............ :.; ...... 

.::.:.:.:.:.,.:.~~~~,:- Wi 1 hou I ......... *I .................... 

I...... .... I 

............... 

............... 

............... 

............... 

............... I ............... I 
THIS BOOKLET TELLS IN LAYMAN’S LANGUAGE 

HOW VITAL COMPUTERS ARE TO GOVERNMENT 

OPERATIONS AND GIVES SOME THOUGHTS ON THE 

MORE IMPORTANT COMPUTER ISSUES OF TODAY 

AND TOMORROW. 

FOR EXAMPLE, THE BOOKLET RUNS THROUGH HOW 

DEPENDENT THE GOVERNMENT IS ON COMPUTERS, 

HOW IT CAME TO DEPEND SO MUCH ON THEM, 

WHAT BENEFITS IT HAS OBTAINED FROM 

COMPUTERS, WHAT PROBLEMS IT MUST CONCERN 

ITSELF WITH, AND WHAT THIS MEANS FOR THE 

FEDERAL GOVERNMENT AND SOClElY IN THE 

FUTURE. 

By the Comptroller General of the United States 

JUNE 1980 

i 
SOME FACTS ABOUT GOVERNMENT 

YEAR 

COST 1980 

YEAR 

1950 

$175 BILLION 

(Constant 1979 Dollars) 

(Estimated) 

$525 BILLION 

(Constant 1979 Dollars) 

FEDERAL WORKERS 

I II-II 

2.4 MILLION ,8 MILLION 

+wo 

COMPUTERS INSTALLED 

15,800 

For snlc by the Siiperintendent of Dorunients. U.S. Government Printing Office 

W;ishinptoii. l).C. 20402 
FOREWORD 

It is hard to conceive of how our Government could perform its vast and 

diverse tasks without computers. Virtually all the Government’s many recordkeeping functions depend on them. 

The development and widespread use of computers in Government operations has been a giant step forward in man’s use of a new technology as a 

means to progress and development of his knowledge. 

One of its effects has been to increase Government services without large 

increases in total costs. An effect which is probably even more important in 

the long run is the ability to do things which could not be done at all without 

computers, either because they could not be done in time to be useful or 

because they would have cost too much to be practical. The most pervasive 

effects of computers on Federal operations, however, have been the changes 

in ways and methods which have become necessary to take full advantage of 

a whole set of new technological capabilities. 

But with great benefits have come corresponding risks. The failure of a 

computer system or the breakdown of a computer project (like monitoring 

atomic energy plants) could harm many people or severely disrupt Government operations with consequential damage to the people, country, and to the 

well-being of the United States. 

Despite the fundamental changes in the way the Government now runs its 

business, we believe that the automation of Government services has not 

kept pace with mechanization in other fields, like production-line developments in the factory. 

Great opportunities and challenges still lie ahead for the use of computers to 

help Government workers increase their productivity. 

Government is still faced with some pressing issues arising from computer 

use. It needs safeguards against misuse of computerized data and must 

resolve concerns about privacy, security, and better use of computers. Better 

management, control, and training of personnel in the use of these resources 

are essential. I 

Comptroller General 

of the United States 

iii 
What's In The Booklet 

iv 
CONTENTS 

Page ... FOREWORD .................................................... /// 

WHAT IS A COMPUTER? ......................................... 1 

HOW DID THE GOVERNMENT GET TO BE A LARGE 

USER OF COMPUTERS? ......................................... 5 

Increases in Government services ................................. 5 

Population growth ............................................... 7 

Concern for efficiency and effectiveness .......................... 11 

WHAT ARE SOME OF THE MAJOR BENEFITS ACHIEVED 

THROUGH COMPUTERS? ....................................... 13 

Being able to provide more. better. and faster service ................ 13 

Being able to do things that could not be done without computers ..... 15 

Being able to provide services at less cost or with fewer people ........ 17 

WHAT ARE SOME OF THE MORE IMPORTANT COMPUTER 

ISSUES OF TODAY? ............................................ 21 

Need for safeguards arising from dependency on computers ......... 23 

Conflict between the Government's need for information 

and the citizens' loss of privacy .................................. 29 

Need for better protection over computer resources ................. 31 

Barriers to stop the free flow of computerized information ........... 33 

Need to use computers to help solve today's pressing problems ...... 35 

Need for better management and control over computer systems ..... 37 

Need better trained people to manage this new resource ............ 41 

Computers and competition versus 

communications and regulations ................................. 43 

HOW WILL COMPUTERS AFFECT THE FEDERAL 

GOVERNMENT AND SOCIETY IN THE FUTURE? ................. 45 

What are some of the future risks? ............................... 47 

Some thoughts about the future ................................. 49 

V 
Computer Diagram 

Contro I 

Processing 

Input 0 utput 

Input 

Print 

Remember 

Translates human Converts machine 

language into 

machine Ian guage 

language into 

human language 

Vi 
WHAT IS A COMPUTER? 

The dictionary defines "computer" as an automatic electronic machine capable of accepting information, applying prescribed processes to the informalion, and supplying the results of these processes to a device, a machine, or a 

human being. It usually has input and output units; storage, arithmetic, and 

logical parts; and a control unit to monitor its operations. See page vi for a 

computer diagram. 

There are two kinds of electronic computers-analog and digital. Analog 

computers use voltage levels to represent quantities and perform their operations by simulating the physical phenomena being considered. In digital 

computers, all programs instructions and data are recorded as electrical 

impulses in a coded form. 

lnputing data to a digital computer is similar to communicating with another 

person by letter. The information to be conveyed must be reduced to symbols. 

In our language, these are the alphabet, numbers, and punctuation. Therefore, communicating with a computer requires that the data be reduced to 

symbols that can be read and interpreted by the machine. 

Digital computers function in what is called a binary mode. This means that 

the machine can indicate only two possible states or conditions. For example, 

the ordinary light bulb operates in a binary mode; it is either on, producing 

light, or it is off, not producing light. The binary mode of operation is a set of 

signals to the computer, just like the presence or absence of light from an 

electric light bulb is to a person. 

Data is represented within a computer by assigning or associating a specific 

value to a binary indication. For example, a device to represent numeric values 

could be designed with four electric light bulbs and switches to turn each bulb 

on or off. 

The bulbs would be assigned numeric values of 1, 2,4,and 8. When a light is 

on, it represents the numeric value associated with it. When a light is off, the 

numeric value is not considered. With such an arrangement, the single 

numeric value represented by the four bulbs will be the sum indicated by the 

lighted bulb. 

For example, the figure on page 2 shows the number 5 in a digital computer by 

havingthe4and 1 lightson andthe8and 2 1ightsoff.ThenumericvaIueOis 

represented by all all lights off; the value 15 by all lights on. 

1 
LANGUA( 

HOW IS DATA REPRESENTED? 

COMPUTER 

1 0 I 

NUMERIC SYMBOL§ 

OFFaON 

HUMAN 

LANGUAGE 4 

ON 

+ 

2 
The method used to symbolize data in a computer is known as a code. In our 

computer example, the code relates data to a fixed number of binary symbols. 

Computers in use today use codes to represent numeric and alphabetic 

characters by seven or eight positions of binary indications. By the proper 

arrangement of the binary indications (light, no light), all characters can be 

represented by a different combination of lights or symbols. The example on 

page 2 shows the place value of binary numbers in a typical computer. 

Many typesof digital computers are used in Federal programs and they vary in 

size, complexity, speed, cost, and application. But regardless of the job to be 

done, computer systems involve at least three basic considerations. They are: 

1. The source data, or input entering the system. 

2. The orderly, planned processing within the system 

3. The end result, or output from the system. 

Input may consist of many types of data; business, accounting, scientific, 

statistical, engineering, and so on. 

Processing is carried out in an established sequence of instructions that the 

computer follows automatically. The plan of processing is always of human 

origin. By calculation, sorting, analysis, or other operations, the computer 

arrives at a result that may be used for further processing or recorded as 

reports or files of data. 

Computers are usually designed to perform specific types of operations. They 

are directed or told to do each operation by an instruction. The instruction 

defines the operation to be performed and identifies how the machinery will 

carry it out. The overall plan, or series of instructions (machine routines), 

needed to complete a given procedure IS known as a computer program. 

Another term, "software," refers to all the programs which can be used on a 

particular computer. 

But what does all this mean? First, a computer is a machine that can carry out 

arithmetical and verbal tasks. It can follow a long sequence of logical instructions. It can ask and answer questions. It learns rapidly and remembers well. 

Acomputercan even showthe abilitytothink(bycomparing)andtocommunicate. However, it must be told what to do and how to do it. Therefore, in simple 

terms a computer can be viewed as the perfect idiot. It does precisely what it is 

told to do-no more, no less. 

3 
10 

7! 

5( 

2: 

C 

1 

I 

- FEDERAL EMPLOYMENT PER $100 OF 

PER CAPITA INCOME (IN 1,000) 

* PERCENTAGE OF POPULATION RECEIVING 

GOVERNMENT BENEFITS 

------NUMBER OF COMPUTERS PER $10,000 

OF PER CAPITA INCOME (IN 1.000) 

GROWTH TRENDS IN COMPUTERS, FEDERAL EMPLOYMENT, AND SERVICES 

0 

I - FEDERAL EMPLOYMENT PER $100 OF 

PER CAPITA INCOME (IN 1.000) 

PERCENTAGE OF POPULATION RECEIVING 

GOVERNMENT BENEFITS 

------NUMBER OF COMPUTERS PER $10,000 

OF PER CAPITA INCOME (IN 1.000) 

a 0 

a 0 

0 

a 

0 

0 

0 

0 

a 0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

a a 0 

a 

a a 0 

0 

0 

a. 

,,e' 

/-- 

-e-- 

-/ 

e-- 

/-- 

I 

I 1960 1970 I! 

YEARS 

4 
HOW DIDTHE GOVERNMENTGETTO BE 

A LARGE USER OF COMPUTERS? 

The Federal Government got to be a large user of computers because of 

increases in Government services, population growth, and concern for efficiency and effectiveness. 

