methods are suggested and their

wider application recommended. Throughout the chapter it is urged

that researchers: (1) choose the method that is most likely to serve

their purpose rather than the easiest method; (2) use more than one

method whenever possible; and (3) focus more on the actual behavior

of theoretical or practical concern and less on verbal behavior and

test responses than they have in the past.

Cabel!, D. W. E. The relevance of a management game. Siaazin ana

. 'es, 1974, 5, 201-211.

The similarity between the game setting and the real world

is a critical criterion of effectiveness of simulation as a teaching

tool. This criterion is known as "relevance". A management game was

conducted using 216 business administration students in order to

test two hypotheses regarding the students' perceptions of their

duties, decisions, and relationships. Although the decisions required

by the management game provided the rationale for the student's

interactions, a systems model of organizational behavior was used to

control the interaction patterns. Four different interaction patterns

were developed by experimentally manipulating the leadership style and

specialization variables and experimentally controlling the variables

-relating to information system, control system, and delegation of

authority. The four experimental conditions thus created were:

product specialization-participative leadership style, functional

specialization-participative leadership style, product specializationnonparticipative leadership style, and functional specializationnonparticipative leadership style. The two hypotheses tested in this

experiment were: (1) The degree of specialization within the group

strucure is significantly related to the students' perceptions of

relevance; and (2) The leader's style of interacting with the student

specialists is significantly related to the students' perceptions of

relevance.

The study indicated that the students' perceptions of the

similarity between the management game and the real world were related

to the simulation parameters and the interactions which took place

during the simulation.

-?66-
Chertkoff, J. M. & Esser, J. K. A test of three theories of coalition

formation when agreements can be short-term or long-term. The

*Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1977, 35, 237-249.

This experiment tested the competing predictions of the

bargaining theory of coalition formation, the weighted probability

model, and minimum winning coalition theory in two triadic resource

structures. In the long-term condition, a coalition agreement could

* extend over two or over all three trials if both partners wished. In

the short-term condition, a coalition had to be negotiated on all

trials. In general, the results conformed most closely to the bargaining

theory, but the data suggest that two changes in the theory are necessary. First, the weightings of the two norms assumed to affect divisions

of payoffs, the parity and equality norms, will not be equal in all

* situations. Second, the equality norm affects the Trial 1 expectations

of the weaker member of a potential coalition more than it does the

Trial 1 expectations of the stronger member. In general, the short-term

condition was advantageous to participants who were usually excluded

from the first trial coalition, and the long-term condition was advantageous to participants usually included in the first trial coalition.

The implications of the data for a general theory of fairness in social

exchange are discussed.

*Ccle, S. G., Phillips, J. L. & Hartman, E. A. Test of a model of

decision processes in an intense conflict situation.

Behavioral Science, 1977, 22, 186-196.

A particularly intense form of conflict is u-elative conflict.

It is a situation in which at most one of some set of participants

*may obtain an objective and in which it is possible that none will

obtain their objective. A mathematical model is derived from basic

assumptions about the decision making process in a three-person

u-elative conflict situation, a truel. It is proposed that the model

is generalizable to n-person situations. A preliminary test of the

model that varies only one of the parameters reveals support for

the model. More extensive tests of the model are warranted. In

addition, the applicability of the model to internation or intergroup

conflict is explored.

-267-

S - i "i'i -' '-' 1 i -- f--i *.-~' '' 'i - ' ' i $i"iii, g " '' 'i - 'i'- ' -,i i'~ i'i
Cook, T. D. & Campbell, D. T. The design and conduct of quasiexperiments and true experiments in field settings. In

Dunnette, M. D. (Ed.). Han~oook of industrial and

organizaViona psycholo-y. Chicago: Rand McNally College

Publishing Company, 1976.

This chapter has three purposes. The first is to explicate

four kinds of validity. Statistical conclusion validity refers to the

validity of conclusions we draw on the basis of statistical evidence

about whether a presumed cause and effect co-vary; internal validity

refers to the validity of any conclusions we draw about whether a

demonstrated statistical relationship implies cause; construct validity

refers to the validity with which cause and effect operations are

labeled in theory-relevant or generalizable terms; and external

validity refers to the validity with which a causal relationship can

be generalized across persons, settings, and times.

The second, and major, purpose of the chapter is to outline

a number of quasi-experimental designs that have been previously used

in industrial and organizational psychology or could be so used. These

designs are grouped as non-equivalent control group designs, cohort

designs, regression-discontinuity designs, time-series designs, and

correlational designs. The specific designs under each of these

headings are critically examined with respect to each kind of validity,

and each design's typical strengths and weaknesses are pointed out.

The last purpose of the chapter is to examine why true experiments (involving random assignment to treatment groups) are not more

common in field research on organizations since true experiments permit

stronger causal inferences than quasi-experiments. The practical

problems besetting field experiments are outlined, and ways of overcoming these are mentioned as are the contexts that are particularly

appropriate for successful randomization. The discussion points out

several past examples of true experiments that were successfully

implemented and maintained in field settings.

--- Crawford, M P. Dimensions of simulation. -r..z.

1966, 21, 788-796.

The author discusses the application of simulation to

education and training. Three connotations of the term "simulation"

WIN" are suggested and discussed: (1) representation or substitution of

one thing for another, (2) portrayal of the environment (study of

perception), and (3) dynamic systems involvement - function of

*. computers. Five dimensions of simulation are identified: (1) the

scope, extent or segment of the environment represented in the simulation; (2) the duration of the experience provided by simulation;

(3) the degree of mediacy between the person and the raw environment;

(4) the degree of centrality of interpersonal relationships; and (5)

t.e degree of apparent cognitive involvement.

-268-

• . °,
Cross, J. G. Negotiation as a learning process. Journal of ConZict

Resolution, 1977, 21, 581-606.

This paper presents a discussion of the role of adapting

expectations in the bargaining process. Negotiators are characterized

as persons who choose bargaining strategies in their attempt to

optimize their payoffs from the situation. These strategies are contingent on each party's perception of the strategy of his opponent;

* and if these perceptions contain errors, expectations will change and

thus will lead in turn to a modification of each party's strategy

choice. The payoff demands and manipulative moves which characterize

the bargaining process are seen as combinations of actions which are

specified in the original bargaining plans of the parties and of

changes in the plans themseives.

Because empirical usefulness is the objective of any theory,

the authors emphasize five implications of this theory in a few practical

areas. (1) Parties with access to potent threats will do well, as will

those who are relatively unconcerned about the timing of an agreement.

(2) Political negotiations will take more time than economic negotiations.

-S(3) Very large initial payoff demands may worsen a party's settlement

payoff. (4) Multidimensional negotiations may actually come to settlement earlier than unidimensional ones. (5) Even in the presence of an

equilibrating tendency in the learning process, initial expectations

will be reflected to some degree in the final settlement; and these

initial expectations are themselves determined by observable variables.

DeGreene, K. B. Force fields and emergent phenomena in sociotechnical macrosystems: Theories and models. 3ehavisora

Science, 1978, 23, 1-14.

It is proposed that further qualitative progress in the

computer simulation modeling of complex social systems is dependent

* on incorporation of field-theoretic constructs embodying truly

behavioral and social forces. A number of separate developments are

reviewed in the context of the revitalization of field theory in

social science. These are: field theory in sociotechnical systems

theory, hierarchy theory, critical phenomena, and catastrophe theory.

It is argued that the sociotechnical macrosystem can best be viewed

as a field of interacting forces which manifests certain unique

phenomena. The phenomena emphasized are: slow, continuous change

followed by sudden, discontinuous or catastrophic jumps; incipient

changes in the field; hierarchical restructuring; emergency of new

properties at successive hierarchical levels; and turbulence of the

environmental field. Examples of these phenomena, taken from the

dynamics and evolution of societies, are given.

-2 69-

% LAE-- 'h
-.o imortant contemporary advances in the computer simulation modeling of societies, the "Systems Dynamics National Model of

the United States Socioeconomic System", and "Mankind at the Turning

Point", are aiscusstd in terms of both reflecting field-theoretic

interpretations of the dynamics of the macrosystem and the nontrivial

incorporation of behavioral and social factors. Both modeling

approaches are found wanting. It is argued, therefore, that these

models lack fidelity, the faithful capturing of real world phenomena.

Diskin, A. & FeIsthal, D. S. Decision making in mixed sicuacions in

which both chance and a rival player are confronted simultaneously. 3ehavioraL Science, 1978, 23, 256-263.

The unfolding theory of decision making has extensively

discussed competitive decision situations. However, one barely finds

any discussion of mixed situations, i.e., situations in which both

chance and a rival player are confronted simultaneously -- especially

when players are totally ignorant of the objective probabilities

of the different natural states and when the formation of subjective

probabilities is impossible. It is quite plausible that in twodimensional mixed situations (that are characteristic of most bargaining

situations or noncompetitive situations in which the players' payoffs

are mutually independent) the confronting rivals will end up by

choosing the same alternative if they adopt the same decision criterion. Meaningful labeling of the various states of nature in

symmetrical situations led to respondents in an experiment to view

problems confronting the rivals as asymmetrical. Many of those unfamiliar with decision theory were unlikely to employ subjective

probabilities in their decision analysis even when these could be

formed, and tended to employ, instead, mainly the minimax-maximin

"'-Ktericrn.

Drabek, T. E. & Haas, J. E. Laboratory simulation of organizational

stress. In Evan, W. M. (Ed.).

zaborac'ry znd -;e!: research. New York: Harper & Row,

?ublishers, 1971.

A research technique developed by Drabeck in the late 1960s,

known as "realistic simulation",is used to develop replica organizations

which can be subjected to environmental change to test organizational

theory. In the research described here, a realistic simulation technique

was applied to the study of the communication system of a metropolitan

police organization under stress. Three shifts ,f 7ersonnei from the

simulated police radio room particivated in eacn of three iabcratcr.'

-270-

, %.
sessions in which demands were identical to what the system normally

experienced. These sessions were followed by a "stress" session, in

* which demands on the system were markedly changed through a simulated

crash of a large jet aircraft into an apartment house complex. The

communication behavior of the police officers was observed and recorded

during all four sessions.

The data indicated that, while the communication system did

* continue to function under stress, the internal interaction among the

officers in the laboratory changed inboth rate and pattern. Rate

increased in two dimensions: number of interaction sequences in each

session and number of words per minute. Pattern change occurred in

several ways. First, the mode of interaction changed; from written

words occurred. Second, the initiator pattern changed; the sergeant

* consistently emerged as the major initiator during high stress. These

and other results provided support for the major hypothesis that

response to the simulated disaster would result in increased rates of

task performance and rather substantial changes in the patterns of

task performance. Thus, the conceptual framework and simulation methodology utilized in this laborator: experiment proved useful in pre-

* dicting organizational behavior under stress.

Driver, M. J. & Streufert, S. Integrative complexity: An approach

to individuals and groups as information-processing systems.

Administrative Science Quarterly, 1969, 14, 272-285.

Individuals and groups can be viewed as information-processing

systems which respond in a curvilinear fashion to three components of

input load: complexity of information, noxity (unpleasantness), and

• eucity (pleasantness). An optimal input load is postulated, at which

each system is expected to achieve maximum complexity in informationprocessing. At similar input levels, some systems are expected to

show more complex information-processing than others. Research is

reviewed which suggests that the model holds for perception, information search, decision-making and innovation. When productivity

criteria are associated with complex information-processing, the model

predicts productivity. A more complex phasic theory is then advanced,

which argues that perceptual and decision-making functions are

separate and not synchronous.

-271-
Druckman, D. Understanding theoperation of complex social systems:

Some uses of simulation design. Sinmdation and GCn'res, 1971,

2, 173-195.

Most discussions of simulation techniques focus largely on the

learning values inherent in participation. An attempt is made in this

paper to point out the heuristic benefits that result from engaging in

the process of design. As conceived of in this paper, environmental

design consists of an attempt to reproduce a social system in terms of a

laboratory (or computer) model. Several recent developments in the

use of simulation techniques are making apparent the feasibility of

involving the participant in this process.

The author distinguishes between making a contribution to the

scientific enterprise and engaging in activities that are characteristic of scientists. One purpose of this discussion is to underscore

the advantages of engaging in the process of environmental design per

se, irrespective of the quality of the end product. Thus, simulation

is seen more in terms of its value as an "ecology for discovery" than

as a tool for the development of a systematic body of theory. However,

until the research tools for evaluating the effectiveness of simulation

techn qies are better developed, judgment on this issue will be suspended.

Druckman, D. Boundary role conflict: Negotiation as dual responsiveness. JournaZ of Confl67ict Resolution, 1977, 21, 639-662.

The boundary role conflict suggests two types of functions

in negotiations: monitoring the other side for evidence of movement

and monitoring one's own side for evidence of preferences. These

functions differ in terms of focus and information-processing. This

paper addresses these functions in terms of two general models, referred to as the negotiator as bargainer and the negotiator as representative. The negotiator-as-bargaininer model assumes responsiveness

between opposite-number negotiators. Two versions of this model

show that responsiveness can be based on both one's own previous

concessions and the other's concessions, or it can be a more complex

function of expectations and evaluations. Each of the versions

is supported in part by the data which suggests that these may

be early and late processes in negotiation.

The negotiator-as-representative model assumes responsivenesp between the negotiator and his constituents. Such responsiveness is depicted in the form of a utility model where the negotiator

attempts to balance n-components of value in the process of building

a package. He is concerned with maximizing the value of the package

in terms of both his own and his constituents' priorities. Experi- mental results suggest that the model accounts for a significant

portion of variance in actual decisions. Finally, implications are

drawn toward a reconceotualization of the boundary role conflict.

-272-
Eliason, A. L. A closed model approach to business gaming. SimuZation aznd Games, 1973, 4, 3-17. I. While the subject of business management games is not new,

two recent developments have added realism to simulated gaming

models. The first is that analytic techniques are being incorporated

into game-player decision instructions for computerized gaming models.

The second is that closed, rather than open-ended, gaming models have

been designed and tested. Closed gaming models differ from traditional business management games in that the game player is given the

choice of whether or not to overrule programmed decisions with his

own during the course of play. The purpose of this paper is to

compare the design features of a business gaming environment which

employs a closedomodel to that of a traditional business management

* game. This comparison highlights weaknesses in traditional models and

thereby permits the value of the closed design to be summarized.

Supported by the author's research findings, the specific

points of comparison discussed in this context are: the issue of

realism, evaluation of player performance, integration of business

* gaming with management development, and the relevance of business

games for management research. The advantages of the closed model

are as follows: (1) It preserves a more genuine decision-making

process in that the decision to make no decision is viewed as

essential; (2) It not only facilitates the development of a par

player, but also identifies the performance of a "null" player -

* one who decides not to interact during the simulation. (3) It offers

the researcher alternatives to experimental investigations.

Felsenthal, D. S. & Fuchs, E. Experimental evaluation of five designs

* of redundant organizational systems. Adm'inistrative Science

QuarterZy, 1976, 21, 474-488.

This study attempts to evaluate the relative reliability of

several designs of redundant human organizational systems as a

function of three variables: (1) number of participants, (2) type of

redundant process used, and (3) level of agreement reached among participants. The study was based on a simulation using 1,674 students,

all of whom were required to compute a hypothetical person's salary

according to certain instructions and manuals. Each participant was

assigned randomly to a group of three or six, which used one of five

redundant processes: completely independent, sequential, mixedindependent, group, and delphi. For each redundant number and process,

the frequencies of four different levels of agreement were recorded

(total disagreement, plurality, simple and qualified majority, unanimity)

as well as the probability of obtaining the correct solution given a

* certain agreement level.

-27 3-
Tha main conclusions of the study are: (1) there is no gain

in overall reliability by increasing the group size beyond a triad;

(2) there is a significant increase in relinbility when some agreement

is obtained as compared with total disagreement, but no gain in reliability as a function of the actual level of agreement; (3) the

completely independent and the sequential processes are inferior

regardless of group size and should be avoided; (4) the mixed-independent

group and delphi processes are equally reliable in triads, while the

delphi process is the most reliable in hexads; hence delphiL may be

the best choice among these three processes.

Fox, J. & Guyer, M. Group size and others' strategy in an n-person

game. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 1977, 21, 323-338.

The effects of group size and cooperativeness of others upon

an individual's propensity to cooperate is studied using the TakeSome format of the Prisoner's Dilemma game. By holding utility effects

constant, this format permits comparisons to be made between the

performances of subjects in different size groups. A 2 x2 experimental

design was employed in which 48 male subjects were assigned to stoogeplayer groups comprised of either two or eleven "others". Stooge

players in these groups employed either high or low cooperative strategies

in 200 repeated trials of play.

The results of this game show a significant group-size

effect upon the degree of cooperativeness evidenced by the subjects.

A significant group size x stocge strategy interaction was also observed, subjects in the 3-person group being responsive to the "others"

while subject in the larger group remained relatively unaffected by f"others'" cooperativeness. An interpretation of these results is made

in terms of the "accountability" of an individual to others in the

groun.

Fromkin, H. L. & Streufert, S. Laboratory experimentation. In

Dunnette, M. D. (Ed.). Handbook of industyia! and

organizationa psychology. Chicago: Rand McNally, 1976.

