OCS Study

MMS 2002-046

Boating Uses, Economic Significance,

and Information Inventory for

North Carolina’s Offshore Area,

“The Point”

Volume III: Data Inventory Related to the

Hatteras Middle Slope Area Bibliography

U.S. Department of the Interior

Minerals Management Service

Gulf of Mexico OCS Region
U.S. Department of the Interior

Minerals Management Service

Gulf of Mexico OCS Region

OCS Study

MMS 2002-046

Boating Uses, Economic Significance,

and Information Inventory for

North Carolina’s Offshore Area,

“The Point”

Volume III: Data Inventory Related to the

Hatteras Middle Slope Area Bibliography

Compilers

Steve W. Ross

Ernst F. Aschenbach III

Jacquie Ott

Prepared under MMS Contract

1435-01-98-CA-30949

by

North Carolina National Estuarine Research Reserve

North Carolina Division of Coastal Management

One Marvin Moss Lane

Wilmington, North Carolina 28409

Published by

New Orleans

August 2002
iii

Gulf of Mexico OCS Region 

DISCLAIMER 

This report was prepared under contract between the Minerals Management Service (MMS) and the North 

Carolina Division of Coastal Management. This report has been technically reviewed by the MMS, and it 

has been approved for publication. Approval does not signify that the contents necessarily reflect the 

views and policies of the MMS, nor does mention of trade names or commercial products constitute 

endorsement or recommendation for use. It is, however, exempt from review and compliance with the 

MMS editorial standards. 

REPORT AVAILABILITY 

Extra copies of this model and user guide may be obtained from the Public Information Office (Mail Stop 

5034) at the following address: 

U.S. Department of the Interior 

Minerals Management Service 

Public Information Unit (MS 5034) 

1201 Elmwood Park Boulevard 

New Orleans, Louisiana 70123-2394 

Telephone: (504) 736-2519 or 

1-800-200-GULF 

CITATION 

Suggested citation: 

Ross, S., E. F. Aschenbach III, and J. Ott. 2002. Boating Uses, Economic Significance, and Information 

Inventory for North Carolina’s Offshore Area, “The Point”; Volume III: Data Inventory Related to 

the Hatteras Middle Slope Area Bibliography. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management 

Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region, New Orleans, LA. OCS Study MMS 2002-046. 350 pp. 

ABOUT THE COVER 

Cover photo courtesy of Dr. William Lang, Minerals Management Service. 
v

TABLE OF CONTENTS 

Page 

List of Figures.............................................................................................................................................vii 

List of Tables ............................................................................................................................................... ix 

Abstract........................................................................................................................................................ xi 

Introduction................................................................................................................................................... 1 

Methods ...............................................................................................................................................2 

Study Area Definition.................................................................................................................2 

Data Acquisition .........................................................................................................................2 

Development of a Computer-Based Relational Database...........................................................2 

Geographic Locations for Study Sites and Database Used for GIS............................................5 

The Geographic Information System..........................................................................................7 

Recommendations................................................................................................................................7 

Acknowledgments ...............................................................................................................................8 

Fishery Chapter........................................................................................................................................... 11 

Invertebrate Chapter.................................................................................................................................... 85 

Marine Bird Chapter ................................................................................................................................. 127 

Marine Mammal Chapter.......................................................................................................................... 157 

Marine Reptile Chapter............................................................................................................................. 171 

Biological Oceanography Chapter............................................................................................................ 187 

Chemical Oceanography Chapter ............................................................................................................. 203 

Geological Oceanography Chapter ........................................................................................................... 223 

Physical Oceanography Chapter ............................................................................................................... 263 

Sargassum Chapter.................................................................................................................................... 305 

Socioeconomic Chapter ............................................................................................................................ 321 

Appendix — Citation and Chapter Cross Reference List ......................................................................... 331 
vii

LIST OF FIGURES 

Figure Page 

1. Hatteras Middle Slope Area................................................................................................................. 3 

2. Bibliography Project Area ................................................................................................................... 4 

3. Fisheries Citations (Study Sites)........................................................................................................ 74 

4. Fisheries Citations (Study Areas) ....................................................................................................... 75 

5. Digitized Fisheries Survey Data (1957-1994) .................................................................................... 78 

6. NCDMF Fisheries Surveys by R/V Dan Moore Trawls (1968-1981) ................................................ 80 

7. Trophic Linkeages Project Sample Stations ....................................................................................... 82 

8. Invertebrate Citations (Study Sites) .................................................................................................. 121 

9. Invertebrate Citations (Study Areas) ................................................................................................ 122 

10. Marine Bird Citations ....................................................................................................................... 152 

11. Marine Mammal Citations ................................................................................................................ 166 

12. Marine Reptile Citations................................................................................................................... 183 

13. Biological Oceanography Citations .................................................................................................. 198 

14. Chemical Oceanography Citations ................................................................................................... 219 

15. Geological Oceanography Citations (Study Sites)............................................................................ 256 

16. Geological Oceanography Citations (Study Area)............................................................................ 257 

17. SeaBeam Bathymetry Data............................................................................................................... 260 

18. Physical Oceanography Citations ..................................................................................................... 300 

19. Sargassum Citations.......................................................................................................................... 316 
ix

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

1. Metadata entered into ProCite for each citation........................................................................................ 6

2. General keywords used to group citations into report chapters. ............................................................... 6
xi

ABSTRACT 

The U.S. East Coast continental slope from Norfolk Canyon to Cape Lookout, North Carolina 

represents a dramatic transition between the Middle Atlantic Bight (MAB) province of major submarine 

canyons and the South Atlantic Bight province of the Blake Plateau. The central portion of this region, 

just north of Cape Hatteras, is unique hydrographically: 1) as the zone where the northward flowing Gulf 

Stream meets the southward flowing Virginia current, and 2) as the zone where the Gulf Stream crosses 

the underlying southward flowing Western Boundary Undercurrent. Recent investigations revealed that 

the Hatteras Slope (in the area of undetermined geographic extent) is characterized by anomalous 

biological and physical attributes, including extremely high densities of benthic infauna, unusual 

communities of benthic fishers and megafaunal invertebrates, a relatively high rate of particulate 

sedimentation, and sedimentary evidence for an exceptionally high flux of labile organic carbon to the 

bottom. A portion of this area has long been known as “The Point.” 

In addition to the unique physical and biological attributes of “The Point” region, portions of the area 

have been targets for potential hydrocarbon exploration, particularly in Minerals Management Services 

blocks 467 and 510 in the Manteo Unit. Such exploration has been considered problematic because of a 

lack of appropriate environmental data that would allow evaluation of potential exploration impacts. A 

number of workshops and meetings have occurred over the last decade and a special panel was appointed 

to review the state of knowledge needed to review the state of knowledge needed to evaluate impacts 

around “The Point” area. One very important discovery learned during this process is that “The Point” is a 

productive and important fishing area, with physical conditions that concentrate biota (birds, marine 

mammals, turtles, fishes) in a relatively small part of the ocean. Gradually various types of data have 

accumulated for “The Point” area, improving our understanding of many issues, but the studies were not 

coordinated. 

Although the quantity of data has increased for the Hatteras slope area around “The Point”, a 

complete catalogue of all past and ongoing studies was not previously available. The absence of a 

centralized data management tool has hindered attempts to discuss and evaluate the impacts of proposed 

hydrocarbon exploration. This project was funded to gather information on all past and current studies 

conducted in all scientific disciplines related to this area, generate an annotated, computerized 

bibliography of these studies and reference them to a Geographic Information System (GIS). The project 

study area was identified as a region 40 km north and south of the proposed Mobile Oil wildcat well with 

depth boundaries of 20-2000 m. We identified a total of 414 references to published, unpublished, and 

ongoing studies relevant to the study area. These references were annotated, entered into a ProCite digital 

database, and sorted into the following chapters: Fishery, Invertebrate, Marine Bird, Marine Mammal, 

Marine Reptile, Biological Oceanography, Chemical Oceanography, Geological Oceanography, Physical 

Oceanography, Sargassum, Socioeconomic. To the extent possible, the locations of data collection effors 

in these studies were determined and imported into the ArcView GIS system from which example maps 

were generated to geographically illustrate the bibliography. This task was not funded as a data synthesis 

nor an interactive digital product. However, we believe it is an important foundation for future 

Environmental Impact Statements or Environmental Assessment efforts in this area off of North Carolina. 

We hope that it will serve as a model for other such efforts. 
Introduction — 1 

INTRODUCTION 

The U.S. East Coast continental slope from Norfolk Canyon south to Cape Lookout, North Carolina 

represents a dramatic physiographic and sedimentological transition between the Middle Atlantic Bight 

(MAB) province of major submarine canyons and the South Atlantic Bight province of the Blake Plateau 

(BP) (Pratt and Heezen 1964; Uchupi and Emery 1967; Rowe and Menzies 1968; Rhoads 1993). The 

northern portion of the transition region, beginning just south of Norfolk Canyon, approximates 

physiographic, sedimentary and faunistic conditions characteristic of the overall MAB (Blake et al. 1987). 

The central portion of this region, just north of Cape Hatteras, is unique hydrographically: 1) as the zone 

where the northward flowing Gulf Stream meets the southward flowing Virginia current (Ford et al. 1952; 

Bumpus and Lauzier 1965; Heezen 1968; Norcross and Stanley 1967; Csanady and Hamilton 1988), and 

2) as the zone where the Gulf Stream crosses the underlying southward flowing Western Boundary 

Undercurrent (Barrett 1965; Heezen 1968; Richardson and Knauss 1971). 

Recent investigations revealed that the Hatteras slope (in an area of undetermined geographic extent) 

is characterized by anomalous biological and physical attributes. These include the highest densities of 

benthic infauna anywhere along the U.S. East Coast continental slope (Blake et al. 1987; Brown 1991; 

Schaff et al. 1992), unusual communities of benthic fishes and megafaunal invertebrates (Rowe 1971; 

Blake et al. 1987; Hecker 1993; Sulak and Ross 1996; S. Stancyk, pers. comm.), a particulate 

sedimentation rate much higher than that of adjacent regions (Schaff et al. 1992), and sedimentary 

evidence for an exceptionally high flux of labile organic carbon to the bottom (Schaff et al. 1992). 

Unusually high levels of suspended matter with atypically high percentages of combustible organic matter 

have been reported (Heezen 1968; Manheim et al. 1970) in overlying surface waters of the area. 

In addition to the unique physical and biological attributes of this region, the area has been a target for 

potential hydrocarbon exploration for over a decade, particularly in Minerals Management Service blocks 

467 and 510 in the Manteo Unit (Figures 1 and 2). Although no wells have been drilled and only two 

plans of exploration (POE) were filed (Chevron Oil in 1982 and Mobil Oil in 1990), this area remains of 

great interest to oil companies. Generally, these POEs (as well as other proposals) have been considered 

problematic because of a lack of appropriate environmental data needed to evaluate potential impacts. In 

fact, the concerns over potential biological effects to the area from hydrocarbon exploration and the lack 

of scientific data prompted many of the above cited (and other) recent studies. A number of workshops 

and information exchange meetings have occurred over the last decade and a special panel was appointed 

to review the state of knowledge needed to evaluate impacts around “The Point” area (Costlow et al. 

1992). Gradually various types of data have accumulated for “the Point” area, greatly improving our 

understanding of many issues, but the studies were not coordinated. One very important thing learned in 

this process of data accumulation is that “The Point” (see Currin and Ross 1999) is a productive and 

important fishing area, with physical conditions that concentrate biota (birds, marine mammals, turtles, 

fishes) in a relatively small part of the ocean. 

Although the quantity of data has increased for the Hatteras slope area around “The Point”, a 

complete catalogue of all past and ongoing studies was not previously available. The absence of a 

centralized data management tool has hindered attempts to discuss and evaluate the impacts of proposed 

hydrocarbon exploration. A centralized compilation of studies for this area was considered critical; 

therefore, a high priority, “short-term”, task to conduct a data or research inventory of the region 

surrounding “The Point” was identified in the February 1998 state-federal Information Transfer Meeting 

(Raleigh, NC, Vigil 1998). It was suggested that this effort be tied to a Geographic Information System 

(GIS). To fulfill this recommendation the US Dept. of the Interior Minerals Management Service funded 

this project. Our objectives were to gather information on all past and current studies conducted in all 

scientific disciplines related to an area surrounding “The Point”, generate an annotated, computerized 

bibliography of these studies and reference them to a Geographic Information System. While this task is 
2 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

not a data synthesis, it should be an important foundation of future Environmental Impact Statement or 

Environmental Assessment efforts. We hope that it will serve as a model for other such efforts. 

METHODS

Study Area Definition 

First, we defined boundaries for the data search area encompassing the proposed oil exploration sites 

or blocks and relevant biological and physical characteristics in the region known as “The Point.” We 

selected a study area surrounding the proposed Mobil oil exploratory well site in block 467 (35o

 29′ 23.6′′

N; 74o

 46′ 12.7′′ W) which was roughly a rectangle bordered east and west by the 20 m and 2000 m depth 

contours, respectively. The north and south borders extended 40 kilometers (21.6 nautical miles) in either 

direction from the proposed drill site (Figure 2). For many purposes any area delineated in the open ocean 

is a compromise between being too small or too large; however, we feel the area selected for this data 

inventory includes adequate information that can be related to impact and environmental assessment for 

“The Point” region. 

Data Acquisition 

Information and research (published, unpublished, and ongoing) within, overlapping, or directly 

related to the defined study area were identified using our in-house library resources, electronic literature 

searches, library literature searches, and interviews with researchers. All potential candidates for inclusion 

in the bibliography were reviewed for relevance to the study area, often by comparing reference location 

data to the study area base map. Unpublished and/or unanalyzed (e.g., R/V Dan Moore, National Marine 

Fisheries Service, etc.) data were the most difficult to locate and define. Most of these were included 

based on previous research and experience of the senior author (S.W. Ross). We attempted to acquire 

copies of all references included in the data base. We grouped the references or studies into major 

categories (see below) which became the individual bibliographic chapters for this report. 

Development of a Computer-Based Relational Database 

A keyword-searchable electronic database was constructed using bibliographic software (ProCite 

version 4.03). The ProCite database allowed for an electronic archive that could be searched in a variety 

of ways (e.g., by keywords, authors, dates). Metadata (descriptive components of the bibliographic entry) 

were entered into the ProCite database for each citation (Table 1). The abstract of each published or 

otherwise written report was duplicated in the database. For citations lacking an abstract (e.g., some 

reports, unpublished data or programs), we generated a descriptive abstract for the entry, noted by an 

asterisk (*) within the bibliography. 
Introduction — 3 

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Introduction — 5 

Two levels of keywords were developed and applied to each citation in the ProCite database. First, 

we classified each citation into one or more general groupings (Table 2) that became the report chapters. 

These general keywords defined the broad scientific disciplines represented by the studies and allowed 

the references to be sorted into chapters. While many of the keywords below can be considered biological 

oceanography, this particular keyword usually referred to biological topics not represented by the other 

keywords (e.g., plankton, productivity). A multidisciplinary citation was assigned multiple general 

keywords and thus may be cited in multiple report chapters (see Appendix I). Second (and in addition to 

the above general keywords), if keywords were provided by the publication, these were entered. If 

descriptive keywords were not provided, we assigned several descriptive words or phrases that 

characterized the work. Keywords were not printed in the following bibliography chapters. 

Geographic Locations for Study Sites and Database Used for GIS 

Georeferencing each citation (the general study area or all the stations in a citation) was the most time 

consuming task of the project. As the bibliography was developed, we created a spreadsheet database 

(using Microsoft Excel, Office 97 version) that summarized the major information for each citation. 

Initially this database included the author or principal investigator, reference title, date, and general 

keywords (Table 2). To this was added a variety of information needed to manipulate the data (e.g., 

information about the type of data, reference to figures, sorting information, and location data). The main 

purpose of this database was to create a computer framework for entry of the location data and subsequent 

GIS applications. Since it was a working tool and was also quite large, it was not reproduced in this 

report. 

Station or study area location data provided within citations varied in geographic resolution, from 

specific geographic coordinates to broad area coverages. Consequently, our first step was to determine a 

general location class for each citation, based on the available information. The location classes include: 

1) Mappable, 2) Focused on the Manteo Lease Blocks, 3) Covering the Hatteras Middle Slope Area, 4) 

Broad Regional Study, and 5) Based on a Fisheries Survey Database. 

For the citations assigned to location class 1, “Mappable”, three different methods were used to 

develop the location information required for GIS analysis. 

First, when explicit geographic coordinates (including depths) were presented for stations or study 

areas in a citation, these coordinates were entered into the Excel spreadsheet. These were the simplest 

data to process. 

Second, some citations described a study area as a range of geographic locations (e.g., from 35° to 

35.5° N and 74.8° to 75° W). Polygons for these study areas were constructed using ArcView GIS by 

assigning latitudes and longitudes to the four corners surrounding the locations. The study area was 

delineated by digitizing a polygon connecting the four corners. 

Third, some citations provided a hardcopy map of the study area, but not specific geographic 

coordinates. For these studies, a best approximation was created by digitally reproducing (drawing) the 

study area boundary on a detailed computer display of the bibliography base map. If only part of the 

citation’s study area entered our target area, we digitized just this portion. 

Location classes two through four include citations that are general in nature or provide verbal 

descriptions of the study area coverage, but no explicit geographic coordinates. Studies that are “Focused 

on the Manteo Lease Blocks” (class 2) present information directly related to the exploratory well site and 

surrounding lease blocks. Those in location class 3 are studies of the conditions specific to the Hatteras 

Middle Slope, but have a wider areal converge than those in class 2. Finally, citations that are broad in 

nature (e.g., related to the entire Atlantic Ocean) or present general discussions are included in location 

class 4 (Broad Regional Studies). 
6 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

Table 1. Metadata entered into ProCite for each citation. 

ProCite template information 

Author(s) 

Editor 1

Title of work 

Date of meeting 1

Publication date 

Publisher 1

Journal or Book Title 

Volume 1

Edition 1

Extent of work (number of pages) 

Note (Study site location, reference to a research cruise/s or another 

study) 

Abstract 

Keywords 

1

 if applicable 

Table 2. General keywords used to group citations into report chapters. 

One or more of these was associated with each citation. 

Fishery 

Invertebrate 

Marine birdbird 

Marine mammal 

Marine reptilereptile 

Biological Oceanography 

Chemical Oceanography 

Geological Oceanography 

Physical Oceanography 

Sargassum 

Socioeconomic 

Some citations used information from large fisheries survey databases and were assigned to location 

class 5. The data were collected during one or a series of research cruises conducted by agencies (e.g., 

National Marine Fisheries Service) often as long-term surveys and often for purposes different than those 

of the citation. These studies did not report the original station numbers nor the exact station locations and 

at best only presented a large scale map of stations sampled (e.g., Berrien and Sibunka 1999). From these 

citations we could only determine that sampling did or did not occur within the study area. In order to 

relate some geospatial framework to these citations, the original digitized cruise data were obtained from 

the parent agencies (when possible) and put in dBase files separate from the file derived from the 

bibliography (described above). Since it was impossible to determine from such references which stations 

were used, the locations of all sample stations within the study area for all time periods from these agency 

databases were plotted using their geographic coordinates (converted by us to decimal degrees). For 

example, many citations used the National Marine Fisheries Survey, Northeast Fisheries Center Woods 

Hole Laboratory survey database. We documented this database as a separate citation entry and plotted all 

the stations from this survey (up to a certain cut off date) within the study area. All other references that 

used all or a portion of this database were then referred to the whole group of potential stations plotted. 

While this has inherent inaccuracies for individual citations, it was the only practical way to tie such 

references to geographic locations. 
Introduction — 7 

The Geographic Information System 

The NC National Estuarine Research Reserve Geographic Information System (GIS) was used to 

facilitate screening of references and to generate maps of the georeferenced citations. We used the 

ArcView (version 3.1) GIS software. The initial step was to develop a digital base map of the area 

covered (see above) in this bibliography. Digital files were obtained for the shoreline, basic bathymetry 

(20 meter plus 250 meter depth contours), oil lease blocks, and the proposed exploratory well site related 

to the study area defined above (Figure 2). 

Geographic coordinates as available for each citation were entered into the Excel spreadsheet and 

converted to latitude and longitude in decimal degrees. The Excel file was then converted to dBase format 

(required by ArcView) and imported into ArcView as a table. Because a variety of information was 

furnished for each citation record, the citations could be sorted and displayed within ArcView in many 

different ways. For example, sample stations for the different projects may be plotted using unique map 

symbols or colors for each investigator or author. 

The GIS maps that resulted from the citations may have explicit point samples, general survey 

stations used by many citations, and polygons of various types. Many maps, especially those in the 

Fisheries section, could have multiple levels of complexity depending on how the data are sorted or 

displayed. Agency data, for example, could be plotted by cruise type, gear, individual project, individual 

cruise, and many other characteristics (e.g., Figures 5 and 6). Maps that depict the study areas and sites 

for the relevant citations are provided at the end of each bibliography chapter. The map keys include the 

symbols for the mapped studies, as well as a listing of the unmappable citations by general location class 

(i.e., “Focused on the Manteo Lease Blocks”). 

RECOMMENDATIONS

This report represents a compilation of the references to the data that have been collected in a small 

area bounding the Manteo Exploration units. However, the scope of the project did not allow taking full 

advantage of existing technology to give the data base maximum utility. Also, now that the references, 

their locations, and their data have been identified, some actual manipulations of the data are feasible 

(assuming the data themselves can be assembled in one place). The following recommendations for future 

work expand upon this project and would greatly improve our abilities to assess this ocean region around 

“The Point.” 

I. Expand/improve the location data base. Some station locations could not be determined from 

published material, and it was beyond the scope of this project to search out the original raw data. 

However, this is feasible, given sufficient time, and would greatly expand the project utility, 

especially the GIS component of the project. 

II. Repackage the project into an interactive, electronic product on CD-ROM. Since the 

bibliography is electronic (ProCite), as are the data (dbase and Excel) and the maps (ArcView), all of 

these could be tied together and used on computer. As various maps are viewed on screen the 

locations could be queried to deliver the literature sources and full citations. Data could be sorted in 

many ways and presented (and printed) as maps. The CD could include the appropriate software to 

allow it to be used as a stand alone product. 

III. Acquire data from the cited projects/studies and digitize them (if not already done). This is the 

most ambitious and time consuming recommendation and could complement numbers I and II 

(above). The data to obtain would include (but not be limited to) station specific species lists, 

environmental data, and overall catch summaries by station. A variety of GIS and biodiversity 

applications could then be developed for the project area. In this format this could serve as a real 

time, interactive Environmental Assessment tool. 
8 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This project was funded by a grant from the Minerals Management Service (New Orleans office, US 

Dept. of Interior), and we thank Dr. Ann Scarbourough-Bull, Greg Boland, and William Lang of MMS 

for facilitating our work. We thank the following for assistance in locating literature and/or helping with 

reviews: Dr. Thomas Bailey (Harbor Branch Oceanographic Inst.), Dr. Annette C. Broderick (Marine 

Turtle Research Group, Univ. of Wales, Swansea, UK), Michael Coyne (Marine Turtle News-Online), Dr. 

Karen L. Eckert, (Executive Director, Wider Caribbean Sea Turtle Network, San Diego, CA), Dr. B.J. 

Godley (Marine Turtle Research Group, Univ. of Wales, Swansea, UK), Johnny Lancaster (NC State 

Univ. and NCNERR), David Lee (NC State Museum of Natural Sciences), Angela Mast (Noticiero de 

Tortugas Marinas-Online), Dr. Charles Paull (Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Inst.), Andrew 

Shepherd, (NURC, UNC-W, Wilmington, NC), Dr. Stephen E. Stancyk (Univ. South Carolina, Columbia, 

SC), and Diane Walker (Public Services Librarian, Virginia Institute of Marine Science, Gloucester Point, 

VA). In addition, J. Lancaster assisted with the ProCite software. 
FISHERY CHAPTER 
Fishery Chapter — 11 

FISHERY CHAPTER 

Abernathy, S.A., M.T. Baer, C.S. Benner, M.S. Brody, D.K. Francois, J.K. Gilliam, L.K. Good, C.J. 

Ohara, and J.V. Martin. 1989. Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf: Description of the Mid-Atlantic 

Environment. Abernathy, S.A. (ed.). U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, 

Atlantic OCS Region, Environmental Assessment Section. Herndon, VA. 167 p. 

*This document discusses the major issues and areas of concern for the mid-Atlantic environment 

that are considered in the planning process for oil and gas leasing and operations on the Outer 

Continental Shelf. The issues are addressed with respect to the potential environmental consequences 

of mid-Atlantic oil and gas exploration, development and production. Sections discussing the 

Physical Environment (e.g., geology, non-petroleum minerals, physical oceanography, chemical 

oceanography and water quality, ocean dumping, meteorology, air quality), Biological Resources 

(e.g., plankton, benthos, fishery resources, marine reptiles, marine mammals, marine and coastal 

birds, estuaries, wetlands, sensitive coastal habitats, canyon areas), Socioeconomic Environment, and 

other issues (e.g., archaeological resources, marine vessel traffic, National Aeronautics and Space 

Administration/ Department of Defense activities, oil and gas infrastructure, marine sanctuaries, and 

estuarine research reserves) are included. Most figures showing fisheries resource distributions are 

from fisheries data compiled for bottom-trawl and shellfish surveys of the National Marine Fisheries 

Service, Northeast Fisheries Center, Woods Hole, MA. 

Able, K.W., and M.P. Fahay. 1998. The First Year in the Life of Estuarine Fishes in the Middle Atlantic 

Bight. Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, NJ. 342 p. 

*An unprecedented research effort has been directed at the early life-history stages of fishes during 

the last three decades. This period has seen the first two Larval Fish Conferences, a workshop on 

eggs, larvae, and juveniles in Atlantic coast estuaries, the CalCOFI ichthyoplankton program (1951-

1994), the Ahlstrom Symposium on ontogeny and systematics of fishes, several regional 

ichthyoplankton guides, and, in the Middle Atlantic Bight the R/V Dolphin 1965 -1966 

ichthyoplankton surveys followed by the MARMAP 1977-1987 surveys. These efforts have ranged 

from extensive surveys of oceanic waters to behavioral studies of juvenile fishes in estuaries. The 

incorporation of otolith studies to back-calculate aspects of the early life history and laboratory 

studies of factors influencing survival of these early stages have also increased steadily. Few efforts, 

however, have bridged the morphological, physiological, ecological, and behavioral transition 

between pelagic larva and settled juvenile. We therefore decided to focus on this transition within the 

estuarine fish fauna of the Middle Atlantic Bight, hoping in the process that our summaries might 

have applications to young-of-the-year fishes in other ecosystems as well. We felt confident we could 

accomplish this focused approach because we each had had experience in various aspects of’ early 

life-history studies, either in cooperative efforts with each other or with many of our colleagues. 

Able, K.W., M.P. Fahay, and G.R. Shepherd. 1995. Early life history of black sea bass, Centropristis 

striata, in the mid-Atlantic Bight and a New Jersey estuary. Fishery Bulletin 93: 429-445. 

This study focuses on composite field collections and in situ observations from the mid-Atlantic 

Bight continental shelf and a New Jersey estuary in order to elucidate aspects of the early life history 

of age 0+ black sea bass, Centropristis striata. Spawning in the mid-Atlantic Bight is prolonged 

(April through November, with a peak between June and September) and is most intense in the 

southern portion of this range. Between 1977 and 1987, larvae were collected between Cape Hatteras, 

North Carolina, and Long Island, New York. In New Jersey coastal waters larvae first appear in July 

but can occur into November. Recently settled individuals (15-24 mm total length [TL]) were 
12 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

collected at an inner continental shelf site and an adjacent estuary from July through October. By fall, 

fishes from these areas were 18-91 mm TL, and many had moved offshore from New Jersey estuarine 

waters and other estuaries to inner continental shelf waters between southern Massachusetts and Cape 

Hatteras. Subsequently, they continued to move offshore and during their first winter, they were 

concentrated near the shelf or slope break in the southern portion of the mid-Atlantic Bight. Some age 

0+ individuals moved back into New Jersey estuaries in early spring, at sizes approximating those of 

the previous fall (50-96 mm TL). Thus, black sea bass reach relatively small sizes after 12 months of 

growth partly because little or no growth occurs during their first winter. This year class reached sizes 

of 78-175 mm TL by midsummer and 134-225 mm TL by the following fall. 

During summer, benthic juveniles were collected or observed primarily in a variety of structured 

habitats. On the inner continental shelf they were found among accumulations of surfclam Spisula 

solidissima valves or among smaller pieces of shell, and occasionally in burrows in exposed clay. 

While in the estuary, they were collected from areas with a variety of structured habitats, such as shell 

accumulations in marsh creeks and peat banks. The data suggest that during their first summer, black 

sea bass have similar densities and growth rates in estuarine and inner continental shelf habitats, and 

thus both areas serve as nurseries. 

Able, K.W. and S.C. Kaiser. 1994. Synthesis of summer flounder habitat parameters. NOAA Coastal 

Ocean Program, Coastal Ocean Office, Decision Analysis Series No. 1. Silver Spring, MD. 68 p. + 

appendices. 

*(Modified from their Executive Summary) The summer flounder, Paralichthys dentatus, is 

overexploited and is currently at very low levels of abundance. This is reflected in the compressed 

age structure of the population and the low catches in both commercial and recreational fisheries. 

Declining habitat quantity and quality may be contributing to these declines, however we lack a 

thorough understanding of the role of habitats in the population dynamics of this species. Stock 

structure is unresolved and current interpretations, depending on the technique and study area, suggest 

that there may be two or three spawning populations. If so, these stocks may have differing habitat 

requirements. In response to this lack of knowledge, this document summarizes and synthesizes the 

available information on summer flounder habitat in all life history stages (eggs, larvae, juveniles and 

adults) and identifies areas where further research is needed. 

Several levels of investigation were conducted in order to produce this document. First, an extensive 

search for summer flounder habitat information was made, which included both the primary and gray 

literature as well as unanalyzed data. Second, state and federal fisheries biologists and resource 

managers in all states within the primary range of summer flounder (Massachusetts to Florida) were 

interviewed along with a number of fish ecologists and summer flounder experts from the academic 

and private sectors. Finally, information from all sources was analyzed and synthesized to form a 

coherent overview. 

A comprehensive bibliography on all aspects of the distribution, biology, and ecology of summer 

flounder is provided with both an author index and a subject index for easy reference. This 

bibliography also serves as the primary reference for literature cited in the text. Finally, a list of 

researchers who are considered experts on summer flounder and a list of potential user groups of this 

document are included. 

Able, K.W., R.E. Matheson, W.W. Morse, M.P. Fahay, and G. Shepherd. 1989. Patterns of Summer 

Flounder, Paralichthys dentatus, Early Life History in the Mid-Atlantic Bight and New Jersey 

Estuaries. Fishery Bulletin 88: 1-12. 
Fishery Chapter — 13 

The summer flounder Paralichthys dentatus spawned throughout the Mid-Atlantic Bight and Georges 

Bank during 1977-85. Spawning peaked in fall but extended from September through January. 

Planktonic larvae (2-13 mm) were most abundant in the Mid-Atlantic Bight September-May. At 

approximately 11-14 mm, some larvae entered New Jersey estuaries; but their occurrence, especially 

during winter and early spring, was sporadic. Young-of-the-year were more frequently collected after 

May. During the first summer inshore they grew rapidly and reached 160-320 mm TL. Young-of-theyear emigrated from the estuaries in fall and were most abundant on the shallow portions of the 

adjacent continental shelf. Some evidence suggests that young-of-the-year in the northern MidAtlantic Bight reach a larger size than those from the southern portion. An hypothesis to explain the 

observed rarity of small juveniles in northern estuaries in some years is that some juveniles utilize the 

continental shelf as a nursery and enter estuaries at a larger size. This hypothesis requires testing. 

Ahrenholz, D.W., W.R. Nelson, and S.P. Epperly. 1987. Population and Fishery Characteristics of 

Atlantic Menhaden, Brevoortia Tyrannus. Fishery Bulletin 85 (3): 569-600. 

A stock assessment analysis of the Atlantic menhaden, Brevoortia tyrannus, fishery was conducted 

with purse seine landings data from 1940 to 1981 and port sampling data from 1955 to 1981. Virtual 

population (cohort) analysis was used to estimate historical stock sizes, rates of fishing, and numbers 

of recruits. The population exploitation rate (age 1 and older) ranged from 0.29 to 0.51 and averaged 

about 0.38 for the 1955-79 period. Recruitment at age 0.5 during the 1955-79 period ranged from 1.5 

to 18.6 billion fish, with a mean of 5.1 billion. Classical spawner-recruitment relationships describe 

the data poorly. Growth and mortality data were used to examine yield per recruit for temporal and 

geographic fishing areas and for the entire fishery. Size at age data, while supporting an earlier 

hypothesis of density dependent growth, show a trend toward slower apparent growth in the 1970’s 

than is explained by this hypothesis alone. Yield per recruit of Atlantic menhaden dropped from 107 g 

for the 1970-72 period to 57 g for the 1976-78 period. A Graham-Schaefer production model estimate 

of maximum sustainable yield (MSY) for the 1955-79 period was 414,000 metric tons. A modified 

Pella-Tomlinson production model provided a MSY estimate of 557,000 metric tons. The latter 

estimate is probably unattainable given current temporal and geographic fishing patterns. Results of 

these analyses indicate that the Atlantic menhaden fishery suffers from growth overfishing. 

Almeida, F.P., T.R. Azarovitz, L. O’Brien, and E.W. Pritchard. 1984. The distribution of major finfish 

and shellfish species collected during NEFC Bottom trawl surveys, 1965-1978. Woods Hole 

Laboratory Reference Document No. 84-21. Northeast Fisheries Center, Woods Hole Laboratory. 

Woods Hole, MA. 101 p. 

*This report describes synoptic bottom trawl surveys of the offshore fishery resources of the 

Northwest Atlantic continental shelf have been conducted by the North east Fisheries Center since the 

autumn of 1963. These surveys provided the data for examining the temporal and spatial distribution 

of 46 finfish and shellfish species occurring on the shelf. 

Anderson, E.D. 1979. Assessment of the northwest Atlantic mackerel, Scomber scombrus, stock. NOAA 

Technical Report SSRF-732. 13 p. 

The status of the Atlantic mackerel, Scomber scombrus, stock in the International Commission for the 

Northwest Atlantic Fisheries (ICNAF) convention area is analyzed in this paper. Total catch declined 

from a high of 431,606 t in 1972 to an estimated 92,000 t in 1977. The U.S. spring bottom trawl 

survey has shown a continuous decrease in Atlantic mackerel abundance since 1968. Fishing 

mortality (F) in 1977 was estimated at 0.39, nearly one-half of the 1976 level and the lowest since 

1972. The 1974 year class appears to be the strongest since 1969, whereas the 1975 and 1976 year 

classes appear to be very weak. Spawning stock biomass decreased from 1.8 million t in 1970-72 to 
14 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

an estimated 402,500 t at the beginning of 1978, which is slightly below the 1962-67 level when 

catches averaged only about 25,000 t. A zero catch in 1978 would increase the 1979 spawning stock 

by 6%; a catch of 23,500 t (F = 0.07) would maintain the spawning stock at the 1978 level. 

Anderson, E.D. 1985. Analysis of Various Sources of Pelagic Shark Catches in the Northwest and 

Western Central Atlantic Ocean and Gulf of Mexico with Comments on Catches of Other Large 

Pelagics. pp. 1-14. In: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Shark Catches from 

Selected Fisheries Off The U.S. East Coast. NOAA Technical Report NMFS 31. National Oceanic 

and Atmospheric Administration, National Marine Fisheries Service Scientific Publications Office. 

Seattle, WA. 

Various sources of catch of pelagic sharks during 1960-81 in the Northwest and Western Central 

Atlantic Ocean and Gulf of Mexico, particularly within the United States Fishery Conservation Zone 

(FCZ), were identified and quantified. These sources included reported statistics, but principally 

unreported bycatch in fisheries directed towards other species. Total catch estimates during 1965-80 

averaged 9,800 t (metric tons) per year and peaked at 17,300 t in 1977 in the Atlantic FCZ and 

averaged 6,800 t per year and peaked at 10,200 t in 1980 in the Gulf FCZ. The major source of catch 

in the Atlantic FCZ was the U.S. recreational fishery, followed by the United States and Canadian 

swordfish longline fisheries and the Japanese tuna longline fisheries. The major sources of catch in 

the Gulf FCZ were the recreational fishery and the U.S. shrimp, groundfish, and snapper- grouper 

fisheries. A comparison between long-term average catches and recent levels in both areas suggests 

that pelagic sharks may be excessively exploited at the present time. 

Anderson, W.W. and J.W. Gehringer. 1959a. Physical oceanographic, biological, and chemical data, 

South Atlantic coast of the United States, M/V Theodore N. Gill cruise 7. US Department of the 

Interior, US Fish and Wildlife Service, Special Scientific Report — Fisheries No. 278. 277 p. 

*This report documents stations sampled throughout the South Atlantic Bight during June-July 1954. 

Weather, water chemistry, and sea state data were collected. Plankton samples were collected and fish 

were sampled by dip net and trolling. A few stations were near or within the southern border of our 

study area. 

—. 1959b. Physical oceanographic, biological, and chemical data, South Atlantic coast of the United 

States, M/V Theodore N. Gill cruise 8. US Department of the Interior, US Fish and Wildlife Service, 

Special Scientific Report — Fisheries No. 303. 227 p. 

*This report documents stations sampled throughout the South Atlantic Bight during August — 

September 1954. Weather, water chemistry, and sea state data were collected. Plankton samples were 

collected and fish were sampled by dip net and trolling. A few stations were near or within the 

southern border of our study area. 

Anderson, W.W., J.W. Gehringer, and E. Cohen. 1956. Physical oceanographic, biological, and chemical 

data, South Atlantic coast of the United States, Theodore N. Gill cruise 2. US Department of the 

Interior, US Fish and Wildlife Service, Special Scientific Report — Fisheries No. 198. 270 p. 

*This report documents stations sampled throughout the South Atlantic Bight during May 1953. 

Weather, water chemistry, and sea state data were collected. Plankton samples were collected and fish 

were sampled by dip net and trolling. A few stations were near or within the southern border of our 

study area. 

Azarovitz, T. Unpublished database. Groundfish Surveys 1967-1994. NOAA/NMFS, Northeast Fisheries 

Center. Woods Hole, MA. 
Fishery Chapter — 15 

*This is an unpublished fisheries database. Data were collected from 1967 to 1994 by the 

NOAA/NMFS, Northeast Fisheries Center. The Principal Investigator is listed as Tom Azarovitz. 

Select sample locations and related data were computerized as part of the North Carolina SEAMAP 

Hardbottom data project by Moser et al. (1995). SEAMAP Hardbottom data (sample locations) within 

the defined project area for The Point were sorted and mapped using ArcView GIS (J. Ott, pers. 

comm., 15 Nov 99). 

Bailey, T., M. Youngbluth, and G. Owen. 1991. Metabolic Rates of Zooplankton and Micronekton from 

Deep-water Pelagic Environments at Cape Hatteras. p. 5. In: Shepard, A. (ed.). NURC/UNCW 1991 

Undersea Research: Informational Meeting. National Undersea Research Center, University of North 

Carolina at Wilmington. Wilmington, NC. 

Our submersible-based observations in August 1990 indicated that “The Point” east of Cape Hatteras 

was a highly structured environment dominated by one species of myctophid fish and several species 

of crustaceans and gelatinous zooplankton. In fact, in our ca. 25 years of combined submersible 

experience, we have not encountered such high population densities of gelatinous zooplankton or 

myctophid fishes at any other location. These high standing stocks provide the unique opportunity to 

study major faunal components (i.e., fishes, crustaceans, and gelatinous zooplankton) of the midwater 

community, simultaneously. 

Our research plan for 1991 will determine the distribution, abundance, and metabolic rates of 

numerically dominant species of midwater zooplankton and micronekton. These data will allow us to 

define the energetic and trophic relationships of zooplankton and micronekton in deep-water 

communities. 

Barbieri, L.R., M.E. Chittenden Jr, and S.K. Lowerre-Barbieri. 1994. Maturity, spawning, and ovarian 

cycle of Atlantic croaker, Micropogonias undulatus, in the Chesapeake Bay and adjacent coastal 

waters. Fishery Bulletin 92: 671-685. 

The reproductive biology of Atlantic croaker, Micropogonias undulates, collected during 1990-91 

from commercial catches in Chesapeake Bay and in Virginia and North Carolina coastal waters 

(n=3,091), was studied by using macroscopic and microscopic gonad staging, the gonadosomatic 

index, oocyte diameter distributions, and histological analysis. Atlantic croaker are multiple spawners 

with asynchronous oocyte development and indeterminate fecundity. Mean length at first maturity for 

males and females was 182 and 173 mm TL, respectively. More than 85% of both sexes were mature 

by the end of their first year and all were mature by age 2. Spawning extends over a protracted period 

(July-December), but individual fish apparently spawn over a shorter interval. Eleven gravid and 

runningripe females were collected within the Chesapeake Bay suggesting some spawning occurs in 

estuarine waters. Monthly sex ratios indicated a strong predominance of females during the main 

period of spawning. A high incidence of atretic, advanced yolked oocytes in spawning females 

collected throughout the spawning season suggests that a surplus production of yolked oocytes may 

be part of the reproductive strategy of Atlantic croaker. 

Bedsole, L.H., Jr., B.F. Holland Jr., and J.W. Gillikin Jr. 1980. RV Dan Moore Cruise Report No. 38: Part 

I: December 1979 February 1980 Mesh Selectivity Study for Summer Flounder (Paralichthys 

dentatus); Part II: February — March 1980 Offshore Anadromous Fish Investigations from Cape 

Lookout to Chesapeake Bay Entrance. North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries, Department of 

Natural Resources and Community Development. Morehead City, NC. 

*During December 1979 February 1980, the RV Dan Moore conducted three cruises in the Atlantic 

Ocean between Cape Lookout, NC and Chesapeake Bay entrance, VA. The objectives of these cruises 

were: 1) To obtain mesh size selectivity data from North Carolina’s winter trawl fishery, with 
16 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

emphasis on mesh selectivity for summer flounder, 2) To examine the effect of gilling various 

species, particularly spiny dogfish, on the selectivity of the different mesh sizes tested, and to 

determine the optimum mesh size(s) to minimize the gilling effect, 3) To provide a basis for 

evaluating the effect on summer flounder landings which could result from a change in cod-end mesh 

size under actual fishing conditions. 

Berrien, P.L. 1978. Eggs and larvae of Scomber scombrus and Scomber japonicus in continental shelf 

waters between Massachusetts and Florida. Fishery Bulletin 76(1): 95-115. 

Larval Scomber scombrus and Scomber japonicus from the western North Atlantic Ocean are 

compared. At 4 to 11 mm S. japonicus are deeper bodied, and at 3 to 15 mm have greater preanus 

lengths than S. scombrus of comparable sizes. Scomber scombrus larvae are more heavily pigmented 

than S. japonicus, particularly on the dorsal trunk surface and at the cleithral sympysis. 

In continental shelf waters between Martha’s Vineyard, Mass., and Palm Beach, Fla., 1966-68, S. 

scombrus eggs occurred north of Cape Hatteras, N.C., mostly in the shoreward half of shelf waters, 

during spring and summer. Surface temperatures associated with egg occurrences varied from 6.3° to 

16.9° C. Scomber japonicus eggs were taken south of Cape Hatteras, in the outer half of shelf waters, 

during winter and spring cruises. Surface temperatures associated with egg occurrences ranged from 

20.4° to 25.4° C. 

Larval S. scombrus occurred north of Cape Hatteras during spring and summer with concurrent 

surface temperatures ranging from 12.3° to 20.7° C. With the exception of three specimens, S. 

japonicus larvae occurred south of Cape Hatteras and were taken where the surface temperature 

ranged from 16.0° to 29.4° C. 

Berrien, P.L., M.P. Fahay Jr., A.W. Kendall, and W.G. Smith. 1978. Ichthyoplankton from the RV 

Dolphin Survey of the Continental Shelf Waters Between Martha’s Vineyard, MA and Cape Lookout, 

NC, 1965-1966. National Marine Fisheries Service, Northeast Fisheries Center. Sandy Hook, NJ. 

152 p. 

*These are cruise data for: Ichthyoplankton from the R/V Dolphin Survey of the Continental Shelf 

Waters Between Martha’s Vineyard, MA and Cape Lookout, NC 1965-66. Digital files containing 

sample location data were entered directly into ArcView 3.1 GIS. 

Berrien, P., and J. Sibunka. 1999. Distribution Patterns of Fish Eggs in the U.S. Northeast Continental 

Shelf Ecosystem, 1977-1987. NOAA Technical Report NMFS 145. Northeast Fisheries Sciences 

Center, National Marine Fisheries Service. Highlands, NJ. 310 p. 

This atlas presents information on fish eggs and temperature data collected from broadscale 

ichthyoplankton surveys conducted off the U.S. northeast coast from 1977 to 1987. Distribution and 

abundance information is provided for 33 taxa in the form of graphs and contoured egg-density maps 

by month and survey. Comments are included on interannual and interseasonal trends in spawning 

intensity. Data on 14 additional but less numerous taxa are provided in a tabular form. 

Blair, N., L. Levin, and D. DeMaster. 1991. Biology and Carbon Cycling on the Carolina Slope. p. 9. 

Shepard, A. (ed.). NURC/UNCW 1991 Undersea Research: Informational Meeting. National 

Undersea Research Center, University of North Carolina at Wilmington. Wilmington, NC. 

Resources as diverse as fisheries, some minerals and fossil fuels, as well as the atmosphere and 

climate have been linked to the cycling of carbon and the associated biogenic nutrients along 

continental margins. The continental slope is an area which has been poorly studied even though it is 

the site of intense biogeochemical activity. An interdisciplinary program which focuses on the 
Fishery Chapter — 17 

biogeochemistry of the Carolina slope environment is currently underway to investigate the 

relationship of carbon cycling with the sediment-dwelling ecosystem. Three sites, all at 850 meters 

water depth, have been studied. Sites I and II, which are off Charleston, South Carolina, and Cape 

Lookout, North Carolina, respectively, are representative of typical slope environments in terms of 

animal populations, sediment geochemistry and sediment accumulation. Site III, which is off of Cape 

Hatteras and near “The Point,” has significantly higher populations of bottom-dwelling animals, 

different animal species and higher rates of organic matter degradation. Biogenic methane formation 

occurs at Site III but not at the other sites. These differences are thought to be related to the delivery 

rate of organic matter (food) to the seafloor. The convergence of boundary currents in this region may 

prove to be an important controlling factor by transporting organic matter into the area or by 

stimulating localized surface production via the delivery of nutrients. In contrast to the other sites, the 

sea floor at Site III is an area of high-relief and is more prone to episodic sedimentation and mass 

wasting. The combination of the high-relief bottom with the relatively large delivery rate of organic 

carbon to the seafloor may have resulted in a uniquely adapted ecosystem. 

Future directions in research include identifying the sources of the sedimentary organic matter and the 

relationship between the ocean physics and the carbon delivery rate. The rates of organic matter 

delivery, decomposition and burial need to be measured as they represent important controls on the 

benthic ecosystems. Specific relationships between the benthic communities, the carbon cycle and 

sediment dynamics are to be investigated. Descriptions of the cliff-face communities are needed as 

they represent an important component of the overall ecosystems at Site III. 

Boreman, J. 1983. Status of bluefish along the Atlantic coast, 1982. Laboratory Reference Document No. 

83-28. National Marine Fisheries Service, Northeast Fisheries Center, Woods Hole Lab. Woods Hole, 

MA. 

(Modified from the Executive Summary) Spawning of bluefish occurs ln two major areas along the 

Atlantic coast: south of Cape Hatteras and in the Middle Atlantic Bight. Juveniles move inshore to 

bays and estuaries from Florida to Cape Cod. Most bluefish are mature by age 2, and the sex ratio 

remains 1:1 (males:females) úor all age groups. Growth is rapid, especially during the first growing 

season. 

Existing regulations on bluefish catch focus on minimum size limits imposed by many states along 

the Atlantic coast, and limits on foreign catch in the FCZ. A bluefish fishery management plan 

currently being prepared by the Mid-Atlantic Fishery Management Council proposes unrestricted 

harvest for US recreational anglers, an allowance for limited expansion of the conventional 

commercial fishery, and restrictions on the use of “non-conventional commercial gear (e.g., purse 

seines and otter trawls). 

NEFC inshore and offshore trawl surveys have also had increasing catch rates of bluefish during the 

1970’s. Most of the bluefish caught in the inshore surveys have been less than 30 cm (12 in) in length 

(presumed age 0). The offshore survey catches have included equal numbers of fish less than and fish 

greater than 30 cm (12 in). Older bluefish (> 55 cm or 21.7 in) appear to be more vulnerable to 

capture in the offshore surveys than younger age groups, probably because of their distribution habits. 

Catch per tow of bluefish in the fall inshore survey north of Cape May appears to be an adequate 

index of recruitment, since it is correlated with commercial and recreational harvests 2-4 years later. 

This index shows that recruitment has been relatively high in recent years and projections for 

commercial and recreational harvest in 1983 and 1984 are favorable. 

Brown, S.K., R. Mahon, K.G.T. Zwanenburg, K.R. Buja, L.W. Claflin, R.N. O’Boyle, B. Atkinson, M. 

Sinclair, G. Howell, and M.E. Monaco. 1996. East Coast of North America groundfish: Initial 
18 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

explorations of biogeography and species assemblages. National Oceanic and Atmospheric 

Administration. Silver Spring, MD. 111 p. 

This report contains the initial analysis of research demersal trawl survey data for the east coast of 

North America from Cape Hatteras, North Carolina, USA in the south, to Cape Chidley, Labrador, 

Canada in the north, using individual trawl sets. The analyses were conducted as part of the process of 

defining and mapping demersal fish assemblages. The underlying goal is to describe and map species 

assemblages, and to evaluate evidence for ecological regime and assemblage distribution shifts on a 

decadal time scale. A related goal is to evaluate the extent to which the Atlantic cod decline along the 

east coast of North America can be explained by changes in the environment, as evidenced by 

changes in the ecosystem (Doubleday 1995). Because work is continuing on the project, 

recommendations are provided for future analyses, and implications of the results to data for fishery 

management are briefly discussed. 

Bullis, H.R., Jr., and R.C. Cummins Jr. 1974. North Carolina Summary Atlas of Exploratory Fishing by 

National Marine Fisheries Service, 1956-1974. MARMAP Contribution Number 6. National Marine 

Fisheries Service, Southeast Fisheries Center. Miami, FL. 

*This atlas has been prepared for the NC Marine Fisheries Resources Conference to be held 

September 18-19, 1974, at New Bern, NC. The first Federal exploratory fishing survey of North 

Carolina waters was conducted in 1950 by the RV Albatross III and the results of this cruise were 

given by Donald Powell (1951). However, it was not until 1956 that a formal program was 

established for exploring the latent fishery potential of the Southeastern Atlantic coast of the United 

States. This program, initially based in Jacksonville, Florida, was conducted with chartered 

commercial fishing vessels. A permanent station was established in Brunswick, Georgia, in 1959, and 

was affiliated with the Service’s Exploratory fishing Base at Pascagoula, MI. Exploratory fishing 

cruises were planned and coordinated with the Pascagoula-based operations and all exploratory 

fishing information that accrued from this work was routinely added to the database maintained at 

Pascagoula. This report summarizes these data for the activities conducted off North Carolina during 

the period of 1956 to the present (1974). 

Butler, J.N., B.F. Morris, J. Cadwallader, and A.W. Stoner. 1983. Studies of Sargassum and the 

Sargassum Community. Special Publication No. 22. Bermuda Biological Station for Research. 

*Chapter 1, The Quantity of Sargassum in the Sargasso Sea, and Chapter 2, The Sargassum 

Community, include the defined study area for The Point. 

The quantity and distribution of Sargassum in the Sargasso Sea, as estimated by various investigators, 

is reviewed. There has apparently been no significant change in the biomass of Sargassum from 1933 

to 1981, except for an area northeast of the Antilles (20-25° N, 62-68° W) where measurements made 

in November 1977 and November 1980 were about 0.1% of values measured in February and March 

1933. Because of the lack of change in the Bermuda region, the Bahamas region, or the Gulf Stream 

region, this effect does not appear to be due to pollution or broad climatic changes; it is most likely 

due to a seasonal or long-term shift of the currents defining the southwestern boundary of the 

Sargasso Sea. 

Motile macrofauna on Sargassum were identified and counted for 244 samples taken at Station ‘S’ 

near Bermuda, and for 155 samples taken from other parts of the western North Atlantic and 

Caribbean. The nature of this community and its seasonal variations are discussed. Preliminary 

studies of the food web, as well as of the microfauna (copepods) and sessile fauna are reported. 

Although petroleum hydrocarbon residues are found in all samples of Sargassum and its larger 
Fishery Chapter — 19 

associated fauna, the variability of individual samples is so extreme that no correlation of community 

structure with hydrocarbon pollution could be demonstrated. 

Checkley, D.M., Jr., S. Raman, L. Maillet, and K.M. Mason. 1988. Winter Storm Effects on the 

Spawning and Larval Drift of a Pelagic Fish. Nature 335 (6188): 346-348. 

Recruitment for many marine organisms depends on survival and transport of eggs and larvae from 

spawning grounds to nursery areas. We investigated the effects of winter storms and the Gulf Stream 

on the spawning, development and drift of the Atlantic menhaden, Brevoortia tyrannus, which 

spawns offshore and metamorphoses in estuaries. Spawning was maximal during storms in water 

upwelled near the western edge of the Gulf Stream. Eggs and larvae drifted shoreward with abundant 

food in the warm surface stratum of a density-driven circulation maintained by the large sea-air heat 

flux. We suggest that the Atlantic menhaden and other species have evolved to reproduce in winter 

near warm boundary currents, including the Gulf Stream and Kuroshio, as a result of physical 

conditions that permit the rapid development and shoreward drift of their eggs and larvae, with 

consequent high recruitment and fitness. 

—. 1989. Winter Storm Effects on the Spawning and Larval Drift of a Pelagic Fish. pp. 45-46. In: 

Crawford, K. (ed.). Proceedings: 1989 Marine Expo: The Natural Resources Associated with Mobil’s 

Proposed Drill Site. NC Outer Continental Shelf Office, NC Department of Administration. Raleigh, 

NC. 

Recruitment for many marine organisms depends on survival and transport of eggs and larvae from 

spawning grounds to nursery areas. We investigated the effects of winter storms and the Gulf Stream 

on the spawning, development and drift of the Atlantic menhaden, Brevoortia tyrannus, which 

spawns offshore and metamorphoses in estuaries. Spawning was maximal during storms in water 

upwelled near the western edge of the Gulf Stream. Eggs and larvae drifted shoreward with abundant 

food in the warm surface stratum of a density-driven circulation maintained by the large sea-air heat 

flux. We suggest that the Atlantic menhaden and other species have evolved to reproduce in winter 

near warm boundary currents, including the Gulf Stream and Kuroshio, as a result of physical 

conditions that permit the rapid development and shoreward drift of their eggs and larvae, with 

consequent high recruitment and fitness. 

