### Canadian Environmental Protection Act, 1999 Ecological Screening Assessment Report on Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers (PBDEs)

June 2006

Environment Canada

where x + y = 1 to 10

Figure 1. PBDE structure



### Introduction

The Canadian Environmental Protection Act, 1999 (CEPA 1999) requires the Minister of the Environment and the Minister of Health to conduct screening assessments of substances that meet the categorization criteria set out in the Act and Regulations to determine, in an expeditious manner, whether substances present or may present a risk to the environment or to human health. Based on the results of a screening assessment, the Ministers can propose taking no further action with respect to the substance, adding the substance to the Priority Substances List (PSL) for further assessment, or recommending that the substance be added to Schedule 1 of CEPA 1999 and, where applicable, the implementation of virtual elimination.

A screening assessment involves an analysis of a substance using conservative assumptions to

determine whether the substance meets the criteria as defined in section 64 of CEPA 1999. This ecological screening assessment examines various supporting information and develops conclusions based on a weight of evidence approach as required under Section 76.1 of CEPA 1999. The screening assessment does not represent an exhaustive review of all available data; rather, it presents the most critical studies and lines of evidence supporting the conclusions. One line of evidence includes consideration of risk quotients to identify potential for ecological effects. However, other concerns that affect current or potential risk, such as persistence, bioaccumulation, chemical transformation and trends in ambient concentrations, are also examined in this report.

1Screening Assessment Report — Environment

Environment Canada June 2006



### 2 Seven polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) were identified in a pilot project list of 123 substances for screening assessment under CEPA 1999, on the basis of their potential persistence and/or bioaccumulation in the environment and inherent toxicity to organisms.

Data relevant to the ecological screening assessment of PBDEs were identified in original literature, review documents, and commercial and government databases and indices. In addition to retrieving the references from a literature database search, direct contacts were made with researchers, academics, industry and other government agencies to obtain relevant information on PBDEs. Ongoing scans were conducted of the open literature, conference proceedings and the Internet for

relevant PBDE information. Information obtained as of October 2004 was considered for inclusion into this document, while that received between November 2004 and October 2005 was reviewed, but not generally added. The information obtained between November 2004 and October 2005 was found to support the conclusions of this report determined with information received up to October 2004. In addition, an industry survey on PBDEs was conducted for the year 2000 through a Canada Gazette Notice issued pursuant to Section 71 of CEPA 1999. This survey collected data on the Canadian manufacture, import, uses and releases of PBDEs (Environment Canada 2003). Toxicological studies were also submitte d by industry under Section 70 of CEPA 1999.

This ecological screening assessment report and associated unpublished supporting working documentation was written by a team of Environment Canada evaluators at the Environmental Protection Branch, Pacific and Yukon Region, Vancouver, B.C., with the assistance of evaluators and management at the Existing Substances Branch, Gatineau, Quebec. The material in this report has been subjected to external review by Canadian and international experts selected from government and academia, including M. Alaee (Environment Canada, National Water Research Institute), L. Birnbaum (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency), C. de Wit (Stockholm University), S. Dungey (UK Environment Agency), R. Hale (College of William and Mary, Virginia), R. Law (UK Centre for Environmental, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science), F. Luckey (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency), J. Maguire (Environment Canada, National Water Research Institute), R. Norstrom (Environment Canada, National Wildlife Research Centre) and D. Stewart (Environment Canada, Ontario Region).

The ecological and human health screening assessment reports were approved by the joint Environment Canada/Health Canada CEPA Management Committee. The supporting working documentation for the ecological assessment is available upon request by e-mail from ESB.DSE@ec.gc.ca. Information on ecological screening assessments under CEPA 1999 is available at http://www.ec.gc.ca/substances/ese. The supporting working documentation for the human health assessment is available upon request by e-mail from ExSD@hc-sc.gc.ca. Additional background information on health screening assessments conducted under this program is available at http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/hecs-sesc/exsd/splash.htm.

The critical information and considerations upon which the assessment is based are summarized

below.Screening Assessment Report — Environment

Environment Canada June 2006



### 3 Identity, Uses and Sources of Release

PBDEs comprise a class of substances consisting of 209 possible congeners with 1–10 bromine atoms. The following seven PBDE homologues, present on the Domestic Substances list (DSL), were identified in the pilot project list of 123 substances and are considered in this assessment:

• tetrabromodiphenyl ether (benzene, 1,1'-oxybis-, tetrabromo derivative; tetraBDE) (CAS No. 40088-47-9);

• pentabromodiphenyl ether (benzene, 1,1'- oxybis-, pentabromo derivative; pentaBDE) (CAS No. 32534-81-9);

• hexabromodiphenyl ether (benzene, 1,1'-oxybis-, hexabromo derivative; hexaBDE) (CAS No. 36483-60-0);

• heptabromodiphenyl ether (benzene, 1,1'-oxybis-, heptabromo derivative; heptaBDE) (CAS No. 68928-80-3);

• octabromodiphenyl ether (benzene, 1,1'-oxybis-, octabromo derivative; octaBDE) (CAS No. 32536-52-0);

• nonabromodiphenyl ether (benzene, 1,1'-oxybis-, nonabromo derivative; nonaBDE) (CAS No. 63936-56-1); and

• decabromodiphenyl ether; bis(pentabromophenyl) ether (benzene, 1,1'-oxybis[2,3,4,5,6- pentabromo-; decaBDE) (CAS No. 1163-19-5).

These PBDEs are found in three commercial mixtures, typically referred to as Pentabromodiphenyl Ether (PeBDE), Octabromodiphenyl Ether (OBDE) and Decabromodiphenyl Ether (DBDE). PeBDE is predominantly a mixture of pentaBDE, tetraB DE and hexaBDE congeners, but may also contain trace levels of heptaBDE and tribromodiphenyl ether (triBDE) congeners. OBDE is a mixture composed mainly of heptaBDE, octaBDE and hexaBDE, but may also contain small amounts of nonaBDE and decaBDE. Current formulations of DBDE are almost completely composed of decaBDE and a very small amount of nonaBDE.

PBDEs are used mainly as additive flame retardants in polymer resins and plastics and, to a lesser extent, adhesives, sealants and coatings. Additive flame retardants are physically combined with the material being treated rather than chemically bonded as in reactive flame retardants; therefore, they are more susceptible, to a certain extent, to migration and loss from the polymer matrix. It has been estimated that approximately 90% or more of PeBDE produced globally is used in polyurethane foams in office and residential furniture, automotive upholstery, sound insulation and wood imitation products (WHO 1994; European Communities 2001; RPA Ltd. 2000). Most OBDE produced globally is added to polymers (mainly acrylonitrile butadiene styrene), which are then used to produce computers and business cabinets, pipes and fittings, automotive parts and appliances (WHO1994; European Communities 2003). DBDE is used as a flame retardant, to a large extent in highimpact polystyrene and other polymers, with broad use in computer and television cabinets and casings, general electrical/electronic components, cables and textile back coatings (OECD 1994; European Communities 2002).Screening Assessment Report — Environment

Environment Canada June 2006



### 4 The total worldwide market demand for PBDEs was about 67 390 tonnes in 2001, including 56 100 tonnes of DBDE, 7500 tonnes of PeBDE and about 3790 tonnes of OBDE (BSEF 2003). There are significant differences in the usage of PBDEs by continent (see Table 1). The most apparent difference is that PeBDE is used almost exclusively in the Americas.

Table 1. Market demand of PBDEs in 2001 (BSEF 2003)

Americas a Europe b Asia c Commercial product Market

demand Estimated consumption (tonnes) Market

demand Estimated consumption (tonnes) Market

demand Estimated consumption (tonnes)

DBDE 44% 24 500 13% 7 600 43% 24 050

OBDE 40% 1 500 16% 610 44% 1 680

PeBDE 95% 7 100 2% 150 3% 250

a All countries in North, South and Central America were included.

b All countries in Eastern and Western Europe were included.

c Australia, New Zealand and the Indian subcontinent were included.



### Results from a Section 71 Notice with Respect to Certain Substances on the Domestic Substances List (DSL) conducted for the year 2000 indicated that no PBDEs were manufactured in Canada, although approximately 1300 tonnes of PBDE commercial products (for manufacturing into finished articles) were imported into the country (Environment Canada 2003). Based on quantities reported, PeBDE was imported in the greatest volume, followed by DBDE. A very small amount of OBDE was imported into Canada in 2000. The volumes reported do not include quantities imported in finished

articles.

Various initiatives have resulted in significant changes in the global use of the PBDEs since 2001. The U.S. manufacturer of PeBDE and OBDE, Great Lakes Chemical Corporation voluntarily ceased its production of PeBDE and OBDE by December 31, 2004 (U.S. EPA 2005, Great Lakes Chemical Corp. 2005). ICL Industrial Products (2005) also announced complete termination of its production and sale of its OBDE product by the end of 2004. In addition, PeBDE and OBDE have been subject to a phase-out by the European Union (EU). In response to its risk assessments, the EU passed a Directive (2003/11/EC) which requires all member states to adopt laws that prohibit the marketing or use of any product containing more than 0.1% by mass of PeBDE or OBDE effective August 15, 2004. While it is expected that these actions have resulted in significant changes in the global and Canadian use of PBDEs, many products currently in use will have been manufactured during or before 2004 using PeBDE and OBDE.

PBDEs may be released to the environment during manufacturing and polymer processing operations, throughout the service life of articles contai ning them and at the end of article service life during disposal operations.

Fate, Exposure and EffectsScreening Assessment Report — Environment

Environment Canada June 2006



### 5 A summary of selected physical and chemical properties of the commercial PBDE products and their primary constituents is presented in Table 2.

Table 2. Selected physical and chemical propert ies of commercial PBDEs and their constituents

Property PeBDE OBDE DBDE Molecular weight 485.8 (tetraBDE) 564.7 (pentaBDE) (WHO 1994) 643.6 (hexaBDE) 722.3 (heptaBDE) 801.4 (octaBDE)

(WHO 1994) 880.4 (nonaBDE) 959.2 (decaBDE)

(WHO 1994)

Physical state (20°C; 101.325 kPa) viscous liquid or semi-solid, white crystalline solid (pure isomers of pentaBDE) (European Communities 2001) powder or flaked material (European Communities 2003) crystalline powder (European Communities 2002)

Vapour pressure (21°C; Pa) 4.69 × 10 -5

(Stenzel and Nixon 1997) 6.59 × 10 -6

(CMABFRIP 1997a)

1.58 x 10 -6 - 4.68 x 10 -7

(hexa – heptaBDEs ; 25°C) Tittlemier et al. 2002) 4.63 × 10 -6

(CMABFRIP 1997e)

2.95 x 10 -9

(estimated for decaBDE) (Wania and Dugani 2003) Water solubility (25°C; μg/L) 13.3 10.9 (tetraBDE) 2.4 (pentaBDE) (Stenzel and Markley 1997) 0.5 (CMABFRIP 1997b) <0.1 (CMABFRIP 1997f)

Log K

ow 6.57 (MacGregor and Nixon 1997) 6.29 (CMABFRIP 1997c)

8.35-8.90 (Watanabe and Tatsukawa 1990) 6.27 (CMABFRIP 1997g)

9.97 (Watanabe and Tatsukawa 1990) Log K

oa 10.53 - 11.31 (tetra- and pentaBDEs) (Harner and Shoeib 2002) 12.78 - 13.61 (hepta- and octaBDEs) (Tittlemeier et al. 2002) 14.44 - 15.27 (estimated for nona- and decaBDE) (Tittlemier et al. 2002) Henry’s law constant (25°C; Pa·m 3 /mol) 11 (European Communities 2001) 10.6 (estimated) (European Communities 2003) >44 (estimated) (European Communities 2002)



### With their low vapour pressures, very low water solubility and high octanol/water partition coefficient (log K

ow 

### ) values, it is expected that PBDEs entering the environment will tend to bind to the organic fraction of particulate matter, soils and sediments. For instance, if it is assumed that equal quantities of pentaBDE are released to air, water and soil compartments, Level III fugacity modeling (EPI v. 3.10, Syracuse Research Corporation) indicates that much of the substance would be expected to partition to sediments and soils, with very little partitioning to water or air (see Table 3). If all pentaBDE is discharged to water, Level III fugacity modeling indicates that almost all of the substance would partition to sediments with only a very small proportion staying in the water column, or partitioning into air or soil compartments. If all pentaBDE were released to soil, the substance would remain almost exclusively in this environmental compartment. Partitioning characteristics for the other PBDEs subject to this assessment are expected to be very similar.Screening Assessment Report — Environment

Environment Canada June 2006



### 6 Table 3. Predicted partitioning of PentaBDE in the environment based on Level III Fugacity Modeling.

Release scenario Predicted partitioning (%)

Air Water Sediment Soil Equal quantities to air, water, soil 0.2 1.2 59 40

100% to air 1.07 0.4 21 77.5

100% to water 8 x 10 -5 1.93 98.1 0.006

100% to soil 6.1 x 10 -7 0.002 0.11 99.9



### The lower brominated PBDEs (tetra- to heptaBDEs) are slightly more soluble in water and have a greater propensity for volatilization and atmospheric transport than more highly brominated PBDEs. In the atmosphere, these homologues would tend to sorb to particulates. The higher brominated PBDEs are reported to have higher octanol-water (Log K

ow 

### ) and air-water (Log K

aw 

### ) partition coefficients and a greater propensity to remain in solid form, and thus, transport would likely be in the form of particles. Researchers have noted that the transport of the lower brominated PBDEs may be characterized by a series of deposition/re-volatilization “hops” which are dependent on seasonally and diurnally fluctuating temperatures (Gouin and Harner 2003).