The failure to heed Weick's (1965) earlier admonishments

concerning the disadvantages which arise from the underrepresentatio

of laboratory e:periments has produced a significant vacuum in the

data about organizational phenomena. In spite of the unique advantages and valuable contributions of experimental strategies, recent

rejection of the laboratory as a legitimate research site constitutes

a dilemma to the scientist and administrator who are thereby unable

to take advantage of a substantial portion of social psychology. This

chapter provides a perspective to bridge the gap between data

-274-

- '. . .
generated in laboratory experiments and their application to theoretical

dnd practical problems of organizations. The approach resides in

* judgmental processes which render laboratory findings more serviceable

in a two-fold manner. First, in lieu of customary warnings, arguments

are presented which mitigate the shibboleths about laboratory experiments (e.g., artificiality and realism, etc.). Second, some suggestions are offered about how prohibitory cautions can be more profitably

translated into specific "boundary variables" which vary according to

*inferences that can be drawn when moving from laboratory to any given

domain of application.

Gausser, .f. C. & Johnson, S. R. On the limitations of simulation in

model evaluation and decision analysis. Simuation an cre,

1975, 6, 115-147.

With the advent of the systems approach and development

of simulation as amethod for experimenting with models of large systems,

numerous studies have appeared on an array of problems. 'While these

*studies and surveys of such work have recognized from time to time

the various shortcomings of simulation, there appears to be no comprehensive statement of limitations in the literature. The purpose of

this paper is to provide a statement which can be used to assess the

limitations of simulation for alternative types of decision and model

evaluation problems.

Two general conclusions are made in comparing ad hoc simulation, analytical simulation and analytical methods as approaches to

evaluation and policy problems. First, analytical methods appear to

be superior when models take simple forms. As models become stochastic

and nonlinear, the comparative advantage of analytical simulation and

* ad hoc simulation methods increases. Second, for the purpose of

generating information relating to policy decisions, the comparative

usefulness of the approaches depends heavily on isolation of an explicit

form for a set of criteria functions. Aside from the issue of criterion function, the advantages of the analytical and analytical simulation approaches over the ad hoc simulation approach are substantial.

The authors conclude by qualifying their remarks by emphasizing that

the problem of selecting among approaches to evaluation analysis of

policy problems is one of degree. Obviously, the researcher must make

his decision as to simulation or analytical approaches on the basis of

resources available.

-275-

.~%

Sy- .<.
Gillespie, J. V. & Zinnes, D. A. Embedded game analysis and international conflict control. 3ehaviora'. Science, 1977, 22,

22-27.

The use of game theoretic models for understanding international relations has been widely critized. In this paper, the

authors suggest that the theory of embedded differential games with

optimal control is a productive methodology for responding to the

critics. Several noncooperative differential game models with

embedded objectives are formulated. Concepts for obtaining undominated solutions based on game structure, the quadratic objective

functions and linear differential kinematic equations are discussed.

The paper concludes that models with rich empirical reference can be

formulated and productively used in understanding international

conflict.

Greenblat, C. S. & Uretsky, M. Simulation in social science. .nerin

Behavioral Scientist, 1977, 20, 411-426.

This article provides an overview of computer simulation as

a tool for the analysis of complex systems. Several types of models

are described, including the verbal, graphic, mathematical, physical,

and operational models. The choice between types of simulations

requires an answer to several questions regarding goals, relevant

variables in the system, available resources, and constraints. A final

criterion for choosing an appropriate simulation methodology is

validity-- theoretical, empirical, and face. Specific examples of

man-machine and computer simulation are described in detail.

Guetzkow, H. (Ed.). Sinnuation in socica science: Readinas.

Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1962.

This volume represents the contributions of twenty-five

authorities in the field of simulation. The volume provides source

material on the use of man, man-computer, and all-computer simulation

in military and industrial operations. Two chapters are devoted to

each of seven applications of simulation in the social sciences:

(1) Simulation in Psychology. Discussion in this section focuses on

the computer simulation of thinking and its application in the design

and use of dynamic flight training. (2) Simulation in Sociology.

Simulated bureaucracies are analyzed as a technique for organizational

analysis. The use of simulation in inter-nation relation studies is

described by Guetzkow, along with a report of the Simulmatics project

conducted for the Democratic Pary in the 1960 campaign. (4) Simula- tion in Economics and Business. The design of economic systems'

-276-

., A *- -'j- <
e

simulation is described as one example of simulation applied to a

complex organization. A separate chapter is devoted to an explanation

of the Carnegie Tech Management Game. (5) Simulation in Education.

* A study is described which attempted to identify some of the major

dimensions of administrative behavior and their relationships to a

variety of other measurable characteristics of people. (6) Simulation

in Industrial Engineering. System simulation is described as the

fundamental tool for industrial engineering. Applications of it, and

computer simulation, are given in several case studies. (7) Simulation

in Military Operations. The System's Research Laboratory's airdefense experiments are reported on, as well as examples of simulation

used in model building for military applications.

- Guetzkow, H., Alger, C. F., Brody, R. A., Noel, R. C., & Snyder, R. C.

Simulation in international relations: Developments for

research and training. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall,

Inc., 1963.

This book explores a man-computer approach to the simulation

* of the international political-economic system. Several chapters are

devoted to a description of actual operations of the inter-nation

simulation from the viewpoint of the participant as well as the simulator. The evolution, development, and potential of such a technique

are discussed in relation to the authors' experiences using the simulation as a laboratory exercise in courses in international relations.

One section of the book is a Participant's Manual, which

allows the reader to follow instructions given to decision-makers in

the games. Three systems are represented in this simulation: the

national political system, the national economic system, and the

international politico-economic system. The simulation was constructed

to represent features of the processes involved in international

relations. The decision-makers work within a conceptual environment

similar to the decision environment confronted by members of government.

Also included in this volume are examples of protocols, messages,

and displays characteristic of the inter-nation simulation.

Gullahorn, J. E. & Gullahorn, J. T. Simulation and social system

theory: The state of the union. SinuLation zrd $&'=es,

1970, 1, 19-39.

Simulation has provided an attractive vehicle for operationalizing the propositions of social exchange and other dynamic models,

and for observing whether the interaction of fundamental interpersonal

processes generates systemic consequences. In this paper, the authors

describe a representative sample of these simulations, distinguishing

between those that emphasize universal social system change processes

as opposed to models that focus on micro-behavioral information

-277-
processing. The simulations of total social system processes reviewed

include the models developed by Kundstadter (1963, 1965) and Gilbert &

Hammel (1965, 1966). The simulations of micro-behavioral processes

include models developed by McPhee (1964), Smith (1969), Coleman (1962,

1965), Breton (1965), Abelson & Bernstein (1963), and Gullahorn & Gullahorn (1963, 1964, 1965, 1970). Each of these models is reviewed in

terms of its methodology and findings. The authors conclude with a

positive note on the potentials of social system simulation.

Hallenbeck, C. E., Gallaher, R. B. & Warren, J. Q. The community

mental health center management game: Teaching administrative skills by means of computer simulation. Behavior

Research Methods and Instrumentation, 1977, 9, 202-208.

Clinical training in psychology rarely includes the opportunity for students to exercise managerial responsibility for a functioning

human service organization. Nevertheless, many clinicians are called

upon to assume such decision-making duties, despite their lack of

administrative training. This study examines the feasibility of using

a computer model of a typical Community Mental Health Center (CMHC) as

a training device, permitting clinical students to "manage" a complex social agency over a course of many months of simulated time.

The system provides a valuable and interesting supplement to the

usual training materials in psychology programs.

Hare, A. P. Simulating group decisions. Simulation and Gxzres, 1970,

1, 361-376.

In a test of three computer models to simulate group decisions, .- data were used from 31 American and Austrian groups on a total of 307

trials. The task for each group was to predict a series of answers

of an unknown subject on a value-orientation questionnaire after being

given a sample of his typical responses. The first model, which used

the mean of the individual opinions as a simulation of the group judgment, exactly simulated over half the trials. The simulation was

improved in Model Two, which also used the mean, when individual

opinions were weighted according to their total participation in the

discussion, and learning was added. This was especially true when

the cutting points were changed so that the mean would represent

more extreme opinions.

The best simulation occurred with Model Three, which used

the median of the individual opinions as a simulation of the group

decision. Using this model, over 75% of the trials were accurately

simulated. Since Model Two involved the most elaborate simulation

of a variety of group processes, some of the details of this program

are presented together with a sample of the data for one five-man

group.

-278-
* Hart, E. W. & Sung, Y. H. Computer and experimental simulation of

triad decision making. BehaviorzZ Science, 1976, 21, 532- I' 547.

A computer simulation of triad decision making was performed

which examined four system variables that may affect the group members'

satisfaction with the group decision and the groups' difficulty in

reaching the decision. These variables were: (1) the decision rule

* used, (2) the relative similarity of the individual member' s initial

preference position to the group decision, (3) the initial concordance

of the group members' preferences, and (4) the group members' preference strengths. The subjects used in the simulation were 109 male

volunteers enrolled in the introductory psychology course of a university.

* Ego involvement, from Sherif's social judgment theory of

attitudes, was found to be a plausible process through which individual

preference can influence group decision. This conceptualization of

the incorporation of individual preference strength in the group decision was contrasted with the approach of Coleman's theory of collective

decisions. These results were compared to the results from an experi-

* mental simulation of triad decision making obtained by Sung and

Castore. Differences and similarities in the two results and their

implications for understanding decision-making are discussed.

* Harvey, M. D. & Enzle, M4. E. Effects of a dependent other's psychological need on subjects' use of power in a simulation game.

Simraation and Games, 1977, 8, 405-418.

Reviews of the literature indicate that freely interacting

dyad members typically do not respond responsibly to each other's depen-

* dency, but instead engage in mutually defeating attempts to exploit

each other. The authors of this study believe that this discrepancy

between behavior in helping situations and game situations is due

mainly to the fact that mixed-motive game participants typically have

equal influence over each other's outcomes. Neither person is more

or less dependent than the other.

Subjects (N-60) in the present study were assigned to the

power position in a power game and interacted with a dependent person

who was ostensibly in one of three mood states (positive, negative,

neutral). It was predicted that subjects who interacted with the

negative mood target would be less exploitative in the use of their

power than would subjects who interacted with a target who was in either

a neutral or positive mood. The results strongly support the predictions derived from Schwarts's (1975) formulation of the justice norm.

Subjects who believed their partner to be in a very depressed mood

-279-

.............................
state were significantly less exploitative than were subjects who

believed their partner to be in either a neutral or very good mood

state. Subjects' responses to the item that assessed perceived need

provides further evidence that the effect was due to justice considerations. These results closely conform to those obtained for helping

behavior by Enzle and Harvey (1976), and add to the evidence that

criticisms of the laboratory game have been too severe.

Heslin, R. & Streufert, S. Task familiarity and reliance on the

environment in decision making. The PsychologicaZ R3ecord,

..J. 1968, 18, 629-637.

This study investigates the effect of increasing familiarity

"'." with a complex decision-making task on subjects' perceptions of the

task environment as a "source of influence" on their decisions.

Previous research has hypothesized that subjects entering an unfamiliar task situation would be more cautious in making decisions and

less likely to manipulate the environment. It was further hypothesized

that subjects of complex conceptual structure would find it easier to

master the environment and its requirements, and so lessen their

caution, sooner than their simple counterparts.

Seventy-two students formed 36 dyads and played a complex

tactical and negotiations game for six one-half hour periods. While

all subjects reduced their use of the environment as a source of

influence on their decisions, cognitively complex subjects reduced

their dependency on the environment sooner and more sharply than simple

subjects. It was concluded that as a task situation is mastered,

decision makers gain the confidence to take a more active role in

structuring it. The implications of increased familiarity with a task

situation for the shift-to-risk phenomenon are indicated.

Higbee, K. L. & Streufert, S. Perceived control and riskiness.

Psychononmc Science, 1969, 17, 105-106.

Twenty undergraduate students were placed in a complex

decision-making situation, involving a simulated international conflict

which approximates real-world decision making in many aspects. The

analysis of the subject's economic decisions indicated that those

subjects who perceived that conditions in the simulated environment

were due to their own decisions tended to take fewer risks than

subjects who perceived that conditions were due to forces beyond

their control.

-280-

S..

-4 !J 4 ' ' ' ' . ." ' " " " " : I " Z , ° • . ., ' ,- ,, . - % '
House, P. W. Building games: Retrospection. Simulation 2nd 3ares,

1972, 3, 271-289.

The purpose of this paper is to report on a selected number

of the findings which resulted from a game-building experience of a

gaming project. The findings are derived from experiences gained

during the development of a man-machine gaming model named CITY.

The authors focus on two aspects of gaming: design and usage. The

* findings are summarized as follows: (1) Staff -- separate the

design staff from the programming staff during the formative stages

of the model. (2) Theory -- design a social simulation in the same

way as you would a set of blueprints - one set of descriptions after

another. (3) Computer vs. Noncomputer -- the decision for the use

of computers shouldbe based on the purpose and potential users of

the game. (4) Validity -- there does not appear to be any method

for testing the validity of complex social science gaming models.

The authors conclude by suggesting the use of games as a policy

device. This practice has already been undertaken in business and

military settings.

Hunsaker, P. L. Current developments in leadership training simulations. PsychoZogical Revorts, 1978, 43, 115-125.

Three behavioral simulations have been developed to aid in

* the training and evaluation of ROTC cadets and OCS candidates in the

area of leadership effectiveness. The first simulation is called

the Tactical Pacification Game (Mudget, Hunsaker & Wynne, 1975),

which provides a simulated environment allowing for the assessment

of decision-making, leadership, and interpersonal skills. The

success of this game led to the development of two additional simulations: The Leadership Assessment and Training Simulation (Hunsaker,

1974), and the Leadership Effectiveness Development Simulation. The

former technique was developed to provide a method of identifying

persons who are reasonably better able to cope with turbulence and

to provide a training vehicle for enhancing this capability in all

leaders. The latter is a military-decision situation which interrelates economic, socio-political, and tactical dimensions. It is

designed to facilitate the development of specific tactical competencies as well as broader leadership, decision-making and interpersonal

skills. This paper describes the procedures and scenarios for

conducting the simulations and summarizes their applications and

results. Future applications are discussed, including techniques for

data collection, anticipated problem areas, and related research

paradigms.

-281-
Hunsaker, P. L. & Hunsaker, D. M. Luna I Moon Colony: An adapted

format for analysis of group decision-making in a competitive

setting. PsychoZogicai Reports, 1974, 35, 411-414.

An experimental simulation is described as a method for

measuring and training decision-making by groups under complex conditions and intergroup competition. The method employs a simulation

game including selection of goals, relevance of strategy, risk-taking,

consistency, competition, and other potential components. Similarities

to previously described simulation techniques as well as the additional

-. dimensions of the adapted simulation game are discussed.

Inbar, M. & Stoll, C. S. Si.ulaticn and Cam=ing in social science.

New York: The Free Press, 1972.

This book deals with simulation design and use. The principles

and development of simulation are explained in terms of its role as

a research and teaching cool. The four opening chapters introduce the

basic aspects of the subject. The next section comprises fo-rteen

case studies -- original contributions by the developers of well-known

. simulations, in which the actual construction process is described.

The concluding chapters furnish guidelines for deciding whether and

how to design a simulation or game according to one's aims and needs.

Kahan, J. P. & Rapaport, A. Decisions of timing in bipolarized conflict

situations with complete information. Acta 'sycho caica, 1974.

38, 183-203.

Games of timing constitute a subclass of two-person, constantsum, infinite games, where the problem facing each player is not what . action to take, but rather when he should take action. The theoretical

structure of games of timing with complete information and equal

accuracy functions is described. An experimental paradigm of such

games is presented by a computer-controlled, two-person, infinite game

that simulates the Western-style duel.

Ten pairs of male subjects participated in three sessions

each in a duel experiment. Each pair played 420 duels in which both

players had the same accuracy function, but the starting number of

bullets available to each player in the dyad was varied systematically.

The results of this experiment show that, in general, players fired

their first bullets later than the prescribed time, and then fired their

later bullets a short time thereafter, mostly sooner than prescribed.

In other words, the range of firing time was more compressed than the

optimal policy would prescribe. The variables involved in this game

are discuszad as predictions arising from the mathematical theory of

duels.

°-232-
0 .

Kaplan, I. T. & Barber, H. F. Training battalion command groups in

simulated combat: Identification and measurement of critical

* performnces. Alexandria, VA: US Army Research Institute

for the Behavioral and Social Sciences, 1978. (DRAFT)

The behavior of 23 battalion command groups was investigated

in a simulated combat environment provided by the Combined Arms Tactical Training Simulator (CATTS). Thirteen mechanized groups performed

* a covering force operation followed by an attack, and 10 non-mechanized

groups performed a defense and an attack. Their performance was

rated on items derived from the subtasks of the battalion command

group ARTEP (Army Training and Evaluation Program). Fifteen subtasks

were identified as critical, because they or their elements were both

low-rated and highly correlated with ratings of overall effectiveness.

The four missions observed in this investigation were markedly

different with respect to subtask criticality. All but one of the 15

critical subtasks were identified in the covering force mission, five

subtasks were critical in the mechanized attack, one in the defense,

and one in the non-mechanized attack. There were significant differences among ratings of the same command group by several observers,

each of whom observed the exercise from a different point of view.