Clark, J., W.G. Smith, A.W. Kendall Jr, and M.P. Fahay. 1969. Studies of Estuarine Dependance of 

Atlantic coastal fishes. US Fish and Wildlife Service, Technical Papers of the Bureau of Sport 

Fisheries and Wildlife 28. 132 p. 

*This is Data Report I covering surveys (eight cruises: Dec 1965-Dec 1966) from Cape Cod, MA to 

Cape Lookout, NC by the R/V Dolphin. These cruises were directed toward larval fishes. 

Temperatures, salinities, and lists of catches from plankton and midwater nets are reported in tables 

and maps. Station transects L and M overlap our study area. 

Colvocoresses, J.A., and J.A. Musick. 1984. Species associations and community composition of middle 

Atlantic bight continental shelf demersal fishes. Fishery Bulletin 82 (2): 295-313. 

Cluster analyses of seasonal NMFS Groundfish Survey bottom trawl catches on the Middle Atlantic 

Bight continental shelf revealed consistent species associations and faunal zones over a 9-year period. 

Boundaries between faunal zones tended to follow isotherms and isobaths. During the late winterearly spring, the following zones were found: Northern inner shelf, northern mid-shelf, southern 

inner- and mid-shelf, and outer shelf-shelf break. Five species groups were identified: A small 

cryophilic group restricted to the first zone, a cold-water boreal group found in the first two zones, a 

ubiquitous boreal/resident group containing the major dominants, a warm-temperature group confined 
20 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

to the warmer southern and outer shelf waters, and a group of slope residents confined to the deepest 

zone. During the fall, five faunal zones were found: Southern inner/mid-shelf, northern inner shelf, 

northern mid-shelf, outer shelf, and shelf break. Five species associations were largely analogous to 

those in the spring, with the following exceptions: The cryophilic group was absent, the ubiquitous 

group contained mixed boreal and warm-temperature elements, and a second outer shelf group was 

recognized. The most notable change in the distribution of groups from the spring was a general 

northward shift and a sharply defined inshore movement of the temperate group. 

Continental Shelf Associates, Inc. 1983. North Carolina Fisheries and Environmental Data Search and 

Synthesis Study: Final Report. Continental Shelf Associates, Inc. Jupiter, FL. 

Available information on the living marine resources and habitats of the North Carolina OCS, from 

shore to a depth of 200 m (656 ft), was collected, annotated, and synthesized. Over 1,450 published 

and unpublished data sources were reviewed. Written synthesis chapters summarized the geology, 

oceanography, biological communities, commercial and sport fisheries, endangered and threatened 

species, and sensitive biological areas and unique habitats. Data gaps were identified, implications to 

OCS development were discussed, and suggestions for additional research were provided. In addition, 

a computer program was designed to catalog and sort all of the pertinent annotated information 

sources. The purpose of this computer program is to provide the MMS with a useful and viable 

method of maintaining, updating, and expanding the data base. 

The North Carolina OCS is a transition zone between the South and Middle Atlantic Bight. The 

climate, proximity and behavior of the Gulf Stream, and the presence of cuspate projecting shoals and 

capes influence unique oceanographic and biological features. Extensive hard/live bottom areas are 

present within Onslow Bay and along the North Carolina continental shelf edge. Upwelling along the 

North Carolina continental shelf edge and the intrusion of nutrient rich eddies into middle- and innershelf waters occur frequently along this coast. The upwelling-eddy, formation-intrusion phenomenon 

is not well understood and its ecological implications are just beginning to be studied. The present 

lack of knowledge in this area makes risk assessment for OCS development activities difficult. 

Additional studies of the coupling of physical and biological processes along the North Carolina 

continental shelf are needed in order to formulate effective OCS management policies for that area. 

—. 1989. CSA Live Bottom Survey. Continental Shelf Associates, Inc. Jupiter, FL. 45 p. 

This report describes the results of a Live-Bottom Survey (LBS) conducted from 9 to 24 July 1989. 

The purpose of this video/still camera photodocumentation survey was to document the topographical 

features, substrate types, and associated biota at the sites around the proposed well location and 

proposed anchor locations. As shown in Figure 1.2, the survey area extends into Manteo Area Blocks 

466, 510, and 511. Proposed anchor locations were chosen to be placed in relatively low-relief areas 

based on bathymetric and high-resolution geophysical data. Water depths within the sites surveyed 

ranged from 305 to 1,355 m (1,001 to 4,446 ft). Due to the water depth and the highly irregular 

topography within the survey area, a state-of-the-art deepwater remotely operated vehicle (ROV) was 

needed to obtain the survey data. Other less sophisticated options, such as towed video/still camera 

systems or lesser ROV systems, would not have performed satisfactorily. 

—. 1991. Ichthyoplankton in the Vicinity of Manteo Area Block 467 from June to November 1990. 

Continental Shelf Associates, Inc. Jupiter, FL. 

*Ichthyoplankton survey of Manteo Area block 467 of the Mid-Atlantic Bight, off the North Carolina 

coast. Five cruises aboard FV Brothers Pride, from June-November 1990. Ichthyoplankton 

assemblage at the proposed wellsite was similar to assemblages at most other sampling sites in terms 

of overall taxonomic composition and abundance of taxa. Results indicated the assemblages at the 
Fishery Chapter — 21 

wellsite were not unique. The ichthyoplankton assemblages observed at the proposed wellsite and 

adjacent waters were more similar to assemblages previously described from larval fish surveys in the 

eastern Gulf of Mexico and South Atlantic Bight than those described from collections in the MidAtlantic Bight. 

Costlow, J., K. Brink, M. Orbach, C. Peterson, J. Teal, and A. Robertson. 1992. North Carolina 

Environmental Sciences Review Panel. Report to the Secretary of the Interior from the North 

Carolina Environmental Sciences Review Panel as mandated by the Oil Pollution Act of 1990. 83 p.

The Oil Pollution Act of 1990, in a section cited as the Outer Banks Protection Act, prohibits the 

Secretary of the Interior from proceeding with a number of actions relative to development of oil and 

gas resources offshore North Carolina for which he is responsible under the Outer Continental Shelf 

Lands Act (OCLSA). Actions prohibited include: (1) conducting a lease sale; (2) issuing any new 

lease; (3) approving any exploration plan; (4) approving any development and production plan; (5) 

approving any application for permit to drill; and (6) permitting any drilling. The prohibition on these 

actions is mandated to remain in effect until the latter of: (1) October 1, 1991 or (2) 45 days of 

contiguous session of the Congress following the submission of a written report from the Secretary 

certifying that the information available to him is sufficient to carry out his responsibilities under the 

OCSLA. 

In his report, the Secretary is required to take into consideration findings and recommendations of a 

panel established by the Outer Banks Protection Act, the North Carolina Environmental Sciences 

Review Panel, and to include a detailed explanation of any differences between his certification if 

sufficient information and the findings and recommendations of this group. The panel is charged by 

the Act with: (1) assessing the adequacy of the available physical oceanographic, ecological, and 

socioeconomic information to enable the Secretary to fulfill his responsibilities under the OCSLA and 

(2) identifying any additional information deemed essential to enable the Secretary to carry out these 

responsibilities. The Panel’s response to this charge is the subject of this document. 

As provided in the Outer Banks Protection Act, the North Carolina Environmental Sciences Review 

Panel is composed of five members, a marine scientist selected by the Secretary of the Interior, a 

marine scientist selected by the Governor of North Carolina, and three scientists, one each from the 

disciplines of physical oceanography, ecology, and social sciences, selected jointly by the Secretary 

and the Governor from a list developed by the National Academy of Sciences. Unless specifically 

indicated in the text, the conclusions and recommendations presented in the report represent the 

unanimous decision of the Panel members. A summary of findings including Physical Oceanography, 

Ecology, Socioeconomics, Sources of Information, Adequacy of Information, and Panel’s 

Recommended Studies is included. Appendix A: Literature Review, and Appendix B: Factors 

Influencing the Definition if Adequacy of Information are also included. 

Coston-Clements, L., L.R. Settle, D.E. Hoss, and F.A. Cross. 1991. Utilization of the Sargassum Habitat 

by Marine Invertebrates and Vertebrates — A Review. National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA, 

Southeast Fisheries Science Center, Beaufort Lab. Beaufort, NC. 32 p. 

Numerous species of brown algae (Class Cyclosporeae: Order Fucales: Family Fucaceae) of the 

genus Sargassum occur throughout the world’s tropical and temperate oceans. The pelagic complex 

in the western North Atlantic is comprised primarily of Sargassum natans and S. fluitans. Both 

species are hyponeustonic and fully adapted to a pelagic existence (Parr, 1939). Known commonly as 

gulf-weed, sea holly, or sargassum, they are characterized by a brushy, highly branched thallus (stem) 

with numerous leaf-like blades and berry-like pneumatocysts (floats). These floating plants may be up 

to several meters in length-but are typically much smaller. There is a well known assemblage of small 

fishes associated with sargassum rafts, many of which serve as forage for commercially or 
22 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

recreationally exploited species (Table 2). Dooley (1972) described 54 species from 23 families in the 

sargassum community of the Florida Current. Only 14 species from 11 families are known from the 

Sargasso Sea (Fedoryako, 1980; 1989). During the pelagic stage, hatchling loggerhead, Caretta 

caretta, green, Chelonia mydas, Kemp’s ridley, Lepidochelys kempi, and hawksbill, Eretmochelys 

imbricata, sea turtles have been observed in sargassum off Florida, Georgia, North Carolina, and 

Texas (Smith, 1968; Fletemeyer, 1978; Carr and Meylan, 1980; Carr, 1986; 1987a; Schwartz, 1988; 

1989; Manzella and Williams, 1991; Schwartz, pers. comm.). Schwartz (1988) reported numerous 

loggerhead hatchlings captured during commercial trawling for sargassum. This observation 

constitutes the largest known aggregation of loggerhead hatchlings encountered off the North 

Carolina coast. 

Crawford, K. (ed.). 1989. Proceedings: 1989 Marine Expo: The Natural Resources Associated with 

Mobil’s Proposed Drill Site. NC Outer Continental Shelf Office, NC Department of Administration. 

Raleigh, NC. 64 p. 

*This report contains abstracts from each presenter. Chapter topics include: Mobil’s Proposal, 

Geologic Overview — Introduction and Potential for Oil and Gas Discovery, Oceanographic 

Conditions, Comments on Last MMS Modeling, Biological Production Near the Bottom 

(invertebrates), Fisheries Resources, Commercial and Recreational Marine Fisheries, Winter Storm 

Effects on Spawning and Larval Drift of Pelagic Fish, Marine Birds, Sea Turtles in North Carolina, 

Marine Mammals, Plenary Session, Summary. Each chapter also cited individually when appropriate. 

Currin, M., and S.W. Ross. 1999. Characterization of Recreational and Commercial Fisheries at “The 

Point” — Offshore North Carolina. Contractor’s Report to NC Division of Coastal Management. 

Prepared under MMS Contract 1435-01-98-CA-30949 to Mac Currin. 24 p. 

*This report describes the commercial and recreational fishery at “The Point.” The report attempts to 

draw geographic boundaries around “The Point” based on fishery data gathered from a survey. 

Desfosse, J.C., J.A. Musick, A.D. Estes, and P. Lyons. 1990. Stock identification of summer flounder 

(Paralichthys dentatus) in the southern Mid-Atlantic Bight. Virginia Inst. of Marine Science, Final 

Report to Virginia Marine Resources Commission (F-61-R, WB-86-01-04). Gloucester Point, VA. 55 

p. 

A total of 12,339 summer flounder were tagged from Virginia waters during 1987-89. A total of 874 

were recaptured for an overall return rate of 7.1%. Most of the returns (48.5%) were from Virginia 

waters, or areas to the south. A smaller number (21.6%) were from areas north and offshore of 

Virginia. Another 29.9% were recaptured and returned with inadequate location data. Examining only 

the returns with adequate location data, yielded a separation of 69.2% and 30.8% between the groups. 

No differences were noted in the sizes at tagging between these groups. Tagged flounder held at 

VIMS exhibited no behavioral differences from untagged fish. No differences in growth and mortality 

were noted in these fish. The sex ratio of males to females was 1:1.16. Male summer flounder reached 

50% maturity at approximately 280 mm, while females reached 50% maturity at about 330 mm. A 

total of 1040 flounder were successfully aged. The population was dominated by young fish (0-2 

years old). The compression of age structure is indicative of a population being heavily overfished. 

Diaz, R.J., J.A. Blake, and D.P. Lohse. 1993a. Volume II Final Report: Benthic Study of the Continental 

Slope off Cape Hatteras, North Carolina. Virginia Inst. of Marine Science, School of Marine Science, 

College of William and Mary, Gloucester Pt., VA. Science Applications International Corporation, 

Woods Hole, MA. 135 p. 
Fishery Chapter — 23 

*This is a study of the nature and spatial extent of continental slope benthic communities off Cape 

Hatteras, NC, with emphasis on the Manteo Area lease block 467. Macrofaunal abundance and 

biomass in this area is higher than anywhere else along the entire South Atlantic continental slope and 

rise. Species composition of the infauna off Cape Hatteras is also different from other slope habitats. 

Species richness and diversity are lower with a high degree of dominance by species that are 

cosmopolitan in distribution. Trends in abundance of invertebrate megafauna on the continental slope 

off Cape Hatteras appear to be similar to the macrofauna. Demersal fish fauna in this area is 

distinctive in composition and population density. Overall, abundance of benthic fish off Cape 

Hatteras is four to seven times higher than the adjacent area. Site sediment characteristics (e.g., 

source, texture, and physico-chemistry) and potential impact to benthic community by sediment 

discharge during drilling are described. Volume III contains Appendices A-E. 

Much of the data in this report were used in the Special Deep Sea Research issue (1994. 41 (4-6)). 

Diaz, R.J., J. Blake, B. Hecker, and D.C. Rhoads. 1993b. A Highly Productive Area of the Continental 

Slope Off Cape Hatteras. Benthic Ecology Meeting, 1-4 April, 1993, Mobile, AL. 57 p. 

The continental slope off Cape Hatteras is atypical for the U.S. Atlantic coast. Unusually high 

numbers of infauna, megafauna, and demersal fish were found over a broad area. Benthic organisms 

appear to be well adapted to physical processes that converge on the Cape Hatteras continental slope. 

These physical processes impart a high degree of instability to the bottom and also supply large 

amounts of organic matter which sustain the elevated densities and biomass. The nature of these 

communities and mechanisms which regulate them will be discussed. 

Diaz, R.J., G.R. Cutter, and J.A. Blake. 1998. Appendix F: A Review: Findings of the Benthic Study of 

the Continental Slope Off Cape Hatteras, North Carolina. pp. 121-136. In: Vigil, D.L. (ed.). North 

Carolina/Minerals Management Service Technical Workshop on Manteo Unit Exploration: February 

4-5, 1998. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region. 

New Orleans, LA. 

*These are the proceedings from a workshop/meeting (February 4-5, 1998) between the North 

Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources, the U.S. Dept. of the Interior’s Minerals 

Management Service (MMS), and others. The geographic area discussed is approximately 45 miles 

east-northeast of Cape Hatteras, NC, referred to as the Manteo Unit. This workshop reviewed 

environmental and socioeconomic information known and needed on the Manteo Unit. The MMS’s 

Gulf of Mexico OCS Regional Director gave an MMS perspective on history and status of the area. 

Chevron gave a presentation on how an exploratory well would be drilled. The scientific 

characterization was presented in greater detail by scientific experts who spoke on the following 

disciplines: physical environment, habitat and living resources, seabirds, marine mammals, sea 

turtles, and social and economic issues. Specific chapters are cited individually, when appropriate. 

Because of the potential environmental impacts associated with development and production 

activities, the Oil Pollution Act of 1990 mandated that a panel of experts be convened. This panel, 

North Carolina Environmental Sciences Review Panel (Costlow et al. 1992), was to consider whether 

the available scientific information was adequate for making decisions about oil and gas leasing, 

exploration, and development off North Carolina. The Costlow et al. (1992) report to the Secretary of 

the Interior made several recommendations on the information needed to understand the basic 

ecology of the leased areas. Among them was the recommendation that the spatial extent of the 

benthic community found within some of the lease blocks should be determined before any 

exploration or development activity occurred off Cape Hatteras. The present study was developed by 

the Minerals Management Service to determine the aerial extent of the community found by Blake et 
24 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

al. (1985, 1987). Results are published as a special issue of Deep-Sea Research Part II (Diaz et al. 

1994a), which included a CD-ROM with data and selected bottom images (Cutter et al. 1994a). 

Sediments and Sedimentation Rates, Biological Communities (invertebrates and fish), Physical 

Habitat (geomorphology), Benthic Community Characterization and Distribution are discussed. 

Dryfoos, R.L., R.P. Cheek, and R.L. Kroger. 1973. Preliminary analyses of Atlantic Menhaden, 

Brevoortia tyrannus, migrations, population structure, survival and exploitation rates, and availability 

as indicated from tag returns. Fishery Bulletin 71 (3): 719-734. 

Over 1 million adult Atlantic menhaden, Brevoortia tyrannus, were tagged from Long Island to 

Florida between 1966 and 1969. Tag recoveries indicate these fish migrated northward in spring and 

early summer and southward in fall. As the fish grew older and larger, they also migrate farther 

northward each spring. Calculation of rates of interchange between fishing areas indicated that 21% 

of the recoveries from fish released in Chesapeake Bay in 1967 and 1968 accounted for 72% of the 

catch of tagged fish 1 year later in New York and New Jersey. 

Preliminary estimates of population parameters were made from tag-recovery and catch data. Survival 

rates determined yearly from ratio of recoveries, however, varied due to fluctuations in availability. 

Annual survival rates averaging 0.23 were calculated with Robson-Chapman catch curve analysis and 

age composition of catch methods. From tag recoveries exploitation rate was estimated to be 50%, 

instantaneous fishing mortality rate (F) was 0.95, and instantaneous natural mortality (M) was 0.52. 

tag returns also indicated that significant fluctuations in availability of Atlantic menhaden occurred in 

Chesapeake Bay. 

Edwards, R.L., R.L. Livingstone Jr. and P.E. Hamer. 1962. Winter water temperatures and an annotated 

list of fishes Nantucket Shoals to Cape Hatteras: Albatross Cruise no. 126. Special Scientific Report 

Fisheries No. 397. U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. Washington, DC. 

Cruise no. 126 of the Albatross III was planned and conducted to gather information about the 

distribution of fishes across the Continental Shelf from Nantucket Shoals to Cape Hatteras during the 

late winter period when water temperatures generally are at their minimum. The shelf here has a 

general hydrographic similarity from north to south, well described by Bigelow (1933), that makes it 

a particularly worthwhile area in which to study the relation of fish distribution to water temperature, 

depth, and other factors of the environment. Since the fish of this portion of the shelf support several 

different, relatively important food and industrial fisheries, as well as an intensive marine sport 

fishery, Cruise no. 126 served to provide data valuable to several research programs. This area has a 

distinctive fauna attributed in part to the thermal barrier present across the shelf at Cape Hatteras, as 

well as another such barrier, less marked, separating the waters of southern New England and the 

Gulf of Maine. 

Epperly, S.P., J. Braun, A.J. Chester, F.A. Cross, J.V. Merriner, and P.A. Tester. 1995. Winter 

distribution of sea turtles in the vicinity of Cape Hatteras and their interactions with the summer 

flounder trawl fishery. Bulletin of Marine Science 56(2): 547-568. 

Aerial surveys of North Carolina offshore waters between Cape Lookout and the North 

Carolina/Virginia state line were conducted November l991-March 1992 to determine the abundance 

of sea turtles in the area where a trawl fishery for summer flounder was active, and to relate the 

distribution of turtles to physical oceanographic processes. Turtles were sighted throughout the winter 

as far north as Oregon Inlet. Individual surveys yielded surface density estimates greater than 12 

turtles / l00 km2

, depending on the method of analysis. The distribution of turtles appeared to be 

related to water temperature, with turtles being mostly in waters >11?C. Favorable temperature and 
Fishery Chapter — 25 

depth regimes for sea turtles occur throughout the winter along the western edge of the Gulf Stream 

from the vicinity of Cape Hatteras southward. The nearshore waters of Raleigh Bay, more than any 

other nearshore area of the South Atlantic Bight, are affected in the winter by the warm, fast-moving 

Gulf Stream and its frontal eddies that impinge upon and override the narrow continental shelf. 

Characteristically the waters in the vicinity of Cape Hatteras are warmer in the winter than nearshore 

areas to the south. The narrowness of the continental shelf and the influence of the Gulf Stream on 

these nearshore regions serve to concentrate sea turtles emigrating from nearshore waters in the 

Middle Atlantic Bight and Pamlico and Core Sounds in the late fall and early winter. Thus, sea turtles 

can be at greater risk for interaction with fishing activity on the continental shelf near Cape Hatteras, 

during the winter, than in any other area in the South Atlantic Bight. The summer flounder fishery, 

operating between Cape May, New Jersey and Cape Lookout, North Carolina during November 

1991-February 1992, was monitored for interactions with sea turtles. Observers were aboard nearly 

6% of the reported trips landed in Virginia and North Carolina. The sea turtle catch comprised 

loggerheads (60%), Kemp’s ridleys (36%), greens (2%), and a hawksbill (1%). The catch of Kemp’s 

ridleys during November-December 1991 south of Cape Hatteras was high (N = 26). Overall turtle 

catch rates were similar to those reported for the Atlantic shrimp fishery, but catch rates south of 

Cape Hatteras were 6-8 times higher than catch rates north of the Cape. A total of 1,063 turtles was 

estimated to have been caught November 1991-February 1992, and 89-181 were estimated to have 

died as a result of the trawl fishery. None of the turtles tagged during this study was recaptured during 

the study period, but three were recaptured subsequently; one had been resuscitated. Trawl activity 

was aggregated, and a number of turtles required resuscitation after 60 min tows. Sea turtle 

conservation regulations are needed for this fishery because the turtle/fishery interaction is great (> 

1,000 turtles estimated caught), the proportion caught that is Kemp’s ridleys is high (35%), and the 

physical processes that concentrate the sea turtles on the fishing grounds are operable every winter. 

Fedoryako, B.I. 1989. A Comparative Characteristic of Oceanic Fish Assemblages Associated with 

Floating Debris. Journal of Ichthyology 29: 128-137. 

A comparative characteristic of fish assemblages associated with oceanic debris (drifting 

macrophytes, terrestrial material and epipelagic invertebrates) of tropical ocean zones was made. In 

the floating debris of the oceanic pelagial 110 species of 35 families were found. About 30% of all 

fish species were found only in some assemblages. The highest species diversity was associated with 

macrophytes (75% of all species), and terrestrial material (78% of all species). Representatives of the 

majority of common species, up to a certain size, occurred in the macrophytes. Fishes associated with 

drifting macrophytes formed more abundant assemblages than those associated with terrestrial 

material. Over 50% of species associated with oceanic flotsam occurred commonly in the neritic 

zone. With the increasing distance of the flotsam from the coast the species diversity decreases and 

the dominant species change. 

Flescher, D.D. 1980. Guide to Some Trawl-Caught Marine Fishes From Maine to Cape Hatteras, North 

Carolina. NOAA Technical Report NMFS Circular 431. U.S. Department of Commerce, National 

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Marine Fisheries Service. 34 p. 

Fishes covered are those regularly caught during trawl operations. Similar shaped fishes are grouped 

together. On each page the written keys are connected by lines to the fish illustrations: consequently, 

technical terms in the keys are illustrated as they are used. Notes on the size and range of each fish are 

included. 

Flores-Coto, C., and S. M. Warlen. 1993. Spawning time, growth, and recruitment of larval spot, 

Leiostomus xanthurus, into a North Carolina estuary. Fishery Bulletin 91: 8-22. 
26 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

Larval spot Leiostomus xanthurus were sampled weekly as they recruited to the Newport River 

estuary near Beaufort Inlet, North Carolina to determine their density, and age and size composition. 

Density data and otolith age distributions were used to calculate the relative contribution of birthweek cohorts to the seasonal recruitment of spot larvae. The protracted 1987-88 spawning season 

extended from mid-October to mid-March, with 90% in a 2-month period beginning mid-November. 

Larvae were recruited to the estuary over 5 months at a mean age of 82 d and mean standard length of 

17.2 mm. Smaller, younger larvae generally immigrated to the estuary early (December-January) and 

late (late April), while larger, older larvae immigrated during the interim peak recruitment period 

(February to mid-April). In any recruitment week, larvae were from 2-10 birthweek cohorts, but 

recruitment was strongly influenced by the number of larvae of the dominant cohorts. 

Larval spot were also sampled in the ocean between Cape Fear and Oregon Inlet off North Carolina to 

determine their distribution, abundance, and size and age composition. Age and size of larvae were 

inversely related to distance from shore. Highest densities of larvae were generally found outside the 

30 m isobath. Distribution data supported the hypothesis that spot spawned south of Cape Hatteras on 

the outer continental shelf contribute to recruitment in Chesapeake Bay. A Kolmogorov-Smirnov test 

did not demonstrate a significant difference between birthdate distributions for ocean and estuarine 

larvae. This implied that mortality was not age- specific for larvae collected at different times. A 

Laird-Gompertz growth equation fit to age and size data for larvae collected in the ocean and estuary 

predicted that they grew from 1.2 mm at hatching to 16.l mm in 80 d. 

Fogt, J. 1992. Yellowfin and bigeye: the ups and downs of Mid-Atlantic fishing. Sport Fishing. June/July: 

68-75. 

*This article describes sport fishing for yellowfin and bigeye tunas in the mid Atlantic area from off 

Maryland to middle North Carolina. Information on distributions in relation to temperatures and 

seasons is provided. Most of the article is about fishing techniques. “The Point” is specifically 

mentioned as a productive fishing area off NC. 

George, R.Y., and A.W. Hulbert (eds.). 1989. North Carolina Coastal Symposium. National Undersea 

Research Program, NOAA. Rockville, MD. 582 p. 

*This is a multidisciplinary marine scientific proceedings, with frequent reference to the North 

Carolina coastal oceanography. Two studies (also cited individually) include maps with study plots 

(p. 283; reef site) or migratory movements (p. 309; sea turtles) in the project study area. 

Zoogeography and ecology of fishes inhabiting North Carolina’s marine waters to depths of 600 

meters are included. The transcript from a speaker representing Outer Continental Shelf (p. 549) 

mentions off-shore oil drilling off North Carolina coast and mid-Atlantic region but does not refer to 

a specific site. 

Gettleson, D.A. 1992. Results of a Benthic Visual Survey Within the Manteo Block 467. pp. 159-168. In: 

U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service. Proceedings of the Fourth Atlantic 

OCS Region Information Transfer Meeting, September 1991. U.S. Department of the Interior, 

Minerals Management Service. Herndon, VA. 

The Fourth Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) Regional Information Transfer Meeting (ITM) 

was held on 24-25 September 1991, in Wilmington, NC. The focus of the meeting was on the OCS 

off North Carolina, specifically on activities related to a proposed exploratory well for oil and gas by 

Mobil on Block 467 a site 40 miles off the coast of North Carolina. The area of industry interest is 

known as the Manteo Prospect, while the activities surrounding the proposed drilling are referred to 

collectively as the Manteo Project. The wildcat wellsite is in 2,690 ft. (857 m) of water near the edge 

of the Gulf Stream. It is also near a fishing ground known locally as “The Point.” The area is believed 
Fishery Chapter — 27 

to be gas prone rather than oil prone. The estimated size of the resource could be as high as 5 trillion 

cubic feet of gas. 

The purpose of the meeting was to exchange information on the leasing background, legislative 

activities, scientific results, and socioeconomic studies. Legislative-related reports include 

descriptions of the Oil Pollution Act of 1990, the Outer Banks Protection Act, the Environmental 

Studies Review Panel, and the North Carolina Physical Oceanography Panel. Reports of studies on 

marine life include benthic diatoms, benthic fauna, pelagic seabirds, sea turtles, and right whales. One 

report describes the use of airships (blimps) for ocean research a capability relevant to North Carolina 

because of the east coast airship facility is located in the state. Local marine science facilities 

described include NOAA’s National Undersea Research Center at the University of North Carolina at 

Wilmington (NURC/UNCW) and the national marine Fisheries Service laboratory in Beaufort. 

Developments in oil spill cleanup technology and capabilities are described by both the Coast Guard 

and the industry. A socioeconomic report describes the effects of the oil and gas activities on the 

tourist industry. Lastly, research on the restoration of salt marshes indicates that rehabilitation of an 

area is possible when development or an accident has occurred. While the emphasis of the meeting 

was on oil and gas, two reports described the results of projects related to offshore sand mining. The 

appendix lists the names and addresses of speakers. Individual chapters are cited individually when 

appropriate. 

*This summary describes the results of a video- and still-camera photodocumentation survey 

conducted from 9-24 July 1989 in the Manteo Area Block 467 (Figure 37). Block 467 is located along 

a steep, highly irregular portion of the continental slope on the northern fringe of the Hatteras canyon 

system. The purpose of this survey was to document topographical features, substrate types, and 

associated biota around a proposed well and anchor locations in block 467 (figure 38). Water depths 

within the sites surveyed ranged from 299 to 1,393 m (980-4,570 ft). Because of the water depth and 

the highly irregular topography within the survey area, a deepwater remotely operated vehicle (ROV) 

was used to obtain the survey data. Live bottom site characterization (invertebrates and fish present) 

is described. 

Gillikin, J.W., Jr., L.H. Bedsole Jr., and B.F. Holland Jr. 1980a. RV Dan Moore Cruise Report No. 39: 

Offshore Anadromous Fish Investigations from Cape Lookout to Chesapeake Bay Entrance. North 

Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries, Department of Natural Resources and Community 

Development. Morehead City, NC. 

*From 17-26 March 1980 the RV Dan Moore reassumed its investigation of offshore stocks of 

anadromous fishes (river herring, shad, striped bass, and sturgeon) east of Cape Lookout shoals to the 

Chesapeake Bay entrance. This was the first segment of a federally funded anadromous study. Depths 

ranged from 15 to 20 fathoms. 

Gillikin, J.W., Jr., J.V. Guthrie, and B.F. Holland Jr. 1980b. RV Dan Moore Cruise Report No. 45: A 

summary of three cruises for summer flounder (Paralichthys dentatus) and other finfinsh from 

Ocracoke Inlet, NC to Chincoteague Inlet, VA. North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries, 

Department of Natural Resources and Community Development. Morehead City, NC. 

*The objectives of the RV Dan Moore October, November, and December 1980 cruises were to 

investigate oceanic concentrations of summer flounder (Paralichthys dentatus) and to obtain catch 

data on other commercially important species occurring in the study area. In addition, information 

regarding size composition, ovary maturation of females, and distribution of flounder by month, 

geographic area, and temperature regimes was gathered at a total of 69 stations. Depths ranged from 7 

to 30 fathoms. 
28 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

—. 1981. RV Dan Moore Cruise Report No. 49: Offshore Anadromous Fish Survey from Ocracoke Inlet 

to Oregon Inlet, NC. North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries, Department of Natural Resources 

and Community Development. Morehead City, NC. 

*This report describes anadromous fishery investigation conducted offshore North Carolina from 27 

April 1 May, 1981. Target species include river herring, shad, striped bass, and sturgeon. Depths 

ranged from 5 to 18 fathoms. 

Gillikin, J.W., Jr., D.L. Taylor, and B.F. Holland Jr. 1978. RV Dan Moore Cruise Report No. 24: Cape 

Lookout, NC to Little Machipongo Inlet, VA. North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries, 

Department of Natural Resources and Community Development. Morehead City, NC. 

*During April 1978 (two cruise segments), the RV Dan Moore completed investigations of 

anadromous fish stocks (river herring, shad, striped bass and sturgeon) offshore North Carolina and 

Virginia for the 1978 season. The first segment extended from Cape Hatteras, NC to Little 

Machipongo Inlet, VA during 11-20 April. The second segment was conducted from Cape Lookout to 

Cape Hatteras during 24-28 April. Sample stations were along the beach in the vicinity of 15 to 20 

fathoms. 

—. 1979. RV Dan Moore Cruise Report No. 33: Cape Lookout, NC to Little Machipongo Inlet, VA. 

North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries, Department of Natural Resources and Community 

Development. Morehead City, NC. 

*During February and March 1979 the RV Dan Moore continued its investigations of offshore stocks 

of anadromous fishes (river herring, shad, striped bass and sturgeon) between Cape Lookout, NC and 

Little Machipongo Inlet, VA. In response to local fishermen and dealers, reports of calico scallop 

catches were investigated offshore Ocracoke Inlet. Depths were 12 to 14 fathoms. 

Goldstein, B. 1986. Bluewater Giants: a fisherman’s biology of the largest tuna, the bluefin. Sport 

Fishing. May: 50-57. 

*This is a popular article on bluefin tuna that emphasizes biology and life history. Taxonomy and 

identification of the tunas are discussed. Areas off Oregon Inlet and Cape Hatteras, NC are mentioned 

in a description of migrations and distributions. Status of the fishery is reviewed. 

Grosslein, M.D., and T.R. Azarovitz. 1982. Fish Distribution: MESA New York Bight Atlas Monograph 

15. New York Sea Grant Institute. Albany, NY. 182 p. 

The Middle Atlantic Bight is a complex ecosystem characterized by rapid latitudinal change in water 

temperature s and associated fauna. Subtropical and boreal fish fauna overlap in the region from Cape 

Hatteras to Georges Bank, resulting in a highly diverse fish community with large seasonal 

fluctuations in distribution. The general ecology of 43 important species of fish and shellfish in the 

Middle Atlantic Bight is summarized in terms of 1) distribution and seasonal movements, 2) 

populations size and fisheries, 3) reproduction-growth-life span, 4) feeding interrelationships, and 50 

environmental sensitivity to pollutants and natural environmental factors. Most species found in the 

Bight also spawn there; thus environmental conditions and water quality in the Bight control the 

reproductive success of the populations occurring there. The geographic and seasonal distribution of 

spawning in the Bight is described for major species through the distribution of their larvae, the life 

stage believed to be most vulnerable to natural environmental changes and pollution. 

The monograph concludes with an examination of the relative importance of natural environmental 

factors versus man’s impacts in controlling fish abundance. Population declines and reduced 

productivity due to pollution have been demonstrated for both shellfish and fishes although chiefly in 
Fishery Chapter — 29 

inshore-waters; as yet there is no clear evidence of major impact of pollution on populations in 

offshore waters but there is concern about possible undetected impacts and potential future effects 

because of growing pressure for substantially increased ocean dumping. Declines in biomass of many 

populations clearly have been related to excessive fishing pressure in recent years, and there will be a 

continuing need for some control over fishing mortality rates if we are to achieve optimum yields 

from our fishery resources. However, so far it appears that natural mortality factors operating in the 

first year of life exert the greatest control over annual fluctuations in fish populations. 

Gudger, E.W. 1932. The abundance of the dolphin, Coryphaena hippurus, on the North Carolina coast. 

Journal of the Mitchell Scientific Society. May: 237-244. 

*The paper reviews the abundance and distribution of dolphin off NC, especially around the Cape 

Hatteras area. Because dolphin eat flying fishes, the relationship between dolphin occurrence and 

flying fish distribution is discussed. 

Guthrie, J.V., B.F. Holland Jr., and J.W. Gillikin Jr. 1980. RV Dan Moore Cruise Report No. 44: An 

offshore reconnaissance of summer flounder (Paralichthys dentatus) and other finfish from Ocracoke 

Inlet, NC to Chincoteague Inlet, VA. North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries, Department of 

Natural Resources and Community Development. Morehead City, NC. 

*The objectives of the RV Dan Moore October 1980 cruise were to investigate oceanic 

concentrations of summer flounder (Paralichthys dentatus) and to obtain catch data on other 

commercially important species occurring in the study area. In addition, information regarding size 

composition, ovary maturation of females, and distribution of flounder by geographical area, and 

temperature regimes was gathered at a total of 23 randomly selected stations. 

—. 1981. RV Dan Moore Cruise Report No. 47: Segment I: Offshore Anadromous Fish Survey from 

Cape Lookout to Chesapeake Bay; Segment II: Reconnaissance of Calico Scallops, Argopecten 

gibbus, on the Traditional Scallop Grounds East of Cape Lookout Shoals. North Carolina Division of 

Marine Fisheries, Department of Natural Resources and Community Development. Morehead City, 

NC. 

*Segment I of this report describes anadromous fishery investigation conducted offshore North 

Carolina and Virginia from 16 25 March, 1981. Target species include river herring, shad, striped 

bass, and sturgeon. Segment II of this report is a reconnaissance of Calico Scallops, Argopecten 

gibbus, during February 1981. Depths ranged from 5 to 19 fathoms. 

Hamm, D.C. and B.M. Slater. 1979. Survey of the recreational billfish and shark fisheries, May 1, 1977 to 

April 30, 1978. NOAA, National Marine Fisheries Service, Southeast Fisheries Center. NOAA 

Technical Memorandum NMFS-SEFC-5. Miami, FL. 168 p. 

*(Modified from the Executive Summary) The Technical and Information Management Services 

(TIMS) of the Southeast Fisheries Center, National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) designed and 

conducted a survey to estimate the number of billfish caught by the recreational fishery in the western 

North Atlantic Ocean during the 1 year period, May 1, 1977 to April 30, 1978. The survey assumed 

that all fishing done in these waters by recreational fishermen would be done from boats 20-65 feet 

long (except Florida where 18 and 19 foot boats were included) and registered in an Atlantic or Gulf 

of Mexico coastal state, Puerto Rico, the U.S. Virgin Islands, or with the Coast Guard as a 

documented vessel. Whenever possible, boats were eliminated from the population based on 

propulsion and use codes as reported in the boat registration files. A sample of 56,241 boats was 

selected by systematic random sampling from a stratified population of 389,930 boats. 
30 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

Questionnaires requesting billfish and shark catch and effort information were sent to the selected 

56,241 registered boat owners on June 8, 1978. Approximately 3 weeks after the first mailing, a 

second mailing of about 33,200 questionnaires was sent to those people not responding to the first 

mailing. In August, telephone interviews were conducted with a subsample of the nonrespondents to 

the mail questionnaire. 

Hare, J.A. and R.K. Cowen. 1996. Transport mechanisms of larval and pelagic juvenile bluefish 

(Pomatomus saltatrix) from South Atlantic Bight spawning grounds to Middle Atlantic Bight nursery 

habitats. Limnology and Oceanography 41(6): 1264-1280. 

In this study we examined the mechanisms by which Pomatomus saltatrix (Pisces: Pomatomidae) 

larvae and pelagic juveniles are transported from South Atlantic Bight spawning grounds to Middle 

Atlantic Bight estuarine nursery habitats. Data on larval and pelagic juvenile distributions, estuarine 

juvenile recruitment, hydrography, wind speed and direction and satellite-derived, sea surface 

temperature were used to examine potential larval transport mechanisms. On the basis of these 

analyses, a scenario for northward transport of P. saltatrix was developed. Gulf Stream-associated 

flow moves P. saltatrix larvae northeastward from their South Atlantic Bight spawning grounds. 

Larval transport from the Gulf Stream to the Middle Atlantic Bight shelf edge occurs in warm-core 

ring streamers, but some more developed individuals may swim across. Finally, P. saltatrix pelagic 

juveniles actively swim across the Middle Atlantic Bight shelf, a behavior initiated when the surface 

shelf-slope temperature front dissipates in late spring. This scenario predicts that the number of South 

Atlantic Bight-spawned P. saltatrix juveniles entering estuaries (i.e. recruitment) is determined in part 

by warm-core ring streamer activity. The timing of recruitment, however, is determined almost 

entirely by the timing of the dissipation of the surface shelf-slope temperature front. 

Hogans, W.E., and K.J. Sulak. 1992. Diocus lycenchelus, New Species (Copepoda: Chodracanthidae) 

Parasitic on the Eelpout, Lycenchelys verrillii (Zoarcidae), from the Hatteras Slope of the Northwest 

Atlantic Ocean. Bulletin of Marine Science 51(3): 301-308. 

A new species of parasitic copepod, Diocus lycenchelus, is described from the demersal zoarcid fish 

Lycenchelys verrillii caught off Cape Hatteras, U.S.A. The new species differs from its congeners in 

the shape of the cephalothorax, trunk (ventrolateral processes), fine structure of appendages 

(mandible, second maxilla, first thoracic leg) and site of infection (the nares). A comparison of the 

morphology of D. lycenchelus n. sp. is made with that of the other four recognized species of Diocus 

(D. frigidus, D. gobinus, D. semilunaris, and D. sadoensis). 

Holland, B.F., and A.B. Powell. 1975. Section II: Anadromous Fisheries Research Program, Northern 

Coastal Region — Offshore North Carolina. Project AFCS-8, Job 3. North Carolina Division of 

Marine Fisheries, Department of Natural Resources and Community Development. Morehead City, 

NC. 62 p. 

*During the period 1 November 1972 through 30 June 1973 sampling for anadromous fishes was 

conducted aboard the RV Dan Moore from Cape Lookout, NC to Chesapeake Bay entrance, VA. 

Unsuccessful capture of alosids (Alosa aestivalis, A. mediocris, A. pseudoharengus, and A. 

sapidissima) by traditional gear (Yankee No. 36 and 41 nets, midwater trawl) resulted in the design of 

an efficient modified wing trawl. 

All anadromous fishes were found in depths ≤ 36.6 m. Yearly differences in the depth distribution of 

blueback herring (A. aestivalis), alewife ( A. pseudoharengus), and American shad (A. sapidissima) 

were observed; however, no correlation with water temperature was evident. Anadromous fishes were 

captured from November through May. Maximum concentrations were found between Cape Hatteras 

and Chesapeake Bay. River herring (A. aestivalis and A. pseudoharengus) were found in maximum 
Fishery Chapter — 31 

concentration from February through April. Striped bass (Morone saxatilis) were captured from 

November through April; Atlantic sturgeon (Acipenser oxyrhincus) from November through May. A 

notable decrease in catches of river herring and American shad from the years 1972-73 to 1973-74 

was apparent. When years were combined, 11,233 blueback herring, 2,244 alewife, 40 American 

shad, 4 hickory shad, 49 sturgeon were tagged and released. Negative tagging results suggested that, 

at least, the tagging of river herring may not be feasible. 

Recruitment of striped bass to the offshore stock appeared to occur during their sixth year. Age 

groups 6-9 appeared dominant. Male striped bass were rarely captured. Notably, absent from alewife 

populations were age groups 3 and 4; however, 2-year old alewife were common. The modal age 

group was represented by 5-year olds. No significant differences between alewife sex ratios were 

observed. Five and 6-year old blueback herring were the predominant modal age group. Yearlings 

and 3-year old fish were abundant during the years 1973-74; whereas, 2-year and 3-year olds were the 

dominant younger fish encountered during 1972-73. Males were found at a significantly higher ratio 

than females. 

Alewife appeared to initiate gonad development earlier in the season than blueback herring. Both 

species had more advanced ovaries during the 1973-74 season; a time when relatively warmer water 

temperatures were observed. Size at sexual maturation for female alewife and blueback herring was 

about 210 mm (FL) and 200 mm (FL), respectively. Analysis of spawning marks on river herring 

scales showed that the majority of male blueback herring commenced spawning at age IV; whereas, 

the majority of females did not begin spawning until age V. Most alewife (males and females) 

spawned at age IV. 

Foreign fishing activity during this period appeared to be negligible off North Carolina. 

Holland, B.F., A. Powell, and J. Gillikin. 1975a. RV Dan Moore Cruise Report No. 1: Cape Hatteras, NC 

to SC State Line. North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries, Department of Natural Resources and 

Community Development. Morehead City, NC. 

*The following RV Dan Moore monthly cruise report presents catch data which may be of use to 

commercial fishermen and marine fishery scientists. This represents the first cruise report of this 

nature. The purpose of this October 1974 cruise was to investigate oceanic concentrations of the 

southern flounder (Paralichthys lethostigma). This flounder does not occur in the traditional wintertrawl-fishery (the summer flounder or fluke, P. dentatus, is the sole contributor to that fishery). 

Surveys both along the beach and the 10 fathom curve (where bottom allowed) from Cape Hatteras 

Bight to South Carolina failed to locate this species. The majority of flounder captured were summer 

flounder. 

Holland, B.F., and G.F. Yelverton. 1973. Distribution and Biological Studies of Anadromous Fishes 

Offshore North Carolina. Special Scientific Report No. 24. In conjunction with NOAA, National 

Marine Fisheries Service, Under Federal Aid Project No. AFC-5-3. Division of Commercial and 

Sports Fisheries; North Carolina Department of Natural and Economic Resources. Morehead City, 

NC. 

During the period 1 February 1968 to 1 July 1971, the R/V Dan Moore occupied 1,038 trawl stations 

from Cape Romain, South Carolina, to Cape Charles, Virginia, in depths of 3 to 300 fathoms. A total 

of 9,734 anadromous fishes was collected. Striped bass, (Morone saxatilis), blueback herring (Alosa 

aestivalis), and a few hickory shad (Alosa mediocris) were found between Cape Lookout and the 

North Carolina/Virginia border. American shad (Alosa sapidissima) and alewife (Alosa 

pseudoharengus) were taken from Hatteras Inlet and from Wimble Shoals, North Carolina, to Cape 

Charles, Virginia. Two species of sturgeon, Acipenser oxyrhyncus and Acipenser brevirostrum, were 
32 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

collected mainly between Cape Lookout and North Carolina/Virginia border. Definite seasonal 

differences in abundance were noted in the ocean off North Carolina. Anadromous fishes were most 

abundant from December through March. Few anadromous fishes were collected in depths of more 

than 20 fathoms. Scale analyses of 290 striped bass, 134 American shad, 76 blueback herring and 50 

alewife indicated these fish ranged from 2 to 15, 2 to 11, 2 to 8, and 4 to 8 years old respectively. 

Growth and size relationships were also determined. The peak annulus formation for striped bass, 

probably occurs in early December. A total of 3,174 anadromous fishes was tagged. As of November 

1971, no tags had been returned from any of the 1,204 clupeids tagged. Tag returns from the 187 

tagged Atlantic sturgeon indicated a seasonal migration southward during November-January and 

northward after January. A total of 1,752 striped bass was tagged. As of 1 November 1971, 197 tags 

had been returned. Tag returns indicated that striped bass overwintering off the North Carolina coast 

enter Pamlico and Albemarle Sounds, and move northward along the Atlantic coast to Maine during 

the spring and summer. An annual fishing mortality rate of 35 percent for striped class was projected 

from the 3.6 percent mean monthly rate. Stomach analysis indicated that striped bass remain active 

and opportunistic feeders during the winter. Adult American shad eat fish, sometimes to the extent 

they can be considered a major food item. Juvenile American shad feed occasionally on anchovies. 

The mean fecundity of 35 striped bass was 2,462,372. The mean fecundity of 43 American shad was 

281,137. Examination of the gonads of striped bass, American shad, blueback herring, alewife 

revealed a predominance of striped bass, American shad, alewife and male blueback herring in the 

ocean off North Carolina. Sampling among foreign fishing vessels revealed that the east Germans and 

others were taking anadromous fishes off the North Carolina coast. Offshore and Chowan River 

samples of blueback herring and alewife were compared, and similarities and differences were noted 

utilizing age class composition and length-weight relationships. 

Holland, B.F., Jr., J.W. Gillikin Jr., and L.H. Bedsole Jr. 1980a. RV Dan Moore Cruise Report No. 40: 

Offshore Anadromous Fish Investigations from Cape Lookout to Chesapeake Bay Entrance. Division 

of Commercial and Sports Fisheries; North Carolina Department of Natural and Economic Resources. 

Morehead City, NC. 

*From 21-30 April 1980 the RV Dan Moore reassumed its investigation of offshore stocks of 

anadromous fishes (river herring, shad, striped bass, and sturgeon) east of Cape Lookout shoals to the 

Chesapeake Bay entrance. This was the second leg of a federally funded anadromous project. Depths 

were 4 to 20 fathoms. 

—. 1980b. RV Dan Moore Cruise Report No. 41: Offshore Anadromous Fish Investigations from Cape 

Lookout to Chesapeake Bay Entrance. Division of Commercial and Sports Fisheries; North Carolina 

Department of Natural and Economic Resources. Morehead City, NC. 

*From 12-21 May 1980 the RV Dan Moore reassumed its investigation of offshore stocks of 

anadromous fishes (river herring, shad, striped bass, and sturgeon) east of Cape Lookout shoals to the 

Chesapeake Bay entrance. This was the final cruise of the first year of a three-year federally funded 

anadromous project. Depths were 4 to 19 fathoms. 

Holland, B.F., Jr., J.W. Gillikin Jr., and J.V. Guthrie. 1981a. RV Dan Moore Cruise Report No. 51: 

Segment I: Calico Scallop Reconnaissance from Ocracoke to New River Inlet, NC (October 

November 1981); Segment II: Flounder Mesh Selectivity Study (November December 1981). North 

Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries, Department of Natural Resources and Community 

Development. Morehead City, NC. 
Fishery Chapter — 33 

*Segment I of this report describes Calico Scallop Reconnaissance from Ocracoke to New River 

Inlet, NC (October-November 1981). Segment II of this report describes Flounder Mesh Selectivity 

Study (November-December 1981) off North Carolina’s coast. Depths ranged from11 to 14 fathoms. 

—. 1981b. RV Dan Moore Cruise Report No. 46: Segment I: Offshore Anadromous Fish Survey from 

Cape Lookout to Chesapeake Bay; Segment II: Reconnaissance of Calico Scallops, Argopecten 

gibbus, on the Traditional Scallop Grounds East of Cape Lookout Shoals. North Carolina Division of 

Marine Fisheries, Department of Natural Resources and Community Development. Morehead City, 

NC. 

*Segment I of this report describes anadromous fishery investigation conducted offshore North 

Carolina and Virginia from January-April 1981. Target species include river herring, shad, striped 

bass, and sturgeon. Segment II of this report is a reconnaissance of Calico Scallops, Argopecten 

gibbus, during August 1980. Depths were 5 to 20 fathoms. 

—. 1981c. RV Dan Moore Cruise Report No. 48: Offshore Anadromous Fish Survey from Cape Lookout 

to Chesapeake Bay Entrance. North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries, Department of Natural 

Resources and Community Development. Morehead City, NC. 

*This report describes anadromous fishery investigation conducted offshore North Carolina and 

Virginia from 16-25 March 1981. Target species include river herring, shad, striped bass, and 

sturgeon. Depths ranged from 5 to17 fathoms. 

Holland, B.F., Jr., J.W. Gillikin Jr., and D.L. Taylor. 1978a. RV Dan Moore Cruise Report No. 23: Cape 

Lookout, NC to Little Machipongo Inlet, VA. North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries, 

Department of Natural Resources and Community Development. Morehead City, NC. 

*The RV Dan Moore investigated anadromous fish stocks (river herring, shad, striped bass and 

sturgeon) from Cape Lookout, NC to Little Machipongo Inlet, VA. During the March 1978 cruise, 

sample stations were along the beach in the vicinity of 15 to 20 fathoms. 

—. 1978b. RV Dan Moore Cruise Report No. 29: Initiation of Raleigh Bay Trawl Survey. North Carolina 

Division of Marine Fisheries, Department of Natural Resources and Community Development. 

Morehead City, NC. 

*The RV Dan Moore initiated a preliminary trawl survey of Raleigh Bay, NC in October. This survey 

is a direct extension of the Onslow Bay trawl survey which began in October 1977 and was 

completed this past August (see cruise report nos. 18, 20. 25, and 27). The RV Dan Moore had 

previously trawled extensively in Raleigh Bay during the anadromous fish (river herring, shad, striped 

bass and sturgeon) and summer flounder projects. Previous efforts were mainly concentrated from the 

beach to the 20 fathom contour. The main objectives of the current survey were: 1) To define and 

designate areas of trawlable bottom, 2) To define and designate areas where pots and/or traps should 

be used rather than trawls, 3) To define and designate those areas where hook and line may be the 

only feasible method of fishing. 

—. 1979a. RV Dan Moore Cruise Report No. 32: Cape Lookout, NC to Little Machipongo Inlet, VA. 

North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries, Department of Natural Resources and Community 

Development. Morehead City, NC. 

*From January-April 1979, the emphasis of the RV Dan Moore cruises will be on investigations of 

offshore stocks of anadromous fishes (river herring, shad, striped bass and sturgeon) offshore North 

Carolina and Virginia. Depths ranged from 5 to 15 fathoms. 
34 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

—. 1979b. RV Dan Moore Cruise Report No. 37: Rock Shrimp (Sicyonia brevirostris) Investigations in 

Long, Onslow and Raleigh Bay, NC. North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries, Department of 

Natural Resources and Community Development. Morehead City, NC. 

*From 15-24 October and from 29 October to 1 November 1979, the RV Dan Moore conducted 

trawling operations in Long, Onslow and Raleigh bays, NC in search of Rock Shrimp (Sicyonia 

brevirostris). The primary objectives of this cruise were to: 1) Investigate the relative abundance, 

distribution and size composition of rock shrimp, 2) To determine if rock shrimp occur in sufficient 

quantities in Long, Onslow and Raleigh bays (offshore NC) to support a potential commercial fishery. 

Depths on the first segment (20-55 miles south of Southport, NC and from 10-35 miles south of Cape 

Lookout) were 12-31 fathoms. Depths sampled on the second segment (east of Cape Lookout and to 

10-15 miles south of Cape Hatteras) were 17-30 fathoms. 

Holland, B.F., Jr., S.G. Keefe, and J.A. Vaughn. 1975b. RV Dan Moore Cruise Report No. 9: Cape 

Hatteras, NC to Shallotte Inlet, NC. North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries, Department of 

Natural Resources and Community Development. Morehead City, NC. 

*The purpose of the RV Dan Moore November 1975 cruise was to investigate oceanic concentrations 

of the southern flounder (Paralichthys lethostigma) and to obtain catch data which may be of use to 

commercial fishermen and marine fishery scientists. Southern flounder does not occur in the 

traditional winter trawl-fishery (comprised solely by summer flounder, Paralichthys dentatus), but is 

present during October. This suggests this flounder was in the process of making a spawning and 

overwintering run to oceanic waters. This was based on knowledge of the summer flounder. A wing 

trawl was used in the vicinity of the 10 fathom contour. 

—. 1976. RV Dan Moore Cruise Report No. 12: Cape Lookout, NC to Little Machipongo Inlet, VA. 

North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries, Department of Natural Resources and Community 

Development. Morehead City, NC. 

*During January 1976 to June 1976 the emphasis of the RV Dan Moore will be on investigations of 

the offshore stocks of anadromous fishes (river herring, shad, striped bass and sturgeon) in North 

Carolina and Virginia. A wing trawl, selective for pelagic fishes such as herring, trout and mackerel 

was used in the vicinity of 10-15 fathom contours. 

Hoss, D.E. 1992. Research at the Beaufort Laboratory. pp. 51-54. In: Department of the Interior, Minerals 

Management Service. Proceedings of the Fourth Atlantic OCS Region Information Transfer Meeting, 

September 1991. U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service. Herndon, VA. 