INCREASES IN GOVERNMENT SERVICES 

The Constitution and the Congress, wars, depressions, inventions, other 

events, and the will of the people brought about a greatly enlarged role that 

the Federal Government plays in the life of the Nation. At the close of the 19th 

century, it became obvious that Government could not operate effectively and 

efficiently without new ways or techniques to handle new or expanded 

Government services. While machinery was widely used in manufacturing, 

manual methods were still being used to run the Federal Government. 

The genesis of automating Government operations was the 1890 census. 

Data and information from the 1 880 census were still being worked on when 

it was time to take the 1890census. Unless a fast, accurate form of processing 

data could be found, the scope of the 1890 census would be limited. The 

Census Office held a competition to select an efficient census-taking system. 

Herman Hollerith won the contest with his method for representing information as holes in a punched card. Hollerith developed a way of punching holes 

in a card to record the census information in a form that was readable by 

machines. 

During the next 50 years the punched card technology was applied to many 

Government administrative tasks. Also during the 1930s and 1940s great 

changes took place. New large-scale social programs appeared on the 

horizon. World War II wasfought. Science became an ever-increasing part of 

human activity. Research in ballistic calculations for the military led to the 

development of the electronic calculating and statistical machines, which 

were later used by the office worker. New concepts and ideas in the 1940s 

brought about a new technology-called the computer, which used programs, or instructions, stored inside the machine. 

After World War II service industries multiplied. Presidents and the people 

wanted more Government services but didn't want to increase the Federal 

workforce. The patterns of Government services and programs grew and 

grew.The chart on page 4 shows the growth trend in services, computers,and 

Federal employment. 

5 
11 FOR SOCIAL SECURITY AND T#ic PURPOSES-NOT FOR IDENTIFICATION 11 

The Social Security Act made it necessary to maintain records on 26 

million workers in 1935 and 200 million in 1980. 

Machines were invented and people were needed to keep the records 

and pay the benefits. 

It is estimated that in 1980 36 million people will receive $m 

billion in benefits. 

The agency maintains about a trillion records. 

6 
As these changes gained force, they manifested themselves in many ways. 

Informational needs greatly increased. Data and recordkeeping assumed new 

importance. Clerical tasks multiplied. Paper-handling tasks appeared as if 

they would overwelm all service activities. 

The Social Security Act of 1935 is a good illustration. This act required the 

Government to maintain employment records of all working people and set up 

one of the world's biggest bookkeeping jobs. 

Acts relating to income tax also caused new large-scale recordkeeping systems to be set up. They required the Treasury to keep detailed tax and 

withholding records on millions of taxpayers and handle hundreds of millions 

of checks ann ua I ly. 

Additional large recordkeeping jobs required by laws include: 

keeping records of millions of veterans' insurance and benefits; 

0 keeping records of agriculture, commerce, resources, and environmenrunning the national health and defense programs of the Federal 

tal agencies; and 

Gove r me nt . 

POPULATION GROWTH 

Next,the population of the United States increased at a rate of over 10 percent 

each decade since 1900. We went from a population of about 80 million in 

1900 to about 220 million in 1980. 

With more people came the need for more information and more programs 

and laws to govern and serve. To mobilize for wars and to serve the people, 

laws were passed to give the people running the Government extraordinary 

powers. Public agencies were set up to: 

0 Control transportation and communication. 

0 Fight wars and service veterans. 

Predict weather; explore space; and service the poor, the ill, and the 

. elderly. 

7 
YEARS 

8 
With new services, a population increase, and changes in customs and 

attitudes, the size and the complexity of day-to-day operations of the Federal 

Government has increased greatly since the depression of 1929. For example, the Government has one of the largest inventory and supply management 

operations in the world. Consider issuing and controlling over 3.5 million 

items of supplies valued at $200 billion. How about paying and keeping 

records and information on 2.8 million Federal workers? Clerical tasks and 

other administrative functions create billions of documents and transactions 

each month, which in turn contribute to a need for more and more computer 

services. The chart on page 8 shows the historical and projected growth in 

computers, laws passed, Federal employment, and population, along with the 

services provided by the Goverment. 

9 
MI 

3.0 

2.5 

2.0 

1.5 

1 .a 

0.5 

0 

FACTORS THAT AFFECT FEDERAL EMPLOYMENT 

IONS THOUS 

2.9 

TO RISE 

.WARS 

FEDERAL 

EMPLOYMENT 15.80( 

0 COMPUTERS 

.OTHER TECHNOLOGIES 

.LESS SERVICE TO OTHERS 

ODEPRESSIONS 

.POPULATION GROWTH 

a 

0 

0 

0 

8,600 

COMPUTERS .* 

1 .*85,200 

0 

1 I I I 1 2 

1900 192G 1940 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 

IS 

18 

15 

12 

9 

6 

3 

0 

0 
CONCERN FOR EFFICIENCY AND EFFECTIVENESS 

The thirst for more services and more information has to be tempered by 

increased efficiency in organization and information processing, if Government services are to be kept within reasonable bounds of costs and speed of 

action. 

About the turn of the 20th century, efficiency was achieved by a division of 

labor; i.e., large operations were broken down into a series of steps handled by 

a machine or person. Assembly-line techniques used in the factory were 

copied to process information. However, there was no hope of achieving large 

personnel savings until a new method was invented for keeping records 

automatically. 

In addition to a growing need for automation of clerical routine and management procedures, there was an expanded need for information processing to 

match a new rate of technological growth and scientific research. The 

demand for information and paper processing were and still are enormous. 

The old punched-card technology represented a step in the right direction, but 

this kind of equipment was slow and had very limited ability. Tooperate more 

effectively the Government needed rapid access to lots and lots of data. 

The invention of the modern computer in the late 1940s helped solve the 

problem, and large numbers of computers were acquired and installed. Computers were installed to provide more, better, and faster public services without increasing the Federal workforce size. 

The chart on page 10 shows some factors that affect Federal employment. 

Wars, recessions, population growth, public laws for more services, and the 

political party in off ice cause civilian Federal employment to rise. On the other 

hand, computers and other technologies, along with the transfer of services to 

States, cause Federal employment to fall. 

11 
12 
WHAT ARE SOME OF THE 

MAJOR BENEFITS ACHIEVED 

THROUGH COMPUTERS? 

The press tells us about all the bad things caused by computers, but little 

mention is made of the benefits. There is a solid record of achievements in 

setting up some of the Government's large and small computer systems. Let's 

go over a few. 

BEING ABLE TO PROVIDE MORE, 

BETTER, AND FASTER SERVICES 

One of the biggest benefits of computers is their ability to provide more and 

better services. Some services-such as processing claims and paper 

processing-are well-known examples of Government activities that depend 

highly on computers. However, the scope of activities and services relying on 

computers today include such lesser known activities as 

0 predicting crop levels; 

0 processing personnel statistics and supply transactions; 

0 managing numismatic operations; 

9 paying people, governments, and corporations for goods and services; 

0 helping hospitals care for the sick. 

and 

More examples which show computers being used to provide more and better 

services are shown on page 12. Also many lives, dollars, and even property 

are saved each year by telling the public in advance when castastrophies such 

as floods, earthquakes, and windstorms are coming. 

13 
Tim e 

Progress In Work Processing 

At The Census Bureau 

Before 

1890 

1890 

1950 

1951 

1980 

Method used 

Clerk witt 

pencil and 

Paper 

Manual puchcard 

r-l 

Electric punchcard 

First computer 

Modern computer 

Unit of 

work 

I 

5 

40 

80 

~ ~~ 

20,000 

Compile 

census 

7-9 years 

3-4 years 

2-3 years 

2 years 

less than 

I year 

14 
BEING ABLE TO DO THINGS WHICH COULD 

NOT BE DONE WITHOUT COMPUTERS 

Let's stop and think for a moment where we would be without computers or 

what could not be done if computers had not been invented. 

First, as noted on page 14, taking a census within a 1 0-year period was almost 

impossible without automation. The early censuses took 7 to 9 years to do 

little more than count tens of millions of people. Today, in less than 1 year's 

time, we take the census and develop meaningful information about the 

people and our country's land, labor, and wealth. 

Another example is the need for computers in our space programs.Scientists 

tell us that we would not have had a man on the moon without the use of 

computers. They are used in almost all space and research endeavors, such 

as 

developing the space shuttle for manned orbital flights, 

conducting deep space astronomy and investigating the Earth's magnetic 

developing and orbiting communications satellites. 

fields, and 

Next comes the use of computers by the military.The military tells us that in 

modern warfare a hostile missile could not be shot down without a computer. 

Computers identify hostile aircraft by comparing the information picked up on 

radar with the flight plans of friendly planes stored in its memory. Other 

military functions include logistics, communications, commanding operations, and administrative functions. The military is the largest user of computers in the Government. 

Computers are essential in designing and constructing our atomic power 

capabilities. They monitor and control our atomic energy powerplants. 

15 
IMPACT OF COMPUTERS ON FEDERAL EMPLOYMENT FEDERAL EMPLOYMENT 

(THOUSANDS) 

4,OO 

3.00 

2,oo 

1 ,oo 

I 

FEDERAL EMPLOYMENT 

WITHOUT COMPUTERS 
BEING ABLE TO PROVIDE SERVICES AT 

LESS COST OR WITH FEWER PEOPLE 

By and large most of us know what the Government does and how it has 

grown during the last three decades. As the Government workload increased, 

more work was necessary to perform the services, keep the records, and issue 

and account for the checks. The electronic computer helped do this additional 

work with far fewer people than would have been needed if computers hadn’t 

been used. 

A good example is the Treasury check operation. Before the installation of a 

computer system in 1956, the Government employed about 600 clerks to 

issue and reconcile about 300 million treasury checks each year.The reconciliation process under the old manual system took months to accomplish. 

Today only a few employees using computers handle about 750 million 

checks issued annually. Check-issue and payment information on magnetic 

tapes is fed into computers to automatically reconcile check-issue and payment data, eliminating almost all the manual work previously required. In 

addition, reconciliation is usually completed within a few weeks after receipt 

of the cashed checks. About $100 million has been saved by having the 

computer perform this operation for the last 23 years. 

Another example where computers are used to provide service at less cost is 

in the social benefit programs. 