These results indicate a need for further research (a) to develop more

objective measures of performance and (b) to identify those subtasks

where the different perspectives of the raters should produce valid

differences in performance ratings.

Keeney, R. L. & Sicherman, A. Assessing and analyzing preferences

concerning multiple objectives: An interactive computer

• program. Behavioral Science, 1976, 21, 173-182.

This paper describes an interactive computer program designed

to facilitate the quantification ofadecision maker's preferences

for multiple objectives in terms of a multiattribute utility function.

The program is intended to alleviate many of the operational difficulties with current procedures for assessing and using multiattribute

utility functions. The package includes commands for structuring

the utility function, assessing single attribute, component utility

functions of the overall multiattribute utility function, identifying

the preference tradeoffs between attributes, evaluating alternatives,

and performing sensitivity analysis. Suggestions for using the program

are included.

-283-

.. ,.V
Klimoski, R. J. Simulation methodologies in experimental research on

negotiations by representatives. Journal of Con f7.ict ?esoiution, 1978, 22, 61-77. -

This paper reviews recent experimental (primarily socialpsychological) research on intergroup conflict resolution with an

emphasis on methodology. Specifically, it focuses on the creation

of conflict forces and representational role obligations in simulations. The resulting typologies clarify the numerous strategies used

by investigators. The favored approach to studying intergroup negotiation is the experimental simulation. By experimental simulation,

the authors mean those studies which attempt to recreate or simulate

the central features of some set of phenomena which are of interest

and then to study those phenomena under relatively controlled conditions. The various types of experimental simulations used in the

-: study of intergroup negotiations can be characterized by two schemes:

enactment simulations and strategic simulations. These two types of

simulation are compared on several issues. This paper calls for

a systematic evaluation of these strategies, as researchers appear

to be unaware of their potential impact.

Lashutka, S. A cross-cultural simulation as a predictor of crosscultural adjustment. Simulation and Games, 1977, 8,

481-492.

This study deals with determining the potential effectiveness

of a simulated cross-cultural experience as a predictor of cultural

adaptability for use in the selection of personnel nominated to serve

in a foreign culture. Eighty-six US Army enlisted personnel participated in this study. The subjects were divided into four simulation

groups and participated in BaFa'BaFa' -- a cross-cultural interaction!

cross-cultural adjustment simulation.

Results of this study indicate that three sets of variables

are important in the cultural adaptation process. These sets may be

labeled as specific culture variables, general cultural variables, and

organizational context variables. Each of these variable sets

* include measures of the cognitive, affective, and behavioral domains.

The authors conclude that this study Supports the cross-cultural simulation as a potentially powerful solution to the problem of personnel

selection for overseas assignments. Use of simulations provides a

* unique method of personnel assessment, prior to assignment, for

cultural adaptability that has long been neglected in international

personnel selection.

-284-
Lester, J. P. & Stoil, M. J. Evaluating a role-specific simulation.

Simulation and Gcones, 1979, 10, 167-188.

College-level simulations have suffered, in general, from two

sets of problems. First, there has been a conceptual problem in that

simulation games have been treated more or less identically by evaluators, without regard for simulation format differences. Second, only

a few attempts at evaluation employ rigorous empirical tests of the

* efficacy of the simulation as a learning tool. With regard to the

former problem, the authors of this article have created a taxonomy of

games by dividing simulations into categories of role-specific and rolegeneralized. The distinctions between these two types makes them

better or less suited for the study of general principles governing

political processes and institutions.

Several hypotheses regarding the role-specific simulation

were tested within the context of an introductory course in international

political economy (N-25). The results of this simulation indicate that

simulation experience has a positive effect on learning. However, it

also creates problems for the suggested "taxonomy of games". The

* hypothesis that a role-specific simulation, by its nature, would encourage substantive learning to a greater extent than it encourages

process-oriented learning was not confirmed. Implications of these

results for simulation development are discussed. The need for

additional systematic studies of the proposed role-specific/rolegeneralized typology is emphasized. Also, investigation is encouraged

* into the possibility of dividing simulations into the categories of

predominantly passive participation/predominantly active participation.

Lucas, H. C., Jr. Performance in a complex management game. Simu7~ation

* cand Games, 1979, 10, 61-74.

This article describes the New York University Management Game -

a complex simulation of business enterprises operating in a competitive

industry. Several characteristics of management games are exemplified

by this technique. The performance of players in a management game

game is a multidimensional phenomenon. In addition to team measures

such as profits, individual measures of performance are also needed. In

this study, predictors of profits differ significantly from those of

peer ratings for individuals.

4; There are a number of implications from this study. The

designers of games should include multiple, independent performance

indicators. The awards for achievement on independent indicators

can be used to emphasize different educational objectives. For example,

by emphasizing profits, the NYU Management Game encourages team performance focused on successfully operating a business. By basing

'p grades partly on peer ratings, the game administration also encourages

each individual to consider the dynamics and structure of the simulated

organization. By emphasizing performance on a number of indicators,

team administrators can create realistic conflict among competing

objectives which provides a more accurate simulation of the real world.

-285-
McCall, M. W., Jr. & Lombardo, M. M. Looking Glazss, Inc.: An

org'anizational simullation. (Technical Report No. 12)

Greensboro, NC: Center for Creative Leadership, 1978.

Looking Glass, Inc., is a simulation of a glass manufacturing

corporation. It was designed as a research vehicle for studying

leadership processes as they play out in an organizational context.

There are twenty positions, ranging across three divisions and four

levels (plant manger, director, vice-president, and president). The

divisions face different environments, varying from volatile to

stable. Looking Glass is typical -- the organizational type,

structure, and environments are common. All problems contained in the

simulation are based on actual events.

The report is divided into four sections. Section 1 describes the development of Looking Glass. Included are the chronology

of what occurred from original idea to final pretest runs and a

summary of assumptions and biases related to constructing a realistic

management simulation. The next section discusses research issues,

such as the experimental modes built into the design, possible manipulations, measurement strategies, and preliminary hypotheses. The

third section outlines training uses of Looking Glass. The final

,* ~.section explains the nuts and bolts of running the simulation.

McClennen, E. F. Some formal problems with the Von Neumann and

Morgenstern theory of two-person, zero-sum games, I: The

direct proof. Theory and Decision, 1976, 7, 1-28.

This appraisal of the Von Neumann and Morgenstern argument

begins with a summary of the main steps in their analysis: (1) a

definition of an arbitrarily selected game, G, and its two variants;

(2) an application of the two variants of G to G itself for heuristic

purposes; and (3) a "final" and "direct" proof of the theory formulated in the previous two analyses. Subsequent sections argue for

two related theses: (1) the formal or direct proof of their theory

concerning the rational solution to G is logically defective in the

sense that most of the conclusions which they draw do not follow in

any rigorous sense from the premises which they employ; and (2) the

problem with the formal or direct proof turns out to be the problem

of deriving maximin and minimax criteria of rational choice from the

expected utility maximization principle (ELUX) in game-decision

contexts, and there are strong reasons for supposing that no such

'direct' derivation of these criteria is possible.

-286-
McCluskey, M. R. Perspectives on simulation arnd miniaturization.

(HumRRO PP-14-72). Alexandria, VA: Human Resources Research

Organization, 1972.

This presentation suggests a conceptual framework for making

decisions regarding the use of simulation. It covers such aspects as

the applications of simulation, the factors involved in selecting a

simulation methodology, the aspects of the system to be simulated, and

the conditions necessary for transfer to the real world. Finally,

it examines some training applications of simulation and miniaturization.

The four basic areas of endeavor where simulation techniques

have been applied are: training, performance measurement, system

evaluation, and research. There are several advantages to using

* simulation in these areas. (1) It provides an excellent environment

for training personnel to function effectively in a system. (2) It

allows for precise control over situational, experimental, and time

dimensions. (3) Simulation makes possible a relatively unlimited

number of replications under the same or different conditions in order

to develop predictive relationships concerning the performance of the

* system. (4) Simulation provides the capability for economically

testing and evaluating system performance during exploratory and developmental stages. (5) It also assists in simplifying the complex

environments in which some systems must function.

MdHale, J. System simulation: Man plus. Behavioral Science, 1975,

20, 47-56.

This analytical essay is drawn from a larger study which

attempts to redefine the human condition in terms of the evolutionary

* relationships with those diverse technologies, institutions, and

organizational terms which have subtended our survival. The major

premise is that, rather than being alien to or constraining upon human

development, these supporting systems have made us human. We retain

our human qualities only by externalizing various physical and intellectual capacities into autonomously evolving organismic systems

0 which enable us to sidestep many of the natural processes of adapting

the organism itself to the environment.

This article is a recommnendation for both a systems approach

and simulation as the proper analytical tools. Simulation is seen as

a product of science which is a powerful tool for conceptualization

A, as well as for attaining greater predictive understanding and

extended control of the environment. The author contends that as

we have consciously learned how to organize scientific and technical

development on the large scale, we must now orient ourselves to the

conscious process of social intervention, remolding and reshaping

our institutions, organizations, and value systems. The development

Co of social interventions called for requires an improved understanding

of the elements involved and of their complex interactions. To gain

the required understanding, we must apply all appropriate intellectual

and technical tools available to us. Simulation is one such tool.

-287-
McLeod, J. Behavioral science, systems theory -- and simulation.

Behavioral Sc-,ence, 1974, 19, 57-69.

In this article, general systems theory and simulation are

offered as the theoretical framework and methodology most appropriate

for dealing with social systems in the future. The behavioral scientist typically constructs models in his attempt to research a

particular problem. Defining a model as a systems synthesized for a

particular purpose, it follows that a systems approach should be used

in its development. Ideally, this means that a model must be considered in its environment, that is the totality of the suprasystem,

or suprasystems, of which it is a subsystems. And the interaction of

each of the subsystems of which it is comprised on each other, and on

it, must be taken into account. Simulation is one technique facilitating the development of such a model. The author contends that

general systems theory and simulation are both tools for analysis

and synthesis. They are both strongly interdisciplinary, and involve

a way of thinking -- the holistic approach to problems. They differ

primarily, but symbiotically, in that one emphasizes theory, the

other method.

The author reviews the many kinds of simulation, arranging

them on a continuum from least to most sophisticated. The varied

4 purposes of simulation techniques are discussed, including: to probe

the future, model the present, formalize ideas, identify system

pathologies, plan laboratory or real world experiments, demonstrate

the dynamics of a proposed system, familiarize or train people, and * investigate the interaction of social systems. The author admits

- the several problems surround the science of simulation: (1) simulation

is more of an art than a science; (2) simulationists are divided into

those who simulate continuous systems, and those who simulate discrete

systems; (3) languages (natural and computer) often cause difficulties

that impede progress in simulation; (4) simulation suffers from

inadequate documentation; (5) simulation has been undersold, in that

the people who are in a position to use the results have not been

educated as to the proper role of simulation as a methodology they can

use to solve their problems; and, on the other hand, (6) simulation

has been oversold, in that many simulationists have promised more

than simulation can deliver. In conclusion, the author states that

if simulationists use systems theory and the scientific approach for

the development and verification of their models, and overcome the

problems described above, simulation-;illbe well on its way to

J M becoming a science to serve all mankind.

-288-
Michaels, J. W. & Wiggins, J.A. Effects of mutual dependency and

dependency asymmetry on social exchange. Sociometry, 1976,

S 39, 368-376.

A theoretical analysis of the conditions of mutually profitable

exchange -- when two people are partially but equally dependent on one

another for outcomes -- led to four general hypotheses relating the

frequency of mutual giving (exchange) and individual giving to magnitudes

of mutual dependency, individual dependency, and dependency asymmetry.

Three of the hypotheses were tested in a simulation involving

volunteer students enrolled in a sociology course. Subjects were

randomly assigned to high- and low-dependency positions in a dyad. The

dyads were randomly assigned to three treatments, each having a dependency asymmetry of 0.4, but having mutual dependencies of 0.4, 0.6,

and 0.7, respectively.

The three hypotheses tested received support under experimental

procedures. (1) Exchange was not maintained by subjects when mutual

dependency was just below the threshhold for mutually profitable exchange. (2) In the two treatments in which mutually profitable exchange was possible, exchange varied directly with mutual dependency.

(3) The more dependent subjects in each dyad gave more frequently

than the less dependent subjects. These findings were interpreted as

supporting the theoretical analysis of the conditions of mutually

profitable exchange under partial but unequal mutual dependence.

S

Michener, H. A., Fleishman, J. A. & Vaske, J. J. A test of the

bargaining theory of coalition formation in four-person

groups. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,

* 1976, 34, 1114-1126.

Bargaining theory, unlike other theories, attends closely to

the dynamics of negotiation in coalitional situations. Its predictions

occasionally differ from those of minimum resource and pivotal power

theories. The purpose of this article is to test bargaining theory

against minimum resource and pivotal power theories in a series of

situations where the theories make competing predictions.

This test involved eight veto and eight nonveto distributions.

Male subjects (N=128) in four-person groups negotiated the division

of rewards in an unconstrained, face-to-face format. For the non6 veto distributions, results indicate that the bargaining theory is

superior to minimum resource and pivotal power theories in predicting

payoff division, and at least as good in predicting coalition formation. For the veto distributions, however, results indicate that

the bargaining theory is less effective than the minimum resource and

pivotal power theories in predicting payoff division.

-289-
Mihram, G. A. Simulation methodology. Theory and Decision, 1976,

7, 67-94.

This paper delineates explicitly the attributes of simulation

methodology. Simulation is shown to be both an art and a science;

its methodology, properly used, is founded both on confirmed (validated) observation and scrutinized (verified) art work. This paper

further describes the existing procedures by which computer-directed

models can be cyclically scrutinized and confirmed and thereby deemed

credible. The complexities of the phenomena observed by social

scientists are amenable to human understanding by properly applied

simulation - the methodology of the scientist of systems.

Nydegger, R. V. & Owen, G. The norm of equity in a three-person

majority game. BehavioraZ7 Science, 1977, 22, 32-37.

The study of n-person game theory and of coalition formation

frequently provides useful analogs for the study of such systems as:

face-to-face groups, states, nations, or any self-interested groups

in situations involving the possibility of mixed motive or competitive

interaction. The present study addresses itself to some of the

processes that occur in triads when distribution of limited resources

is the goal. Specifically, theprocesses involved are: decision-making,

cooperation and conflict, bargaining, and social comparison.

Three players, A, B, and C, (N-i60) were told that they could

split a payoff if any two of them agreed upon a solution. If A and B

formed a coalition, they would each receive 50% of the winnings. if

AC or BC formed a coalition, then A or B would get 40% and C, 60%.

They were also allowed to use side payments. It was predicted that in

the absence of a formal solution, players would invoke psychological

considerations to arrive at solutions. Since the norm of equity is

widely held, it was predicted that the A.B coalition would result most

frequently and that A and B would show a pre-post bargaining change of

opinion regarding C.

The results were not as expected, even though 15 of the 20 groups

opted for the AJB split. However, in 13 of the 20 groups the two included * members used side payments to form a fully inclusive three-person

* coalition. In comparing the opinion change of the formally excluded

member in the three-way split groups with the excluded member in the

two-way split groups, there was greater opinion change of the excluded

member in the two-way split group. While this was not predicted, it

fits the basic predictions of the study.

-290-
Olmstead, J. A., Cleary, F. K., Lackey, L. L. & Salter, J. A.

Development of Leadership assessment simulations.

* (HumRRO TR 76-21). Alexandria, VA: Human Resources

Research Organization, 1976.

This report describes a project to develop leadership

assessment simulations to be used in US Army assessment centers.

Simulations and associated assessment procedures were developed to

assess three levels of military personnel on 11 leadership dimensions. The dimensions explored include: social skills, communication skills, adaptability, motivation, forcefulness, mental

ability, decision-making, administrative skills, organizational

identification, effectiveness in organizational leadership roles,

supervisory skills, physical competence, technical and tactical

competence, and problem-solving ability.

Materials and procedures were also developed for training

A staff personnel to conduct the simulations and employ the assessment instruments. The report describes the developmental process

and the materials that resulted. It is concluded that organizational

0 simulations contribute an aspect to assessment center programs that

is not obtainable through other techniques.

Pettegrew, L. S. The Paradox Game: Identifying and overcoming

0 untenable interactions. Simulation and Games, 1979, 10,

359-383.

This article explores the many facets of paradoxical commu-

-5, nication in interpersonal encounters. Several issues are explained

* in considerable detail. First, the nature of paradoxical communication

and how it might adequately be distinguished from other interpersonal

* dilemmas is discussed. Second, a structured interpersonal exercise

-5 is presented which provides students with experiential learning in

how to identify and deal effectively with many subtle manifestations

of paradoxical communication.

Variations on the paradoxical theme are suggested for appli- - . cation to special audiences. When accompanied by the requisite background information, these versions provide the individual instructor

with a useful tool for introducing students to paradoxical communication and the potentially untenable situations which may occur. The

'C authors lastly place the phenomenon of paradoxical communication into

a paradigm of social power and interpersonal influence.

-291-
.

I-. . -

Rapoport, A., Frenkel, 0. & Perner, J. Experiments with cooperative

2 x 2 games. Theoy -and Decision, 1977, 8, 67-92.