The Fourth Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) Regional Information Transfer Meeting (ITM) 

was held on 24-25 September 1991 in Wilmington, NC. The focus of the meeting was on the OCS off 

North Carolina, specifically on activities related to a proposed exploratory well for oil and gas by 

Mobil on Block 467 a site 40 miles off the coast of North Carolina. The area of industry interest is 

known as the Manteo Prospect, while the activities surrounding the proposed drilling are referred to 

collectively as the Manteo Project. The wildcat wellsite is in 2,690 ft. (857 m) of water near the edge 

of the Gulf Stream. It is also near a fishing ground known locally as “The Point.” The area is believed 

to be gas prone rather than oil prone. The estimated size of the resource could be as high as 5 trillion 

cubic feet of gas. 

The purpose of the meeting was to exchange information on the leasing background, legislative 

activities, scientific results, and socioeconomic studies. Legislative-related reports include 

descriptions of the Oil Pollution Act of 1990, the Outer Banks Protection Act, the Environmental 

Studies Review Panel, and the North Carolina Physical Oceanography Panel. Reports of studies on 
Fishery Chapter — 35 

marine life include benthic diatoms, benthic fauna, pelagic seabirds, sea turtles, and right whales. One 

report describes the use of airships (blimps) for ocean research a capability relevant to North Carolina 

because of the east coast airship facility is located in the state. Local marine science facilities 

described include NOAA’s National Undersea Research Center at the University of North Carolina at 

Wilmington (NURC/UNCW) and the National Marine Fisheries Service laboratory in Beaufort. 

Developments in oil spill cleanup technology and capabilities are described by both the Coast Guard 

and the industry. A socioeconomic report describes the effects of the oil and gas activities on the 

tourist industry. Lastly, research on the restoration of salt marshes indicates that rehabilitation of an 

area is possible when development or an accident has occurred. While the emphasis of the meeting 

was on oil and gas, two reports described the results of projects related to offshore sand mining. The 

appendix lists the names and addresses of speakers. Individual chapters are cited individually when 

appropriate. 

*This section describes the ongoing research at the National Marine Fisheries Laboratory in Beaufort, 

NC. A description of North Carolina marine reptile, marine mammal, coastal, and fishery research is 

included. 

Johnson, H.B., D.W. Crocker, B.F. Holland, J.W. Gilliken, D.L. Taylor, M.W. Street, J.G. Loesch Jr., 

W.H. Kriete, and J.G. Travelstead. 1978. Biology and Management of Mid-Atlantic Anadromous 

Fishes Under Extended Jurisdiction: Annual Report, Anadromous Fish Project 1978. North Carolina 

— Virginia AFCS 9-2. NC Department of Natural Resources and Community Development, Division 

of Marine Fisheries. Morehead City, NC. Virginia Institute of Marine Science. Gloucester Point, VA. 

175 p. 

*This is a joint presentation by North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries (Part I) and the Virginia 

Institute of Marine Science, Department of Ichthyology (Part II). It is for the period of 1 October 

1976 to 30 September 1979 and is the completion report for the P.L. 89-304 project “Biology and 

Management of Mid-Atlantic Anadromous Fishes Under Extended Jurisdiction.” Species of concern 

are: alewife (Alosa pseudoharengus), blueback herring (Alosa aestivalis), hickory shad (Alosa 

mediocris), American shad (Alosa sapidissima), striped bass (Morone saxatilis), Atlantic sturgeon 

(Acipenser oxyrhyncus), shortnose sturgeon (Acipenser brevirostrum).

Johnson, H.B., S.E. Winslow, D.W. Crocker Jr., B.F. Holland, J.W. Gillikin, D.L. Taylor, J.G. Loesch Jr., 

W.H. Kriete, J.G. Travelstead, E.J. Foell, and M.A. Hennigar. 1981. Biology and Management of 

Mid-Atlantic Anadromous Fishes Under Extended Jurisdiction: Completion Report, Anadromous 

Fish Project 1977-1979. Special Scientific Report No. 36. NC Department of Natural Resources and 

Community Development, Division of Marine Fisheries. Morehead City, NC. Virginia Institute of 

Marine Science. Gloucester Point, VA. 204 p. 

*This is a cooperative study (between Virginia Institute of Marine Science and NC Division of 

Marine Fisheries) of life history characteristics of anadromous fishes of North Carolina and Virginia. 

Mentioned are: striped bass (Morone saxatilis), blueback herring (Alosa aestivalis), hickory shad 

(Alosa mediocris), American shad (Alosa sapidissima), alewife (Alosa pseudoharengus), sturgeon 

(Acipenser oxyrhyncus), shortnose sturgeon (Acipenser brevirostrum). Kepone concentration in 

tissues is also mentioned. Estimates of total landings by gear type are obtained from catch-per-unit-of 

effort (c/f) and the total units of gear fished. The c/f and the estimated landings can also be used as a 

relative indicator (index) of stock abundance by a simple comparison with such estimates in prior 

years. 
36 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

Johnson, A.G., W.A. Fable Jr., M.L. Williams, and L.E. Barger. 1983. Age, growth, and mortality of king 

mackerel, Scomberomorus cavalla, from the southeastern United States. Fishery Bulletin 81(1): 

97-106. 

Age, growth, and mortality of king mackerel, Scomberomorus cavalla, from the southeastern United 

States were studied. Otoliths from 1,449 fish were used to estimate age composition, growth rates, 

and mortality rates of this species. 

Age composition varied between locations (Texas, Louisiana, Florida, South Carolina, and North 

Carolina). The majority of older fish were found in Louisiana waters. The oldest females were 14+ 

years old and the oldest males were 9+ years old. Compensatory growth was found in both sexes. The 

von Bertalanffy growth equations were as follows: Males (all areas) lt = 965(1-e-0 . 2 8 ( t + 1 . 1 7)); females 

from Louisiana lt = 1,529(1 — e-0 . l 4 ( t + 2 . 0 8)); and females (excluding Louisiana) lt = 1,067(1 — 

e

-0.29(t+0.97)) where l = fork length (mm) and t = years. The mean annual mortality rate determined by 

six methods of analysis ranged from 0.32 to 0.42. The length-weight relations of king mackerel were 

for males: W = 0.8064 X 10-5L2.9928; for females: W = 0.8801 X 10-5L2.9827, where W = weight in 

grams and L = fork length in millimeters. 

Keefe, S.G., B.F. Holland Jr., and J.W. Gillikin Jr. 1977. RV Dan Moore Cruise Report No. 16: Cape 

Lookout, NC to Little Machipongo Inlet, VA. North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries, 

Department of Natural Resources and Community Development. Morehead City, NC. 

*From 11 April to 2 June 1977 sampling to monitor the stocks of anadromous fishes (river herring, 

shad, striped bass and sturgeon) was conducted offshore North Carolina and Virginia during three 

cruise segments (Segment 1: 11-18 April; Segment 2: 25-30 April; and Segment 3: 16-31 May). A 

wing trawl, selective for herring, bluefish, and mackerel was used. 

—. 1978. RV Dan Moore Cruise Report No. 22: Cape Lookout, NC to Little Machipongo Inlet, VA. 

North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries, Department of Natural Resources and Community 

Development. Morehead City, NC. 

*From February-April 1978, the emphasis of the RV Dan Moore cruises was on investigations of 

anadromous fishes (river herring, shad, striped bass and sturgeon) from Cape Lookout, NC to Little 

Machipongo Inlet, VA. Sample stations were along the beach in the vicinity of 15-20 fathoms. 

Sampling was extended off the Chesapeake Bay entrance to 21 fathoms. 

Keefe, S.G., J.A. Vaughn, and B.F. Holland Jr. 1975. RV Dan Moore Cruise Report No. 10: Cape 

Lookout, NC to Little Machipongo Inlet, VA. North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries, 

Department of Natural Resources and Community Development. Morehead City, NC. 

*The purpose of the RV Dan Moore November 1975 cruise was to investigate oceanic concentrations 

of flounder (Paralichthys spp.) and to obtain catch data which may be of use to commercial fishermen 

and marine fishery scientists. In addition, information regarding size composition, ovary maturation 

of females, and distribution of the flounder stock by geographical area and temperature regimes was 

gathered. A wing trawl was used in the vicinity of 10-15 fathom contours. 

—. 1976. RV Dan Moore Cruise Report No. 13: Cape Lookout, NC to Little Machipongo Inlet, VA. 

North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries, Department of Natural Resources and Community 

Development. Morehead City, NC. 

*The primary objective of the February 1976 cruise was to continue monitoring the offshore stocks of 

anadromous fishes (alewife, blueback herring, American and hickory shad, striped bass and sturgeon) 
Fishery Chapter — 37 

in North Carolina and Virginia. A wing trawl, selective for pelagic fishes such as herring, trout and 

mackerel was used in the vicinity of 10-15 fathom contours. 

Kendall, A.W., Jr. 1972. Description of black sea bass, Centropristis striata (Linneaus), larvae and their 

occurrences north of Cape Lookout, NC, in 1966. Fishery Bulletin 70(4): 1243-1259. 

Larvae of black sea bass collected during RV Dolphin ichthyoplankton surveys of the Middle Atlantic 

continental shelf are described. Development of most meristic characters occurs between 6 and 10 

mm standard length. The larvae are identified by characteristic ventral pigment patterns, body shape, 

meristic counts, and lack of extensive armature. The 147 larvae were taken during cruises from June 

to November 1966, from 4 to 82 km from shore. They were found in tows from the surface to 33 m in 

water varying in surface temperature from 14.3 to 28.0o C and surface salinity from 30.3 to 34.6 0

/00. 

Kendall, A.W., Jr., and J.W. Reintjes. 1975. Geographic and hydrographic distribution of Atlantic 

menhaden eggs and larvae along the middle Atlantic Coast from RV Dolphin Cruises: 1965-66. 

Fishery Bulletin 73(2): 317-335. 

Atlantic menhaden, Brevoortia tyrannus, eggs and larvae were collected during eight ichthyoplankton 

cruises of the RV Dolphin from December 1965 to December 1966. On each cruise tows were made 

with a Gulf V plankton net at stations along 14 transects from the coast to the edge of the continental 

shelf of Martha’s Vineyard, MA, to Cape Lookout, NC. Larvae resulting from a protracted spawning 

season were taken throughout the year. Eggs were taken over the middle of the shelf in fall. Seasonal 

shifts in geographic pattern of larvae indicated spawning started in summer off New Jersey and New 

York, became widespread in the Middle Atlantic Bight in fall, and continued into winter off North 

Carolina. Larvae were equally distributed in shallow (0-15m) and deep (18-33m) tows during night 

and day. Larvae occurred over a water temperature range from 0 to 25o C and a salinity range of 29 to 

36 0

/00. Seasonal distribution of larvae suggests some of the annual variation in year classes may be 

due to cold-related mortality of larvae entering the middle Atlantic estuaries in the fall. 

Kennelly, S.J. 1999. Areas, depths, and times of high discard rates of scup, Stenotomus chrysops, during 

demersal fish trawling off the Northeastern United States. Fishery Bulletin 97: 185-191. 

*In the waters of the northeastern United States, many stocks of commercial and recreational species 

have declined in recent years. Although much of the blame for these declines is ascribed to sustained 

overfishing, there also has been substantial concern over bycatch and discarding practices in key 

fisheries of the region, especially those involving demersal trawling. This study describes both 

commercial and recreational scup (or porgy, Stenotomus chrysops) fishery. The impact of overfishing, 

exploitation of 0-2 year class, incidental bycatch and subsequent discarding from demersal trawlers is 

discussed. 

Kirby-Smith, W.W. 1989a. Biological Production Near the Bottom. p. 25. In: Crawford, K. (ed.). 

Proceedings: 1989 Marine Expo: The Natural Resources Associated with Mobil’s Proposed Drill Site. 

NC Outer Continental Shelf Office, NC Department of Administration. Raleigh, NC. 

Satellite photographs show that North Carolina has an incredibly diverse oceanographic setting 

which, in turn, produces highly diverse communities of fishes and invertebrates. The three bottom 

types found off the continental shelf of North Carolina include; 1) sand, 2) shell, and 3) rock 

outcrops. Across the continental shelf, the primary producers that support fisheries include 

microalgae and macroalgae. The bottom-dwelling microalgae (small microscopic plants) grow, 

rapidly and are very important to the total productivity of the whole water column. As much as half of 

the primary productivity on the shelf may be due to this benthic component. The secondary producers 

on rock outcrops, which include sponges, corals, worms and small arthropods, are a major food 
38 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

source for small fish. From a scientific perspective, the proposed drill site is an exciting area with a 

high biomass and low diversity. In my opinion, the exploration well itself would have little or no 

impact on the resources in the area; however, a major find of oil or gas could lead to a tremendous 

amount of industrial development, which could compete economically with other coastal industries, 

such as tourism and fisheries. 

—. 1989b. The Community of Small Macroinvertebrates Associated with Rock Outcrops in the 

Continental Shelf of North Carolina. pp. 279-305. In: George, R.Y., and A.W. Hulbert (eds.). North 

Carolina Coastal Symposium. National Undersea Research Program, NOAA. Rockville, MD. 

Communities of small benthic organisms associated with rock outcrops on the continental shelf of 

North Carolina were examined for patterns in community structure related to season and depth. The 

communities were dominated by polychaetes, amphipods and mollusks. The number of species per 

0.5m2 ranged from 40 to 214 and the number of individuals from 180 to 1657. Diversity was high 

with H’ values of 4 to 6. Diversity was slightly greater at the middle shelf stations as compared to 

inner and outer shelf. The number of species and individuals was greatest at all three locations in the 

spring and fall and least in the winter and summer: a pattern similar to that of temperate coastal 

plankton. An index of community similarity indicated the presence of cold (winter/spring) and warm 

(summer/fall) communities at each of the three locations. Moreover at the middle and inner shelf the 

communities were more related to season (cold and warm) than to location (inner and middle). Outer 

shelf communities also had a strong seasonal component but were very different when compared with 

the middle and inner shelf communities. Different sampling gear (grabs versus diver suction) may 

explain some of the outer shelf uniqueness. 

*The site ISO4 location data cited by Kirby-Smith are incorrect. Data cited by Kirby-Smith for site 

ISO4 resulted from unpublished data collected during a SCUBA dive by S.W. Ross on 18 August 

1980. The correct location for this site [SWR -SCUBA-80-20] is 35o 20.7′N; 75o 21.2′W; depth 70-80 

feet. Selected fish, invertebrate, and bottom habitat data were collected. These data are unpublished 

and the site was not visited again (S.W. Ross, pers. comm., 19 November 1999). 

Kohler, N.E., J.G. Casey, and P.A. Turner. 1998. NMFS Cooperative shark tagging program, 1962-93: an 

atlas of shark tag and recapture data. Marine Fisheries Review 60(2): 1-87. 

*(Modified from the Introduction) The National Marine Fisheries Service Cooperative Shark Tagging 

Program (CSTP) is part of continuing research directed to the study of the biology of large Atlantic 

sharks. The CSTP was initiated in 1962 at the Sandy Hook Laboratory, NJ under the Dept. of 

Interior’s U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. During the late 1950’s and early 1960’s, sharks were 

considered a liability to the economy of resort communities, of little or no commercial value, and a 

detriment to fishermen in areas where sharks might damage expensive fishing gear or reduce catches 

of more commercially valuable species. 

Several shark attacks along the New Jersey coast at that time gave rise to public concern about a 

perceived shark menace. In response to that concern, a shark longline survey was conducted in 1961 

from Jones Inlet, NY, to Cape Henlopen, DE. When the details of the survey were made public, 

hundreds of recreational fishermen interested in fishing for sharks as “big game” in the rapidly 

expanding offshore recreational fisheries offered to assist biologists in their research on sharks. This 

was the genesis of the CSTP. 

This paper broadly summarizes the tagging and recapture (T/R) information from the CSTP for 1962 

through 1993. T/R data are presented in an atlas format to provide an overview of the 32 year 

database and show the extent of the tagging effort, areas of release and recapture, sources of 
Fishery Chapter — 39 

recaptures, and movements of tagged sharks with respect to state boundaries, the 200-mile U.S. 

Exclusive Economic Zone and waters of other countries. 

Langfelder, J., T.B. Curtin, D.N. Hyman, G. Janowitz, J. Maiolo, W. Queen, F.Y. Sorrell, M. Amien, V. 

Bellis, M. Brinson, G. Davis, C.Y. Lee, C. O’Rear, L. Pearce, C.Y. Peng, S. Riggs, B. Smith, M. 

Sobsey, and P. Tschetter. 1979. Final Report: Ocean Outfall Wastewater Disposal Feasibility and 

Planning, Report No. 79-1. Dept. of Marine Science and Engineering, NCSU; Report No. 5, Institute 

for Coastal and Marine Resources, ECU. 482 p. 

*This report follows an EIS format and is cited as a single document. Individual chapters are not 

stand-alone documents. Major findings of the study were: 1) Construction and operation of a well 

designed and operated sewage treatment plant that utilizes an ocean outfall and secondary treatment 

should not adversely affect the water column on fishery resources. Some build up of effluent 

constituents may occur in the bottom sediments in the immediate vicinity of the diffuser and could 

result in bottom community changes. 2) Effluent discharge should have essentially no adverse affect 

on recreational swimming in the areas of the diffuser. Areas now closed to shellfishing in the 

estuaries could be reopened as a result of reduced pathogen loadings: these pathogens are presently 

coming from septic tanks and treatment plants that discharge into these waters. 3) Centralized sewer 

systems will increase land values, allow reduced lot size and stimulate growth. This will lead to 

change in the population composition and demands for expanded goods and services. 

Lee, D.S. 1986b. Seasonal, Thermal, and Zonal Distribution of Ocean Sunfish, Mola mola (Linnaeus), off 

the North Carolina Coast. Brimleyana 12: 75-83. 

Most previous information on the ocean sunfish, Mola mola, has been derived from beached 

specimens and contributed little to our understanding of typical distributional patterns or the species. 

More than 60 encounters with Mola mola in North Carolina’s offshore waters reveal that this fish is 

an epipelagic migrant, occurring in shallow water (0 to 40 fathoms in depth) commonly in the spring 

between mid-march and mid-June. In the fall it has been seen less frequently (mid-October through 

November), and the species is essentially absent in the winter. 

Loesch, J.G., Jr., W.H. Kriete, H.B. Johnson, B.F. Holland, S.G. Keefe, and M.W. Street. 1977. Biology 

and Management of Mid-Atlantic Anadromous Fishes Under Extended Jurisdiction: Annual Report, 

Anadromous Fish Project 1977. North Carolina — Virginia AFCS 9-1. Virginia Institute of Marine 

Science. Gloucester Point, VA. NC Department of Natural Resources and Community Development, 

Division if Marine Fisheries. Morehead City, NC. 183 p. 

*This is a cooperative study (between Virginia Institute of Marine Science and NC Division of 

Marine Fisheries, Morehead City, NC) of life history characteristics of anadromous fishes of North 

Carolina and Virginia. Mentioned are: striped bass (Morone saxatilis), blueback herring (Alosa 

aestivalis), hickory shad (Alosa mediocris), American shad (Alosa sapidissima), alewife (Alosa 

pseudoharengus), sturgeon (Acipenser oxyrhyncus), sturgeon (Acipenser brevirostrum). Kepone 

concentration in tissues is also mentioned. Estimates of total landings by gear type are obtained from 

catch-per-unit-of effort (c/f) and the total units of gear fished. The c/f and the estimated landings can 

also be used as a relative indicator (index) of stock abundance by a simple comparison with such 

estimates in prior years. 

Magnuson, J.J., C.L. Harrington, D.J. Stewart, and G.N. Herbst. 1981. Responses of macrofauna to 

short-term dynamics of a Gulf Stream front on the continental shelf. pp. 441-448. In: Richards, F.R. 

(ed.). Coastal Upwelling. American Geophysical Union. 
40 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

Benthic and near-bottom fishes, decapod crustaceans, and echinoderms were sampled in two areas 

through which a Gulf Stream front moved just north of Cape Hatteras along 75°13′ W longitude in 

October 1977. We tested the hypothesis that the frontal aggregations resulted from the response of 

organisms to the front itself rather than to a geographically fixed feature of the region. The front, 8.5° 

C and 3.5 o

/oo wide, was characterized by horizontal gradients of at least 0.5 C/km and speeds of 30 cm/s. Bottom trawling was conducted day and night in each area (northern and southern) when the 

front was present and when it was absent. Both areas contained more species and individuals of fish 

when the front was present. Atlantic croaker, weakfish, and spot left when the front left. Decapods 

exhibited some response to the front, especially at night. During the day, fewer echinoderms were 

caught when the front was present — perhaps because the sudden changes in temperature induced 

burrowing. During the day all three groups were more abundant in the northern than in the southern 

area in terms of species and individuals. The front itself and more geographically fixed features both 

influenced distributions. 

Marshall, N. 1951. Hydrography of North Carolina waters. pp. 1-76. In: Taylor, H.F. (ed.). Survey of 

Marine Fisheries of North Carolina. University of North Carolina Press. Chapel Hill, NC. 

*This paper synthesizes hydrographic data for all of NC’s marine waters, including the major 

estuaries. Offshore bathymetry is provided. Offshore temperature data are provided and the Gulf 

Stream circulation is discussed. The relationship between hydrography and offshore fisheries is 

discussed, particularly in the Cape Hatteras area. 

McGowan, M.F. and W.J. Richards. 1989. Bluefin tuna, Thunnus thynnus, larvae in the Gulf Stream off 

the southeastern United States: satellite and shipboard observations of their environment. Fishery 

Bulletin 87: 615-631. 

The primary spawning area of the western Atlantic stock of bluefin tuna is presumed to be in the Gulf 

of Mexico. However, bluefin tuna larvae were collected in April and May 1985 along the shelf edge 

from Palm Beach, Florida to Cape Fear, North Carolina and offshore as far as 260 km east of 

Jacksonville, Florida over the Blake Plateau. Satellite and shipboard sea-temperature data indicate 

that the larvae over the shelf edge were advected there in meanders of the Gulf Stream. Bluefin larvae 

previously reported in the Straits of Florida and off Cape Hatteras were also in the Gulf Stream 

according to retrospective analyses of temperature and salinity data. Based on age-length 

relationships and current velocity, one small larva was probably spawned north of Miami, Florida 

while others could have been advected into the Gulf Stream from the eastern Gulf. Spawning by a 

few unspent migrating adults could also account for some bluefin larvae in this region. The estimated 

total larvae off the southeastern United States in 1985 could have been produced by 5% of the 

spawning stock. Bluefin larvae were found within a narrow range of sea surface temperatures and 

salinities at offshore stations. Preliminary assessment of larval habitat indicates that waters off the 

southeastern United States are unfavorable for growth and survival of bluefin larvae relative to 

hypothesized larval retention areas in the Gulf of Mexico. 

Minerals Management Service. 1982a. South Atlantic OCS Area Living Marine Resources Study Year II: 

Final Report Executive Summary. Minerals Management Service contract AA551-CT1-18. Minerals 

Management Service, Washington, DC. 

Live bottom areas are known to be important to commercial and recreational fisheries in the South 

Atlantic Bight, but biological studies of these areas have been limited. As a result, very little data 

exists on the structure of invertebrate and fish communities present in these hard-bottom habitats, and 

information is lacking on what effects offshore oil and gas exploration might have on live-bottom 

communities. Because more information was needed for recent and upcoming Outer Continental 
Fishery Chapter — 41 

Shelf (OCS) Lease Sales, the Bureau of Land Management initiated the “South Atlantic OCS Area 

Living Marine Resources Study.” The primary objectives of this study during the first year were to: 1) 

Characterize the invertebrate and nektonic communities associated with several representative livebottom areas from Cape Hatteras, NC to Northern Florida and elevate factors which might influence 

community structure such as depth, latitude, and season (summer vs. winter), 2) Characterize the food 

habits of selected fish species of commercial and recreational importance, 3) Conduct a limited 

assessment of bottom topography and substrate type, 4) Evaluate the potential effects of oil- and gasrelated activities on live-bottom communities. 

Results obtained from the first year sampling program were presented in a 1981 report available 

through the National Technical Information Service. Objectives of the second-year study were the 

same as those listed above; however, seasonal sampling was increased to include all seasons. In 

addition, some study areas were changed to include portions of the shelf not previously studied, while 

others were sampled during both years to allow assessment of persistence in the distribution patterns 

observed during the first year. This report summarizes the results and conclusions obtained from the 

second year (1981) sampling program. 

—. 1982b. South Atlantic OCS Area Living Marine Resources Study Year II: Final Report Volume I. 

Minerals Management Service contract AA551-CT1-18. Minerals Management Service, Washington, 

DC. 

Live bottom areas are known to be important to commercial and recreational fisheries in the South 

Atlantic Bight, but biological studies of these areas have been limited. As a result, very little data 

exists on the structure of invertebrate and fish communities present in these hard-bottom habitats, and 

information is lacking on what effects offshore oil and gas exploration might have on live-bottom 

communities. Because more information was needed for recent and upcoming Outer Continental 

Shelf (OCS) Lease Sales, the Bureau of Land Management initiated the “South Atlantic OCS Area 

Living Marine Resources Study.” The primary objectives of this study during the first year were to: 1) 

Characterize the invertebrate and nektonic communities associated with several representative livebottom areas from Cape Hatteras, NC to Northern Florida and elevate factors which might influence 

community structure such as depth, latitude, and season (summer vs. winter), 2) Characterize the food 

habits of selected fish species of commercial and recreational importance, 3) Conduct a limited 

assessment of bottom topography and substrate type, 4) Evaluate the potential effects of oil- and gasrelated activities on live-bottom communities. 

Results obtained from the first year sampling program were presented in a 1981 report available 

through the National Technical Information Service. Objectives of the second-year study were the 

same as those listed above; however, seasonal sampling was increased to include all seasons. In 

addition, some study areas were changed to include portions of the shelf not previously studied, while 

others were sampled during both years to allow assessment of persistence in the distribution patterns 

observed during the first year. This report summarizes the results and conclusions obtained from the 

second year (1981) sampling program. 

—. 1982c. South Atlantic OCS Area Living Marine Resources Study Year II: Final Report Volume II. 

Minerals Management Service contract AA551-CT1-18. Minerals Management Service, Washington, 

DC. 

Live bottom areas are known to be important to commercial and recreational fisheries in the South 

Atlantic Bight, but biological studies of these areas have been limited. As a result, very little data 

exists on the structure of invertebrate and fish communities present in these hard-bottom habitats, and 

information is lacking on what effects offshore oil and gas exploration might have on live-bottom 

communities. Because more information was needed for recent and upcoming Outer Continental 
42 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

Shelf (OCS) Lease Sales, the Bureau of Land Management initiated the “South Atlantic OCS Area 

Living Marine Resources Study.” The primary objectives of this study during the first year were to: 1) 

Characterize the invertebrate and nektonic communities associated with several representative livebottom areas from Cape Hatteras, NC to Northern Florida and elevate factors which might influence 

community structure such as depth, latitude, and season (summer vs. winter), 2) Characterize the food 

habits of selected fish species of commercial and recreational importance, 3) Conduct a limited 

assessment of bottom topography and substrate type, 4) Evaluate the potential effects of oil- and gasrelated activities on live-bottom communities. 

Results obtained from the first year sampling program were presented in a 1981 report available 

through the National Technical Information Service. Objectives of the second-year study were the 

same as those listed above; however, seasonal sampling was increased to include all seasons. In 

addition, some study areas were changed to include portions of the shelf not previously studied, while 

others were sampled during both years to allow assessment of persistence in the distribution patterns 

observed during the first year. This report summarizes the results and conclusions obtained from the 

second year (1981) sampling program. 

Minkler, R. Unpublished database. Bottom Trawl Surveys 1957-1984. NOAA/NMFS, Southeast Fisheries 

Center. Pascagoula, FL. 

*This is an unpublished fisheries database. Data were collected from 1957 to 1984 by the 

NOAA/NMFS, Southeast Fisheries Center. The Principal Investigator is listed as Rick Minkler. 

Select sample locations and related data were computerized as part of the North Carolina SEAMAP 

Hardbottom data project by Moser et al. (1995). SEAMAP Hardbottom data (sample locations) within 

the defined project area for The Point were sorted and mapped using ArcView GIS (J. Ott, pers. 

comm., 15 Nov 99). 

Morse, W.W. 1980. Maturity, spawning, and fecundity of Atlantic Croaker, Micropogonias undulatus, 

occurring North of Cape Hatteras, North Carolina. Fishery Bulletin 78 (1): 190-195. 

*This is a note describing life history of Atlantic Croaker, Micropogonias undulatus, in the Cape 

Hatteras, NC area. 

Moser, M.L., P.J. Austin, and J.B. Bichy. 1997. Effects of mat morphology on large Sargassumassociated fishes: observations from a remotely operated vehicle (ROV) and free-floating video 

camcorders. Attachment 10. In: South Atlantic Fishery Management Council. Essential Fish Habitat 

Workshop # 9: October 7 — 8, 1997 Pelagic Habitat Sargassum and Water Column. South Atlantic 

Fishery Management Council. Charleston, SC. 

Attachment 10: Vagile larger juvenile and adult fishes are often under-represented in traditional 

sampling of Sargassum-associated fishes in the open ocean. We used underwater video recordings 

from free-floating camcorders and a remotely operated vehicle (ROV) to assess the relative 

abundance of large mobile fishes under large Sargassum mats (> 10 m diameter), under dispersed 

clumps of Sargassum (< 1 m diameter), and in open water without Sargassum as a reference. In 

addition, we conducted dipnet sampling in each Sargassum treatment for a comparison to traditional 

methods. All samples were obtained in September 1992 along the western wall of the Gulf Stream off 

Cape Hatteras, North Carolina. A total of 31 fish taxa were identified from both video and dipnet 

collections. Only 8 taxa were identified in both video and dipnet collections, while 11 taxa were seen 

only in video and 10 were only found in dipnet collections. Dipnet collections were dominated by 

juvenile balistids and other small, cryptic fishes, while the video observations were mainly of larger, 

rapidly-moving carangids. Fish diversity increased with the amount of continuous Sargassum habitat: 

four taxa were observed when no Sargassum was present, 12 under clumps, and 19 under mats. Our 
Fishery Chapter — 43 

results indicated that mat morphology significantly affects the Sargassum-associated fishes, and that 

both video and traditional capture methods are complementary and should be used together to 

accurately census this community. 

*This is the same abstract from Moser et al. (1998) 

—. 1998. Effects of mat morphology on large Sargassum-associated fishes: observations from a remotely 

operated vehicle (ROV) and free-floating video camcorders. Environmental Biology of Fishes 51: 

391-398. 

Vagile larger juvenile and adult fishes are often under-represented in traditional sampling of 

Sargassum-associated fishes in the open ocean. We used underwater video recordings from freefloating camcorders and a remotely operated vehicle (ROV) to assess the relative abundance of large 

mobile ashes under large Sargassum mats (> 10 m diameter), under dispersed clumps of Sargassum 

(< 1 m diameter), and in open water without Sargassum as a reference. In addition, we conducted 

dipnet sampling in each Sargassum treatment for a comparison to traditional methods. All samples 

were obtained in September 1992 along the western wall of the Gulf Stream off Cape Hatteras, North 

Carolina. A total of 31 fish taxa were identified from both video and dipnet collections. Only 8 taxa 

were identified in both video and dipnet collections, while 11 taxa were seen only in video and 10 

were only found in dipnet collections. Dipnet collections were dominated by juvenile balistids and 

other small, cryptic fishes, while the video observations were mainly of larger, rapidly-moving 

carangids. Fish diversity increased with the amount of continuous Sargassum habitat: four taxa were 

observed when no Sargassum was present, 12 under clumps, and 19 under mats. Our results indicated 

that mat morphology significantly affects the Sargassum-associated fishes, and that both video and 

traditional capture methods are complementary and should be used together to accurately census this 

community. 

Moser, M.L., S.W. Ross, S.W. Snyder, and R.C. Dentzman. 1995. Distribution of Bottom Habitats on the 

Continental Shelf off North Carolina. Final Report to Marine Resources Research Institute, South 

Carolina Department of Marine Resources for the Southeast Area Monitoring and Assessment 

Program — Bottom Mapping Workgroup. Wilmington, NC. 80 p. 

*This report documents the compilation and evaluation of the North Carolina SEAMAP Hardbottom 

data. In situ observations of hard bottom type and relief were made using submersibles or SCUBA. 

These data are in video and/or 35 mm still photographs. Black and white, 35 mm still photographs 

from RV Eastward research cruises (1964-1973) also provided evidence of bottom type and relief. 

USACOE drilling logs (1983) characterized sub-surface stability. Fish trawl and trap data from 

NMFS-Woods Hole (groundfish surveys 1964-1994), NMFS- Pascagoula (archive data 1954-1984), 

SEAMAP data (since 1984) and NCDMF (RV Dan Moore, and reef data) were evaluated for the 

presence of obligate (primary) reef fishes as evidence for the location of hard or non-hard bottoms. 

This report is part of a CD-ROM for the whole S. Atlantic Bight, published by the Florida DNR 

(S.W. Ross, pers. comm. 31 Dec 99). 

Moser, M.L., S.W. Ross, and K.J. Sulak. 1996. Metabolic responses to hypoxia of Lycenchelys verrillii 

(wolf eelpout) and Glyptocephalus cynoglossus (witch flounder); sedentary bottom fishes of the 

Hatteras/Virginia Middle Slope. Marine Ecology Progress Series 144: 57-61. 

We collected wolf eelpouts Lycenchelys verrillii and witch flounder Glyptocephalus cynoglossus 

from Hatteras (North Carolina, USA) and Virginia (USA) Middle Slope sites using a submersible, 

and made shipboard measurements of their respiration rates and survival in hypoxic (<10% O2 

saturation) and anoxic conditions. Both species from the Hatteras site reduced their respiration rates 

as ambient oxygen decreased, but eelpouts from the Virginia site maintained a constant respiration 
44 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

rate until oxygen saturation dropped below 20 %. Moreover, eelpouts from the Hatteras site were 

significantly more tolerant of hypoxic conditions than fish from the Virginia site and survived anoxia 

for short periods. These results and our submersible observations of fish behavior support the 

hypothesis that the Hatteras Middle Slope fauna is exposed to short-term hypoxia events. 

Musick, J.A. 1979. Community Structure of Fishes on the Continental Slope and Rise Off the Middle 

Atlantic Coast of the United States. Virginia Institute of Marine Science School of Marine Science, 

College of William and Mary. Gloucester Point, VA. 124 p. 

Otter trawl cruises were conducted off the middle Atlantic coast of the U. S. from 1971 to 1975. More 

than 50,000 specimens of demersal fishes were captured during this program at depths of 75 m to 

3000 m. Species assemblages were distributed along a coenocline with bathymetric areas of rapid 

faunal change (anantoclines) and of more gradual faunal change (aganoclines). Between 75 m and 

3000 m anantoclines were found at 150 to 200 m, 400 to 600 m, 900 to 1000 m, 1350 to 1500 m, and 

1900 to 2100 m. Species diversity (H1) increased between the continental shelf and slope, remained 

constant to about 1800 m, then declined rapidly. This pattern was primarily related to species 

richness, not evenness. Numerical abundance increased between the shelf and slope, then declined 

exponentially. Biomass increased between the continental shelf and slope and then remained fairly 

constant out to a depth of about 1800 m beyond which there was an exponential decline (but not as 

steep as that for numerical abundance). The average size of fishes was about the same on the shelf 

and upper- slope out to a depth of about-1800 m beyond which size increased by threefold. This size 

increase is contrary to that found for the meiofauna and macrofauna. The difference in strategies lies 

in the mobility of fishes which allows them to maintain viable sexually reproducing populations at 

relatively small population size. Biomass of fishes was of the same order of magnitude as that 

reported by other workers for the infauna at similar depths. This apparent contradiction of classic 

trophic pyramid structure is resolved because the mobility of fishes allows them to utilize pelagic as 

well as benthic food sources. The declines in diversity and biomass and the increase in average size of 

fishes, all occurred at around 1800 m near the slope-rise border beyond which regular food sources of 

continental origin are absent. 

Musick, J.A. and L.P. Mercer. 1977. Seasonal distribution of black sea bass, Centropristis striata, in the 

Mid-Atlantic Bight with comments on the ecology and fisheries of the species. Transactions of the 

American Fisheries Society 106(1): 12-25. 

Black sea bass in the Middle Atlantic Bight spawn in the summer, at depths of 18 to 45 m, primarily 

from Virginia to Montauk, Long Island. Young of the year become demersa1 at 13-24 mm total 

length and enter estuarine nursery grounds. In fall black sea bass migrate south and offshore to the 

Chesapeake Bight where the entire population spends the winter. Larger and older fish move offshore 

sooner than do young of the year and winter in deeper water (73-165 m). Black sea bass may tolerate 

temperatures as low as 6 C but are captured in larger numbers and more frequently in waters 9 C and 

above. In the spring sea bass migrate inshore and to the north; adults to their coastal spawning areas, 

juveniles to estuarine nursery areas (including lower Chesapeake Bay). 

In recent years, the commercial catch per effort of sea bass has dropped and the fishery lands fewer 

large and medium size fish. Concurrently domestic trawling effort has decreased somewhat whereas 

effort by the recreational, foreign trawl, and pot fisheries has increased. Black sea bass appear to be 

overharvested. 

Because sea bass are incompletely metagonous, protogynous hermaphrodites, heavy fishing pressure 

may cause the sex ratio of the population to so favor females that the number of remaining males may 

not be sufficient to sustain adequate reproduction. Conversely, behavioral interactions among 

individuals in the population may act homeostatically to initiate sex reversal, thus maintaining a 
Fishery Chapter — 45 

relatively constant (though skewed) sex ratio in the population. It is necessary to understand the 

mechanisms controlling sex reversal in black sea bass before the effects of fishing pressure on the 

population can be evaluated. 

National Marine Fisheries Service, Southeast Fisheries Center. 1974. Cruise Reports — North Carolina 

1956 — 1974. National Marine Fisheries Service, Southeast Fisheries Center. Miami, FL. 164 p. 

*This is a compilation of Cruise Reports in North Carolina between 1956 — 1974, arranged by date. 

Vessels in this report included: 

R/V George M. Bowers Cruise Number 7A; December 6, 1956. 

R/V George M. Bowers Cruise Number 112; October 13, 1972. 

R/V George M. Bowers Cruise Number 115; April 27, 1973. 

R/V George M. Bowers Cruise Number 122; May 29, 1974. 

M/V Silver Bay Cruise Number 18, October 7, 1959. 

M/V Silver Bay Cruise Number 20; December 18, 1959. 

M/V Silver Bay Cruise Number 22; March 24, 1960. 

M/V Silver Bay Cruise Number 25; August 5, 1960. 

M/V Silver Bay Cruise Number 29; March 28, 1961. 

M/V Silver Bay Cruise Number 32; August 30, 1961. 

M/V Silver Bay Cruise Number 35; December 22, 1961. 

M/V Silver Bay Cruise Number 39; June 19, 1962. 

M/V Silver Bay Cruise Number 40; August 27, 1962. 

M/V Silver Bay Cruise Number 43; no date provided. 

M/V Silver Bay Cruise Number 45; no date provided. 

M/V Silver Bay Cruise Number 56; April 29, 1964. 

R/V Oregon Cruise Number 93, August 24, 1964. 

R/V Oregon Cruise Number 93; September 3, 1964. 

R/V Oregon Cruise Number 100; April 23, 1965. 

R/V Oregon Cruise Number 116; April 7, 1967. 

R/V Oregon Cruise Number 125; January 29, 1968. 

R/V Oregon Cruise Number 127; March 29, 1968. 

R/V Oregon Cruise Number 129; May 28, 1968. 

R/V Oregon Cruise Number 131; August 5, 1968. 

R/V Oregon Cruise Number 133; September 24, 1968. 

R/V Oregon Cruise Number 135; December 3, 1968. 

R/V Oregon II Cruise Number 10, September 3, 1969. 

R/V Oregon II Cruise Number 17; June 15, 1970. 

R/V Oregon II Cruise Number 25; June 10, 1970. 

R/V Oregon II Cruise Number 33; March 22, 1972. 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Marine Fisheries Service, and Northeast 

Fisheries Center. 1977. Fishermen’s Report Catch of Delaware II During Summer Groundfish Survey 

77-09, July 27 to August 5, 1977 (covering southern New England and middle Atlantic shelf). U. S. 

Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Marine 

Fisheries Service, Northeast Fisheries Center, Sandy Hook Laboratory. Highlands, NJ. 18 p. 

The included charts and station data are designed to show where important species were found in 

some quantity during the newly initiated summer groundfish survey. In addition, a section of each 

species chart includes information pertinent to the biology of that species. All tows were made with a 

#36 otter trawl equipped with rollers, 9-meter (5 fathom) legs, and 544-kg (1200 lb.) BMV oval 
46 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

doors. The cod end and upper belly of the trawl were lined with 1⁄2-inch mesh netting to retain smaller 

fish. Because of the short tow time (one-half hour), the catches listed are low when compared to 

standard commercial tows. The bias caused by the day-night catchability of some fish, depth 

limitations of vessels, and the fact that randomly selected stations will not necessarily fall on fish 

concentrations will have to be appreciated. Time of year and area of coverage should also be 

considered because of the movement of migrating and spawning fish. The metric system is used for 

all lengths, weights, and depths in this report. An English-metric conversion chart is attached. For, 

further information, please call or write to the National Marine Fisheries Service. 

Nesbit, R.A, and W.C. Neville. 1935. Conditions Affecting the Southern Winter Trawl Fishery. U.S. 

Department of Commerce, Bureau of Fisheries, Fisheries Circular. Fishery Circular No. 18: 12 p. 

*With the opening of another season of the winter-trawl fishery off the Virginia capes, questions have 

been raised as to what might be expected during the coming winter (Jan.-Mar. 1935). It is the present 

intention to answer these questions as completely as is permitted by the results of the Bureau’s studies 

of the winter and summer fishery for scup, sea bass, and fluke, these being the three most important 

fishes in the southern winter-trawl fishery. The discussion will be more complete as to scup for there 

is more information on that fish than on sea bass or fluke. However, much of what is said about scup 

in the winter fishery generally applies to sea bass and fluke since all three fishes were subject to the 

same conditions and were affected in about the same general way, though to differing degrees. This 

paper also discusses Changes in the Summer Fishery, Changes in the Winter Fishery, Changes in 

Temperature, Scup Scatter in Warm Winters, Sea Bass in Warmer Water Than Scup, Fluke in More 

Northerly Part of Ground, Outlook for the Winter of 1935 (January- March), and Conservation 

Problems. 

Nickerson, S.R., and D.G. Mountain. 1983. Surface and Bottom Temperature and Salinity Distributions 

on the Continental Shelf, Cape Hatteras to Cape Sable from MARMAP Cruises, 1977-1982. 

Northeast Fisheries Center, Woods Hole Laboratory. Woods Hole, MA. 83 p. 

*This report presents surface and bottom temperature and salinity distributions observed on twentyfive cruises between 1977 and 1982. These cruises were part of the Marine Resources Monitoring and 

Assessment Program (MARMAP) conducted by the Northeast Fisheries Center, National Marine 

Fisheries Service. The area observations extended over the continental shelf from Cape Hatteras to 

Nova Scotia, although complete coverage was not made on all cruises due to time and weather 

limitations. Generally, the area was covered from south to north over a period of approximately six 

weeks. Vessels included are: 

1977: Argus cruise 77-10; 15 Oct-11 Nov 

Mt. Mitchell-Kelez cruise 77-11; 12 Nov-04 Dec 

1978: Delaware II cruise 78-02; 14 Feb-13 Mar 

Argus cruise 78-04; 13 Apr-24 May 

Albatross IV cruise 78-07; 22 Jun-01 Jul 

Belogosrk cruise 78-01; 09 Aug-05 Sep 

Belogosrk cruise 78-03; 05-20 Oct 

Belogosrk cruise 78-04; 16-29 Nov 

1979: Delaware II cruise 79-03; 23 Feb-15 Mar 

Delaware II cruise 79-05; 06 29 May 

Albatross IV cruise 79-06; 17 Jun-12 Jul 

Belogosrk cruise 79-01; 11 Aug-02 Sep 

Albatross IV cruise 79-11; 03 Sep-29 Oct 

Albatross IV cruise 79-13; 15 Nov-20 Dec 
Fishery Chapter — 47 

1980: Albatross IV cruise 80-02; 27 Feb-04 Apr 

Delaware II cruise 80-03; 23 May-12 Jun 

Erika cruise 80-04; 25-29 Jun 

Albatross IV cruise 80-10; 24 Sep-30 Oct 

Albatross IV cruise 80-12; 19 Nov-21 Dec 

1981: Albatross IV cruise 81-01; 17 Feb-24 Mar 

Kelez cruise 81-03, 04; 18 Mar-09 Apr 

Delaware II cruise 81-03; 20 May-18 Jun 

Albatross IV cruise 81-14; 16 Nov-22 Dec 

1982: Albatross IV cruise 82-02; 16 Feb-25 Mar 

Delaware II cruise 82-03; 17 May-11 Jun 

Albatross IV cruise 82-09; 15 Nov-22 Dec. 

Nixon, S.W., and Jones C.W. 1997. Age and growth of larval and juvenile Atlantic croaker, 

Micropogonias undulatus, from the Middle Atlantic Bight Atlantic and estuarine waters of Virginia. 

Fishery Bulletin 95: 773-784. 

Sagittal otoliths were used to determine age and growth of 605 larval and juvenile Atlantic croaker, 

Micropogonias undulatus, collected in the Middle Atlantic Bight and estuarine waters of Virginia. 

This study is the first to use age-based analysis for young Atlantic croaker collected in this region. A 

Laird-Gompertz model (r2

=0.95) was used to describe the growth of Atlantic croaker up to 65 mm 

standard length (SL) and 142 days (t): SL(t) = 2.657 exp {4.656 [1-exp (-0.0081t)]}; where SL(t) = 

standard length at day t. Spatial and temporal patterns in the size and age of Atlantic croaker showed 

a pattern of inshore immigration from offshore spawning grounds, and faster early-season growth 

compared with late-season growth. Back-calculated hatching dates of Atlantic croaker collected in 

Virginia estuaries indicated a protracted spawning period over 8 months, from early July 1987 to 

early February 1988, with at least 82% of spawning occurring from August to October. Regression 

analysis indicated that early-spawned larvae (July through August) grew more than 39% faster than 

late-spawned larvae (September through February). Lapillar and sagittal otoliths were compared with 

light microscopy; ages were underestimated with lapillar otoliths, which were particularly inadequate 

in determining the age of older juveniles. The relation between SL and sagittal otolith maximum 

diameter was best described by a fourth order polynomial (r2

=0.99) and faster-growing Atlantic 

croaker had larger otoliths (12%) than the same size slower-growing fish. 

Norcross, B.L. 1983. Climate scale environmental factors affecting year-class fluctuations of Atlantic 

Croaker, Micropogonias undulatus, in the Chesapeake Bay. Ph.D. Dissertation. School of Marine 

Science, College of William and Mary. Gloucester Point, VA. 387 p. 

A conceptual life history of the Atlantic croaker (Micropogonias undulatus) identifies the effects of 

the environment on juvenile recruitment. In a multi-disciplinary approach to modeling, the major 

effects are investigated, quantified and presented in a flow chart. 

The model is divided into three sub models, each representing a major component which affects 

juvenile recruitment. 

North/south spawning location in the Mid-Atlantic Bight is affected by the bottom water temperature 

as influenced by the cessation of the summer winds in relation to timing of croaker migration. The 

pelagic phase is the most critical time in the life history of a larval croaker as they are subjected to 

wind-induced transport which may cause direct loss off the shelf and entrainment in the Gulf Stream, 

or indirect loss by prolonging time in transit to the nursery area. The magnitude of this wind-included 

effect is a function of the direction, strength, duration and time relative to spawning and is 

incorporated in an equation to predict year-class strength of croaker. 
48 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

The juvenile croaker overwinter in the Chesapeake Bay system. Winter temperature is shown to be 

the predominant variable affecting year-class survival to the following summer in very cold years. 

However, in very warm years, the predictive capabilities of the model are improved when a measure 

of fall recruitment, i.e. wind-induced transport, is incorporated. 

Croaker is basically a density-independent stock as, juvenile recruitment is erratic and dependent 

upon these environmental parameters. The effect of spawning stock size is only apparent after 

accounting for density-independent effects, and slightly improves the explained variance of the 

statistical relationship. Year-class strength and fishing pressure cause interannual variability in 

commercial catch. Overfishing a weak year class reduce spawning potential, and several poor year 

classes in a row magnify this. The model, tested for the 1982-82 data, predicts a strong year class. 

Norcross, B.L. and H.M. Austin. 1988. Middle Atlantic Bight meridional wind component effect on 

bottom water temperatures and spawning distribution of Atlantic croaker. Continental Shelf Research. 

8(1): 69-88. 

Predominantly southerly winds over the Middle Atlantic Bight result in offshore flow in surface 

waters and corresponding onshore flow in a bottom Ekman layer. Seasonal heating results in 

maximum surface temperatures in August while the bottom onshore Ekman flow results in cold 

summer bottom water temperatures. Bottom temperatures do not peak until autumn after the seasonal 

wind shift resulting in a cessation of the southerly winds and overturning of the surface waters. Strong 

episodes of this onshore bottom flow of cold water (upwelling) have been previously reported as 

unusually cold surf zone temperatures. 

Fifteen-day moving averages of meridional components of winds from Norfolk International Airport, 

Virginia revealed few of the 15 years examined in which there was an abrupt seasonal shift in wind 

patterns from summer to winter regimes. Twenty-six collections of bottom water temperature data 

were reviewed for the Middle Atlantic Bight during the years 1967-1981. The average time of 

cessation of the strong southerly (summer) meridional wind component during those years was the 

end of August/beginning of September. A correlation of 0.74 exists between the time of cessation and 

the extent (km2

) of warm nearshore bottom waters, as indicated by the 16° C isotherm. The transition 

from a southerly to a northerly wind pattern occurs over a period of time ranging from 10 days to 3 

months, while the response of ocean bottom isotherms to the cessation of the southerly component 

can typically be seen in 10-20 days. 

Migration and spawning behavior of many fish is cued by water temperatures. The autumn areal 

distribution of the Atlantic croaker (Micropogonias undulates) is strongly correlated (r2

 = 0.78) with 

the areal distribution of bottom waters warmer than 16° C on the shelf. Furthermore, there is a 

correlation (r2

 = 0.64) between the time of cessation of the summer southerly wind and the areal 

extent of croaker. Therefore, we propose that if the wind relaxation occurs prior to the autumn 

migration of croaker out of the estuaries, spawning would occur in northern and middle sections of 

the Middle Atlantic Bight. Prolonged summer winds would keep the nearshore waters cool, and force 

croaker to migrate further southward to spawn, potentially shifting the distribution of juvenile 

recruitment to Pamlico Sound with entrance through Oregon Inlet in the Middle Atlantic Bight or 

through inlets south of Cape Hatteras. 

Olney, J.E. and G.R. Sedberry. 1983. Dragonet larvae (Teleostei, Callionymidae) in continental shelf 

waters off the Eastern United States. Biological Oceanography 3(1): 103-122. 

The seasonal distribution and abundance of larvae of the fish family Callionymidae are reported from 

plankton collections in continental shelf waters off the eastern United States. Larvae of Callionymus 

pauciradiatus and C. bairdi were distinguished by meristic variations and pigment patterns. 
Fishery Chapter — 49 

Callionymid larvae occurred in collections during all months sampled and peak densities were 

observed during summer and fall. Larvae of C. pauciradiatus dominated collections, constituting 90% 

of all larvae captured. Greatest densities of C. pauciradiatus were observed during late summer and 

early fall in mid-shelf regions of the South Atlantic Bight. Larvae of C. bairdi were most abundant 

along outer shelf stations. Abundance and size data indicate that previously unknown spawning 

populations of C. pauciradiatus inhabit mid-shelf regions as far north as Cape Hatteras, North 

Carolina. Larvae of C. bairdi in eastern U.S. shelf waters likely originate from tropical adult 

populations having extended spawning seasons. 

Orbach, M. 1989. Plenary Session: How Could These Resources be Affected By the Proposed Drilling 

and What Mitigation Measures Might be Used to Prevent Irreversible Damage. pp. 63-64. In: 

Crawford, K. (ed.). Proceedings: 1989 Marine Expo: The Natural Resources Associated with Mobil’s 

Proposed Drill Site. NC Outer Continental Shelf Office, NC Department of Administration. Raleigh, 

NC. 

*The following is a summary of the plenary session. 

There appears to be a good deal of baseline information available about Mobil’s proposed drill site 

area. However, there was a general consensus that there are serious gaps in our understanding of the 

relationships and functions of the many communities found in and around the exploration area known 

as the “Manteo Prospect.” Some major areas of concern include protection of area benthos, impacts 

on community ecology, and effects of drilling discharges . 

There was almost unanimous support for a monitoring program of the drilling operations and their 

impacts. Programs should be devised to examine: 1) The fate of drilling discharges, including 

dispersion (range and extent) and accumulation along fronts and the ocean bottom; and 2) The effects 

(both chemical and mechanical) of drilling discharges on the benthos, the indigenous fisheries 

(including eggs/larvae), prey species, forage strategies, and the sargassum communities. 

Concerns were also raised regarding the effects the ship and anchor system might have on the biota as 

a result of displacement, noise, or collisions, and the impacts of exploration activities on the 

commercial and recreational fisheries found at “The Point.” 

Because of previous scientific work done at or near the proposed drill site, this area may be well 

suited to such monitoring programs. Not only would information from these programs be vital for 

developing mitigation measures, but it could also serve as a critical database on which to build a 

management framework for future development. In addition, data already collected on local fish 

resources, marine birds, the benthos and bottom conditions, and physical oceanography could provide 

an excellent base for further research. 

This text also mentions marine mammals and Threatened and Endangered species (marine reptiles). 

Orbach, M.K. 1998a. Habitat and Living Resources Review: Social and Economic Issues. pp. 64-67. In:

Vigil, D.L. (ed.). North Carolina/Minerals Management Service Technical Workshop on Manteo Unit 

Exploration: February 4-5, 1998. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, Gulf of 

Mexico OCS Region. New Orleans, LA. 

*These are the proceedings from a workshop/meeting (conducted on February 4-5, 1998) between the 

North Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources, and the U.S. Department of the 

Interior’s Minerals Management Service (MMS). The geographic area being discussed is 

approximately 45 miles east-northeast of Cape Hatteras, NC, referred to as the Manteo Unit. This 

workshop reviewed environmental and socioeconomic information known and needed on the Manteo 

Unit. The MMS’s Gulf of Mexico OCS Regional Director gave an MMS perspective on history and 

status of the area. Chevron gave a presentation on how the exploratory well would be drilled. The 
50 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

scientific characterization was presented in greater detail by a number of scientific experts who spoke 

on the following disciplines physical environment, habitat and living resources, seabirds, marine 

mammals, sea turtles, and social and economic issues. Specific chapters are cited individually, when 

appropriate. 