Wania and Dugani (2003) examined the long-range transport potential of PBDEs using a number of models (i.e., TaPL3-2.10, ELPOS-1.1.1, Chemrange-2 and Globo-POP-1.1) and various physical and chemical properties (i.e., solubility in water, vapour pressure, log K

ow 

### , log K

oa 

### , log K

aw 

### and estimated half-lives in different media). All models yielded comparable results, with tetraBDE showing the greatest potential for atmospheric transport and decaBDE the lowest transport potential. The researchers estimated a characteristic travel distance (CTD) ranging from 1,113 to 2,483 km for tetraBDE, 608 to 1,349 km for pentaBDE, and 480 to 735 km for decaBDE. The CTD was defined as the distance a parcel of air has traveled until 1/e or approximately 63% of the chemical has been removed by degradation or deposition processes (Gouin and Mackay 2002).

In an earlier study, Dugani and Wania (2002) also used models to predict that of the various PBDE congeners, those with four to six bromine atoms would have a higher long-range transport potential than lower or higher brominated congeners. They found that the transport of lower brominated congeners is limited by their degradation in the atmosphere, while the transport of the more highly brominated congeners is limited by their low volatility. Atmospheric degradation is reduced at low temperatures, so some of the models may underestimate the long-range transport potential of the lighter congeners (Dugani and Wania 2002).

As will be indicated later in this report, PBDE concentrations have increased exponentially in arcticbiota over the past two decades and have been measured in Arctic air. This suggests efficient longrange atmospheric transport of PBDEs.

PBDEs have been detected in all environmental media as well as sewage sludge (see Tables 4 and 5), and there is evidence that their levels in the North American environment are increasing.Screening Assessment Report — Environment

Environment Canada June 2006



### 7 Gouin et al. (2002) measured total PBDEs (sum of 21 congeners) ranging from 10 to 1300 pg/m 3 

### in air samples collected at a rural southern Ontario site in early spring of 2000. Total PBDEs (congeners not specified) up to 28 pg/m 3 

### were detected in air samples from the Canadian Arctic collected over the period 1994-1995 (Alaee et al. 2000).

Luckey et al. (2002) measured total (dissolved and particulate phases) PBDE (mono- to heptaBDE congeners) concentrations of approximately 6 pg/L in Lake Ontario surface waters in 1999. More than 60% of the total was composed of BDE47 (tetraBDE) and BDE99 (pentaBDE), with BDE100 (pentaBDE) and BDEs 153 and 154 (heptaBDE congeners) each contributing approximately 5 to 8% of the total. Stapleton and Baker (2001) analyzed water samples from Lake Michigan in 1997, 1998 and 1999 and found that total PBDE concentrations (BDEs 47, 99, 100, 153, 154 and 183) ranged from 31 to 158 pg/L.

PBDEs have been detected in sediment and soil samples collected in North America, and high concentrations have been measured in sewage sludge . Kolic et al. (2004) determined levels of PBDEs in sediments from Lake Ontario tributaries flowing to Lake Ontario. The total PBDEs (tri-, tetra, penta-, hexa-, hepta- and decaBDEs) measured in sediment samples taken from fourteen tributary sites (6 reported) ranged from approximately 12 to 430 μg/kg dw. Of the reported sediment results, concentrations of tetra- to hexaBDEs ranged from approximately 5 to 49 μg/kg dw. Concentrations of BDE209 ranged from 6.9 to 400 μg/kg dw. BDE 47, 99 and 209 were the predominant congeners measured in sediments. Rayne et al. (2003a) measured PBDE concentrations (sum of 8 di- to pentaBDE congeners) ranging from 2.7 to 91 μg/kg OC in 11 surficial sediments collected in 2001 from several sites along the Columbia River system in south eastern British Columbia. Domestic wastewaters arising from septic field inputs we re identified as potentially dominant sources of PBDEs in the region. Dodder et al. (2002) reported concentrations of total tetra-, penta- and hexaBDEs ranging from approximately 5 to 38 μg/kg dw in sediment from a lake in the U.S. located near suspected PBDE sources. Preliminary results from a study by Muir et al. (2003) describe concentrations of BDE209 along a north-south transect from southern Ontario/upper New York state to Ellesmere Island. The highest concentrations of BDE209 (up to12 μg/kg dw) occurred in

sediments collected from the western basin of La ke Ontario. However, sediments from two Arctic lakes in Nunavut Territory also had measurable concentrations of 0.075 and 0.042 μg BDE209/kg dw. One of the two Arctic lakes was located near an airport and so inputs of PBDEs from this source could not be ruled out. However, the second lake was completely isolated and was only visited for sampling purposes. The authors speculate that BDE209 was likely transported on particles to the Canadian Arctic due to its low vapour pressure and high octanol-water partition coefficient. Hale et al. (2002, 2003) reported concentrations of total PBDE s (tetra- and pentaBDE) of 76 μg/kg dw in soil near a polyurethane foam manufacturing facility in the United States, and 13.6 μg/kg dw in soil downwind from the facility.

Kolic et al. (2004) determined levels of PBDEs in biosolids from southern Ontario municipal wastewater treatment plants (Reiner pers. comm.. 2004). They found total PBDEs (tri-, tetra-, penta-, hexa-, hepta- and decaBDEs) at five reporte d wastewater treatment facilities ranged fromapproximately 1,700 to 3,500 μg/kg dw. Of the reported biosolid results, total concentrations of tetrato hexaBDEs ranged from approximately 1,350 to 1,900 μg/kg dw. BDEs 47, 99 and 209 were theScreening Assessment Report — Environment

Environment Canada June 2006



### 8 predominant congeners measured in biosolid samples. Concentrations of BDE 209 in the samples ranged from 310 to 2000 μg/kg dw. La Guardia et al . (2001) analyzed 11 sludge samples before land application from a sewage treatment facility in the Toronto area and from10 facilities throughout the continental United States. Total PBDEs (sum of 11 tetra- to decaBDE congeners) in the samples of sewage sludge were 8280 μg/kg dw at the Toronto s ite, while those in the U.S. ranged from 730 to 24, 900 μg/kg dw. Kolic et al. (2003) investigated PB DE levels in sewage sludge from 12 sites in southern Ontario and found concentrations of total PBDEs (21 mono- to decaBDE congeners) ranging from 1414 to 5545 μg/kg dw. Hale et al. (2002) measured total PBDEs (sum of BDEs 47, 99, 100 and 209) of 3005 μg/kg dw in sludge samples collected in 2000 from a regional sewage treatment plant discharging to the Dan River in Virginia.

Alaee et al. (1999) reported average concentrations in the blubber of marine mammals from the Canadian Arctic as 25.8 μg/kg lipid in female ringed seals ( Phoca hispida ), 50.0 μg/kg in the blubber of male ringed seals, 81.2 μg/kg lipid in female beluga ( Delphinapterus leucus ) and 160 μg/kg lipid in male beluga. In these samples, congeners of tetraBDE and pentaBDE were predominant. Ikonomou et al. (2000) reported PBDE concentrations in biota samples from the west coast and Northwest Territories of Canada. The highest con centration of total PBDE residues, 2269 μg/kg lipid, was found in the blubber of a harbour porpoise from the Vancouver area. With a concentration of about 1200 μg/kg lipid, a tetraBDE congener accounted fo r slightly more than half of the total PBDE in the sample. Ikonomou et al. (2002a,b) analyzed temporal trends in Arctic marine mammals by measuring PBDE levels in the blubber of Arctic male ringed seals over the period 1981–2000. Mean total PBDE concentrations increased exponentially from approximately 0.6 μg/kg lipid in 1981 to 6.0 μg/kg lipid in 2000, a greater than 8-fold increase. TetraBDE was again predominant, followed by pentaBDE. A marked increase in tissue PBDE levels was also evident in blubber samples collected from San Francisco Bay harbour seals over the period 1989–1998 (She et al. 2002). Concentrations of total PBDEs (tetra-, penta- and hexaBDE) rose from 88 μg/kg lipid in 1989 to a maximum of 8325 μg/kg lipid in 1998, a period of only 10 years. Stern and Ikonomou (2000) examined PBDE levels in the blubber of male southeast Baffin beluga whales over the period 1982–1997 and found that the levels of total PBDEs (tri- to hexaBDE) increas ed significantly. Mean total PBDE concentrations were about 2 μg/kg lipid in 1982 and reached a maximum value of about 15 μg/kg lipid in 1997. Total PBDE residues in the blubber of St. Lawrence estuary belugas sampled in 1997–1999 amounted to 466 (± 230) μg/kg wet weight (ww) blubber in adult males and 665 (± 457) μg/kg ww blubber in adult females. These values were approximately 20 times higher than concentrations in beluga samples collected in 1988–1990 (Lebeuf et al. 2001).Screening Assessment Report — Environment

Environment Canada June 2006



### 9 Table 4. Measured concentrations of PBDEs in the North American ambient environment and sewage sludge

Medium Location; year Total PBDEs Reference

Air Alert, Canada; 1994–1995 1–28 pg/m 3 Alaee et al. 2000

Air Great Lakes; 1997–1999 5.5–52 pg/m 3 Strandberg et al. 2001

Air Southern Ontario; 2000 10–1300 pg/m 3 Gouin et al. 2002

Air Ontario; 2000 3.4–46 pg/m 3 Harner et al. 2002

Water Lake Michigan; 1997–1999 31–158 pg/L Stapleton and Baker 2001

Water Lake Ontario; 1999 6 pg/L Luckey et al. 2002

Sediment Lake Michigan; 1998 4.2 μg/kg dw Stapleton and Baker 2001

Sediment British Columbia; 2001 2. 7–91 μg/kg OC Rayne et al. 2003a

Soil United States; 2000 <0.1–76 μg/kg dw Hale et al. 2002 Sewage sludge Toronto, Canada

United States 8280 μg/kg dw 730–24 900 μg/kg dw La Guardia et al. 2001

Sewage sludge United States; 2000 3005 μg/kg dw Hale et al. 2002 Sewage sludge Southern Ontario 1700-3500 μg/kg dw Kolic et al. 2004 dw = dry weight; OC = organic carbon

Table 5. Measured concentrations of PBDEs in North American biota

Organism Location; year Total PBDEs Reference Dungeness crab hepatopancreas West coast, Canada; 1993–

1995 4.2–480 μg/kg lipid Ikonomou et al. 2002b

Mountain whitefish (muscle) Columbia River, British Columbia; 1992–2000 0.726–131 μg/kg ww Rayne et al. 2003a

Heron egg British Columbia; 1983–2000 1.308–288 μg/kg ww

Murre egg Northern Canada; 1975–1998 0.442–2.93 μg/kg ww Fulmar egg Northern Canada; 1975–1998 0.212–2.37 μg/kg ww Wakeford et al. 2002

Beluga whale blubber Canadian Arc tic 81.2–160 μg/kg lipid Alaee et al. 1999 Herring gull egg Great Lakes; 1981–2000 9.4–1544 μg/kg ww Norstrom et al. 2002

Lake Ontario; 1997 95 μg/kg ww

Lake Erie; 1997 27 μg/kg ww Lake Superior; 1997 56 μg/kg ww Lake trout

Lake Huron; 1997 50 μg/kg ww Luross et al. 2002

Rainbow trout 297 μg/kg ww

Mountain whitefish 1250 μg/kg ww Largescale sucker Spokane River, Washington, USA; 1999

105 μg/kg ww Johnson and Olson

2001

Carp Virginia, USA; 1998-1999 1140 μg/kg ww Hale et al. 2001



### These studies indicate that PBDE levels in Canadi an biota are rising, with dramatic increases in tissue concentrations evident over the last two decades. The highest levels in biota are associated with industrialized regions; however, the increasi ng incidence of PBDEs in Arctic biota provides evidence for long-range atmospheric transport of these compounds (Stern and Ikonomou 2000). Although tetraBDE predominates in wildlife, there ar e recent indications of a shift in tissue congenerScreening Assessment Report — Environment

Environment Canada June 2006



### 10 profiles. Ikonomou et al. (2002a) determined that over the period 1981–2000, penta- and hexaBDE levels in the blubber of Arctic ringed seals increased at rates that were roughly equivalent and about

twice that of tetraBDE.