Nash's solution of a two-person cooperative gave prescribes

a coordinated mixed strategy solution involving Pareto-optimal outcomes of the game. Testing this normative solution experimentally

presents problems because rather detailed explanations of the concepts of 'threat strategy', 'strategy mixture', 'expected payoff',

must be given to the subjects. To the extent that it is desired to

test the solution using 'naive' subjects, the problem arises of

imparting to the subjects a minimal level of understanding of the

issue involved in the game without actually suggesting the solution.

-4- "Experiments were performed on 40 subjects to test the properties of the solution of a cooperative two-person game as these

are embodied in three of Nash's four axioms: Symmetry, Paretooptimality, and Invariance with respect to positive linear transformations. Of these, the last was discorroborated, suggesting that

interpersonal comparison of utilities plays an important part in the

negotiations. Sme evidence was also found for a conjecture generated

by previous experiments, namely that an externally imposed threat

" . (penalty for non-cooperation) tends to bring the players closer

together than the threats generated bv the subjects themselves in the

process of negotiation.

Roeckelein, J.E. Simula.tion o-' organiztaticnrs: An annotated ..... (HumRRO TR-67-14) Alexandria, 7A: Human Resources Research

Office, 1967.

This collection of references on simulation of organizations

was compiled in the course of HumRRO research program planning. The

bibliography is divided into three principal areas: (1) man-centered

simulation, (2) man-machine simulation, and (3) machine-centered

simulation. Within each of these principal areas, publications are

separated into those concerned directly with the simulation of organizations and those which may be related to organizations only indirectly.

In addition, an initial section covers general reference works and

bibliographies which are offered as useful source material and pertain

either to simulation or to the study of organizations.

-292-
Roth, A. E. Bargaining ability, the utility of playing a game, and

models of coalition formation. Journal of Vathe"aticaL

Psychology, 1977, 16, 153-160.

A utility function for playing a given position in a game

is developed as a natural extension of the utility function which

defines the rewards available in the game. This function is determined

by a player's opinion of his bargaining ability. A characterization

of such utilities is obtained which generalizes previous results that

the Shapley value and Banzhaf-Coleman index are both cardinal utility

functions which reflect different bargaining abilities.

The approach taken here -- that of coalition formation -- is

* motivated by the work of Komorita and others. An expression for the

expected reward of a player in a given position of a particular game

is given. Rather than depending on a comparison between different

games, this expression depends on detailed consideration of the game

in question. In particular, the expected reward depends on an assessment both of how well the player will do if a given coalition forms,

* as well as the probability that the coalition will form. Results show

that the expressions for the expected reward and for the extended

utility have the same functional form. The connection is more than a

formal one, since a player's experiences in a game should influence

his opinion of his bargaining ability, while his opinion of his bargaining

ability should influence his expectations of reward in a given game.

Ruben, B. D. Toward a theory of experienced-based instruction.

Simulation and Gcares, 1977, 8, 211-231.

Presented in this paper is a generic model of experiential

instructional methods which aims to (1) broadly enumerate the forms

of experiential activities and their relationship to one another,

(2) provide a classification scheme for examining the structural components and interactional dynamics of experiential activities, (3)

suggest the relationship between structures of experiential activities

and instructional outcomes, and (4) indicate the basis by which experiential techniques can be selected and utilized to match instructtional objectives.

The framework presented in this paper is intended to be

suggestive, not prescriptive. In general, the framework suggests that

experiential activities with components that are externally defined

and regulated -- externally parametered -- seem appropriate to

instructional settings where the teaching of specific content is the

primary goal. Conversely, activities that are more internally parametered seem better suited for instruction in more generalized coping

processes.

-293-
Ruggiero, F. An overview of the development of computer modeling for

instructional and research purposes. 3ehavior .esearch

,fethods and Instrumentation, 1977, 9, 76-80.

This paper presents an overview of the chracteristics,

pedagogy, and future prospectus of some widely used computer-based

laboratory simulation systems in psychology. These systems (DATACALL,

EXPER SIM, MESS, LESS, and WRIST) were developed to augment undergraduate laboratory instruction by providing an experience which

enables students to have considerable practice designing a series of

experiments in an interesting and challenging context. The use of

computer-based simulation makes possible the construction of a

S"learning environment in which the laboratory class is converted into a

research community engaged in scientific dialogue. The development of

new simulation models is critical to the operation of this environment.

A team approach for developing new models, requiring a programmer,

content specialist, and instructional designer, is offered which has

appropriate incentives built in to insure its success.

Schultz, R. L. The use of simulation for decision-making. 3ehav-ioral

Science, 1974, 19, 36L4-350.

The problem of making use of simulation models in the sense

of influencing decisions is a special case of the problem of using

models or of achieving innovation or organizational change. In this

paper, considerations about model use are viewed as a key to understanding the nature of policy simulations. It is argued that (1)

policy simulations are designed to influence decisions; (2) factors

related to making use of policy simulations are behavioral as well

as technical; and (3) these application factors dictate a revised

model development procedure.

Seltzer, R. A. Simulation of the dynamics of action. ?s'choicca

-eports, 1973, 32, 859-872.

The purpose of this study is to help in the process of

examining the theory of motivation proposed in The 7'4ntics

.A on (Atkinson & Birch, 1970), to clarify certain theoretical

issues, and to aid in the formulation of experimental research

strategies. Computer simulation was used so that a variety of

experimental paradigms could be investigated in a highly condensed

time period. Results of this study are very encouraging. First,

they show that the theory could be simulated. The simulation

brought out several theoretical issues which were examined and resolved. An experiment in progress was simulated, and as a result,

-294-
some changes in procedure were suggested. Certain behavioral patterns,

following from the theory, were also found in the simulation. It

is concluded that (a) computer simulation can be a highly valuable

tool in theory building and testing, (b) the theory for which the

simulation was undertaken implies certain identifiable behavioral

patterns, and (c) simulation can aid in the design of experiments

to test theoretical issues.

Shapira, Z. & Dunbar, R. L. M. Testing Mintzberg's managerial roles

classification using an in-basket simulation. JcurnaZ of

AppLied Psychoiogy, 1980, 65, 87-95.

* Managerial work was described by Mintzberg as consisting of

ten roles classified into the following three groups: (a) interpersonal roles, including the figurehead, leader and liaison roles;

(b) informational roles, including the monitor, disseminator and

spokesman roles; and (c) decisional roles, including the entrepreneur,

disturbance handler, resource allocator and negotiator roles. An

* in-basket simulation exercise, constructed to test Mintzberg's

classification, was administered to 54 Master of Business Administration students and 112 managers in two different studies.

Analysis using the Guttman-Lingoes smallest space analysis suggest d

that the ten roles can be meaningfully divided into two facets.

One facet consists of roles that deal with the generation and processing

* of information, and the second facet is comprised of roles that

involve decisions. The implications of the results and the use of

in-basket simulations for the study of managerial behavior are

discussed.

Shubik, M. & Brewer, G. Methodological advances in gaming. Simulation

and Gcones, 1972, 3, 329-347.

This paper explores the reasons for gaming and some basic

types of gaming. It proposes a method for combining the strengths

* of two extremely different forms of gaming in an inexpensive and

simple manner. Specifically, it discusses the potential use of a

one-person, interactive computer gave that combines the features of

rigid-rule gaming with free-form exercise.

The one-person, computer interactive, quasi-rigid rule game

4is described as a technique which reconciles the inherent problems of

computerized games and free-form games taken alone. The basic problem.

in reconciling the two is to meld the strengths of each game form to

extract their mutual benefits at optimal trade-off in sacrifices to

the play, imaginativeness, interest, coordination, control and evaluation of the game. The one-person game was developed by H. A. DeWeerd

-295-

%
and R. J. Meeker. The game involves 13 Soviet-Arab military steps that

progressively endanger Israeli security. The roles of all the teams

except those of the United States are played through scenario extensions.

The purpose of the game is to reveal the stage at which the endangerment

of Israel would lead the U.S. player to sanction large-scale direct

military assistance to Israel. Methodological advancements possible

through the one-person game are discribed in detail.

Spelt, P. F. Evaluation of a continuing computer conference on

simulation. Behavior Resear'ch Methods and Instrumrentation,

1977, 9, 87-91.

A 20-day computer conference was held in preparation for a

face-to-face meeting to produce a computer simulation. The conference

resulted in the generation of seven different models: one input, or

initial training, model and the other six of the testing phase, during

which transitivity data are generated. One of the significant realizations that came out of this conference was that the simulation

finally produced would have to integrate training and testing phases,

whereas none of the models the group had intially reviewed had done

this. The author concludes by stating that computer conferencing

appears to hold great value for faculty development in a period of

reduced faculty mobility.

Starr, J. & Yngvesson, B. Scarcity and disputing: Zeroing-in on

compromise decisions. American Ethnologist, 1975, 2,

553-566.

This paper critically examines the ways in which the concepts

of "compromise" and "zero-sum game" have been used to describe the

outcomes of disputes. In particular, it questions the assumption

that disputants with multiplex ties will try to compromise their

differences, because their goal will be maintenance of the relationship,

rather than "winning". A re-analysis of case materials from three

societies indicates that many persons in multiplex relations seek and

obtain zero-sum outcomes to disputes. It is suggested that this can

be explained if (1) the goals of the disputants are distinguished from

the goals of the third party, and (2) the relative rank and power of

the disputants is considered. It is further suggested that people with

on-going relations will seek zero-sum outcomes to disputes when they

are attempting to gain control over land or some other resource in a

scarcity situation because control over that resource is a crucial

factor in maintaining and altering power differences.

-296-
Steinfatt, T. M. The prisoner's dilemma and a creative alternative

game: The effects of communications under conditions of real

* reward. Simulation and 5nxes, 1973, 4, 389-409.

Two experiments are reported here which explore the role of

communication in gaming studies of conflict. The first experiment

investigated the effect of communication on cooperative choice during

play of a Prisoner's Dilemma game under conditions of real reward. The

* results indicate that communication during the game affected the

percentage of cooperative responses. The higher the level of communication, the greater the number of cooperative responses, at least

under conditions of real reward.

The second experiment examined the effect of communication on

* a situation which simulated the type of environment which may result

in collusive crime: a desired goal is obtainable if one person can

convince the other that the goal can, in fact, be attained. At least

two variables seem related to this process, according to the results

of the experiment. First, communication -- the ability to transfer

information between both parties concerning the possibilities of the

* situation -- is necessary for a creative solution to occur. Second,

the personality variable of dogmatism seems to be related to the

ability to achieve a solution in this type of game. This latter

4! result has implications for effective leadership style.

Streufert, S. Increasing failure and response rate in complex

decision-making. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology,

1969, 5, 310-323.

The effect of increasing failure on response rate and its

* components in complex decision making was investigated. Data were

collected in a simulated decision-making environment permitting integrated, retaliatory, and general unintegrated decision-making by dyads.

Forty-four undergraduate male volunteers from a state university

participated in the Tactical and Negotiations Game simulation.

Statistical analyses included ANOVA of decision-making response rate

components and Newman-Keuls procedures based on the ANOVA error terms

comparing failure levels.

The results indicated that: (1) integrated decision making

first increases and then decreases as the failure levels of information which groups experience are increased; (2) general unintegrated

C decision-making increases when failure reaches moderate levels; and

(3) retaliatory decision making is not affected by failure induction.

The total decision-making response rate generally follows the characteristics of the curve for the integrated decision-making component,

although it is somewhat higher.

-297-
Streufert, S. Complexity and complex decision-making: Convergences

between differentiation and integration approaches to the

prediction of task performance. Journal of Ex-eimentzl

Social Psychology, 1970, 6, 494-509.

A series of three experiments designed to measure effects of

environmental complexity (information load, failure, and success) and

complexity of personality structure on differentiation and integration

in decision making were conducted. Eight hundred and thirty-nine male

volunteers from a state university served as subjects for the experiments; 22 subjects of simple conceptual structure and 22 of complex

conceptual structure were placed in each of three separate experiments.

The dyad teams participated in the Tactical and Negotiations Game (TNG).

The three experiments tested: (1) load variation, (2) failure variation; and (3) success variation.

It was found that increases in load, success, or failure

produced initially increasing and then decreasing integration levels.

Differentiation levels increased and then remained constant. Differentiation exceeded integration. Structurally complex subjects

exceeded structural'y simple subjects in integration scores, but not

in differentiation scores. It is concluded that complexity theories

dealing with differentiation and those dealing with integration should

not be viewed as equivalent or widely related. Common theoretical

2.predictions for differentiation and integration were placed in doubt.

Streufert, S. C. Effects of information relevance on decision making

in complex environments. Memory and Cognition, 1973, 1,

224-228.

The present study was designed to test for the effects of

information relevance on measures of complex decision making. To

V.-. begin studying the separate effects of the two variables, information

load was held constant at the previously determined optimal level and

V..- information relevance was varied as a proportion of the load. Subjects

included 24 undergraduate college students randomly selected from a

psychology course at a midwestern university. The subjects were

evaluated on various decision making measures applied to a tactical

and negotiations game. It was found that integrated decision making

(a complex decision response) was modified by changes in information

relevance, but that respondent decision making and information search

(simple decision responses) did not change. The results were tentatively interpreted to suggest that complex decision making varies with

relevance, while simple decision making varies with information load.

It is suggested that the relevance concept would be a useful addition

to complexity theory.

-298-
-w Streufert, S. & Castore, C. H. Effects of increasing success and

* failure on perceived information quality. Psychonomic

* Science, 1968, 11, 63-64.

Conceptualizations of information quality, although based on

subject performance, are experimenter defined. The present experiment

is concerned with examining the subject's (N-36) perception of information quality. The effect of increasing failure and success on

* perceived information quality is investigated.

The effect of experimentally-induced success and failure in

a complex decision-making task on subjective estimates of information

quality was obtained for information relevant to the subjects' own

decision-making area and that of a marginal group member. It was

* found that quality initially is perceived to improve. Estimates of

quality for success and failure conditions do not differ until success

and failure levels are quite high. Once high levels of success are

reached, subjects in the success condition consider information as

* further improving, while subjects in failure conditions maintain

previous perceptions. The implications of this result for complexity

theory are considered.

Streufert, S. & Castore, C. H. Information search and the effects of

failure: A test of complexity theory. Journal of

* Experimental Social Psychology, 1971, 7, 125-143.

The effects of increasing failure and the structural complexity of decision-making teams on four aspects of information search

and utilization were examined. Twenty-four structurally homogeneous

dyads and 12 control dyads were constructed from 576 mal 'e volunteers

serving as subjects in a complex experimental simulation running for

six 30-minute periods. Information load was held constant at seven

inputs per period. The proportion of failure inputs was sequentially

increased from 1:7 in period one to 6:7 in period six. Dyads in the

control condition were not exposed to failure.

Structurally simple subjects were found to engage in more

* delegated information search than complex subjects. Self-initiated

* information search initially increased, then remained fairly constant

* at higher proportions of failure. Contrary to expectations, no

* differences were found between simple and complex subjects in selfinitiated search. Complex dyads exceeded simple dyads on two measures

of information utilization. The number of search moves used in integrative decisions produced an inverted U-shaped curve with optimal

levels at moderate proportions of failure. Efficiency of information

utilization showed a general decrease as failure increased. The data

produced limited support for complexity theory.

-299-
Streufert, S., Clardy, M. A., Driver, M. J., Karlins, M.~, Schroeder,

H. M. and Sutedfeld, P. A tactical game for the analysis

of complex decision making in individuals and groups.

Psychological Re-ports, 1965, 17, 723-729.

This paper presents a prototype of a simulation technique

specifically designed to maximize differences in information processing

characteristics. An appropriate simulation task must permit measurement of both (a) structural components of decision making behavior, and

(b) relevant attitude and need content. The environment, in turn, must

be designed to enable subjects to choose from a wide range of more or

less complex strategies for dealing with the task. These were major

considerations in the development of a simulated war game environment

which lends itself to the analysis of performance and perceptual characteristics of individuals and social groups. Suggestions for procedures,

space requirements, and measurement techniques are included.

Streufert, S. & Driver, M.. J. Conceptual structure, information

load and perceptual complexity. Psychononic Science, 1965,

3, 249-250.

A simulated decision-making environment was used to test

certain theoretical propositions of Schroder, Driver & Streufert.

Subjects included 36 male university students who were tested

to determine their level of conceptual structure. The subjects

were divided into two groups on the basis of their scores on

a sentence completion and impression formation test. Teams were

placed in a tactical game situation.

It was shown that differentiation and integration in percep-

.4 tion increases with increasing information load until a criterion of

optimal perception is reached. Beyond this optimal point, differentiation and integration in perception decreases with further

increasing information load. These findings may be represented as

an inverted U-shaped curve relating load and perception. Differences

U in the conceptual structure of Ss resulted in different levels of this

inverted U curve. Subjects scoring high on measures of conceptual

structure score higher on the number of perceptual integration

categories.

-300-
0.

Streufert, S., Driver, M. J. & Haun, K. W. Components of response

rate in complex decision-making. Journal of Exoerimentai

Social Psychology, 1967, 3, 286-295.

This paper focuses on response rates of task-oriented social

groups in complex decision-making situations. The research question

concerns the relationship of decision types to environmental variation

(information load). An experiment was conducted to investigate the

effect of changes in information load on response rate and its components in complex decision-making. Data were collected in a simulated

decision-making environment permitting both integrated and unintegrated

decision-making responses.