As a result of the recommendations of the North Carolina Environmental Science review Panel 

mandated by the Outer Banks Protection Act (Costlow et al. 1992), the North Carolina 

Socioeconomic Study (NCSS) was commissioned by the Atlantic OCS region of the Minerals 

Management Service (MMS). This study, which was completed in 1993, had five objectives: 1) a 

characterization of base case socioeconomic conditions in the five most potentially affected North 

Carolina counties, including standard aggregate variables, the structure of related industries, and 

relationships among private and public sector entities in the subject areas; 20 detailed community 

studies on representative communities potentially affected by OCS development, including 

sociocultural variables necessary to establish the context of the role and effect of potential OCS 

activities; 3) an aesthetic and perceptual issues study of representative components of the potentially 

affected populations in the region; 4) infrastructure studies performed in the potentially affected 

communities, focusing on the potential for changes in local and regional fiscal relationships derived 

from future OCS activity; and 5) the design of a longitudinal socioeconomic monitoring program that 

employs the key variables identified in the base case, community, infrastructure, and risk perception 

studies. This five-volume study was submitted to MMS in 1993 (NCSS 1993). 

—. 1998b. Social and Economic Issues Work Session Results: Socioeconomic Issues Associated With 

Human Uses of “The Point.” pp. 87-89. In: Vigil, D.L. (ed.). North Carolina/Minerals Management 

Service Technical Workshop on Manteo Unit Exploration: February 4-5, 1998. U.S. Dept. of the 

Interior, Minerals Management Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region. New Orleans, LA. 

*These are the proceedings from a workshop/meeting (conducted on February 4-5, 1998) between the 

North Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources, and the U.S. Department of the 

Interior’s Minerals Management Service (MMS). The geographic area being discussed is 

approximately 45 miles east-northeast of Cape Hatteras, NC, referred to as the Manteo Unit. This 

workshop reviewed environmental and socioeconomic information known and needed on the Manteo 

Unit. The MMS’s Gulf of Mexico OCS Regional Director gave an MMS perspective on history and 

status of the area. Chevron gave a presentation on how the exploratory well would be drilled. The 

scientific characterization was presented in greater detail by a number of scientific experts who spoke 

on the following disciplines physical environment, habitat and living resources, seabirds, marine 

mammals, sea turtles, and social and economic issues. Specific chapters are cited individually, when 

appropriate. 

The group addressed the question, “What socioeconomic information is needed for North Carolina 

and MMS to adequately judge a POE/EA regarding an exploratory well in the Manteo Prospect”? The 

following informational needs were discussed: (1) An update to the ECU study data. The information 

collected is now more than 10 years old. This information should include 1990 census data as well as 

document changes to the fishing industry and the continued increase in the tourism and retirement 

industry. (2) Establishment of a monitoring program. (3) Detailed assessment of uses and users of 

“The Point.” This might include some kind of cost/benefit analysis of The Point uses. (4) Economic 

modeling (demand curves, cost/benefit analysis). 

Pacheco, A.L. 1973. Proceedings of a Workshop on Egg, Larval, and Juvenile Stages of Fish in Atlantic 

Coastal Estuaries. National Marine Fisheries Center, Middle Atlantic Coastal Fisheries Center. 

Highlands, NJ. 
Fishery Chapter — 51 

*The purpose of the Charleston workshop was to assess the role of Atlantic estuaries as nursery 

grounds for economically important fishes and to encourage further work on estuaries. This was to be 

accomplished through a joint review and discussion of data by participants from each of the coastal 

states. This workshop is being held to provide an opportunity for joint review and discussion of 

information on the occurrence of fish eggs, larvae, and juveniles in Atlantic estuaries. Specific 

objectives are to present appropriate scientific papers, with publication of a volume of collected 

contributions; to provide a forum for informal discussions among biologists active in estuarine fish 

research; to encourage and assist in dissemination of unpublished data on estuarine fish nurseries; and 

to assess the present state of knowledge and recommend future lines of research. 

Note: The General Discussion section located on pp. 325 — 330 mentions RV Dolphin (1963-1964; 

1965-1966); RV Dan Moore (no specific dates); and RV Dolphin (December 1965-December 1966) 

in reference to studies “...within the Carolina sounds, “ and “...off the coast of New Jersey.” 

Palmquist, R.B., P.W. Schuhmann, and J.A. Michael. 2000. Economic Analysis of “The Point” and 

Adjacent Counties: Baseline Information, Valuation, and Potential Impacts. Final Report to the North 

Carolina Division of Coastal Management and the U.S. Minerals Management Service under a grant 

from the North Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Agency Reference No. 

5-9081. 46 p. 

*The purpose of this study is to generate baseline economic information for the counties that might be 

affected by off-shore oil and gas exploration, explore the potential impacts of an oil spill off the Outer 

banks, provide information on the value of recreational fishing at “The Point,” and estimate the 

potential losses to recreational fishing at “The Point” if there were an oil spill. This study also 

presents information on the effects of coastal oil releases elsewhere to guide the scenarios used here. 

First, the report describes the economies of affected coastal counties and the role of tourism and 

commercial fishing in these areas. Next, the report describes the impacts of several significant oil spill 

cases in the U.S. that will be used to develop possible spill scenarios for North Carolina. Following 

that, the appropriateness of economic base and input-output analysis to this case is discussed, and the 

techniques are used to describe the baseline economies and to analyze the potential impacts on the 

coastal economy of an oil spill. 

Pearson, J.C. 1932. Winter Trawl Fishery Off the Virginia and North Carolina Coasts. U.S. Department 

of Commerce, Bureau of Fisheries, Fisheries Circular. Investigative Report No. 10 (I): 31 p. 

*A winter trawl fishery has been established recently off the Virginia and North Carolina coasts and 

has expanded greatly during the past two years. This has been brought about by a considerable 

number of northern fishing vessels from Boston, Gloucester, New York, New Bedford, Bridgeport, 

Providence, Camden, and Wildwood, equipped with otter trawls, which are operating mainly out of 

Hampton Roads (VA) ports. Most of these vessels are engaged during the spring and summer months 

in purse seining for mackerel off the New England, New York and New Jersey coasts, often working 

in early spring as far south as North Carolina. Others are regularly engaged in flounder dragging off 

the southern New England or New Jersey coasts during the summer season. These vessels have found 

little to do during the winter months in northern waters, and with the development of this new fishery 

are turning to south waters. During the in winter of 1930-31 an increasing number of these vessels 

endeavored to open up the vast supply of summer shore fishes which winter in the deeper and warmer 

oceanic water in the general vicinity of Cape Hatteras NC. In view of the promising future of this 

fishery it was thought desirable for the Bureau of Fisheries to undertake a study of the fish in all its 

various aspects. This paper discusses History of the fishery, Location of the Fishery, Methods of the 

Fishery, Method of Investigation, Composition of Catch (e.g., quantity, species, size). Characteristics 

of scup, porgy fishery; croaker fishery, summer flounder or fluke fishery, sea bass fishery, gray sea 
52 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

trout and weakfish fishery, total catch data, and the socioeconomic impact of these fisheries are also 

discussed. 

Phalen, P. Unpublished database (a). North Carolina Artificial Fishing Reef Construction Through 

January 1994. North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries. Morehead City, NC. 

*This is an unpublished database. Data were collected through January 1994 by the NC Division of 

Marine Fisheries. The Principal Investigator is listed as Steve Murphy. Select sample locations and 

related data were computerized as part of the North Carolina SEAMAP Hardbottom data project by 

Moser et al. (1995). SEAMAP Hardbottom data (sample locations) within the defined project area for 

The Point were sorted and mapped using ArcView GIS (J. Ott, pers. comm. 15 Nov 99). 

—. Unpublished database (b). RV Dan Moore Studies, Anadromous Fish Survey 1968-1981. North 

Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries. Morehead City, NC. 

*This is an unpublished fisheries database. Data were collected from 1968 to 1981 by the NC 

Division of Marine Fisheries. The Principal Investigator is listed as Paul Phalen. Select sample 

locations and related data were computerized as part of the North Carolina SEAMAP Hardbottom 

data project by Moser et al. (1995). SEAMAP Hardbottom data (sample locations) within the defined 

project area for The Point were sorted and mapped using ArcView GIS (J. Ott, pers. comm. 15 Nov 

99). 

—. Unpublished database (c). RV Dan Moore Studies, Exploratory Fish/General Survey 1968-1969, 

1971-1981. North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries. Morehead City, NC. 

*This is an unpublished fisheries database. Data were collected from 1968-1969, and 1971-1981 by 

the NC Division of Marine Fisheries. The Principal Investigator is listed as Paul Phalen. Select 

sample locations and related data were computerized as part of the North Carolina SEAMAP 

Hardbottom data project by Moser et al. (1995). SEAMAP Hardbottom data (sample locations) within 

the defined project area for The Point were sorted and mapped using ArcView GIS (J. Ott, pers. 

comm. 15 Nov 99). 

—. Unpublished database (d). RV Dan Moore Studies, Flounder Survey 1973-1976. North Carolina 

Division of Marine Fisheries. Morehead City, NC. 

*This is an unpublished fisheries database. Data were collected from 1973 to 1976 by the NC 

Division of Marine Fisheries. The Principal Investigator is listed as Paul Phalen. Select sample 

locations and related data were computerized as part of the North Carolina SEAMAP Hardbottom 

data project by Moser et al. (1995). SEAMAP Hardbottom data (sample locations) within the defined 

project area for The Point were sorted and mapped using ArcView GIS (J. Ott, pers. comm. 15 Nov 

99). 

—. Unpublished database (e). RV Dan Moore Studies, Lobster Survey 1968-1973. North Carolina 

Division of Marine Fisheries. Morehead City, NC. 

*This is an unpublished fisheries database. Data were collected from 1968 to 1973 by the NC 

Division of Marine Fisheries. The Principal Investigator is listed as Paul Phalen. Select sample 

locations and related data were computerized as part of the North Carolina SEAMAP Hardbottom 

data project by Moser et al. (1995). SEAMAP Hardbottom data (sample locations) within the defined 

project area for The Point were sorted and mapped using ArcView GIS (J. Ott, pers. comm., 15 Nov 

99). 
Fishery Chapter — 53 

—. Unpublished database (f). RV Dan Moore Studies, Net Selectivity Testing 1979-1981. North Carolina 

Division of Marine Fisheries. Morehead City, NC. 

*This is an unpublished fisheries database. Data were collected from 1979-1981 by the NC Division 

of Marine Fisheries. The Principal Investigator is listed as Paul Phalen. Select sample locations and 

related data were computerized as part of the North Carolina SEAMAP Hardbottom data project by 

Moser et al. (1995). SEAMAP Hardbottom data (sample locations) within the defined project area for 

The Point were sorted and mapped using ArcView GIS (J. Ott, pers. comm. 15 Nov 99). 

—. Unpublished database (g). RV Dan Moore Studies, Squid Project 1974. North Carolina Division of 

Marine Fisheries. Morehead City, NC. 

*This is an unpublished fisheries database. Data were collected in 1974 by the NC Division of Marine 

Fisheries. The Principal Investigator is listed as Paul Phalen. Select sample locations and related data 

were computerized as part of the North Carolina SEAMAP Hardbottom data project by Moser et al. 

(1995). SEAMAP Hardbottom data (sample locations) within the defined project area for The Point 

were sorted and mapped using ArcView GIS (J. Ott, pers. comm. 15 Nov 99). 

Phalen, P. S. 1980. Computerization of RV Dan Moore Data Relevant to OCS Phosphates Area on the 

North Carolina’s Continental Shelf. North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries, Department of 

Natural Resources and Community Development. Morehead City, NC. 

The RV Dan Moore, an 85 foot steel stern trawler, collected over 4,400 samples during service with 

the North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries (DMF), 1968-1981. The vessel’s purpose was to 

conduct applied research to enable the Division to manage and develop coastal fisheries resources for 

the benefit of all North Carolinians. Objectives of individual cruises included gear tests, fish tagging, 

relative abundance and distribution surveys, biological investigations (i.e., age and growth), bottom 

type surveys, etc. Information collected consisted of location, environmental, and catch data. In many 

instances, these RV Dan Moore data are the only biological data for certain areas of the Continental 

Shelf. Results of cruises were summarized in bulletins from 1968-1974. Complete cruise reports 

describing methods and results were filed for the remaining cruises. 

The RV Dan Moore data that were found necessary to the contractor to complete an economic 

feasibility study of OCS Phosphates-Environmental Impact Statement have been coded, key entered, 

and summarized. The following completion report identifies the amount and type of data entered and 

summarizes the objectives, methods, and result of cruises that sampled within the specified OCS 

phosphates areas. 

Powell, A., B.F. Holland, and J. Gillikin. 1975a. RV Dan Moore Cruise Report No. 2: Currituck Beach to 

Cape Lookout Bight, NC. North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries, Department of Natural 

Resources and Community Development. Morehead City, NC. 

*The following RV Dan Moore monthly cruise report presents catch data which may be of use to 

commercial fishermen and marine fishery scientists. The purpose of the November 1974 cruise was to 

tag summer flounder (Paralichthys dentatus) in order to obtain information on seasonal movements 

and migration. In addition, information regarding the size composition and distribution of the 

flounder stock by geographical area and temperature regimes was gathered. 

—. 1975b. RV Dan Moore Cruise Report No. 3: Currituck Beach to Bogue Inlet, NC. North Carolina 

Division of Marine Fisheries, Department of Natural Resources and Community Development. 

Morehead City, NC. 
54 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

*The purpose of the December 1974 cruise was to continue tagging summer flounder (Paralichthys 

dentatus) and obtain information as outlined in Cruise Report No. 2. A preliminary account of 

summer flounder migration was also included in that report. Efforts from Currituck Beach to Bogue 

Inlet, NC resulted in the tagging of 1,462 summer flounder. From November 1973 to the present, a 

total of 7,300 flounder have been tagged. 

—. 1975c. RV Dan Moore Cruise Report No. 5: Onslow Bay, NC to Virginia Beach, VA; Anadromous 

Fish Survey, Calico Scallop Explorations. North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries, Department 

of Natural Resources and Community Development. Morehead City, NC. 

*Two separate cruises were accomplished during February 1975. A state supported calico scallop 

investigation was undertaken to determine if calico scallops were present in areas which previously 

supported a scallop fishery. A modified 8-foot tumbler dredge was utilized. The majority of sea time 

was used to obtain data for the federal-aid anadromous fish project outlined in the January 1975 

cruise report. 

—. 1975d. RV Dan Moore Cruise Report No. 4: Ocracoke Inlet, NC to Chesapeake Bay, VA. North 

Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries, Department of Natural Resources and Community 

Development. Morehead City, NC. 

*The purpose of the March 1975 cruise was to investigate the offshore populations of anadromous 

fishes as outlined in Cruise Report No. 4 (January 1975). 

—. 1975e. RV Dan Moore Cruise Report No. 6: Cape Hatteras, NC to Cape Henry, VA. North Carolina 

Division of Marine Fisheries, Department of Natural Resources and Community Development. 

Morehead City, NC. 

*The purpose of the March 1975 cruise was to investigate the offshore populations of anadromous 

fishes as outlined in Cruise Report No. 4 (January 1975). 

—. 1975f. RV Dan Moore Cruise Report No. 7: Cape Hatteras, NC to Cape Henry, VA. North Carolina 

Division of Marine Fisheries, Department of Natural Resources and Community Development. 

Morehead City, NC. 

*Three days were utilized during April 1975 to investigate areas for calico scallop populations. Major 

effort was expended in an area 20-nautical miles off Bogue Inlet, NC. A modified tumbler dredge was 

used. 

—. 1975g. RV Dan Moore Cruise Report No. 8: Cape Hatteras, NC to Cape Henry, VA. North Carolina 

Division of Marine Fisheries, Department of Natural Resources and Community Development. 

Morehead City, NC. 

*The purpose of the RV Dan Moore May 1975 cruise was to obtain information on anadromous 

fishes as outlined in Cruise Report No. 4 (January 1975). 

Renaud, M., G. Gitschlag, E. Klima, A. Shah, D. Koi, and J. Nance. 1993. Loss of shrimp by turtle 

excluder devices (TEDS) in coastal waters of the United States, North Carolina to Texas: March 

1988-August 1990. Fishery Bulletin 91: 129-137. 

Observers from the National Marine Fisheries Service collected information on catch rates of shrimp 

aboard commercial shrimp vessels during March 1988-August 1990. Comparisons were made 

between nets equipped with Turtle Excluder Devices (TEDS) and standard shrimp nets. Three types 
Fishery Chapter — 55 

of TEDs were tested: Georgia TEDs with and without accelerator funnels, and Super Shooter TEDs 

with funnels. 

Fishing areas, time of day, and duration of tows were controlled by the captain of each vessel to 

simulate commercial conditions. A statistically-significant (P<0.05) mean loss in shrimp catch-perunit-effort (CPUE) of 0.24 lb/h (3.6%) and 0.93 lb/h (13.6%) was exhibited by nets equipped with 

Georgia TEDs (with and without funnels, respectively) compared with standard nets. There was no 

significant difference in shrimp CPUE between standard nets and nets equipped with Super Shooter 

TEDs with a funnel. 

Richards, S.W., and A.W. Kendall Jr. 1973. Distribution of sand lance, Ammodytes sp., larvae on the 

continental shelf from Cape Cod to Cape Hatteras from RV Dolphin Surveys in 1966. Fishery 

Bulletin 71 (2): 371-386. 

Post larvae of one species of sand lance, which resembled Ammodytes marinus exactly, were 

collected along the east coast of the United states between Martha’s Vineyard, MA and Cape 

Hatteras, NC (lat. 41 to 35 N), in January-February, April, May and December 1966. They were more 

abundant in tows taken at night than in tows taken during the day. Recently hatched specimens (4-8 

mm) were more abundant in shallow water. Diurnal migrations are probably related to feeding in all 

larger size groups. 

The greatest abundance of sand lance larvae occurred in winter off the mouths of the principal 

estuaries (southern New England, Delaware, and Chesapeake bays). Dispersing rapidly offshore, they 

were taken all the way to the edge of the continental shelf. As they grew, abundance appeared to be 

directly related to that of plankton organisms, which in turn were somewhat affected by the presence 

of estuaries along the coast. By mid-may, larvae were not available to us in this region, probably 

moving to coastal beaches, up into the estuaries, or onto the bottom. 

Ross, J. 1989. Commercial and Recreational Marine Fisheries off North Carolina’s Outer Banks. pp. 40-

44. In: Crawford, K. (ed.). Proceedings: 1989 Marine Expo: The Natural Resources Associated with 

Mobil’s Proposed Drill Site. NC Outer Continental Shelf Office, NC Department of Administration. 

Raleigh, NC. 

*This section provides an overview of year round, recreational fishing, commercial fishing, and 

fisheries harvests in the study area. The potential project-related-impacts to fisheries-based 

socioeconomics, and the impact of project-related pollution are discussed. Sargassum is mentioned. 

Ross, J.L. 1991. Assessment of the North Carolina Winter Trawl Fishery: September 1985 — April 1988. 

Special Scientific Report No. 54. NC Department of the Environment, Health and Natural Resources, 

Division of Marine Fisheries. Morehead City, NC. 

The North Carolina winter trawl fishery is conducted during mid-September through April from 

offshore Long Island, New York to west of Cape Lookout, North Carolina. The fishery is partitioned 

into three components: the nearshore flounder, deepwater, and flynet fisheries. Species specific 

CPUEs, size-age composition of the catches and landings were assessed for 1985-88 and compared 

with 1982-85 catches and landings. 

Summer flounder (Paralichthys dentatus) dominated nearshore flounder and deepwater trawl catches. 

During the 1985-88 seasons, nearshore flounder trip CPUEs averaged 59% less than during the 1982-

85 seasons. The relative abundance of large summer flounder was lowest in 1987-88; concurrently, 

low CPUEs suggested growth overfishing may be occurring. Weakfish (Cynoscion regalis) was the 

dominant species in flynet catches. The CPUEs fluctuated with no well-defined trend. The annual age 

and size frequency distributions were compressed towards smaller, younger fish; age 1 fish 
56 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

dominated catches, and age 2-10 fish became less abundant. Atlantic croaker (Micropogonias 

undulatus) was a dominant component of the flynet catches. The CPUEs declined 67% from 1985-86 

to 1987-88, but were still higher than occurring 1982-85. Size and age composition of the catches 

were consistent since 1983-84 and catches were dominated by age 1 and 2 fish (86-95%). Bluefish 

(Pomatomus saltatrix) occurred in catches of all gears, but were targeted only occasionally with 

flynets. The CPUEs were lower during the last five seasons than during 1982-83, but improved in 

1987-88. 

Winter trawls took a broad size (153-840 mm FL) and age (0-9) range of bluefish. Spot (Leiostomus 

xanthurus) were occasionally abundant in the flynet fishery, but most were small and marketed as 

scrapfish; age 0 and 1 fish accounted for greater than 88% of the catches annually. Scup (Stenotomus 

chrysops) were a significant component of the deepwater catches and fishery; however, catches and 

landings have steadily declined. Growth overfishing may be occurring, as the relative abundance of 

large fish has declined since 1982-83. Black sea bass (Centropristis striata) was a dominant species 

in deepwater catches. The CPUEs fluctuated with no persistent trend. Black sea bass recruited at the 

size of first maturity of females, and the relative abundance of large fish declined. 

Overall biomass caught by winter trawlers declined. During 1987-88, total biomass/trip was 17% 

lower and total biomass/day was 21 % lower than the six-season (1982-88) mean. Landings of 

marketable finfish during 1985-88 were less than in previously monitored seasons. The trend in the 

scrap fish:marketable fish ratio has tended to increase in recent sampling seasons. 

The harvest of unmarketable-size fish was excessive for sciaenids, and signs of growth overfishing 

were noted for virtually all target species. The size of fish caught during 1987-88 was in all cases, 

except for bluefish and spot, smaller than at the project’s inception in 1982. Management plans 

should initially focus trawlers towards the harvest of larger, mature fish. 

*This citation includes invertebrate data (squid and crabs). 

Ross, J.L., J.B. Sullivan and D.A. DeVries. 1985. Assessment of North Carolina Commercial 

Finfisheries: 1 July 1983 to 30 June 1984. Annual Progress Report for Project 2-386-R. NC 

Department of Natural Resources and Community Development, Division of Marine Fisheries. 

Morehead City, NC. 161 p. 

Adult finfish were sampled for relative abundance, species composition and size distribution from the 

1983 long haul seine and pound net fisheries in Pamlico Sound, N.C. and the 1983-84 winter trawl 

fishery in the Atlantic Ocean off North Carolina. Pound net and long haul seine samples were 

dominated by Atlantic croaker, Atlantic menhaden, weakfish, spot, and bluefish. Dominant species in 

the winter trawl fishery were weakfish, scup, bluefish, Atlantic croaker and summer flounder. Protein 

systems of Atlantic croaker and bluefish were examined electrophoretically to determine if stocks 

could be differentiated by this technique. No consistent patterns were found. A total of 31,604 youngof-year Atlantic croaker were tagged and released, mostly in Pamlico Sound and its tributaries during 

Fall, 1983. In addition, 92 fish were tagged and released near the mouth of York River, VA. As of 31 

August 1984, 1,395 fish were recaptured. Initial movement appeared to be southward within Pamlico 

Sound and into the ocean. Fish greater than 149 mm TL had a higher return rate than smaller fish. 

Principal recapture methods were shrimp trawls, gill nets, and book and line. 

*This citation includes invertebrate data (squid and crabs). 

Ross, J.L., D.A. DeVries, III, J.H. Hawkins, and J.B. Sullivan. 1986. Assessment of North Carolina 

Commercial Finfisheries 1 April, 1982 to 30 June 1985 Fishing Seasons. Project 2-386-R. North 

Carolina Department of Natural Resources and Community Development, Division of Marine 

Fisheries. Morehead City, NC. 418 p. 
Fishery Chapter — 57 

This is a Comprehensive Assessment of North Carolina finfisheries for 1982 — 1985 fishing seasons. 

The winter trawl fishery produced 32.1-35.9% of all finfish (excluding menhaden) landed in North 

Carolina. From fall 1982 to spring 1985, 43, 67 and 84 catches were sampled during the respective 

seasons. Catches were partitioned by gear (flynet, nearshore flounder trawl, deepwater trawls) and 

area (north of Cape Hatteras, Cape Hatteras to Cape Lookout, west of Cape Lookout) to facilitate 

analyzes of seasonal fishing patterns and catches. The relationships between average catch/species 

from samples and commercial landings are presented herein. 

The nearshore flounder fishery occurred from late November through January and accounted for 18.6 

— 37.3 % of the catches sampled. Summer flounder (Paralichthys dentatus), dominated these 

catches, although their relative abundance declined from 93.7 to 88.6% during the study. The CPUE 

(mean weight/trip) was highest in 1983-84 (9,687 kg) and lowest in 1982-83 (5,584 kg). Fish <300 

mm TL accounted for 9.8 -14.6% and fish >400 mm TL for 21.4 — 26.0% of the catches with no 

significant changes noted during the period. 

Deepwater trawling occurred from December through April, accounting for 18.6 — 31.3% of the 

samples. This fishery was dominated (94.0 — 98.0%) each season by scup (Stenotomus chrysops), 

(Paralichthys dentatus), black sea bass (Centropristis striata), and squids. The CPUE of S. chrysops

declined from 9,708 kg in 1982-83 to 2,003 kg in 1984-85 as did the percent of fish >200 mm FL, 

from 58.5 to 18.8%. The CPUE of C. striata increased from 1,314 to 3,449 kg and the proportion of 

large fish increased during the study. The CPUE of P. dentatus increased from 1,377 — 4,431 kg 

from 1982-83 to 1984-85; their size composition did not change significantly during the study; 

smaller fish were captured in deepwater than in the nearshore fishery. 

Flynet fishing occurred from September through April and comprised 31.3 — 62.8 % of the samples. 

Catches were dominated by weakfish (Cynoscion regalis) in 1982-83 (52.8%) and 1983-84 (61.9%) 

and by Atlantic croaker (Micropogonias undulatus) (38.6%) and C. regalis (35.6%) in 1984-85. 

Bluefish (Pomatomus saltatrix), spot (Leiostomus xanthurus), and butterfish (Peprilus traicanthus) 

were also regularly captured. The CPUE of C. regalis was highest in 1983-84 (7,598 kg) and lowest 

in 1984-85 (4,780 kg). Fish of age 0-XII were landed; age 0 and I individuals composed 90% of the 

catches. The CPUE of M. undulatus increased from 2,344 kg in 1982-83 to 5, 190 kg/catch in 1984-

85; age 0-V fish were landed. Age I-III fish constituted 98.9-99.9% of the catches. A declining trend 

in CPUE and landings of P. saltatrix was indicated; age 0-XI individuals were sampled; age 0-I fish 

composed 87.7-88.8% of the catches in 1982-84 and 57.9% in 1984-85. Flynets produced the greatest 

relative percentage of scrapfish and inshore flounder trawls the lowest. 

*This citation includes invertebrate data (squid and crabs). 

Ross, J.L., and D.W. Moye. 1989. Assessment of North Carolina Commercial Finfisheries 1985-1987 

Fishing Seasons. Project 2-419-R. North Carolina Department of Natural Resources and Community 

Development, Division of Marine Fisheries. Morehead City, NC. 293 p. 

This is a Comprehensive Assessment of North Carolina finfisheries for 1985 — 1987 fishing seasons. 

The North Carolina winter trawl fishery was active from mid-September through April and fished 

grounds from off New York to west of Cape Lookout. The fishery was partitioned into three 

components: the nearshore flounder, deepwater, and flynet fisheries. Species specific CPUEs, sizeage composition of the catches and landings were assessed for 1985-88 and compared with 1982-

1985 catches and landings. Summer flounder (Paralichthys dentatus) dominated nearshore flounder 

and deepwater trawl catches. During the 1985-88 seasons, nearshore flounder trip CPUEs averaged 

59% less than during the 1982-85 seasons. The relative abundance of summer flounder was lowest for 

the six season period in 1987-88 and concurrent with low CPUEs suggested growth overfishing may 

be occurring. Weakfish (Cynoscion regalis) were the dominant species in flynet catches. CPUEs 
58 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

during the last six seasons fluctuated with no well defined trend. The annual age and size frequency 

distributions were compressed towards smaller, younger fish; age 1 fish dominated catches, and age 

2-10 fish have become much less abundant. Atlantic Croaker (Micropogonias undulatus) were a 

dominant component of the flynet catches. CPUEs declined 67% from 1985-86 to 1987-88, but were 

still higher for the period than during 1982-85. The size and age composition of the catches has been 

consistent since 1983-84, and catches since were dominated by age 1 and 2 fish (86-95%). Bluefish 

(Pomatomus saltatrix) occurred in catches by all trawl gears but were targeted only occasionally with 

flynets. CPUEs were lower during the last 5 seasons than during 1982-83, but were improved in 

1987-88. Bluefish caught by winter trawlers included a broad size (153-840 mm FL) and age (0-9) 

distribution. Spot (Leiostomus xanthurus) were occasionally an abundant component of the flynet 

fishery, but most were undersized and marketed as scrapfish. Age 0 and 1 fish accounted for greater 

than 88% of the catches annually. Scup (Stenotomus chrysops) were a significant component of the 

deepwater fishery, however catches and lading s have steadily declined. Growth overfishing was 

indicated with the relative abundance of large fish having declined since 1982-83. Black sea bass 

(Centropristis striatus) were a dominant species in deepwater catches. CPUEs have fluctuated with 

no persistent trend. They were recruited at the size of first maturity in females and the relative 

abundance of large fish has declined. Overall biomass caught by winter trawlers has generally 

declined. Overall biomass caught by winter trawlers has generally declined. Total biomass/trip was 

17% lower and total biomass/day was 21% lower during 1987-88 than the six season 1982-85 mean. 

Seasonal marketable finfish landings were each less than any season from 1982-85. The proportion of 

scrapfish to marketable finfish has generally increased over the six season period. 

*This citation includes invertebrate data (squid and crabs). 

Ross, J.L., J.B. Sullivan, and D. A. DeVries. 1984. Assessment of North Carolina Commercial 

Finfisheries: 1 April 1982 to 30 June 1983. Annual Progress report for project 2-386-R. NC 

Department of Natural Resources and Community Development, Division of Marine Fisheries. 

Morehead City, NC. 108 p. 

Adult finfish were sampled for relative abundance, species composition and size distribution from the 

1982 long haul seine and pound net fisheries in Pamlico Sound, N.C. and the 1982-83 winter trawl 

fishery in the Atlantic Ocean off North Carolina. Pound net and long haul seine samples were 

dominated by Atlantic croaker, Atlantic menhaden, weakfish, spot, and bluefish. Dominant species in 

the winter trawl fishery were weakfish, scup, bluefish, Atlantic croaker and summer flounder. Protein 

systems of Atlantic croaker were examined electrophoretically to determine if stocks could be 

differentiated by this technique. No consistent patterns were found. A total of 29,325 young-of-year 

and 598 adult Atlantic croaker were tagged and released, mostly in Pamlico Sound and its tributaries 

during Fall, 1982. Similar numbers of T-bar and cinch-up tags were used. The latter tag provided 

much better long-term retention. Initial movement appeared to be southward within Pamlico Sound 

and into the ocean. During Spring and Summer, 1983, tags were returned from the mouth of 

Chesapeake Bay to southern North Carolina, although most came from Pamlico Sound and its 

tributaries. 

The principal recapture methods were shrimp trawl, long haul seine, hook and line, and gill net. 

*This citation includes invertebrate data (squid and crabs). 

Ross, S.W. 1985a. A Summary of Biological Processes in the Proposed VACAPES EMPRESS II Area 

Off North Carolina Relating to Plankton Communities, Pelagic Macroinvertebrates, Ichthyofauna, 

Sea turtles, Marine Mammals, and Sea Birds. Appendix B. In: U.S. Department of the Navy. 

EMPRESS II: Supplemental Draft Environmental Impact Statement for the Proposed Operation of the 

Navy Electromagnetic Pulse Radiation Environment Simulator for Ships (Empress II) in the 
Fishery Chapter — 59 

Chesapeake Bay and Atlantic Ocean. United States Navy. Environmental/ Intergovernmental Section. 

Atlantic Division. Naval Facilities Engineering and Command. Norfolk, VA. 

*This technical report appears as Appendix B within the “EMPRESS II: Supplemental Draft 

Environmental Impact Statement for the Proposed Operation of the Navy Electromagnetic Pulse 

Radiation Environment Simulator for Ships (Empress II) in the Chesapeake Bay and Atlantic Ocean” 

report. This technical report is a Summary of Biological Processes in the Proposed VACAPES 

EMPRESS II area off North Carolina Relating to Planktonic Communities, Pelagic 

Macroinvertebrates, Ichthyofauna, Sea turtles, Marine Mammals, and Sea Birds. Technical reports 

supporting this summary have been written by authorities in each discipline and are included in 

Appendices. These supporting technical reports are cited individually. The southern portion of 

VACAPES EMPRESS II Area of North Carolina overlaps with the northern portion of the defined 

study area for the Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope (The Point) Area. 

—. 1985b. An Assessment of the Distribution and Composition of the Ichthyofauna in the Proposed 

VACAPES EMPRESS II Area of North Carolina. Appendix E. In: U.S. Department of the Navy. 

EMPRESS II: Supplemental Draft Environmental Impact Statement for the Proposed Operation of the 

Navy Electromagnetic Pulse Radiation Environment Simulator for Ships (Empress II) in the 

Chesapeake Bay and Atlantic Ocean. United States Navy. Environmental/ Intergovernmental Section. 

Atlantic Division. Naval Facilities Engineering and Command. Norfolk, VA. 

The Department of the Navy has proposed to periodically operate an electromagnetic pulse simulator 

in the Chesapeake Bight off North Carolina (36° 28’N, 75° 32.5’W). The site, called VACAPES, 

occurs in a shallow temperate zone characterized by a large seasonal flux of fishes. Although 

maximum fish species richness is attained during the late summer-fall, peak numbers and biomass 

generally occur during the cool weather periods of extensive fish migrations. Most of the fishes move 

offshore and south during fall-winter and inshore and north as water temperatures increase during 

spring summer. Many of the commercially/ recreationally important species spawn in or near the area 

during cool weather and their larvae are transported into nearshore or estuarine nursery areas. Major 

commercial exploitation occurs during this time; however, recreational fishing in the area is restricted 

to summer-fall months. 

At least 134 fishes were recorded from trawl sampling in the VACAPES area. Although as many as 

300 fishes could occur there, the 134 represent the dominant forms. The most numerous species were 

Atlantic Croaker, Atlantic menhaden, spot, blueback herring, butterfish, weakfish, Atlantic mackerel, 

alewife, summer flounder, and spiny dogfish. Some pelagic fishes which are difficult to collect but 

that may be very important to this area are bluefish, American sand lance (not always pelagic), 

anchovies, and tunas. 

—. 1988. Age, Growth, and Mortality of Atlantic Croaker in North Carolina, with Comments on 

Population Dynamics. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 117: 461-473. 

Atlantic croakers Micropogonias undulatus collected during 1979-1981 in North Carolina were aged 

(N = 2,369) with scales and length frequencies. Eight age-classes were observed, but fish more than 

3-4 years old were uncommon. Mean observed total lengths (TL) for ages 1-7 were 192, 271, 320, 

371, 430, 473, and 514 mm, respectively. The largest Atlantic croaker aged was 521 mm TL (age 7). 

Sizes-at-age from scale data agreed well with length frequencies. Scales may be used to age Atlantic 

croaker up to age 5, but beyond this, annual marks are difficult to validate. Growth was rapid until 

age 1. The von Bertalanffy growth coefficient (K = 0.20) indicated that maximum size was attained 

slowly. The total annual mortality rate calculated from a catch curve of age-1-5 fish in a long-haul 

seine fishery was 73%. The relationship between weight (W, g) and total length (mm) was W = 3.21 

x 10-9(TL)3.23; N = 1.947. Two groups of Atlantic croaker may overlap in North Carolina; the group 
60 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

that occurs mainly offshore and north of Cape Lookout exhibits greater size-at-age and greater 

longevity than the more southerly, inshore group. 

—. 1989. Fisheries Resources Potentially Impacted by Proposed Drilling on the U.S. Atlantic Continental 

Slope and Rise off Cape Hatteras, North Carolina. pp. 26-39. In: Crawford, K. (ed.). Proceedings: 

1989 Marine Expo: The Natural Resources Associated with Mobil’s Proposed Drill Site. NC Outer 

Continental Shelf Office, NC Department of Administration. Raleigh, NC. 

The offshore waters of North Carolina contain a tremendous diversity of fishes and other biota. In 

fact, there are more marine fish species in our coastal waters than off any other East or Gulf coast 

state except Florida. Many of these species support extensive commercial and recreational fisheries. 

One reason for such a diverse fauna is that several distinct water masses come together in North 

Carolina, usually around Cape Hatteras. Tropical, warm temperate, and cold temperate animals occur 

here in relation to changing seasons. Many different kinds of habitats also occur here, allowing fishes 

to expand into a variety of niches. The following exhibits will provide a general, brief overview of the 

types of fishes inhabiting the Mobil drill site and will cover some important aspects of the upper 

water column, continental shelf, and estuaries that are relevant to both exploration and production of 

offshore mineral resources. 

—. 1991. Fisheries Resources Potentially Impacted by Proposed Drilling On the US Atlantic Continental 

Slope and Rise Off Cape Hatteras, North Carolina. p. 6. In: Shepard, A. (ed.). NURC/UNCW 1991 

Undersea Research: Informational Meeting. National Undersea Research Center, University of North 

Carolina at Wilmington. Wilmington, NC. 

An area known colloquially as “The Point” by fishermen, lies within the Manteo oil and gas lease 

blocks, just north of block 467, site of the proposed exploratory drill hole. ‘The Point” is 

characterized by a productive pelagic fishery and complex submarine topography. Although a small, 

canyon-like feature underlies the area, “The Point” is not a spot on the bottom, but rather a shifting 

location that may coincide with the confluence of water masses. 

In 1991, we will use a research submersible to describe the pelagic and benthic fish populations near 

Manteo Block 467. Specific objectives are to determine the distribution of: (1) pelagic fish with 

respect to depth and hydrographic features throughout the water column; and (2) benthic fish with 

respect to depth and topographic features. 

—. 1998. Habitat and Living Resource Review: Scientific Data for Fisheries and Sargassum at the 

Hatteras Middle Slope (Including “The Point” and Manteo Exploration Unit). pp. 37-42. In: Vigil, 

D.L. (ed.). North Carolina/Minerals Management Service Technical Workshop on Manteo Unit 

Exploration: February 4-5, 1998. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, Gulf of 

Mexico OCS Region. New Orleans, LA. 

*These are the proceedings from a workshop/meeting (conducted on February 4-5, 1998) between the 

North Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources, and the U.S. Department of the 

Interior’s Minerals Management Service (MMS). The geographic area being discussed is 

approximately 45 miles east-northeast of Cape Hatteras, NC, referred to as the Manteo Unit. This 

workshop reviewed environmental and socioeconomic information known and needed on the Manteo 

Unit. The MMS’s Gulf of Mexico OCS Regional Director gave an MMS perspective on history and 

status of the area. Chevron gave a presentation on how the exploratory well would be drilled. The 

scientific characterization was presented in greater detail by a number of scientific experts who spoke 

on the following disciplines physical environment, habitat and living resources, seabirds, marine 

mammals, sea turtles, and social and economic issues. Specific chapters are cited individually, when 

appropriate. 
Fishery Chapter — 61 

The purpose of this review is to provide a brief summary of the state of fisheries and Sargassum 

knowledge in and near to the geographic region proposed for oil exploration activities off of North 

Carolina (referred to here as the Hatters Middle Slope, HMS). This will result in a basic listing of 

what we know about the subjects and what we still need to know. This treatment is restricted to the 

HMS area and thus is not to be a complete description of the North Carolina ichthyofauna. Time and 

space constraints imposed by the North Carolina/Minerals Management Service Technical Workshop 

do not allow a full treatment of this subject nor a detailed presentation of the data that support various 

conclusions. Prioritized and expanding the list of data needs will require additional discussions, some 

completed at this meeting, with input from a variety of scientist, managers, and the public. Since the 

last such summaries (1989 and 1991), considerable data have been collected (much of it published) 

related to the HMS. Ironically, the major impetus (upper water column fishery concerns around “The 

Point”) for research here resulted in most studies being conducted on or near the bottom close to the 

proposed drill site rather than studies about the processes driving fisheries at “The Point.” This 

section discusses Benthic Slope, Mid-Water Mesopelagic, Surface-Upper Water Column, Sargassum 

Community, Commercial/Recreational Fisheries, Oil Exploration/Development Concerns, and a 

Summary of Data/Study Needs including: Trophodynamic/Energetic Pathways (Plus Other Life 

History Data); Fisheries at “The Point;” Data Inventory Around HMS and “The Point;” Larval Fish 

Data; Lighting Effects; Mechanisms Structuring Benthic and Mid-water Fish Communities of the 

HMS; and Physical Oceanography. 

—. Unpublished (a). Selected fish, invertebrate and bottom habitat data. 

*These are unpublished data, collected by S.W. Ross during a SCUBA dive on 18 August 1980. The 

location for this site [SWR -SCUBA-80-20] is 35o 20.7′N; 75o 21.2′W; depth 70-80 feet. Selected 

fish, invertebrate, and bottom habitat data were collected. These data are unpublished and the site was 

not visited again. This site (no date presented) is listed as ISO4 by Kirby-Smith (1989). The location 

data assigned for site ISO4 by Kirby-Smith (1989) were incorrect and these data were collected by 

S.W. Ross [SWR -SCUBA-80-20] (S.W. Ross, pers. comm. 19 November 1999). 

—. Unpublished database (b). SCUBA and Submersible Surveys. 

*This is an unpublished SCUBA and Submersible Survey database. Data were collected S.W. Ross. 

Part of this unpublished database is cited in Parker & Ross (1986). Select sample locations and related 

data were computerized as part of the North Carolina SEAMAP Hardbottom data project by Moser et 

al. (1995). SEAMAP Hardbottom data (sample locations) within the defined project area for The 

Point were sorted and mapped using ArcView GIS (J. Ott. pers., comm. 15 Nov 99). 

Ross, S.W., and A. Scarborough-Bull. 1998. Biological Environment Work Session Results: Fisheries. 

pp. 76-79. In: Vigil, D.L. (ed.). North Carolina/Minerals Management Service Technical Workshop 

on Manteo Unit Exploration: February 4-5, 1998. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management 

Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region. New Orleans, LA. 

*These are the proceedings from a workshop/meeting (conducted on February 4-5, 1998) between the 

North Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources, and the U.S. Department of the 

Interior’s Minerals Management Service (MMS). The geographic area being discussed is 

approximately 45 miles east-northeast of Cape Hatteras, NC, referred to as the Manteo Unit. This 

workshop reviewed environmental and socioeconomic information known and needed on the Manteo 

Unit. The MMS’s Gulf of Mexico OCS Regional Director gave an MMS perspective on history and 

status of the area. Chevron gave a presentation on how the exploratory well would be drilled. The 

scientific characterization was presented in greater detail by a number of scientific experts who spoke 

on the following disciplines physical environment, habitat and living resources, seabirds, marine 
62 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

mammals, sea turtles, and social and economic issues. Specific chapters are cited individually, when 

appropriate. 

The goal of this session was to raise scientific concerns/issues regarding the potential impacts of OCS 

drilling on fisheries. The session specifically recommended information needs on a short-term and 

long-term basis. The short-term was defined as the time period before exploratory drilling would take 

place in the Manteo Unit offshore North Carolina. The long-term was defined as the time period 

before development activities took place in the same location. Due to time constraints, the session 

spent more time in short-term information needs. 

Two major short-term issues were raised concerning fisheries and oil and gas exploration. (1) There is 

a need to define and describe usage of the area known as The Point. (2) There is a need to synthesize 

and inventory existing data. Three long-term issues were raised for discussion. Three major long-term 

issues were raised concerning fisheries and oil and gas exploration. (1) There is a need to better 

understand the trophodynamics/energetic pathways at The Point. (2) There is a need to understand 

ichthyoplankton and its ecological role at The Point. (3) There is a need to understand structuring 

mechanisms. Four additional issues were raised concerning fisheries and oil and gas exploration on a 

long-term basis. Due to time constraints these concerns were not discussed in detail. (1) Concerns 

related to discharges from both drilling and production. (2) Concerns related to the presence of either 

temporary or permanent structures. (3) Concerns related to the effects of noise. (4) Concerns related 

to the presence of lights. Any endeavors on this project should be tied to the study of the effects of 

light on the seabirds that feed and/or roost at The Point. 

Ross, S.W., K.J. Sulak, and T.A. Munroe. 2001. Association of Syscenus infelix (Crustacea: 

Isopoda: Aegidae) with benthopelagic rattail fishes, Nezumia spp. (Macrouridae), along the western 

North Atlantic continental slope. Mar. Biol. 138(3): 595-601. 

During submersible surveys along the continental slope (summers of 1991 and 1992, 184-847 m) 

between False Cape, Virginia and Cape Hatteras, North Carolina, USA we observed the aegid isopod, 

Syscenus infelix Harger, attached to the macrourid Nezumia bairdii (Goode and Bean). This is the first 

report of S. infelix attached to fishes in the western North Atlantic. The association of this blind 

isopod with its host appears species-specific. The large, conspicuous isopod always attached to a fish 

in the same location, the dorsal midline, immediately behind the first dorsal fin. Attachment appears 

to be long-term, with the isopod forming a characteristic scar consisting of a distinct discolored oval 

depression with seven small, dark impressions that coalesce as the fish grows. Only one S. infelix was 

found on each host fish. The isopod occurred on 23.7% of N. bairdii observed from submersible on 

the middle continental slope off Virginia and North Carolina, compared with 16.6% of 1,236 museum 

specimens of the same species (based on inspection for scars) collected at latitudes 26o

 -64o N. 

Prevalence of the fish-isopod association was not correlated with depth or latitude. We also found 

identical scars on preserved specimens of N. aequalis (2.6% of 660 specimens), N. sclerorhynchus 

(1.2% of 86 specimens), and N. suilla (14.3% of 7 specimens), mostly from areas outside the range of 

N. bairdii. No scars were found on museum specimens of N. atlantica (n=27), N . cyrano (n=57), or 

N. longebarbata (n=7). The low incidence of isopod attachment on these species suggests that N. 

bairdii is the preferred host. Infestation by the isopod appears to result in erosion of host fish scales 

and tissue. We propose that S. infelix is an obligate associate of its host fish and should be considered 

parasitic. 

Ross, S.W., K.J. Sulak, J. Gartner, and D.S. Lee. Unpublished data. Ongoing project: Definition of 

Ecological/Trophic Linkages Among Fishes and Other Nekton in the Area Known as The Point — 

North Carolina Continental Shelf Slope. 
Fishery Chapter — 63 

*This is an on-going study of fishes, invertebrates, sargassum and marine birds at the area known as 

The Point. The emphasis is on trophic linkages throughout the water column. The summer 1999 and 

2000 stations were mapped (Fig. 7). 

Rotunno, T., and R.K. Cowen. 1997. Temporal and spatial spawning patterns of the Atlantic butterfish, 

Peprilus triacanthits, in the South and Middle Atlantic Bights. Fishery Bulletin 95: 785-799. 

Three species of the stromateoid genus Peprilus have been found to occur in the northwest Atlantic: 

P. triacanthus (butterfish), P. burti (gulf butterfish), and P. alepidotus (harvestfish). Peprilus

triacanthus and P. alepidotus reportedly spawn from May through August and June through July, 

respectively. Peprilus burti spawns twice yearly: February through May and September through 

November. Collections of larvae and juveniles of Peprilus spp. from the northern South Atlantic 

(SAB) and Mid-Atlantic (MAB) Bights during both the spring and summer of 1988 and 1989 suggest 

that either a combination of species was spawning or that reported spawning dates were suspect. 

Species identification of Peprilus in these collections was determined with morphometric, meristic, 

and pigment character analyses. Specimens sampled had counts for caudal vertebrae (18-19) and 

ventral midline melanophores (11-16) consistent with those found for P. triacanthus in previous 

studies. By analyzing otoliths, we estimated larval and juvenile growth rates to be approximately 0.23 

mm/day. Backcalculation of hatch dates suggests either two spawning events for P. triacanthus, 

February through mid-April and mid-May through late July, or one extended spawning period 

beginning in late February and ending in late July. This study reveals that P. triacanthus spawns for a 

much longer period than previously thought, it is possible that P. triacanthus spawns during the 

spring in the SAB and summer in the MAB as a strategy to extend the duration of its spawning 

period. This strategy is one used by other north-south migrating species and warrants further study. 

Schwartz, F.J. 1989. Zoogeography and Ecology of Fishes Inhabiting North Carolina’s Marine Waters to 

Depths of 600 m. pp. 335-374. In: George, R.Y., and A.W. Hulbert (eds.). North Carolina Coastal 

Symposium. National Undersea Research Program, NOAA. Rockville, MD. 

More than 650 species of fishes within 149 families are known to occur in waters that extend from the 

inshore high tide mark seaward to offshore depths of 600 m off North Carolina. These waters include 

estuarine, coastal, continental shelf, and slope habitats. The fishes are treated by province, depth 

distribution, habitat, type of fish, type of migrant, seasonality, and where known. Comments are 

presented on a species’ biology and interaction with a specific community or environment located in 

the Middle and South Atlantic bights. The interplay and influence or control of their abundance by 

geological and environmental features such as Hatteras barrier, Charleston Bump, eddies, water 

temperatures, salinities, rivers, and the Gulf Stream area also noted. 

Settle, L.R. 1993. Spatial and Temporal Variability in the Distribution and Abundance of Larval and 

Juvenile Fishes Associated with Pelagic Sargassum. M.S. Thesis. University of North Carolina at 

Wilmington. 65 p. 

A survey of the larval and juvenile fishes associated with the pelagic Sargassum habitat in the South 

Atlantic Bight and adjacent western Atlantic Ocean was conducted from July 1991 through March 

1993. Fishes representing 104 taxonomic categories were identified, including reef fishes, coastal 

demersal, coastal pelagic, epipelagic and mesopelagic species. The most important families were 

Balistidae and Carangidae, each represented by 15 species. Species composition, species diversity and 

abundance varied both seasonally and regionally. Diversity was highest during spring through fall 

over the outer continental shelf and in the Gulf Stream. Abundance decreased from spring through 

winter and from the continental shelf into offshore waters. The numbers of fishes and fish biomass 

were found to be positively correlated with the wet weight of algae in most cases examined. The 
64 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

results of this study will be useful to fisheries managers assessing the potential impacts of commercial 

Sargassum harvesting in the region. 

—. 1997. Commercial harvest of pelagic Sargassum: A summary of landings since June 1995. 

Attachment 11. In: South Atlantic Fishery Management Council. Essential Fish Habitat Workshop # 

9: October 7 — 8, 1997 Pelagic Habitat Sargassum and Water Column. South Atlantic Fishery 

Management Council. Charleston, SC. 

Attachment 11: The commercial harvest of pelagic Sargassum resumed in June 1995. To date the 

fishery is prosecuted by a single firm, Aqua-10 Corporation of Beaufort, North Carolina. Aqua-10 

processes the raw algae into a variety of agricultural fertilizers and dietary supplements used in the 

swine and poultry industries. The firm purchases algae harvested by local fishing vessels. Two 

vessels, the FV Outer Banks (16.5 m snapper boat) and the FV Rising Sun (15 m long-liner) have 

been equipped with Sargassum nets by Aqua- 10. The gear consists of a 1.2 in x 0.9 n frame trawl 

rigged with 7.6 am mesh trawl webbing. The vessels harvest algae ancillary to their normal fishing 

activities. When algae are landed, Aqua-10 notifies the NMFS, Beaufort Laboratory. The algae are 

examined for by-catch at dockside and at the processing plant. Vessel captains are interviewed to 

obtain data on the date and location of harvests, effort, and by-catch. 

All algae have been harvested from off the North Carolina coast from northern Onslow Bay to 

northeast of Cape Hatteras (Fig. 2). Although Sargassum has been harvested on the continental shelf, 

most was obtained in the Gulf Stream (Fig. 3). The observed by-catch has been minimal in terms of 

numbers of individuals. No sea turtles and few fishes have been noted. Most fish have been young 

juveniles and are generally in advanced stages of decomposition. Identifiable taxa include filefish 

(Monacanthus hispidus), amberjacks (Seriola spp.), blue runner (Caranx crysos), jacks (Caranx spp.), 

flyingfish (Exocoetidae), sergeant major (Abudefduf saxatilis), gray triggerfish (Balistes capriscus), 

sargassum fish (Histrio histrio), and pipefish (Syngnathus spp.). The most commonly observed 

macrofaunal by-catch have been crustaceans including several shrimp (genera Hippolyte, Latreutes, 

and Leander) and crabs (genera Planes and Portunus). 

Shepard, A. (ed.). 1991. Undersea Research at The Point. NURC/UNCW 1991 Undersea Research: 

Informational Meeting. National Undersea Research Center, University of North Carolina at 

Wilmington. Wilmington, NC. 9 p. 

*This 9 page handout provides a summary of research being conducted at “The Point” area (Manteo 

Lease Block 467). 

The National Undersea Research Center at the University of North Carolina at Wilmington 

(NURC/UNCW), funded by a grant from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s 

Office of Undersea Research, was established in 1980 to promote, facilitate, and conduct research in 

the Southeastern United States utilizing undersea techniques, including advanced wet diving and 

manned and unmanned submersibles. A main Center goal is to provide information to NOAA that 

will assist the agency in fulfilling its charter to explore, understand, conserve and manage the U.S. 

marine environment and associated resources. To help meet this goal, the Center supports and 

conducts interdisciplinary oceanographic research projects studying continental margin processes, 

particularly the interactions and linkages between estuarine, continental shelf, and slope (including 

submarine canyon) environments. 

Shepard, A., and A.H. Hulbert (eds.). 1994. Workshop Report: Present and Future Research Initiatives on 

the Upper Hatteras Slope off North Carolina. National Undersea Research Center at the University of 

North Carolina at Wilmington. Wilmington, NC. 30p. 
Fishery Chapter — 65 

*This report is the result of the May 1993 workshop held in Raleigh, NC. The topics of discussion 

were research (present and planned) at the Upper Hatteras Slope and potential funding sources. The 

workshop was sponsored by National Undersea Research Center at the University of North Carolina 

at Wilmington. The report provides a brief description of invertebrates, biological oceanography, 

chemical oceanography, geological oceanography (bathymetry, oil and gas exploration), physical 

oceanography, fisheries, and Sargassum. Appendix A is a workshop agenda and list of speakers. No 

abstracts for speakers are provided. Appendix B is a list of potential funding sources. Appendix C 

contains a list of relevant publications. 

Shepherd, G.R. 1982. Growth, Reproduction, and mortality of weakfish, Cynoscion regalis, and size/age 

structure of the fisheries in the middle Atlantic region. Masters Thesis. Rutgers, The State University 

of New Jersey. New Brunswick, NJ. 69 p. 