There are indications from recent studies conducted in Europe that PBDE levels in some European biota may have peaked. Time trend analyses using Baltic guillemot ( Uria aalge ) eggs (Sellström 1996; Sellström et al. 2003) and pike ( Esox lucius ) from Lake Bolmen in Sweden (Kierkegaard et al. 2004) show a leveling off and possible decline in the concentrations of penta-like congeners beginning in the early 1990s. Any observed reduction in the concentrations of PBDEs in European biota may be a consequence of recent reductions in the production and use of commercial PeBDE throughout Europe. For further discussion of this issue, the reader should consult references such as de Wit (2002) and Law et al. (2003).

An analysis of archived herring gull eggs (sampled in 1981, 1983, 1987, 1988, 1989, 1990, 1992, 1993, 1996, 1998, 1999 and 2000) enabled Norstrom et al. (2002) to establish temporal trends in

PBDE concentrations between 1981- 2000. At Lake Mi chigan, Lake Huron and Lake Ontario sites, concentrations of total tetra- and pentaBDEs increased 71 to 112 fold over the 1981 to 2000 period (from 4.7 to 400.5 μg/kg ww at Lake Ontario; from 8.3 to 927.3 μg/kg ww at Lake Michigan; from 7.6 to 541.5 μg/kg ww at Lake Huron). These increases were found to be exponential at all three locations. Overall, the total PBDEs ranged from a low of 9.4 μg/kg ww in Lake Ontario to a high of 1544 μg/kg ww Lake Michigan in 1998. These increases were largely due to the tetra- and pentaBDE congeners, but hexa- and heptaBDEs also increased during this period.

Recent studies conducted in Europe provide evidence for the presence of decaBDE in biota. DecaBDE was detected in 18 of 21 analyzed eggs of peregrine falcons, Falco peregrinus , from Sweden, at concentrations from 28 to 430 μg/kg lip id (Lindberg et al. 2004). De Boer et al. (2004) conducted sampling to determine the occurrence of decaBDE in liver, muscle tissue and eggs of high trophic level bird species from the United Kingdom and The Netherlands. In total, 124 samples from 13 different species were analyzed. In addition, 10 peregrine falcon egg samples from the Swedish study by Lindberg et al. (2004) were re-analyzed. D ecaBDE was detected in 10 of 28 liver samples (range < 1.5 to 181 μg/kg lipid weight), 14 of 28 muscle samples (range < 4.2 to 563 μg/kg lipid weight) and 25 of 68 eggs (range < 1.8 to 412 μg/kg lipid weight). Concentrations in the Swedish peregrine falcon eggs re-analyzed in the study were all within 30% of those originally determined by Lindberg et al. (2004). Highest concentrations of decaBDE were measured in muscle tissue samples collected from United Kingdom heron and peregrine falcon, and eggs from Swedish peregrine falcon.

Empirical and predicted data indicate that all PBDE s subject to this ecological screening assessment are highly persistent, and each satisfies the requirements for persistence as defined by the Persistence and Bioaccumulation Regulations under CEPA 1999 (see Table 6). Tetra- to decaBDEs are predicted by AOPWIN (v1.90) to have air degradation half- lives which exceed 2 days (i.e., ranging from 7.14 to 317.53 days). Further, tetra-, penta-, hexa-, hepta- and decaBDEs have been measured in the Arctic environment in spite of their very low vapour pressures, providing evidence that they are subject to long-range atmospheric transport. It has been shown that BDE 47 and DBDE are not subject to statistically significant anaerobic biodegradation ove r a period of 32 weeks. Neither PeBDE, OBDE nor DBDE are readily biodegradable based on short-term studies conducted under aerobic conditionsScreening Assessment Report — Environment

Environment Canada June 2006



### 11 using an activated sludge inoculum. However, decaBDE is susceptible to some biodegradation under certain anaerobic conditions using sludge inoculum as described by Gerecke et al. (2005). Tetra- to decaBDEs are predicted by BIOWIN (v.4.00) to be recal citrant with respect to biodegradation. It is reasonable to conclude that all PBDEs subject to this assessment meet the criteria for persistence as defined by CEPA 1999 based on known empirical a nd predicted data, as well as structural

similarities.

Table 6. Persistence and bioaccumulati on criteria as defined in CEPA 1999 Pers istence and Bioaccumulation Regulations (Environment Canada 2000)

Persistence a

Medium Half-life Bioaccumulation b

Air

Water

Sediment

Soil ≥ 2 days or is subject to atmospheric tr ansport from its source to a remote area

≥ 182 days ( ≥ 6 months)

≥ 365 days ( ≥ 12 months)

≥ 182 days ( ≥ 6 months) BAF ≥ 5000

BCF ≥ 5000 log K

ow ≥ 5

a A substance is persistent when at least one criterion is met in any one medium.

b When the bioaccumulation factor (BAF) of a substance ca nnot be determined in accordan ce with generally recognized

methods, then the bioconcentration factor (BCF) of a substa nce will be considered; however, if neither its BAF nor its BCF can be determined with recognized methods, then the log K

ow will be considered.



### Although all PBDEs subject to this assessment are considered to be persistent, evidence shows that PBDEs are susceptible to some degree of abiotic and biotic transformation under certain laboratory

conditions.

The predominant phototransformation pathway for decaBDE in organic solvents appears to be reductive debromination, with nona- to triBDEs and polybrominated dibenzofurans (PBDFs) identified as possible phototransformation products (e.g., Norris et al. 1973, 1974; Watanabe and Tatsukawa 1987; Eriksson et al. 2001; Palm et al. 2003; Herrmann et al. 2003; Hua et al. 2003; Peterman et al. 2003). Researchers also report the formation of other as yet unidentified photodegradation products. The relevance of these studi es, which disperse PBDEs in organic solvents such as hexane and octanol, to conditions existing in the environment is still uncertain.

Studies using more environmentally relevant media have also been conducted. Söderström et al. (2004) undertook photodegradation studies in whic h DBDE (exact composition not provided, but contained traces of octa- and nonaBDEs) was dissolved in toluene and then applied as a thin layer to silica gel, sand, soil or sediment substrates. The toluene solvent was evaporated off in the dark prior to exposure of the substrates to ultraviolet (UV) light or natural sunlight. Prior to light exposure, a small amount of water was added to the sediment in order to more closely emulate natural conditions. DBDE applied to silica gel decayed quickly under ar tificial and natural lighting, with an estimated

half life of less than 15 min. The half-life of DBDE on sand was 12 and 13 h under UV and natural sunlight, respectively, while that of DBDE on sediment was 40-60 and 30 h under UV and sunlight, respectively. Overall, decay proceeded slowest with DBDE on soil exposed to UV light, with a halflife of 150-200 hours. The researchers concluded from their experiments that the photodegradation of decaBDE, at least initially, seems to follow a stepwise debromination process. They noted that as decaBDE disappeared, lower brominated DEs (nona- to hexaBDEs) were formed, but that after theScreening Assessment Report — Environment

Environment Canada June 2006



### 12 maximum occurrence of hexaBDEs, only minor amounts of lesser brominated DEs (tetra- and pentaBDEs) were formed, resulting in a discontinued mass balance. This suggested that other unknown compounds were also being formed, but that these were lost during the sample clean-up. In addition to the identified PBDEs, tetra- and pentaBDFs were also detected as transformation products of DBDE adsorbed to sand, sediment and soil.

Jafvert and Hua (2001) conducted photodegradation st udies of DBDE adsorbed to solid matrices (sand and quartz surfaces) with water and/or humic acid and irradiated with natural or artificial sunlight. Their studies showed that some photodegradation of DBDE occurred under natural or artificial sunlight (over time periods up to 240 h loss of decaBDE varied up to 71%). Although Jafvert and Hua (2001) did not conclude that lo wer brominated DEs were produced, the European Communities (2002), based on their review of the decaBDE humic acid coated sand exposure, noted

that there were indications that lower brominated DEs (particularly hexaBDE) were formed. Palm et al. (2003) irradiated decaBDE adsorbed onto silicon dioxide in aqueous suspension with artificial sunlight. They also found that approximately 50% of the initial decaBDE concentration was lost after about 360 min. Details regarding the degradation products were not provided; however, Palm et al. (2004) notes that PBDFs were confirmed as short-lived trace intermediates.

Keum and Li (2005) investigated the debrominati on of PBDEs (including decaBDE) in contact with the reducing agents, zerovalent iron, iron sulphide and sodium sulphide. In the experiments with zerovalent iron, decaBDE was rapidly transformed to lower BDEs. Approximately 90% of the parent was converted to mono- to hexaBDEs after 40 d. During the initial reaction period (up to 5 d), BDE 209 was predominantly transformed into hexa- and heptaBDEs, but tetra and pentaBDEs were predominant after 14 d. The results demonstrated that decaBDE undergoes reductive debromination in the presence of zerovalent iron. The experiments with sodium sulphide also showed transformation of decaBDE to lower brominated DEs, but the rate wa s slower than that determined in the presence of zerovalent iron. A similar profile of transformation products was found to that determined in the experiment with zerovalent iron. Experiments we re also conducted with BDEs 28, 47, 66 and 100 in the presence of zerovalent iron. These also showed that debromination had occurred but that the rate of reaction decreased with a decreasing number of bromines. Although the conditions of this study are not directly related to those common in the natural environment, it is possible that similar reactions maybe taking place in the environment (United Kingdom 2005).

Gerecke et al. (2005) conducted experiments to determine the rates of degradation of decaBDE and nonaBDEs under anaerobic conditions conducted in the dark at 37 °C using sewage sludge as inoculum. The researchers found that BDE 209 decreased by 30% within 238 d in experiments with primers added (i.e., 4-bromobenzoic acid, 2,6- dibromobiphenyl, tetrabromobisphenol A and hexabromocyclododecane) and this corresponded to a pseudo-first-order degradation rate constant of

1 x 10 -3 

### d -1 

### , statistically significant at the 95% confidence level. The sample with decaBDE was observed to form two nonaBDE and six octaBDE congeners. The rate of decaBDE decay without primers added was about one-half that of the experi ments with primers. The study demonstrated that the debromination of decaBDE proceeded most readily by the loss of bromine from the para- and meta-positions. The United Kingdom (2005) notes that the conditions in themselves are not representative of sewage sludge treatment processes, or those typical in the natural environment. However, such conditions could occur in landfill sites which are anaerobic, methanogenic and haveScreening Assessment Report — Environment

Environment Canada June 2006



### 13 high temperatures. The study provides evidence that decaBDE could be susceptible to some level of slow degradation under conditions of anaerobic biodegradation.

PBDE congener patterns found in the environment are sometimes reported to resemble those of the PeBDE and OBDE commercial products, leading some researchers (e.g., Song et al. 2004) to propose that these products are the primary sources of PBDEs into the environment. Rayne and Ikonomou (2002) placed semipermeable membrane devices (SPMD) in the Fraser River, BC and analyzed the resultant SPMD samples for 36 PBDEs (mono- to hexa- congeners). They found that the congener patterns observed in the SPMD samples differed significantly from those of the commercial PeBDE and OBDE mixtures. They then applied modeling and calculation procedures and found that the reconstructed congener patterns more closely approximated those of the technical mixtures. These analyses lead the researchers to suggest that the PBDEs present in the region arose primarily from

PeBDE and OBDE mixtures..

Söderström et al. (2004) also concluded that the lower brominated DEs (e.g., BDE 47, 154 and 183) found in the environment probably originate mainly as emissions from the commercial PeBDE and OBDE mixtures rather than DBDE phototransformation. In their studies they note that the most commonly found PBDEs in environmental samples (BDE 47, 99 and 100) were only formed to a very minor degree during their photolysis studies. Howe ver, it should be noted that most monitoring studies to date have only investigated PBDEs fo r which standards are available. These PBDEs are also the main components of the commercial products. As a result, one can expect that the results reported for environmental samples would predominantly be for PBDEs present in the commercial products. Analytical standards are not available for all congeners, and thus, it may be that studies conducted to date have not investigated all congeners present in environmental samples, including those occurring as photodegradation products of decaBDE.

Studies have shown the transformation of higher brominated PBDEs (e.g., hepta- to decaBDEs) to lower brominated congeners (e.g., tetra- to hexaBDEs), which are associated with high levels of bioaccumulation. A dietary exposure study has shown that congeners of heptaBDE and pentaBDE rapidly biotransform in the gut of carp ( Cyprinus carpio ), and at least 10–12% is debrominated to congeners of hexaBDE and tetraBDE, respectivel y (Stapleton et al. 2004b,c; Stapleton and Baker 2003). These transformation products then accumulate in the tissues of the carp. Carp have also demonstrated a limited ability to biotransform decaBDE when exposed via food, producing various penta- to octaBDE congeners. In a study described by Stapleton et al. (2004a) and Stapleton and Baker (2003), approximately 0.4% of consumed decaBDE was shown to biotransform in carp to form penta- to octaBDEs. The researchers note that while this amount may appear insignificant, high concentrations of decaBDE reported in river se diment and land-applied sludge could lead to appreciable accumulation in organisms exposed to such material (Stapleton et al. 2004a).