* It was found (1) strategic integrated decision-making first

increases, then decreases with increasing information load, (2) general

unintegrated decision-making first decreases, then increases with

increasing information load, and (3) simple retaliatory decision-making

increases with increasing information load. Total decision-making

response rate generally follows the ascending input-output rate curve

which has been established for a number of information-processing

organisms. The experiment demonstrates that environmental conditions

have differential effects on decision types.

* Streufert, S., Kliger, S. C., Castore, C. H., & Driver, M. J.

Tactical and negotiations game for analysis of decision

integration across decision areas. Psychological Reports,

1967, 20, 155-157.

An experimental simulation, using the Tactical and Negotiation

* Game (TNG) is described as a method for measurement of integration and

response patterning in group decision making and strategic perception.

The major disadvantage of the Tactical Decision-Making Game (TG) is the

possibility that measurement of decision-making complexity may be incomplete when integration within one decision area is tapped and

decision integration across decision areas is not considered. TNG was

designed to overcome this disadvantage. This method employs a simulated game including tactical, negotiation, economic, intelligence,

and other components. There is a greater richness of data in the TNG

compared to the TG. This allows the possibility of measuring integration, decision frequency, information search, etc. across, in

addition to within, game components.

-301-
Streufert, S. & Schroder, H. M. Conceptual structure, environmental

complexity and task performance. Journat of E -zrerimental

Research in Personality, 1965, 1, 132-137.

This study tests the hypothesis that abstract persons or

groups reach optimum performance characteristics (to criterion) at a

level of environmental complexity where the performance of more concrete persons or groups has already begun to decline. Environmental

complexity is considered in terms of information load.

A simulated decision-making environment was used to test

(N=236) several proposed hypotheses relating behavior in complex

environments. It was shown that integration involved in behavior increases with increasing information load until an optimum performance

point is reached. Beyond such a point, the amount of integration

decreases with further increasing information load. These findings

may be represented as an inverted U-shaped curve relating load to

performance. Differences in conceptual structure of group members

resulted in different levels of this inverted U-shaped function.

The more flexible, integrative, complex, or "abstract" the structure

of the group members, the higher the level of integration involved

in performance.

Streufert, S. & Streufert, S. C. Information load, time spent, and

risk taking in complex decision making. Psychonomic Science,

1968, 13, 327-330.

In this study, an initial attempt was made to collect information on risk-taking variables in more complex decision-making tasks.

The effect of the quantity of information which decision-makers

receive per unit time and the effect of the length of time spent in

decision-making were examined. A simulated decision-making task of

some complexity was used for data collection to permit comparison with

A results obtained in simpler laboratory settings (N-56).

It was found that risk taking increases with time spent in

decision-making and reaches highest levels under optimal information

conditions. The results of this experiment are consistent with the

findings of Davis, Hoppe, & Hornseth (1968) which suggested that risk

taking is more often strategic (probably rational, integrated) than

respondent (probably retaliatory, unintegrated). The attempt to look

for strategies in risky decision-making is believed to be of considerable value.

-302-
Streufert, S. & Streufert, S. C. Effects of failure in a complex

decision-making task on perceptions of cost, profit and

* certainty. Organizational Behxvior & Human Performance,

1970, 5, 15-32.

Dyad decision-making teams spent seven consecutive half-hour

periods playing a complex international game containing tactical,

economic, negotiation and intelligence components. Eighteen male

0 undergraduates served as subjects in this simulation. Although the

subjects assumed they were affecting their environment, the game was

pre-programmed. Teams received seven informative messages per onehalf hour period. Increasing failure was induced by increasing the

proportion of failure to neutral messages over periods. After each

one-half hour period, subjects indicated their present and anticipated

cost, profit and certainty estimates on rating scales.

Increasing failure produced generally rising cost level

estimates. A discrepancy between actually experienced and anticipated

cost levels under low failure levels produced an optimistic outlook

40 by subjects that expressed itself in initially steady profit estimates

and initially rising certainty estimates. Under higher failure levels,

profit and certainty estimates were inversely related to increasing

cost estimates. It is suggested that under low failure levels, perceptions of psycho-economic conditions in complex environments may be

multiply determined. However, as failure levels increase and optimism

• is absent, perceptions of psycho-economic conditions may be determined

by the most salient environmental characteristic.

Streufert, S. & Streufert, S. C. Effects of increasing failure and

* success on military and economic risk taking. Journal of

Applied Psychology, 1970, 54, 393-400.

The effects of success, failure and time spent in decisionmaking on the degree of military and economic risk taking was investigated. A complex experimental simulation technique (TNG) was employed

c as the research method to permit comparison of data obtained in a more

"real world" setting with results reported by investigators using

small-scale laboratory techniques. The subjects for this simulation

were 88 male undergraduates from a state university.

The results indicate that risk taking increases with the

4length of time that decision-making groups spend in working on a task.

After some time, risky decision making may become concentrated in one

decision area at a time, even though risks could be taken in more

areas. Comparisons to laboratory results suggest some commonalities

as well as some differences with regard to risk-taking results.

* -303-
Streufert, S., Streufert, S. C. & Castore, C. H. Leadership in

negotiations and the complexity of conceptual structure.

Journal of AppLied Psychology, 1968, 52, 218-223.

This experiment analyzes the relationship of the leadership

characteristics described by Stogdill's ten leadership scales to the

complexity of conceptual structure in leaders, as measured by the

sentence completion test (SCT) of Schrodes and Streufert (1963) and

Schroder, et. al. (1967).

Dyad negotiations teams (homogeneous in the complexity of the

individuals' conceptua structure) spent several hours attempting to

solve a simulated international conflict situation. Every participant

(N=350) repeatedly rated himself and the other participants on

Stogdill's ten leadership characteristics. The dyad member with the

highest overall ratings on all scales was considered the dyad's leader.

The effect of simplicity and complexity of conceptual structure on the

degree to which leaders display Stogdill's leadership characteristics

was analyzed in an ANOVA design. The interaction effect for complexity

and leadership characteristics was highly significant. Complex leaders

were rated higher on tolerance for uncertainty, assumption of leadership role, consideration, and predictive accuracy. Simple leaders were

rated higher on initiation of structure, production emphasis, and

demands reconciliation. It is suggested that a study of the type of

leadership required in a given situation would be of value in optimizing

leadership and group performance.

Streufert, S., Streufert, S. C. & Castore, C. H. Complexity,

increasing failure, and decisiun-making. JournaZ of

Experzimenta Research in PersonaZity, 1969, 3, 293-300.

Eleven dyads of simple and eleven dyads of complex conceptual

structure participated in an experimental (controlled) simulation.

Subjects were exposed to increasing failure levels. The proportion of

failure messages per half-hour period of play varied from one out of

seven during the first period of play to six out of seven during the

sixth period of play. Decision integration by groups of subjects was

measured by (1) calculating the number of decisions which were strategically related (a second decision was planned for the future when an

original decision was planned as a pre-condition for the later

decision), and (2) by calculating the number of decisions which were

related to each other strategically and pragmatically (post hoc

relationship).

It was found that the data generally support positions of

complexity theory. In general, moderate failure levels produce more

decision integration than either low or high failure levels. Complex

dyads produce more integrations than simple dyads. One of the two

analyses indicated that complex dyads reach optimum decision integration characteristics under higher failure levels than simple dyads.

-304-

-d
Streufert, S., Suedfeld, P. & Driver, M. J. Conceptual structure,

information search, and information utilization. Journal

of Personality and Social Psychology, 1965, 2,_736-740.

*The effect of changes in information load and complexity of

*subjects' conceptual structure on information search and utilization

is measured. Specific attention is paid to three processes: delegated search for information, self-initiated search for information,

and integrative utilization of information. A complex decisionmaking task was used to provide an opportunity for differences in

information handling. Subjects included 185 male university students

from an eastern university who were tested to determine their level of

complexity in conceptual structure.

Differences in delegated information search for subjects

differing in the complexity of conceptual structure were found for

peak information load conditions. This finding could be explained

as a consequence of lacking sensitivity of persons scoring low on

conceptual measures to changes in environmental conditions. A signi-

* ficant interaction effect was also found between conceptual structures

and information loads in self-initiated information search. This is

consistant with previous findings showing that structurally simple

persons respond more directly to environmental information.

Suedfeld, P. & Streufert, S. Information search as a function of

conceptual and environmental complexity. Psychonomic

Science, 1966, 4, 351-352.

Individuals operating at complex and at simple levels of con-

* ceptual structure (N=36) played a tactical game for three half-hour

periods. The present study investigated both the amount and kind of

information subjects requested. Results indicated a negative relationship between information input and subsequent information search. As

predicted, simple individuals were more interested in receiving feedback about ongoing activities, while complex subjects searched for new

and unexplored aspects of the situation.

Tafoya, D. W. The Motivation Game: Effecting social behavior in

small groups. Simulation and Games, 1979, 10, 403-418.

The purpose of this article is to describe a game which

affects individual performance levels within a group by systematically

manipulating motivational rewards. Focal aspects of motivation

theory, characteristics of incentives, considerations that managers

should keep in mind when moving to incentive schemes, and the

instructional utility of such an exercise are discussed in detail.

C, -305-
The Motivation Game is a simulation exercise designed to

* illustrate the effects of incentives on individual and group behavior. The game establishes two conditions typical of incentive

schemes commonly used in business- and/or task-oriented small

groups to stimulate behavior: Reward those who display potential

through their performance, and reward those presumably possessing

W potential, even though the potential is not displayed. Examination

of game-generated data suggests that the incentives affect both individual and group behavior. The game is also a potentially useful

device for explaining more complex aspects of motivation theory.

Tallman, I. & Wilson, L. Simulating social structures: The use of a

simulation game in cross-national research. Simuiaticn and

3ames, 1974, 5, 147-167.

Interest in the use of game simulations as a research method

derives largely from two fundamental assumptions: (1) games are a

universal aspect of human existence, and (2) the structure of games is

isomorphic to aspects of social structure. This paper explores the

utility of game simulations in cross-cultural and cross-national

research. The conclusions drawn from this analysis are based on one

effort to use a simulation game, and so should be considered in heuristic rather than definitive terms.

The study was designed to explore the interplay between intrafamily behavior and social structure variables in influencing a child's

capacity to adapt to social change. The game developed for this research was d modified version of the simulation game Life Career (Boocock, 1968). The data gathered pertaining to face validity and game

utility indicate that simulation games can be a useful method in

cross-national research. In the opinion of the authors, this method

provides a much more flexible means for approximating solutions to

problems of cultural appropriateness and conceptual equivalence than

the common techniques of survey interviews or the classic form of

experiments. At the very least, the simulation game seems to provide

a new type of cross-cultural data -- allowing for the assessment of

behavior in the process of solving problems closely linked to those

faced in everyday life.

-306-

. . . . . * *~'h~ t.*.*.A
Tiede, R. V., Burt, R. A. & Bean, T. T. _7esign :an integrated

division-level battalion sir'uZation .- r research, aevelorrnent, and training. Alexandria, VA: US Army Research

Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences, 1979.

This technical report describes the structural framework of

an Integrated Division-level Battle Simulation. It discusses and

documents the critical trade-of fs which need to be made in further

development and implementation of the simulation and which underlie.

the numerous design decisions that have already been made. It

discusses the applicability of the design to the three major areas

for which such a simulation should be useful, namely: (1) behavioral

science research on human performance in command and control; (2)

combat developments for the analysis and evaluation of tactics and

doctrine; and (3) as a training device for command groups/staff.

Also discussed are the player tasks and roles in each of the modules,

the general rules of play, the information flow required to support

stand-alone and integrated play, controller requirements and functions, data to be obtained and evaluation criteria to be applied, and

other aspects of the design necessary to allow for implementation of

the simulation.

Tuggle, F. D. Theory content and explanatory power of simulation models.

Behavioral Science, 1978, 23, 271-290.

A concise methodology for the efficient modeling of behavioral

phenomena in living systems at the levels of organisms, groups, organizations, societies, and supranational systems is proposed. The

methodology helps resolve questions such as: When is a model to be

made more complex? What variables are useful ones to add? When should A~

the model development process cease? The methodology is founded upon

(1) the precise identification and delineation of the set of behavioral

phenomena to be explained, and (2) the development of a meaningful

metric of the content or "size" of alternative explanatory models.

From these data, measures of explanatory power (relative amount of

the phenomena explained) and explanatory yield (the average amount of

explanation per unit of theory content) may be derived. Explanatory

power is shown to be an increasing function of theory content, and

explanatory yield is shown to be a decreasing function of theory content. The methodology is illustrated in detail in the context of six

successive simulation models of the cognitive behaviors of a subject

solving a job shop scheduling task. The success of the final model in

providing a complete description of one large class of the subject's

behavior corroborates the usefulness of the methodology.

-30 7-
Wagner, L. W. & Palola, E. G. The miniature replica model and its

use in laboratory experiments of complex organizations.

S)OciaL Forces, 1964, 42, 418-428.

This paper represents an extension in the search for methods

of exploring and testing sociological propositions and organizations.

This search has focused recently on the use of simulated organizations

in laboratory experiments. Based upon their experiences with a unique

laboratory experiment on organizations, the authors suggest that the

advantages which normally accrue to experimentation cannot be generalized easily to experimentation with the miniature replica model of

organizations. Following a report of the structure of their laboratory

experiment, the authors discuss four critical problems associated with

this form of experimentation: (1) the nature and combination of

properties considered to constitute the miniature replica of an

organization, (2) instituting system and measurement controls, (3)

the provision of structural proof, and (4) randomization.

4ahba, M4. A. & Lirtzman, S. T. A theory of organizational coalition

formations. Y:-nan Pelations, 1972, 25, 515-527.

A review of the literature reveals that the construct or

coalition formation is receiving increasing attention as an important

variable in organization theory. However, much of the research on

coalition formation is scanty and contradictory. This paper argues

that coalition formation theories and research will continue to have

little or no value to the studies of organizations as long as organizational variables are ignored. It is proposed here that coalition

formations should be placed in their proper organizational context to

enhance the understanding of both social organizations and coalition

formations. Coalition formations, like organizations, do not act in

vacumo; they interact with their environment. Some of the environmental

variables are controllable and some are not. Consequently, organizational coalitions, in their attempt to achieve their goals, are

faced either with certainty or uncertainty and are continuously seeking

certainty. This distinction between the conditions of certainty and

uncertainty of success make it possible to propose a Coalition Expected Utility Theory (CEU) to predict, not only the coalitions that are

most likely to be formed, but also the coalitions that are least likely

to be formed. The hypothesis is postulated that coalitions with

the highest expected utility are the most likely to be formed, while

coalitions with the lowest expected utility are the least likely to be

formed.

-308-
Two experiments were designed to test the hypothesis about

* the superiority of the CEU models. The first experiment tested for

coalition under uncertainty, using 48 subjects in 16 triads. There

was a total of 240 observations in each of the four triads. The

results showed that the observed frequencies and the percentage of

coalitions correctly predicted by the CEU theory were significant.

The second experiment tested the situation of coalition under cer-

• tainty. Again, there were 240 observation in each of the four triads,

and the percentage of coalitions correctly predicted by the CEU theory

was significant. This study lends support to the CEU theory, which

states that the context of organizational coalition formation is crucial

in determining which coalitions will be formed, and to the newer

organizational theories, which propose environmental uncertainty as a

* primary variable in organizational structure and behavior.

Walther, H. J. Catalog of war gaming and military simulation models.

Washington, DC: Studies Analysis and Gaming Agency, 1975.

ADA012-803.

This catalog contains a brief description of 152 military

simulations and models which are in general use throughout the

Department of Defense. The models and simulations are categorized as

to application. Thus, there are 46 Strategic Force models, 22 General

Purpose Land Forces models, 14 General Purpose Air Forces models, 19

General Purpose Naval Forces models, 11 General Forces Combined Arms

models, 32 Logistics models, 3 Personnel models, 3 CommunicationsElectronics models, and 2 Politico-Military simulations. All models

are listed alphabetically by long and short title and model type.

The description for each model includes: proponent, developer,

41 purpose, general description, input, output, limitations, hardware,

software, time requirements, security classification, frequency of

use, users and point of contact for additional information.

Westen, T. E. & Buckley, J. J. Toward an explanation of experimentally

obtained outcomes to a simple, majority rule game. Journal

of Conflict Resolution, 1974, 18, 198-229.

The problem of so many solutions to n-person games is examined

through the vehicle of a four-person simple, majority-rule game.

Ninety-seven experimental triads were employed to demonstrate that three

different solutions can be differentially predicted as one varies the

structural characteristics of otherwise strictly identical games in

characteristic function form. The three solutions were identified in

conformity with the von Neumann and Morgenstern definition of a solution:

symmetric, inflated and partitioned. Five structural, non-game-theoto retic characteristics which the authors had observed in prior studies

were operationalized. These, it was hypothesized, would predict the

different game outcomes. These structural characteristics served as

-309-
independent variables: (1) size of payoff, (2) divisibility of payoff, (3) manner of play, (4) naming of player positions, and (5) communications employed. The 97 experimental games were then run with 98

volunteer subjects. Analysis of the experimental triads indicated

support for the central hypothesis: some structural, non-game-theoretic

characteristics are predictors of some solution types.