This thesis describes life history characteristics of weakfish, Cynoscion regalis, of the middle Atlantic 

region of the United States. Fish were collected by the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) 

groundfish survey (1979-1981), between Cape Fear, North Carolina and Cape Cod, MA in depths less 

than 200 m (Grosslein, 1969). Additional samples from commercial fishing operations (May 1980 — 

June 1981) in Gardener’s Bay, Long Island, Sandy Hook Bay, New Jersey and Delaware Bay, New 

Jersey. Virginia commercial catch was used for December sample. 

Shepherd, G. and C.B. Grimes. 1983. Geographic and historic variations in growth of weakfish, 

Cynoscion regalis, in the Middle Atlantic Bight. Fishery Bulletin 81(4): 803-813. 

The growth of weakfish, Cynoscion regalis, throughout the Middle Atlantic Bight was examined. Six 

geographic subdivisions were initially established for growth comparisons. Covariate analysis of the 

total length-scale size relationship revealed three distinct regions. Back-calculated lengths at age were 

compared using analysis of variance and showed significant differences between regions (P < 0.001) 

and between sexes (P < 0.05). Mean lengths at age of northern weakfish were greater than southern 

fish and females were larger than males after age 6. Maximum mean lengths at age were also greater 

in the north, 81 cm at age 11, and became progressively smaller towards the south, declining to 42 cm 

at age 4 in the southernmost region. The growth variations may result from varying allocations of 

energy to somatic growth according to environmental and migratory requirements. Growth 

differences resulting from the availability of food items in each habitat are also examined. 

Mean and maximum lengths at age have charged over the past 50 years, with current growth greater 

than in 1929 or 1952. A possible relationship exists between fluctuating population sizes and historic 

growth variations. The current age/size structure of weakfish fisheries in Delaware Bay is discussed. 

Shepherd, G.R., and M. Terceiro. 1994. The Summer Flounder, Scup, and Black Sea Bass Fishery of the 

Middle Atlantic Bight and Southern New England Waters. NOAA Technical Report NMFS 122. 

Woods Hole Laboratory, Northeast Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries Service. 

Woods Hole, MA. 13 p. 

Summer flounder, Paralichthys dentatus, scup, Stenotomus chrysops, and black sea bass, 

Centropristis striata, co-occur within the Middle Atlantic Bight and off southern New England and 

are important components of commercial and recreational fisheries. The commercial otter trawl 

fishery for these species is primarily a winter fishery, whereas the recreational fishery takes place 

between late spring and autumn. The otter trawl fishery generally targets summer flounder, and less 

frequently scup, while black sea bass occurs as bycatch. Trips in which all three species were present 

yielded highest aggregate landings per unit of effort (LPUE) levels and occurred more often than trips 

landing only one or two species. More than 50% of the trips in the trawl fishery landed at least two of 

the three species. In contrast, greater than 75% of the recreational landings of each species occurred 
66 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

as a result of trips landing only one species. Differences in the fisheries resulted from the interactions 

of seasonal changes in species distributions and gear selectivity. 

Smith, W.G. 1973. The distribution of summer flounder Paralichthys dentatus, eggs and larvae on the 

continental shelf between Cape Cod and Cape Lookout, 1965-66. Fishery Bulletin 71(2): 527-535. 

Eggs and larvae of summer flounder, Paralichthys dentatus, were collected with Gulf V plankton nets 

between Cape Cod, MA, and Cape Lookout, NC, during a 1-year survey of Continental Shelf Waters. 

The most productive spawning grounds were located off New York and New Jersey. Spawning began 

in northern parts of the survey area, progressed southward with the season, and ended off Cape 

Lookout. We collected eggs north of Chesapeake Bay from September to December and south of the 

Bay from November to February, and larvae north of Chesapeake Bay from September to February 

and south of the Bay from November to May. Most spawning occurred at temperatures between 12 

and 19° C, but the pelagic eggs were caught at mean temperatures from 9.1 to 22.9° C, and larvae 

from 0 to 23.1° C. 

Smith, W.G., J.D. Sibunka, and A. Wells. 1975. Seasonal Distributions of Larval Flatfishes 

(Plueuronectiformes) on the Continental Shelf Between Cape Cod, Massachusetts, and Cape Lookout, 

North Carolina, 1965-66. National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), 

National Marine Fisheries (NMFS). Seattle, WA. 68 p. 

Larval flatfishes, representing 4 families, 17 genera, and 15 species, were identified from collections 

taken during a 1-yr. survey designated to locate spawning grounds and trace dispersion of fish eggs 

and larvae on the Continental shelf. Most flatfishes began spawning in the spring, a time of marked 

seasonal temperature change. The seasonal distribution of larvae indicated that: 1.) bothids had longer 

spawning seasons than pleuronectids; 2.) pleuronectids spawned largely in the northern half of the 

survey area during the spring; 3.) most bothids spawned in the southern half, beginning in spring and 

continuing through early fall; 4.) although cynoglossids spawned incidentally off North Carolina, 

most of their larvae were transported into the survey area from spawning grounds south of Cape 

Lookout; 5.) the few representatives of the family Solenidae originated south of Cape Lookout; 6.) 

spawning that began in the spring proceeded from the south to north as the season progressed, but 

spawning that began in the fall proceeded from north to south, suggesting that the onset of spawning 

is triggered by spring warming and fall cooling; 7.) most species spawned within a relatively narrow 

range of temperature; 8.) salinity had no apparent influence on spawning. 

Sogard, S.M., K.W. Able, and M.P. Fahay. 1992. Early life history of the tautog, Tautoga onitis, in the 

Mid-Atlantic Bight. Fishery Bulletin 90: 529-539. 

Spawning patterns, larval distribution, and juvenile growth characteristics were examined for tautog 

Tautoga onitis in New Jersey and the Mid-Atlantic Bight. We analyzed data from plankton surveys 

(1972-1990) over the continental shelf and in the Great Bay-Mullica River estuarine system. Data on 

size and abundance of juveniles were derived from throw trap and trawl collections in New Jersey 

estuaries (1988-89). In addition, we validated the daily deposition of otolith increments and used 

increment counts to estimate juvenile age and growth patterns. Extensive egg and larval collections 

indicated that spawning occurs from April through September, with a peak in June and July. 

Spawning over the continental shelf is concentrated off Long Island and Rhode Island. Based on 

validated daily increments in sagittal otoliths and the formation of a well-defined settlement mark, 

tautog larvae spend about 3 weeks in the plankton. Both spawning and settlement occur over a 

prolonged period, based on otolith back-calculations. Three methods of estimating young-of-the-year 

growth rates, including length-frequency progressions, otolith age/fish-size comparisons, and direct 

measurement of growth in caging experiments, indicated an average growth rate of about 0.5 mm/day 
Fishery Chapter — 67 

during the peak midsummer growing season. Length-frequency distributions suggested tautog reach a 

rnodal size of about 75 mm SL after their first summer, and 155 mm by the end of their second 

summer. 

South Atlantic Fishery Management Council. 1998. FINAL Habitat Plan for the South Atlantic Region: 

Essential Fish Habitat Requirements for Fishery Management Plans of the South Atlantic Fishery 

Management Council: The Shrimp Fishery Management Plan; The Red Drum Fishery Management 

Plan; The Snapper Group Fishery Plan; The Coastal Migratory Pelagics Fishery Management Plan; 

The Golden Crab Fishery Management Plan; The Spiny Lobster Fishery Management Plan; The 

Coral, Coral Reefs, and Live/Hard Bottom Fishery Management Plan; The Sargassum Habitat Fishery 

Management Plan; and The Calico Scallop Fishery Management Plan. South Atlantic Fishery 

Management Council. Charleston, SC. 457 p. 

*This report emphasizes South Atlantic Coast nearshore habitat (shore to 200m isobath). On pages 

125-133 Sargassum habitat is described. Page 134-135 mentions “The Point” within Section 3.2.3.2.1 

Description of Water Column Habitats. Figure A Water Masses off Cape Hatteras, is located on p. 

135 and shows a schematic diagram of “The Point,” relative to the Gulf Steam, Virginia (longshore) 

Current and Sargasso Sea. Table 18b taxonomic list of larval and early-juvenile fishes from offshore 

of Cape Lookout to Cape Hatteras including the region known as “The Point” is located on pp. 139-

145. Oil and gas exploration, development and transposition are mentioned in section 4.1.2.4 on page 

323 (Off shore Cape Hatteras, NC is mentioned, but no specific reference to “The Point” is made). 

Stancyk, S.E. (In press). Predation behavior in echinoderms. In: Candia Carnevali, M.D. (ed.). 

Proceedings of the Fifth European Conference on Echinoderms, Milan Italy, 7-12 September 1998. A. 

A. Balkema, Rotterdam. 

This study describes predation behavior on swimming organisms by Ophiura sarsi. Aluminum 

Frame, vexar mesh cages with yellow polypropylene rope on the bottom were used during this study. 

Each cage contained 5 brittlestars with 2 arms removed. Other cages, which had been left out a year, 

there was heavy epifaunal growth, including recently metamorphosed crinoids. Although there was 

lots of particulate material in the water, these cages did not get buried, and often had burrowing fish 

associated with them (S. Stancyk, pers. comm. 15 July 1999). 

Stancyk, S.E., C. Muir, and T. Fujita. 1998. Predation Behavior on swimming organisms by Ophiura 

sarsi. pp. 425-429. In: R. Mooi, and M. Telford (eds.). Echinoderms: San Francisco Proceedings of 

the Ninth International Echinoderm Conference. A. A. Balkema, Rotterdam. 

This study describes predation behavior on swimming organisms by Ophiura sarsi. Aluminum 

Frame, vexar mesh cages with yellow polypropylene rope on the bottom were used during this study. 

Each cage contained 5 brittlestars with 2 arms removed. Other cages, which had been left out a year, 

there was heavy epifaunal growth, including recently metamorphosed crinoids. Although there was 

lots of particulate material in the water, these cages did not get buried, and often had burrowing fish 

associated with (S. Stancyk, pers. comm. 15 July 1999). 

Stillwell, C.E., and N.E. Kohler. 1993. Food habits of the sandbar shark, Carcharhinus plumbeus, off the 

U.S. northeast coast, with estimates of daily ration. Fishery Bulletin 91: 138-150. 

Food habits data from 415 sandbar sharks collected in the area between Cape Hatteras and Georges 

Bank (Great South Channel) were examined. Mean fork length (FL) and body weight (BW) were 55.0 

cm and 1.72 kg for pups, 123.0 cm and 23.0 kg for juveniles, and 166.0 cm and 52.3 kg for adults. Of 

all juvenile and adult stomachs, 49% contained prey, primarily fish (teleosts and skates). Of stomachs 

from pups, 80% held food remains consisting almost exclusively of soft blue crabs. The mean 
68 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

percentage of stomach content volume to BW is 1.16 for pups, and 0.42 for juveniles and adults. 

Daily ration estimates as percentage of mean BW are 1.43 for pups, and 0.86 for juveniles and adults. 

Annual food consumption is estimated to be 5.1 times the mean BW for pups, and 3.1 times for 

juveniles and adults. 

Sulak, K.J. 1992. Demersal Fish Fauna on the Continental Slope in the Vicinity of The Point. pp. 135-

138. In: Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service. Proceedings of the Fourth 

Atlantic OCS Region Information Transfer Meeting, September 1991. U.S. Department of the 

Interior, Minerals Management Service. Herndon, VA. 

The Fourth Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) Regional Information Transfer Meeting was held 

on 24-25 September 1991, in Wilmington, NC. The focus of the meeting was on the OCS off North 

Carolina, specifically on activities related to a proposed exploratory well for oil and gas by Mobil on 

Block 467 a site 40 miles off the coast of North Carolina. The area of industry interest is known as the 

Manteo Prospect, while the activities surrounding the proposed drilling are referred to collectively as 

the Manteo Project. The wildcat wellsite is in 2,690 ft. (857 m) of water near the edge of the Gulf 

Stream. It is also near a fishing ground known locally as “The Point.” The area is believed to be gas 

prone rather than oil prone. The estimated size of the resource could be as high as 5 trillion cubic feet 

of gas. 

The purpose of the meeting was to exchange information on the leasing background, legislative 

activities, scientific results, and socioeconomic studies. Legislative-related reports include 

descriptions of the Oil Pollution Act of 1990, the Outer Banks Protection Act, the Environmental 

Studies Review Panel, and the North Carolina Physical Oceanography Panel. Reports of studies on 

marine life include benthic diatoms, benthic fauna, pelagic seabirds, sea turtles, and right whales. One 

report describes the use of airships (blimps) for ocean research a capability relevant to North Carolina 

because of the east coast airship facility is located in the state. Local marine science facilities 

described include NOAA’s National Undersea Research Center at the University of North Carolina at 

Wilmington (NURC/UNCW) and the National Marine Fisheries Service laboratory in Beaufort. 

Developments in oil spill cleanup technology and capabilities are described by both the Coast Guard 

and the industry. A socioeconomic report describes the effects of the oil and gas activities on the 

tourist industry. Lastly, research on the restoration of salt marshes indicates that rehabilitation of an 

area is possible when development or an accident has occurred. While the emphasis of the meeting 

was on oil and gas, two reports described the results of projects related to offshore sand mining. The 

appendix lists the names and addresses of speakers. Individual chapters are cited individually when 

appropriate. 

*This section provides a brief overview of Demersal Fish Fauna on the Continental Slope in the 

Vicinity of “The Point,” based on five Johnson Sea Link submersible dives made in July 1991. The 

purpose was to identify, quantify, and characterize the demersal (bottom living) fish fauna of this 

region. Future studies are suggested. 

Sulak, K.J., and S.W. Ross. 1993. Analysis of Submersible Videotapes for Demersal Fish Faunas from 

the Continental Slope in The Point Region. Appendix B. In: Diaz, R.J., J.A. Blake, and D.P. Lohse 

(eds.). Volume III Appendices: Benthic Study of the Continental Slope Off Cape Hatteras, North 

Carolina. Virginia Institute of Marine Science. School of Marine Science. College of William and 

Mary. Gloucester Pt., VA. Science Applications International Corporation. Woods Hole, MA. 

*Evidence from ongoing research suggests that the benthic fauna, including demersal fish, in the 

region of “The Point” (see Appendix A for description and location) on the continental slope is 

unique. The goal of this project was to use videotapes, obtained using submersibles, to evaluate and 
Fishery Chapter — 69 

compare the demersal deep-sea fish fauna from three adjacent regions of the continental slope. 

Videotapes provided by the National Undersea Research Center, University of North Carolina — 

Wilmington of dives made by the submersibles “JSL” and “Pisces III” between False Cape, VA and 

Cape Lookout, NC were screened to identify segments acceptable as transects. Acceptable segments 

were those where the submersible was at an appropriate altitude and speed (0.2 — 0.3 knots) and 

where there was sufficient light and clarity (water column and video system) to identify and count 

individuals. Some tapes unsuitable for analysis nonetheless contained good close-up segments of 

individual species and habitat types. A list of the tapes, which were analyzed, is presented in 

Appendix B-1. The tapes selected for review came from three regions. Tapes from the northern area 

came from a single series of dives between 36o 45’ — 36o 46’ N. The tapes from the southern area 

came from the area between 32o 53’ — 34o 15’ N. 

—. 1996. Lilliputian bottom fish fauna of the Hatteras upper middle continental slope. Journal of Fish 

Biology 49 (Suppl. A): 91-113. 

Submersible data from two areas along the Carolina-Virginia continental slope reveal a Hatteras 

upper middle slope (HMS) (35°30′N, 74°50′W) demersal fish fauna remarkable for diminutive size of 

individuals within and across species, a fauna which is accordingly termed ‘Lilliputian’. Contrast of 

HMS submersible data with Virginia trawl and submersible data support this finding. The four topranking HMS fishes, Lycenchelys verrillii, Glyptocephalus cynoglossus, Myxine glutinosa and 

Nezumia bairdii, are all significantly smaller than on the Virginia upper middle slope. Also peculiar 

to the HMS is the dominance of sedentary benthic species, rarity of active benthopelagic foragers, and 

markedly elevated fish population density. Species composition of the HMS fauna differs from that of 

the general Middle Atlantic Bight fauna; notably absent are species of otherwise continuous 

distribution along the U.S. East Coast (e.g. Synaphobranchus affinis, Nezumia aequalis). Since HMS 

megafaunal and macrofaunal invertebrate communities are also anomalous, the Lilliputian 

phenomenon among HMS bottom fishes provides a characteristic biotic signature of a pervasively 

restructured benthic boundary layer community. The authors hypothesize that the HMS faunal 

anomaly reflects a limiting factor, episodic sediment surface hypoxia, peculiar to this region of high 

particulate organic carbon flux from surface waters. Results indicate that substantial changes in fish 

faunal composition and structure can occur on a small geographic scale on the open soft-substrate 

continental slope. 

Taylor, D.L., B.F. Holland Jr., and J.W. Gillikin Jr. 1978. RV Dan Moore Cruise Report No. 31. North 

Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries, Department of Natural Resources and Community 

Development. Morehead City, NC. 

*During December 1978, the RV Dan Moore completed preliminary trawl survey of Raleigh Bay, NC 

that began in October (cruise report 29). Extensive trawling of Raleigh Bay, NC from beach to the 20 

fathom contour has already been conducted during the anadromous fish (river herring, shad, striped 

bass and sturgeon) and summer flounder projects. Effort this month, as well as in October, was 

concentrated in the offshore area from 20 fathoms to 100 fathom contour. The main objectives of the 

survey were: 1) To define and designate areas of trawlable bottom, 2) To define and designate areas 

where pots and/or traps should be used rather than trawls, 3) To define and designate those areas 

where hook and line may be the only feasible method of fishing. 

—. 1979. RV Dan Moore Cruise Report No. 34: Cape Lookout, NC to Little Machipongo Inlet, VA. 

North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries, Department of Natural Resources and Community 

Development. Morehead City, NC. 
70 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

*From 2-11 April, the RV Dan Moore completed its investigations of offshore stocks of anadromous 

fishes (river herring, shad, striped bass and sturgeon) between Cape Lookout, NC and Little 

Machipongo Inlet, VA. Depths were 15 to 20 fathoms. 

Trent, L., R.O. Williams, R.G. Taylor, C.H. Saloman, and C.H. Manooch, III. 1983. Size, sex ratio, and 

recruitment in various fisheries of king mackerel, Scomberomorus cavalla, in the southeastern United 

States. Fishery Bulletin 81(4): 709-721. 

Data from over 54,000 king mackerel, Scomberomorus cavalla, were analyzed to evaluate spatial and 

temporal variations in size and sex composition in seven areas of the southeastern United States. Data 

were obtained from the recreational hook-and-line fishery of coastal states from Texas to North 

Carolina and from commercial hook-and-line and gill net fisheries of south Florida. Of the three types 

of gear, recreational hook and line appeared to be the least selective and gill net the most selective for 

particular sizes of king mackerel. 

Size composition in each area varied considerably among months; patterns of size change were 

discernible in some areas. Sizes of king mackerel varied significantly among areas and years. Catches 

from south and northwest Florida contained high proportions of small fish (<700 mm FL); those from 

Texas and North Carolina contained mostly medium-sized fish (700-900 mm FL). Mean lengths of 

king mackerel were larger in 1978 than in 1977 in all areas except northwest Florida. In northwest 

Florida, modal fork lengths were 749 mm in 1968-69,649 mm in 1977, and 549 mm in 1978. The 

majority of the smallest fish (400-600 mm FL) were recruited to the fisheries in Florida, but the range 

and areas of abundance of king mackerel smaller than this are not known. For purposes of evaluating 

effects of minimum size regulations, the king mackerel population was divided into groups (the 

Florida winter, immature, spawning, and Louisiana groups). 

Females dominated catches in all size groups and in all areas and years, except for south Florida in 

1978. Annual, or ranges of annual, estimates of percentage female by area were as follows: Texas, 

60.8-62.2%; Louisiana, 91.9-92.2%; northwest Florida, 57.1-75.1%; south Florida, 40.2-75.4%; and 

North Carolina, 75.8%. Females predominated in 31 of 38 sample groups at lengths <900 mm FL, 

and in all sample groups at lengths >899 mm FL. 

U. S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Marine 

Fisheries Service. 1985. Shark Catches from Selected Fisheries Off The U.S. East Coast. NOAA 

Technical Report NMFS 31. U. S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric 

Administration, National Marine Fisheries Service, Scientific Publications Office. Seattle, WA. 22 p. 

Various sources of catch of pelagic sharks during 1960-81 in the Northwest and Western Central 

Atlantic Ocean and Gulf of Mexico, particularly within the United States Fishery Conservation Zone 

(FCZ), were identified and quantified. These sources included reported statistics, but principally 

unreported bycatch in fisheries directed towards other species. Total catch estimates during 1965-80 

averaged 9,800 t (metric tons) per year and peaked at 17,300 t in 1977 in the Atlantic FCZ and 

averaged 6,800 t per year and peaked at 10,200 t in 1980 in the Gulf FCZ. The major source of catch 

in the Atlantic FCZ was the U.S. recreational Fishery, followed by the United States and Canadian 

swordfish longline Fisheries and the Japanese tuna longline fisheries. The major sources of catch in 

the Gulf FCZ were the recreational Fishery and the U.S. shrimp, groundfish, and snapper- grouper 

fisheries. A comparison between long-term average catches and recent levels in both areas suggests 

that pelagic sharks may be excessively exploited at the present time. 

U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service. 1990. Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf: 

Final Environmental Report on Proposed Exploratory Drilling Offshore North Carolina. U.S. 
Fishery Chapter — 71 

Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, Atlantic OCS Region, Environmental 

Assessment Section. Herndon, VA. 

*Topics include: fisheries, birds, marine mammals, physical oceanography, chemical oceanography, 

geology, gas and oil production. The proposed action is to drill a single exploratory well 

approximately 72 km (45 mi.) east-northeast of Cape Hatteras, NC in 820 m (2,690 ft) of water. Total 

depth for the proposed well is 4,267 m (14,000 ft) and the location is on Block 467 on the Minerals 

Management Service Protraction diagram NI 18-2. The proposal has been submitted by Mobil for 

itself and 7 partners to drill the well on the approved 21-block exploration unit. 

U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service. 1992. Proceedings of the Fourth Atlantic 

OCS Region Information Transfer Meeting, September 1991. U.S. Department of the Interior, 

Minerals Management Service. Herndon, VA. 198 p. 

The Fourth Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) Regional Information Transfer Meeting (ITM) 

was held on 24-25 September 1991, in Wilmington, NC. The focus of the meeting was on the OCS 

off North Carolina, specifically on activities related to a proposed exploratory well for oil and gas by 

Mobil on Block 467 a site 40 miles off the coast of North Carolina. The area of industry interest is 

known as the Manteo Prospect, while the activities surrounding the proposed drilling are referred to 

collectively as the Manteo Project. The wildcat wellsite is in 2,690 ft. (857 m) of water near the edge 

of the Gulf Stream. It is also near a fishing ground known locally as “The Point.” The area is believed 

to be gas prone rather than oil prone. The estimated size of the resource could be as high as 5 trillion 

cubic feet of gas. 

The purpose of the meeting was to exchange information on the leasing background, legislative 

activities, scientific results, and socioeconomic studies. Legislative-related reports include 

descriptions of the Oil Pollution Act of 1990, the Outer Banks Protection Act, the Environmental 

Studies Review Panel, and the North Carolina Physical Oceanography Panel. Reports of studies on 

marine life include benthic diatoms, benthic fauna, pelagic seabirds, sea turtles, and right whales. One 

report describes the use of airships (blimps) for ocean research a capability relevant to North Carolina 

because of the east coast airship facility is located in the state. Local marine science facilities 

described include NOAA’s National Undersea Research Center at the University of North Carolina at 

Wilmington (NURC/UNCW) and the National Marine Fisheries Service laboratory in Beaufort. 

Developments in oil spill cleanup technology and capabilities are described by both the Coast Guard 

and the industry. A socioeconomic report describes the effects of the oil and gas activities on the 

tourist industry. Lastly, research on the restoration of salt marshes indicates that rehabilitation of an 

area is possible when development or an accident has occurred. While the emphasis of the meeting 

was on oil and gas, two reports described the results of projects related to offshore sand mining. The 

appendix lists the names and addresses of speakers. Individual chapters are cited individually when 

appropriate. 

U.S. Department of the Navy. 1985. EMPRESS II: Supplemental Draft Environmental Impact Statement 

for the Proposed Operation of the Navy Electromagnetic Pulse Radiation Environment Simulator for 

Ships (Empress II) in the Chesapeake Bay and Atlantic Ocean. United States Navy. Environmental/ 

Intergovernmental Section. Atlantic Division. Naval Facilities Engineering and Command. Norfolk, 

VA. 

*This is a National Environmental Policy Act document characterizing the proposed EMPRESS II 

project. Appendix B contains a Summary of Biological Processes in the Proposed VACAPES 

EMPRESS II area off North Carolina Relating to Planktonic Communities, Pelagic 

Macroinvertebrates, Ichthyofauna, Sea turtles, Marine Mammals, and Sea Birds. Technical reports 
72 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

supporting this summary have been written by authorities in each discipline and are included in 

Appendices. The technical reports are cited individually. The southern portion of VACAPES 

EMPRESS II Area of North Carolina overlaps with the northern portion of the defined study area for 

the Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope (The Point) Area. 

Ustach, J. Unpublished database. RV Eastward Studies, Underwater Camera Data 1965-1973. Duke 

University Marine Laboratory. Beaufort, NC. 

*This is an unpublished database. Data were collected from 1965 to 1973 by the Duke University 

Marine Laboratory. The contact person is Joseph Ustach. Select sample locations and related data 

were computerized as part of the North Carolina SEAMAP Hardbottom data project by Moser et al. 

(1995). SEAMAP Hardbottom data (sample locations) within the defined project area for The Point 

were sorted and mapped using ArcView GIS (J. Ott, pers. comm. 15 Nov 99). 

Vaughn, J.A., B.F. Holland Jr., and S.G. Keefe. 1976. RV Dan Moore Cruise Report No. 14: Cape 

Lookout, NC to Little Machipongo Inlet, VA. North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries, 

Department of Natural Resources and Community Development. Morehead City, NC. 

*The primary objective of the March 1976 cruise was to continue monitoring the offshore stocks of 

anadromous fishes (alewife, blueback herring, American and hickory shad, striped bass and sturgeon) 

in North Carolina and Virginia. A wing trawl, selective for pelagic fishes such as herring, trout and 

mackerel was used in the vicinity of 10-15 fathom contours. 

Vigil, D.L. (ed.). 1998. North Carolina/Minerals Management Service Technical Workshop on Manteo 

Unit Exploration: February 4-5, 1998. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management Service. Gulf 

of Mexico OCS Region. New Orleans, LA. 168 p. 

*These are the proceedings from a workshop/meeting (conducted on February 4-5, 1998) between the 

North Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources, and the U.S. Department of the 

Interior’s Minerals Management Service (MMS). The geographic area being discussed is 

approximately 45 miles east-northeast of Cape Hatteras, NC, referred to as the Manteo Unit. This 

workshop reviewed environmental and socioeconomic information known and needed on the Manteo 

Unit. The MMS’s Gulf of Mexico OCS Regional Director gave an MMS perspective on history and 

status of the area. Chevron gave a presentation on how the exploratory well would be drilled. The 

scientific characterization was presented in greater detail by a number of scientific experts who spoke 

on the following disciplines physical environment, habitat and living resources (invertebrates and 

fish), seabirds, marine mammals, sea turtles, and social and economic issues. Specific chapters are 

cited individually, when appropriate. 

Wilk, S.J. and M.J. Silverman. 1976. Fish and hydrographic collections made by the research vessels 

Dolphin and Delaware II during 1968-72 from New York to Florida. NOAA Technical Report NMFS 

SSRF-697. 159 p. 

Information is given in tabular form for fish and hydrographic observations collected during 18 

cruises made by the research vessels Dolphin and Delaware II from New York to Florida during 

1968-72. Tables include station locations with related hydrographic observations and number, weight, 

and size range of fish species caught. 

Wilk, S.J., W.G. Smith, D.E. Ralph, and J. Sibunka. 1980. Population structure of summer flounder 

between New York and Florida based on linear discriminant analysis. Transactions of the American 

Fisheries Society. 109(3): 265-271. 
Fishery Chapter — 73 

We used a stepwise linear discriminant analysis to investigate the population structure of summer 

flounder, Paralichthys dentatus (Linnaeus). Analysis was based on 18 morphometric and meristic 

variables taken from 1,214 specimens collected in coastal waters between Montauk Point, New York 

and Cape Canaveral, Florida. Two populations were identified: one in the Middle Atlantic Bight, or 

between New York and Cape Hatteras, North Carolina; the other in the South Atlantic Bight, or 

between Cape Hatteras and Florida. Discriminant analysis coefficients, based on five morphometric 

variables taken from specimens collected at geographic extremes of the survey area, provide a 

mathematical means for classifying summer flounder into either the northern or southern population 

with an accuracy of 93%. 

Witzell, W.N. 1999. Distribution and relative abundance of sea turtles caught incidentally by the U.S. 

pelagic longline fleet in the western North Atlantic Ocean, 1992-1995. Fisheries Bulletin 97: 200-

211. 

*This paper examines the seasonal distribution and relative abundance of threatened and endangered 

sea turtles (e.g., loggerhead sea turtle, Caretta caretta; and leatherback sea turtle, Dermochelys 

coriacea) caught incidentally by the U.S. Atlantic pelagic longline fishery for tuna, Thunnus spp., and 

swordfish, Xiphias gladius from 1992 through 1995. Sargassum is mentioned. 

Wollam, M.B. 1970. Description and distribution of larvae and early juveniles of king mackerel, 

Scomberomorus cavalla (Cuvier), and Spanish mackerel, Scomberomorus maculatus (Mitchill); 

(Pisces: Scombridae); in the Western North Atlantic. Technical Series No. 61. Florida Department of 

Natural Resources, Division of Marine Resources. St. Petersburg, FL. 35 p. 

Larvae and juveniles of both king and Spanish mackerel collected by the Florida Department of 

Natural Resources Marine Research Laboratory are described and figured. Nine additional king 

mackerel juveniles were loaned by the Bureau of Sport Fisheries’ Sandy Hook Marine Laboratory. 

This report constitutes the first description of the developmental stages of king mackerel and a 

redescription of some larval stages of Spanish mackerel. 

Initial identifications are based on the number of vertebral and/or myomere elements with 

pigmentation patterns and morphometrics providing corroborative evidence. King mackerel have 42 

to 43 vertebrae and/or myomeres; larval stages have a large melanophore on the medial surface of the 

dentary about one third of the distance from the mandibular symphysis; juveniles stages have a 

saddle-shaped patch of pigmentation on the flank under the second dorsal finlets, and only the 

anterior five interracial membranes of the first dorsal fin are pigmented. Spanish mackerel have 52 to 

53 vertebrae and/or myomeres; larval stages may have a small chromatophore between the lower jaw 

rami about one half the distance from the mandibular symphysis; juvenile stages have a lateral band 

of pigmentation extending the length of the trunk, and all of the interracial membranes of the first 

dorsal fin are pigmented. A conspicuous spiny projection of the supraoccipital crest present in the 

larvae of both species is thought to be a generic character. 

Meristic data falls within the range of the adults, except for the presence of one or two additional first 

dorsal fin spines in some juvenile Spanish mackerel. 

Distribution and seasonality of the larvae and juveniles indicate that these mackerels spawn in the 

summer while in the northern portion of their ranges. This implies that mackerels in the eastern Gulf 

of Mexico may be reproductively isolated from those along the Atlantic coast. 

A previous description of larval stages of Spanish mackerel from 3.0 to 5.75 mm SL is shown to be 

incorrect. 
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82 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

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INVERTEBRATE CHAPTER 
Invertebrate Chapter — 85 

INVERTEBRATE CHAPTER 

Abernathy, S.A., M.T. Baer, C.S. Benner, M.S. Brody, D.K. Francois, J.K. Gilliam, L.K. Good, C.J. 

Ohara, and J.V. Martin. 1989. Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf: Description of the Mid-Atlantic 

Environment. Abernathy, S.A. (ed.). U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, 

Atlantic OCS Region, Environmental Assessment Section. Herndon, VA. 167 p. 

*This document discusses the major issues and areas of concern for the mid-Atlantic environment 

that are considered in the planning process for oil and gas leasing and operations on the Outer 

Continental Shelf (OCS). The issues are addressed with respect to the potential environmental 

consequences of mid Atlantic oil and gas exploration, development and production. A section 

discussing The Physical Environment (e.g., geology, non-petroleum minerals, physical oceanography, 

chemical oceanography and water quality, ocean dumping, meteorology, air quality), Biological 

resources (e.g., plankton, benthos, fishery resources, marine reptiles, marine mammals, marine and 

coastal birds, estuaries, wetlands, sensitive coastal habitats, canyon areas), Socioeconomic 

Environment, and other issues (e.g., archaeological resources, marine vessel traffic, National 

Aeronautics and Space Administration/ Department of Defense activities, oil and gas infrastructure, 

marine sanctuaries, and estuarine research reserves) is included. Most of the figures showing fisheries 

resource distribution are taken from fisheries data compiled for bottom-trawl and shellfish surveys of 

the National Marine Fisheries Service, Northeast Fisheries Center, Woods Hole, MA. 

Able, K.W., M.P. Fahay, and G.R. Shepherd. 1995. Early life history of black sea bass, Centropristis 

striata, in the mid-Atlantic Bight and a New Jersey estuary. Fishery Bulletin 93: 429-445. 

This study focuses on composite field collections and in situ observations from the mid-Atlantic 

Bight continental shelf and a New Jersey estuary in order to elucidate aspects of the early life history 

of age 0+ black sea bass, Centropristis striata. Spawning in the mid-Atlantic Bight is prolonged 

(April through November, with a peak between June and September) and is most intense in the 

southern portion of this range. Between 1977 and 1987, larvae were collected between Cape Hatteras, 

North Carolina, and Long Island, New York. In New Jersey coastal waters larvae first appear in July 

but can occur into November. Recently settled individuals (15-24 mm total length [TL]) were 

collected at an inner continental shelf site and an adjacent estuary from July through October. By fall, 

fishes from these areas were 18-91 mm TL, and many had moved offshore from New Jersey estuarine 

waters and other estuaries to inner continental shelf waters between southern Massachusetts and Cape 

Hatteras. Subsequently, they continued to move offshore and during their first winter, they were 

concentrated near the shelf or slope break in the southern portion of the mid-Atlantic Bight. Some age 

0+ individuals moved back into New Jersey estuaries in early spring, at sizes approximating those of 

the previous fall (50-96 mm TL). Thus, black sea bass reach relatively small sizes after 12 months of 

growth partly because little or no growth occurs during their first winter. This year class reached sizes 

of 78-175 mm TL by midsummer and 134-225 mm TL by the following fall. 

During summer, benthic juveniles were collected or observed primarily in a variety of structured 

habitats. On the inner continental shelf they were found among accumulations of surfclam Spisula 

solidissima valves or among smaller pieces of shell, and occasionally in burrows in exposed clay. 

While in the estuary, they were collected from areas with a variety of structured habitats, such as shell 

accumulations in marsh creeks and peat banks. The data suggest that during their first summer, black 

sea bass have similar densities and growth rates in estuarine and inner continental shelf habitats, and 

thus both areas serve as nurseries. 
86 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

Almeida, F.P., T.R. Azarovitz, L. O’Brien, and E.W. Pritchard. 1984. The distribution of major finfish 

and shellfish species collected during NEFC Bottom trawl surveys, 1965-1978. Woods Hole 

Laboratory Reference Document Number 84-21. Northeast Fisheries Center, Woods Hole Laboratory. 

Woods Hole, MA. 101 p. 

*This report describes synoptic bottom trawl surveys of the offshore fishery resources of the 

Northwest Atlantic continental shelf have been conducted by the North east Fisheries Center since the 

autumn of 1963. These surveys provided the data for examining the temporal and spatial distribution 

of 46 finfish and shellfish species occurring on the shelf. 

Ashjian, C.J., S.L. Smith, C.N. Flagg, A.J. Mariano, W.J. Behrens, and P.V.Z. Lane. 1994. The influence 

of a Gulf Stream meander on the distribution of zooplankton biomass in the Slope Water, and the 

Gulf Stream, and the Sargasso Sea, described using a shipboard acoustic Doppler current profiler. 

Deep-Sea Research I 41(1): 23-50. 

The influence of a Gulf Stream meander on the distribution of zooplankton biomass in the Slope 

Water, the Gulf Stream, and the Sargasso Sea, described using a shipboard acoustic Doppler current 

profiler Patterns in zooplankton biomass distribution in a Gulf Stream meander were documented 

wing a ship-mounted acoustic Doppler current profiler (ADCP) in fall 1988 as part of the 

BIOSYNOP program. The dominant signal in biomass was the regional variation between water 

masses, with greatest biomass recorded in the Slope Water, intermediate biomass at the Slope WaterGulf Stream front, and lowest biomass in the Gulf Stream/Sargasso Sea. Biomass was more variable 

in the Slope Water than in the Sargasso Sea. Diel variation, a consequence of diel vertical migration, 

was also observed. Comprehensive maps of the surveyed region documented meander associated 

enhancement of zooplankton biomass. Elevated biomass was documented in the region downstream 

of the meander crest, where entrainment of Slope Water and convergence of flow are hypothesized to 

occur. The ADCP was demonstrated to be an effective means of documenting patterns in zooplankton 

biomass, including estimates of the variability (patchiness). 

Atkinson, L.P., D.W. Menzel, and K.A. Bush. 1985. Oceanography of the Southeastern U.S. Continental 

Shelf. American Geophysical Union. Washington, DC. 156 p. 

*This book contains 12 chapters: an introduction; four chapters on physical oceanography; a chapter 

on hydrography and nutrients; four biological chapters (covering phytoplankton, zooplankton, 

bacteria, and macroinfauna); a chemical chapter on trace metals; and a summary chapter describing 

future research plans. Research included was conducted between 1975 and the early 1980’s and was 

largely funded by the Department of Energy and the Minerals Management Service (formerly Bureau 

of Land Management). The South Atlantic Bight (SAB) extends from the temperate waters of Cape 

Hatteras, NC to subtropical waters of West Palm Beach, FL. The ocean region is influenced by Gulf 

Stream dynamics on the eastern boundary, synoptic winds and weather events, river and estuarine 

inputs. 

Azarovitz, T. Unpublished database. Groundfish Surveys 1967-1994. NOAA/NMFS, Northeast Fisheries 

Center. Woods Hole, MA. 

*This is an unpublished fisheries database. Data were collected from 1967 to 1994 by the 

NOAA/NMFS, Northeast Fisheries Center. The Principal Investigator is listed as Tom Azarovitz. 

Select sample locations and related data were computerized as part of the North Carolina SEAMAP 

Hardbottom data project by Moser et al. (1995). SEAMAP Hardbottom data (sample locations) within 

the defined project area for The Point were sorted and mapped using ArcView GIS (J. Ott, pers. 

comm. 15 Nov 99). 
Invertebrate Chapter — 87 

Bailey, T.G., M.J. Youngbluth, and G.P. Owen. 1995. Chemical composition and metabolic rates of 

gelatinous zooplankton from midwater and benthic boundary layer environments off Cape Hatteras, 

North Carolina, USA. Marine Ecology Progress Series 122: 121-34. 

Quantitative determinations of chemical composition and oxygen consumption rates were made for 7 

species of gelatinous zooplankton (ctenophores and medusae) from midwater and benthic boundary 

layer habitats off Cape Hatteras, NC, USA. Although there were no apparent trends in chemical 

composition with depth of occurrence, midwater species were generally less robust, in terms of 

protein and lipid content, than those from benthopelagic depths. These differences in chemical 

compositions between midwater and benthopelagic species are probably related to factors associated 

with swimming behaviors required for prey capture and predator avoidance. Measurements of carbon 

specific metabolic rates (0.59 to 17.9 ul O mg 1

 C h 1) indicated that minimum daily rations required 

by mesopelagic gelatinous zooplankton can impact carbon cycling and energy transfer in deep-water 

ecosystems. These data are consistent with a growing inventory of metabolic measurements 

undertaken with submersible platforms and strongly implicate gelatinous zooplankton as ecologically 

important components of pelagic communities. 

Bailey, T., M. Youngbluth, and G. Owen. 1991. Metabolic Rates of Zooplankton and Micronekton from 

Deep-water Pelagic Environments at Cape Hatteras. p. 5. In: Shepard, A. (ed.). NURC/UNCW 1991 

Undersea Research: Informational Meeting. National Undersea Research Center, University of North 

Carolina at Wilmington. Wilmington, NC. 

Our submersible-based observations in August 1990 indicated that “The Point” east of Cape Hatteras 

was a highly structured environment dominated by one species of myctophid fish and several species 

of crustaceans and gelatinous zooplankton. In fact, in our ca. 25 years of combined submersible 

experience, we have not encountered such high population densities of gelatinous zooplankton or 

myctophid fishes at any other location. These high standing stocks provide the unique opportunity to 

study major faunal components (i.e., fishes, crustaceans, and gelatinous zooplankton) of the midwater 

community, simultaneously. 

Our research plan for 1991 will determine the distribution, abundance, and metabolic rates of 

numerically dominant species of midwater zooplankton and micronekton. These data will allow us to 

define the energetic and trophic relationships of zooplankton and micronekton in deep-water 

communities. 

Blair, N.E., L.A. Levin, D.J. DeMaster, and G. Plaia. 1996. The short-term fate of fresh algal carbon in 

continental slope sediments. Limnol. Oceanogr. 41(6): 1208-1219. 

Emplacement of tracer mixture containing 13C-labeled green algae on the sea floor of the continental 

slope offshore Cape Hatteras, North Carolina, elicited a rapid responses over 1.5 d from the dense 

benthic community. Certain deposit-feeding annelids (e.g. Scalibregma inflatum and Aricidea 

quadrilobata) became heavily labeled with 13C-labeled organic matter was transported to a depth of at 

least 4-5 cm into the seabed during the 1.5 d period, presumably as a consequence of feedingassociated activity. Nonlocal transport produced subsurface peaks in organic 13C at 2-3 cm. Dissolved 

inorganic 13C, produced by the oxidation of the labeled algae, penetrated to 10-cm depth. The 

transport of highly reactive organic matter from the sediment surface at initial velocities ≥ 3 cm d -1 is 

expected to be an important control of subsurface benthic processes in slope environments 

characterized by abundant macrofaunal populations. Anaerobic processes, which are enhanced on the 

Cape Hatteras slope relative to adjacent areas, may be promoted by the rapid injection of reactive 

material into subsurface sediments. The transport, in turn, is a consequence of the dense infaunal 

populations that are supported by the rapid depositions of organic carbon in this region. 
88 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

Blake, J.A. 1993. Life History Analysis of Five Dominant Infaunal Polychaete Species from the 

Continental Slope off North Carolina. J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. U.K. 73: 123-141. 

Observations were made on the reproduction and life history of five species of polychaetes collected 

from the continental slope off North Carolina, USA. Three species were studied at a 2000-m lower 

slope station off Cape Lookout (Aurospio dibranchiata, Microrbinia linea, and Pholoe anoculata) 

and the other two at a 600-m upper slope station off Cape Hatteras (Cossura longocirrata and 

Scalibregma inflatum). Aurospio dibranchiata, a surface feeding spionid, exhibited seasonality in egg 

diameter and size-frequency data, with the larger sizes occurring in late summer months. Pholoe 

anoculata, a small carnivorous scale worm, did not exhibit any evidence of seasonality in sizefrequency data at the 2000-m station. Sexually mature specimens were absent from this population, 

but were present at shallower slope depths, indicating year-round recruitment into the lower slope 

from middle and upper slope populations. Microrbinia linea, a small subsurface deposit feeding 

orbiniid, exhibited year-round reproduction and recruitment. Cossura longocirrata, a deposit-feeding 

cossurid, exhibited patterns of spring recruitment that were similar to previously studied populations 

on the continental shelf. Scalibregma inflatum, a deposit-feeding scalibregmatid, did not exhibit any 

evidence of seasonality, and is presumed to have a year-round reproduction. It is postulated that 

benthic infaunal organisms that feed at the water-sediment interface are more likely to utilize 

immediately seasonal pulses of sedimentation by phytoplankton to the bottom than deeper burrowing 

subsurface deposit feeders. In this regard, surface deposit feeders would be more likely to exhibit 

seasonality in their reproduction and recruitment than subsurface deposit feeders. 

—. 1994. Vertical distribution of benthic infauna in continental slope sediments off Cape Lookout, North 

Carolina. Deep-Sea Research II Vol. 41(4-6): 919-927. 

The vertical distribution of 30 species of benthic infauna from continental slope (583-3000 m) 

sediments off Cape Lookout, North Carolina was closely correlated with feeding types. Carnivores, 

omnivores, filter feeders, and surface deposit feeders were mostly concentrated in the upper 0-2 cm of 

the cores. The depth distribution of subsurface deposit feeders was more variable, even among related 

taxa. 

Blake, J.A., and R. Avent. 1998. Biological Environment Work Session Results: Benthic Ecology. pp. 80-

83. In: Vigil, D.L. (ed.). North Carolina/Minerals Management Service Technical Workshop on 

Manteo Unit Exploration: February 4-5, 1998. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management 

Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region. New Orleans, LA. 

*These are the proceedings from a workshop/meeting (conducted on February 4-5, 1998) between the 

North Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources, and the U.S. Department of the 

Interior’s Minerals Management Service (MMS). The geographic area being discussed is 

approximately 45 miles east-northeast of Cape Hatteras, NC, referred to as the Manteo Unit. This 

workshop reviewed environmental and socioeconomic information known and needed on the Manteo 

Unit. The MMS’s Gulf of Mexico OCS Regional Director gave an MMS perspective on history and 

status of the area. Chevron gave a presentation on how the exploratory well would be drilled. The 

scientific characterization was presented in greater detail by a number of scientific experts who spoke 

on the following disciplines physical environment, habitat and living resources, seabirds, marine 

mammals, sea turtles, and social and economic issues. Specific chapters are cited individually, when 

appropriate. 

Numerous isolated studies have been pursued for several decades on the benthic ecology, community 

structure, and density of the benthic communities of the middle Atlantic continental shelf and slope. 

Earlier Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Virginia Institute of Marine Science, Duke University 

Marine Laboratory, and others’ investigation in the 1960’s and 1970’s resulted in the development of 
Invertebrate Chapter — 89 

many of the recent concept in deep sea ecology, distribution, and diversity. Some of these 

investigations were conducted off the Cape Hatteras region of North Carolina. The MMS sponsored 

the U.S. South Atlantic Slope and Rise Program (ACSAR; 1983-1986) which resulted in two large 

reports (Blake et al. 1985; 1987) and presentations at the 1984 and 1985 MMS Information Transfer 

Meetings. The first phase of the “Study of the Biological Processes on the U.S. South Atlantic Slope 

ad Rise” was conducted from a large area from the Georgia Bight northward to the region around 

Cape Hatteras. The second phase was conducted in a much smaller area off the Carolinas. This effort 

identified some unique biological conditions and processes off Cape Hatteras including the upper 

slope in the Manteo leasing area. This section also discussed Data Gaps and Future Investigations, 

Considerations for an Industry Exploration Plan, and Post Discharge Monitoring. 

Blake, J.A., and R.J. Diaz. 1998. Habitat and Living Resources Review: Benthic Ecology of the Cape 

Hatteras Continental Slope. pp. 43-51. In: Vigil, D.L. (ed.). North Carolina/Minerals Management 

Service Technical Workshop on Manteo Unit Exploration: February 4-5, 1998. U.S. Dept. of the 

Interior, Minerals Management Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region. New Orleans, LA . 

*These are the proceedings from a workshop/meeting (conducted on February 4-5, 1998) between the 

North Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources, and the U.S. Department of the 

Interior’s Minerals Management Service (MMS). The geographic area being discussed is 

approximately 45 miles east-northeast of Cape Hatteras, NC, referred to as the Manteo Unit. This 

workshop reviewed environmental and socioeconomic information known and needed on the Manteo 

Unit. The MMS’s Gulf of Mexico OCS Regional Director gave an MMS perspective on history and 

status of the area. Chevron gave a presentation on how the exploratory well would be drilled. The 

scientific characterization was presented in greater detail by a number of scientific experts who spoke 

on the following disciplines physical environment, habitat and living resources, seabirds, marine 

mammals, sea turtles, and social and economic issues. Specific chapters are cited individually, when 

appropriate. 

The benthic communities of the continental slope off the Carolinas has been described as part of 

extensive surveys conducted by the Minerals Management Service to assess potential impacts due to 

exploratory drilling for oil and gas. The initial effort was the Atlantic Continental Slope Rise 

(ACSAR) Program, which included transects across the Carolina slope from Cape Hatteras in the 

north to off the Charleston Bump in the south (Blake et al. 1985, 1987; Blake and Grassle 1994). Out 

of 15 stations sampled for benthic infauna, the most unusual were found off Cape Hatteras in Manteo 

Lease Block 510 at a depth of 550 m. The benthic fauna at this site included unusually high densities 

of infauna, epifaunal invertebrates, and fish (Blake and Grassle 1994; Hecker 1994). Much of the 

surface was seen to be carpeted with white tubes that later proved to be a giant foraminiferan, 

Bathysiphon filiformis. A control site at 2000 m down slope from the 550 m station also exhibited 

unusually high densities of infauna for a depth range. Overall, the abundance and biomass of the 

benthos was found to be about 6 and 10 times higher than other areas of the Carolina slope. This 

section discusses MMS Field Surveys and Methods, Results and Discussion, Sedimentology, and 

Benthic Communities. Figure 4; Location of Benthic Stations and Camera Transects on the Cape 

Hatteras Slope in 1992, indicating sampling occurred in designated study area, is located on page 45. 

Blake, J.A., and J.F. Grassle. 1994. Benthic community structure on the U.S. South Atlantic slope off the 

Carolinas: Spatial heterogeneity in a current-dominated system. Deep-Sea Research II Vol. 41(4-6): 

835-874. 

*Faunal communities of the continental slope and rise seaward of North and South Carolina (U.S.A.) 

are strongly influenced by the Gulf Stream, the Western Boundary Undercurrent, and an increasingly 

steep declination of the slope toward Cape Hatteras. Sixteen stations in depths of 600-3500 m were 
90 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

sampled to characterize the sediment and benthic macrofauna. Box cores were taken along four 

transects Cape Hatteras, Cape Lookout, Cape Fear, and Charleston. On the Cape Hatteras transect 

infaunal densities at the 600-m station were as high as those typical of shallower waters, and the 

dominant organisms were species that are more characteristic of continental shelf depths. There is 

high, nearly continuous sedimentation of terrigenous fine sandy sediments that are funneled over the 

Cape Hatteras slope by southerly-flowing, long-shelf currents. We postulate that organic material is 

transported rapidly over the site and that the high depositional rates are enhanced by scavenging 

activities of filter-feeding organisms. Large, deep-burrowing deposit feeders serve to carry organic 

material deep into the sediments. The shallow stations on the Charleston transects were dominated by 

sand waves generated by the Gulf Stream, while deeper stations were enriched by microalgae 

transported downslope. Transects off Cape Lookout and Cape Fear were more typical of those found 

elsewhere in the western North Atlantic. 

Blake, J.A., B. Hecker, J.F. Grassle, B. Brown, M. Wade, P.D. Boehm, E. Baptiste, B. Hilbig, N. 

Maciolek, R. Petrecca, R.E. Ruff, V. Starczak, and L. Watling. 1987. Study of Biological Processes 

on the U.S. South Atlantic Slope and Rise: Phase 2. U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals 

Management Service, Atlantic OCS Region, Environmental Assessment Section. Herndon, VA. 

A total of 16 stations were sampled during a 2 year field program designed to characterize the 

biological, chemical, and sedimentary processes on the slope and rise off North and South Carolina. 

Box cores were taken along a 4 transects at depths of 600 to 3500 m. The infauna yielded a total of 

1202 species, 520 of which were new to science. Annelids were dominant taxa in terms of density and 

numbers of species. Species diversity was highest at an 800 m site off Charleston. Infaunal densities 

were highest on the upper slope (600 m) and lowest on the rise (3000 m). Life history analysis yielded 

evidence of seasonality for two polychaete species. Two stations off Cape Hatteras in depths of 600 m 

and 2000 m had higher infaunal density, lower species diversity, and higher biomass than elsewhere 

on the Atlantic slope and rise. Higher than normal lead and carbon inventories suggest enhanced 

scavenging processes in this area. Faunal patterns on the Cape Lookout transect were generally 

typical for other localities on the Atlantic Slope and Rise. Faunal changes were detected off Cape 

Fear and Charleston that may be related to the influence of the Gulf Stream and associated sediment 

changes. Epifauna were most unusual on the Charleston Bump, where a hard bottom fauna dominated 

by filter feeding corals and sponges thrives in an area strongly swept by the Gulf Stream. Consistent 

faunal differences were found between the upstream and downstream sides of the bump. Data 

generated in the infaunal and epifaunal surveys supported the view that a partial zoogeographic 

barrier exists on the slope off North Carolina. This break was most evident between Cape Lookout 

and Cape Fear. 

Blake, J.A., and B. Hilbig. 1994. Dense infaunal assemblages on the continental slope off Cape Hatteras, 

North Carolina. Deep-Sea Research II Vol. 41(4-6): 875-899. 

*Unusually dense assemblages of benthic infaunal invertebrates have been discovered in continental 

slope sediments off Cape Hatteras, North Carolina. Densities were highest on the upper slope, ranging 

from 24,055 to 61,244 (mean = 46,255) individuals m2

 in nine samples taken at a 600-m site in 1984 

and 1985, and from 15,522 to 89,566 (mean = 37,282) individuals m2 in single samples at 15 stations 

over a wider depth range of 530 to 1535 m in 1992. A lower slope station at 2000 m sampled six 

times in 1984-1985 and again in 1992, had densities consistently higher than 8500 individuals m2

. 

Species richness and diversity are consistently lower on the Cape Hatteras slope than at other 

locations off North Carolina and elsewhere in the western North Atlantic. 

Brodziak, J., and L. Hendrickson. 1999. An analysis of environmental effects on survey catches of squids 

Loligo pealei and Illex illecebrosus in the northwest Atlantic. Fishery Bulletin 97(1): 9-24. 
Invertebrate Chapter — 91 

An analysis of environmental effects on autumn survey catches of two commercially exploited squid 

species, Loligo pealei and Illex illecebrosus, was conducted. Research survey data collected during 

1967-94 were used to determine the significance and relative importance of average depth tow, time 

of day bottom temperature on bottom trawl catches of L. pealei, a neritic species, and I. illecebrosus, 

an oceanic species. We examined habitat associations of both species by using randomization 

methods and found that L. pealei was consistently associated with all of the environmental factors 

examined. In comparison with L. pealei, catches of I. illecebrosus were much lower and associations 

with environmental factors were inconsistent. We also examined whether environmental conditions 

affected catches of juveniles and adult squid differentially. Depth had an important effect on the 

magnitude of juvenile and adult L. pealei catches, with the ratio of juvenile to adult catches 

decreasing with depth. Depth had a similar, but less pronounced, effect on. I. illecebrosus catches. 