Bigness, change, and expansion explain the history of this country’s social 

insurance programs. The Social Security Administration has had to respond 

to frequent legislative changes which have not only modified the original 

Social Security Act but also, in some cases, have considerably expanded the 

agency‘s basic mission. The agency has had to quickly implement legislative 

changes with little advance notice and very little increase in staff. For example, in 1965 massive health insurance programs were enacted and the 

agency had to have the new programs working within a year. Without 

computers this could not have been done. 

17 
ESTIMATE OF THE NUMBER OF ADDITIONAL FEDERAL JOBS THAT WOULD 

BE NEEDED TO PERFORM EXISTING SERVICES WITHOUT COMPUTERS FEDERAL JOBS 

SAVE 

60 

40( 

20( 

(THOUSANDS) 

YEARS 
Lastly let's compare some well-known facts about Government and try to 

estimate how computers have cut costs and saved money. The costs of 

Government services in 1980 increased by about 300 percent over those in 

the 1950s. However, the Federal workforce increased only about 15 percent 

while the number of computers installed increased almost 8,000 percent. 

What would have happened if the computer had not been invented? Would 

we need a corresponding 300-percent increase in civilian Federal employment to run a $525 billion operation? Probably not, but we wouldn't be doing 

as much work either. 

To estimate what civilian Federal employment might have been in 1980 

without computers, we identified and collected data on several significant 

factors that would influence the size of the Federal workforce. Next an 

econometric technique was developed and used by our computer to estimate 

what Federal employment would be with and without computers. The same 

mode was used to estimate all the data used in this booklet for the years 1979 

and 1 980. In our analysis we used data on population, number of computers, 

unemployment rate, real per capita disposable income, whether we were at 

war or peace, the political party in power, and other factors that could increase 

or decrease Federal employment. The factors used account for about 86 

percent of the variation in employment during the period. The resultsestimate 

that computers have enabled the Government to do its work with about 

600,000 fewer employees in 1980 than would be needed if we didn't have 

computers. The graph on page 16 shows Federal employment with and 

without computers for the period 1950-80. The chart on page 18 shows the 

600,000 estimated jobs saved in 1980 by using the computer. 

19 
WHAT 

ARE 

THE 

IMPORTANT 

ISSUES! 

20 
WHAT ARE SOME OF THE MOST 

IMPORTANT COMPUTER ISSUES 

OF TODAY? 

Over the years the General Accounting Office and the Congress have focused 

attention on issues dealing with acquiring, managing, and using computers in 

the Federal Government. Some progress has been made in solving some of 

the acquisition issues, like: Should we buy the equipment or rent it? Do we 

need our own computers or can we share someone else's? However, much 

remains to be done in other problem areas. The most pressing computer 

issues facing the Goverment today are: 

Need for safeguards arising from dependency on computers. 

Conflict between the Government's need for information and citizens' 

loss of privacy. 

Need for better protection over computer resources. 

Barriers to stop the free flow of computerized information. 

Need to use computers to help solve today's pressing problems. 

Need for better management and control over computers. 

Need for better trained people to manage this new resource. 

Computers and competition versus communication and regulation. 

21 
HOW DEPENDENT ARE COMPUTERS TO 

GOVERNMENT OPERATIONS? 

8:OO AM JULY 13,1980 

D 

b L 

I 

22 
NEED FOR SAFEGUARDS ARISING 

FROM DEPENDENCY ON COMPUTERS 

There is now a computer at the core of almost all Government administrative 

operations. Most Government payments are made by computers. Computers 

make small decisions themselves and help managers make large decisions. 

They are used in research and scientific operations. It is reasonable to conclude that the good design and smooth functioning of computers are now 

crucial to many essential Government services, and dependence upon them 

is bound to increase. 

But how dependent is the Federal Government on computers and what are 

the consequences of this? Let's consider for a moment what could happen. 

At 8 a.m. on July 14, 1980, all 15,800 computers installed in the Federal 

Government magically disappeared, and the Federal Government had no 

computers to run its operations. 

At that very moment there would be about 1,300 commercial airplanes in the 

air over the United States. Hundreds more would be taking off and landing. 

The air traffic control system computers of the Federal Aviation Agency could 

not track and control these aircraft. To keep the airplanes from bumping into 

each other would be almost impossible with the limited personnel available. 

Catastrophe would probably result. 

23 
COULD WE OPERATETODAY 

WITHOUT COMPUTERS? 

24 
At the time of the computer disappearance, there would probably be six 

spacecraft in the air being completely controlled by computers. In addition to 

the possible loss of millions of dollars for the airborne spacecraft, the whole 

space exploration and research program would be halted. 

An earthquake that could affect the entire west coast is alwaysa possibility. A 

hurricane could be 100 miles off the coast of Florida heading toward the east 

coast. However, without computers, weather people could not predict where 

or when these disasters would hit the States. 

The Social Security Administration would not be able to issue checks to over 

50 million Americans who are old, disabled, or otherwise deserving. 

This inability of the Government to operate would result in chaos and massive 

citizen protests. 

Scenario after scenario like these can be played to vividly demonstrate that 

Government agencies could neither perform their missions nor provide some 

basic services citizens need and expect. 

Because of their size, complexity, information needs, and time requirements, 

some Federal programs depend almost totally on computers. Many important 

programs simply could not be carried out without them. Computers are not 

only an integral part of Government programs, but computers also prepare 

budgets and store data. For example, computers are widely used in accounting, auditing, mathematical modeling, and developing statistics. 

25 
Computers Control 

e. 

Machines, People Lives, 

And Things 

26 
In addition to program execution, the Federal Government depends on computers for most of its bookkeeping. Consider, for example, the impact on the 

Federal workforce if the Federal Government had nocomputers to process its 

payrolls. Not only would additional staff be needed, but there would be 

innumerable difficulties in trying to pay so many in a timely manner. Similarly 

the recordkeeping for control and accountability over funds, supplies, and 

materials requires that agencies use computers because of the sheer bulk of 

transactions. 

Finally, the Government depends on computers to do many things, such as 

controlling the flow of water in rivers,controlling machines,controlling weapons systems, and helping planners build better communities that will serve 

all citizens more effectively. 

Some safeguards against computer failures are being developed, such as 

using management people to run the system in case of strikes and using 

stand by generators in the case of power failures. Another safeguard could be 

to fall back on manual methods, if possible,to provide minimum service in the 

event of serious disasters. Some work is underway to explore how far standby 

arrangements can be made to maintain computer services in emergencies or 

when it is impossible to go back to manual methods. But the necessary 

measures can be costly, and a balance has to be struck in all cases between 

the costs and risks involved. 

27 
AUTOMATED DATA BANKS 

PRIVACY? 

28 
CONFLICT BETWEEN THE GOVERNMENT'S NEED FOR 

INFORMATION AND THE CITIZEN'S LOSS OF PRIVACY 

Today computers linked through high speed communications networks have 

become the principal medium for making, storing, and using records about 

people. There is much concern that computerized records and data banks on 

individuals present a serious potential for harmful consequences, including 

infringement on basic human liberties. 

The Privacy Act of 1974, the Fair Credit Reporting Act, and the act creating the 

National Commission on Electronic Fund Transfers are actions by the Congress to respond to changed circumstances arising primarily from computers. 

Paperworkcontinues to plague both the Government and industry. Moreover, 

paperwork costs are rising rapidly. Internal Federal paperwork costs an estimated $50 billion annuaIly.Paperwork impact on businessesand individuals 

costs another $65 billion annually. Innovations in computer data bank recordkeeping technology, when properly used, are a powerful paperwork costcutting tool. Their capacity for timely retrieval and analysis of complex personal data can automate the Government decisionmaking process in 

providing increased services to the public without more paperwork and for 

less cost. 

Access to Government information by the public, as set out in the Freedom of 

Information Act, along with the ease to penetrate a computer's recordkeeping 

system, continues to raise controversial questions. For example: Will individual privacy be affected by agencies'exchange or matching of personal data to 

prevent fraud, abuse, and error? Will confidential data provided by businesses 

to agencies be appropriately safeguarded? Will public access to investigative 

agency records cause a reduction in information from informers? How much 

personal information should be required for a person to be eligible for Federal 

benefits? 

The issues being discussed today in the Congress, State governments and 

countries of the world is how much efficiency can be satisfied to protect 

people's privacy? Or to put it another way, how much privacycan be sacrificed 

to promote governmental efficiency? The pervasiveness of these issues 

worldwide is indicated by themany bills introduced and by discussions and 

articles in newspapers and magazines. 

The protection of personal and proprietary data by Federal agencies and 

contractors from authorized recipients remains a concern to many people 

and groups. Indications are that not enough is being done to protect computer 

systems against erroneous entries and unauthorized use of recorded 

information. 

29 
Federal Computer Resources 

Are 

Valuable And Need Protection 

30 
NEED FOR BElTER PROTECTION OVER 

COMPUTER RESOURCES 

Computerization in the past tended to centralize more Government recordkeeping and information processing activities, thus making the information 

and the facility more vulnerable to destruction or alterations than ever before. 

Catastrophic losses to Government computer installations, such as the loss of 

human lives and of irreplaceable data, records, and equipment, have occurred 

because of inadequate protection. Poor security practices make the installations susceptible to losses caused by sabotage, fires, floods, frauds, thefts, 

embezzlements, and human errors. 

More management attention and responsibility are needed when making 

security decisions,along with contingency plans to provide for continuity of 

operations in times of need or in the event of a loss. Next,some form of risk 

assessment should be done; that is, a formal assessment of the resources to 

be protected versus the cost to protect them and whether the cost involved is 

worth it. 

31 
w r.J 
BARRIERS TO STOP THE FREE FLOW 

OF COMPUTERIZED INFORMATION 

The Dutch built dikes to stop water from flooding their lands. Just like the 

Dutch, States, countries, and nations are building dikes to stop the transmission of computer data across national and international boundaries. The dikes 

are laws dealing with the privacy, security, and the free flow of data and 

information from one country to another. 

Trying to define the main issues here presents a problem. Much confusion 

now exists because no one really knows what types of data and in what amount 

are actually flowing across national borders. Another problem is whether 

data is to be considered as a product. If so, then it may be subjected to many 

of the product export and import controls of many nations. Also, when 

entering or leaving a country, should data be cleared through Customs like 

products? 

Next, six countries, France, Sweden, Norway, Denmark, West Germany, 

Canada, and the United States have national privacy acts. The European 

countries which have enacted privacy legislation are seeking to extend this 

protection to data transmitted and processed outside their boundaries. 