While conditions of laboratory experiments s howing that decaBDE will transform to lesser brominated DEs are not completely representative of those in the natural environment or sewage treatment facilities, they indicate that some degr ee of transformation cannot be ruled out. Globally,

DBDE has become the most used technical PBDE product (see Table 1).There is a weight of evidence suggesting that highly brominated PBDEs such as decaBDE are precursors of the more toxic, bioaccumulative and persistent lower brominated PBDEs. While the degree to which thisScreening Assessment Report — Environment

Environment Canada June 2006



### 14 phenomenon adds to the overall risk presented to organisms from formation of the more toxic and persistent tetra- to hexaBDE congeners is not known, there is sufficient evidence to warrant concern.

Measured data indicate that tetra-, penta- and hexaBDE are highly bioaccumulative, with bioconcentration factors (BCFs) exceeding 5000 for aquatic species; thus, they satisfy the criteria for bioaccumulation as described in the CEPA 1999 Persistence and Bioaccumulation Regulations (see Table 6). A BCF of about 27 400 L/kg for PeBD E was reported by European Communities (2001),

based on a recalculation of data contained in a st udy by CITI (1982), in which carp were exposed for 8 weeks to PeBDE at 10 or 100 μg/L. This BCF for the commercial product was driven by a high BCF calculated for the tetraBDE component. The recalculated BCFs for the various components were 66 700 L/kg for tetraBDE, 17 700 and 1440 L/kg for separate pentaBDE congeners (identities not provided) and 5640 and 2580 L/kg for separate hexaBDE congeners (identities not provided). A bioaccumulation factor (BAF) of 1.4 × 10 6 

### was reported for PeBDE in blue mussels ( Mytilus edulis ) exposed for 44 days (Gustafsson et al. 1999). The same study reported BCFs of 1.3 × 10 6 

### for

tetraBDE and 2.2 × 10 5 

### for hexaBDE in these organisms. High rates of accumulation in biota are supported by high log K

ow 

### values for PBDEs and reports of biomagnification of tetraBDE and pentaBDE in aquatic food chains (e.g., Alaee and Wenning 2002; de Wit 2002).

Key studies of toxicity to organisms in different environmental media are presented in Table 7. Since testing is frequently carried out using commercial mixtures, effects must frequently be best considered in relation to the total exposures to all congeners involved (see below).

Risk Characterization The approach taken in this ecological screening assessment was to examine various supporting information and develop conclusions based on a weight of evidence approach as required under

Section 76.1 of CEPA 1999. Particular considerati on was given to risk quotient analyses and persistence, bioaccumulation, chemical transformation and trends in environmental concentrations.

This assessment has used data corresponding to commercial products, individual congeners and homologues/isomer groups. The presentation of data and the risk quotient analyses have been structured around the PBDE commercial products since a great deal of empirical data which are central to this assessment (e.g., relevant to environmental toxicity) have been determined using the commercial products. Nonetheless, the risk analysis and scientific evidence presented in this report relate to all congeners found in the commercial products, PeBDE, OBDE and DBDE.

The risk determined for each commercial product is a result of the combined activity of the various co-occurring PBDEs, adding complexity to the interpretation of the results. Due to these reasons, their common chemical structure, and due to issues relating to their chemical transformation, PeBDE, OBDE, DBDE and their brominated constituents are assessed as a group.

Risk quotient analyses, integrating known or potential exposures with known or potential adverse environmental effects, were performed for each of the commercial PBDE products subject to thisScreening Assessment Report — Environment

Environment Canada June 2006



### 15 assessment. An analysis of exposure pathways and subsequent identification of sensitive receptors were used to select ecological assessment endpoints (e.g., adverse reproductive effects on sensitive fish species in a community). For each endpoint, a conservative Estimated Exposure Value (EEV) was selected based on empirical data from mon itoring studies. Where monitoring data were not available, the EEVs were based on simple calculation procedures taking into account some degree of local environmental conditions, but largely relying on generic environmental parameters. Chemical

concentrations from the Canadian and North Amer ican environment were used preferentially for EEVs; however, data from other regions in the world were used in the absence of sufficient Canadian data of satisfactory quality or to provide a weight of evidence. EEVs usually represented worse-case scenarios, as an indication of the potential for these substances to reach concentrations of concern and to identify areas where those concerns would be most likely.

An Estimated No-Effects Value (ENEV) was also determined by dividing a Critical Toxicity Value (CTV) by an application factor. CTVs typically re presented the lowest ecotoxicity value from an available and acceptable data set. Preference was generally for chronic toxicity data, as long-term exposure was a concern. Where these data were not available, the following were used in order of preference: acute data, analogue data, quantitative structure–activity relationship (QSAR) data and data derived from equilibrium partitioning methods.

Application factors were derived using a multiplicative approach, which uses 10-fold factors to account for various sources of uncertainty associated with making extrapolations and inferences related to the following: intra- and interspecies variations; differently sensitive biological endpoints; laboratory-to-field impact extrapolation require d to extrapolate from single-species tests to ecosystems; and potential effects from concurrent presence of other substances. For substances that meet the persistence and bioaccumulation criteria as outlined in the CEPA 1999 Regulations (see Table 6), an additional application factor of 10 is applied to the CTV.

Risk quotients derived for PBDEs are summarized in Table 8. Exposure data used as EEVs can be found in Tables 4 and 5 or are summarized in the notes to Table 8. Toxicity data used to determine

CTVs and ENEVs are summarized in Table 7.

The risk quotient analysis indicates that the greatest potential for risk from PBDEs in the Canadian environment is due to the secondary poisoning of wildlife from the consumption of prey containing elevated PeBDE and OBDE congener concentrations . Elevated concentrations of components of PeBDE in sediments may present risk to benthi c organisms. HexaBDE is a component of both PeBDE and OBDE and could be a product of heptaBDE, octaBDE, nonaBDE or decaBDE transformation. Therefore, risk associated with components of PeBDE may be due to the use of OBDE or debromination of highly brominated PBDE s, in addition to the use of PeBDE itself. The risk analysis for soil organisms indicates that risk quotients were below 1 for PeBDE, OBDE and DBDE; however, the lack of data characterizing PBDE concentrations in soil and sewage sludge applied to soil indicates the need for further research. PeBDE, OBDE and DBDE would present low potential for risk as a result of direct toxicity to pelagic organisms due to their very low water solubility. In the water column, risk associated w ith components of PeBDE and OBDE (tetra-, pentaand hexaBDE congeners) may be due to bioaccumulation and toxicity to secondary consumers.Screening Assessment Report — Environment

Environment Canada June 2006



### 16 There is a lack of data characterizing the toxicity of PBDEs to wildlife. Recent studies using rodents provide evidence that exposure to PBDEs may lead to behavioural disturbances, disruptions in normal thyroid hormone activity and liver eff ects (e.g., Eriksson et al. 2002, Zhou et al. 2001 and 2002, Great Lakes Chemical Corporation 1984). The relationship of these studies to potential effects

from accumulation in the wild is not clear at this time.

There are a variety of data indicating that all PB DE congeners subject to this assessment are highly persistent and each satisfies the requirements for persistence as defined by CEPA 1999 Persistence and Bioaccumulation Regulations.

Although uncertainty regarding the possible transf ormation products of decaBDE exists, there is sufficient evidence to conclude that some level of decaBDE phototransformation likely occurs in the environment and that lower brominated PBDEs are being formed during this process. These products are likely to be more bioaccumulative than the parent compound and could be considered persistent and may be directly toxic to organisms. There is limited information available on the relative rates of lower BDE formation, and the rates by which these products subsequently degrade in the environment. In addition, results from some studies suggest that other as yet unidentified products are also being formed as well as PBDFs. It is expected that decaBDE in the environment would mainly sequester into sediment or soil and this could limit the amount available for photodegradation, but it could make some amount available for transformation via other processes such as anaerobic biodegradation or reaction with reducing agents. Overall, it is very difficult to determine the extent to which the transformation of decaBDE in the environment may contribute to the potential accumulation of lower BDEs and other products. Nevertheless, it is reasonable to consider that various transformation processes could contribute to the formation of at least some amount of lower brominated PBDEs and PBDFs. Future monitoring would help to clarify whether and the degree to which decaBDE transformation contributes to the overall risk presented by the lower brominated DEs

such as tetra- to hexaBDEs.

DBDE has become the prevalent commercial PBDE product used in North America and the world. In North America and Europe, it is often found in concentrations which exceed those of other PBDEs in sewage sludge and sediments. Concentrations of DBDE are now exceeding mg/kg dw levels in North American sewage sludge. High accumulation of DBDE in the environment and evidence of debromination has led researchers to note that even slight and very long term degradation to lower brominated diphenyl ethers over periods spanning several decades could have serious ecological consequences. Thus, while current concentrations measured in the environment for homologues found in commercial DBDE do not appear to exceed known effect thresholds, their overall persistence and potential transformation to bioaccumulative forms, and observed commercial and environmental trends, indicate environmental concerns.

Measured data indicate that tetra-, penta- and hexaBDE are highly bioaccumulative and satisfy the criteria for bioaccumulation in the CEPA 1999 regulations. Concentrations of PBDEs in herring gull eggs have increased exponentially between 1981 and 2000 at Lake Ontario, Huron and Michigan sampling sites. Concentrations of PBDEs (predominantly tetra- and pentaBDE congeners) have also increased exponentially between 1981 and 2000 in Arctic male ringed seals.Screening Assessment Report — Environment

Environment Canada June 2006



### 17 Pyrolysis and extreme heating can cause all PBDEs to form brominated dibenzo- p -dioxins and dibenzofurans (European Communities 2001, 2002, 2003). These transformation products are considered brominated analogues of the TSMP Track 1 polychlorinated dibenzo- p -dioxins and

dibenzofurans.

The PBDEs subject to this assessment have low vapour pressures and low Henry’s Law constants (see Table 2) and are not expected to partition significantly into the atmosphere. As such, they are considered to present a negligible risk with respect to atmospheric processes such as global warming, stratospheric ozone depletion and ground-level ozone formation; however, they do reside in the atmosphere adsorbed to suspended particulates and can be transported over long distances.

Conclusion for the Environment

It is therefore concluded that tetraBDE, pent aBDE, hexaBDE, heptaBDE, octaBDE, nonaBDE and decaBDE, which are found in commercial PeBDE, OBDE and DBDE, are entering the environment in a quantity or concentration or under conditions that have or may have an immediate or long-term harmful effect on the environment or its biological diversity and thus meets the criteria under Paragraph 64(a) of CEPA 1999. Based on considera tions of potential contribution to atmospheric processes, it is concluded that PBDEs are not entering the environment in a quantity or concentration or under conditions that constitute or may constitute a danger to the environment on which life depends, and thus do not meet the criteria under Paragraph 64(b) of CEPA 1999.

The available data regarding persistence and bioaccumulation of tetraBDE, pentaBDE and hexaBDE indicate that they satisfy the criteria outlined in the Persistence and Bioaccumulation Regulations of CEPA 1999. Their presence in the environment results primarily from human activity, and they are not naturally occurring radionuclides or naturally occurring inorganic substances.

.Screening Assessment Report — Environment

Environment Canada June 2006



### 18 References

ACCBFRIP (American Chemistry Council Brominated Flame Retardant Industry Panel). 2001a. Decabromodiphenyl ether: A prolonged sediment toxicity test with Lumbriculus variegatus using spiked sediment with 2% total organic carbon. Final report. Project No. 439A-113, Wildlife International, Ltd., February.

ACCBFRIP (American Chemistry Council Brominated Flame Retardant Industry Panel). 2001b. Decabromodiphenyl ether: A prolonged sediment toxicity test with Lumbriculus variegatus using spiked sediment with 5% total organic carbon. Final report. Project No. 439A-114, Wildlife International, Ltd., February.

ACCBFRIP (American Chemistry Council Brominated Flame Retardant Industry Panel). 2001c. Effect of decabromodiphenyl oxide (DBDPO) on th e survival and reproduction of the earthworm, Eisenia fetida . Final report. Study No. 465440, ABC Laboratories, Inc., December.

Alaee, M. and R.J. Wenning. 2002. The significance of brominated flame retardants in the environment: current understanding, issues and challenges. Chemosphere 46: 579–582.

Alaee, M., J. Luross, D.B. Sergeant, D.C.G. Muir, D.M. Whittle and K. Solomon. 1999. Distribution of polybrominated diphenyl ethers in the Cana dian environment. Organohalogen Compd. 40: 347– 350 [cited in Peltola and Ylä-Mononen 2001].

Alaee, M., D. Sergeant, J. Luross and C. Cannon. 2000. Determination of brominated flame retardants in environmental matrices. Poster, 48th American Society for Mass Spectrometry Conference on Mass Spectrometry and Allied Topics, Long Beach, CA, June 11–15.

Allchin, C.R., R.J. Law and S. Morris. 1999. Polybr ominated diphenylethers in sediments and biota downstream of potential sources in the UK. Environ. Pollut. 105: 195–207.

Bonnell Environmental Consulting. 2001. Conducting the multi-media exposure assessment of new substances in Canada. Report submitted to New Substances Division, Environment Canada, Hull, Quebec.