Time of day also affected L. pealei and I. illecebrosus catches. Catches of both species were lowest at 

night and diel effects were more pronounced for juveniles than for adults. Bottom and surface 

temperatures had substantial effect on catches of juvenile and adult L. pealei and I. illecebrosus

catches. The joint effects of depth stratification time of day and annual squid abundance on survey 

catches were also analyzed to determine correction factors for diel differences in catchability of 

juvenile and adult squid. Significant diel differences in catchability were detected for juvenile and 

adult L. pealei and for juvenile I. illecebrosus and diel correction factors were determined for survey 

catches of these size categories. In contrast, significant diel differences in catchability of adult I. 

illecebrosus were not detected. 

Brown, B. 1991. Biomass of Deep-Sea Benthic Communities: Polychaetes and other Invertebrates. 

Bulletin of Marine Science 48(2): 401-411. 

Biomass measurements were made for benthic samples from the U.S. Atlantic continental slope and 

rise as part of a program on benthic processes in the deep sea. Box-core samples were collected from 

off Georges Bank near Massachusetts south to off Georgia, primarily along the 2000-m depth 

contour. Ash-free dry weight (AFDW) measurements were made on replicates from six stations. 

Samples were sieved through nested 0.3 mm and 2.0 mm screens. AFDW biomass ranged between 

0.1665 and 2.1439 g m-2. Polychaetes dominated biomass in the 0.3-mm fractions and in the 2.0-mm 

fraction except whenever large organisms, such as echinoderms, were present. Wet weight biomass 

was measured on samples taken from off Cape Hatteras in depths varying between 583 and 3500 m. 

A sharp decrease (five- to ten-fold) in biomass was observed between 2000 and 3000 m depth. 

Butler, J.N., B.F. Morris, J. Cadwallader, and A.W. Stoner. 1983. Studies of Sargassum and the

Sargassum Community. Special Publication No. 22. Bermuda Biological Station for Research. 

*Chapter 1 The Quantity of Sargassum in the Sargasso Sea, and Chapter 2 The Sargassum

Community include the defined study area for The Point. 

The quantity and distribution of Sargassum in the Sargasso Sea, as estimated by various investigators, 

is reviewed. There has apparently been no significant change in the biomass of Sargassum from 1933 

to 1981, except for an area northeast of the Antilles (20-25° N, 62-68° W) where measurements made 

in November 1977 and November 1980 were about 0.1% of values measured in February and March 

1933. Because of the lack of change in the Bermuda region, the Bahamas region, or the Gulf Stream 

region, this effect does not appear to be due to pollution or broad climatic changes; it is most likely 

due to a seasonal or long-term shift of the currents defining the southwestern boundary of the 

Sargasso Sea. 

Motile macrofauna on Sargassum were identified and counted for 244 samples taken at Station ‘S’ 

near Bermuda, and for 155 samples taken from other parts of the western North Atlantic and 

Caribbean. The nature of this community and its seasonal variations are discussed. Preliminary 
92 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

studies of the food web, as well as of the microfauna (copepods) and sessile fauna are reported. 

Although petroleum hydrocarbon residues are found in all samples of Sargassum and its larger 

associated fauna, the variability of individual samples is so extreme that no correlation of community 

structure with hydrocarbon pollution could be demonstrated. 

Chen, Chin, and N.S. Hillman. 1970. Shell-bearing Pteropods as Indicators of Water Masses off Cape 

Hatteras, North Carolina. Bulletin of Marine Science 20(2): 350-367. 

Three water masses occur within a radius of 120 nautical miles off Cape Hatteras, North Carolina. 

Several species of shell-bearing pteropods characterize these water masses: subarctic Limacina 

retroversa in the slope water, subtropical Limacina inflata in the Sargasso Sea, and tropical Limacina 

trochiformis and Creseis virgula in the Gulf Stream. 

The pattern of vertical distribution of pteropod species is compatible with the seasonal structure of the 

water. In summer, a thin, warm surface 1ayer bearing tropical species of pteropods overlies thick, 

cold, slope water carrying subarctic species in the region of 35o30′N to 37o10′N. In winter, the slope 

water surfaces at about 36N. The sharp gradient exhibited by the vertical slope of isotherms acts as a 

temperature barrier separating subarctic from tropical species of pteropods. 

Pteropod shells are found in sediments beneath the Gulf Stream at depth of about 400-2150 m. 

Creseis virgula conica is the dominant species in the sediments. 

Coston-Clements, L., L.R. Settle, D.E. Hoss, and F.A. Cross. 1991. Utilization of the Sargassum Habitat 

by Marine Invertebrates and Vertebrates — A Review. National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA, 

Southeast Fisheries Science Center, Beaufort Laboratory. Beaufort, NC. 32 p. 

Numerous species of brown algae (Class Cyclosporeae: Order Fucales: Family Fucaceae) of the 

genus Sargassum occur throughout the world’s tropical and temperate oceans. The pelagic complex 

in the western North Atlantic is comprised primarily of Sargassum natans and S. fluitans. Both 

species are hyponeustonic and fully adapted to a pelagic existence (Parr, 1939). Known commonly as 

gulf-weed, sea holly, or sargassum, they are characterized by a brushy, highly branched thallus (stem) 

with numerous leaf-like blades and berry-like pneumatocysts (floats). These floating plants may be up 

to several meters in length-but are typically much smaller. There is a well known assemblage of small 

fishes associated with sargassum rafts, many of which serve as forage for commercially or 

recreationally exploited species (Table 2). Dooley (1972) described 54 species from 23 families in the 

sargassum community of the Florida Current. Only 14 species from 11 families are known from the 

Sargasso Sea (Fedoryako, 1980; 1989). During the pelagic stage, hatchling loggerhead, Caretta 

caretta, green, Chelonia mydas, Kemp’s ridley, Lepidochelys kempi, and hawksbill, Eretmochelys 

imbricata, sea turtles have been observed in sargassum off Florida, Georgia, North Carolina, and 

Texas (Smith, 1968; Fletemeyer, 1978; Carr and Meylan, 1980; Carr, 1986; 1987a; Schwartz, 1988; 

1989; Manzella and Williams, 1991; Schwartz, pers. comm.). Schwartz (1988) reported numerous 

loggerhead hatchlings captured during commercial trawling for sargassum. This observation 

constitutes the largest known aggregation of loggerhead hatchlings encountered off the North 

Carolina coast. 

Crawford, K. (ed.). 1989. Proceedings: 1989 Marine Expo: The Natural Resources Associated with 

Mobil’s Proposed Drill Site. NC Outer Continental Shelf Office, NC Department of Administration. 

Raleigh, NC. 64 p. 

*This report contains abstracts from each presenter. Chapter topics include: Mobil’s Proposal, 

Geologic Overview — Introduction and Potential for Oil and Gas Discovery, Oceanographic 

Conditions, Comments on Last MMS Modeling, Biological Production Near the Bottom 
Invertebrate Chapter — 93 

(invertebrates), Fisheries Resources, Commercial and Recreational Marine Fisheries, Winter Storm 

Effects on Spawning and Larval Drift of Pelagic Fish, Marine Birds, Sea Turtles in North Carolina, 

Marine Mammals, Plenary Session, Summary. Each chapter also cited individually when appropriate. 

Curtin, T.B. 1979a. Ocean Outfall Wastewater Disposal Feasibility and Planning: Oceanographic Field 

Observations off North Carolina Spring Survey 12 — 22 May 1978, Report No. 79-4. Dept. of 

Marine Science and Engineering, NCSU. 242 p. 

The objectives of the oceanographic field observations within the overall Ocean Outfall Feasibility 

and Planning Study (Langfelder et al. 1979) were both to provide input data for boundary condition 

initialization and to provide reference data for diagnostic testing of a series of coastal numerical 

circulation models under development. The data acquisition program was designed to parallel the 

model development in that a series of successive scales of variability were addressed. These scales 

have been defined as the shelf-scale, the nearshore scale, and the diffusive scale, and were 

characterized for the purposes of the study by temporal and spatial resolutions. Of particular overall 

interest in this project, with its ultimate focus on the nearshore coastal environment, was the 

interaction of the larger regional scale processes with those on smaller or local scale. 

*Shellfish closure is discussed. 

—. 1979b. Ocean Outfall Wastewater Disposal Feasibility and Planning: Oceanographic Field 

Observations off North Carolina Winter Survey 2-12 February 1978, Report No. 79-3. Dept. of 

Marine Science and Engineering, NCSU. 149 p. 

The objectives of the oceanographic field observations within the overall Ocean Outfall Feasibility 

and Planning Study (Langfelder et al. 1979) were both to provide input data for boundary condition 

initialization and to provide reference data for diagnostic testing of a series of coastal numerical 

circulation models under development. The data acquisition program was designed to parallel the 

model development in that a series of successive scales of variability were addressed. These scales 

have been defined as the shelf-scale, the nearshore scale, and the diffusive scale, and were 

characterized for the purposes of the study by temporal and spatial resolutions. Of particular overall 

interest in this project, with its ultimate focus on the nearshore coastal environment, was the 

interaction of the larger regional scale processes with those on smaller or local scale. 

*Shellfish closure is discussed. 

—. 1979c. Ocean Outfall Wastewater Disposal Feasibility and Planning: Oceanographic Field 

Observations off North Carolina Fall Survey 1-11 November 1977, Report No. 79-5. Dept. of Marine 

Science and Engineering, NCSU. 248 p. 

The objectives of the oceanographic field observations within the overall Ocean Outfall Feasibility 

and Planning Study (Langfelder et al. 1979) were both to provide input data for boundary condition 

initialization and to provide reference data for diagnostic testing of a series of coastal numerical 

circulation models under development. The data acquisition program was designed to parallel the 

model development in that a series of successive scales of variability were addressed. These scales 

have been defined as the shelf-scale, the nearshore scale, and the diffusive scale, and were 

characterized for the purposes of the study by temporal and spatial resolutions. Of particular overall 

interest in this project, with its ultimate focus on the nearshore coastal environment, was the 

interaction of the larger regional scale processes with those on smaller or local scale. 

*Shellfish closure is discussed. 
94 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

—. 1979d. Ocean Outfall Wastewater Disposal Feasibility and Planning: Oceanographic Field 

Observations Off North Carolina Summer Survey 2-12 August 1977, Report No. 79-2. Dept. of 

Marine Science and Engineering, NCSU. 303 p. 

The objectives of the oceanographic field observations within the overall Ocean Outfall Feasibility 

and Planning Study (Langfelder et al. 1979) were both to provide input data for boundary condition 

initialization and to provide reference data for diagnostic testing of a series of coastal numerical 

circulation models under development. The data acquisition program was designed to parallel the 

model development in that a series of successive scales of variability were addressed. These scales 

have been defined as the shelf-scale, the nearshore scale, and the diffusive scale, and were 

characterized for the purposes of the study by temporal and spatial resolutions. Of particular overall 

interest in this project, with its ultimate focus on the nearshore coastal environment, was the 

interaction of the larger regional scale processes with those on smaller or local scale. 

*Shellfish closure is discussed. 

Cutler, E.B. 1975. Zoogeographical barrier on the continental slope off Cape Lookout, North Carolina. 

Deep-Sea Research 22: 893-901. 

The distribution of Sipuncula and Pogonophora on the continental slope off North and South Carolina 

suggests a zoogeographical barrier southeast of Cape Lookout, North Carolina around 34 N between 

150 and 2500 m for 14 of 27 species found. Similarity coefficients and a group average cluster 

analysis support the conclusions. This barrier may result from the effects of bottom currents on larval 

dispersion. 

*The area from 31° N to 36° N was sampled. 

Cutler, E.B., and K. Doble. 1979. North Carolina continental slope zoogeographical barrier. Deep-Sea 

Research 26(A): 851-853. 

Collections of sipunculans and pogonophorans from depths between 150 and 2000 m around latitude 

35°30’N were analyzed and used to supplement earlier information from this region. The addition of 

eight pogonophoran species from this area and minor revisions of earlier data reaffirm and strengthen 

the hypothesis that a zoogeographical barrier for slope dwelling infauna exists around 34° N off Cape 

Lookout, North Carolina. 

Cutter, G.R., R.J. Diaz, and J.A. Blake. 1994a. Deep-Sea Research II: CD-ROM APPENDIX. Deep-Sea 

Research II Vol. 41(4-6): 981-982. 

The contents of the CD-ROM Appendix are data and images of the bottom from five of the articles in 

this issue. The CD-ROM was mastered in a format that can be read by both Macintosh and PC 

computers. It is organized in an hierarchical structure by folders, with data in one and images in 

another. To access a particular file, sequentially open folders until the file of interest appears. Data 

and figure captions are provided as: (.txt) ASCII text with no line breaks; (.tlb) ASCII text with line 

breaks; (.wor) Microsoft Word; and (.wp) Word Perfect 5.1 files. Images are in TIFF format (.tif). 

Data (ACSAR, Hatteras), Images and Captions (ACSAR, Profile, 3Dbathy, Sled, Surface, x-ray) are 

included. 

Cutter, G.R., R. Diaz, and J. Lee. 1994b. Foraminifera from the continental slope off Cape Hatteras, 

North Carolina. Deep-Sea Research II 41(4-6): 951-963. 

The recent benthic meiofaunal foraminiferal assemblage from the continental slope (590-2003 m) off 

Cape Hatteras, North Carolina exhibits high species richness and evenness, moderate diversity values, 

and lacks numerically dominant species. The preserved planktic assemblage has relatively low 
Invertebrate Chapter — 95 

species richness, high evenness, low diversity, and a few numerically dominant species. 

Approximately 9% of the benthic species are those that typically live within continental shelf depth 

ranges. The benthic assemblage abundances and diversities do not follow depth patterns or 

geophysical characteristics. No biogeographic boundary can be described within the study area for 

meiofaunal foraminifers. Oxygen limitation does not appear to be a factor affecting the benthos of the 

North Carolina continental slope based upon the community structure of the benthic foraminifers, if 

total assemblage is assumed to reflect the recently living community. The high carbonate content of 

sediments in the area may be explained by foraminiferal tests. Within the study area, the foraminiferal 

assemblages are uniform, and probably reflect relative consistency of primary environmental 

variables as well as dynamic downslope transport and high influx of material from the water column 

in the vicinity where the Gulf Stream and the Western Boundary Undercurrent cross. 

Diaz, R.J., J.A. Blake, and D.P. Lohse. 1993a. Volume II Final Report: Benthic Study of the Continental 

Slope off Cape Hatteras, North Carolina. Virginia Institute of Marine Science, School of Marine 

Science, College of William and Mary, Gloucester Pt., VA. Science Applications International 

Corporation, Woods Hole, MA. 135 p. 

*This is a study of the nature and spatial extent of continental slope benthic communities off Cape 

Hatteras, NC, with emphasis on the Manteo Area lease block 467. Macrofaunal abundance and 

biomass in this area higher than anywhere else along the entire South Atlantic continental slope and 

rise. Species composition of the infauna off Cape Hatteras is also different from other slope habitats. 

Species richness and diversity are lower with a high degree of dominance by species that are 

cosmopolitan in distribution. Trends in abundance of invertebrate megafauna on the continental slope 

off Cape Hatteras appear to be similar to the macrofauna. Demersal fish fauna off Cape Hatteras is 

distinctive in terms of composition and population density. Overall, abundance of benthic fish off 

Cape Hatteras is four to seven times higher than adjacent area. Site sediment characteristics (e.g., 

source, texture, and physico-chemistry) and potential impact to benthic community by sediment 

discharge during drilling are described. Volume III contains Appendices A-E. 

Much of the data in this report were used in the Special Deep Research issue (1994. 41 (4-6)). 

Diaz, R.J., J. Blake, B. Hecker, and D.C. Rhoads. 1993b. A Highly Productive Area of the Continental 

Slope Off Cape Hatteras. Benthic Ecology Meeting, 1-4 April 1993, Mobile, AL. 57 p. 

The continental slope off Cape Hatteras is atypical for the U.S. Atlantic coast. Unusually high 

numbers of infauna, megafauna, and demersal fish were found over a broad area. Benthic organisms 

appear to be well adapted to physical processes that converge on the Cape Hatteras continental slope. 

These physical processes impart a high degree of instability to the bottom and also supply large 

amounts of organic matter which sustain the elevated densities and biomass. The nature of these 

communities and mechanisms which regulate them will be discussed. 

Diaz, R.J., G.R. Cutter, and J.A. Blake. 1998. Appendix F: A Review: Findings of the Benthic Study of 

the Continental Slope Off Cape Hatteras, North Carolina. pp. 121-136. In: Vigil, D.L. (ed.). North 

Carolina/Minerals Management Service Technical Workshop on Manteo Unit Exploration: February 

4-5, 1998. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region. 

New Orleans, LA. 

*These are the proceedings from a workshop/meeting (conducted on February 4-5, 1998) between the 

North Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources, and the U.S. Department of the 

Interior’s Minerals Management Service (MMS). The geographic area being discussed is 

approximately 45 miles east-northeast of Cape Hatteras, NC, referred to as the Manteo Unit. This 

workshop reviewed environmental and socioeconomic information known and needed on the Manteo 
96 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

Unit. The MMS’s Gulf of Mexico OCS Regional Director gave an MMS perspective on history and 

status of the area. Chevron gave a presentation on how the exploratory well would be drilled. The 

scientific characterization was presented in greater detail by a number of scientific experts who spoke 

on the following disciplines physical environment, habitat and living resources, seabirds, marine 

mammals, sea turtles, and social and economic issues. Specific chapters are cited individually, when 

appropriate. 

Because of the potential environmental impacts associated with development and production 

activities, the Oil Pollution Act of 1990 mandated that a panel of experts be convened. This panel, 

North Carolina Environmental Sciences Review Panel (Costlow et al. 1992), was to consider whether 

the available scientific information was adequate for making decisions about oil and gas leasing, 

exploration, and development off North Carolina. The Costlow et al. (1992) report to the Secretary of 

the Interior made several recommendations on the information needed to understand the basic 

ecology of the leased areas. Among them was the recommendation that the spatial extent of the 

benthic community found within some of the lease blocks should be determined before any 

exploration or development activity occurred off Cape Hatteras. The present study was developed by 

the Minerals Management Service to determine the aerial extent of the community found by Blake et 

al. (1985, 1987). Results are published as a special issue of Deep-Sea Research Part II (Diaz et al. 

1994a), which included a CD-ROM with data and selected bottom images (Cutter et al. 1994a). 

Sediments and Sedimentation Rates, Biological Communities (invertebrates and fish), Physical 

Habitat (geomorphology), Benthic Community Characterization and Distribution are discussed. 

Diaz, R.J., G.R. Cutter, and D.C. Rhoads. 1994. The importance of bioturbation to continental slope 

sediment structure and benthic processes off Cape Hatteras, North Carolina. Deep-Sea Research II 

41(4-6): 719-734. 

Even though the continental slope off Cape Hatteras has sediment accumulation rates on the order of 

1 cm/year, large areas of soft sediment are intensively reworked by infaunal organisms. Primary 

sedimentary structures are dominated by the bioturbation activities of a deep burrowing infauna (to at 

least 30 cm). The layer actively mixed by the benthos, as evidenced by sediment profile and X-ray 

images, is estimated to range from 5 to 20 cm, with the residence time for particles within the surface 

mixed layer ranging from about 4.5 to 18 years. The biological mixing parameter (G) ranges from 0.4 

to 5.5, which indicates moderate to strong biological mixing relative to accumulation and strata 

formation. Bioturbation contributes to the dynamic forces affecting the surface sediments by 

decreasing compaction of sediment layers and dilating sediment fabrics by sediment mixing, and 

introducing large water-filled burrows and voids to subsurface sediments. The sediment profile 

images captured numerous subsurface feeding voids, and worms in the process of making deep 

burrows, many of which extended below the 5 to 10 cm average depth of the apparent color redox 

potential discontinuity layer. High rates of accumulation of organic-rich sediment lead to high 

standing stocks of benthos and intensive feeding/burrowing activity that result in organic rich 

stratagraphic sequences that are thoroughly mixed. Cape Hatteras is an apparent focusing point for the 

transport of shallow water sediments to the deep sea. Sediments across other areas of the continental 

slope just 100’s of kilometers south of Cape Hatteras are not as thoroughly mixed or biologically 

active. 

Fedoryako, B.I. 1989. A Comparative Characteristic of Oceanic Fish Assemblages Associated with 

Floating Debris. Journal of Ichthyology 29: 128-137. 

A comparative characteristic of fish assemblages associated with oceanic debris (drifting 

macrophytes, terrestrial material and epipelagic invertebrates) of tropical ocean zones was made. In 

the floating debris of the oceanic pelagial 110 species of 35 families were found. About 30% of all 
Invertebrate Chapter — 97 

fish species were found only in some assemblages. The highest species diversity was associated with 

macrophytes (75% of all species), and terrestrial material (78% of all species). Representatives of the 

majority of common species, up to a certain size, occurred in the macrophytes. Fishes associated with 

drifting macrophytes formed more abundant assemblages than those associated with terrestrial 

material. Over 50% of species associated with oceanic flotsam occurred commonly in the neritic 

zone. With the increasing distance of the flotsam from the coast the species diversity decreases and 

the dominant species change. 

George, R.Y., and A.W. Hulbert (eds.). 1989. North Carolina Coastal Symposium. National Undersea 

Research Program, NOAA. Rockville, MD. 582 p. 

*This is a multidisciplinary Marine Scientific Proceedings, with frequent reference to the North 

Carolina Coastal Oceanography. Two studies (also cited individually) include maps with study plots 

(p. 283; reef site) or migratory movements (p. 309; sea turtles) in the project study area. 

Zoogeography and ecology of fishes inhabiting North Carolina’s Marine Waters to depths of 600 

meters is included. The transcript from speaker representing Outer Continental Shelf (p. 549) 

mentions off-shore oil drilling off North Carolina Coast and mid-Atlantic region. The speaker does 

not refer to a specific site. 

Gettleson, D.A. 1992. Results of a Benthic Visual Survey within the Manteo Block 467. pp. 159-168. In: 

U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service. Proceedings of the Fourth Atlantic 

OCS Region Information Transfer Meeting, September 1991. U.S. Department of the Interior, 

Minerals Management Service. Herndon, VA. 

The Fourth Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) Regional Information Transfer Meeting (ITM) 

was held on 24-25 September 1991 in Wilmington, NC. The focus of the meeting was on the OCS off 

North Carolina, specifically on activities related to a proposed exploratory well for oil and gas by 

Mobil on Block 467 a site 40 miles off the coast of North Carolina. The area of industry interest is 

known as the Manteo Prospect, while the activities surrounding the proposed drilling are referred to 

collectively as the Manteo Project. The wildcat wellsite is in 2,690 ft. (857 m) of water near the edge 

of the Gulf Stream. It is also near a fishing ground known locally as “The Point.” The area is believed 

to be gas prone rather than oil prone. The estimated size of the resource could be as high as 5 trillion 

cubic feet of gas. 

The purpose of the meeting was to exchange information on the leasing background, legislative 

activities, scientific results, and socioeconomic studies. Legislative-related reports include 

descriptions of the Oil Pollution Act of 1990, the Outer Banks Protection Act, the Environmental 

Studies Review Panel, and the North Carolina Physical Oceanography Panel. Reports of studies on 

marine life include benthic diatoms, benthic fauna, pelagic seabirds, sea turtles, and right whales. One 

report describes the use of airships (blimps) for ocean research a capability relevant to North Carolina 

because of the east coast airship facility is located in the state. Local marine science facilities 

described include NOAA’s National Undersea Research Center at the University of North Carolina at 

Wilmington (NURC/UNCW) and the national marine Fisheries Service laboratory in Beaufort. 

Developments in oil spill cleanup technology and capabilities are described by both the Coast Guard 

and the industry. A socioeconomic report describes the effects of the oil and gas activities on the 

tourist industry. Lastly, research on the restoration of salt marshes indicates that rehabilitation of an 

area is possible when development or an accident has occurred. While the emphasis of the meeting 

was on oil and gas, two reports described the results of projects related to offshore sand mining. The 

appendix lists the names and addresses of speakers. Individual chapters are cited individually when 

appropriate. 
98 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

*This summary describes the results of a video- and still-camera photodocumentation survey 

conducted from July 9 to 24, 1989 in the Manteo Area Block 467 (Figure 37). Block 467 is located 

along a steep, highly irregular portion of the continental slope on the northern fringe of the Hatteras 

canyon system. The purpose of this photodocumentation survey was to document the topographical 

features, substrate types, and associated biota around a proposed well and anchor locations in block 

467 (figure 38). Water depths within the sites surveyed ranged from 299 to 1,393 meters (980 to 

4,570 feet). Because of the water depth and the highly irregular topography within the survey area, a 

state-of the-art deepwater remotely operated vehicle was used to obtain the survey data. Live bottom 

site characterization (invertebrates and fish present) are described. 

Gillikin, J.W., Jr., D.L. Taylor, and B.F. Holland Jr. 1979. RV Dan Moore Cruise Report No. 33: Cape 

Lookout, NC to Little Machipongo Inlet, VA. North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries, 

Department of Natural Resources and Community Development. Morehead City, NC. 

*During February and March 1979 the RV Dan Moore continued its investigations of offshore stocks 

of anadromous fishes (river herring, shad, striped bass and sturgeon) between Cape Lookout, NC and 

Little Machipongo Inlet, VA. In response to local fishermen and dealers, reports of calico scallop 

catches were investigated offshore Ocracoke Inlet. Depths were 12 to 14 fathoms. 

Gooday, A.J., L.A. Levin, C.L. Thomas, and B. Hecker. 1992. The Distribution and Ecology of 

Bathysiphon filiformis Sars and B. major De Folin (Protista, Foraminiferida) on the Continental Slope 

Off North Carolina. Journal of Foraminiferal Research 22(2): 129-146. 

Two large species of the agglutinated foraminiferal genus Bathysiphon are common in samples and 

photographs from bathyal depths on the North Carolina continental slope: B. filiformis off Cape 

Hatteras (588-930 m bathymetric depth) and B. major off Cape Lookout (850-1950 m depth). The 

sampling area, and particularly the 850 m station where B. filiformis is abundant (mean densities of 

59-154 per m2

), is believed to receive large inputs of organic material from various sources. This is 

consistent with the previously observed occurrence of large Bathysiphon species in regions of high 

food supply. Ten camera sled transects across the eastern U.S. continental slope between 32°N and 

41°N emphasize the abundance of B. filiformis in the Cape Hatteras area compared with its rarity or 

absence elsewhere along the continental slope. 

Box cores, bottom photographs, and direct submersible observations indicate that B. filiformis tubes 

project above the sediment in an arcuate curve with only the lower 1 cm or so buried. Bathysiphon 

major adopts a similar orientation but has a greater proportion (50- 80%) of the tube buried. The 

voluminous, dense, granular protoplasm of both species contains biogenic particles (including 

diatoms, in B. filiformis only), dinoflagellate cysts, fungal remains, pollen grains, tintinnid loricae, 

polychaete jaws and setae, benthic foraminiferal tests, and fish tooth fragments), suggesting that they 

feed mainly on material derived from the sediment surface. Submersible observations indicate that B. 

filiformis is patchily distributed at 100 m scales. Smaller scale dispersion patterns (analyzed from 

photographs) are generally random but with a tendency to be aggregated at lower densities and 

uniform at higher densities. 

A variety of metazoans and foraminifers live epifaunally on the outer surfaces of B. filiformis tubes. 

The most frequently occurring metazoans were larvae and juveniles of an unidentified gastropod and 

a tubiculous terebellid polychaete Nicolea sp. The most common epifaunal foraminifers were Tritaxis 

conica and Trochammina sp. Tubes of B. major, however, are virtually devoid of epifauna. Our 

results support the view that large, agglutinated rhizopod tests may influence the structure of deepwater benthic communities. However, in the case of Bathysiphon on the North Carolina continental 

slope, the effect appears limited to taxa directly associated with the foraminiferal tubes. 
Invertebrate Chapter — 99 

Gray, I.E., M.E. Downey, and M.J. Cerame-Vivas. 1968. Sea-Stars of North Carolina. Fishery Bulletin 

67(1): 127-163. 

Descriptions, keys to identification, and photographs are given for the 22 genera and 33 species of 

North Carolina asteroids. The starfish fauna is predominantly “southern.” Eighteen species are 

distributed from North Carolina southward, nine range from North Carolina northward, and six occur 

both north and south of North Carolina. The affinities of the various species to the principal marine 

biotic provinces discussed. Thirteen tropical and subtropical species occur only in an extension of the 

Caribbean Province along the outer shelf. Only four of the 33 species on the Continental Shelf can be 

considered abundant: Astropecten articulatus, Luidia clathrata, Astropecten americanus, and Asterias 

forbesii. 

Grosslein, M.D., and T.R. Azarovitz. 1982. Fish Distribution: MESA New York Bight Atlas Monograph 

15, New York Sea Grant Institute. Albany, NY. 182 p. 

The Middle Atlantic Bight is a complex ecosystem characterized by rapid latitudinal change in water 

temperature s and associated fauna. Subtropical and boreal fish fauna overlap in the region from Cape 

Hatteras to Georges Bank, resulting in a highly diverse fish community with large seasonal 

fluctuations in distribution. The general ecology of 43 important species of fish and shellfish in the 

Middle Atlantic Bight is summarized in terms of 1) distribution and seasonal movements, 2) 

populations size and fisheries, 3) reproduction-growth-life span, 4) feeding interrelationships, and 50 

environmental sensitivity to pollutants and natural environmental factors. Most species found in the 

Bight also spawn there; thus environmental conditions and water quality in the Bight control the 

reproductive success of the populations occurring there. The geographic and seasonal distribution of 

spawning in the Bight is described for major species through the distribution of their larvae, the life 

stage believed to be most vulnerable to natural environmental changes and pollution. 

The monograph concludes with an examination of the relative importance of natural environmental 

factors versus man’s impacts in controlling fish abundance. Population declines and reduced 

productivity due to pollution have been demonstrated for both shellfish and fishes although chiefly in 

inshore-waters; as yet there is no clear evidence of major impact of pollution on populations in 

offshore waters but there is concern about possible undetected impacts and potential future effects 

because of growing pressure for substantially increased ocean dumping. Declines in biomass of many 

populations clearly have been related to excessive fishing pressure in recent years, and there will be a 

continuing need for some control over fishing mortality rates if we are to achieve optimum yields 

from our fishery resources. However, so far it appears that natural mortality factors operating in the 

first year of life exert the greatest control over annual fluctuations in fish populations. 

Guthrie, J.V., B.F. Holland Jr., and J.W. Gillikin Jr. 1981. RV Dan Moore Cruise Report No. 47: Segment 

I: Offshore Anadromous Fish Survey from Cape Lookout to Chesapeake Bay; Segment II: 

Reconnaissance of Calico Scallops, Argopecten gibbus, on the Traditional Scallop Grounds East of 

Cape Lookout Shoals. North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries, Department of Natural Resources 

and Community Development. Morehead City, NC. 

*Segment I of this report describes anadromous fishery investigation conducted offshore North 

Carolina and Virginia from 16-25 March 1981. Target species include river herring, shad, striped 

bass, and sturgeon. Segment II of this report is a reconnaissance of Calico Scallops, Argopecten 

gibbus, during February 1981. Depths ranged from 5 to 19 fathoms. 

Hastie, L.C. 1995. Deep-Water Geryonid Crabs: A Continental Slope Resource. Oceanography and 

Marine Biology: An Annual Review 1995 33: 561-584. 
100 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

The potentially exploitable deep-water crabs of the family Geryonidae are widely distribution on the 

continental slopes of the world, at depths of 200-1200m. Presently, only two species are of 

commercial importance: Chaceon maritae in South West African waters, and C. quinquedens off the 

northeastern coast of North America. Interest in these fisheries, which have operated since the 1970s, 

has resulted in exploratory surveys for the other marketable species of the genera Chaceon and 

Geryon. Given the deep-water distribution at low temperatures, slow growth and maturation rates, 

and possibly infrequent recruitment of geryonid crabs, it is doubtful if high yields are sustainable. 

Hence, the choice facing geryonid fishery managers may be between a large open “boom and bust” 

short-term fishery, or a much smaller restricted long-term fishery that hopefully could be sustained. 

However, more knowledge or geryonid biology and population dynamics is required before any 

effective management measures can be implemented. 

Hecker, B. 1994. Unusual megafaunal assemblages on the continental slope off Cape Hatteras. Deep-Sea 

Research II 41(4-6): 809-834. 

Megafaunal assemblages were studied in August September 1992 using a towed camera sled along 

seven cross-isobath transects on the continental slope off Cape Hatteras. A total of 20,722 megafaunal 

organisms were observed on 10,918 m2

 of the sea floor between depths of 157 and 1924 m. These 

data were compared with data previously collected off Cape Hatteras in 1985 and at other locations 

along the eastern U.S. coast between 1981 and 1987. Megafaunal populations on the upper and lower 

slopes off Cape Hatteras were found to be similar, in terms of density and species composition, to 

those observed at the other locations. 

In contrast, megafaual abundances were found to be elevated (0.88 and 2.65 individuals per m2

 during 

1985 and 1992, respectively) on the middle slope off Cape Hatteras when compared to most other 

slope locations (<0.5 individuals per m2

). These elevated abundances mainly reflect dense 

populations of three demersal fish, two eelpouts (Lysenchelys verillii and Lycodes atlanticus) and the 

witch flounder Glyptocephalus cynoglossus, and a large anemone (Actinauge verrilli). These four 

species dominated the megafauna off Cape Hatteras, whereas they represented only a minor 

component of megafaunal populations found at other slope locations. Additionally, numerous tubes of 

the foraminiferan Bathysiphon filiformis were observed off Cape Hatteras, but not elsewhere. The 

high density of demersal fish found off Cape Hatteras appears to be related to the high densities of 

infaunal prey reported from this area. The high densities of A. verrilli and B. filiformis may be related 

to the same factors responsible for the high infaunal densities, namely enhanced nutrient inputs in the 

form of fine particles. Extreme patchiness also was observed in the distributions of the middle slope 

taxa off Cape Hatteras. This patchiness may reflect the habitat heterogeneity of this exceptionally 

rugged slope and the sedentary nature of the organisms inhabiting it. 

Hilbig, B. 1994. Faunistic and zoogeographical characterization of the benthic infauna on the Carolina 

continental slope. Deep-Sea Research II 41(4-6): 929-950. 

The species composition of the benthic infauna on the Carolina continental slope is described, based 

on the analysis of 146 quantitative boxcore samples taken between 1983 and 1986 and in 1992. The 

samples were collected between Cape Hatteras and the Charleston Bump in depths ranging from 600 

to 3500 m. From these samples, nearly 1300 species were identified, more than one-third of them 

being new to science. Almost half of all species were polychaetes, the largest family being the 

Spionids with 63 species. Arthropods accounted for about 22% of all species, about one-third of 

which belonged to the tanaidaceans. Among the mollusks (16% of all species), the largest group was 

thyasirid bivalves. Pogonophorans were represented by 15 species. Distributional patterns of some of 

the major taxa are discussed, and the existence of a zoogeographical barrier off Cape Hatteras and/or 

Cape Lookout is revisited. The most striking difference between the slope off Cape Hatteras and 
Invertebrate Chapter — 101 

comparable depths further south (e.g. Cape Lookout) is the greatly reduced number of polychaetes off 

Cape Hatteras. The zoogeographical barrier reported by Cutler [(1975) 22, 893-901] exists for most 

cumaceans, some aplacophorans, and many polychaetes identified from the present data set, but it 

appears to be virtually nonexistent for bivalves. 

Hogans, W.E., and K.J. Sulak. 1992. Diocus lycenchelus, New Species (Copepoda: Chodracanthidae) 

Parasitic on the Eelpout, Lycenchelys verrillii (Zoarcidae), from the Hatteras Slope of the Northwest 

Atlantic Ocean. Bulletin of Marine Science 51(3): 301-308. 

A new species of parasitic copepod, Diocus lycenchelus, is described from the demersal zoarcid fish 

Lycenchelys verrillii caught off Cape Hatteras, U.S.A. The new species differs from its congeners in 

the shape of the cephalothorax, trunk (ventrolateral processes), fine structure of appendages 

(mandible, second maxilla, first thoracic leg) and site of infection (the nares). A comparison of the 

morphology of D. lycenchelus n. sp. is made with that of the other four recognized species of Diocus 

(D. frigidus, D. gobinus, D. semilunaris, and D. sadoensis). 

Holland, B.F., Jr., J.W. Gillikin Jr., and J.V. Guthrie. 1981a. RV Dan Moore Cruise Report No. 51: 

Segment I: Calico Scallop Reconnaissance from Ocracoke to New River Inlet, NC (OctoberNovember 1981); Segment II: Flounder Mesh Selectivity Study (November-December 1981). North 

Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries, Department of Natural Resources and Community 

Development. Morehead City, NC. 

*Segment I of this report describes Calico Scallop Reconnaissance from Ocracoke to New River 

Inlet, NC (October-November 1981). Segment II of this report describes Flounder Mesh Selectivity 

Study (November-December 1981) off North Carolina’s coast. Depths ranged from11 to 14 fathoms. 

—. 1981b. RV Dan Moore Cruise Report No. 46: Segment I: Offshore Anadromous Fish Survey from 

Cape Lookout to Chesapeake Bay; Segment II: Reconnaissance of Calico Scallops, Argopecten 

gibbus, on the Traditional Scallop Grounds East of Cape Lookout Shoals. North Carolina Division of 

Marine Fisheries, Department of Natural Resources and Community Development. Morehead City, 

NC. 

*Segment I of this report describes anadromous fishery investigation conducted offshore North 

Carolina and Virginia from January-April 1981. Target species include river herring, shad, striped 

bass, and sturgeon. Segment II of this report is a reconnaissance of Calico Scallops, Argopecten 

gibbus, during August 1980. Depths were 5 to 20 fathoms. 

Holland, B.F., Jr., J.W. Gillikin Jr., and D.L. Taylor. 1979b. RV Dan Moore Cruise Report No. 37: Rock 

Shrimp (Sicyonia brevirostris) Investigations in Long, Onslow and Raleigh Bay, NC. North Carolina 

Division of Marine Fisheries, Department of Natural Resources and Community Development. 

Morehead City, NC. 

*From 15-24 October, and from 29 October-1 November 1979, the RV Dan Moore conducted 

trawling operations in Long, Onslow and Raleigh Bay, NC in search of Rock Shrimp (Sicyonia 

brevirostris). The primary objectives of this cruise were to: 1) Investigate the relative abundance, 

distribution and size composition of rock shrimp, 2) To determine if rock shrimp occur in sufficient 

quantities in Long, Onslow and Raleigh bays (offshore NC) to support a potential commercial fishery. 

Depths on the first segment (20-55 miles south of Southport, NC and from 10-35 miles south of Cape 

Lookout) were 12 to 31 fathoms. Depths sampled on the second segment (east of Cape Lookout and 

to 10-15 miles south of Cape Hatteras) were 17 to 30 fathoms. 
102 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

Kirby-Smith, W.W. 1985. Invertebrate Zooplankton and Pelagic Macroinvertebrates in the Proposed 

EMPRESS II VAVAPES Area off North Carolina . Appendix D. In: U.S. Department of the Navy. 

EMPRESS II: Supplemental Draft Environmental Impact Statement for the Proposed Operation of the 

Navy Electromagnetic Pulse Radiation Environment Simulator for Ships (Empress II) in the 

Chesapeake Bay and Atlantic Ocean. United States Navy. Environmental/ Intergovernmental Section. 

Atlantic Division. Naval Facilities Engineering and Command. Norfolk, VA. 

The VACAPES area where EMPRESS will operate is located off the northeastern coast of North 

Carolina within an area known as the Virginian Sea. A mixing of Chesapeake Bay and middle 

Atlantic coastal water (the Virginian Current) define the physical and chemical environment and in 

large part determine the distribution of invertebrate zooplankton and pelagic macroinvertebrates in 

the VACAPES area. Invertebrate zooplankton include large numbers of species from many phyla. 

Holoplankton dominate over meroplankton although the latter may be extremely important to 

commercial fisheries (e.g. larval blue crabs). Copepods dominate the holoplankton. Species expected 

to commonly occur in the VACAPES area are listed. Pelagic macroinvertebrates of the area include 

mollusca (squid) and crustacea (shrimp and crabs). The life history and distribution of commercially 

important species are discussed, particularly as they might interact with EMPRESS. There are no 

species of special concern (endangered or threatened) among the invertebrate zooplankton or pelagic 

invertebrates. 

Sources of information and sources for primary literature concerning these groups come from a 

number of publications: Marine Ecosystem Analysis (MESA) Program, Volumes 13 and 15, New 

York Sea Grant Institute (Grosslein and Azarovitz 1982); North Carolina Fisheries and 

Environmental Data Search and Synthesis Study (Continental Shelf Associates, Inc 1983); A 

Summary and Analysis of Environmental Information on the Continental Shelf and Blake Plateau 

from Cape Hatteras to Cape Canaveral (1977), Volume 1, Book 1, (Center for Natural Areas 1977); A 

Checklist of Biota of the Lower Chesapeake Bay (Wass 1972). These publications are used as sources 

for primary literature which specifically includes the VACAPES area or which includes organisms 

expected to occur in the area. Recent literature is presented based upon references obtained by library 

search of marine journals. 

—. 1989a. Biological Production Near the Bottom. p. 25. In: Crawford, K. (ed.). Proceedings: 1989 

Marine Expo: The Natural Resources Associated with Mobil’s Proposed Drill Site. NC Outer 

Continental Shelf Office, NC Department of Administration. Raleigh, NC. 

Satellite photographs show that North Carolina has an incredibly diverse oceanographic setting 

which, in turn, produces highly diverse communities of fishes and invertebrates. The three bottom 

types found off the continental shelf of North Carolina include; 1) sand, 2) shell, and 3) rock 

outcrops. Across the continental shelf, the primary producers that support fisheries include 

microalgae and macroalgae. The bottom-dwelling microalgae (small microscopic plants) grow, 

rapidly and are very important to the total productivity of the whole water column. As much as half of 

the primary productivity on the shelf may be due to this benthic component. The secondary producers 

on rock outcrops, which include sponges, corals, worms and small arthropods, are a major food 

source for small fish. From a scientific perspective, the proposed drill site is an exciting area with a 

high biomass and low diversity. In my opinion, the exploration well itself would have little or no 

impact on the resources in the area; however, a major find of oil or gas could lead to a tremendous 

amount of industrial development, which could compete economically with other coastal industries, 

such as tourism and fisheries. 
Invertebrate Chapter — 103 

—. 1989b. The Community of Small Macroinvertebrates Associated with Rock Outcrops in the 

Continental Shelf of North Carolina. pp. 279-305. In: George, R.Y., and A.W. Hulbert (eds.). North 

Carolina Coastal Symposium. National Undersea Research Program, NOAA. Rockville, MD. 

Communities of small benthic organisms associated with rock outcrops on the continental shelf of 

North Carolina were examined for patterns in community structure related to season and depth. The 

communities were dominated by polychaetes, amphipods and mollusks. The number of species per 

0.5m2 ranged from 40 to 214 and the number of individuals from 180 to 1657. Diversity was high 

with H’ values of 4 to 6. Diversity was slightly greater at the middle shelf stations as compared to 

inner and outer shelf. The number of species and individuals was greatest at all three locations in the 

spring and fall and least in the winter and summer: a pattern similar to that of temperate coastal 

plankton. An index of community similarity indicated the presence of cold (winter/spring) and warm 

(summer/fall) communities at each of the three locations. Moreover at the middle and inner shelf the 

communities were more related to season (cold and warm) than to location (inner and middle). Outer 

shelf communities also had a strong seasonal component but were very different when compared with 

the middle and inner shelf communities. Different sampling gear (grabs versus diver suction) may 

explain some of the outer shelf uniqueness. 

*The site ISO4 location data cited by Kirby-Smith are incorrect. Data cited by Kirby-Smith for site 

ISO4 resulted from unpublished data collected during a SCUBA dive by S.W. Ross on 18 August 

1980. The correct location for this site [SWR -SCUBA-80-20] is 35o 20.7′N; 75o 21.2′W; depth 70-80 

feet. Selected fish, invertebrate, and bottom habitat data were collected. These data are unpublished 

and the site was not visited again (S.W. Ross, pers. comm., 19 November 1999). 

Langfelder, J., T.B. Curtin, D.N. Hyman, G. Janowitz, J. Maiolo, W. Queen, F.Y. Sorrell, M. Amien, V. 

Bellis, M. Brinson, G. Davis, C.Y. Lee, C. O’Rear, L. Pearce, C.Y. Peng, S. Riggs, B. Smith, M. 

Sobsey, and P. Tschetter. 1979. Final Report: Ocean Outfall Wastewater Disposal Feasibility and 

Planning, Report No. 79-1. Dept. of Marine Science and Engineering, NCSU; Report No. 5, Institute 

for Coastal and Marine Resources, ECU. 482 p. 

*This report follows an EIS format and is cited as a single document. Individual chapters are not 

stand-alone documents. Major findings of the study were: 1) Construction and operation of a well 

designed and operated sewage treatment plant that utilizes an ocean outfall and secondary treatment 

should not adversely affect the water column on fishery resources. Some build up of effluent 

constituents may occur in the bottom sediments in the immediate vicinity of the diffuser and could 

result in bottom community changes. 2) Effluent discharge should have essentially no adverse affect 

on recreational swimming in the areas of the diffuser. Areas now closed to shellfishing in the 

estuaries could be reopened as a result of reduced pathogen loadings: these pathogens are presently 

coming from septic tanks and treatment plants that discharge into these waters. 3) Centralized sewer 

systems will increase land values, allow reduced lot size and stimulate growth. This will lead to 

change in the population composition and demands for expanded goods and services. 

Levin, L.A. 1991. Interactions Between Metazoans and Large, Agglutinating Protozoans: Implications for 

the Community Structure of Deep-Sea Benthos. American Zoologist 31: 886-900. 

Large agglutinating protozoans belonging to the Foraminiferida (suborder Astrorhizina) and the 

Xenophyophorea are conspicuous, often dominant faunal elements in the deep sea. A review of 

known and suspected interactions between these forms and metazoans reveals a potentially significant 

role for the protozoans in structuring deep-sea metazoan assemblages. Direct interactions include 

provision to metazoans of (a) hard or stable substratum, (b) refuge from predators or physical 

disturbance, and (c) access to enhanced dietary resources. In some instances, rhizopod tests may 

provide a nursery function. Xenophyophore modification of flow regimes, particle flux, bottom skin 
104 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

friction and sediment characteristics appear likely and we believed to account for altered composition 

and abundance of meiofauna and macrofauna in the vicinity of rhizopod tests. Some analogous 

interactions are observed between metazoans and biogenic sediment structures in shallow water. 

However, metazoan-rhizopod associations are hypothesized to be more highly developed and 

complex in the deep sea than are comparable shallow-water associations, due to rhizopod abilities to 

enhance scarce food resources and to low rates of disturbance in much of the deep sea. Agglutinating 

rhizopods appear to be a significant source of heterogeneity on the deep-sea floor and large tests often 

represent ‘hotspots’ of metazoan activity. As such, they are hypothesized to have contributed to the 

origin and maintenance of metazoan diversity in the deep sea by providing distinct 

microenvironments in which species can specialize. 

Levin, L., N. Blair, D. DeMaster, G. Plaia, W. Fornes, C. Martin, and C. Thomas. 1997. Rapid subduction 

of organic matter by maldanid polychaetes on the North Carolina slope. Journal of Marine Research 

55: 595-611. 

In situ tracer experiments conducted on the North Carolina continental slope reveal that tube-building 

worms (Polychaeta: Maldanidae) can, without ingestion, rapidly subduct freshly deposited, algal 

carbon (13C-labeled diatoms) and inorganic materials (slope sediment and glass beads) to depths of 10 

cm or more in the sediment column. Transport over 1.5 days appears to be nonselective but spatially 

patchy, creating localized, deep hotspots. As a result of this transport, relatively fresh organic matter 

becomes available soon after deposition to deep-dwelling microbes and other infauna, and both 

aerobic and anaerobic processes may be enhanced. Comparison of tracer subduction with estimates 

from a diffusive mixing model using 234Th-based coefficients, suggests that maldanid subduction 

activities, within 1.5 d of particle deposition, could account for 25-100% of the mixing below 5 cm 

that occurs on 100-day time scales. Comparison of community data from the North Carolina slope for 

different places and times indicate a correlation between the abundance of deep-welling maldanids 

and the abundance and the dwelling depth in the sediment column of other infauna. Pulsed inputs of 

organic matter occur frequently in margin environments and maldanid polychaetes are a common 

component of continental slope macrobenthos. Thus, the activities we observe are likely to be 

widespread and significant for chemical cycling (natural and anthropogenic materials) on the slope. 

We propose that species like maldanids, that rapidly redistribute labile organic matter within the 

seabed, probably function as keystone resource modifiers. They may exert a disproportionately strong 

influence (relative to their abundance) on the structure of infaunal communities and on the timing, 

location and nature of organic matter diagenesis and burial in continental margin sediments. 

Magnuson, J.J., C.L. Harrington, D.J. Stewart, and G.N. Herbst. 1981. Responses of macrofauna to 

short-term dynamics of a Gulf Stream front on the continental shelf. pp. 441-448. In: Richards, F.R. 

(ed.). Coastal Upwelling. American Geophysical Union. 

Benthic and near-bottom fishes, decapod crustaceans, and echinoderms were sampled in two areas 

through which a Gulf Stream front moved just north of Cape Hatteras along 75°13′ W longitude in 

October 1977. We tested the hypothesis that the frontal aggregations resulted from the response of 

organisms to the front itself rather than to a geographically fixed feature of the region. The front, 8.5° 

C and 3.5 o

/oo wide, was characterized by horizontal gradients of at least 0.5 C/km and speeds of 30 cm/s. Bottom trawling was conducted day and night in each area (northern and southern) when the 

front was present and when it was absent. Both areas contained more species and individuals of fish 

when the front was present. Atlantic croaker, weakfish, and spot left when the front left. Decapods 

exhibited some response to the front, especially at night. During the day, fewer echinoderms were 

caught when the front was present — perhaps because the sudden changes in temperature induced 

burrowing. During the day all three groups were more abundant in the northern than in the southern 
Invertebrate Chapter — 105 

area in terms of species and individuals. The front itself and more geographically fixed features both 

influenced distributions. 

Milliman, J. D., R. J. Diaz, J. A. Blake, and G. R. Cutter Jr. (eds.). 1994. Topical Studies in 

Oceanography: Input, Accumulation and Cycling of Materials on the Continental Slope Off Cape 

Hatteras. Deep-Sea Research Part II 41. 982 p. 

*This is a compilation of studies on Input, Accumulation and Cycling of Materials on the Continental 

Slope Off Cape Hatteras. Geology, sediments, organics, and benthic fauna are discussed. A CD-ROM 

is included. Each chapter (study) is cited independently, when appropriate. Some papers in this issue 

were derived from Diaz et al. (1993). 

Minerals Management Service. 1982a. South Atlantic OCS Area Living Marine Resources Study Year II: 

Final Report Executive Summary. Minerals Management Service contract AA551-CT1-18. Minerals 

Management Service, Washington, DC. 

Live bottom areas area known to be important to commercial and recreational fisheries in the South 

Atlantic Bight, but biological studies of these areas have been limited. As a result, very little data 

exists on the structure of invertebrate and fish communities present in these hard-bottom habitats, and 

information is lacking on what effects offshore oil and gas exploration might have on live-bottom 

communities. Because more information was needed for recent and upcoming Outer Continental 

Shelf (OCS) Lease Sales, the Bureau of Land Management initiated the “South Atlantic OCS Area 

Living Marine Resources Study.” The primary objectives of this study during the first year were to: 1) 

Characterize the invertebrate and nektonic communities associated with several representative livebottom areas from Cape Hatteras, NC to Northern Florida and elevate factors which might influence 

community structure such as depth, latitude, and season (summer vs. winter), 2) Characterize the food 

habits of selected fish species of commercial and recreational importance, 3) Conduct a limited 

assessment of bottom topography and substrate type, 4) Evaluate the potential effects of oil- and gasrelated activities on live-bottom communities. 

Results obtained from the first year sampling program were presented in a 1981 report available 

through the National Technical Information Service. Objectives of the second-year study were the 

same as those listed above; however, seasonal sampling was increased to include all seasons. In 

addition, some study areas were changed to include portions of the shelf not previously studied, while 

others were sampled during both years to allow assessment of persistence in the distribution patterns 

observed during the first year. This report summarizes the results and conclusions obtained from the 

second year (1981) sampling program. 

—. 1982b. South Atlantic OCS Area Living Marine Resources Study Year II: Final Report Volume I. 

Minerals Management Service contract AA551-CT1-18. Minerals Management Service, Washington, 

DC. 

Live bottom areas area known to be important to commercial and recreational fisheries in the South 

Atlantic Bight, but biological studies of these areas have been limited. As a result, very little data 

exists on the structure of invertebrate and fish communities present in these hard-bottom habitats, and 

information is lacking on what effects offshore oil and gas exploration might have on live-bottom 

communities. Because more information was needed for recent and upcoming Outer Continental 

Shelf (OCS) Lease Sales, the Bureau of Land Management initiated the “South Atlantic OCS Area 

Living Marine Resources Study.” The primary objectives of this study during the first year were to: 1) 

Characterize the invertebrate and nektonic communities associated with several representative livebottom areas from Cape Hatteras, NC to Northern Florida and elevate factors which might influence 

community structure such as depth, latitude, and season (summer vs. winter), 2) Characterize the food 
106 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

habits of selected fish species of commercial and recreational importance, 3) Conduct a limited 

assessment of bottom topography and substrate type, 4) Evaluate the potential effects of oil- and gasrelated activities on live-bottom communities. 

Results obtained from the first year sampling program were presented in a 1981 report available 

through the National Technical Information Service (NTIS). Objectives of the second-year study were 

the same as those listed above; however, seasonal sampling was increased to include all seasons. In 

addition, some study areas were changed to include portions of the shelf not previously studied, while 

others were sampled during both years to allow assessment of persistence in the distribution patterns 

observed during the first year. This report summarizes the results and conclusions obtained from the 

second year (1981) sampling program. 

—. 1982c. South Atlantic OCS Area Living Marine Resources Study Year II: Final Report Volume II. 

Minerals Management Service contract AA551-CT1-18. Minerals Management Service, Washington, 

DC. 

Live bottom areas area known to be important to commercial and recreational fisheries in the South 

Atlantic Bight, but biological studies of these areas have been limited. As a result, very little data 

exists on the structure of invertebrate and fish communities present in these hard-bottom habitats, and 

information is lacking on what effects offshore oil and gas exploration might have on live-bottom 

communities. Because more information was needed for recent and upcoming Outer Continental 

Shelf (OCS) Lease Sales, the Bureau of Land Management initiated the “South Atlantic OCS Area 

Living Marine Resources Study.” The primary objectives of this study during the first year were to: 1) 

Characterize the invertebrate and nektonic communities associated with several representative livebottom areas from Cape Hatteras, NC to Northern Florida and elevate factors which might influence 

community structure such as depth, latitude, and season (summer vs. winter), 2) Characterize the food 

habits of selected fish species of commercial and recreational importance, 3) Conduct a limited 

assessment of bottom topography and substrate type, 4) Evaluate the potential effects of oil- and gasrelated activities on live-bottom communities. 