It is hard to see what the problem is that regulations of transborder data flow 

are trying to solve. Some fears now range from the threat of loss of human 

privacy to the loss of national sovereignty. Others believe the issue to be 

economic, that is, the development of the local economy and the fear of being 

left behind as other nations reap the benefits of a new asset. No one seems to 

know what protection the new laws will bring against what abuses and by 

what national or international actions. 

While the United States has been developing its own domestic privacy stance, 

it has not taken a leadership role in global developments. However, a position 

is being considered by an interagency task force. There is also a Public 

Advisory Commission on Transborder Data Flow. 

Recently there have been several conferences on the international barriers to 

data flows, and a background report was prepared by the House Committee 

on Interstate and Foreign Commerce. The theme of the report is that neither 

the U.S. Government nor the business community understands or fully 

realizes the scope of the transnational data flow problems. 

33 
HOW IS YOUR COMPUTER USED? 

LIKE 

THIS OR THIS 

I 

34 
NEED TO USE COMPUTERS TO HELP 

SOLVE TODAY'S PRESSING PROBLEMS 

Computers cannot do everything. Or to put it another way, they can do only 

what people tell and program them to do. However, computers can help 

identify and define the real problems facing us today, as distinct from what 

appear to be the problems, both current and oncoming. 

Complex problems in energy uses and development, inflation, atomic and 

solar power sources, better health care, and other national problems need 

solutions. Computers can be used as powerful design tools; to index and 

catalog information; to find and retrieve specific facts; and to help doctors, 

engineers, scientists, and Government managers make the right decisions to 

solve current complex problems. 

The Government is big and has big problems. Computers can be large or 

small, scientific or business oriented, and can do small and big things. The 

modern Government computer is much more than a high-powered adding 

machine, even though some people believe that it is being used like one by 

some Government agencies. 

In Government, performing scientific work continues to be one of the most 

successful areas of computer use. Although computers are vital for scientific 

uses, engineers and scientists tell us that scientific uses account for only a 

small amount of the Government's computer power. 

There are many disciplines, professions, and programs where computers have 

become of central importance. In others, such as auditing, printing and 

typesetting, medical monitoring and diagnosis, legal and medical research, 

and the solving of energy and pollution problems, important beginnings have 

been made. It is clear to us that we need computers to play a more dominant role in these areas. 

The extent to which the advantage of computers will be realized in these areas 

depends on many factors, such as the readiness by management and operational staff to look at new ways to do things, the presence of trained and 

experienced people, the availability of good data, and the design and testing of 

new systems. When these prerequisites are met, computers will do better 

things, produce better products, and help the Government provide new and 

better services. 

35 
36 
NEED BETTER MANAGEMENT AND 

CONTROL OVER COMPUTER SYSTEMS 

Good planning, management, and control of Government computer resources are critical to Government services and program objectives. Much has 

already been accomplished in setting up and running some of the large and 

small Federal programs. However, some agencies are experiencing problems 

in these areas. When problems do occur, newspaper headlines usually cry out 

that Government plans to reduce costs in military or civil programs through 

automation have turned into a billion dollar boondoggle.The most common 

element causing these boondoggles is management inadequacy in controlling computer operations. 

Historically, most Government computer operations began as a substitute for 

manual systems. In the early days most manual systems were converted to 

computers without determining what computers could do or what users 

wanted them to do. The new automated computer systems were usually 

planned and designed by computer people who knew computers but not 

systems or management. 

The whole question of top-level management involvement and participation 

in computer activities has been a subject of considerable discussion within 

the computer profession for many years. In the past, and even today, many key 

decisions are being made by technicians and by computer operations managers who lack the perspective that top management can bring to bear on 

control I i ng these machines. 

Let’s look at it logically. If an agency is planning to develop a new manual 

accounting system, it is reasonable to assume that the top accountant should 

be involved. Or if the agency is planning for the development of a new manual 

legal system, it is reasonable to assume that the general counsel should be 

involved. If management and users are excludedfrom planning and designing 

new manual systems, it is reasonable to assume that the new systems will 

probably be incomplete, or unacceptable, or half done for administrative and 

management purposes. It is the same way with computer systems. Management and users must be in on the system design. 

37 
TODAY THE COMPUTER IS 

NO LONGER REMOTE 

38 
Todaythe computer is no longer remoteand mysterious. Its use in all agencies 

and its use by clerks, professionals, and managers rather than only computer 

people has changed the working methods of the Government worker. 

There is much need for the development of computer systems which will help 

managers, professional, and clerical staffs doa better job. But if these systems 

are to be planned, developed, and used, top management must be better 

acquainted with the benefits and limitations of computers and the people 

designing these systems will need an insight into howtop management runs 

and arranges its business. 

39 
THE NEW MANAGERS 

40 
NEED BElTER TRAINED PEOPLE TO 

MANAGE THIS NEW RESOURCE 

Training in computersfor executives has consisted mostly of brief seminars by 

computer companies which cover elementary concepts. Some of the new 

crop of young executives have received some training in computers as part of 

their formal education. 

While this "brief brush" with computers provides some understanding of the 

new technology, it has to be viewed as only a half step in the right direction. 

On the other hand, some well-run Federal computer agencies require that top 

executives serve tours in computer departments before being initially considered for top management positions. 

Top management is usually very busy, so busy that the daily pressures do not 

allow them to take time off to receive the necessary training. Executives 

should be better trained in computer technology during their formal training 

years and then they should be required to serve tours in computer and 

functional departments before being considered for top executive slots. Some 

well-known universities now require extensive training in computers before 

granting degrees in management or business. 

41 

COMPUTERS AND COMPETITION VERSUS 

COMMUNICATIONS AND REGULATIONS 

In the past, communications networks were built for the telephone, the 

telegraph, and broadcasting. Now they are built not only to service these three 

industries but also to send and receive all the data the world could possibly 

use. Data can also be transmitted and received over radio circuits by electromagnetic signals. This process is called telecommunications. The technology 

of communications is changing in ways which will affect the lifestyles of the 

people of the world. 

New communications technology can now connect computers, television, 

and other machines with people to change our work patterns, the way we 

educate people, and the way we run our businesses and Government. 

It is often said that if a better mousetrap or a pocket computer is invented, it is 

likely to reach the marketplacevery fast. However, with new communications 

technology this may not necessarily be so, because many complex laws 

govern communications and telecommunications systems. Lawyers tell us 

that they do not know how this new technology will fit into the many laws and 

regulations that now exist governing the communications industry. 

History and experience show that when a new technology is introduced, large 

organizations that are committed to an older technology can get hurt or go out 

of business. For example, the Pony Express Company went bankrupt 2 years 

after Western Union built the first telegraph system to the west coast. It is 

easy to see then why there is much debate in the Congress over new 

communications legislation on how to restructure the telephone system and 

the telecommunications network in a way that will promote greater competition and innovation in the marketplace. 

An important new industry is forming in which computers and communications technology will come together and merge. Experts tell us that the main 

debate over the new communications legislation concerns whether monopoly and competitive service should be allowed by major communications 

carriers. Because the communications industry is regulated, the conditions 

under which it is allowed to offer new services will depend on Federal, State, 

and local policy decisions. 

These decisions will determine where this new industry is going and how and 

when it will get there. The well-being of some companies will be at stake and 

could affect US. companies' sales in foreign markets. Service, costs, and 

growth of a new industry are at stake. 

43 
44 
HOW WILL COMPUTERS AFFECT THE 

FEDERAL GOVERNMENT AND SOCIETY 

IN THE FUTURE? 

Forecasting the future is risky, at best. However, by examining the views of 

futuristic experts, we can develop some viewpoints which seem logical. 

Computers will be cheaper, smaller, and simpler and will be in use everywhere in all Government offices and in cars, planes, homes, etc. Some will 

be bigger, more powerful, and more expensive. 

Computer processing power will become so cheap that Government hardware cost will be insignificant. Software (programs), services, communication networks, and display devices will be the items which increase costs. 

After the turn of the 21st Century, it is likely that every Government employee will have a computer terminal to work with or that employee’s work 

will be done by computer. 

Other happenings and technologies could affect computer development in the 

Federal Goverment, like new modes of transportation and communications, 

new types of power sources, and advances in computer andcommunications 

technologies. 

There will be a great variety of new uses, some already widespread, others 

beginning to be introduced, still others yet to be born. Travel reservations, 

electronic transfer of moneys, point-of-service transactions, conferencing by 

computers, voice storage and redistribution, facsimile and image processing, 

interactive graphics, text editing and document distribution, electronic services via television-are all examples of what‘s coming. 

Next, there seems to be no viable alternative to the use of computers as a 

means of holding costs down while Government operations expand. So the 

Government’s dependence on computers will probably increase as fast as it 

has in the past. 

45 
RISKS AND THREATS TO COMPUTERS 

46 
WHAT ARE SOME OF THE FUTURE RISKS? 

The Government now depends heavily on computers to carry out mission and 

administrative operations, and this dependence will increase to all areas of 

Government operations. With increasing dependence on computers will 

come a proportionate increase in the degree of risks assumed. Some risks will 

be of great concern to the Government and its people. 

Government operations that depend on computers are more vulnerable to 

catastrophic losses than manual systems. Because of the nature of computer 

technology and the large size of some programs, some agencies will continue 

to centralize their computer operations into large centers. Others will decentralize their information processing into many small, separate systems (called 

minicomputer systems). However, while this decentralization usually implies 

a decrease in the size of centralized hardware, it normally implies some form 

of centralized control and/or centralized information-processing activity. 

Centralization generally increases the potential for major thefts, frauds, misuses, or catastrophic losses. The threats the center faces usually relate 

directly to its purpose and use, its location, the workforce, and so forth. 

Furthermore, the relative risks of a center can change over time because of 

changes in Government policies, laws, and conditions or even changes in the 

environment or physical situations. Such changes might be due, for example, 

to war, changes in the attitude of the American people, or economic conditions. In any event, changes in Government policy or even the environment 

and the people can change the posture of a Government computer installation, which can increase or decrease the threats against it. 

The Government, when assessing computer threats, will face difficult questions regarding what risks it can assume. Even more difficult will be deciding 

on what should be done to protect against the risks. 