Breslin, W.J., H.D. Kirk and M.A. Zimmer. 1989. Teratogenic evaluation of a polybromodiphenyl

oxide mixture in New Zealand White rabbits follo wing oral exposure. Fundam. Appl. Toxicol. 12:

151–157.

BSEF (Bromine Science and Environmental Forum). 2003. Major brominated flame retardants volume estimates. BSEF, Brussels.

CCME (Canadian Council of Ministers of the Envi ronment). 1998. Protocol for the derivation of Canadian tissue residue guidelines for the protection of wildlife that consume aquatic biota. CCME, Winnipeg [reprinted in CCME. 1999. Canadian environmental quality guidelines. Chapter 8. CCME, Winnipeg].Screening Assessment Report — Environment

Environment Canada June 2006



### 19 CITI (Chemicals Inspection and Testing Institute). 1982. The bioaccumulation of compound S512 by carp. Chemical Biotesting Center, CITI, Tokyo.

CMABFRIP (Chemical Manufacturers Association Brominated Flame Retardant Industry Panel). 1997a. Octabromobiphenyl oxide (OBDPO): Determina tion of the vapour pressure using a spinning rotor gauge. Project No. 439C-114, Wildlife International, Ltd., July 31.

CMABFRIP (Chemical Manufacturers Association Br ominated Flame Retardant Industry Panel). 1997b. Octabromodiphenyl oxide (OBDPO): Determin ation of the water solubility. Project No. 439C-110, Wildlife International, Ltd., June 13.

CMABFRIP (Chemical Manufacturers Association Brominated Flame Retardant Industry Panel). 1997c. Octabromodiphenyl oxide (OBDPO): Determina tion of n-octanol/water partition coefficient. Project No. 439C-112, Wildlife International, Ltd., July 23.

CMABFRIP (Chemical Manufacturers Association Brominated Flame Retardant Industry Panel). 1997d. Octabromodiphenyl oxide (OBDPO): A flow-t hrough life-cycle toxicity test with the cladoceran ( Daphnia magna ). Final report. Project No. 439A-104, Wildlife International, Ltd., May.

CMABFRIP (Chemical Manufacturers Association Brominated Flame Retardant Industry Panel). 1997e. Decabromodiphenyl oxide (DBDPO): determina tion of the vapor pressure using a spinning rotor gauge. Project No. 439C-115, Wildlife International, Ltd., July 31.

CMABFRIP (Chemical Manufacturers Association Brominated Flame Retardant Industry Panel). 1997f. Decabromodiphenyl oxide (DBDPO): determin ation of water solubility. Project No. 439C102, Wildlife International, Ltd., June.

CMABFRIP (Chemical Manufacturers Association Brominated Flame Retardant Industry Panel). 1997g. Decabromodiphenyl oxide (DBDPO): Determinati on of n-octanol/water partition coefficient. Project No. 439C-101, Wildlife International, Ltd., June 16.

CMABFRIP (Chemical Manufacturers Association Brominated Flame Retardant Industry Panel). 1998. Pentabromodiphenyl oxide (PeBDPO): A flow -through life-cycle toxicity test with the cladoceran ( Daphnia magna ). Project No. 439A-109, Wildlife International, Ltd., September.

de Boer, J., H.A. Leslie, P.E.G. Leonards, P. Bersuder, S. Morris and C.R. Allchin. 2004. Screening and time trend study of decabromodiphenylether a nd hexabromocyclododecane in birds. Abstract. The 3rd International Workshop on Brominated Flame Retardants (BFR 2004). Toronto, Canada, June 6-9, 2004. pp.125-128.

de Wit, C. 2002. An overview of brominated flame retardants in the environment. Chemosphere 46:

583–624.Screening Assessment Report — Environment

Environment Canada June 2006



### 20 de Wit, C. 2003. Personal communication with J.P. Pasternak, Commercial Chemicals Division, Environment Canada, Vancouver, B.C. Institute of Applied Environmental Research (ITM), Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden, July 2003.

Dodder, N.G., B. Strandberg and R.A. Hites. 2002. Concentrations and spatial variations of polybrominated diphenyl ethers and several organochlorine compounds in fishes from the

northeastern United States. Environ. Sci. Technol. 36: 146–151.

Dugani, C. and F. Wania. 2002. Estimating the long range transport potential of polybrominated diphenyl ethers. 4 th 

### Annual Workshop on Brominated Flame Retardants in the Environment. June 17- 18, 2002. Canada Centre for Inland Waters, 867 Lakeshore Road, Burlington, Ontario. P. 55-58.

Environment Agency. 1997. Report on the monitoring of brominated flame retardants in the environment. The Environment Agency, Bath, UK [cited in European Communities 2001].

Environment Canada. 2000. Persistence and Bioaccumulation Regulations. Canada Gazette Part II 134(7): 607-612, 29 March 2000.

Environment Canada. 2003. Polybrominated Diphenyl Ether (PBDE) Brominated Flame Retardant (BFR) Report of Section 71 (CEPA, 1999) Notice with Respect to Certain Substances on the Domestic Substances List (DSL). Existing Substances Branch, Environment Canada. June 2003 (Version 2.0).

Eriksson, J., E. Jakobsson, G. Marsh and Å. Bergman. 2001. Photo decomposition of brominated

diphenyl ethers in methanol/water. Abstracts. The Second International Workshop on Brominated Flame Retardants. BFR 2001 Stockholm. May 14-16. Stockholm University, Sweden. p. 203-206.

Eriksson, P., H. Viberg, E. Jakobsson, U. Ö rn and A. Fredriksson. 2002. A brominated flame retardant, 2,2,4,4,5-pentabromodiphenyl ether: Uptake, retention, and induction of neurobehavioral alterations in mice during a critical phase of neonatal brain development. Toxicol. Sci. 67: 98–103.

European Communities. 1994. Technical Guidance Document, Part I-V, ISBN 92-827-801 [1234], as described in EC Regulation 1488/94 O.J. No L 161, 29/06/1994. pp. 0003–0011.

European Communities. 2001. European Union risk assessment report. Diphenyl ether, pentabromo derivative (pentabromodiphenyl ether). CAS No.: 32534-81-9. EINECS No.: 251-084-2. Risk assessment. Final report, August 2000. United Kingdom on behalf of the European Union.

European Communities. 2002. European Union risk assessment report. Bis(pentabromophenyl) ether.

CAS No.: 1163-19-5. EINECS No.: 214-604-9. Risk assessment. Final report, 2002. France and United Kingdom on behalf of the European Union.

European Communities. 2003. European Union risk assessment report. Diphenyl ether, octabromo

derivative. CAS No.: 32536-52-0. EINECS No.: 251-087-9. Risk assessment. Final report, 2003. France and United Kingdom on behalf of the European Union.Screening Assessment Report — Environment

Environment Canada June 2006



### 21 Gerecke, A.C., P.C. Hartmann, N.V. Heeb, H.-P. E. Kohler, W. Giger, P. Schmid, M. Zennegg and M. Kohler. 2005. Anaerobic degradation of decabrom odiphenyl ether. Environ. Sci. Technol. 39(4):

1078-1083.

Gouin, T. and T. Harner. 2003. Modelling the environm ental fate of polybrominated diphenyl ethers. Environment International 29(6): 717 – 724.

Gouin, T. and D. Mackay. 2002. Modelling the long-range transport potential of PBDEs. 4 th 

### Annual Workshop on Brominated Flame Retardants in the Environment. June 17-18, 2002. Canada Centre for Inland Waters, 867 Lakeshore Road, Burlington, Ontario. P. 59-62.

Gouin, T., G.O. Thomas, I. Cousins, J. Barber, D. Mackay and K.C. Jones. 2002. Air-surface exchange of polybrominated diphenyl ethers and polychlorinated biphenyls. Environ. Sci. Technol. 36(7): 1426–1434.

Great Lakes Chemical Corporation. 1984. 90-day di etary study in rats with pentabromodiphenyl oxide (DE-71). Final report. Project No. WIL-12011,WIL Research Laboratories, Inc.

Great Lakes Chemical Corporation. 2000a. Pent abromodiphenyl oxide (PeBDPO): A prolonged sediment toxicity test with Lumbriculus variegatus using spiked sediment. Project No. 298A-109, Wildlife International, Ltd., April.

Great Lakes Chemical Corporation. 2000b. Pentabrom odiphenyl oxide (PeBDPO): A toxicity test to

determine the effects of the test substance on s eedling emergence of six species of plants. Final report. Project No. 298-102, Wildlife International, Ltd., April.

Great Lakes Chemical Corporation. 2000c. Analytical method verification for the determination of pentabromodiphenyl oxide (PeBDPO) in soil to support an acute toxicity study with the earthworm. Final report. Project No. 298C-117, Wildlife International, Ltd., February.

Great Lakes Chemical Corporation. 2001a. Octabromodiphenyl ether: A prolonged sediment toxicity

test with Lumbriculus variegatus using spiked sediment with 2% total organic carbon. Final report. Project No. 298A-112, Wildlife International, Ltd., February.

Great Lakes Chemical Corporation. 2001b. Octabromodi phenyl ether: A prolonged sediment toxicity

test with Lumbriculus variegatus using spiked sediment with 5% total organic carbon. Final report. Project No. 298A-113, Wildlife International, Ltd., February.

Great Lakes Chemical Corporation. 2001c. Effect of octabromodiphenyl oxide on the survival and reproduction of the earthworm, Eisenia fetida . Study No. 46419, ABC Laboratories, Inc., December.

Great Lakes Chemical Corporation. 2005. Great Lake s Chemical Corporation Completes Phase-Out of Two Flame Retardants. Press Release. January 18, 2005 (www.e1.greatlakes.com/corp/common/jsp/index.jsp).Screening Assessment Report — Environment

Environment Canada June 2006



### 22 Gustafsson, K., M. Björk, S. Burreau and M. Gilek. 1999. Bioaccumulation kinetics of brominated flame retardants (polybrominated diphenyl ethers) in blue mussel ( Mytilus edulis ). Environ. Toxicol.

Chem. 18: 1218–1224.

Hale, R.C., M.J. La Guardia, E.P. Harvey, T.M. Mainor, W.H. Duff and M.O. Gaylor. 2001. Polybrominated diphenyl ether flame retardants in Virginia freshwater fishes (USA). Environ. Sci. Technol. 35(23): 4585-4591.

Hale, R.C., M.J. La Guardia, E. Harvey and T.M. Mainor. 2002. Potential role of fire retardanttreated polyurethane foam as a source of brominated diphenyl ethers to the U.S. environment. Chemosphere 46: 729–735.

Hale, R.C., M. Alaee, J.B. Manchester-Neesvig, H.M. Stapleton, and M.G. Ikonomou. 2003. Polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) flame retardants in the North American environment.

Environment International 29: 771-779.

Harner, T., M. Ikonomou, M. Shoeib, G. Stern and M. Diamond. 2002. Passive air sampling results for polybrominated diphenyl ethers along an urban–rural transect. 4th Annual Workshop on Brominated Flame Retardants in the Environment, June 17–18, Canada Centre for Inland Waters, Burlington, Ontario. pp. 51–54.

Harner, T. and M. Shoeib. 2002. Measurements of octanol-air partition coefficients (K OA 

### ) for polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs): Predicting partitioning in the environment. J. Chem. Eng.

Data 47: 228-232.

Herrmann, T., B. Schilling and O. Papke. 2003. Photolysis of PBDEs in solvents by exposure to sunlight in a routine laboratory. Organohalogen Compd. 63: 367–364.

Hua, I., N. Kang, C.T. Jafvert and J.R. Fábrega-Duque. 2003. Heterogeneous photochemical reactions of decabromodiphenyl ether. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 22(4): 798–804.

ICL Industrial Products. 2005. Termination of the production and sales of FR-1208 (Octabromodiphenyl oxide). Press Release. February 2, 2005. (http://www.iclfr.com)

Ikonomou, M.G., M. Fischer, T. He, R.F. Addison and T. Smith. 2000. Congener patterns, spatial and temporal trends of polybrominated diphenyl ethers in biota samples from the Canadian west coast and the Northwest Territories. Organohalogen Compounds 47:77-80.

Ikonomou, M.G., S. Rayne and R.F. Addison. 2002a. Exponential increases of the brominated flame retardants, polybrominated diphenyl ethers, in th e Canadian Arctic from 1981 to 2000. Environ. Sci.

Technol. 36: 1886–1892.Screening Assessment Report — Environment

Environment Canada June 2006



### 23 Ikonomou, M.G., S. Rayne, M. Fischer, M.P. Fernandez and W. Cretney. 2002b. Occurrence and congener profiles of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in environmental samples from coastal British Columbia, Canada. Chemosphere 46: 649–663.

Jafvert, C. and I. Hua. 2001. Photochemical r eactions of decabromodiphenyl oxide and 2,2’,4,4’- tetrabromodiphenyl oxide. Final report submitted to American Chemistry Council, Brominated Flame Retardant Industry Panel (BFRIP). School of Engi neering, Purdue University. West Lafayette IN. August 6, 2001. 56 pp.

Johnson, A. and N. Olson. 2001. Analysis and occu rrence of polybrominated diphenyl ethers in Washington State freshwater fish. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 41: 339–344.