Results obtained from the first year sampling program were presented in a 1981 report available 

through the National Technical Information Service. Objectives of the second-year study were the 

same as those listed above; however, seasonal sampling was increased to include all seasons. In 

addition, some study areas were changed to include portions of the shelf not previously studied, while 

others were sampled during both years to allow assessment of persistence in the distribution patterns 

observed during the first year. This report summarizes the results and conclusions obtained from the 

second year (1981) sampling program. 

Moser, M.L., S.W. Ross, S.W. Snyder, and R.C. Dentzman. 1995. Distribution of Bottom Habitats on the 

Continental Shelf off North Carolina. Final Report to Marine Resources Research Institute, South 

Carolina Department of Marine Resources for the Southeast Area Monitoring and Assessment 

Program — Bottom Mapping Workgroup. Wilmington, NC. 80 p. 

*This report documents the compilation and evaluation of the North Carolina SEAMAP Hardbottom 

data. In situ observations of hard bottom type and relief were made using submersibles. These data 

are in video and/or 35 mm still photographs. Black and white, 35 mm still photographs from RV 

Eastward research cruises (1964-1973) also provided evidence of bottom type and relief. USACOE 

drilling logs (1983) characterized sub-surface stability. Fish trawl and trap data from NMFS-Woods 

Hole (groundfish surveys 1964-1994), NMFS- Pascagoula (archive data 1954-1984), SEAMAP data 

(since 1984) and NCDMF (RV Dan Moore, and reef data) were evaluated for the presence of obligate 

(primary) reef fishes as evidence for the location of hard or non-hard bottoms. This report is part of a 
Invertebrate Chapter — 107 

CD-ROM for the whole S. Atlantic Bight, published by the Florida DNR (S.W. Ross, pers. comm. 31 

Dec 99). 

Myers, T.D. 1968. Horizontal and Vertical Distribution of Thecosomatous Pteropods off Cape Hatteras. 

Ph.D. Dissertation. Department of Zoology, Duke University. 223 p. 

Cape Hatteras, North Carolina lies at the confluence of the warms northerly flowing Gulf Stream and 

a cool, southerly flowing Virginian Coastal Current. Previous workers have demonstrated marked 

north-south changes in the species composition of benthic marine invertebrates at Cape Hatteras and 

have noted that this change is associated with the different types of water present in the area. 

This investigation attempts to determine whether a similar change in faunal composition can be found 

in a holoplanktonic group of animals in the waters off Cape Hatteras. The Thecosomata, or shelled 

pteropods were chosen for study. 

A total of 26 species of Thecosomata within 9 genera have been found in six water types sampled in 

the Cape Hatteras area. The greatest number of thecosomes was found in the upper 60 meters of the 

water column with a concentration maximum of 10,000-20,000 animals/1,000 m3

 water filtered being 

present as a persistent feature of the 15-30 meter depth range in the Gulf Stream and Sargasso Sea. 

The number of species present in the water column is 5-8 In Carolinian Coastal Water, 12-17 in Gulf 

Stream and Sargasso Sea, one in winter Virginian Coastal Water and Slope Water, and 1-5 in seminar 

Virginian Coastal Water and Slope Water. 

Phalen, P. Unpublished database (e). RV Dan Moore Studies, Lobster Survey 1968-1973. North Carolina 

Division of Marine Fisheries. Morehead City, NC. 

*This is an unpublished fisheries database. Data were collected from 1968 to 1973 by the North 

Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries. The Principal Investigator is listed as Paul Phalen. Select 

sample locations and related data were computerized as part of the North Carolina SEAMAP 

Hardbottom data project by Moser et al. (1995). SEAMAP Hardbottom data (sample locations) within 

the defined project area for The Point were sorted and mapped using ArcView GIS (J. Ott, pers. 

comm. 15 Nov 99). 

—. Unpublished database (g). RV Dan Moore Studies, Squid Project 1974. North Carolina Division of 

Marine Fisheries. Morehead City , NC. 

*This is an unpublished fisheries database. Data were collected in 1974 by the North Carolina 

Division of Marine Fisheries. The Principal Investigator is listed as Paul Phalen. Select sample 

locations and related data were computerized as part of the North Carolina SEAMAP Hardbottom 

data project by Moser et al. (1995). SEAMAP Hardbottom data (sample locations) within the defined 

project area for The Point were sorted and mapped using ArcView GIS (J. Ott, pers. comm. 15 Nov 

99). 

Powell, A., B.F. Holland, and J. Gillikin. 1975c. RV Dan Moore Cruise Report No. 5: Onslow Bay, NC to 

Virginia Beach, VA; Anadromous Fish Survey, Calico Scallop Explorations, North Carolina Division 

of Marine Fisheries, Department of Natural Resources and Community Development. Morehead City, 

NC. 

*Two separate cruises were accomplished during February 1975. A state supported calico scallop 

investigation was undertaken to determine if calico scallops were present in areas which previously 

supported a scallop fishery. A modified 8-foot tumbler dredge was utilized. The majority of sea time 

was used to obtain data for the federal-aid anadromous fish project outlined in the January 1975 

cruise report. 
108 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

—. 1975f. RV Dan Moore Cruise Report No. 7: Cape Hatteras, NC to Cape Henry, VA, North Carolina 

Division of Marine Fisheries, Department of Natural Resources and Community Development. 

Morehead City, NC. 

*Three days were utilized during April 1975 to investigate areas for calico scallop populations. Major 

effort was expended in an area 20-nautical miles off Bogue Inlet, NC. A modified tumbler dredge was 

used. 

Renaud, M., G. Gitschlag, E. Klima, A. Shah, D. Koi, and J. Nance. 1993. Loss of shrimp by turtle 

excluder devices (TEDS) in coastal waters of the United States, North Carolina to Texas: March 

1988-August 1990. Fishery Bulletin 91: 129-137. 

Observers from the National Marine Fisheries Service collected information on catch rates of shrimp 

aboard commercial shrimp vessels during March 1988-August 1990. Comparisons were made 

between nets equipped with Turtle Excluder Devices (TEDS) and standard shrimp nets. Three types 

of TEDs were tested: Georgia TEDs with and without accelerator funnels, and Super Shooter TEDs 

with funnels. 

Fishing areas, time of day, and duration of tows were controlled by the captain of each vessel to 

simulate commercial conditions. A statistically-significant (P<0.05) mean loss in shrimp catch-perunit-effort (CPUE) of 0.24 lb/h (3.6%) and 0.93 lb/h (13.6%) was exhibited by nets equipped with 

Georgia TEDs (with and without funnels, respectively) compared with standard nets. There was no 

significant difference in shrimp CPUE between standard nets and nets equipped with Super Shooter 

TEDs with a funnel. 

Rhoads, D.C., and B. Hecker. 1994. Processes on the continental slope off North Carolina with special 

reference to the Cape Hatteras region. Deep-Sea Research II 41(4-6): 965-980. 

Historical data from the slope off Cape Hatteras show this environment to be atypical of the rest of 

the Atlantic slope in terms of high rates of sedimentation and high benthic/demersal standing stocks. 

This paper focuses on identifying potential sources for sediments and nutrients on the Hatteras slope 

and on likely transport mechanisms. 

Sediments consist mainly of subequal mixtures of sand, silt, and clay and contain an average of 1% 

carbon. This pool of carbon represents weathered organic matter containing polyunsaturated fatty 

acids (PUFA) and sterols typical of relatively refractory shelf/estuarine sediments. The labile organic 

fraction is derived from phytoplankton and zooplankton as reflected in short chain fatty acids (< 

C22), planktic sterols, and chlorophyll a that are found in higher concentrations than observed 

elsewhere on the eastern U.S. continental slope. The inventory of organic nitrogen is much higher on 

the mid-slope (800-1000 m) than shallower or deeper bottom areas as predicted from plots of organic 

nitrogen versus grain-size for the U.S. Atlantic continental margin. The mid- slope region is the major 

focusing area for sedimentation. Bioturbation is an important diagenetic process that has profound 

influence on sediment profiles of sulphate, methane, fatty acids, sterols, chlorophyll a, viable diatoms, 

and metals. The low inventory of relatively refractory carbon (1%) stands in contrast to high 

measured rates of organic carbon sedimentation (28-121 g organic C m-2 year- 1). This paradox is 

probably related to high remineralization rates in the water column and on the bottom. The refractory 

nature of the small residual pool of deposited organic matter may define the trophic niche filled by 

those benthos found on this slope that are more typically encountered on the shelf (e.g. oligochaetes 

and opportunistic polychaetes). 

A likely mechanism for high input rates of both organic and inorganic particulates to the Hatteras 

slope may be attributed to the position of Cape Hatteras relative to the adjacent narrow shelf. The 

Cape extends outward almost to the shelf edge topographically diverting sediment and primary 
Invertebrate Chapter — 109 

production seaward that is moving southward along the outer shelf (the ‘funnel’ hypothesis). 

Transport of outer shelf sands to the slope may take place by the impingement of Gulf Stream eddies 

on the outer shelf and upper slope as well as by storm-generated waves. Once shelf sediment is 

deposited on the upper slope, it is apparently redistributed, as no strong on-shore to off-shore or 

depth-related gradients are observed in any of the measured sedimentary parameters. 

The Hatteras slope apparently represents an estuarine type of sedimentary/nutrient regime that is 

displaced to an otherwise oceanic deep-sea environment by outwelling and funneling of nutrients and 

sediments from the shelf to the slope. 

Ross, J.L. 1991. Assessment of the North Carolina Winter Trawl Fishery: September 1985 — April 1988. 

Special Scientific Report No. 54. NC Department of the Environment, Health and Natural Resources, 

Division of Marine Fisheries. Morehead City, NC. 

The North Carolina winter trawl fishery is conducted during mid-September through April from 

offshore Long Island, New York to west of Cape Lookout, North Carolina. The fishery is partitioned 

into three components: the nearshore flounder, deepwater, and flynet fisheries. Species specific 

CPUEs, size-age composition of the catches and landings were assessed for 1985-88 and compared 

with 1982-85 catches and landings. 

Summer flounder (Paralichthys dentatus) dominated nearshore flounder and deepwater trawl catches. 

During the 1985-88 seasons, nearshore flounder trip CPUEs averaged 59% less than during the 1982-

85 seasons. The relative abundance of large summer flounder was lowest in 1987-88; concurrently, 

low CPUEs suggested growth overfishing may be occurring. Weakfish (Cynoscion regalis) was the 

dominant species in flynet catches. The CPUEs fluctuated with no well-defined trend. The annual age 

and size frequency distributions were compressed towards smaller, younger fish; age 1 fish 

dominated catches, and age 2-10 fish became less abundant. Atlantic croaker (Micropogonias 

undulatus) was a dominant component of the flynet catches. The CPUEs declined 67% from 1985-86 

to 1987-88, but were still higher than occurring 1982-85. Size and age composition of the catches 

were consistent since 1983-84 and catches were dominated by age 1 and 2 fish (86-95%). Bluefish 

(Pomatomus saltatrix) occurred in catches of all gears, but were targeted only occasionally with 

flynets. The CPUEs were lower during the last five seasons than during 1982-83, but improved in 

1987-88. 

Winter trawls took a broad size (153-840 mm FL) and age (0-9) range of bluefish. Spot (Leiostomus 

xanthurus) were occasionally abundant in the flynet fishery, but most were small and marketed as 

scrapfish; age 0 and 1 fish accounted for greater than 88% of the catches annually. Scup (Stenotomus 

chrysops) were a significant component of the deepwater catches and fishery; however, catches and 

landings have steadily declined. Growth overfishing may be occurring, as the relative abundance of 

large fish has declined since 1982-83. Black sea bass (Centropristis striata) was a dominant species 

in deepwater catches. The CPUEs fluctuated with no persistent trend. Black sea bass recruited at the 

size of first maturity of females, and the relative abundance of large fish declined. 

Overall biomass caught by winter trawlers declined. During 1987-88, total biomass/trip was 17% 

lower and total biomass/day was 21 % lower than the six-season (1982-88) mean. Landings of 

marketable finfish during 1985-88 were less than in previously monitored seasons. The trend in the 

scrap fish: marketable fish ratio has tended to increase in recent sampling seasons. 

*This citation includes invertebrate data (squid and crabs). 

Ross, J.L., J.B. Sullivan and D.A. DeVries. 1985. Assessment of North Carolina Commercial 

Finfisheries: 1 July 1983 to 30 June 1984. Annual Progress Report for Project 2-386-R. NC 
110 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

Department of Natural Resources and Community Development, Division of Marine Fisheries. 

Morehead City, NC. 161 p. 

Adult finfish were sampled for relative abundance, species composition and size distribution from the 

1983 long haul seine and pound net fisheries in Pamlico Sound, N.C. and the 1983-84 winter trawl 

fishery in the Atlantic Ocean off North Carolina. Pound net and long haul seine samples were 

dominated by Atlantic croaker, Atlantic menhaden, weakfish, spot, and bluefish. Dominant species in 

the winter trawl fishery were weakfish, scup, bluefish, Atlantic croaker and summer flounder. Protein 

systems of Atlantic croaker and bluefish were examined electrophoretically to determine if stocks 

could be differentiated by this technique. No consistent patterns were found. A total of 31,604 youngof-year Atlantic croaker were tagged and released, mostly in Pamlico Sound and its tributaries during 

Fall, 1983. In addition, 92 fish were tagged and released near the mouth of York River, VA. As of 31 

August 1984, 1,395 fish were recaptured. Initial movement appeared to be southward within Pamlico 

Sound and into the ocean. Fish greater than 149 mm TL had a higher return rate than smaller fish. 

Principal recapture methods were shrimp trawls, gill nets, and book and line. 

*This citation includes invertebrate data (squid and crabs). 

Ross, J.L., D.A. DeVries, III, J.H. Hawkins, and J.B. Sullivan. 1986. Assessment of North Carolina 

Commercial Finfisheries 1 April, 1982 to 30 June 1985 Fishing Seasons. Project 2-386-R. North 

Carolina Department of Natural Resources and Community Development, Division of Marine 

Fisheries. Morehead City, NC. 418 p. 

This is a Comprehensive Assessment of North Carolina finfisheries for 1982 — 1985 fishing seasons. 

The winter trawl fishery produced 32.1-35.9% of all finfish (excluding menhaden) landed in North 

Carolina. From fall 1982 to spring 1985, 43, 67 and 84 catches were sampled during the respective 

seasons. Catches were partitioned by gear (flynet, nearshore flounder trawl, deepwater trawls) and 

area (north of Cape Hatteras, Cape Hatteras to Cape Lookout, west of Cape Lookout) to facilitate 

analyzes of seasonal fishing patterns and catches. The relationships between average catch/species 

from samples and commercial landings are presented herein. 

The nearshore flounder fishery occurred from late November through January and accounted for 18.6 

— 37.3 % of the catches sampled. Summer flounder (Paralichthys dentatus), dominated these 

catches, although their relative abundance declined from 93.7 to 88.6% during the study. The CPUE 

(mean weight/trip) was highest in 1983-84 (9,687 kg) and lowest in 1982-83 (5,584 kg). Fish <300 

mm TL accounted for 9.8 -14.6% and fish >400 mm TL for 21.4 — 26.0% of the catches with no 

significant changes noted during the period. 

Deepwater trawling occurred from December through April, accounting for 18.6 — 31.3% of the 

samples. This fishery was dominated (94.0 — 98.0%) each season by scup (Stenotomus chrysops), 

(Paralichthys dentatus), black sea bass (Centropristis striata), and squids. The CPUE of S. chrysops

declined from 9,708 kg in 1982-83 to 2,003 kg in 1984-85 as did the percent of fish >200 mm FL, 

from 58.5 to 18.8%. The CPUE of C. striata increased from 1,314 to 3,449 kg and the proportion of 

large fish increased during the study. The CPUE of P. dentatus increased from 1,377 — 4,431 kg 

from 1982-83 to 1984-85; their size composition did not change significantly during the study; 

smaller fish were captured in deepwater than in the nearshore fishery. 

Flynet fishing occurred from September through April and comprised 31.3 — 62.8 % of the samples. 

Catches were dominated by weakfish (Cynoscion regalis) in 1982-83 (52.8%) and 1983-84 (61.9%) 

and by Atlantic croaker (Micropogonias undulatus) (38.6%) and C. regalis (35.6%) in 1984-85. 

Bluefish (Pomatomus saltatrix), spot (Leiostomus xanthurus), and butterfish (Peprilus traicanthus) 

were also regularly captured. The CPUE of C. regalis was highest in 1983-84 (7,598 kg) and lowest 

in 1984-85 (4,780 kg). Fish of age 0-XII were landed; age 0 and I individuals composed 90% of the 
Invertebrate Chapter — 111 

catches. The CPUE of M. undulatus increased from 2,344 kg in 1982-83 to 5, 190 kg/catch in 1984-

85; age 0-V fish were landed. Age I-III fish constituted 98.9-99.9% of the catches. A declining trend 

in CPUE and landings of P. saltatrix was indicated; age 0-XI individuals were sampled; age 0-I fish 

composed 87.7-88.8% of the catches in 1982-84 and 57.9% in 1984-85. Flynets produced the greatest 

relative percentage of scrapfish and inshore flounder trawls the lowest. 

*This citation includes invertebrate data (squid and crabs). 

Ross, J.L., and D.W. Moye. 1989. Assessment of North Carolina Commercial Finfisheries 1985-1987 

Fishing Seasons. Project 2-419-R. North Carolina Department of Natural Resources and Community 

Development, Division of Marine Fisheries. Morehead City, NC. 293 p. 

This is a Comprehensive Assessment of North Carolina finfisheries for 1985 — 1987 fishing seasons. 

The North Carolina winter trawl fishery was active from mid-September through April and fished 

grounds from off New York to west of Cape Lookout. The fishery was partitioned into three 

components: the nearshore flounder, deepwater, and flynet fisheries. Species specific CPUEs, sizeage composition of the catches and landings were assessed for 1985-88 and compared with 1982-

1985 catches and landings. Summer flounder (Paralichthys dentatus) dominated nearshore flounder 

and deepwater trawl catches. During the 1985-88 seasons, nearshore flounder trip CPUEs averaged 

59% less than during the 1982-85 seasons. The relative abundance of summer flounder was lowest for 

the six season period in 1987-88 and concurrent with low CPUEs suggested growth overfishing may 

be occurring. Weakfish (Cynoscion regalis) were the dominant species in flynet catches. CPUEs 

during the last six seasons fluctuated with no well defined trend. The annual age and size frequency 

distributions were compressed towards smaller, younger fish; age 1 fish dominated catches, and age 

2-10 fish have become much less abundant. Atlantic Croaker (Micropogonias undulatus) were a 

dominant component of the flynet catches. CPUEs declined 67% from 1985-86 to 1987-88, but were 

still higher for the period than during 1982-85. The size and age composition of the catches has been 

consistent since 1983-84, and catches since were dominated by age 1 and 2 fish (86-95%). Bluefish 

(Pomatomus saltatrix) occurred in catches by all trawl gears but were targeted only occasionally with 

flynets. CPUEs were lower during the last 5 seasons than during 1982-83, but were improved in 

1987-88. Bluefish caught by winter trawlers included a broad size (153-840 mm FL) and age (0-9) 

distribution. Spot (Leiostomus xanthurus) were occasionally an abundant component of the flynet 

fishery, but most were undersized and marketed as scrapfish. Age 0 and 1 fish accounted for greater 

than 88% of the catches annually. Scup (Stenotomus chrysops) were a significant component of the 

deepwater fishery, however catches and lading s have steadily declined. Growth overfishing was 

indicated with the relative abundance of large fish having declined since 1982-83. Black sea bass 

(Centropristis striatus) were a dominant species in deepwater catches. CPUEs have fluctuated with 

no persistent trend. They were recruited at the size of first maturity in females and the relative 

abundance of large fish has declined. Overall biomass caught by winter trawlers has generally 

declined. Overall biomass caught by winter trawlers has generally declined. Total biomass/trip was 

17% lower and total biomass/day was 21% lower during 1987-88 than the six season 1982-85 mean. 

Seasonal marketable finfish landings were each less than any season from 1982-85. The proportion of 

scrapfish to marketable finfish has generally increased over the six season period. 

*This citation includes invertebrate data (squid and crabs). 

Ross, J.L., J.B. Sullivan, and D.A. DeVries. 1984. Assessment of North Carolina Commercial 

Finfisheries: 1 April 1982 to 30 June 1983. Annual Progress report for project 2-386-R. NC 

Department of Natural Resources and Community Development, Division of Marine Fisheries. 

Morehead City, NC. 108 p. 
112 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

Adult finfish were sampled for relative abundance, species composition and size distribution from the 

1982 long haul seine and pound net fisheries in Pamlico Sound, N.C. and the 1982-83 winter trawl 

fishery in the Atlantic Ocean off North Carolina. Pound net and long haul seine samples were 

dominated by Atlantic croaker, Atlantic menhaden, weakfish, spot, and bluefish. Dominant species in 

the winter trawl fishery were weakfish, scup, bluefish, Atlantic croaker and summer flounder. Protein 

systems of Atlantic croaker were examined electrophoretically to determine if stocks could be 

differentiated by this technique. No consistent patterns were found. A total of 29,325 young-of-year 

and 598 adult Atlantic croaker were tagged and released, mostly in Pamlico Sound and its tributaries 

during Fall, 1982. Similar numbers of T-bar and cinch-up tags were used. The latter tag provided 

much better long-term retention. Initial movement appeared to be southward within Pamlico Sound 

and into the ocean. During Spring and Summer, 1983, tags were returned from the mouth of 

Chesapeake Bay to southern North Carolina, although most came from Pamlico Sound and its 

tributaries. The principal recapture methods were shrimp trawl, long haul seine, hook and line, and 

gill net. 

*This citation includes invertebrate data (squid and crabs). 

Ross, S.W. 1985a. A Summary of Biological Processes in the Proposed VACAPES EMPRESS II Area 

Off North Carolina Relating to Plankton Communities, Pelagic Macroinvertebrates, Ichthyofauna, 

Sea turtles, Marine Mammals, and Sea Birds. Appendix B. In: U.S. Department of the Navy. 

EMPRESS II: Supplemental Draft Environmental Impact Statement for the Proposed Operation of the 

Navy Electromagnetic Pulse Radiation Environment Simulator for Ships (Empress II) in the 

Chesapeake Bay and Atlantic Ocean. United States Navy. Environmental/Intergovernmental Section. 

Atlantic Division. Naval Facilities Engineering and Command. Norfolk, VA. 

*This technical report is Appendix B within the “EMPRESS II: Supplemental Draft Environmental 

Impact Statement for the Proposed Operation of the Navy Electromagnetic Pulse Radiation 

Environment Simulator for Ships (Empress II) in the Chesapeake Bay and Atlantic Ocean” report. 

This technical report is a Summary of Biological Processes in the Proposed VACAPES EMPRESS II 

area off North Carolina Relating to Planktonic Communities, Pelagic Macroinvertebrates, 

Ichthyofauna, Sea turtles, Marine Mammals, and Sea Birds. Technical reports supporting this 

summary have been written by authorities in each discipline and are included in Appendices. These 

supporting technical reports are cited individually. The southern portion of VACAPES EMPRESS II 

Area of North Carolina overlaps with the northern portion of the defined study area for the Data 

Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope (The Point) Area. 

Ross, S.W. Unpublished (a). Selected fish, invertebrate and bottom habitat data. 

*These are unpublished data, collected by S.W. Ross during a SCUBA dive on 18 August 1980. The 

location for this site [SWR -SCUBA-80-20] is 35o 20.7′N; 75o 21.2′W; depth 70-80 feet. Selected 

fish, invertebrate, and bottom habitat data were collected. These data are unpublished and the site was 

not visited again. This cite (no date presented) is listed as ISO4 by Kirby-Smith (1989). The location 

data assigned for site ISO4 by Kirby-Smith (1989) were incorrect and these data were collected by 

S.W. Ross [SWR -SCUBA-80-20] (S.W. Ross, pers. comm. 19 November 1999). 

Ross, S.W., K.J. Sulak, and T.A. Munroe. 2001. Association of Syscenus infelix (Crustacea: Isopoda: 

Aegidae) with benthopelagic rattail fishes, Nezumia spp. (Macrouridae), along the western North 

Atlantic continental slope. Mar. Biol. 138(3): 595-601. 

During submersible surveys along the continental slope (summers of 1991 and 1992, 184-847 m) 

between False Cape, Virginia and Cape Hatteras, North Carolina, USA we observed the aegid isopod, 

Syscenus infelix Harger, attached to the macrourid Nezumia bairdii (Goode and Bean). This is the first 
Invertebrate Chapter — 113 

report of S. infelix attached to fishes in the western North Atlantic. The association of this blind 

isopod with its host appears species-specific. The large, conspicuous isopod always attached to a fish 

in the same location, the dorsal midline, immediately behind the first dorsal fin. Attachment appears 

to be long-term, with the isopod forming a characteristic scar consisting of a distinct discolored oval 

depression with seven small, dark impressions that coalesce as the fish grows. Only one S. infelix was 

found on each host fish. The isopod occurred on 23.7% of N. bairdii observed from submersible on 

the middle continental slope off Virginia and North Carolina, compared with 16.6% of 1,236 museum 

specimens of the same species (based on inspection for scars) collected at latitudes 26o

 -64o N. 

Prevalence of the fish-isopod association was not correlated with depth or latitude. We also found 

identical scars on preserved specimens of N. aequalis (2.6% of 660 specimens), N. sclerorhynchus

(1.2% of 86 specimens), and N. suilla (14.3% of 7 specimens), mostly from areas outside the range of 

N. bairdii. No scars were found on museum specimens of N. atlantica (n=27), N . cyrano (n=57), or 

N. longebarbata (n=7). The low incidence of isopod attachment on these species suggests that N. 

bairdii is the preferred host. Infestation by the isopod appears to result in erosion of host fish scales 

and tissue. We propose that S. infelix is an obligate associate of its host fish and should be considered 

parasitic. 

Ross, S.W., K.J. Sulak, J. Gartner, and D.S. Lee. Unpublished data. Ongoing project: Definition of 

Ecological/Trophic Linkages Among Fishes and Other Nekton in the Area Known as The Point — 

North Carolina Continental Shelf Slope. 

*This is an on-going study of fishes, invertebrates, sargassum and marine birds at the area known as 

The Point. The emphasis is on trophic linkages throughout the water column. The summer 1999 and 

2000 stations were mapped (Fig 7). 

Rowe, G.T. 1971. Observations on bottom currents and epibenthic populations in Hatteras Submarine 

Canyon. Deep-Sea Research 18: 569-581. 

Bottom currents and populations of large epifauna were surveyed using bottom photography in the 

Pamlico axis of the Hatteras Submarine Canyon system. Most species known to be numerically 

dominant along the continental slope north and south of the canyon were absent or found in reduced 

densities, whereas other species were found only near or in the canyon and can be considered canyon 

indicator species. The implication of previous studies (Rowe and Menzies 1969; Sanders and Hessler 

1969) that narrow faunal zonation is continuous along the margins of ocean basins must be modified 

to acknowledge the exceptional zonations found in canyons. 

The photographs and current meter data indicated that the bottom current to the southwest along the 

lower continental rise, but turned to the west and northwest, or up the canyon, at lesser depths. 

Indurated sedimentary outcrops common to the canyon were probably a result of intermittent 

slumping and turbidity current flows. 

Schaff, T. 1991. Spatial Heterogeneity of Continental Slope Benthos Off the Carolinas. Ph.D. 

Dissertation. NC State University, Department of Marine, Earth and Atmospheric Sciences. 111 p. 

Spatial heterogeneity in macrofaunal and microbial communities was examined at three continental 

slope sites (160 km apart) off Charleston, SC (35° 52’N, 76° 27’W), Cape Lookout, NC (34° 15’N, 

75° 44’W) and Cape Hatteras, NC (35° 24’N, 74° 48’W), all at 850m water depth, on large (100-km) 

and small (10cm-100m) scales. Significant variation was found on 100-km scales, among sites, in 

both microbial and macrofaunal community structure. One site (off Cape Hatteras) was found to have 

macrofaunal abundances (>55,000/m2

) higher than any previously recorded from this depth. The 

Cape Hatteras site exhibited higher polychaete diversity, and profoundly different macrofaunal 

species composition than the other two sites. Sites off Cape Lookout, NC and Charleston, SC had 
114 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

significantly different macrofaunal abundances (21, 319 individuals/m2 and 9,438 ind/m2 

respectively) but similar polychaete species composition, taxonomic representation, and polychaete 

diversity patterns. 

Small-scale heterogeneity was examined at two sites off Cape Lookout and Cape Hatteras, NC. Off 

Cape Lookout, macrofaunal and microbial communities were examined on a 10-100 cm scale, in 

comparison of sediment mounds, pits and level areas. NO significant differences were found in 

sediment microbial counts or total macrofaunal distributions. Differences related to biogenic 

structures were observed in the abundances of one polychaete species (Paraonidae, Levesenia 

gracilis) and infaunal anemones. 

Off Cape Hatteras, infaunal heterogeneity was examined on a 100 m scale by comparing an area of 

high foraminiferan (Bathysiphon filiformis) tube densities with an area lacking these tubes. No 

significant differences were found in the distribution and abundance of bacteria between the two 

areas. The only significant difference found in macrofaunal densities was in the 5-10 cm vertical 

fraction, and was due to the presence of high numbers of reproductive oligochaetes. The only other 

taxa to show a response to the presence of the tubes was Nicolea sp. 1, which lives epifaunally on the 

tube exterior. 

From these investigations, I conclude that the Carolina slope fauna at 850 m is fairly homogenous on 

small (10-100m scales), but that significant variation in faunal abundance and composition occurs on 

100-200 km scales. This heterogeneity is probably related to variable influence from the Gulf Stream, 

varying angle of the slope floor, and influence from other currents and oceanographic processes (e.g., 

upwelling) that occur off Cape Hatteras. 

Schaff, T.R., and L.A. Levin. 1994. Spatial heterogeneity of benthos associated with biogenic structures 

on the North Carolina continental slope. Deep-Sea Research II 41(4-6): 901-918. 

The objective of this study was to determine if biogenic features such as mounds, pits and tubes 

produce small-scale (0.1 — 100 m) spatial heterogeneity in macrofaunal community structure on the 

continental slope off North Carolina at 850 m. Macrofaunal and microbial communities associated 

with sediment mounds, pits and level areas were compared off Cape Lookout, North Carolina. No 

significant differences were found in sediment microbial counts or total macrofaunal distributions. 

One paraonid polychaete (Levensenia gracilis) was more abundant in pits than in other samples, and 

infaunal anemones exhibited depressed densities in sediment mounds. 

At a second site, off Cape Hatteras, North Carolina, infaunal heterogeneity associated with the tubebuilding foraminiferan Bathysiphon filiformis was examined by comparing an area with high tube 

densities (93.8 m-2) with an area 100 m away without tubes. No significant differences were found in 

the distribution and abundances of bacteria between the two areas. The only significant difference 

found in infaunal densities was the presence of high numbers of reproductive oligochaetes in the 5-10 

cm fraction beneath the tube beds. One terebellid polychaete species (Nicolea sp.), which lives 

exclusively on B. filiformis tubes, was absent in the non-tube area. 

With a few exceptions, the biogenic or microbial structures examined at these two sites appeared to 

exert only minor influence on macrofaunal or microbial community structure. Within each site, slope 

assemblages examined in this study appeared to be homogeneous on the small scales examined. 

Schaff, T., L. Levin, N. Blair, D. DeMaster, R. Pope, and S. Boehme. 1992. Spatial heterogeneity of 

benthos on the Carolina continental slope: large (100 km)-scale variation. Marine Ecology Progress 

Series 88: 143-160. 
Invertebrate Chapter — 115 

Large-scale spatial heterogeneity of macrofaunal and microbial communities was examined on the 

continental slope off North and South Carolina, USA, by comparing 3 sites, separated by 130 to 150 

km and all at 850 m water depth. Significant variation was found among macrofaunal assemblages at 

all 3 sites, and between microbial counts at 2 sites. We investigated the hypothesis that 100 km scale 

heterogeneity was driven by variation in organic C flux to the sea floor. The northernmost site (Site 

III, off Cape Hatteras, NC) was found to have macrofaunal abundances (>55000 m-2) higher than any 

previous recorded from this depth, and significantly higher than those at Site II (off Cape Lookout, 

North Carolina) (21319 m-2) or Site I (off Charleston, SC) (9438 m-2). Trends in macrofaunal 

abundance did not follow those sediment TOC (total organic carbon), but agreed well with estimates 

of total carbon flux for the three sites. Mixing coefficients determined from profiles of naturally 

occurring 234 Th (half life 24 d) indicate that the sediments at Site III are mixed 2 to 6 times faster 

than at the other 2 sites, which is consistent with the trends in macrofaunal abundance and biomass. 

Using 14 C-based sedimentation rates and sediment carbon content, we estimated carbon flux to be 

0.6, 20 and > 70 g C m 2

 yr -1 at sites I, II and III, respectively. Inventories of 234 Th and downcore 

concentration profiles of dissolved SO4

=

 , CO2 and CH4 within the sediment provided evidence that 

the flux of metabolized carbon was greater at Site III than at the other sites. Polychaetes, which 

comprised 43, 74 and 65 % of the fauna at Sites I, II and III, respectively, exhibited lower diversity, 

higher dominance, and a completely different species composition at Site III than at the other 2 sites. 

Scalibregma inflatum and Aricidea quadrilobata comprised 33 % of total macrofauna at Site III, but 

were absent at Sites I and II. The species composition, high dominance, and prevalence of juveniles 

among polychaetes at Site III is suggestive of a response to organic enrichment. Enrichment of the 

Site III benthos is attributed to physical oceanographic and geophysical causes, including Gulf 

Stream-induced upwelling, a confluence of currents focused by bottom topography, and lateral inputs 

resulting from mass wasting processes. Despite significant differences in macrofaunal abundance, 

Sites I and II exhibited considerable overlap in microbial counts, polychaete species composition, 

dominance and diversity patterns. 

Settle, L.R. 1997. Commercial harvest of pelagic Sargassum: A summary of landings since June 1995. In: 

South Atlantic Fishery Management Council. Essential Fish Habitat Workshop # 9: October 7 — 8, 

1997 Pelagic Habitat Sargassum and Water Column. South Atlantic Fishery Management Council. 

Charleston, SC. May 1997. 66 p. 

Attachment 11: The commercial harvest of pelagic Sargassum resumed in June 1995. To date the 

fishery is prosecuted by a single firm, Aqua-10 Corporation of Beaufort, North Carolina. Aqua-10 

processes the raw algae into a variety of agricultural fertilizers and dietary supplements used in the 

swine and poultry industries. The firm purchases algae harvested by local fishing vessels. Two 

vessels, the FV Outer Banks (16.5 m snapper boat) and the FV Rising Sun (15 m long-liner) have 

been equipped with Sargassum nets by Aqua-10. The gear consists of a 1.2 in x 0.9 n frame trawl 

rigged with 7.6 am mesh trawl webbing. The vessels harvest algae ancillary to their normal fishing 

activities. When algae are landed, Aqua-10 notifies the NMFS, Beaufort Laboratory. The algae are 

examined for by-catch at dockside and at the processing plant. Vessel captains are interviewed to 

obtain data on the date and location of harvests, effort, and by-catch. 

All algae have been harvested from off the North Carolina coast from northern Onslow Bay to 

northeast of Cape Hatteras (Fig. 2). Although Sargassum has been harvested on the continental shelf, 

most was obtained in the Gulf Stream (Fig. 3). The observed by-catch has been minimal in terms of 

numbers of individuals. No sea turtles and few fishes have been noted. Most fish have been young 

juveniles and are generally in advanced stages of decomposition. Identifiable taxa include filefish 

(Monacanthus hispidus), amberjacks (Seriola spp.), blue runner (Caranx crysos), jacks (Caranx spp.), 

flyingfish (Exocoetidae), sergeant major (Abudefduf saxatilis), gray triggerfish (Balistes capriscus), 

sargassum fish (Histrio histrio), and pipefish (Syngnathus spp.). The most commonly observed 
116 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

macrofaunal by-catch have been crustaceans including several shrimp (genera Hippolyte, Latreutes, 

and Leander) and crabs (genera Planes and Portunus). 

Shepard, A. (ed.). 1991. Undersea Research at the Point. NURC/UNCW 1991 Undersea Research: 

Informational Meeting. National Undersea Research Center, University of North Carolina at 

Wilmington. Wilmington, NC. 9 p. 

*This 9 page handout provides a summary of research being conducted at “The Point” area (Manteo 

Lease Block 467). 

The National Undersea Research Center at the University of North Carolina at Wilmington 

(NURC/UNCW), funded by a grant from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s 

Office of Undersea Research (OUR), was established in 1980 to promote, facilitate, and conduct 

research in the Southeastern United States utilizing undersea techniques, including advanced wet 

diving and manned and unmanned submersibles. A main Center goal is to provide information to 

NOAA that will assist the agency in fulfilling its charter to explore, understand, conserve and manage 

the U.S. marine environment and associated resources. To help meet this goal, the Center supports 

and conducts interdisciplinary oceanographic research projects studying continental margin 

processes, particularly the interactions and linkages between estuarine, continental shelf, and slope 

(including submarine canyon) environments. 

Shepard, A., and A.H. Hulbert (eds.). 1994. Workshop Report: Present and Future Research Initiatives on 

the Upper Hatteras Slope off North Carolina. National Undersea Research Center at the University of 

North Carolina at Wilmington. Wilmington, NC. 30p. 

*This report is the result of the May 1993 workshop held in Raleigh, NC. The topics of discussion 

were research (present and planned) at the Upper Hatteras Slope (UHS) and potential funding 

sources. The workshop was sponsored by National Undersea Research Center at the University of 

North Carolina at Wilmington. The report provides a brief description of the UHS invertebrates, 

biological oceanography, chemical oceanography, geological oceanography (bathymetry, oil and gas 

exploration), physical oceanography, fisheries, and Sargassum. Appendix A is a workshop agenda 

and list of speakers. No abstracts for speakers are provided. Appendix B is a list of potential funding 

sources. Appendix C contains a list of publications pertaining to the UHS. 

Shepard, A., C. Jensen, and A. Hulbert. 1992. Epibenthic, Megafaunal Invertebrates on the Continental 

Slope off the Carolinas. Appendix A. In: Diaz, R.J., J.A. Blake, and D.P. Lohse. Volume III 

Appendices: Benthic Study of the Continental Slope Off Cape Hatteras, North Carolina, Virginia 

Institute of Marine Science, School of Marine Science, College of William and Mary. Gloucester Pt., 

VA; Science Applications International Corporation. Woods Hole, MA. 

*From 1989-1991, NURC/UNCW funded submersible research near and in the Manteo Lease Blocks, 

by Drs. Lisa Levin, Neal Blair and David DeMaster of North Carolina State University. Their data, 

taken by submersible at depths of 800 m, revealed that the density of megafauna and infuana at Cape 

Hatteras were significantly higher than at two other slope sites more than 60 nm south of the proposed 

well site (Schaff 1991). Furthermore, their densities were comparable to those reported by Blake et al. 

(1987) from a 600 m site upslope from the proposed well site. 

Shephard, A.N., T. Schaff, N. Mountford, and A.W. Hulbert. 1993. Relationship of Benthic Infauna and 

Slope Angle on the Continental Slope Off Cape Hatteras, NC. Benthic Ecology Meeting, 1-4 April 

1993, Mobile, AL. 57 p. 

Minerals Management Service was recently charged, by legislative mandate, with describing the 

nature and extent of the benthic community inhabiting oil and gas lease blocks on the Continental 
Invertebrate Chapter — 117 

Slope off Cape Hatteras, NC. Once the benthic community is described, the assumption is that the 

potential impacts of oil and gas exploration and development activities can be assessed. A significant 

difficulty with this assumption is that the area of the lease blocks is extremely rugged. The primary 

techniques used to sample infauna on MMS funded research have been surface deployed box cores. 

Such box cores generally sample on relatively flat bottom. NOAA’s National Undersea Research 

Center at the University of North Carolina at Wilmington (NURC/UNCW) funded a manned 

submersible cruise in 1992, in part, to sample steep areas that are inaccessible to surface deployed 

box cores. Preliminary results suggest that substrate angle significantly affects infaunal abundance 

and species composition. In rugged, non-indurated areas, substrate angle must be considered when 

describing benthic communities. 

South Atlantic Fishery Management Council. 1998. FINAL Habitat Plan for the South Atlantic Region: 

Essential Fish Habitat Requirements for Fishery Management Plans of the South Atlantic Fishery 

Managment Council: The Shrimp Fishery Management Plan; The Red Drum Fishery Management 

Plan; The Snapper Group Fishery Plan; The Coastal Mirgratory Pelagics Fishery Management Plan; 

The Golden Crab Fishery Management Plan; The Spiny Lobster Fishery Management Plan; The 

Coral, Coral Reefs, and Live/Hard Bottom Fishery Management Plan; The Sargassum Habitat Fishery 

Management Plan; and The Calico Scallop Fishery Management Plan. South Atlantic Fishery 

Management Council. Charleston, SC. 457 p. 

*This report emphasizes South Atlantic Coast, nearshore habitat (shore to 200m isobath). Page 134-

135 mentions “The Point” within Section 3.2.3.2.1 Description of Water Column Habitats. Figure A 

Water Masses off Cape Hatteras, is located on p. 135 and shows a schematic diagram of “The Point,” 

relative to the Gulf Steam, Virginia (longshore) Current and Sargasso Sea. Table 18b taxonomic list 

of larval and early-juvenile fishes from offshore of Cape Lookout to Cape Hatteras including the 

region known as “The Point” is located on pp. 139-145. Oil and gas exploration, development and 

transposition are mentioned in section 4.1.2.4 on page 323 (Offshore Cape Hatteras, NC is mentioned, 

but no specific reference to “The Point” is made). 

Stancyk, S.E. (In press). Predation behavior in echinoderms. In: Candia Carnevali, M. D. (ed.). 

Proceedings of the Fifth European Conference on Echinoderms, Milan Italy, 7-12 September 1998. A. 

A. Balkema, Rotterdam. 

This study describes predation behavior on swimming organisms by Ophiura sarsi. Aluminum 

Frame, vexar mesh cages with yellow polypropylene rope on the bottom were used during this study. 

Each cage contained 5 brittlestars with 2 arms removed. Other cages, which had been left out a year, 

there was heavy epifaunal growth, including recently metamorphosed crinoids. Although there was 

lots of particulate material in the water, these cages did not get buried, and often had burrowing fish 

associated with them (S. Stancyk, pers. comm. 15 July 1999). 

Stancyk, S.E., C. Muir, and T. Fujita. 1998. Predation Behavior on swimming organisms by Ophiura 

sarsi. pp. 425-429. In: R. Mooi, and M. Telford (eds.). Echinoderms: San Francisco Proceedings of 

the Ninth International Echinoderm Conference. A. A. Balkema, Rotterdam. 

This study describes predation behavior on swimming organisms by Ophiura sarsi. Aluminum 

Frame, vexar mesh cages with yellow polypropylene rope on the bottom were used during this study. 

Each cage contained 5 brittlestars with 2 arms removed. Other cages, which had been left out a year, 

there was heavy epifaunal growth, including recently metamorphosed crinoids. Although there was 

lots of particulate material in the water, these cages did not get buried, and often had burrowing fish 

associated with (S. Stancyk, pers. comm. 15 July 1999). 
118 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

Stancyk, S., W. Dodson, and R. Aronson. 1991. Food Chain Dynamics Involving Brittlestars on the 

Carolina Slope. p. 4. In: Shepard, A. (ed.), NURC/UNCW 1991 Undersea Research: Informational 

Meeting. National Undersea Research Center, University of North Carolina at Wilmington. 

Wilmington, NC. 

Brittlestars are common bottom-dwelling organisms whose role in energy flow in marine ecosystems 

is poorly known. In shallow waters, burrowing brittlestars occur in extremely dense beds and suffer 

heavy sublethal predation. Dense aggregations of surface-dwelling brittlestars are relatively rare, 

probably because of predation. In the deeper waters of the continental slope, however, dense beds of 

the brittlestar Ophiura sarsii occur, both off North Carolina and in other places in the world. Previous 

information implied that predation on these animals was low, but dives off North Carolina revealed a 

substantial amount of sublethal predation, as evidenced by regenerating arms. An investigation is 

currently underway to elucidate the population biology and trophic linkages of Ophiura sarsii at sites 

of about 500m depth at ‘The Point,” where dense concentrations of large animals occur. Eight dives 

during the summer of 1991 are planned to: 1) survey populations and quantify densities, distribution, 

size of patches, and sediment/water characteristics; 2) make representative collections of animals to 

determine reproductive state, population size structure, growth band numbers, and sublethal predation 

frequency; 3) carry out short-term experiments with cages and tethered animals to learn about 

predation frequency; and 4) carry out short-term cage experiments to determine rates of regeneration. 

Sulak, K.J., and S.W. Ross. 1996. Lilliputian bottom fish fauna of the Hatteras upper middle continental 

slope. Journal of Fish Biology 49, suppl. A: 91-113. 

Submersible data from two areas along the Carolina-Virginia continental slope reveal a Hatteras 

upper middle slope (HMS) (35°30′N, 74°50′W) demersal fish fauna remarkable for diminutive size of 

individuals within and across species, a fauna which is accordingly termed ‘Lilliputian’. Contrast of 

HMS submersible data with Virginia trawl and submersible data support this finding. The four topranking HMS fishes, Lycenchelys verrillii, Glyptocephalus cynoglossus, Myxine glutinosa and 

Nezumia bairdii, are all significantly smaller than on the Virginia upper middle slope. Also peculiar 

to the HMS is the dominance of sedentary benthic species, rarity of active benthopelagic foragers, and 

markedly elevated fish population density. Species composition of the HMS fauna differs from that of 

the general Middle Atlantic Bight fauna; notably absent are species of otherwise continuous 

distribution along the U.S. East Coast (e.g., Synaphobranchus affinis, Nezumia aequalis). Since HMS 

megafaunal and macrofaunal invertebrate communities are also anomalous, the Lilliputian 

phenomenon among HMS bottom fishes provides a characteristic biotic signature of a pervasively 

restructured benthic boundary layer community. The authors hypothesize that the HMS faunal 

anomaly reflects a limiting factor, episodic sediment surface hypoxia, peculiar to this region of high 

particulate organic carbon flux from surface waters. Results indicate that substantial changes in fish 

faunal composition and structure can occur on a small geographic scale on the open soft-substrate 

continental slope. 

U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service. 1992. Proceedings of the Fourth Atlantic 

OCS Region Information Transfer Meeting, September 1991. U.S. Department of the Interior, 

Minerals Management Service. Herndon, VA. 198 p. 

The Fourth Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) Regional Information Transfer Meeting (ITM) 

was held on 24-25 September, 1991, in Wilmington, NC. The focus of the meeting was on the OCS 

off North Carolina, specifically on activities related to a proposed exploratory well for oil and gas by 

Mobil on Block 467 a site 40 miles off the coast of North Carolina. The area of industry interest is 

known as the Manteo Prospect, while the activities surrounding the proposed drilling are referred to 

collectively as the Manteo Project. The wildcat wellsite is in 2,690 ft. (857 m) of water near the edge 
Invertebrate Chapter — 119 

of the Gulf Stream. It is also near a fishing ground known locally as “The Point.” The area is believed 

to be gas prone rather than oil prone. The estimated size of the resource could be as high as 5 trillion 

cubic feet of gas. 

The purpose of the meeting was to exchange information on the leasing background, legislative 

activities, scientific results, and socioeconomic studies. Legislative-related reports include 

descriptions of the Oil Pollution Act of 1990, the Outer Banks Protection Act, the Environmental 

Studies Review Panel, and the North Carolina Physical Oceanography Panel. Reports of studies on 

marine life include benthic diatoms, benthic fauna, pelagic seabirds, sea turtles, and right whales. One 

report describes the use of airships (blimps) for ocean research a capability relevant to North Carolina 

because of the east coast airship facility is located in the state. Local marine science facilities 

described include NOAA’s National Undersea Research Center at the University of North Carolina at 

Wilmington and the National Marine Fisheries Service laboratory in Beaufort. 

Developments in oil spill cleanup technology and capabilities are described by both the Coast Guard 

and the industry. A socioeconomic report describes the effects of the oil and gas activities on the 

tourist industry. Lastly, research on the restoration of salt marshes indicates that rehabilitation of an 

area is possible when development or an accident has occurred. While the emphasis of the meeting 

was on oil and gas, two reports described the results of projects related to offshore sand mining. The 

appendix lists the names and addresses of speakers. Individual chapters are cited individually when 

appropriate. 

U.S. Department of the Navy. 1985. EMPRESS II: Supplemental Draft Environmental Impact Statement 

for the Proposed Operation of the Navy Electromagnetic Pulse Radiation Environment Simulator for 

Ships (Empress II) in the Chesapeake Bay and Atlantic Ocean. United States Navy. Environmental/ 

Intergovernmental Section. Atlantic Division. Naval Facilities Engineering and Command. Norfolk, 

VA. 

*This is a National Environmental Policy Act document characterizing the proposed EMPRESS II 

project. Appendix B contains a Summary of Biological Processes in the Proposed VACAPES 

EMPRESS II area off North Carolina Relating to Planktonic Communities, Pelagic 

Macroinvertebrates, Ichthyofauna, Sea turtles, Marine Mammals, and Sea Birds. Technical reports 

supporting this summary have been written by authorities in each discipline and are included in 

Appendices. The technical reports are cited individually. The southern portion of VACAPES 

EMPRESS II Area of North Carolina overlaps with the northern portion of the defined study area for 

the Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope (The Point) Area. 

Vigil, D.L. (ed.). 1998. North Carolina/Minerals Management Service Technical Workshop on Manteo 

Unit Exploration: February 4-5, 1998. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management Service. Gulf 

of Mexico OCS Region. New Orleans, LA. 168 p. 

*These are the proceedings from a workshop/meeting (conducted on February 4-5, 1998) between the 

North Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR), and the U.S. Department 

of the Interior’s Minerals Management Service (MMS). The geographic area being discussed is 

approximately 45 miles east-northeast of Cape Hatteras, North Carolina, referred to as the Manteo 

Unit. This workshop reviewed environmental and socioeconomic information known and needed, on 

the Manteo Unit. The MMS’s Gulf of Mexico OCS Regional Director gave an MMS perspective on 

history and status of the area. Chevron gave a presentation on how the exploratory well would be 

drilled. The scientific characterization was presented in greater detail by a number of scientific 

experts who spoke on the following disciplines physical environment, habitat and living resources 

(invertebrates and fish), seabirds, marine mammals, sea turtles, and social and economic issues. 

Specific chapters are cited individually, when appropriate. 
120 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

Weston, D.P. 1988. Macrobenthos-sediment relationships on the continental shelf off Cape Hatteras, 

North Carolina. Continental Shelf Res. 8(3): 267-286. 

The complex current regime associated with Cape Hatteras, North Carolina results in an unusually 

broad range of sediment textures for open shelf areas of comparable spatial extent. The median grain 

size ranged from coarse to very fine sand, while the percentage of silt and clay ranged from O to 27%. 

Four assemblages of macrobenthic species were recognized, separable on the basis of sediment 

characteristics: (1) a muddy, very fine sand assemblage dominated by the polychaetous annelid 

Lumbrineris impatiens; (2) a fine to medium sand assemblage dominated by the archiannelid 

Polygordius sp.; (3) a well-sorted, fine sand assemblage dominated by the amphipod Protohaustorius 

cf. deichmannae; and (4) a medium to coarse sand assemblage characterized by the polychaetes 

Hemipodus roseus and Hesionura elongate. Multiple discriminant analysis and detrended 

correspondence analysis, a linear ordination technique, were used to identify which of eight sediment 

parameters were most useful in interpreting faunal patterns. Sediment sorting, as reflective of 

sediment mobility, was important in determining the dominance of fossorial species. The percentage 

of very fine sand and the combined percentage of silt and clay were found to be of greatest value in 

differentiating biotic assemblages. This conclusion is supported by similar results from previous 

estuarine studies, and is probably a result of surface area-related control of the type and quantity of 

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ker (1994)

Ross, J. (1991)Ross et al. (19

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95)
MARINE BIRD CHAPTER 
Marine Bird Chapter — 127 

MARINE BIRD CHAPTER 

Abernathy, S.A., M.T. Baer, C.S. Benner, M.S. Brody, D.K. Francois, J.K. Gilliam, L.K. Good, C.J. 

Ohara, and J.V. Martin. 1989. Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf: Description of the Mid-Atlantic 

Environment. Abernathy, S. A. (ed.). U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, 

Atlantic OCS Region, Environmental Assessment Section. Herndon, VA. 167 p. 

*This document discusses the major issues and areas of concern for the mid-Atlantic environment 

that are considered in the planning process for oil and gas leasing and operations on the Outer 

Continental Shelf (OCS). The issues are addressed with respect to the potential environmental 

consequences of mid Atlantic oil and gas exploration, development and production. A section 

discussing The Physical Environment (e.g., geology, non-petroleum minerals, physical oceanography, 

chemical oceanography and water quality, ocean dumping, meteorology, air quality), Biological 

resources (e.g., plankton, benthos, fishery resources, marine reptiles, marine mammals, marine and 

coastal birds, estuaries, wetlands, sensitive coastal habitats, canyon areas), Socioeconomic 

Environment, and other issues (e.g., archaeological resources, marine vessel traffic, National 

Aeronautics and Space Administration/ Department of Defense activities, oil and gas infrastructure, 

marine sanctuaries, and estuarine research reserves) is included. Most of the figures showing fisheries 

resource distribution are taken from fisheries data compiled for bottom-trawl and shellfish surveys of 

the National Marine Fisheries Service, Northeast Fisheries Center, Woods Hole, MA. 

Blair, N. 1998. A Scientific Overview of the Region Surrounding Lease Blocks 467 and 510. pp. 14-17. 

In: Vigil, D.L. (ed.). North Carolina/Minerals Management Service Technical Workshop on Manteo 

Unit Exploration: February 4-5, 1998. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, Gulf 

of Mexico OCS Region. New Orleans, LA. 

*These are the proceedings from a workshop/meeting (conducted on February 4-5, 1998) between the 

North Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources, and the U.S. Department of the 

Interior’s Minerals Management Service (MMS). The geographic area being discussed is 

approximately 45 miles east-northeast of Cape Hatteras, NC, referred to as the Manteo Unit. This 

workshop reviewed environmental and socioeconomic information known and needed on the Manteo 

Unit. The MMS’s Gulf of Mexico OCS Regional Director gave an MMS perspective on history and 

status of the area. Chevron gave a presentation on how the exploratory well would be drilled. The 

scientific characterization was presented in greater detail by a number of scientific experts who spoke 

on the following disciplines physical environment, habitat and living resources, seabirds, marine 

mammals, sea turtles, and social and economic issues. Specific chapters are cited individually, when 

appropriate. 

The continental margin offshore Cape Hatteras, NC has been the focus of numerous oceanographic 

studies. The objective of this report is to provide an overview of physical, biological, geological, and 

chemical processes that operate in the region so that the results from individual disciplinary studies 

can be placed in a system-wide context. This section discusses hydrocarbon potential, water column 

observations and processes, benthic observations and processes, summary and the future. 