This study demonstrates that the problem of multiple solutions

to an n-person game may simply be a reflection of the versatility of

the mathematics of formal game theory. Accordingly, the authors suggest

that a formal structural-behavioral model of conflict needs to be

articulated and then mapped into the existing theory of n-person games (specifically to solutions). While the authors do not seem convinced

that the variables chosen in this study are all meaningful in any

coherent theoretical sense, they do believe that they have an impact

in predicting outcomes.

Wolf, f-. Effects of comparative information and decision complexity

in a one-person game. Simulation and gores, 1973, 4, 145-157.

This article explores the relation of input complexity and

performance criteria in a one-person game. The authors set out to

determine the effects of output complexity on performance in situations

of differing input information complexity. Three hypotheses for

inexperienced decision-makers are posited: (1) lower performance and

learning with several decisions as compared to one decision, (2) lower -~ performance and learning with increased information about how another

plays, and (3) an interactive effect of decreased performance and

learning with both several decisions and increased information. The

hypotheses were tested in a one-person game.

A computerized oligopoly business game was used to represent

the organizational environment. Seventy-two students were randomly

and uniformly assigned to the six experimental conditions. The results

of this study showed comparative information, rather than number of

decisions, to have the stronger effect on performance. The number of

decisions and of comparative information influence on actual decisions

showed only an interaction effect. The research question left by this

study is: What is the relative effect of the relationship between the

players as represented by a matrix of payoffs or markets compared to

the perceived relationship based on behavioral contingencies and

behavioral correlations? Suggestions for research to answer this

problem are discussed.

-310-
7

Wolfe, J. Correlates and measures of the external validity of

* computer-based business policy decision-making environments.

Simulation a lames, 1976, 7, 411-438.

Computer-based business games have demonstrated their internal validity as environments for teaching business policy and decision

making. Little attention, however, has been paid to their external

validity. This is unfortunate, for the ultimate test of any teaching

method is the transferability of its lessons to the outside world.

External validity would also support business games as assessment

devices and organizational laboratories. This study tests the

external validity of computer-based business games in one setting.

O The study population consisted of 74 senior business students

and 31 middle-management executives. The two groups played in

separate industries of a complex computer-based business administration

game. Various nonobtrusive measurements were taken before and after

play. Results indicated a great deal of agreement between the two

* groups as to what constituted effective and ineffective decision-making

practices. The differences which were found can be traced to past

conditioning. Further, despite the businessmen's comparatively poor

results, each businessman's team performance was moderately correlated

to his real-world business performance. From the inferential studies

conducted here, it appears that complex business games may have high

* external validityas business policy and decision-making teaching aids.

Young, J. W. Behavioral and perceptual differences between structurally

equivalent, two-person games. Journal of Conflict Resolution,

• 1977, 21, 299-322.

This research primarily examines the effects of "naturalness"

of context upon (a) game-related trusting behavior, (b) cognitive predictors of trusting behavior such as the other's trustworthiness and

perceived intentions, and (c) subjects' attributions of causality

within the experimental gaming situation itself. Since reward level

and trustworthy first impressions could possibly moderate the effects

of context, a 2x 2 x2 (rich versus poor context x83% versus 50% reward

level x good versus bad first impressions) factorial design was used

in which 60 male Yale undergraduates responded to a series of 12 games

(N=40 for the rich; N-20 for the poor).

0 -311-
More trusting behavior was observed in the poor context.

Negative first impression in the rich context only was a powerful inhibitor of initial, first-trial trusting behavior. A rich context

produced more overall perceived trustworthiness and less bad intentions.

* High versus moderate reward and good versus bad first impressions

produced more overall trustworthiness and more perceived good and less

bad intentions. Subjects in the rich context perceived the experimenter to be biased against competitive subject behaviors; subjects in the

poor context perceived the experimenter to be biased for cooperative

behavior, in particular, and for any activity in general. Additionally,

a context by reward interaction indicated that subjects alter their

perceptions of the appropriateness of reward/betray responses depending

upon the type of context. Several problems to monitor or control in

future research are derived.

Zelditch, M., Jr. & Hopkins, T. K. Laboratory experiments with

organizations. In Evan, W. M. (Ed.). Organizational

experimnents: Laboratory and -fieLd resear'ch. New York:

Harper & Row, Publishers, 1971.

This chapter examines the possibility of experimenting with

the properties of complex, formally organized social systems in the

laboratory. It discusses, first, a few advantages of laboratory

experimentation. It allows the researcher to: (1) maintain control

over the empirical system being observed and of the results of the

experiment, (2) precisely measure the results of the experiment,

(3) simplify the essence of the experiment, (4) exercise greater

freedom in the manipulation of treatments, and (5) regulate the flow

of inputs into the system under study and thus keep the treatments

from being affected by extraneous external and internal factors.

The authors define organizations in terms of four criteria:

highly formalized, highly differentiated, integrated through strictly

defined subordination, and structurally complex. Experiment groups

are classified according to the degree of their complexity and the

extent to which they satisfy the remaining three criterion properties.

This double classification yields the following four types: (1) The

miniature replica. The experimenter in this case creates systems

having a complete minimum set of units and ranks as well as all three

other criterion properties. (2) The part replica. This system satisfies the first three criteria, but contains less than the minimum set

of units and ranks. In such a system, the experimenter may simulate

the missin3 units or ranks so that subjects think of themselves as

participating in a complex organization. (3) The "near" organization.

The experimenter creates all or some of the minimum number of units

4, and ranks, and at least one but not all three of the other criteria.

(4) The simply structured unit. The experimenter creates a system

consisting of only a single unit, and it exhibits none of the delineating properties of an organization. Laboratory experiments that have

used each of these types are described in detail, and compared in terms of

their usefulness in organizational research.
V

TRAINING

Allinson, C. W. Training in performance appraisal interviewing: An

* evaluation study. The Journal of Management Studies, 1977,

14, 179-191.

This paper describes a study of the effects of a training

course in performance appraisal interviewing. The two-day course

consists of a series of lectures delivered by a psychologist to a

* group of trainees and a role-play of the appraisal interview situation.

Managers who attended the course were asked, by means of a postal

questionnaire, to compare their pre-training and post-training interviewing performances. Three findings resulted from this course.

First, the trainees had improved on almost every aspect of appraisal

interviewing. Second, an understanding of the role of performance

* appraisal is equally as important as the skill of interviewing. Third,

managers in mid-career may have most to gain from training of this type.

Argyris, C. Issues in evaluating laboratory education. Industrial

* Relations, 1968, 8, 28-40.

This paper assesses the Dunnette and Campbell study of

laboratory education and T-groups. One of the major limitations of

the Dunnette and Campbell review is that it attempts to evaluate Tgroups by rules of scientific understanding. They fail to point.out

* that there are limits to these rules when one attempts to generalize

in the non-experimental world. This article discusses the implications of such an omission.

The first problem discussed is that of control groups. While

control groups are critical in experimental research, they pose special

• problems for studies of organizational change in the field. Issues

related to control groups in a non-experimental setting are discussed.

The second problem is one of trust. While it is impossible to eliminate subject involvement in behavioral research, it is necessary to

create research settings where the individual does not feel the need

to distort his behavior and hence produce invalid data. Dunnette and

Campbell express concern with this problem, especially regarding

biases in self-reports. This study dispels some of these fears, and

points out ways to guard against participant mistrust in laboratory

education.

The third problem pertains to the role of the research critic.

4Dunnette and Campbell emphasize the competitiveness among scientists

which has led to omissions and distortions of data in behavioral

research. This study provides evidence suggesting that such competitiveness is not deleterious to the validity of T-group and other

laboratory research. An alternative approach to the overall skepticism

of Dunnette and Campbell regarding laboratory education is presented,

* which emphasizes the potential value of such techniques to effecting

organizational change.

-313-
Argyris, C. On the future of laboratory education. T1ne Journal of

Applied Behavioral Science, 1976, 3, 153-182.

This paper attempts to identify some of the issu s related to

laboratory education which must be addressed in future research.

Discussion focuses on the dependence of laboratory education on an

understanding of the human personality. Factors such as self awareness, self-acceptance, interpersonal competence, group formation,

and learning processes must be considered in the design of laboratory

experiences. A review of laboratory designs indicates that most

programs tend to emphasize one or two rather than all the learning

targets available. The major emphases of current laboratory designs

are discussed, and examples given. The paper concludes with a

dsicussion of the unintended consequences of laboratory education

on the effectiveness of educators.

Ashkenas, R. N. & Schaffer, R. H. Management training for bottom-line

results. Training and DeveLopment Journal, 1979, 33, 17-22.

The purpose of this article is to suggest reasons for the

failure of training programs to demonstrate a bottom-line results relationship, and to describe a training and development strategy that is

geared directly to producing immediate bottom-line improvement. The

failure of training programs to demonstrate bottom-line results is

attributed to their focus on changes in specific elements of managerial

knowledge, skills, or attitudes rather than on performance results.

This observation is confirmed by Campbell (1970) and others. An alternative apporach is described which focuses on a specific "breakthrough"

goal. In programs based on this approach, managers are taught not how

to become better managers, but rather how to accomplish an urgent,

important goal in a short timeframe. The focus is on specific,

achievable goals rather than on management styles and techniques.

Application of this approach to a variety of organizations is described

and the advantages it offers for goal achievement demonstrated.

Babb, H. W. & Kopp, D. G. Applications of behavior modification in

organizations: A review and critique. Academy oj4'.anace.ent

Review, 1978, 3, 281-291.

Behavior modification can be applied to a wide variety of

areas, including human resources management, resocializiation of workers, management by objectives, personnel development, job design,

compensation and alternative rewards, facilitating change by positively

reinforcing behavior rather than attitudes, and organizational design.

Despite numerous piecemeal applications, few attempts have been made

to apply behavior modification on a total organizational basis. It is

-314-

~.. *~~*~~-*~.-. '.~ *. ~** . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .- . . .
here -- in combining organizational, departmental, and individual

goals with applications of behavior modification -- that the real

* benefits might be realized. Without an accompanying body of field

work, the recent surge of suggestions for possible applications of

the operant model may go untested and unused.

The authors find it difficult to pass judgment on the

utility of behavior -,odification in industrial applications. While

* it has had success in controlled environments, it is untried and

untested in the uncontrolled environment of the organization. The

few reported successful applications in organizations have been in

problem situations which behavior modification remedied. Behavior

modification has potential as an organization development technique

but must be validated by field experiments. Apparently, its greatest,

* but not only, utility will lie in areas where tasks are routinized

and programmable. Behavior modification is a tool -- not a panacea.

Bass, B. M. & Vaughan, J. A. Trcziflifl in industry: The -'7anagement

of' Learning. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company,

Inc., 1966.

This book attempts to support two propositions about training.

The first is that training and learning are intimately related; and

the second, that the principles explaining learning behavior in the

* simple laboratory experiment can be extended to account for much of

the complex learning and training industry.

Empirically based concepts and principles of learning which

have special relevance for training are reviewed. Four basic concepts

of the learning process are introduced: (1) the drive, which energizes

4P the individual to respond; (2) the stimulus, which cues his response;

(3) the response elicited; and (4) the reinforcer, which increases

the likelihood that the individual will make the same response again

if the same stimulus and drive reoccur. Classical and instrumental

conditioning, as well as higher forms of learning, are discussed. The

conclusion is reached that regardless of the training technique, the

6M extent to which learning will occur depends upon optimal levels of

drive, arrangements of cueing stimuli, schedules of reinforcement,

readiness, and the ability of the learner to make the required response.

Training strategy is discussed in light of what is known about

the learning process. It appears to follow three steps: (1) A clear

#w statement of the training program. This includes a specification of

the long- and short-range goals, and the means by which these will be

achieved. In this framework, training is the means of producing the

terminal behavior required for the organization's members to achieve

its goals. (2) A statement of how and by whom the content of the

-315-
training program will be taught. On-the-job techniques are compared

with off-the-job methods. Specific techniques are discussed and their

adherence to the known principles of learning evaluated. (3) Administration of the training program and its evaluation. Specific techni- Z ques for both of these processes are discussed. The importance of

evaluation to the continued success of a training program is emphasized.

Bunker, K. A. & Cohen, S. L. Evaluating organizational training

efforts: Is ignorance really bliss? Training and Deveonent Journal, 1978, 32, 4-11.

This article offers some possible explanations for the

existing inadequacies in most training evaluations. Most of these

explanations are rationalizations offered by the company based on

ignorance of the importance of training evaluations. Two questions

implicit in the evaluation issue, external and internal validity,

are discussed in detail, with emphasis on the latter. Several

methods for overcoming evaluation inadequacies in these areas are

offered, including pretesting and extended control group designs.

Finally, an outline is given of some of the implications and relative

gains that can be associated with better-controlled evaluation designs.

Burke, W. W. The role of training in organization development.

Training and Develorment Journal, 1972, 26, 30-34.

This article discusses training as it applies to behavioral

or attitudinal change, rather than manual skill development. Included

in this discussion is managerial skill development, i.e., learning to

communicate interpersonally more effectively. The central thesis of

the paper is that individual training programs which are not integrated within the context of an overall organizational improvement effort will

.-.. -have little if any positive impact on the organization. As part of an

OD strategy, training can be used as a method for organizational change

and improvement provided it is planned and conducted as a result of

some diagnosed need for it and is based on sound educational principles.

Training, therefore, is only one of several OD interventions. Thus,

the same principles used to determine the appropriateness of other

interventions should be applied for determining the suitability of

training. The recommendation is made that persons responsible for

training learn more about OD in general, and more about organizational -diagnosis and consultation, in particular, than has heretofore been the

case.

-316-
Campbell, P. & Dunnette, M. D. Effectiveness of T-group experiences

in managerial training and development. PsychoiogicaL

Bulletin, 1968, 70, 73-105.

This paper is devoted to an analysis and appraisal of the

* application of T-group training to problems of managerial development.

Research studies relating T-group experiences to the behavior of individuals in organizations are reviewed in depth. Attention is paid

to summarizing the stated objectives of the method and its technological elements. In addition, speculation is offered about the nature

and viability of implicit assumptions underlying T-group training.

Examination of the research literature leads to the conclusion

that while T-group training seems to produce observable changes in

behavior, the utility of these changes for the performance of individuals in their organizational roles remains to be demonstrated. It is

also evident that more research has been devoted to T-group training

than to any other single management-development technique; however,

the problems of observation and measurement are considerably more

difficult in T-group research than in most other areas. The authors

lament the small number of studies using well-researched attitude

measures and/or situational measures as criteria. If such criteria

were more widely used, one might have a clearer idea of exactly what

kinds of attitudes and skills are fostered by laboratory education.

The assumption that T-group training has positive utility for organizations has been neither confirmed nor disconfirmed. The authors

emphasize that its utility for the organization is not necessarily

the same as its utility for the individual.

-317-

7 .. .
Ceriello, V. R. & Frantzreb, R. B. A Human Resources Planning Model.

Hzuiman Farctors, 1975, 17, 35-41.

The modern organization structure -- whether in the public

or private sector -- is composed of a highly unpredictable resource:

people. They enter the organization at different points and bring

to it an almost infinite variety of skills. The staffing of an

organizational entity, therefore, contains many uncertainties. To

reduce the effect of these uncertainties, the authors have developed

a sophisticated human resources forecasting system using computerbased modeling and simulation techniques. This model was designed

and developed for use in a large branch banking system operating

statewide. It is, however, applicable for use in other industries

having different organizational structures.

The Manpower Planning Quotas model (MPQ) is a human resources

planning tool which permits management to experiment with alternative

staffing policies to achieve an optimum level of qualified personnel.

The M4PQ model generates recruiting and training quotas by use of a

forecasting simulation technique.

Clement, R. W., Pinto, P. R., & Walker, J. W. Unethical and improper

behavior by training and development professionals. Trazining

and Development Journal, 1978, 32, 10-12.

1' In 1976, the American Society for Training and Development's

Professional Development Committee sponsored a study to determine the

competencies required for effective performance in training and development. This article reports the results of the portion of that

study dealing with unethical and improper behaviors exhibited by

training and development professionals. Seven major categories of

"unethical" behavior emerged from surveys of- training and development

practitioners. They are: Lack of professional devel opment, violation

of confidences, use or "cure-all" programs, dishonesty regarding

program outcomes, failure to give credit, abuse of trainees, and other

improper behavior (e.g., lack of follow-up, etc.).

This article does not offer any solutions to the occurrence

of such unethical practices, nor does it seek explanations for them.

Rather, it exposes such behavior as a cautionary word to managers of

trainers and training participants. The need for performance evaluation of trainers is emphasized.

-318-
DeCotiis, T. A. & Morano, R. A. Applying job analysis to training.

* Training and Development Journal, 1977, 31, 20-24.

Two of the more important objectives to be served through the

training function are achievement of organizational goals and mainte- nance and improvement of the organization's human resources. Three

basic components of the training function that bear an attainment of

* these objectives are: (1) identification of training needs; (2) design

of training content; and (3) evaluation of the training process and

outcomes. The purpose of the present paper is to illustrate the rele-

* vance of job and task analysis to the training function.

Job analysis is a process for systematically gathering job

i* information. The information gathered during the process of analyzing a job is summarized in two basic products: a job description and a job

specification. Most job analysis methods which yield necessary job

information for creation of effective training programs include observation, interviewing, job diaries, and the critical-incidents technique.

The uses of job analysis data for establishing training programs are Wdiscussed in detail.