Johnson A. 2003. Personal telephone communication with John Pasternak, Commercial Chemicals Division, Environment Canada, Vancouver, B.C. Washington State Department of Ecology, Environmental Assessment Program, 300 Desmond Drive, Olympia, Washington 98504-7710, 9 September 2003.

Keum, Y.-S. and Q.X. Li. 2005. Reductive debromin ation of polybrominated diphenyl ethers by zerovalent iron. Envion. Sci. Technol. 39(7): 2280-2286.

Kierkegaard, A., A. Bignert, U. Sellström, M. Ol sson, L. Asplund, B. Jansson and C.A. de Wit. 2004. Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDE) and their methoxylated derivatives in fish from Swedish waters with emphasis on temporal trends, 1967–2000. Environ. Pollut.130: 187-198.

Kolic, T.M., K.A. MacPherson, E.J. Reiner, T. Ho, S. Kleywegt, M. Payne and M. Alaee. 2003. Investigation of brominated diphenyl ethers in various land applied materials. Abstract. 5 th 

### Annual Workshop on Brominated Flame Retardants in the Environment, August 22-23, 2003. Boston, MA.

Kolic, T.M., K.A. MacPherson, E.J. Reiner, T. Ho, S. Kleywegt, A. Dove and C. Marvin. 2004. Brominated diphenyl ether levels: a comparison of tributary sediments versus biosolid material. Organohalogen Compounds 66: 3830-3835.

La Guardia, M.J., R.C. Hale, E. Harvey, T.M. Mainor and M.O. Gaylor. 2001. Polybrominated diphenyl ethers in land-applied sewage sludge (biosolids). Poster presented at the 22nd Annual Meeting of the Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, November.

Law, R.J., C.R. Allchin, S. Morris and J. Reed. 1996. Analysis of brominated flame retardants in environmental samples. DFR No. C956H108, Direct orate of Fisheries Research, Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, Burnham-on-Crouch, UK [cited in European Communities 2002].

Law, R.J., M. Alaee, C.R. Allchin, J.P. Boon, M. Lebeuf, P. Lepom and G.A. Stern. 2003. Levels and trends of polybrominated diphenylethers (PBDEs) and other brominated flame retardants in wildlife.

Environ. Int. 29: 757–770.Screening Assessment Report — Environment

Environment Canada June 2006



### 24 Lebeuf, M., K. Love and S. Trottier. 2001. Polybr ominated diphenyl ethers in beluga whales ( Delphinapterus leucus ) from the St. Lawrence Estuary, Canada: levels and temporal trends. Abstracts of the 2nd International Workshop on Brominated Flame Retardants, BFR 2001, May 14– 16, Stockholm University. pp. 305–308.

Lindberg, P., U. Sellström, L. Häggberg and C.A. de Wit. 2004. Higher brominated diphenyl ethers and hexabromocyclododecane found in eggs of peregrine falcons ( Falco peregrinus ) breeding in Sweden. Environ. Sci. Technol. 34(1): 93 - 96..

Luckey, F.J., B. Fowler and S. Litten. 2002. Estab lishing baseline levels of polybrominated diphenyl ethers in Lake Ontario surface waters. Unpublished manuscript dated 2002/03/01. New York State Department of Environmental Conservation, Di vision of Water, 50 Wolf Road, Albany, NY 12233-

3508.

Luross, J.M., M. Alaee, D.B. Sergeant, C.M. Cannon, D.M. Whittle, K.R. Solomon and D.C.G. Muir. 2002. Spatial distribution of polybrominated diphenyl ethers and polybrominated biphenyls in lake trout from the Laurentian Great Lakes. Chemosphere 46: 665–672.

MacGregor, J.A. and W.B. Nixon. 1997. Pentabromodi phenyl oxide (PeBDPO): Determination of noctanol/water partition coefficient. Project N o. 439C-108, Wildlife International, Ltd., September [cited in European Communities 2001].

Muir, D., C. Teixeira, M. Chigak, F. Yang, I. D’Sa, C. Cannon, G. Pacepavicius and M. Alaee. 2003. Current deposition and historical profiles of decab romodiphenyl ether in sediment cores. Dioxin 2003, 23rd International Symposium on Halogenated Environmental Organic Pollutants and POPs. Organohalogen Compd. 61: 77–80.

Norris, J.M., J.W. Ehrmantraut, C.L. Gibbons, R.J. Kociba, B.A. Schwetz, J.Q. Rose, C.G. Humiston, G.L. Jewett, W.B. Crummett, P.J. Gehring, J.B. Tirsell and J.S. Brosier. 1973. Toxicological and

environmental factors involved in the selection of decabromodiphenyl oxide as a fire retardant chemical. Appl. Polym. Symp. 22: 195–219.

Norris, J.M., J.W. Ehrmantraut, C.L. Gibbons, R.J. Kociba, B.A. Schwetz, J.Q. Rose, C.G. Humiston, G.L. Jewett, W.B. Crummett, P.J. Gehring, J.B. Tirsell and J.S. Brosier. 1974. Toxicological and

environmental factors involved in the selection of decabromodiphenyl oxide as a fire retardant

chemical. J. Fire Flamm. Combust. Toxicol. 1: 52–77.

Norstrom, R.J., M. Simon, J. Moisey, B. Wakeford and D.V.C. Weseloh. 2002. Geographical distribution (2000) and temporal trends (1981–2000) of brominated diphenyl ethers in Great Lakes herring gull eggs. Environ. Sci. Technol. 36(22): 4783–4789.

OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development). 1994. Selected brominated flame retardants. Risk Reduction Monograph No. 3, OECD Environment Monograph Series No. 102, Paris (http://www.oecd.org/ehs/ehsmono/#RISK).Screening Assessment Report — Environment

Environment Canada June 2006



### 25 Palm, A., I.T. Cousins, D. Mackay, M. Tysklind, C. Metcalfe and M. Alaee. 2002. Assessing the environmental fate of chemicals of emerging concern: a case study of the polybrominated diphenyl

ethers. Environmental Pollution 117: 195-213.

Palm, W.-U., R. Kopetzky, W. Sossinka, H-U. Kruger, Q. Lin, S.T. Barcellos da Rosa and C. Zetzsch. 2003. Environmental photochemistry of decabromodiphenyl ethers in organic solvents and adsorbed on particles in air and in aqueous suspension (including a feasibility study on OH reactivities in an aerosol smog chamber facility). Report for the Bromine Science and Environmental Forum [cited in United Kingdom 2004].

Palm, W.-U., R. Kopetzky, W. Sossinka, W. Ruck and C. Zetzsch. 2004. Photochemical reactions of brominated diphenylethers in organic solvents and adsorbed on silicon dioxide in aqueous suspension. Organohalogen Cmpd. 66: 4101-4105.

Peltola, J. and L. Ylä-Mononen. 2001. Pentabromodiphenyl ether as a global POP. TemaNord 2000:XX, Chemicals Division, Finnish Environment Institute. 71 pp. (http://www.unece.org/env/popsxg/pentabromodiphenyl_ether.pdf).

Peterman, P.H., C.E. Orazio and K.P. Feltz. 2003. Sunlight photolysis of 39 mono–hepta PBDE congeners in lipid. Organohalogen Compd. 63: 357–360.

Phipps G.L., G.T. Ankley, D.A. Benoit and V.R. Mattson. 1993. Use of the aquatic oligochaete Lumbriculus variegatus for assessing the toxicity and bioaccumulation of sediment-associated

contaminants. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 12: 269–279.

Rayne, S. and M.G. Ikonomou. 2002. Reconstructing source polybrominated diphenyl ether congener patterns from semipermeable membrane devices in the Fraser River, British Columbia, Canada: comparison to commercial mixtures. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 21(11): 2292-2300.

Rayne, S., M.G. Ikonomou and B. Antcliffe. 2003a . Rapidly increasing polybrominated diphenyl ether concentrations in the Columbia River system from 1992 to 2000. Environ. Sci. Technol. 37(13):

2847–2854.

Rayne, S., M.G. Ikonomou and M.D. Whale. 2003b. Anaerobic microbial and photochemical degradation of 4, 4 ́-dibromodiphenyl ether. Water Research 37: 551-560.

Reiner, E.J., Ontario Ministry of the Environmen t, Laboratory Services Branch, Toronto, Canada. Personal communication with J. Pasternak, Environment Canada, Environmental Protection Branch,

2004.

RPA Ltd. (Risk Policy & Analysts Limited). 2000. Risk reduction strategy and analysis of advantages and drawbacks for pentabromodiphenyl ether. March 2000. Report prepared for the UK Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions.Screening Assessment Report — Environment

Environment Canada June 2006



### 26 Sellström, U. 1996. Polybrominated diphenyl ethers in the Swedish environment. ITM-Rapport 1996: 45, Licentiate Thesis, Institute of Applied Environmental Research, Stockholm University.

Sellström, U., P. Lindberg, L. Häggberg and C. de Wit. 2001. Higher brominated PBDEs found in eggs of peregrine falcons ( Falco peregrinus ) breeding in Sweden. Abstracts of the 2nd International Workshop on Brominated Flame Retardants, BFR 2001, May 14–16, Stockholm University. pp. 159–

162.

Sellström, U., A. Bignert, A. Kierkegaard, L. Hä ggberg, C.A. de Wit, M. Olsson and B. Jansson. 2003. Temporal trend studies on tetra- a nd pentabrominated diphenyl ethers and hexabromocyclododecane in guillemot egg from the Baltic Sea. Environ. Sci. Technol. 37(24): 5496-

5501.

She, J., M. Petreas, J. Winkler, P. Visita, M. McKinney and D. Kopec. 2002. PBDEs in the San Francisco Bay area: measurements in harbor seal blubber and human breast adipose tissue. Chemosphere 46: 697–707.

Sjödin, A. 2000. Occupational and dietary exposure to organohalogen substances, with special emphasis on polybrominated diphenyl ethers. Do ctoral dissertation, Stockholm University.

Söderström, G., U. Sellström, C.A. de Wit and M. Tysklind. 2004. Photolytic debromination of decabromodiphenyl ether (BDE 209). Environ. Sci. Technol. 38(1): 127-132.

Song, W., J.C. ford, L. An, W.J. Buckleya and K. J. Rockne. 2004. Polybrominated diphenyl ethers in sediments of the Great Lakes. 1. Lake Superior. Environ. Sci. Tech. 38(12): 3286-3293.

Stapleton, H.M. and J.E. Baker. 2001. Compar ing the temporal trends, partitioning and biomagnification of PBDEs and PCBs in Lake Michigan. Abstract. 3 rd 

### Annual Workshop on Brominated Flame Retardants in the Environment, August 23-24, 2001, Canada Centre for Inland Waters, Burlington, Ontario.

Stapleton, H.M. and J.E. Baker. 2003. Debromination of BDE congeners by the common carp ( Cyprinus carpio ). 5th Annual Workshop on Brominated Flame Retardants in the Environment, August 22–23, Boston, MA.

Stapleton, H.M., M. Alaee, R.J. Letcher and J.E. Baker. 2004a. Debromination of the flame retardant decabromodiphenyl ether by juvenile carp (Cypri nus carpio). Environ. Sci. Technol. 38: 112-119.

Stapleton, H.M., R.J. Letcher and J.E. Baker. 2004b. Debromination of polybrominated diphenyl ethers BDE 99 and BDE 183 in the intestinal tract of the common carp (Cyprinus carpio). Environ.

Sci. Technol. 38: 1054-1061.

Stapleton, H.M., R.J. Letcher, J. Li and J.E. Baker. 2004c. Dietary accumulation of polybrominated diphenyl ethers by juvenile carp (Cyprinus carpio). Environ Toxicol Chem. 23: 1939-1946.Screening Assessment Report — Environment

Environment Canada June 2006



### 27 Stenzel, J.I. and B.J. Markley. 1997. Pentabromodiphenyl oxide: Determination of the water solubility. Project No. 439C-109, Wildlife International, Ltd. [cited in European Communities 2001].

Stenzel, J.I. and W.B. Nixon. 1997. Pentabromodiphe nyl oxide: Determination of the of vapour pressure using a spinning rotor gauge. Report No: 439C-116, Wildlife International Ltd. [cited in European Communities 2001].

Stern, G.A. and M. Ikonomou. 2000. Temporal trends of polybrominated biphenyl ethers in SE Baffin beluga: increasing evidence of long range atmospheric transport. Organohalogen Compd. 47:

81–84.

Strandberg, B., N.G. Dodder, I. Basu and R.A. Hite s. 2001. Concentrations and spatial variations of polybrominated diphenyl ethers and other organoha logen compounds in Great Lakes air. Environ.

Sci. Technol. 35: 1078–1083.

Tittlemier, S.A., T. Halldorson, G.A. Stern a nd G.T. Tomy. 2002. Vapor pressures, aqueous solubilities and Henry’s law constants of some brominated flame retardants. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 21(9): 1804-1810.