47 

SOME THOUGHTS ABOUT THE FUTURE 

For better or worse the Federal Government will find more uses for computers. It is also sure that it will follow the lead of some of the largest private 

companies and devote more attention to discovering new ways to process 

information more quickly and efficiently. 

The Government has many solid computer achievements to its credit, but this 

is not to say that the use and quality of its systems and programs cannot be 

improved. 

Computer technology is changing at great speed. Other technologies that go 

with computers, like communications and television technologies, are also 

changing. Government off ices and the homes of its executives now have vast 

numbers of television sets and telephones. When these three technologies 

merge, there is no telling what could happen with Government operations. 

Today the British Post Office plans a merger of the three mediums. Electronic 

circuits have been added to the television set which connect it to the telephone network. The user also has a small keyboard about the size of a pocket 

calculator which will be connected to the television set to access the computer, many miles away. 

For a local telephone call, the user can gain access to Post Office computer 

systems which store information and programs. Billions of pages of information become immediately available to the user, each designed to be displayed 

in color on the television screen. The home user can look at news reports, 

weather forecasts, stock market figures, sports results, and so on. Business 

people can look at business information, while Government people can lookat 

data ba n ks a bout Government i nf or mat ion. 

Experimental systems using cable television networks are in use today in the 

United States. 

What other types of changes are possible? Let's say that a larger Federal 

agency had to expand because of new laws and considered constructing another building next to its downtown Washington location where office and 

parking space was expensive. Government management analyzed the extent 

to which computers and communications systems could be substituted for 

49 
HOW LONG WILL IT TAKE FOR SOME FUTURE USES 

TO BE IMPLEMENTED? 

Future uses 

Paperless Government 

Government managers have 

terminals in their homes 

linked to work computers 

Provide information and 

service to the public in a 

few minutes’ time 

Help medical scientists 

develop replacement 

parts for the human 

body 

Electronic mail 

Government agencies 

Public and General use 

Have terminal in home for 

public use and for Government service 

Use computer robots to 

do office work 

50 
the centralized operations. With communications and computer costs rapidly 

decreasing and transportation costs rapidly increasing, the decentralization of 

the operation into remote work centers-located closer to the work force and 

linked by communications-was the way to go. 

Furthermore, the philosophy of bringing work to the people rather than the 

people to work appeared to have many social benefits, such as 

decreased energy consumption, 

decreased air pollution, 

employment of people who had been excluded from the labor force by 

bringing the service close to where the people live. 

inability to commute, and 

The chart on page 50 also estimates some future uses for Government 

computers. 

Finally, we believe highly trained computer staffs will be needed to take full 

advantage of future computer uses. Effective designing of future systems will 

need much care and expertise. Unless adequate safeguards are provided, 

there can be a strong case for delaying future computer uses and achievements. However, we feel sure that the issues and problems discussed in this 

booklet will be solved and adequate safeguards will be built into future 

computer systems. Computers will make Government service better, and our 

lives in this country will be richer. 

51 
9.. 

m.. 

... 

m.8 

... 

... 

... 

... 

9.. 

.B. 

... 

... 

... 

... I 

52 
CONCERNS ARE OFTEN VOICED ABOUT 

COMPLICATED SUBJECTS WHEN PEOPLE DO NOT 

FULLY UNDERSTAND THEM OR KNOW SOMETHING 

ABOUT THEM. 

THE GOAL OF THIS BOOKLET IS TO PROVIDE A 

SIMPLIFIED EXPLANATION OF WHAT COMPUTERS 

MEAN TO YOU AND ME AND THE PEOPLE WHO RUN 

THE GOVERNMENT. 

WE HOPE WE MET THIS GOAL AND WIPED AWAY 

SOME OF THE CONCERNS ABOUT A VALUABLE 

RESOURCE. 

ELMER B. STAATS 

53 
.I 
This bibliography annotates 24 sources of information on the 

international petroleum trade. The selected' titles are a 

representative sample of the most commonly known publications 

of private, governmental, and international organizations in 

the field of petroleum statistics. Unless otherwise noted, 

the Technical Information Sources and Services Branch receives 

each item. 

CONTENTS 

United States Imports and Exports: sources that give information on the international petroleum trade as it affects 

the United States, mainly in the form of imports, but also 

providing information on U.S. petroleum exports, consumption, 

and prices. 

-API Weekly Statistical ,Bulletin 

-DOE Monthly Energy Review 

Monthly Petroleum Statement 

P.A.D. Monthly 

Monthly Petroleum Statistics Report 

Important Periodicals: a number of journals that concentrate 

on international petroleum matters, have special issues on 

various aspects of the industry, and have consistently reliable 

statistics. 

-Oil & Gas Journal 

-Petroleum Economist 

-Offshore ~ 

-World Oil 

-CIA International Energy 

Statistical Review 

-Petroleum Intelligence Weekly 

International Organizations and Worldwide Coverage: major 

sources published by international organizations such as the 

UN and OECD giving information about the petroleum trade, consumption, prices, etc. for many different countries. Also 

some good sources not published by international agencies but 

which contain comprehensive data. 

-1EA Quarterly Oil Statistics 

-0ECD Energy Statistics 

-0ECD Oil Statistics 

-UN World Energy Supplies 

-UN Monthly Bulletin of Statistics 

-WEC Survey of Enerqy Resources 

-DOE International Petroleum Annual 

-20th Century Petroleum Statistics 

-1- 
Area Studies: a number of publications giving comprehensive 

data on specific areas of the world. with emphasis on the 

Middle East . 

-International Petroleum Encyclopedia 

-0uarterlv Economic Reviews . .& of Oil* 

-OPEC Annual Statistical Bulletin 

-Arab Oil and Gas* 

-Arab Oil and Gas Directorv* 

ALPHABETICAL LISTING 

Arab Oil & Gas ............................................ 26 

Arab Oil & Gas Directory .................................. 26 

Annual Statistical Bulletin (OPEC) ........................ 25 

Energy Statistics (OECD) .................................. 16 

International Energy Statistical Review (CIA) ............. 12 

International Petroleum Encylopedia ....................... 23 

Monthly Energy Review (DOE) ............................... 6 

7 

Offshore .................................................. 10 

Oil and Gas Journal ....................................... 8 

Oil Statistics (OECD) ..................................... 16 

Petroleum Economist ....................................... 9 

Petroleum Intelligence Weekly ............................. 14 

Quarterly Economic Reviews of Oil ......................... 24 

Survey of Energy Resources ................................ 20 

Twentieth Century Petroleum Statistics .................... 22 

World Energy Supplies (UN) ................................ 18 

World Oil ................................................. 11 

International Petroleum Anual (DOE) ....................... 21 

Monthly Bulletin of Statistics (UN) ....................... 19 

Monthly P.A.D. Distric Supply/Demand (DOE) ................ 7 

Monthly Petroleum Statement DOE) .......................... Monthly Petroleum Statistics Report (DOE) ................. 7 

Quarterly Oil Statistics (IEA) ............................ 15 

Weekly Statistical Bulletin (API) ......................... 5 

*Currently not received by the Technical Information Sources 

and Services Branch . 

-2- 
ABBREVIATIONS: 

API American Petroleum Institute 

DOE Department of Energy 

EEC European Economic Community (Belgium, Denmark, France, 

Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, United Kingdom, 

West Germany) 

IEA International Energy Agency (Austria, Belgium, Canada, 

Denmark, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Luxembourg, 

Netherlands, New Zealand, NorwayI Spain, Sweden, 

Switzerland, Turkey, United Kingdom, United States, 

West Germany) 

OAPEC Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries 

(Algeria, Bahrain, Egypt, Iraq , Kuwait , Libya I Qatar , Saudi Arabia, Syria, United Arab Emirates) 

OECD Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development 

(Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, Finland, 

France, Greece, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Japan, 

Luxembourg, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Portugal, 

Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, United Kingdom, 

United States, West Germany) 

OPEC Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (Algeria, 

Ecuador, Gabon, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Libya, 

Nigeria, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, 

Venezuela) 

-3- 
A NOTE ON COMPARING 

Most of the fiqures for crude o 

STATISTICS 

- 1 and petroleum prokucts 

used by DOE and U.S. publishers are expresed as a measpre of 

volume--the 42 gallon barrel. This unit is often expressed in 

aggregates of 1,000 or as barrels per day. Most European 

statistical publications give measurements in terms of weight 

i.e., metric tons. This form of measurement has been termed 

more accurate than volume equivalents because energy values 

of different petroleum products do not differ as much on a 

weight basis as they do on a volume basis. A third system 

of measurement, and the most scientific, is the precise 

energy unit expressed as the calorie' (cal), the joule (j) , the British thermal unit (Btu), and the Kilowatt hour (kwh). 

Some statistics are also expressed in terms of another energy 

source. For example, the United Nations uses the metric ton 

of coal equivalent to compare different fuels. 

Various tables and formulae exist for calculating a 

common unit of measure, to be used when changing metric tons 

to barrels per day, changing barrels per year to tons per 

year, finding Btu equivalents of liquid fuels, etc. These 

systems involve applying to one measurement a specific conversion factor to arrive at another measurement; for example, 

to convert metric ton units of gasoline to barrel units, 

multiply the metric ton figure by a factor of 8.5 to arrive 

at the number of barrels. 

An excellent text explaining the details of determining 

energy values is Energy Interrelationships: A Handbook of 

Tables and Conversion Factors for Combinina'and d ComDarina a. ., International Energy Data, published by the Federal Energy 

Administration in June 1977 (available from NTIS as PB-269 

034). The introductory material to the United Nation's 

World Energy Supplies (Series J) also contains valuable conversion tables. 

-4- 
Weekly Statistical Bulletin. American Petroleum Institute, 

Department of Statistics. Washington, D.C., 1920- 

The Weekly Statistical Bulletin published by the American 

Petroleum Institute is a useful source of information for very 

recent figures on foreign crude oil and petroleum products imported into the United States. Although the Bulletin is devoted primarily to statistics on U.S. refining operations and 

petroleum stocks, it does include daily averages in 1000 

barrel units for imports of crude oil and 14 refined products. 