Deterline, W. A. Credibility in training: Do training and development

have a personality conflict? Training and Development Journal,

*• 1977, 31, 22-28.

The author discusses the relative criticality and priorities of

development and training needs within organizations. Based on the current literature, it is suggested that there might be too much emphasis on development and too little on the design and development of effec-

*• tive, relevant, and efficient training. The determination of how much

emphasis is placed on training and development should reflect organizational needs.

Once these needs have been determined and the relevant programs

implemented, it is important to determine whether the objectives of the

L training and development programs are being met. It is often difficult

to determine the value of employee development courses because they are

not designed to develop specific skills which can be objectively evaluated. Because of the difficulties involved, there is a tendency to

skirt the evaluation issue. Although it is sometimes very difficult,

if not impossible, to design evaluation methods in which all variables

are carefully controlled, it is necessary to try to search for data

which will help determine the value of training and development programs.

t-319-

-- t
Dipboye, R. L. & Flanagan, M. F. Research settings in industrial and

organizational psychology. American Psychologist, 1979, 34,

141-150.

The authors analyze for content all the empirical articles

*from the 1966, 1970, and 1974 volumes of the Jouwrnal .-l" Arv lied

Psychology, Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, and

Personnel Psychology to determine the types of organizations,

subjects, and dependent measures studied. Contrary to the common

belief that field settings provide for more generalization of

research findings than laboratory settings do, field research

appeared as narrow as laboratory in the actors, settings, and

behaviors sampled. Indeed, industrial-organizational psychology

seems to be developing in the laboratory a psychology of college

students, and in the field, a psychology of the self-report of male,

professional, technical, and managerial employees in productiveeconomic organizations. The authors suggest that coordinated

strategies of research in both laboratory and field settings are

needed to construct an externally valid industrial and organizational

psychology.

Dunnette, M. D., & Campbell, J. P. Laboratory education: Impact on

people and organizations. industrial Relations, 1968, 8,

* 1-27.

Laboratory education combines traditional training features -

lectures, group problem-solving sessions, and role planning - with

T-group or sensitivity training techniques in order to promote personnel and organizational development. This article reports the behavioral effects of laboratory education by: (1) examining the difficulties of organizations in order to discover the major problems of

interpersonal behavior; (2) considering these problems in the context

of what advocates and practitioners of laboratory education claim to

be their major behavioral goals; (3) reviewing and evaluating published

research studies which have been done to assess the actual behavioral

effects of laboratory education; and (4) calling attention to gaps in

our present level of knowledge and offering guidelines for future

research.

Major problems in the organizations examined involve apathy,

overt belligerence, and impatience with analytical procedures for

getting to know either problems or people better. These undesirable

individual behavior patterns were related to broader patterns of organizational behavior including poor coordination, inefficient and inaccurate

communication, and poorly defined and poorly transmitted organizational

objectives. These broader organizational problems were attributed to

extremely rapid growth and poor supervisory assignments, role ambiguity,

-30
and loss of key managerial talent. Most self reports yielded highly

* ~ favorable accounts of the effectiveness of laboratory training but due

to the wide variety of biases associated with self reports, the authors

made no attempt to review such reports. The authors conclude that there

is little firm evidence of any significant change in attitude, outlook,

orientation, or view of others as a result of T-group training. Evidence

in favor of any claims that laboratory education! can change interpersonal

0 awareness, "self insight", or interpersonal sensitivity is very nearly

nonexistent. In spite of the essentially negative results obtained from

this review, it is concluded that individuals trained by laboratory

education methods are more likely to be seen as changing their job

behavior than are individuals in similar job settings who have not

received training. These behavioral changes are in the direction of

*more openness, better self and interpersonal understanding, and improved

communications and leadership skills.

Eggemeier, F. T. & Cream, B. W. Some considerations in develoDment of

team training devices. In Erwin, D. E. (Ed). Psychooca

7iely .n Sirmuaved work Environrments. Alexandria, VA: US

Army Research Institute for the Behavioral & Social Sciences,

1978. AD A076-658.

The purpose of this paper is to describe and discuss a task

* analytic technique that has been successfully used in a number of

applications, including design of a team training device for members

of the fire control team of the AC-130E Gunship. The technique was

developed to overcome two major weaknesses of traditional ISD processes:

(1) the lack of sufficient specificity for actual design of training

devices; and (2) the lack of an adequate means to address design of a

*device for team or crew coordination training. The intent of the

device design technique is to provide only the levels of fidelity that

are necessary to accomplish specific training objectives. The technique is based upon careful task analyses and represents a modification

and extension of traditional ISD techniques (Cream, Eggemeier, & Klein,

1978). This paper provides a general description of the technique, a

discussion of the crew coordination aspects of the technique, and the

results of an evaluation of the Gunship team trainer which was developed using the technique. Finally, the applicability of the technique

to "man-ascendant" and machine-ascendant" syszems is discussed.

-321-
Fidlr, F. E. & Csoka, L. S. The effect of military leadership

training: A test of the contingency model. Organiza=iona,

3ehavior and Huan Per,-orwce, 1972, 8, 395-407.

Recent research based on the Contingency Model of leadership

effectiveness (Fiedler, 1964, 1967, 1971) shows that the effect of

leadership training and experience depends upon the interaction of the

leader's motivational pattern and the degree to which the leadership

situation is favorable, i.e., the degree to which it provides the

leader with control and influence. Three different studies tested the

hypothesis that leadership training increases the situational favorableness. The three studies included subjects from field artillery

units, Naval aviation maintenance shops, and company commanders in

charge of training new recruits.

The researchers conclude that training will improve the performance of some leaders but actually decrease the performance of

others. These studies explain why previous research has failed to find

that leadership training increases organizational effectiveness. The

positive and negative effects of training tend to cancel each other out

for leaders with task and relationship motivation.

Friedlander, F. The impact of organizational training laboratories

upon the effectiveness and interaction of ongoing work

groups. ?Prsonnel Psychology, 1967, 20, 289-307.

The impact upon four work groups (N=31) which participated in

organizational training laboratory sessions is evaluated in comparison

with eight similar groups (N=60) which did not participate. Criteria

were six-factored dimensions, each composed of items gathered from

earlier interviews which group members perceived as problems. The six

dimensions utilized as principle variables in the research included:

group effectiveness, approach to vs. withdrawal from leader. matual

influence, personal involvement and participation, intragroup trust vs.

intragroup competitiveness, and general evaluation of meetings.

Significant changes occurred in training groups in the followina three dimensions: group effectiveness, mutual influence, and

personal involvement. No significant changes occurred in the other

three areas. The relevance of a work unit participating in training

as a total group, rather than each member participating in a separate

session, is discussed.

-322-

........................................
Goldstein, I. L. Training: Pro qrwn Develovment and Evaluat-ion.

* Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole Publishing Co., 1974.

This book is concerned with the systematic development and

evaluation of training programs in a variety of organizational

settings.

Part 1 presents an instructional systems approach that

emphasizes the important interacting components in the development

and evaluation of training programs. The necessary components for

the establishment of any instructional program include: (1) Specifying

objectives in direct relation to need-assessment, (2) establishing

criteria that will effectively measure success, and (3) designing the f

program only after careful research that includes considerations of

threats to validity and of the degree of control exerted by the various

experimental designs.

Part 2 presents the theoretical and empirical bases of learning

which provide the foundation for the design of instructional environments. The more basic principles of learning such as behavior modification and programmed learning and which serve as stimuli for innovations in the design of training programs are identified and discussed.

Attention is also given to the more complex determinants of transfer

of learning, including material on the components of practice and

motivational factors.

Part 3 presents topics relating to social problems such as

training the hard-core unemployed and training those looking for second

careers. Study is made concerning individual differences in which

investigators have attempted to match the aptitudes of the learner with

a variety of instructional approaches. A discussion of various instructional approaches and summaries of the advantages and disadvantages

of each is provided.

The author concludes that the literature presents only a few

programs that give sufficient consideration to the factors that determine successful development and evaluation of instructional programs.

Instead there has been an abundance of studies which focus on a

favorite approach rather than the consideration of the relative merits

and capabilities of different approaches for various learning behaviors.

The following suggestions are offered as directions for future research

activity: (1) Establish programs that systematically utilize empirical

measurement techniques to determine whether the objectives specified

by the need-assessment analyses have been achieved. (2) Investigations

should not focus entirely on the consideration of single treatments.

(3) Evaluation must be treated as an information-gathering process

that cannot possibly result in decisiins that categorize programs as

all good or all poor.

-323-
Goldstein, I. L. T'raini.ng in work organizarions. University of

Maryland, Department of Psychology: In press, 1980.

This literature review examines issues and topics concerning

systematic modes of instruction designed to produce environments that

shape behavior to satisfy stated objectives. In this context training

is defined as the acquisition of skills, concepts, or attitudes that

result in improved performance in an on-the-job environment. The

author gives attention to the general systems philosophy of training

including needs assessment, the instructional process, and criterion

issues associated with evaluation methodology. A principal focus is

on methods associated with sensitivity training, simulations, computer

assisted instruction, and programmed instruction.

The majority of the research on training processes is criticized as being neither empirical or theoretical. The following

suggestions are offered: (1) Attention should be given to the development of need assessment techniques that emphasize the type of information needed as input to the training process. (2) Evaluation models

must be developed in order to assess the degree to which training

programs are achieving their objectives. (3) The training process

should be developed with the understanding and study of instructional

and organizational systems. (4) Quality empirical investigations that

examine the usefulness of training techniques should be emphasized.

Hamblin, A. C. .7vatuation arnd Control of Training. London: McGraw-

_J Hill, 1974.

This book is concerned with the evaluation and control of

learning experiences, and it argues that learning should as far as

possible be evaluated in terms of pre-defined objectives. It also

argues that the objectives of training should be communicated to, and

if possible agreed with, the trainees.

The plan of the book is as follows. Part I is a general

discussion of evaluation and control of training. A number of types

of strategies for becoming involved in the evaluation process are

delineated in Part II. The difference between these types of strategy

is the difference in the point at which activities start: the entrypoint into the cycle of evaluation. Part III begins with a discussion

of the problem of measurement and of the Hawthorne effect. The range

of techniques at each of the evaluation levels is then evaluated in

terms of their relevance to particular types of strategy. The book

concludes with a discussion on the future of training, evaluation and

educational technology.

3 24-
Hand, H. H., Richards, M. D. & Slocum, J. W., Jr. Organizational

climate and the effectiveness of a human relations training

program. Academy of Management Journal, 1973, 16, 187-195.

This research study attempted to control the possible effect

of organizational climate on the effectiveness of a human relations

* training program. The first phase of the study (reported earlier)

* evaluated changes in knowledge, attitudes and behaviors of participants in a middle management human relations training program,

immediately and 90 days after training. It was found that 90 days

after a human relations training program, little change in attitudes

and behavior in managers was observed.

* The purpose of the study reported here is to analyze the

changes in attitude and behavior that occurred over a two-year period

of time and to explore the relationship between these changes in

attitudes and managerial effectiveness, with differences in organizational climate given specific consideration as a moderating variable.

The field experiment was conducted in a specialty steel plant, where

* a human relations training program was being carried out for middle

managers. An experimental and control group of line and staff

managers were selected on a random basis from the third level in the

organizations. The research used three separate measurements of the

dependent variables: prior to training, 90 days after training, and

180 days after training. The dependent variables measured were:

* (a) attitudes of the two groups with respect to sensitivity to self

and others, initiating structure and consideration; (b) the subordinates' perception of the behavior of the experimental and control

groups; and (c) the ratings of managerial performance of the members

of both groups. The independent variable, the effect of the human

relations training program, was evaluated by studying the statistical

* differences between the pre-training measurement and those measurements

taken 18 months after training. The findings indicate that 18 months

after the training program, significant positive changes were observed

in the control group. The manager's perception of the organization's

climate moderated these findings.

Hinrichs, J. R. Personnel training. In Dunnette, M. D. (Ed.).

Handbook o-f Industrial and Organizational Psychology.

Chicago: Rand McNally, 1976, 829-860.

The area of personnel training in organizations is reviewed,

with the conclusion that little systematic psychological knowledge

about the field has been developed. An open qystems viewpoint is

* employed to help clarify the nature of the training process. This

4 analysis moves from a review of the skill acquisition system at the

level of the individual trainee, to the suprasystem of the training

department, and finally to the total organizational system in which

the training department operates.

-325-
The signal and maintenance inputs, systems operator, outputs

and feedback loops for each of the systems in an organization are

discussed. A final section reviews various popular training methodologies, classifying them into content, process and mixed techniques.

Content oriented techniques include lecture techniques, audio-visual

techniques, and auto-instructional technologies. Process oriented

techniques include role playing, sensitivity training, and modeling.

Mixed techniques include: conference discussion techniques, case

study/incident process analyses, simulations, and on-the-job training

techniques. The chapter concludes with a discussion of research needs

in the area of personnel training.

Ivancevich, J. M. A study of a cognitive training program: Trainer

styles and group development. The Academy of Management

Journal, 1974, 17(3), 428-439.

This study provides information on the process of selected

phases of group development within two training groups and on the

impact of two different trainer styles upon these phases. Two groups

of managers involved in a cognitive-oriented training program were

studied. Two different styles of training were used: a structured

and a less-structured trainer style. The instructional and reading

materials used in both groups were identical.

The results of this study indicate that structured style in

the management and organizational behavior training program was more

effective in achieving group cohesiveness, minimizing participant

conflict, increasing communication, achieving group productivity, and

encouraging a favorable attitude toward the trainer than was a less

structured trainer style.

Jablonsky, F. & DeVries, D. L. Operant conditioning principles

extrapolated to the theory of management. Organizational

behavior and human performance, 1972, 7, 340-358.

The present article contains a predictive model of individual

behavior based on both operant conditioning and management literatures.

The behavior of an organizational member is seen as a function of the

reinforcement contingencies applied by various groups in his environment and of his cognitive assessment of such contingencies. The

present model suggests that an organization is most likely to cause

behavioral change in its members if the multiple sources of contingencies are all reinforcing similar responses. Several characteristics

of reinforcement contingencies are examined, e.g., positive vs. negative reinforcement, schedules of reinforcement, and immediacy of

-326-
reinforcement. The model provides a potentially useful schema f or

classifying environmental contingencies operating on a member of an

* organization and for predicting their varied effects on behavior.

.4., The model draws on both learning and instrumentality theory and

recognizes that the final forces for behavioral change result from an

IY interaction between the multiple reinforcement contingencies and the

amount of value the individual places on the various reinforcements.

Kraut, A. I. Behavior modeling symposium: Developing managerial

skills via modeling techniques: Some positive research

* findings - a symposium. Personnel Psycno~ogy, 1976, 29,

325-328.

This symposium deals with a set of innovations in supervisory

training, broadly referred to as modeling techniques. The approach

1W originally outlined by Goldstein and Sorcher (1974) consists of four

major learning activities: (1) Modeling, in which trainees watch

films of model persons behaving effectively in a problem situation.

* (2) Role playing, when the trainees practice and rehearse the effective behaviors demonstrated by the models. (3) Social reinforcement

provided by trainer and trainees in the form of praise and constructive

feedback. (4) Transfer of training is encouraged, to enable the class-

* room behavior to be effectively utilized on the job.

Behavior modeling is distinguished from behavior modification

techniques which aim to modify specific behaviors by systematically

changing a person's environment or social context, in line with explicit, research based principles. Behavior modeling, by contrast, is

typically used in non-therapy settings with the well informed consent

and voluntary practice of non-institutionalized adults, to effect

changes they desire to help them be more effective.

Latham, G. P. & Saari, L. M. Application of social-learning theory

to training supervisors through behavioral modeling. jour-naz'

of "AppZied Paycho loot, 1979, 64, 239-246.

The purpose of this research was to examine the effects of a

behavioral modeling program developed by Sorcher (Goldstein & Sorcher,

1974) to increase the effectiveness of first-line supervisors in

dealing with their employees. The nine training modules developed by

Sorcher parallel the results of a job analysis (Latham, Fay & Saari,

in press) identifying effective and ineffective supervisor performance.

Forty first-line supervisors were randomly assigned to a

behavioral modeling training program or to a control group. The training was designed to improve supervisors' interpersonal skills in dealing

* with their employees. The training program produced highly favorable

C -327-
trainee reactions, where were maintained over time. Moreover, the

performance of the trainees was significantly better than that of

supervisors in the control group on a learning test administered six

months after training, on behavioral simulations collected three months

after training, and on performance ratings collected on the job one

year after training. After the control group received the training,

they achieved significant improvement in their supervisory skills and

did not differ from the trainees who had originally undergone the

training on any of the measures. The modeling films, developed by

Sorcher, were based primarily on Bandura's principles of sociallearning theory.

This study supports earlier applications of this approach to

training first-line supervisors and indicates that leadership skills

can be taught in a relatively short period of time. It demonstrates

that the integration of both cognitive and behavioralistic principles

within the context of social-learning theory brings about a relatively

perr.anent change in supervisory behavior.

Lippitt, G. L. & This, L. Implementing the organization renewal

process (ITORP). Training and Development JoArnaz,

1979, 33, 18-25.

Recognizing that renewal is a requirement is not the same

as having the capability to initiate such a process. The authors have

tested a model and method for helping organizations in this respect,

and have named it Implementing the Organization Renewal Process (ITORP).