United Kingdom. 2004. Update of the risk assessment of bis(pentabromophenyl) ether (decabromodiphenyl ether). CAS No.: 1163-19-5. EINECS No.: 214-604-9. Final environmental draft of May 2004. United Kingdom on behalf of the European Union.

United Kingdom. 2005. Addendum to the May 2004 environmental risk assessment report of decabromodiphenyl ether (CAS no. 1163-19-5). Draft for comment. August 2005. United Kingdom on behalf of the European Union.

U.S. EPA (United States Environmental Protec tion Agency). 2005. Polybrominated diphynylethers (PBDEs) Significant New Use Rule (SNUR) Questions and Answers. (www.epa.gov/oppt/pbde/qanda.htm).

Wakeford, B.J., M.J. Simon, J.E. Elliott and B.M. Braune. 2002. Analysis of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (BDEs) in wildlife tissues — Cana dian Wildlife Service contributions. Abstracts of the 4th Annual Workshop on Brominated Flame Retardants in the Environment, June 17–18, Canada Centre for Inland Waters, Burlington, Ontario.

Wania, F. and C.B.Dugani. 2003. Assessing the long-range transport potential of polybrominated diphenyl ethers: a comparison of four multimedia models. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 22(6): 1252 –

1261.

Watanabe I. and R. Tatsukawa. 1987. Formation of br ominated dibenzofurans from the photolysis of flame retardant decabromobiphenyl ether in hexane solution by UV and sunlight. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 39; 953-959.Screening Assessment Report — Environment

Environment Canada June 2006



### 28 Watanabe, I. and R. Tatsukawa. 1990. Anthropogenic brominated aromatics in the Japanese

environment. In : Proceedings of Workshop on Brominated Aromatic Flame Retardants, Skokloster, Sweden, 24-26 October, 1989. Swedish National Chem icals Inspectorate, KEMI, Solna, Sweden, 1990, p. 63-71.

WHO (World Health Organization). 1994. Brominat ed diphenyl ethers. Environmental Health Criteria 162, International Programme on Chemical Safety, WHO, Geneva.

Zhou, T., D.G. Ross, M.J. DeVito and K.M. Crofton. 2001. Effects of short-term in vivo exposure to polybrominated diphenyl ethers on thyroid hormones and hepatic enzyme activities in weanling rats.

Toxicol. Sci. 61: 76–82.