The source of imports is not given, only total figures. The 

time period covered is the last 4 weeks (weekly averages are 

given) prior to publication date and the corresponding current 

week of the previous year. The Bulletin is very up-to-date-- 

each issue is current through the previous week. Statistics 

presented in the Bulletin are estimates made by API based on 

data collected from reporting companies. This weekly data 

from API is use.d by DOE to form the basis of their DOE 

Petroleum Demand Watch. 

- 

-5- 
Monthly Energy Review. United States Department of Energy, 

Energy Information Administration, Washington, D.C., 1974- 

The Monthly Energy Review is important because the 

figures presented are official Department of Energy statistics and are often cited by other statistical sources. The 

Review covers the entire range of domestic energy statistics-- 

consumption, price, trade, petroleum, natural gas, oil and 

gas development, nuclear power, electricity, and coal--as 

well as the international aspects of some of these subjects. 

The executive summary of the Review gives an overview 

of crude oil and refined products imported into the U.S. 

Total figures are presented in terms of quadrillion 

Btu and thousands of barrels per day. The dollar value of 

energy imports and exports in relation to overall trade is 

indicated along with a section dealing with U.S. dependence 

on petroleum imports. Dependence is expressed two ways--as a 

percentage of petroleum demand supplied by foreign sources, 

and as the volume (thousands of barrels per day) of direct 

imports in relation to the daily volume of domestic demand. 

Other tables of the Review deal in a more detailed 

fashion with imports and exports, including data on strategic 

petroleum reserve (SPR) stocks. Imports into the U.S. are 

broken down by source--most OPEC countries and seven major 

non-OPEC petroleum suppliers. The volume of imports in relation to domestic demand for gasoline, jet fuel, fuel oil, 

and natural gas liquids is thoroughly treated. Also covered 

is the price (in dollars per barrel) of crude oil imports 

from selected OPEC/non-OPEC countries. 

The international section of the Review briefly presents 

the latest energy consumption figures for the major free 

world industrialized countries, and the crude oil production 

figures for OPEC, Canada, and Mexico. 

The Review presents data going back in most cases to 

1973. The current year is included, but there is generally 

a lag of 2 to 4 months in reporting the latest month's 

figures. For the 2 most recent years, coverage is on a 

month-by-month basis. The Review includes charts to illustrate 

the statistical tables, definitions of terms, and explanatory 

notes. 

-6- 
Monthly Petroleum Statement: Crude Petroleum, Petroleum 

Products, and Natural Gas Liquids. United States Department 

of Energy, __ Energy Information Administration. EIA-0109. 

Monthly P.A.D. District Supply/Demand. EIA-0134. 

Monthly Petroleum Statistics Report. EIA-0011. 

These publications feature data on the U.S. and foreign 

petroleum trade. The Monthly Petroleum Statement gives 

figures for imports into the U.S. for crude oil and 20 

finished products. The crude oil figures are broken down by 

supplying country and Petroleum Administration for Defense 

(P.A.D.) District destinations. Imports of finished products 

are not broken down by source country. U.S. export figures 

for crude and refined produts are given in 1000 barrel units. 

The annual compilation of this title gives export figures 

with countries of destination. The time period covered by 

the Monthly Petroleum Statement consists of the current month, 

previous mnth, cumulative figure for year to date, and data 

for previous year to date and previous year's current month. 

The annual edition gives a month-by-month breakdown for the 

entire year. The "current month'' in this publication is 

usually 4 to 6 months behind the actual date of publication. 

0 

The second title, P.A.D. District Supply/Demand Monthly, 

further develops the import data found in the Monthlv Petroleum 

Statement. Imborts int; the U.S. of petroleum produks (gasoline, jet fuel, fuel oils, etc.) are listed by foreisn source. 

Imports from Canada are detailed by type as wgll as imports 

from OPEC. The annual compilation is more detailed in terms of 

the variety of finished products reported on. The P.A.D. 

Monthly presents data for the current month (usually 4 to 6 

months behind the actual date of publication) and the year to 

date. 

Similar but more current DOE data on imports can be found 

in their Monthly Petroleum Statistics Report, which is only 2 

months behind publication date. This publication gives a 

breakdown of imports of crude oil and petroleum products from 

OPEC and other major non-OPEC suppliers. Figures are given 

in total amounts as well as computed on a barrels-per-day basis. 

-7- 
Oil and Gas Journal. Petroleum Publishing Company. Tulsa, . 

Oklahoma, 1902- 

In the final December issue of each year, Oil and Gas 

Journal publishes its authoritative worldwide report. A combination of text and statistics, the worldwide report gives 

recent production and refining figures for 110 foreign 

countries. 

The report opens with a narrative account of the world 

petroleum situation with emphasis on regional developments. 

Following this is a two-page chart summarizing each country's 

oil and gas production and refining totals in 1000 barrel 

units. Figures are current and include the present year. 

This chart also gives Oil and Gas Journal's estimated proved 

reserves of oil and gas for each country. These are the same 

figures used by the DOE for presentation in their International Petroleum Annual. 

The remaining section of the report is divided into two 

detailed tables. The worldwide production table gives data 

for 53 countries, and for each country identifies its oilfields, their discovery date, and depth; indicates the number 

of wells and type, whether flow, pump, gas lift, or shut in; 

and the API rating for each field. Barrels per day (b/d) 

average production as well as cumulative barrel production 

for the first 6 months of the present year is given. 

The worldwide refining table lists refinery locations 

and operating companies for each nation, and its barrels per 

day output by refining process (i.e., thermal cracking, hydroprocessing, etc. ). Specialty products and processes such as 

asphalt production and coking are also indicated. 

Throughout the year, Oil and Gas Journal publishes 

numerous special issues on different countries or products. 

The mid-year report, issued in July, gives the year's worldwide production and U.S. imports to date. The forecast/review 

issue, appearing in January, gives current import figures. 

-8- 
Petroleum Economist. Petroleum Press Bureau Ltd. London, 

1934- 

An international monthly published in London, the 

Petroleum Economist is printed in three editions: English, 

French, and Japanese. Petroleum Economist's mission is to 

give 'I.. .a balanced account of all that is happening in the 

fast moving world of oil and energy, with a particular 

emphasis on the economic implications". 

Standard statistical features found in each issue include selected crude oil prices in U.S. dollars per barrel 

for 20 major world crude oils; product prices in U.S. cents 

per gallon; tanker freight rates; price of bunker oil in 

three U.S. and seven foreign cities; and world crude oil 

production. The world crude oil production table gives 

figures for each OPEC country and nine selected non-OPEC 

countries (includes U.S., U.S.S.R., Canada, and Mexico). 

Production is in 1000 barrel units with the reporting period 

going back 7 years. The production figures give monthly 

totals for the last 2 years and are about 2 months behind 

publication date. The other tables mentioned above are 

also only 1-2 months behind, so the Petroleum Economist has 

the advantage of being quite current compared to most other 

printed sources. 

The Petroleum Economist usually devotes two or more 

articles each issue to specific countries. Energy data is 

presented to back up the text and often forecasts are 

made of future market, production and exploration trends. 

Special issues throughout the year present lead articles on 

tankers, refineries, and consumption. 

The Petroleum Economist includes a complete yearly 

index with the December issue. 

-9- 
Offshore. Petroleum Publishing Company. Tulsa, Oklahoma, 

1954- 

Subtitled the "Journal of Ocean Business" , this monthly 

covers all aspects of offshore oil and gas production. A 

special issue on worldwide drilling and production, published 

each June 20th, is divided into two parts: overall statistics 

and regional/country analyses. 

The statistical section gives figures for the year prior 

to publication date. Tables include offshore gas production 

for 21 major countries for the past 5 years: number of active 

offshore platforms planned and installed: offshore daily 

average crude production for the past 5 years for 35 countries: total worldwide production, both onshore and offshore: 

number of offshore wells by type for various countries plus 

a list of the world's 100 largest offshore fields giving 

discovery date, average daily production, and number of wells 

in the field. Special. tables give detailed U.S. offshore 

statistics. 

The special analyses section gives further information 

for 17 of the world's most important offshore regions with 

notes on current production, exploration, and future prospects. 

Offshore is published by the Petroleum Publishing Co., 

which also issues Oil and Gas Journal. 

- 10 - 
World Oil. Gulf Publishing Company. Houston, Texas, 1916- 

World Oil's international outlook issue, published 

annually on August 15th, is a good source of information on 

crude production and drilling development worldwide. 

The special issue opens with a table summarizing crude 

production and the number of producing oil wells for each of 

60 major countries. The figures are current through the 

year prior to issue date. A second table gives the number 

and type of wells drilled (including dry holes) for each 

country, along with the forecast for the current year's 

drilling activity. Both of these tables give total figures 

for major regions in addition to specific country summaries, 

and note the percentage change from the previous reporting 

year. 

The bulk of this special issue is devoted 'to exploration, 

drilling, and production reports for approximately 100 

countries. Accompanying the reports are color maps identifying oil and gas wells and fields, both onshore and offshore. 

A typical country report might include comments on political 

and economic considerations affecting drilling activity, recent discoveries, major companies active in the area, and 

future production rates. 

- 11 - 
International Energy Statistical Review. United States 

Central Intelligence Agency, National Foreign Assessment 

Center. Washington, D.C., 1976- 

The International Energy Statistical Review is an unclassified CIA monthly review of the world energy situation. 

The Review gives detailed coverage to OPEC, OAPEC, U.S.S .R., 

Eastern Europe, the U.S., and many OECD countries. 

Each issue of the Review opens with a section of highly 

visual colored charts summarizing recent trends in production, 

consumption, and imports. The charts present data for some 

of the geographic areas already mentioned plus the "big 

seven" -- Japan, West Germany, France, Italy, Canada, the 

U.S., and the United Kingdom. Much of the data is comparative; for example, one of the charts plots out free world vs. 

U.S.S.R. oil production. 

The remaining portion of the Review presents statistical 

tables relating to world production, imports, exports, consumption, and prices. Most of the production and trade 

figures are given in thousands of barrels per day and include natural gas liquids (NGL). The Review used to include 

the CIA'S estimate of worldwide oil and natural gas reserves, 

but this feature has been deleted; these figures now appear 

in table 86 of their annual Handbook of Economic Statistics 

and in special country studies. 