The model is based on the assumption that the key element in organization renewal is the ability to respond appropriately to situations.

It portrays the interdependence of the factors inherent in this

ability: human resources, interfacing, organizational growth, and

environmental response.

The remainder of the article describes an ITORP program. In

the first session, the participants analyze the six stages of growth

through which their organizations have passed and relate these to the

fundamental management functions. The focus of the second session

is the process of renewal. Three phases of this process are discussed

in detail: (1) confrontation, (2) search, and (3) coping. An emphasis

of this session is the criticality of teamwork in the renewal effort.

The final session deals with the skills required to analyze and cope

with change. The focus on this discussion of the ITORP sessions is

the rationale, rather than the specialized methods, of learning in

the program.

-328-

.4. - .*. -' 

4 ~~~S4 **~** ~ 4 3L.> 
Mass, N. J. Managerial recruitment and attrition: A policy analysis

model. Behavioral Science, 1978, 23, 49-60.

High turnover rates of skilled personnel and instability of

employment are problems confronting many industrial and research

companies. This paper deals with inputs and outputs of personnel in

systems at the organizational level. A dynamic simulation model of

managerial recruitment and attrition is designed to explain some of the

* generic sources of these difficulties. The model also provides a

vehicle for testing policies designed to enhance organizational behavior.

In particular, model simulations show how many isolated policies, such

as increased effort devoted to training new managers, exert a roughly

neutral influence on organizational performance. A combination policy,

* which deliberately lowers managerial recruitment efforts in periods

of low organizational training effectiveness and involves slower

allocation of managerial time between training and production, proves

much more effective in lowering turnover and decreasing instability.

The model is intended to suggest improved policies for recruiting,

tranig, ndabsorbing skilled personnel in specific organizations.

McFann, H. H. Training~ for the military. Alexandria, VA: Human

Resources Research Organization, 1976.

* This paper presents selected information and trends in military

training and comments on the methodology, techniques, and status of the

major categories of training. The training categories discussed include: Recruit Training, Officer Acquisition Training, Specialized

Skill Training, Flight Training, and Professional Development Education.

A major concern of the impact of an all-volunteer army was that

there would be a reduction in the quality of input. Research was designed to investigate more efficient and effective ways of training lower

ability personnel. Literacy remediation programs were initiated to deal

with this problem. Job-oriented literacy programs-with skill training

are suggested as a first step in a career-oriented literacy program.

Specialized skill training is conducted at two levels - initial

skill training and skill progression training. This formalized training

varies in complexity and subject matter. Simulators are being increasingly used for skill acquisition, maintenance of performance, and

evaluation of performance. Simulation is becoming a primary instruc4 tional medium rather than an auxiliary one to supplement practice on

operational equipment.

-329-
". *-7i

McGhee, W. & Tullar, W. L. A note on evaluating behavior modification

and behavior modeling as industrial training techniques.

Personnel PsychoZlocy, 1978, 31, 447-484.

The authors searched the training literature (1969-1976) for

research evaluation of behavior modification and behavior modeling as

industrial training techniques. No reported scientific evaluations

of behavior modification were found. Four reports (1976) of scientific

evaluation of behavior modeling used in training managers were located.

The research designs used in these studies were analyzed for possible

threats to internal validity. Enough threats to internal validity were

discovered in the designs used to question the reported results of

behavior modeling training of managers. This article points out some

of the difficulties which competent psychologists encounter in this

kind of research, including determination of equivalent control groups

and the random assignment of subjects.

Morano, R. Determining organizational training needs. Perscnnei

Psycholocy, 1973, 26, 479-487.

This article emphasizes the role of diagnosis in organizational

training and development programs. While many organizations have adequate classroom facilities, equipment, and instructors, they fall short

in fulfilling real organizational training needs because they do not

diagnose the "illness" before recommending a cure. Three methods of

assessing training needs are discussed: (1) surveys, (2) manpower

analysis, and (3) organizational analysis. Each is discussed in detail

as a necessary precursor to any training program.

Moses, J. L. & Titchie, R. J. Supervisory relationships training:

A behavioral evaluation of a behavior modeling program.

Personnel Psychology, 1976, 29, 337-343.

Research was conducted at A.T. & T. designed to help line

supervisors interact more effectively with one another. A.T. & T.

developed a behavior modeling program known as Supervisory Relationships Training (SRT) following the approach used by Sorcher (1971)

and Goldstein and Sorcher (1974). This program addresses issues which

confront supervisors managing a work force composed of women and minorities. A special behavioral assessment center was established in order

to evaluate the effectiveness of a supervisor's ability to respond to

a series of problem discussions. An assessment staff was trained in

both behavioral observation and the use of a rating scale constructed

especially for the evaluation process. They evaluated how effectively

-330-

,.'-'.' '.'-,," ""' i."-" . °' '" '" '.........................-...* " . -. ". ..-. "-
the trained supervisors could transfer and apply training concepts to

materials that had not been specifically covered in training.

The results indicated that trained supervisors were significantly more effective than untrained supervisors in being able to solve

supervisory problems. Since the trained and untrained supervisors were

carefully matched prior to the study, the observed performance differences are seen as resulting from the SRT training.

Myers, D. M. Employee development: A synthesis of systems theory,

quantitative analysis and behavioral concepts. Training

and Develcrment Journal, 1970, 24, 34-38.

This article represents an effort to implant in one area of

training and development, the efforts of social scientists as well

as some concepts of systems theory and quantitative methods. The

authors content that organizations are not effectively utilizing the

potential that employees possess. Employee achievement, f(X,Y,Z),

is a function of skill level, X, plus motivation, Y, plus human

capacity, Z. An employee development system is a shared-responsibility

program aimed at maximizing employee achievement. Management must

provide the vehicle for the system, an environment that facilitates

development, and a stimulus that motivates employees to achieve the

highest levels of personal growth and advancement. To accomplish

this requires top management support, professional technicians and

an efficient system that is self-regulating. Employees, on their

part, must make the necessary sacrifices to achieve their occupational goals.

Nord, W. R. Beyond the teaching machine: The neglected area of

operant conditioning in the theory and practice of management. OrganizationaL Behavior and Hurran Performance, 1969,

4, 375-401.

This paper maintains that the work of B. F. Skinner has not

been recognized in the administrative and management literature

to the extent that it deserves. The work of Skinner is highly consistent with that of many widely accepted students of management

except that Skinner' s work deals specifically with scheduling reinforcements, does not require acceptance of the metaphysics of many

of the humanistic psychologists, and is based on considerable empirical

evidence. The power of positive reinforcement, the unanticipated

consequences of punishment, and the value of partial reinforcement

are stressed. Finally, the operant view is applied to some managerial

problems. It seems clear that the conditioning approach can meaningfully integrate much of the behavioral science literature and serve

organizations in the areas of personnel development, job design,

compensation and alternative rewards, and organizational design.

-331-

........... ., .
Odiorne, G. S. A systems approach to training. Trainina and

Development Journal, 1979, 33, 42-48.

Implicit in every management training approach is some concept

of "system". This article describes eight different notions of system

often found as the basis for training departments. They include:

-, (1) a static system; (2) a clocklike system; (3) a cell system; (4) a

cybernetic system; (5) a plant system; (6) training as an organism;

(7) the training department as a social organization; and (8) training

as a social movement. Training practices typifying each of these

.- systems are described.

The system considered most conducive to a successful training

department/program is the cybernetic system. It represents a communication theory which treats organisms and organizations as being very

much alike in that they both display behavior. Since the subjects of

the training department's efforts are organisms (employees), it is

argued that the training process can be treated as a fieedback or

cybernetic process. The advantages of this perspective are discussed,

in particular its emphasis on training from the top down.

Olmstead, J. A., Elder, G. L. & Forsyth, J. M. Organizationa_ ;rcess

and combat readiness: of 'r~aizationa, _rasi.i~ity craininc 

Effectiveness Staff Cfficers to assess comnmand grour rerformance. (Interim Report IR-ED-78-13). Alexandria, VA: US

Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences,

1978.

This report describes the results of the first phase of a

project concerned with research on the relationship between performance,

certain critical organizational process, and combat readiness of US

Army units. The research in Phase I was devoted to (1) analysis of the

relationships between process performance of battalion command groups

and the combat outcomes of battle simulations in which the battalions

participated, and (2) determination of the feasibility of training

Organizational Effectiveness Staff Officers (OESO) to observe and

assess the process performance of TOE unit battle staffs and to feed

back their observations so improved performance would result. The data

used in this studywerecollected on 12 battalions of the 8th Infantry

Division in Europe. Data was collected on (1) EOSO ratings of command

zroups process performance, (2) ratings of combat outcomes by opposing

force controllers, and (3) interviews with OESOs and selected battalion

commanders.

..

-332-

-. ,. *

* *'''.~LZJJ.~. '4
A significant correlation was obtained between overall command

group process performance and overall combat outcomes across the four

modules of the battle simulation. This confirmed the expectation of a

strong relationship between the quality of organizational process performance and combat outcomes. Correlations between the seven separate

processes studied and overall combat outcomes were in the expected

direction and were significant for five of the seven.

Three general conclusions are drawn: (1) The quality of

command group performance of the organizational processes included in

this research is strongly correlated with unit combat effectiveness,

as reflected by the outcomes of battle simulations. (2) Feedback of

process observations by OESOs appears to exert a positive effect upon

the effectiveness of command groups. (3) OESO who are qualified in the

combat arms can be trained easily to assess and constructively feed

back observations concerning the process performance of command groups

and battle staffs.

Owens, J. Organization conflict and team-building. 7rainilc znd

Deve.omnen- Jou.rnaL, 1973, 27, 32-39.

This article reports on a simulation exercise conducted

in many governmental and industrial organizations, which demonstrates

to participants how and why destructive conflict thrives within

organization-oriented teamwork. The simulation is based on the

contention that competition within an organization is often a

destructive force. The "Blue-Green" game establishes a live

situation involving cooperation and competition opportunities for

participants in such a way that participants can experience, and

then analyze, the results of their own behavior. The results of

the simulation exercise indicate that, through an OD program, it is

possible to convert organizational conflict into teamwork. Several

concrete actions toward this end are suggested, including an outline

for the initial steps to be taken in designing a useful OD program.

Parry, S. 3. & Robinson, E. J. Management development: Training or

education? Training and DeveZoment Jourra , 1979, 33,

8-13.

A distinction is made between the notions of training and

education as they pertain to management development. While training

is specific, measurable, and generally task-specific, development is

often ill-defined and largely synonymous with education. This does

not imply that training is useless, but rather than organizations must

devote far more time and energy to determining the goals of the

management development program so that the right combination of training

and education can be achieved.

-333-

.lo
There are several tools and techniques available to organizations to assess the needs of and establish instructional objectives;

amoncy them, Needs Inventory, Critical Incident, and Climate Survey.

Analysis of the data from these surveys should enable top management

to discern the degree to which specific skills are needed (management

training) and the degree to which concepts and philosophy are called

for (management education). In this way, the appropriate combination

of both aspects of management development can be executed.

Pieper, W. J., Catrow, E. J, & Swezey, R. W. Automated Apprenticeship

Training (AAT): A systematized audio-visual approach to selfpaced job training. Air Force Human Resources Laboratory,

Lowry Air Force Base, Colorado. Technical Report No. AFHRLTR-72-20. April 1973.

The purpose of this project was to develop, administer, and

evaluate two Automated Apprenticeship Training (AAT) courses for Air

Force Security Police Law Enforcement and Security specialists. AAT

is a systematized audio-visual approach to self-paced job training

which employs an easily operated, portable and reliable teaching

device. The AAT course was developed, administered, and evaluated in

the following manner: (1) A task analysis was performed and behavioral

job descriptions developed to identify training requirements and

learning objectives. (2) A job performance test was designed and

developed to measure the policemen's ability to perform necessary tasks

identified in the behavioral job description. (3) A systematized, jobspecific ourse for both the Law Enforcement and Security Specialist was

designed and audio-visual training materials prepared for use by both

high and low aptitude trainees. (4) The training courses were administered in an on-the-job training environment at a representative

sample of Air Force bases using Air Force trainees and training super-

.4 visors. (5) Graduates of the AAT course were compared with graduates

of the conventional technical school and on-the-job training courses

including a comparison of man-hour requirements.

Evaluation criteria included the job specific performance

test, an apprentice knowledge test, and the supervisor's ratings.

Results indicated superior scores for the AAT graduates on the job

performance test, and apprentice knowledge test and supervisor's

ratings. Results also indicated superior scores for the AAT graduates

on the job performance test, and no differences among training regimes

-~ * on the other criteria. A significant aptitude effect was also

obtained on the job performance test. The AAT course was considered

superior to other training regimes in terms of man-hours expended.

Training supervisors also expressed a preference for the AAT technique.

.1*~.-334-
Reddin, W. J. Effective international training. Training and

Development Jou2rnal, 1978, 32, 12-20.

This article discusses the need for a general theory of

organization and training in order to overcome the cultural contingencies constraining organizational development practices. While an

OD program must be tailored to certain culturally-specific aspects

of the organization in which it is being practiced, the OD specialist

should seek to work within a general enough framework to be relevant

to all organizations. The author contends that current organizational

theory is not general enough. Psychologists are concerned only with

people, sociologists with roles, economists with cost curves, and

systems people with input/transformation processes.

The alternative general theory of organizations proposed

is one which is concerned ultimately with effectiveness and outputs.

From this core, it is hypothesized, solutions will emerge to such

issues as how to design organizations for effectiveness, how to

motivate for effectiveness, how to train for effectiveness, etc. Such

a general theory of organizations requires a value-free management

training technique. Several existing ones are discussed: organization design, management by objectives, and managerial effectiveness.

The article concludes with a discussion of the multidimensionality

of an effective training program in this context.

Robertson, I. & Downs, S. Learning and the prediction of performance:

Development of trainability testing in the United Kingdom.

JournaZ of Applied PsychoZoy, 1979, 64, 42-50. .2

This article distinguishes between the work sample approach

to personnel selection and a trainability-testing approach. Trainability tests are chracterized by the inclusion of a structured and

controlled period of learning and are used to select personnel for

training rather than to choose people who are already competent. Work

conducted on trainability tests over the past decade is outlined

and shows that such tests can be successfully used for semiskilled

manual tasks, including areas in which existing written, psychometric

tests are poor at predicting trainability. Illustrative examples of

parts of tests are provided and design and validation procedures are

discussed. This approach to selection is linked with theoretical

ideas advocating point-to-point correspondence between predictor

and criterion, in which the relevant aspects of training content,

method, and environment are incorporated into the test to ensure

correspondence between the training criterion and the selection test.

-335-

IM
; ,, 

Siegel, A. I. & Federman, P. j. Communications content training as an

ingredient in effective team performance. Ergonomcs, 1973,

16, 403-416.

The pattern and content of the communications within a working

unit is of interest to those concerned with work efficiency and productivity, partly because of the existing relationship between information

transfer and team effectiveness. The communications within and between

the units of a work force can serve as an indicator of the cohesiveness

among the members and communications analyses can yield insights into,

among other things, variables affecting critical decisions, conceptualizations of problem areas, team coordination, peer relationships and

areas for needed training.

In the first study, the relationship between helicopter team

performance and the content and flow of communications within the team

during simulated problem solution was investigated. Communication

variables found to be correlated with an objective performance criterion were factor analyzed. The four emerging factors were named:

probabilistic structure, evaluative interchange, hypothesis formulation,

and leadership control.

In a second study, involving a different helicopter simulator,

geographic location, and sample, the first study was replicated. Three

of the four previously isolated communications factors were recovered.

A training program emphasizing the employment of the communications

factors was developed, administered, and evaluated. The results

indicated that, in terms of a performance criterion, team proficiency

was affected in the proper direction, but the differences between the

course trained and a control group were not statistically significant.

Weick, K. E. Amendments to organizational theorizing. .4cae'.. -

•.faMnaeert Jouz&ncZ, 1974, 17, 487-502.

A reexamination of the methods and subjects of organizational

theory is proposed. Organizational scholars are urged to avoid big

business organizations and to examine, instead, everyday events,

places and questions,microorganizations, and absurd organizations.

In these sites, organizationally relevant phenomena are more visible

and available fcr hypothesis generation than in complex organizations.

-336-

L%
Williams, P. N. Organization self-development. Training and Deveoment Journal, 1978, 32, 42-47.

A frequent criticism of most management training concerns its

relevance to real time problems, its transferability, and as a consequence, its assessability. Organization development, on the other

hand, is criticized as being a hobby for human resource personnel or

training managers, or at best, the providence of internal or external

consultants. By designing a management training program around OD

principles, a kind of unique synergy is produced which, if appropriately

applied, can: (1) Make OD available to managers at all organization

levels with minimum use of consultants. (2) Allow management training

to focus on real time problems and opportunities. (3) Develop firstline supervisors through the use of a training program equally

applicable to middle and top management. (4) Afford human resource

and other staff planners a programmable training system which can help

to integrate career planning, organization priorities, problem identification and interdepartmental communication and planning.

a The training strategy and program design elaborated in this

paper represents the outgrowth of a series of management training

programs on the one hand and OD consulting contracts on the other.

The resulting design is in one sense a logical outcome of coping with

the limitations of each. It is currently being developed as a series

of training programs for the upper middle management of a major oil

company.

-33 7-