Zhou, T., M.M. Taylor, M.J. DeVito and K.M. Crofton. 2002. Developmental exposure to brominated diphenyl ethers results in thyr oid hormone disruption. Toxicol. Sci. 66: 105–116.Screening Assessment Report — EnvironmentEnvironment CanadaNovember 200529Table 7. Summary of toxicity studies used in the derivation of CTVs for the risk quotient analysis of PBDEsSpecies, lifestageComposition of testmaterialTestdurationTest concentrationsStudy designEffect levelReferenceDaphnia magna<24 hours old attest initiationPeBDE:33.7% tetraBDE54.6% pentaBDE11.7% hexaBDE21 daysNominal: 0, 1.9, 3.8, 7.5,15 and 30 μg/LMeasured: 0, 1.4, 2.6, 5.3,9.8 and 20 μg/L•flow-through using well water•20±1°C, pH 7.9–8.3, DO≥76%saturation, hardness 128–136 mg/L asCaCO3, alkalinity 174–176 mg/L asCaCO3, conductance 310–315μmhos/cm•40 animals per treatment•GLP, protocol based on OECD 202,TSCA Title 40 and ASTM E1193-87•21-day LOEC (mortality/immobility) = 20μg/L•21-day NOEC (mortality/immobility) = 9.8μg/L•96-hour EC50(mortality/immobility) = 17 μg/L•7- to 21-day EC50(mortality/immobility) = 14μg/L•21-day EC50(reproduction) = 14 μg/L•21-day LOEC (growth) = 9.8 μg/L•21-day NOEC (growth ) = 5.3 μg/L•LOEC (overall study) = 9.8 μg/L•NOEC (overall study) = 5.3 μg/LCMABFRIP 1998LumbriculusvariegatusadultPeBDE:0.23% triBDE36.02% tetraBDE55.10% pentaBDE8.58% hexaBDE(Great LakesChemicalCorporation 2000c)28 daysNominal: 0, 3.1, 6.3, 13,25 and 50 mg/kg dw ofsedimentAnalysis of testconcentrations at days 0, 7and 28 indicated they werewell maintainedthroughout the test.Results based on nominalconcentrations.•flow-through using filtered well water•23±2°C, pH 7.9–8.6, DO 6.0–8.2mg/L, hardness 130 mg/L as CaCO3•artificial sediment: pH 6.6, waterholding capacity 11%, mean organicmatter <2%, 83% sand, 11% clay, 6%silt•80 animals per treatment•GLP, protocol based on Phipps et al.(1993), ASTM E1706-95b and U.S.EPA OPPTS No. 850.1735•28-day LOEC (survival/reproduction) = 6.3mg/kg dw of sediment•28-day NOEC (survival/reproduction) = 3.1mg/kg dw of sediment•28-day EC50(survival/reproduction) > 50mg/kg dw of sediment•growth (dry weights) not significantlydifferent from solvent control and notconcentration-dependentGreat LakesChemicalCorporation 2000aZea mayscornPeBDE:0.23% triBDE36.02% tetraBDE55.10% pentaBDE8.58% hexaBDE(Great LakesChemicalCorporation 2000c)21 daysNominal: 0, 62.5, 125,250, 500 and 1000 mg/kgsoil dwor0, 50.0, 100, 200, 400 and800 mg/kg soil ww,assuming 20% soilmoisture contentAnalysis of testconcentrations indicatedthey were well maintainedthroughout the test.Results reported based onnominal concentrations.•artificial soil: 92% sand, 8% clay and0% silt, pH 7.5, organic matter content2.9%•watering with well water usingsubirrigation, 14:10 light:darkphotoperiod, 16.0–39.9°C, relativehumidity 19–85%•40 seeds per treatment•GLP, protocol based on U.S. EPAOPPTS Nos. 850.4100 and 850.4225and OECD 208 (based on 1998proposed revision)•no apparent treatment-related effects onseedling emergence•21-day LC25, LC50(seedling emergence) >1000 mg/kg soil dw•mean shoot height significantly reduced at250, 500 and 1000 mg/kg soil dw relative tocontrols•21-day EC25, EC50(mean shoot height) > 1000mg/kg soil dw•mean shoot weight significantly reduced at62.5, 125, 250, 500 and 1000 mg/kg soil dwrelative to controls•21-day EC25(mean shoot weight) = 154 mg/kgsoil dw•21-day EC50(mean shoot weight) > 1000mg/kg soil dw•21-day LOEC (mean shoot weight) = 62.5mg/kg soil dw•21-day EC05and (estimated) NOEC (meanshoot weight) = 16.0 mg/kg soil dwGreat LakesChemicalCorporation 2000bScreening Assessment Report — EnvironmentEnvironment CanadaNovember 200530Species, lifestageComposition of testmaterialTestdurationTest concentrationsStudy designEffect levelReferenceRatPeBDE(DE-71):45–58.1%pentaBDE24.6–35% tetraBDE(Sjodin 2000; Zhouet al. 2001)90 daysmaximumexposurewithrecoveryperiods of 6and 24weeksIn diet: 0, 2, 10 and 100mg/kg bw per day(doses adjusted weeklybased on mean bodyweight of animals)•30 male and 30 female SpragueDawley CD rats per treatment•decreased food consumption and body weight,increased cholesterol, increased liver and urineporphyrins at 100 mg/kg bw dose•increased absolute and relative liver weights at10 and 100 mg/kg bw, with return to normalranges after 24-week recovery period•compound-related microscopic changes tothyroid and liver at all dosage levels•microscopic thyroid changes reversible after24 weeks•microscopic liver changes still evident at alldosage levels after 24-week recovery period•liver cell degeneration and necrosis evident infemales at all dosage levels after 24-weekrecovery•LOAEL (liver cell damage) = 2 mg/kg bw•NOAEL could not be determined, as asignificant effect was observed at the lowestdose testedGreat LakesChemicalCorporation 1984Daphnia magna<24 hours old attest initiationOBDE:5.5% hexaBDE42.3% heptaBDE36.1% octaBDE13.9% nonaBDE2.1% decaBDE(EuropeanCommunities 2003)21 daysNominal: 0, 0.13, 0.25,0.5, 1.0 and 2.0 μg/LMeasured: 0, *, *, 0.54,0.83 and 1.7 μg/L* two lowestconcentrations could notbe measured•flow-through using filtered well water•20±1°C, pH 8.2–8.5, DO≥77%saturation, hardness 132–136 mg/L asCaCO3•20 animals per treatment•GLP, protocol based on OECD 202,ASTM E1193-87 and TSCA Title 40•21-day LOEC (survival, reproduction, growth)> 2.0 μg/L (nominal) or 1.7 μg/L (measured)•21-day NOEC (survival, reproduction, growth)≥2.0 μg/L (nominal) or 1.7 μg/L (measured)a•21-day EC50(survival, reproduction, growth) >2.0 μg/L (nominal) or 1.7 μg/L (measured)CMABFRIP1997dEisenia fetidaadult earthwormOBDE (DE-79):78.6% brominecontent56 daysNominal: 0, 94.0, 188,375, 750 and 1500 mg/kgdry soilMeasured: 0 , 84.9, 166,361, 698 and 1470 mg/kgdry soil•artificial soil: sandy loam, 69% sand,18% silt, 13% clay, 8.0% organicmatter (4.7% carbon), pH 6.0±0.5•17–21°C, 16:8 light:dark photoperiod,pH 5.9–6.8, soil moisture 22.0–33.5%•40 animals per treatment•GLP, protocol based on U.S. EPAOPPTS 850.6200, OECD 207 andproposed OECD (2000) guideline•28-day LOEC (mortality) > 1470 mg/kg drysoil•28-day NOEC (mortality)≥1470 mg/kg drysoila•28-day EC10, EC50(survival) > 1470 mg/kgdry soil•56-day LOEC (reproduction) > 1470 mg/kgdry soil•56-day NOEC (reproduction)≥1470 mg/kgdry soila•56-day EC10, EC50(reproduction) > 1470mg/kg dry soilGreat LakesChemicalCorporation 2001cLumbriculusvariegatusadultOBDE (DE-79):78.6% brominecontent.28 daysNominal: 0, 94, 188, 375,750 and 1500 mg/kg dwof sedimentMeasured: (i) 2% OC:<0.354, 76.7, *, *, 755 and1340 mg/kg dw sediment•80 animals per treatment•flow-through using filtered well water,hardness 128–132 mg/L as CaCO3•Two trials with different artificialsediments: (i) 6% silt, 9% clay, 85%sand, 2% TOC, water holding capacity9.3%, 23±2°C, pH 7.6–8.4, DO≥•28-day LOEC (survival/reproduction, growth)> 1340 (2% OC) or 1272 (5% OC) mg/kg dwof sediment•28-day NOEC (survival/reproduction, growth)≥1340 (2% OC) or 1272 (5% OC) mg/kg dwof sedimenta•28-day EC50(survival/reproduction, growth) >Great LakesChemicalCorporation2001a,bScreening Assessment Report — EnvironmentEnvironment CanadaNovember 200531Species, lifestageComposition of testmaterialTestdurationTest concentrationsStudy designEffect levelReference(ii) 5% OC:<12.5, 90.7, *, *, 742 and1272 mg/kg dw sediment* concentrations were notmeasured45% saturation (3.8 mg/L); (ii) 6%clay, 14% silt, 80% sand, 5% TOC,water holding capacity 13.9%, 23±2°C, pH 7.5–8.3, DO≥64% saturation(5.4 mg/L)•GLP, protocol based on Phipps et al.(1993), ASTM E1706-95b and U.S.EPA OPPTS 850.17351340 (2% OC) or 1272 (5% OC) mg/kg dw ofsedimentFor 2% TOC study:•average individual dry weights for treatmentsstatistically lower than in control; notconsidered treatment-related by authors, asaverage biomass in treatments comparable tocontrolRabbitOBDE(Saytex111):0.2% pentaBDE8.6% hexaBDE45.0% heptaBDE33.5% octaBDE11.2% nonaBDE1.4% decaBDE(Breslin et al. 1989)Days 7–19of gestationBy gavage: 0, 2.0, 5.0 and15 mg/kg bw per day•26 New Zealand White rabbits pertreatment•offspring examined on day 28 ofgestation•no evidence of teratogenicity•LOAEL (maternal, increased liver weight,decreased body weight gain) = 15 mg/kg bwper day•NOAEL (maternal) = 5.0 mg/kg bw per day•LOAEL (fetal, delayed ossification ofsternebrae) = 15 mg/kg bw per day•NOAEL (fetal) = 5.0 mg/kg bw per dayBreslin et al. 1989Eisenia fetidaadult earthwormDBDE:97.90% decaBDE28 and 56daysNominal soilconcentrations:0, 312, 650, 1260, 2500and 5000 mg/kg soil dwMean measuredconcentrations: <DL, 320,668, 1240, 2480 and 4910mg/kg dw•artificial sandy loam soil: 69% sand,18% silt, 13% clay, 8% TOM, 4.7%TOC, pH adjusted to 6.0±0.5, 60%moisture content, 26% water holdingcapacity•28-day LOEC (survival) > 4910 mg/kg drysoil (mean measured)•28-day NOEC (survival)≥4910 mg/kg drysoil (mean measured)a•28-day EC10, EC50(survival) > 4910 mg/kgdry soil (mean measured)•56-day LOEC (reproduction) > 4910 mg/kgdry soil (mean measured)•56-day NOEC (reproduction)≥4910 mg/kgdry soil (mean measured)a•56-day EC10, EC50(reproduction) > 4910mg/kg dry soil (mean measured)ACCBFRIP 2001cLumbriculusvariegatusadultDBDE:97.3% decaBDE2.7% other (notspecified)(composite fromthree manufacturers)28 daysNominal: 0, 313, 625,1250, 2500 and 5000mg/kg dw of sedimentMean measured: (i) 2.4%OC: <1.16, 291, *, *, 2360and 4536 mg/kg dw; (ii)5.9% OC: <DL, 258, *, *,2034 and 3841 mg/kg dw* 625 and 1250 mg/kgconcentrations were notmeasured•80 animals per treatment•flow-through using filtered well water,hardness 128–132 mg/L as CaCO3•two trials with different artificialsediments: (i) 6% silt, 9% clay, 85%sand, 2.4% TOC, water holdingcapacity 9.3%, 23±2°C, pH 7.7–8.6,DO≥36% saturation (3.1 mg/L); (ii)6% clay, 14% silt, 80% sand, 5.9%TOC, water holding capacity 13.9%,23±2°C, pH 7.7–8.6, DO≥56%saturation (4.8 mg/L)•gentle aeration from day 7 to test end•GLP, protocol based on Phipps et al.(1993), ASTM E1706-95b and U.S.•28-day NOEC (survival/reproduction, growth)≥4536 (2.4% OC) or 3841 (5.9% OC) mg/kgdw of sedimenta•28-day LOEC (survival/reproduction, growth)> 4536 (2.4% OC) or 3841 (5.9% OC) mg/kgdw of sediment•28-day EC50(survival/reproduction, growth) >4536 (2.4% OC) or 3841 (5.9% OC) mg/kgdw of sedimentACCBFRIP2001a,bScreening Assessment Report — EnvironmentEnvironment CanadaNovember 200532Species, lifestageComposition of testmaterialTestdurationTest concentrationsStudy designEffect levelReferenceEPA OPPTS 850.1735RatDBDE(Dow-FR300-BA):77.4% decaBDE21.8% nonaBDE0.8% octaBDE30 daysIn diet: 0, 0.01, 0.1 and1.0% (nominal ormeasured not specified)Dosage approximatelyequivalent to 0, 8, 80 and800 mg/kg bw per day•5 male Sprague Dawley rats pertreatment•LOAEL (enlarged liver, thyroid hyperplasia) =80 mg/kg bw per day•NOAEL = 8 mg/kg bw per dayNorris et al. 1974Abbreviations used: ASTM = American Society for Testing and Materials; DL = detection limit; DO = dissolved oxygen; EC50= median effective dose; EPA = Environmental Protection Agency; GLP =Good Laboratory Practice; LC50= median lethal dose; LOAEL = Lowest-Observed-Adverse-Effect Level; LOEC = Lowest-Observed-Effect Concentration; NOAEL = No-Observed-Adverse-EffectLevel; NOEC = No-Observed-Effect Concentration; OC = organic carbon; OECD = Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development; OPPTS = Office of Prevention, Pesticides and ToxicSubstances; TOC = total organic carbon; TOM = total organic matter; TSCA =Toxic Substances Control ActaStudy identified that the highest concentration (or dose) tested did not result in statistically significant results. Since the NOEC or NOAEL could be higher, the NOEC or NOAEL are described as beinggreater than or equal to the highest concentration (or dose) tested.Screening Assessment Report — EnvironmentEnvironment CanadaNovember 200533Table 8. Summary of data used in risk quotient (Q) analysis of PBDEsPelagic organismsBenthic organismsSoil organismsWildlife consumersCommercialproductEEVa(μg/L)CTVb(μg/L)AFcENEV(μg/L)Q(EEV/ENEV)EEVd(mg/kgdw)CTVe(mg/kgdw)AFcENEV(mg/kgdw)Q(EEV/ENEV)EEVf(mg/kgdw)CTVg(mg/kgdw)AFcENEV(mg/kgdw)Q(EEV/ENEV)EEVh(mg/kgww)CTVi(mg/kgww food)AFjENEV(mg/kgww food)Q(EEV/ENEV)PeBDE2 × 10-45.31000.0534 × 10-31.43.11000.03145.20.035–0.070161000.27m0.13–0.261.2508.410000.0084149OBDE2 × 10-41.71000.0170.013.0313401009.1l0.330.03–0.0614701006.3m0.005–0.010.32562.910000.065.4DBDENAkNANANANA3.19453610076l0.040.31–0.62491010021m0.02–0.030.0333610000.3360.09aStapleton and Baker (2001).bCMABFRIP (1997d, 1998).cAF (application factors): 10 applied forextrapolation from laboratory to field conditions, intraspecies and interspecies variations in sensitivity; 10 applied because components of PeBDE and OBDEare bioaccumulative and persistent.dPeBDE:Due to a lack of empirical data characterizing PeBDE sediment concentrations in Canada and due to uncertainty in concentrations throughout North America, data from Sweden were used as asurrogate for Canadian data. Concentrationsof PeBDE-related components (tetraBDE andpentaBDE) totalled 1.4 mg/kg dw in sediments from Sweden in a heavily industrialized area downstreamfrom a polymer processing site involved with the production of circuit boards (Sellström 1996). This value is used as the EEV.Although climate and local hydrologicalregimes may be different in thetwo countries, polymer processing facilities also exist in Canada. The European Union risk assessment of PeBDE also used this value to assess local risk from a polyurethane production site (EuropeanCommunities 2001).OBDE:PBDEs found in OBDE are very poorly characterized in North America.Therefore, measured OBDE concentrations from Europe were used as a surrogate for Canadian data. Concentrations ofOBDE up to 3.03 mg/kg dw have been reported for sediments in the UK downstream of a warehouse facility. This value is used as the EEV (Environment Agency 1997; European Communities 2002,2003).DBDE:There has been insufficient sampling conducted to properly characterize DBDE concentrations in sediments in North America. Concentrations of DBDE in UK sediments up to 3.19 mg/kg dwwere determined, with the highest concentration located near a foam manufacturer downstream of a wastewater treatment plant (Law et al. 1996; Allchin et al. 1999). As a surrogate for the Canadianenvironment, this value is taken as the EEV.eGreat Lakes Chemical Corporation (2000a, 2001a,b); ACCBFRIP (2001a,b).fDue to the lack of measured data, the EEVs were estimated for tilled agricultural soil and pastureland based on the equation(Bonnell Environmental Consulting 2001):EEVsoil= (Csludge× ARsludge× T) / (Dsoil× BDsoil)where:EEVsoil= EEV for soil (mg/kg);Csludge= concentration in sludge (mg/kg);ARsludge= application rate to soils (kg/m2per year, default value = 0.5);Dsoil= sludge is mixed in soil to a depth of0.2 m (depth of tillage) inagricultural soils and 0.1 m in pastureland (European Communities 1994);BDsoil= bulk density of soil (kg/m3, default value = 1700); andT = number of years sludge is applied to soils (assumed 10 years).This equation assumes the following:•no PBDE loss due to erosion;•no PBDE transformation (including transformation of highlybrominated PBDEs to tetra- to hexaBDE congeners);•no PBDE input from atmospheric deposition; and•no background PBDE accumulation in the soil.In order to calculate the EEVs for PeBDE, a concentration of 2.380 mg/kg dw (total tetraBDE, pentaBDE and hexaBDE) reported inbiosolids from a California wastewater treatment facility was used(La Guardia et al. 2001). The EEVs for OBDE were calculated using measured PBDE concentrations (total of hexaBDE, heptaBDE andoctaBDE) of 2.08 mg/kg dw in biosolids reported by LaGuardia et al. (2001). This biosolids sample was taken from aMassachusetts wastewater treatment facility. To calculate the EEVs for DBDE, a PBDE concentration of 21.22 mg/kg dw (total of nonaand decaBDE) in biosolids was used. This concentration was also reported for a Massachusetts wastewater treatment facility biosolid sample (La Guardia et al. 2001).gGreat Lakes Chemical Corporation (2000b, 2001c); ACCBFRIP (2001c).Screening Assessment Report — EnvironmentEnvironment CanadaNovember 200534hJohnson and Olson (2001); Allchin et al. (1999);Sellström et al. (2001); Lindberg et al. (2004).PeBDE:Johnson and Olson (2001) measured a total PBDE (i.e., BDEs47, 99, 100, 153 and 154) concentration of 1250 μg/kg ww in mountain whitefish from the Spokane River in an area receivingdrainage from urbanized areas. No sources other than those typically associated with urbanization (e.g., sewage discharge and urban runoff) are known to exist upstream of the sampling sites (Johnson,pers. comm. 2003). Although these data are from the United States, such a scenario could exist in Canada, and therefore, the concentration 1250 μg/kg ww in mountain whitefish is used as the EEV.OBDE:Due to very limited sampling for PBDEs found in OBDE in Canadianbiota, the concentration of OBDE of 325 μg/kg ww in dab from the River Tees, UK, was used as the EEV (Allchin et al.1999). Although this concentration was determined in liver tissues, it was assumed to equal the concentration of OBDE on a whole body basis.DBDE: There is also a similar lack of data characterizing PBDEs foundin DBDE in Canadian biota. DBDE was detected in 18 of 21 analyzed eggs of peregrine falcons (Falco peregrinus) fromSweden, at concentrations from 28 to 430 μg/kg lipid weight (lw) (Sellström et al. 2001; Lindberg et al. 2004). The value 430 μg/kg lw (or 0.43 mg/kg lw) will be usedas the EEV. Since the mean lipidcontent of these 21 eggs was 5.94% (de Wit 2003), the EEV is converted to 0.03 mg/kg ww.iStudies reporting dietary or oral exposure were used for the evaluation of secondary poisoning. The results of these studies are usually expressed as a concentration in food (mg/kg) or a dose (mg/kgbody weight [bw] per day) causing low or noobserved effects. For derivation of a CTVfoodand ENEVfood, the results were expressed as a concentration in food (in units mg/kg food), requiringinformation on the effect level (CTVtotal daily intake, mg/kg bw per day) in units of daily food intake (DFI, kg ww/day) and body weight (bw, kg ww) for the receptor species being considered.CTVfood= (CTVtotal daily intake× bw) / DFI. This equation assumes that all substance is exposedvia food, and that the substance is completely bioavailable for uptake by the organism. There are noavailable data characterizing the toxicityof PBDEs to wildlife species; therefore, data derived using rodents and rabbits wereused as surrogates. Interspecies scaling using data for a typical adult minkwas used to extrapolate to determine a food concentration protective of this species. This calculation involved the use of a typical adult body weight (i.e., 0.6 kg)and daily food ingestion rate (0.143 kgww/day) of a female American mink (Mustela vison) (CCME 1998). References for toxicity data used in the calculation of the CTVfoodinclude Great Lakes Chemical Corporation (1984), Breslin et al.(1989) and Norris et al. (1974). It is noted that Norris et al. (1974) used the product, Dow FR-300-BA, an older DBDE formulation which was composed of 77.4% decaBDE, 21.8% nonaBDE and0.8% octaBDE. This product is no longer produced and current formulations of DBDE are composed of a much higher proportion of decaBDE (e.g., usually > 97%). The value, 80 mg DBDE/kg bw/din food is nevertheless considered appropriate for use as a CTV for DBDE since the subject study is of acceptable quality and represents a conservative measured endpoint. Although this study used anolder DBDE formulation, its constituents represent homologue groups (predominantly nonaBDEs and decaBDE) subject to this assessment. This assessment is not limited to analyses of the commercialproducts, but rather PBDEs in the homologue groups with four to10 bromine atoms/molecule. Thus, this study is deemed appropriate for use in the quotient analysis, but it is noted that it reflects amixture with a greater proportion of nonaBDE (and a small fraction of octaBDE) than current DBDE formulations.jTo derive the ENEVs, the CTVs were divided by a factor of 10 to account for extrapolation from laboratory to field conditions,a factor of 10 to extrapolate from a rodent to a wildlife species and afurther factor of 10 since components of PeBDE and OBDE are bioaccumulative and persistent, and DBDE congeners are persistent and there is a weight of evidence indicating debromination tobioaccumulative PBDEs.kNot applicable. An ENEV was not derivedfor pelagic organisms and a risk quotient analysis was not conducted. Based on the available DBDE studies and the toxicity of other less brominated PBDEs,it was considered very unlikely that effects for DBDE will be observed in aquaticorganisms up to the substance’s water solubility limit.lAdjusted to 4% organic carbon.mAdjusted to 2% organic carbon.