Extensive tables present data on imports and exports of 

crude oil by country and source for the "big seven" nations, 

both in thousands of barrels per day and in dollar value. 

Consumption figures are given on a month-by-month basis for 

approximately 15 OECD countries, as well as their supplies of 

oil stocks. 

The Review includes a section giving the spot market 

price (F.O.B. Rotterdam and Italy) of fuel oil, gas oil, and 

premium gasoline. Also given are product prices in selected 

developed countries and crude oil prices in OPEC nations. 

The Review concludes with an extensive analysis of 

U.S.S.R. and Eastern European oil production and usuage. A 

final table briefly outlines the energy situation in the 

Peoples' Republic of China. 

- 12 - 
An interesting feature of the Review is the table devoted to OPEC crude oil production capacity. Capacity is 

defined on three levels. "Installed" or design capacity includes all aspects of crude oil production, processing, transportation, and storage; this is the highest capacity estimate. 

"Maximum sustainable" capacity is the maxium production rate 

that can be maintained for several months, usually 90-95 percent of installed capacity. "Available" capacity is defined 

by quotas or production ceilings established by some OPEC 

nations to limit annual output, usually the lowest of the 

three measures of capacity. Capacity limits for each OPEC 

nation are listed, along with the latest post-embargo peak 

production month and current production levels. 

The International Energy Statistical Review generally 

has coverage back to 1972-73. Yearly and monthly figures are 

given. Current figures are 2-3 months behind the date of 

issue. The Review is available through liaison channels to 

U.S. government officials. Requestors outside'the government 

are directed to the National Technical Information Services 

(NTIS) or the Library of Congress. 

- 13 - 
Petroleum Intelliqence Weekly. Petroleum & Energy Intelligence Weekly, Inc. New York, 1962- 

PIW - is an outstanding source of current information on 

the international petroleum market. PIW - presents data and 

special analyses in a comprehensive and objective manner 

usually before being published in other news services. The 

publisher maintains offices in New York, Paris, and London, 

and has a far-reaching network of industry contacts. A 

typical issue is 12 pages and gives particularly strong 

coverage to OPEC price and production developments, the major 

oil companies, and significant petroleum news. A special 

section gives country-by-country coverage. Billed as a newsletter for "oil executives around the world", PIW is the 

most expensive publication in this listing -- $780 annually. 

- 14 - 
Quarterly Oil Statistics. Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, International Energy Agency. Paris , 1977- 

Quarterly Oil Statistics is published by the International Energy Agency (IEA), an autonomous body of the 

Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development founded 

in-1974. 

"provide rapid, accurate and detailed statistics on oil supply 

The purpose of Quarterly Oil Statistics is to 

and demand in the OECD area". 

The publication is current through the quarter preceding 

issue date. Figures are broken down by quarter for the last 

2 years and annual figures are given for the last 3 years. 

All figures are in 1000 metric ton units, except for natural 

gas, which is given in millions of cubic meters. 

Quarterly Oil Statistics begins with a helpful section 

of definitions and notes, explaining product categories reported on and describing individual tables. The main body of 

the publication is divided into three parts: oil supply, 

natural gas supply, and trade. 

The oil supply section presents data for each of the 24 

OECD countries, the EEC, and OECD total. Each country or 

area is represented by tables on production, output, imports, 

exports, stock changes, use, and consumption in the following 

categories: crude, NGL, and feedstocks: total products 

supply; naphtha; LPG; total gasoline; motor gasoline; total 

kerosene: aviation kerosene; gas/diesel oil; and heavy fuel 

oil (residual). 

The second major section of Quarterly Oil Statistics. 

deals with nat.ura1 gas, and for each of the OECD countries a 

table outlines production, imports , exports , stock levels, 

and consumption of this commodity. 

The third and final section of Quarterly Oil Statistics 

deals with trade (exports and imports) in much greater detail 

than presented in parts one and two. Each OECD country's imports from a list of 46 other countries (including OPEC 

nations) and regions is indicated as well as its exports to 

as many as 29 destinations. This trade data is given for the 

following categories: crude, NGL, and feedstocks: total 

products: naphtha: total gasoline: gas/diesel oil; and 

heavy fuel oil. 

- 15 - 
Energy Statistics. Organization for Economic Cooperation and. 

Development. Paris, 1966- 

Oil Statistics. Organization for Economic Cooperation and 

Development. Paris, 1961- 

A publication of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, Energy Statistics gives data on production and consumption of major energy sources by OECD countries. Totals are given for OECD, OECD-North America, OECDEurope, and the European Economic Community (EEC). Energy 

sources covered include solid fuels (coal, coke) , natural 

gas, electricity, crude petroleum, and seven major petroleum 

products. Production figures for petroleum are given in 1000 

metric ton units. Each annual volume of Energy Statistics 

covers 3 years, the most recent year being 2 years behind 

publication date. (The 1979 edition covers 1975-1977). 

Energy Statistics presents a detailed breakdown of how 

energy is consumed in the 24 OECD countries. Consumption is 

accounted, for by five categories. The "transformation" 

sector accounts for the quantity of crude, diesel oil, or 

other energy product transformed into another form of energy. 

For instance, this category would indicate the quantity of 

crude used to produce petroleum products. The ''energy" 

sector details how much energy, and in what form, was used 

by energy facilities such as refineries and gas works to 

operate during the reporting period. The "transportation" 

sector includes air, rail, and road transport use. The ''industry" sector gives total industrial consumption plus detailed figures for the iron, steel, chemicals, and petrochemicals industry. The final sector shows consumption by 

the agricultural, commercial, public services, and commercial areas. 

This detailed accounting of consumption primarily distinguishes Energy Statistics from IEA's Quarterly Oil Statistics. The latter gives only a gross, undefined figure. 

Energy Statistics also includes nonpetroleum sources and 

gives prices for petroleum products in the OECD countries. 

The price charts cover an 8 year period. 

Energy Statistics has a companion volume entitled 

Energy Balances, which gives the same information but in a 

common unit of measurement (tons of oil equivalent) for 

each energy source. An historical volume of Energy Statistics covers the years 1960-1974 (out of print). 

OECD also publishes an annual volume solely devoted to 

oil and petroleum products, entitled Oil Statistics. Oil 

Statistics is the most detailed of the OECD publications 

- 16 - 
dealing with petroleum. In addition to crude oil and feedstocks, the publication deals with 17 finished products. 

Oil - Statistics includes no price data but concentrates 

on consumption and trade (exports and imports). All figures 

are in 1000 metric ton units. Generalized tables for crude 

oil and finished products plus individual product and country 

tables show consumption for each nation. Consumption is 

broken down into 27 categories. Less detailed tables 

indicate petroleum supply and disposal for each country. 

"Supply" is made up of several categories, including indigenous production and imports. "Disposal" categories include 

inland consumption, marine bunkers, and exports. 

Oil Statistics contains extensive tables on each nation's 

imports, from both OECD and non-OECD sources, and exports by 

destination. The data in Oil Statistics is 2 years behind 

publication date; the edition published in 1979 has final 

figures for 1977. 

- 17 - 
World Energy Supplies 1950-1974. United Nations Statistical 

Office, Statistical Papers, Series J, Number 10. New York, 

1974- 

This is a massive volume (825 pages) of historical 

statistics devoted to world coal, petroleum, natural gasI 

electricity, and nuclear fuels for 202 countries and areas. 

The work begins with a table covering production of 

commercial energy by country and area, with data on trade 

(exports and imports) and consumption (total and per capita). 

All figures are in metric tons of coal equivalent, a popular 

form of measurement with the UN, which is used for attaining 

comparability among diverse energy resources, such as crude 

petroleum and hydroelectricity. 

The petroleum section of World Energy Supplies begins 

with table 6, which gives production figures for each nation 

and area for crude petroleum and natural gas liquids. The 

amount of petroleum retrieved offshore is indicated, along 

with exports, imports, refinery capacity, and supply. 

Figures are in million metric tons. All of these tables are 

quite extensive (30-110 pages) owing to the large numbers of 

countries covered and years included. Figures are given for 

each year between 1950 and 1974 for each country. 

Table 7 is a matrix showing world movements of crude 

petroleum between exporters and importers. Next is table 8, 

listing total refinery output for all products for each 

country. The remaining tables expand on this, beginning 

with a listing of production of non-energy petroleum products: 

naptha, asphalt, lubricating oil, petroleum coke, paraffin, 

and solvents. Other tables cover production, trade, and 

consumption of energy petroleum products: liquified petroleum gases, aviation gaoline, motor gasoline, jet fuel, 

kerosine, and residual and distillate fuel oils. 

World Energy Supplies, 1950-1974 is an excellent source 

of historical petroleum statistics. The volume contains a 

chart of coefficients and conversion factors for converting 

metric tons into other units, and a compendium of data 

sources for energy statistics -- general, regional, and 

national. World Energy Supplies is updated annually. The 

update published in 1979 gives the figures through 1977 and 

includes the previous 4 years (1973-1977). Also, an earlier 

volume covers the years 1929-1950. 

- 18 - 
Monthly Bulletin of Statistics. United Nations Statistical 

Office. New York, 1947- 

Published by the United Nations, each monthly issue of 

this title includes crude petroleum statistics for 60 

countries. Monthly average production figures are given for 

the current and previous 7, years. Figures are in 1000 metric 

ton units, with instructions on how to convert to thousand 

barrel units. The specific gravity of each nation's crude 

is also indicated. Figures are within 3-5 months of publication date in most cases. 

Also included is a similar chart showing the monthly 

average production (in teracalories) of natural gas for over -- 

40 countries. 

shown. 

The calorific value of each nation's gas is 

Four times a year, in January, April, July, and October, 

the Bulletin ppblishes production figures for petroleum products of over 60 countries. Yearly production figures in -- 

1000 metric ton units are given for gasoline, kerosine and jet 

fuel, distillate and residual fuel oils. Figures are generally 

3-4 quarters behind publication date. 

- 19 - 
Survey of Energy Resources. World Energy Conference. 

London, 1962- 

A comprehensive collection of data on world energy resources, this volume covers crude oil, natural gas, and 

natural gas liquids as well as solid fuels, oil shale and 

sands, hydraulic, nuclear, and other renewable resources -- 

(tidal, wind, etc. ) . The- Survey of Energy Resources is published by the World Energy Conference, an international 

organization composed of -69 national committees. 

Petroleum resources are accounted for in great detail 

for approximately 70 countries. Resources, in the context of 

this volume, covers several categories. These categories include proven recoverable reserves , or quantities of fuel 

that have been proven recoverable based on the present state 

of technology: proven unrecoverable reserves based on the 

present technology; andpossible recoverable reserves based 

on probable extensions of known resevoirs, proven areas, or 

geologically favorable regions. The Survey gives figures on 

world reserves of crude oil and natual gas based on its own 

investigations, and presents figures of leading forecasters. 

The world reserve tables also cite many of the publications 

discussed in this bibliography. 

This volume concentrates mainly on resources and does 

not go into trade, price, or distribution. One major 

table compares reserves with production to arrive at the 

reserves-to-production ratio, or the number of years that a 

nation's reserves might suffice if usage continues at the 

given production rate. The Survey also gives an historical 

record of crude oil production and consumption by country 

for the period 1921-1970. There is a lengthy, but easily 

understandable text on petroleum geology, historical development, technology, and petroleum resource appraisal. 

The Survey of Energy Resources is published every 6 

years and is updated every 2 years. The latest update (1978) 

revises figures from the 1974 edition and gives details of 

proved reserves, additional resources, and current consumption. 

- 20 - 
I 

International Petroleum Annual. United States Department of 

Energy, Energy Information Administration. Washington, D.C., 

1965- 

Published in June by the Department of ENergy, the International Petroleum Annual (IPA) is a valuable and unique 

source of information. The IPA I_ is the only U.S. publication 

that compiles data for approximately 120 nations--developed 

countries, developing countries, and the Sino-Soviet area. 

Some of the more important sources used to produce this 

volume include figures from the UN, OECD, OPEC, OAPEC, foreign 

government reports, oil company information, and Department 

of State correspondence. 

The IPA - begins with a brief analysis of major developments in international petroleum during the past year, 

followed by tables summarizing petroleum production and trade 

by geographic region. The bulk of the publication is devoted 

to detailed tables giving information for 121 countries, from 

large producers like Saudi Arabia to small importers like 

Fiji and Laos. The IPA - details production of crude petroleum, 

output of refined products, imports, exports, bunkers, and 

domestic demand for each country. Production figures are 

given for each of the previous 10 years. AL1 figures are 

given in thousands of barrels. 

The IPA - includes a chart listing world crude oil reserves, number of producing wells, and refining capacity for 

100 countries. The final table in the publication gives retail prices (in cents per u.S. gallon) in 55 major cities 

throughout the world for gasoline, kerosine, motor oil, and 

fuel oils. 

The IPA - gives price and reserves data for the year previous to publication. All other data is 2 years old (i.e., 

the edition published in 1979 gives the figures for 1977). 

This is due in large part to the problem of compiling 

authoritative figures for 120 different countries -- a time 

consuming process. 

A number of different sources, discussed separately, can 

update portions of the IPA, - though not for every country. One 

DOE publication of interest is the World Crude Oil Production 

Annual, also issued in June and listing production figures for 

76ntries and regions. Figures are expressed in 1000 

barrel units and show the percent change in production for 

the last 2 years prior to publication. 

- 21 - 
Twentieth Century Petroleum Statistics. DeGolyer and 

MacNaughton, Dallas, Texas, 1945- 

Published in Dallas by the petroleum consulting firm of 

DeGolyer and MacNaughton, Twentieth Century Petroleum Statistics was originally prepared for the Navy Department in 1945, 

and has been updated annually since then. 

The volume is made up of over 100 statistical tables, 

each table illustrated by a suitable colored graph. Although 

Twentieth Century Petroleum Statistics concentrates on the 

u .s., coverage is given to international production, demand, 

and reserves. Data is presented for 60 countries. The colored 

charts are very well done and give a graphic sense of proportion when comparing figures. Another valuable aspect of the 

work is that historical statistics are given. Figures are 

complete in many cases back to 1918, and cover every year 

since then. The tables are current through the year prior 

to public,ation. This book has a complete subject and country 

index. 

Twentieth Century Petroleum Statistics is a compilation 

of data gathered from four major sources: the American 

Petroleum Institute, Oil & Gas Journal, World Oil, and the 

U.S. Department of Energy. 

- 22 - 
International Petroleum Encyclopedia. Petroleum Publishing 

Company, Tulsa, Oklahoma, 1967- 

This is an annual volume presenting text, maps, and 

statistics on the world petroleum market. A major feature 

of the IPE - is the country summaries, analyzing ,recent production, exploration, and trade data along with maps of each 

nations' oil fields and distribution lines. All of the 

world's regions are covered, including extensive reports on 

the U.S.S.R., China, and Eastern Europe. The country summaries might be best used in conjunction with the similar 

studies found in the international outlook issue of World 

Oil - (August 15) for an up-to-date view of any particular 

area's petroleum statistics. 

The IPE I_ is published by Petroleum Publishing Company. 

Consequently, some of the major statistical charts appearing 

in the volume (such as the worldwide refining survey, reserves data, oil production, major fields by country) appear 

in the company's other publications, principally the Oil & 

Gas Journal ' s worldwide report issue. 

The IPE - is valuable for its coverage of a wide variety 

of petroleum related subjects. Statistical charts and tables 

abound. In addition to those mentioned, a very partial 

listing of charts and tables includes data on offshore rigs 

in operation, well completions, enhanced recovery projects, 

gas processing, historical refining figures, physical properties of the world's major oils, and oil company exploration expe,nditures and production figures. The IPE - contains a 

number of special studies and includes an international 

directory of petroleum agencies around the globe. 

- 23 - 
Quarterly Economic Reviews of Oil. (Five editions). 

Economist Intelligence Unit, Ltd. London, 1976- 

The Economist Intelligence Unit, Ltd. in London publishes 

81 economic reviews covering over 160 countries. Each review 

is issued four times a year with an annual supplement. Five 

of these reviews are of particular interest: Quarterly 

Economic Review 

xis: 

of Oil in the Middle East: Latin America 

North America; 

and Western Europe. 

Each quarterly issue is a summary of latest intelligence 

concerning prices, exploration, production, refining, and 

company news for the respective areas. A statistical section 

is included, in most cases devoted to a quarter-by-quarter 

breakdown of crude production and trade for the preceding 

2 years. 

The annual supplement generally gives a background 

summary for each region with an indication of future production tiends. 

capsule summaries of petroleum facts and figures for these 

The Quarterly Economic Review's are excellent 

five areas. - 

- 24 - 
Annual Statistical Bulletin. Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries. Vienna, 1966- 

An official OPEC compendium of statistics regarding 

member country's oil and gas industry, the Bulletin covers 

the basic subjects of production, crude oil exports, and 

oil revenues. Each member country a s production is given 

for each year since production began. Daily, total, and 

cumulative averages are given in 1000 barrel units. Exports 

of each country are given in thousand barrels per day with 

yearly averages for the last 6 years. Destinations are 

also given. Historical statistics are presented tracing 

the oil revenues of each member country, as well as the 

financial situations of the world's major oil companies. 

In addition, the Bulletin gives figures on tanker 

freight rates, world exports and imports of oil and gas, 

and world consumption of refined products. Data in the 

Bulletin is current through the year prior to publication. 

The inclusion of such current figures is a result of OPEC 

obtaining data directly from its member Secretariats, 

rather than secondary sources. 

- 25 - 
Arab Oil & Gas Directory. Arab Petroleum Research Center. . 

Paris, 1974- 

Arab Oil & Gas. Arab Petroleum Research Center. 

Paris, 1971- 

The Arab Oil & Gas Directory, published by the Arab 

Petroleum Research Center in Paris, is probably correct in 

claiming it "provides more information and data on Arab oil 

and gas than any other publication in the world". 

This annual volume of over 400 pages devotes itself to 

19 Middle Eastern and North African Arab countries.* Each 

country is the subject of an extensive analysis of information regarding its oil and gas development, reserves, production, refining, exports, prices, revenues, transport, and 

the position of oil and gas relative to general economic 

planning and development. Maps showing each country's oil 

and gas .fields and pipelines are included. The Directory is 

one of the best sources of statistics for any aspect of the 

oil and gas industry in these countries. The Directory is 

also strong on the historical growth of each nation's industry. Special sections analyze the genesis and development 

of the various national oil companies and sets out important 

bilateral agreements with other countries and international 

oil companies. The Directory concludes with a short section 

of international oil and gas statistics and an index of oil 

and gas service companies operating in the Middle East and 

North Africa. 

The Arab Petroleum Research Center also issues a 

periodical every 2 weeks entitled Arab Oil & Gas. This is 

an intelligence report analyzing the latest political, industrial, and economic developments in the Arab oil producing countries. Special studies and documents by OPEC, 

member countries, and world oil authorities are included in 

each issue. Frequent statistical sections are devoted to 

a specific country or subject, such as the production figures 

for the Arab world's major offshore oil fields. Arab Oil & 

Gas closely scrutinizes present and future OPEC oil pricing 

activities. 

*Algeria, Bahrain, Egypt, Iran, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, 

Libya, Morocco, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Syria, 

Tunisia, United Arab Emirates, North Yemen, South Yemen. 

- 26 - 
OTHER BIBLIOGRAPHIES OF INTERNATIONAL PETROLEUM STATISTICS 

Baade, Patricia. Directory of International Energy Statistics. Washington: IES Publishing Company, 1976. 

(Updated with 1977 supplement) 

Pieper, F.C. SISCIS: Subject Index to Sources of Comparative 

International Statistics. Beckenham, England: CBD 

Research Co., 1977. (Distributed in the United States by 

Gale Research Co., Detroit) 

Wasserman, Paul and OlBrien, Jacqueline, Statistics Sources. 6th ed. 

Detroit: Gale Research Co., 1980. 

* $1 

For very recent information, see the American Petroleum Institute's Petroleum/Energy Business News Index. This is a monthly 

index of news and statistical material appearing in sever major 

periodicals: Middle East Economic Survey; National Petroleum 

News. Oil and Gas Journal. Oil Daily. Petroleum Economist. 

Petroleum Intelligence Weekly, and Glatt Is Oilgram News. 

- 27 -