Brinkley, E.S. 1994a. Spring Migration of Seabirds off Central North Carolina: 22 May 1992, with Notes 

on two Skua (Catharacta) Taxa. The Chat 58: 94-101. 

*The concentration of pelagic seabirds and other marine biota along frontal eddies of the western 

edge of the Gulf Stream in the northern summer is a well-documented phenomenon (Haney and 

McGillivary 1985, Haney 1986a-c) and is well-known to sports fishermen in the Southern Atlantic 
128 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

Bight. Less material has been published, however, on the concentration of migrants along this front in 

the northern spring. The timing of the spring migration varies over the three- week period extending 

from the second week in May through about the first week in June at these latitudes, with significant 

but lesser movement of terns, jaegers, scuas, shearwaters, and storm-petrels on either side of this 

period. An excursion of 22 May 1992 yielded a diversity and density of species that advances our 

assessment of spring migration off North Carolina. 

—. 1994b. Evasive Maneuvers of Black-capped Petrel (Pterodroma hasitata). The Chat 58: 18-21. 

*On 30 August 1992, H. Fenton Day III and I observed a group of 25 distant birds soaring at heights 

50-80 meters over “The Point” (35°33’ N, 74°53’ W), east-southeast of Oregon Inlet, North Carolina. 

From a distance of roughly a half-kilometer, the birds seemed to be gulls soaring together in a tight, 

ascending column. The time of initial observation was 1245 EDT; it was a hot day with moderate 

winds (5-10 knots), with good conditions for the formation of thermals over the Gulf Stream, and 

soaring gulls, if a little out of place, seemed plausible. 

Browne, M.M. 1980. External Parasites (Mallophaga and Acarina) of Wilson’s Storm Petrel, Oceanites 

oceanicus Kuhl, off the North Carolina Coast. Ph.D. Dissertation. North Carolina State University, 

Department of Entomology. 84 p. 

The ectoparasitic species (Mallophaga and Acarina) were examined from Wilson’s storm petrels 

(Oceanites oceanicus) collected off the North Carolina coast — April to September, 1976-1978. Four 

species of Mallophaga from two suborders and two families were found: Amblycera, MenoponidaeAncistrona vagelli; Ischnocera, Philopteridae-Halipeurus pelagicus, Philoceanus robertsi, and 

Saemundssonia marina. Three species in three families of feather mites (Analgoidea) were found: 

Proctophyllodidae, Brephosceles sp. Xolagidae, Ingrassia sp. and Avenzoariidae Zachvatkinia 

hydrobatidii. Birds were examined for location of ectoparasites, frequency of occurrence, age, and 

sex of adult ectoparasites. The age, sex, date of collection, and wing-molt of the petrels were recorded 

in relation to the ectoparasite load. 

Buckley, P.A. 1973. A massive spring movement, including three species new to North Carolina, at Cape 

Hatteras National Seashore. American Birds 27(1): 8-10. 

Much remains to be learned about the distribution and abundance of seabirds off the Atlantic Coast of 

North America, where — unlike the Pacific Coast — observations have been few (although 

increasing, especially off the Maritime Provinces, New England and Long Island) or practically 

lacking (New Jersey south to Florida). The area of the Outer Banks of North Carolina in particular 

(marine waters of Cape Hatteras and Cape Lookout National Seashores) has almost never been 

surveyed for pelagic, by means of offshore boat trips, particularly surprising in view of the proximity 

of the Gulf Stream to Cape Hatteras (sometimes as close as 9-10 miles). Recently, in the summer and 

fall of 1972, trips out of Hatteras Village and Morehead City, NC into and beyond the Gulf Stream 

have given an indication of the wealth and diversity of seabirds there, recording, for example, 

hundreds of Audubon’s Shearwaters (Puffinus, lherminieri), several Black-capped Petrels 

(Pterodroma hasitata) at least two Black-browed Albatrosses (Diomedea melanophris) White-tailed 

Tropicbird (Phaethon lepturus), Bridled Tern ( Sterna anaethetus), and slightly further north a Whitefaced Storm Petrel (Palagodroma marina) — in addition to the pair of the latter species seen at 

Oregon Inlet, N.C. after a hurricane in 1971. 

This paper reports a seabird movement seen, from shore at Cape Hatteras National Seashore in late 

May 1970, of a magnitude possibly never before recorded on the Atlantic Coast of North America. 

Among the commoner species were three others never before recorded from the Carolinas, and in fact 

almost unknown south of New England waters. Observations were all by the writer and F. G. 
Marine Bird Chapter — 129 

Buckley, and both observers were previously familiar with all species see, from much pelagic bird 

work, especially ocean crossings. 

Carter, J.H., III, and J.F. Parnell. 1974. Little Gulls at Cape Hatteras, N.C. The Chat 38: 40. 

*On 10 March 1973, the authors observed three Little Gulls (Larus minutus) at the tip of Cape 

Hatteras, near Buxton, NC. The birds were feeding over the ocean with a large flock of Bonaparte’s 

Gulls (Larus philadelphia). The Little Gulls appeared slightly smaller than the Bonaparte’s Gulls in 

flight. Two of the Little Gulls were immatures, and the third was an adult in winter plumage. The 

distinctive field marks of the immatures (dark crown patch, tail band, and dark wing-stripe) were 

repeatedly noted at close range by both authors. The adult was easily distinguished in flight by the 

very dark underwing. Although the weather was foggy, Parnell obtained recognizable photographs of 

an immature Little Gull. 

Clapp, R.B., D. Morgan-Jacobs, and R.C. Banks. 1982a. Marine birds of the Southeastern United States 

and Gulf of Mexico. Part II: Anseriformes. FWS/OBS-82/20. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Office 

of Biological Services. Washington, DC. 492 p. 

Information on the seasonal distribution and abundance of 41 species of waterfowl of the order 

Anseriformes that occur in the coastal southeastern United States has been compiled and mapped 

from the literature. In many instances this provides the first synthesis of knowledge about a species 

for this region. For the species we consider most important in coastal areas we also provide 

information on worldwide distribution, habitat, food, and various aspects of life history. This 

information was gathered in an attempt to assess the possible effects of offshore oil development on 

populations of marine birds in the southeast. 

The susceptibility of birds to oil depends not only on their juxtaposition in time and space, but also on 

currents and climatic factors and on the stage of the life or annual cycle and the behavior of the 

species. Contamination by oil may result in matting of the feathers with death following from 

chilling, starvation, and the ingestion of oil during preening. Among the birds covered by this report, 

the sea ducks and diving ducks are considered the most susceptible to oil pollution in the southeast. 

Most of the other ducks, geese, and swans covered in the report are relatively insusceptible to oil 

pollution because they are seldom found in areas where oiling is likely to occur. 

One of the conclusions reached by this report is that we know very little about the status and 

populations of some of the anatids that occur in the southeast. Some of these species (e.g., the scoters) 

are among those that may be expected to be most detrimentally affected by development of oil 

resources. In general, most species that are widely hunted are relatively well studied, but much is 

unknown of those that are not game birds. 

Clapp, R.B., D. Morgan-Jacobs, and R.C. Banks. 1983. Marine Birds of the Southeastern United States 

and Gulf of Mexico. Part III: Charadriiformes. FWS/OBS-83/30. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 

Division of Biological Services. Washington, DC. 853p. 

Information on the seasonal distribution and abundance of 22 species of marine birds of the order 

Charadriiformes that occur in the coastal southeastern United States has been compiled and mapped 

from the literature. In many instances this provides the first synthesis of knowledge about a species 

for this region. We also provide information on global distribution, habitat and food for all species, 

and include information on various aspects of life history for the 16 species that we consider most 

important in coastal areas. This information was gathered in an attempt to assess the possible effects 

of offshore oil development on populations of marine birds in the southeast. 
130 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

The susceptibility of birds to oil depends not only on their juxtaposition in time and space, but also on 

currents, climatic factors, the stage of the life or annual cycle, and the behavior of the species. 

Contamination by oil may result in matted feathers with death following from chilling, starvation, and 

ingestion of oil during preening. Few of the species covered in this report are at great hazard from the 

direct effects of oiling, but populations of most of these species are highly susceptible to 

environmental change. Large concentrations of wintering, breeding, and migrant gulls and terns occur 

in the southeast and in some instances make up a large proportion of the global or North American 

population. Consequently, this report includes most of the marine birds that we believe most likely to 

be detrimentally affected by the development of oil resources. 

One of the conclusions reached by this report is that we still know very little about the status and 

populations of some of the charadriiforms that occur in the southeast. Additional surveys of colonial 

marine birds in the southeast and nearby waters are badly needed to ensure that we know enough 

about then, to prevent their untimely loss from our coastal areas. 

Clapp, R. B., R.C. Banks, D. Morgan-Jacobs, and W.A. Hoffman. 1982b. Marine birds of the 

Southeastern United States and Gulf of Mexico. Part I: Gaviiformes through Pelecaniformes. 

FWS/OBS-82/01. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Office of Biological Services, Washington, D.C. 

637p. 

Information on the seasonal distribution and abundance of 39 species of marine birds of the Orders 

Gaviiformes, Podicipediformes, Procellariiformes, and Pelecaniformes that occur off the southeastern 

shores of the United States and in the Gulf of Mexico has been compiled and mapped from thousands 

of literature citations; in many instances this provides the first synthesis of knowledge about a species 

for this area. Information on worldwide distribution, habitat, food, and various aspects of life history 

is also summarized. This information was gathered to assess the possible effects of offshore oil 

development on populations of marine birds. 

Susceptibility of birds to oil depends not only on their juxtaposition in time and space, but also on 

currents, climatic factors, the stage in the life or annual cycle, and the behavior of the species. 

Contamination by oil may result in matted feathers; death may soon follow from chilling or 

starvation, or from the toxic effects of oil ingested when the birds attempt to preen themselves. Oil 

from feathers may be transferred to eggs by incubating birds and may greatly reduce reproductive 

success. 

Among the birds covered by this volume, loons and grebes are considered the most susceptible to oil 

pollution. Cormorants, pelicans, and boobies are moderately susceptible and the truly pelagic birds, 

including most of the Procellariiformes, are the least susceptible. 

Little is known about the occurrence of seabirds off our shores, but our knowledge is increasing. 

Recent ornithological studies offshore have revealed concentrations of species previously thought to 

occur rarely, if at all. More than 63% of the Manx Shearwaters ever seen off the southeastern coast 

were sighted in the last 5 years (1975-1979) and 37% were seen during the last 2 years (1978-1979) 

covered by this report. Comparable figures for Wilson’s Storm-petrel are 40% and 26%. Nonetheless, 

observations are limited. Future trips to locate or count birds should be scheduled when birds are 

expected to be present at periods when little previous information was obtained. 

Additional research should be conducted on the distribution and status of birds that use the marine 

environment. More attention should be directed toward investigating the status and distribution of 

pelagic birds, toward learning the abundance and distribution of marine birds that nest in the 

southeastern states, and toward discovering the distribution and status of birds that are transients or 

winter visitors in the southeast. Research is also needed to determine the numbers and proportion of 
Marine Bird Chapter — 131 

each species that are being oiled in the southeast so that the effects of oil pollution can be assessed 

more adequately. 

Crawford, K. (ed.). 1989. Proceedings: 1989 Marine Expo: The Natural Resources Associated with 

Mobil’s Proposed Drill Site. NC Outer Continental Shelf Office, NC Department of Administration. 

Raleigh, NC. 64 p. 

*This report contains abstracts from each presenter. Chapter topics include: Mobil’s Proposal, 

Geologic Overview — Introduction and Potential for Oil and Gas Discovery, Oceanographic 

Conditions, Comments on Last MMS Modeling, Biological Production Near the Bottom 

(invertebrates), Fisheries Resources, Commercial and Recreational Marine Fisheries, Winter Storm 

Effects on Spawning and Larval Drift of Pelagic Fish, Marine Birds, Sea Turtles in North Carolina, 

Marine Mammals, Plenary Session, Summary. Each chapter also cited individually when appropriate. 

Dittmann, D.L., R.M. Zink, and J.A. Gerwin. 1989. Evolutionary Genetics of Phalaropes. Auk 106: 326-

331. 

*The three species of phalaropes- Wilson’s (Phalaropus tricolor), Red-necked (P. lobatus), and Red 

(P. fulicaria) have long been considered a natural group (Cramp, 1983), often equated with a 

monophyly; and they have been classified at the familial, subfamilial, or tribal rank. An early 

diagnosis (Ridgeway 1991) of the group read “Toes with a conspicuous lateral membrane, sometimes 

developed into broad scalloped lobes; tarsus excessively compressed, plumage of underparts very 

dense, gull-like.” Several other characteristics, such as the distinctive whirling foraging behavior 

(Hayman et al. 1986), pronounced reverse sexual dimorphism in plumage coloration, and the lobed 

toes (and basal webbing) are characteristics often cited as support for naturalness (monophyly) of the 

group (Cramp 1983). It is unclear which of these traits qualify as synapomorphies (i.e. uniquely 

derived for phalaropes). For example, although each species possesses webbing on the toes, each has 

a distinctive pattern (illustrated in Coues [1972]). The distinctive whirling foraging behavior also 

differs in detail among species (Cramp 1983). Strauch (1978) analyzed 70 skeletal characteristics and 

found only one synapomorphy, namely a particular condition of the bill, which is apparently identical 

in each species of phalarope. Thus, the monophyly of the phalaropes, although widely assumed, is not 

based on many traits that are shared by all species. The question of phalarope monophyly aside, based 

on plumage pattern, behavioral and vocal similarities, distribution, and habitat, most authors consider 

the Red and red-necked phalaropes to be sister taxa and the Wilson’s most primitive (Cramp 1983, 

Jehl 1968). For example, although each phalarope species was once placed in a monotypic genus 

(e.g., Ridgeway1919, Hellmayr and Conover 1948), the Wilson’s Phalarope was retained in a 

monotyptic genus long after the other two were made congeneric. 

Haney, C., D.S. Lee, K.M. Fristrup, and M. Socci. 1991. Seabird attraction to ephemeral food sources: 

geometry of recruitment distance in experimentally-induced foraging flocks (abstract). Pacific 

Seabird Group Meeting. Victoria, BC. 

*This citation includes research conducted within the defined study area for The Point (D. Lee, pers. 

comm. 24 February 2000). Mr. Lee did not have a copy of this document and we could not otherwise 

find the document. 

Haney, C., D.S. Lee, and M. Socci. 1993. Air-sea heat flux, ocean wind fields, and offshore dispersal by 

gulls during winter (abstract). Pacific Seabird Group Annual Meeting. Seattle, WA.

*This citation includes research conducted within the defined study area for The Point (D. Lee, pers. 

comm. 24 February 2000). Mr. Lee did not have a copy of this document and we could not otherwise 

find the document. 
132 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

Haney, J.C., and D.S. Lee. 1994. Air-sea Heat flux, Ocean Wind Fields, and Offshore Dispersal of Gulls. 

The Auk 111(2): 427-440. 

Gull numbers in pelagic habitats off the southeastern United States were weakly associated with 

seasonal variability in mean wind speeds, but strongly associated with accumulated air-sea heat flux 

(a surrogate for temperature inversions; i.e. pre-thermal condition) and wind-speed variance (an 

energy source for flight, as well as a thermal inducement). Single meteorological variables accounted 

for as much as 59 to 93% of seasonal changes in gull abundance. Gulls (including nonbreeders) 

delayed dispersal to oceanic waters until onset of winter meteorological conditions, several months 

after cessation of breeding. Our findings support Woodcock’s convective-soaring hypothesis, which 

ascribed gull dispersal in winter to boundary layering along eastern continental margins. We extend 

this model by linking gull morphology and flight to energy-efficient reliance on air-sea interactions 

and spatial patterns in seasonal wind fields. Summer meteorological conditions in much of the 

western North Atlantic Ocean facilitate coastal foraging by gulls, but act to preclude efficient 

foraging to and in offshore habitats. The presence or absence of coherence (meteorological 

consistency) in the aerial environment may have acted to select and maintain divergent life history 

strategies in gulls and certain other inshore feeders. 

Haney, J.C., D.S. Lee, and R.D. Morris. 1999. Bridled Tern (Sterna anaethetus). The Birds of North 

America 468: 1-24. 

*A discussion of distinguishing characteristics, distribution, systematics, migration, habitat, food 

habits, behavior, breeding and migratory distribution for the Bridled Tern (Sterna anaethetus) 

including the defined study area for The Point. 

Hass, T. 1997. Distributions of pelagic seabirds in relation to dynamic features of the Gulf Stream. Ph.D. 

Dissertation. University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill. 181p. 

While the boundaries that delimit terrestrial habitats are often clear, distinctions between habitats of 

the open ocean are usually subtle, and few examples of habitat selection by pelagic seabirds have 

been documented. Several long-term studies have demonstrated that pelagic seabirds associate with 

particular water masses, but none has examined whether the distributions of seabirds consistently 

shift in synchrony with real-time changes in the positions of oceanographic features. Furthermore, in 

most studies the processes that underlie the associations between seabirds and water masses have 

been unclear. 

I studied seabirds off the coast of North Carolina during May-September of 1992-1995. Black-capped 

Petrels (Pterodroma hasitata) and Band-rumped Storm-Petrels (Oceanodroma castro) were most 

abundant in interior waters of the Gulf Stream and appeared to track these waters as the Gulf Stream 

shifted toward and away from the coast. In multivariate analyses both species showed significant 

associations with variables indicating interior waters of the Gulf Stream. In addition, Black-capped 

Petrels were almost twice as abundant on days in which the Gulf Stream moved offshore as on days 

in which its position remained stable or moved onshore. 

Offshore movements of the Gulf Stream occurs when troughs of Gulf Stream meanders (100-km 

concave bends in the current) pass through a region. Near Cape Hatteras, where the continental slope 

is exceptionally steep, this process induces upwelling of deep water along the edge of the Gulf 

Stream, thereby concentrating prey for seabirds near the surface. Elevations in the abundance of 

Black-capped Petrels thus coincided with indications of upwelling. By focusing on movements of an 

oceanographic boundary current, this investigation has revealed an important pattern in the 

distribution of seabirds. 
Marine Bird Chapter — 133 

—. (in press). An additional record of Bulwer’s Petrel, Bulweria bulwerii, of the southeastern United 

States of America. Marine Ornithology. 

*This citation includes research conducted within the defined study area for The Point (D. Lee, pers. 

comm. 24 February 2000). Mr. Lee did not have a copy of this document and we could not otherwise 

find the document. 

Helmuth, W.T. 1920. Extracts from notes made while in the Naval Service. The Auk 37(2): 255-261. 

*In the fall of 1917 the ship on which I served as seaman was assigned to inspection duty on the 

Atlantic and Gulf coasts of the United States, under Rear-admiral C. McR. Winslow’s flag. We left 

the navy yard at Brooklyn on October 20,1917, and proceeded up the New England coast as far as 

Machiasport, Maine, which we reached on November first. We then journeyed south, close inshore, 

up the Delaware River to Philadelphia, thence to Norfolk, Va., arriving on Thanksgiving day. We left 

Norfolk on February 23, 1918, proceeding south to Key West, Fla. From here we went directly to 

Pensacola, Fla.; from Pensacola to New Orleans, up the south pass of the Mississippi; from New 

Orleans to Galveston, Texas; thence to Port Arthur, Texas, and across the Gulf of Mexico to Tampa, 

Fla., arriving on April 1, 1918. From Tampa our course took us again to Key West, up the east coast 

of Florida to Jacksonville, and thence north to Charleston, S.C., stopping at Brunswick and Savannah, 

Ga. 

During this time I had excellent opportunities to study the birds met with offshore, and a few chances 

to watch land birds on our all too infrequent “liberties” in various places. Some of these notes may be 

of interest to readers of ‘The Auk,’ and I append them herewith. 

Jones, H.L. 1967. Status of the Razorbill in the Carolinas. The Chat 31: 55-57. 

*On the morning of 16 February 1964, Julian Meadows and I found a dead Razorbill (Alca torda) 

near the north end of Wrightsville Beach, North Carolina. The bird was slightly oiled on the head, but 

otherwise was in excellent condition. The specimen was prepared by James Parnell and placed in the 

bird collection at North Carolina State University. 

The remainder of this note describes the status of this species in the Carolinas. 

Lee, D.S. 1977. Occurrence of the Black-capped Petrel in North Carolina Waters. The Chat 41: 1-2. 

*The Black-capped Petrel (Pterodroma hasitata) is the only species of gadfly petrel known to occur 

in the northwestern Atlantic with any regularity. Robbins et al. (1966) describe it as a casual summer 

visitor to eastern North America during storms. The AQU Checklist (1975) lists it as rare and 

occurring north of Florida only accidentally. Therefore, it is interesting to report that this species 

appears to be a regular, though uncommon, offshore summer and early fall resident of North 

Carolina. 

The remainder of this note describes the status of this species offshore North Carolina. 

—. 1979. Second Record of the South Trinidad Petrel (Pterodroma arminjoniana) for North America. 

American Birds 33: 138-139. 

*On August 20, 1978 a field party from the North Carolina State Museum of Natural History 

collected a single dark phase South Trinidad Petrel (Pterodroma arminjoniana) 74 km ESE of 

Oregon Inlet, Dare County, NC. The only previous North American record is of a hurricane-driven 

specimen taken near Ithaca, New York, although there is another reported occurrence in the Northern 

Hemisphere an individual struck the rigging of a yacht December 31, 1905, in the mid-Atlantic, at 

21°51’N, 43°35’ W). 
134 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

The remainder of this note describes the status of this species offshore North Carolina. 

—. 1984. Petrels and storm-petrels in North Carolina’s offshore waters: including species previously 

unrecorded for North America. American Birds 38(2): 151-163. 

Although there may have been various reported instances of the occurrence of Band-rumped StormPetrels (synonymous with Harcourt’s and Madeiran Storm-Petrel) in the United States, particularly in 

the Southeast, all are associated with storms and the species has been assumed to be an accidental. 

Peterson (1980) lists it as accidental in Florida, North Carolina, Montana, Indiana, Delaware, 

Pennsylvania and the District of Columbia, Ontario, and Quebec. It is also known from South 

Carolina (Shuler 1973), Tennessee (USNM 526349), and Texas (Oberholser 1974); there are single 

records for Brazil and Cuba. The northern and inland records certainly result from storm-blown 

casualties, In fact, Murphy (1936) cites several of the above-mentioned records as classic examples of 

long-range transport of birds trapped in eyes of hurricanes. The species is recognized as being highly 

pelagic, staying well out at sea, generally rather solitary, and an inhabitant of tropical and subtropical 

seas, The eleven coastal records for the Southeast are summarized by Clapp et al. (1982), and all 

appear to be storm-related. In order to present these records in perspective, a review of all the species 

of petrels found off the North Carolina coast is also provided. 

—. 1985c. Results of a Ten-year Study of Marine Birds South of the Virginia Cape Region: Their 

Potential Impact with EMPRESS II. Appendix H. In: U.S. Department of the Navy. EMPRESS II: 

Supplemental Draft Environmental Impact Statement for the Proposed Operation of the Navy 

Electromagnetic Pulse Radiation Environment Simulator for Ships (Empress II) in the Chesapeake 

Bay and Atlantic Ocean. United States Navy. Environmental/ Intergovernmental Section. Atlantic 

Division. Naval Facilities Engineering and Command. Norfolk, VA. 

*This report describes a 10-year survey of marine birds of North Carolina’s offshore waters. The 

southern portion of the VACAPES EMPRESS II Area of North Carolina overlaps with the northern 

portion of the defined study area for the Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope (The 

Point) Area. 

—. 1986a. Seasonal distribution of marine birds in North Carolina waters, 1975-1986. American Birds 40 

(3): 409-412. 

*In 1979, Lee and Booth (American Birds 33: 715-721) summarized information on the seasonal 

occurrence of pelagic birds off the North Carolina coast. Since that time a fair amount of additional 

information has become available, outdating that study. Major changes include the documentation of 

additional bird species, the extension of known seasonal occurrences for many, if not most species, 

changes in our knowledge about the relative abundance or recognized status of several species, and 

nomenclature. 

The remainder of this note describes the status of pelagic bird species offshore North Carolina. 

—. 1986c. Second Record of the Cape Petrel in the Western North Atlantic. The Chat 50: 118-119. 

*On 26 July 1985 Captain Allen Foreman and his mate John Gallup saw a bird they identified as a 

Cape Petrel (Daption capense). It was flying 42 miles ENE of Oregon Inlet, Dare County, NC, and 

was over water 200 fathoms in depth. The bird was watched for a minute or more while near a Black 

Tern (Chilodonias niger). The captain and mate each independently described the size, plumage, and 

behavior of the bird to me in late July of 1985 and again in June of 1986. Although neither was aware 

of the significance of the record, on both occasions they were able to recognize the species from 

illustrations in standard field and seabird guides. Because of the distinctive plumage of the species in 

question and their familiarity with local marine birds (Captain Foreman has been accompanying me 
Marine Bird Chapter — 135 

during my seabird studies for the past 9 years), I have confidence in the authenticity of this record. 

For example, Foreman and his mate Dick Harris provided sight descriptions of Masked Boobies (Sula 

dactylatra) from off the North Carolina coast (Lee and Platania 1979) several years prior to the 

“official” recognition of their occurrence presented by bird watchers (Davis and Needham 1983). 

Likewise, they alerted me to the presence of two types of tropicbirds off the North Carolina coast 

prior to confirmation that Red-billed Tropicbirds (Phaethon aethereus) were in the North Atlantic off 

the Carolina coast. While there is always some question of the validity of records not documented by 

specimens or photographs, in this particular case, the fact that this sight record is not corroborated by 

someone with formal background in bird study has little, if any, bearing on judging the validity of the 

identification. 

The remainder of this note describes the sight records of Cape Petrel (Daption capense) offshore 

North America and worldwide. 

—. 1987a. Common Loons wintering in Offshore Waters. The Chat 51(2): 40-42. 

*Between 1975 and 1986 I have had the opportunity to observe Common Loons (Gavia immer) far at 

sea off the North Carolina coast. Many of my records are of spring migrants (N=98), but some 

additional individuals (N=35) found during the winter months were assumed to be winter residents. 

Although individuals were encountered regularly, at no time did the species appear to be common far 

offshore, except perhaps during spring migration. No Red-throated Loons (G. stellata) were seen 

offshore at any season during the 11-year study period. My sightings were made mostly at distances 

between 20 and 35 miles (32-56 km) from shore and in waters of 20 to 500 fathoms in depth. Regular 

occurrence far at sea was not expected. Cramp and Simmons (1977), for example, state that Common 

Loons remain within a few kilometers of shore throughout most of their winter range. Clapp et al. 

(1982) noted: “Common Loons in winter are normally marine but remain within a few kilometers of 

shore. They regularly use enclosed harbors and inlets. Bent (1919) referred to groups of wintering 

loons sometimes far out at sea; but this does not seem to agree with most recent observations.” Most 

researchers studying offshore faunas in the southeastern United States to date have not discussed 

loons. Rowlett (1980), however, does indicate 0.1 to 1.0 Common Loons per hour in deep waters (40-

500 fathoms) of the Northern Chesapeake Bight in February, April, and May. Studies on wintering 

Common Loons are few (e.g. McIntyre 1978) and were conducted in sounds along beach fronts. 

The remainder of this note describes the status of this species offshore North Carolina. 

—. 1987b. December records of seabirds off North Carolina. Wilson Bulletin 99(l): 116-121. 

*Little published information is available concerning offshore winter seabird fauna of the 

southeastern United States. The only overview of the local seasonal variation in seabirds is that by 

Lee and Booth (1979). Their summaries were based mostly on North Carolina field studies done from 

late spring through early fall, and provide little new information on the winter distribution of marine 

birds. Clapp et al. (1982, 1983) compiled records of all marine birds for the southeastern States, but 

offshore information was generally unavailable for the winter. During the last few winters I 

conducted 11 offshore survey trips into shelf and shelf-edge waters off North Carolina during 

December. All trips departed from Oregon Inlet, North Carolina (29 December 1977; 5 and 30 

December 1978; 3 and 28 December 1982; 12, 20, 28, and 29 December 1984; 5 and 22 December 

1985). Survey routes typically extended 35 to 55 miles offshore, transecting inshore, shelf, shelfedge, and Gulf Stream waters. 

—. 1988a. Biases in age and sex ratios of seabirds off the North Carolina Coast. Progr. Meeting Colonial 

Waterbird Soci. and Pacific Seabird Gr. p. 28. 
136 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

*This citation includes research conducted within the defined study area for The Point (D. Lee, pers. 

comm. 24 February 2000). Mr. Lee did not have a copy of this document and we could not otherwise 

find the document. 

—. 1988b. First record of Wilson’s Storm-Petrels on a Christmas Bird Count. American Birds 41(4): 

1331-1333. 

*On December 20, 1986, The Continental Shelf North Carolina Count Participants recorded a 

minimum of 351 Wilson’s Storm Petrels. The Wilson’s Storm-Petrels. The Wilson’s Storm-Petrel 

(Oceanites oceanicus) is such an abundant species in the North Atlantic Ocean during the warmer 

months, the significance of its occurrence in late December can easily be overlooked. Furthermore, 

the number of birds encountered is striking when one considers that nearly all new Christmas Bird 

Count records are of single vagrant birds. 

The remainder of this note describes the status of this species offshore North Carolina. 

—. 1988c. The Little Shearwater (Puffinus assimilis) in the western North Atlantic. American Birds 

42(2): 213-216. 

*A summary of the reported occurrence for the past century and an examination of at-sea 

identification of the cryptic black-and-white shearwaters found in North Atlantic waters. 

—. 1989a. Marine Birds. Proceedings: 1989 Marine Expo: The Natural Resources Associated with 

Mobil’s Proposed Drill Site. pp. 47-48. In: Crawford, K. (ed.). NC Outer Continental Shelf Office, 

NC Department of Administration. Raleigh, NC. 

Although the current information on the biology, distribution, and season of occurrence of seabirds, 

marine mammals, and marine turtles in North Carolina is still incomplete, it is better than what is 

available for most other areas of the world. The 14-year extensive study conducted by the N.C. State 

Museum is perhaps the longest and most intensive ocean study conducted of seabirds and marine 

mammals conducted anywhere. North Carolina has the largest documented marine bird and marine 

mammal fauna of any geographic unit in the North Atlantic. It is primarily the location of the state in 

relation to tropical and subtropical areas, migration routes, and oceanic currents that accounts for the 

diversity of species. 

Many of the species normally observed represent small populations that could be threatened by local 

oil spills and the follow-up use of dispersants. Large portions of the total populations of many of 

these species assemble regularly or seasonally in deep waters off the Outer Banks of North Carolina. 

At least eleven species could be heavily damaged by oil spills in North Carolina’s offshore waters. 

Moreover, although many of the organisms, particularly birds, have not been regarded as endangered 

by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, present data suggest possible oversights. Most birds have 

relatively protracted periods of occurrence off the state’s shores. There are several factors that 

account for this, the more obvious of which include: (1) local oceanic currents and upwellings that 

provide important foraging areas for both low and high latitude species, (2) extended migratory 

periods for particular species because of the staggered schedules of various age groups, and (3) a 

typically long adolescence in some species during which sub-adults may linger in local waters for 

extended periods before returning to nesting areas. 

—. 1989b. Jaegers and skuas in the Western North Atlantic: some historical misconceptions. American 

Birds 43(1): 18-20. 
Marine Bird Chapter — 137 

*For many decades long-tailed Jaegers (Stercorarius longicaudus) were considered very rare spring 

and fall transients over the western North Atlantic. This paper discusses sightings and distribution 

offshore North Carolina, USA. 

—. 1991a. Offshore Research of NC State Museum in Area of the Point. pp. 2-3. In: Shepard, A. (ed.). 

NURC — UNCW 1991 Undersea Research: Informational Meeting. National Undersea Research 

Center, University of North Carolina at Wilmington. Wilmington, NC. 

Although the current information on the biology, distribution, and season of occurrence of seabirds, 

marine mammals, and marine turtles in North Carolina is still incomplete, it is better than what is 

available for most other areas of the world. A 15- year extensive study conducted by the NC State 

Museum (NCSM) is perhaps the longest and most intensive ocean study of seabirds and marine 

mammals conducted anywhere. The Hatteras area has long been regarded as a biological “MasonDixon Line” between boreal and tropical maritime elements. North Carolina is at a latitude usually 

associated with temperate seas; however, boreal, temperate, and tropical species are transported, or 

follow prey items transported by converging oceanic currents to the outer continental shelf area at 

Hatteras. This, in part, explains the diversity. North Carolina has the largest documented marine bird 

(over 50 species) and marine mammal (28 species) fauna of any geographic unit in the North Atlantic. 

Much of what has been added to fauna of the state is the result of studies in the area known as “The 

Point.” It is primarily the location of the state in general, and “The Point” in particular, in relation to 

tropical and subtropical areas, migration routes and oceanic currents that account for the diversity of 

species. The relatively rich diversity is offset by comparatively low densities, but many of the species 

found here are tropical ones with small populations, so densities are naturally low. For a tropical — 

subtropical environment the densities are really quite high. The Sargassum community is also 

discussed. 

—. 1991b. Pelagic seabirds off the North Carolina coast: An overview of 16 years of surveys. pp. 77-86. 

In: Proceedings of Fourth Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf Region Informational Transfer Meetings. 

MMS/OCS Study 92-0001. 

*This citation includes research conducted within the defined study area for The Point (D. Lee, pers. 

comm. 24 February 2000). Mr. Lee did not have a copy of this document and we could not otherwise 

find the document. 

—. 1992a. Manx Shearwaters off the Southeastern U.S. Coast. Wilson Ornithological Society Meeting

1992. p. 14. 

*This citation includes research conducted within the defined study area for The Point (D. Lee, pers. 

comm. 24 February 2000). Mr. Lee did not have a copy of this document and we could not otherwise 

find the document. 

—. 1992b. Pelagic Seabirds off the North Carolina Coast: An Overview of 16 Years of Surveys. pp. 78-

86. In: Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service. Proceedings of the Fourth Atlantic 

OCS Region Information Transfer Meeting, September 1991. U.S. Department of the Interior, 

Minerals Management Service. Herndon, VA. 

The Fourth Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) Regional Information Transfer Meeting (ITM) 

was held on 24-25 September, 1991, in Wilmington, NC. The focus of the meeting was on the OCS 

off North Carolina, specifically on activities related to a proposed exploratory well for oil and gas by 

Mobil on Block 467 a site 40 miles off the coast of North Carolina. The area of industry interest is 

known as the Manteo Prospect, while the activities surrounding the proposed drilling are referred to 

collectively as the Manteo Project. It is also near a fishing ground known locally as “The Point.” The 
138 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

area is believed to be gas prone rather than oil prone. The estimated size of the resource could be as 

high as 5 trillion cubic feet of gas. 

The purpose of the meeting was to exchange information on the leasing background, legislative 

activities, scientific results, and socioeconomic studies. Legislative-related reports include 

descriptions of the Oil Pollution Act of 1990, the Outer Banks Protection Act, the Environmental 

Studies Review Panel, and the North Carolina Physical Oceanography Panel. Reports of studies on 

marine life include benthic diatoms, benthic fauna, pelagic seabirds, sea turtles, and right whales. One 

report describes the use of airships (blimps) for ocean research a capability relevant to North Carolina 

because of the east coast airship facility is located in the state. Local marine science facilities 

described include NOAA’s National Undersea Research Center at the University of North Carolina at 

Wilmington (NURC/UNCW) and the National Marine Fisheries Service laboratory in Beaufort. 

Developments in oil spill cleanup technology and capabilities are described by both the Coast Guard 

and the industry. A socioeconomic report describes the effects of the oil and gas activities on the 

tourist industry. Lastly, research on the restoration of salt marshes indicates that rehabilitation of an 

area is possible when development or an accident has occurred. While the emphasis of the meeting 

was on oil and gas, two reports described the results of projects related to offshore sand mining. The 

appendix lists the names and addresses of speakers. Individual chapters are cited individually when 

appropriate. 

*This section provides a brief overview of pelagic seabirds off the North Carolina coast with an 

overview of 16 years of surveys. Figure 14, An Example of Seabird Sightings Compiled by the North 

Carolina State Museum, is on page 78. The role of sargassum patches as bird habitat is described. 

—. 1995a. Marine Birds off the Coast of North Carolina. The Chat 59(4): 113-188. 

Records of 71 species of sea birds occurring along and off the North Carolina coast are summarized 

from published literature sources and from fifteen years (1975-1989) of offshore observations. At 

least 15 species of birds not previously established as occurring off North Carolina were documented 

with specimens or photographs during this study, and an additional 7 have been reported based on 

sightings. 

The relatively rich foraging grounds off the Outer Banks of North Carolina account for such a 

diversity of species of marine birds that assigning the status of accidental or vagrant to even the rarer 

species might not be appropriate. The local marine micro-environments, are highly variable and 

account for the area’s ability to provide a large species diversity. Seabirds are often simultaneously 

represented by temperate, boreal, and subtropical species all within a small geographical area. During 

the spring and fall, migrant species also contribute to the diversity. Although the Hatteras offshore 

area does not have the predictable large biomass of the Grand Banks during the summer months, it 

has the largest documented species diversity of pelagic seabirds (Lee 1986) and marine mammals (see 

Lee et al. 1982) in the western North Atlantic. 

The distribution of seabirds in North Carolina’s offshore waters is neither even nor random. Clear 

preferences for certain zones and seasons exist and are discussed in the individual species accounts. 

—. 1995b. The Pelagic Ecology of Manx Shearwaters Puffinus puffinus off the Southeastern United 

States of America. Marine Ornithology 23: 107-119. 

Knowledge of the biology of Manx Shearwaters Puffinus puffinus is largely based on data obtained in 

and around breeding colonies. In this paper I provide information on various aspects of the marine 

ecology of this shearwater. The information presented here on age and sex ratios, masses, moult 

sequence and food habits is the first recorded away from the species’ breeding grounds. Whereas not 
Marine Bird Chapter — 139 

common, Manx Shearwaters occur regularly in pelagic zones off the southeastern United States of 

America and the number of birds appears to be increasing. As expected, most occurrences are from 

migration periods and 38% of the total records and reports (n=121) are from the northern spring 

(March-May). The timing of migration is masked by the presence of birds throughout the northern 

winter and a small number of summer records. The local occurrence of moulting adults and 

immatures indicates that at least some segment of the population does not undergo transequatorial 

migration. Based on banding records and other information it appears that summer birds are largely, 

and perhaps exclusively, immatures that need not return to their nesting areas in northern latitudes. 

—. 1999a. A closer look: Manx Shearwater. Birding 31(6): 522-531. 

*This citation includes research conducted within the defined study area for The Point (D. Lee, pers. 

comm. 24 February 2000). Mr. Lee did not have a copy of this document and we could not otherwise 

find the document. 

—. 1999b. Pelagic Seabirds and the Proposed Exploration for Fossil Fuels off North Carolina: A Test for 

Conservation Efforts of a Vulnerable International Resource. The Journal of the Elisha Mitchell 

Scientific Society 115(4): 294-315. 

Exploratory drilling is an issue of importance to international conservation because of the regular 

occurrence of a number of species of rare and globally endangered seabirds occurring in the 

immediate vicinity of a proposed oil/gas drill site on the Outer Continental Shelf of North Carolina. 

Species of primary concern include: Black-capped Petrel (Pterodroma hasitata), Bermuda Petrel (P. 

cahow), Herald Petrel (P. arminjoniana), Fea’s Petrel (P. feae), and Roseate Tem (Sterna dougallii). 

The area also supports a high diversity of seabirds (49 species) and has been nominated as a globally 

Important Bird Area. Various factors attract birds to the site making them vulnerable to potential 

man-made catastrophic events. Lighting associated with the drilling operation is expected to have a 

major negative impact on several rare species. A secondary concern of disrupting the local marine 

system and the further depletion of existing stocks of rare seabirds is economic. A growing 

recreational seabird watching industry has developed on North Carolina’s Outer Banks. Educational 

aspects alone of this industry are an important resource for the understanding of international 

conservation ethics. Offshore gas/oil exploration potentially jeopardizes both the fauna and the 

existing educational/ecotourism dependent on the Outer Continental Shelf. Despite these concerns, 

current conservation strategies and existing regulations do not appear to address the situation, and an 

internationally important faunal assemblage is in danger. 

—. 2000. Color morph bias and conservation concerns for a tropical Pterodroma. Chat 64(1): 15-20. 

*This citation includes research conducted within the defined study area for The Point (D. Lee, pers. 

comm. 24 February 2000). Mr. Lee did not have a copy of this document when requested. The 

document was not available from University of North Carolina — Wilmington library or via their 

interlibrary services (J. Ott, pers. comm. 7 March 2000). 

Lee, D.S., D.B. Wingate, and H.W. Kale. 1981. Records of Tropicbirds in the North Atlantic and upper 

Gulf of Mexico, with comments on field identification. American Birds 35(6): 887-890. 

*Despite its seemingly accidental occurrence, recent records of the Red-billed Tropicbird, Phaethon 

aethereus, in the North Atlantic suggest that it may occur more frequently than is generally believed. 

On October 9,1975, an individual was found sick on a beach near Jacksonville, Florida. On May 16, 

1979, Lee collected two specimens ca. 40 miles east of Oregon Inlet, Dare County, North Carolina, 

and on September 1, 1979, a sick Red-billed Tropicbird was found beached near Stuart, Martin 

County, Florida. These birds represent the third through sixth documented records of the species for 
140 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

eastern North America. Additionally a photo record at the North Carolina State Museum of Natural 

History is available for May 1981. 

Lee, D. S., and E.W. Irvin. 1983. Tropicbirds in the Carolinas: Status and Period of Occurrence of Two 

Tropical Pelagic Species. The Chat 47(1): 1-13. 

*The recent documentation of a second species of tropicbird in the northwest Atlantic Ocean makes it 

desirable to summarize and evaluate the current knowledge of the status and the season of occurrence 

for the two tropicbirds in the offshore waters of the Carolinas. The records presented here provide a 

needed base against which future records can be tallied. They come from a widely diverse body of 

published sight reports, unpublished records maintained at the North Carolina State Museum, and 

personal field experience. Few specimens, photographic records, or literature reports provide enough 

details to separate the two species of Atlantic tropicbirds. This is understandable because prior to 

1964 there was little reason to suspect that any tropicbird seen off the coast of North America was 

anything other than a White-tailed (Phaethon lepturus). The reported occurrence of the Red-billed 

Tropicbird (P. aethereus) off the southeastern coast makes the specific identification of previous sight 

reports suspect. It is our purpose to alert readers to this problem as well as to evaluate the status of 

these two species based on the fragmentary information presently available. 

Lee, D.S., and J. Booth Jr. 1979. Seasonal distribution of offshore and pelagic birds in North Carolina 

waters. American Birds 33(5): 715-721. 

Until recently the geographical and seasonal distribution of offshore and pelagic birds has constituted 

one of the weakest areas in our knowledge of North American avifauna. While the distribution of 

seabirds on the West Coast is now relatively well known (eg. Sanger 1970, Ainley 1977), along the 

eastern seaboard only the North Atlantic region has been surveyed (Wynne- Edwards 1951, Murphy 

1967, Finch et al. 1978), although Richard Rowlett is currently surveying Maryland’s offshore waters. 

There is little need to elaborate on the problems of observing, identifying, photographing, or 

collecting birds at sea. Much of the published information available on seabirds of the central Atlantic 

states is based on storm casualties, which do not necessarily reflect normal patterns of distribution, 

and on widely scattered reports from oceanic trips. Special mention of Paul DuMont’s and Robert 

Ake’s offshore excursions should be made since observations from their trips have not only allowed a 

large number of bird students the opportunity to see unusual pelagic species, but also have 

contributed significantly to our knowledge of seasonal occurrence. Compiling of these reports, 

literature records, museum specimens and data obtained from our observations provides a fairly 

complete summary of the fragmentary knowledge of these birds in local offshore waters. 

Lee, D.S., and J.C. Haney. 1984. The Genus Sula in the Carolinas: An Overview of the Phenology and 

Distribution of Gannets and Boobies in the South Atlantic Bight. The Chat 48(2): 29-45. 

*Five of the eight recognized species of the genus Sula are known from the southeastern United 

States. Of these only the Northern Gannet (Sula bassana) occurs regularly in the Carolinas, but both 

the Masked Booby (S. dactylatra), formerly Blue-faced, and the Brown Booby (S. leucogaster) have 

been reported from North and South Carolina. Of the two remaining species, the Red-footed Booby 

(S. sula) is generally restricted to the Caribbean and disperses northward into the Florida Keys and 

Gulf of Mexico, whereas the Blue-footed Booby (S. nebouxii) is an eastern Pacific species with one 

accidental and astonishing record from south Padre Island, Texas (5 October 1976, photograph Amer. 

Birds 31: 349-351). 

—. 1996. Manx Shearwater (Puffinus puffinus). The Birds of North America 257: 1-28. 
Marine Bird Chapter — 141 

*A discussion of distinguishing characteristics, distribution, systematics, migration, habitat, food 

habits, behavior, breeding and migratory distribution for the Manx Shearwater (Puffinus puffinus) 

including the defined study area for The Point. 

Lee, D.S., and K.O. Horner. 1989. Movements of Land-based Birds off the Carolina Coast. Brimleyana 

15: 111-121. 

Although the occurrence of land-based birds at sea during migration periods is well known, relatively 

little information is available on the species composition of the flocks detected by radar. This paper 

lists 96 species documented from the offshore waters of North and South Carolina, offer evidence for 

offshore movements by groups of birds other than nocturnal migrants, and suggest temporal changes 

in flock composition. 

Lee, D. S., and M.C. Socci . 1989. Potential Effects of Oil Spills on Seabirds and Selected Other Oceanic 

Vertebrates Off the North Carolina Coast. North Carolina Biological Survey and the North Carolina 

State Museum of Natural Sciences. Occasional Papers of the NC Biological Survey. 1989-1. Raleigh, 

NC. 64p. 

*The primary purpose of this report is to delineate the possible detrimental effects of an offshore oil 

spill’ on the marine fauna of North Carolina. Understandably, there is much concern about oil 

reaching North Carolina’s beaches and coastal fauna. Unfortunately, the effects of oil on the offshore 

ecosystem may be even more devastating and less obvious. Many of the offshore fauna, particularly 

birds, either exist at low populations or have such low reproductive output that population recovery in 

the event of a kill would be difficult. As will be pointed out, large portions of the total populations of 

many of these species assemble regularly or seasonally in deep waters off the Outer Banks of North 

Carolina. Therefore, these species would be particularly vulnerable to oil pollution, and adequate 

strategies must be developed to protect them if a spill should occur. 

Since 1975, the North Carolina State Museum (NCSM) has been studying the marine birds, 

mammals, and, to a lesser extent, turtles off the coast of North Carolina (Lee 1984, 1986; Lee and 

Palmer 1981). By chance, the principal study site has been in the general oil-lease area and centered 

near “The Point,” a well-known deep-sea area for sport and commercial fishing southeast of Oregon 

Inlet. Much of what is presented in this report has been compiled from unpublished information 

collected during the studies and is on file in the North Carolina State Museum. (Figure 1 illustrates 

the current oil-lease sites, and Figures 2 through 13 show various monthly observation points 

recorded during the 14 years of study. Collectively, these figures illustrate the general area of the 

surveys. Table I provides the total number of field days per month devoted to offshore surveys.) 

Any group interested in oil exploration or oil drilling off the North Carolina coast must consider the 

state’s unique position in the Atlantic ecosystem. North Carolina has the largest documented marine 

bird and mammal fauna of any geographic unit in the North Atlantic. In part, the documented 

diversity is a result of intensive field research. Studies by the NCSM staff have provided some of the 

most extensive long-term surveys available for any oceanic area. More than one- third of the birds 

known from the state’s offshore waters were first documented by these studies. However, it is 

primarily the location of the state in relation to tropical and subtropical areas, migration routes, and 

oceanic currents that accounts for the diversity of species. For example, the winter avifauna is 

composed essentially of boreal species that winter in or migrate through North Carolina waters. The 

summer avifauna consists mainly of foraging tropical and subtropical birds or vagrants of species that 

normally migrate in the eastern Atlantic. Many of these birds, and others discussed in this report, 

appear to reach either the northern or southern limits of their known or expected ranges in North 

Carolina waters (Lee and Booth 1979). 
142 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

Another reason that oil companies must give special consideration to North Carolina’s marine 

avifauna is that most birds have relatively protracted periods of occurrence off the state’s shores. 

There are several factors that account for this, the more obvious of which include (1) local oceanic 

currents and upwellings that provide important foraging areas for both low- and high-latitude species, 

(2) extended migratory periods for particular species because of the staggered schedules of various 

age groups, and (3) a typically long adolescence in some species during which subadults may linger 

in local waters for extended periods before returning to nesting areas. Therefore, an oil spill in any 

season could affect a large number of birds. 

Several endangered species occur off the North Carolina coast. In addition, many species in the area 

represent populations of special concern, i.e., they are species whose global populations could be 

damaged by an oil spill. Although many of the organisms, particularly birds, have not been regarded 

as endangered by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service, present data suggest possible 

oversights. Before the NCSM studies, it was not known that significant portions of certain 

populations concentrate off the Outer Banks, making them particularly vulnerable to kills occurring 

there. Furthermore, before the threat of oil spills, nothing in their marine environment could be 

considered immediately harmful. 

Appendix I and Appendix II provide complete lists of the marine birds, mammals, and turtles 

presently known from North Carolina. 

Lee, D.S., and M.L. Moser. 1998. Importance des Sargasses pelagiques pour la recherché alimentaire des 

oiseaux marins. El Pitirre 11(3): 111-112. 

Based on gut contents of 16 genera and 38 seabird species (n = 1033) and 240 days of at sea 

observations we document importance and species specific variation in use of Sargassum ‘reefs’. 

Over half the seabird species studied forage in this tropical pelagic community. We classify these 

birds as Sargassum specialists (> 25% occurrence of associated prey), users (up to 25% of prey), and 

incidentals (evidence of use but no associated prey identified). 

Sargassum association was documented in most Procellariiforms (9 of 10 species) and less frequently 

in Charadriiforms (12 of 25 ). Five seabirds had > 25 % documented use (Audubon’s Shearwaters, 

59%; Masked Boobies, 100%; Red-necked Phalaropes, 62%; Royal Terns, 40%; and Bridled Terns, 

58%). These birds target Sargassum for feeding, and the presence or absence of this alga drives local 

occurrence and abundance. Selected prey tends to be small (15-40 mm) fishes, but each avian species 

used the resource in specific ways. 

It is assumed that birds use this community throughout the tropical and sub-tropical North Atlantic. In 

view of the low productivity of nutrient poor surface waters in the tropics, the importance of 

Sargassum to seabird abundance and seasonal distribution is assumed to be high. Estimates in the 

Sargasso Sea (an area larger than the United States) suggest a standing crop of 2.0 — 5.5 metric 

tons/sq. nautical mile. In the Gulf Stream off the Carolina coast an additional standing crop of 57,290 

tons occurs, where Sargassum productivity is estimated at 27,074 tons/year. The number of fishes/ton 

is about 2,400 individuals and the total fish biomass is usually > 1% of the Sargassum. 

Lee, D.S., and M. Walsh-McGehee. 1998. The White-tailed Tropicbird Phaethon lepturus. The Birds of 

North America 353: 1-24. 

*A discussion of distinguishing characteristics, distribution, systematics, migration, habitat, food 

habits, behavior, breeding and migratory distribution for the White-tailed Tropicbird Phaethon 

lepturus including the defined study area for The Point. 
Marine Bird Chapter — 143 

Lee, D.S., W.A. McLellan, R. Boettcher, and W.H. Lang. 1998. Habitat and Living Resources Review: 

Recent Information on Pelagic Seabirds, Marine Mammals, and Sea Turtles of the North Carolina 

Outer Continental Shelf and an Evaluation of Effects of Proposed Offshore Oil and Gas Exploration. 

pp. 53-63. In: Vigil, D.L. (ed.). North Carolina/Minerals Management Service Technical Workshop 

on Manteo Unit Exploration: February 4-5, 1998. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management 

Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region. New Orleans, LA. 

*These are the proceedings from a workshop/meeting (conducted on February 4-5, 1998) between the 

North Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources, and the U.S. Department of the 

Interior’s Minerals Management Service (MMS). The geographic area being discussed is 

approximately 45 miles east-northeast of Cape Hatteras, NC, referred to as the Manteo Unit. This 

workshop reviewed environmental and socioeconomic information known and needed on the Manteo 

Unit. The MMS’s Gulf of Mexico OCS Regional Director gave an MMS perspective on history and 

status of the area. Chevron gave a presentation on how the exploratory well would be drilled. The 

scientific characterization was presented in greater detail by a number of scientific experts who spoke 

on the following disciplines physical environment, habitat and living resources, seabirds, marine 

mammals, sea turtles, and social and economic issues. Specific chapters are cited individually, when 

appropriate. 

During the late 1980’s, the state of North Carolina responded to a proposal by the Mobil Oil 

Corporation to undertake exploratory gas/oil operations in Federal lease blocks on the Outer 

Continental Shelf (OCS) known as the Manteo Unit. One of the products resulting form the permit 

request was a report that addressed potential biological effects from offshore drilling activities as the 

related to sea birds and other fauna of the region (Lee and Socci 1989). Chevron USA now proposes 

an exploratory well on one of the same Manteo blocks originally leased to various oil companies by 

the Minerals Management Service (MMS). Since 1989, additional information concerning the 

seabirds, marine mammals, and sea turtles on the North Carolina OCS has been obtained, and new 

research is planned or underway. This paper is intended to highlight recent development and briefly 

mention some concerns associated with offshore oil and gas activities that may affect these animals 

(e.g., Pelagic Seabirds: Globally Endangered Species, Seabirds of Concern; Marine Mammals; Sea 

Turtles; Potential Effects From Drillship Operations). 

Lee, D.S., and W.H. Lang. 1998. Biological Environment: Surface Biota. pp. 84-86. In: Vigil, D.L. (ed.). 

North Carolina/Minerals Management Service Technical Workshop on Manteo Unit Exploration: 

February 4-5, 1998. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS 

Region. New Orleans, LA. 

*These are the proceedings from a workshop/meeting (conducted on February 4-5, 1998) between the 

North Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR), and the U.S. Department 

of the Interior’s Minerals Management Service (MMS). The geographic area being discussed is 

approximately 45 miles east-northeast of Cape Hatteras, North Carolina, referred to as the Manteo 

Unit. This workshop reviewed environmental and socioeconomic information known and needed, on 

the Manteo Unit. The MMS’s Gulf of Mexico OCS Regional Director gave an MMS perspective on 

history and status of the area. Chevron gave a presentation on how the exploratory well would be 

drilled. The scientific characterization was presented in greater detail by a number of scientific 

experts who spoke on the following disciplines physical environment, habitat and living resources, 

seabirds, marine mammals, sea turtles, and social and economic issues. Specific chapters are cited 

individually, when appropriate. 

Surface biota during this session was defined as a catch-word phrase to refer to a combination of 

seabirds, cetaceans, (whales and dolphins), and sea turtles. The group was tasked to discuss 

immediate concerns that could result from one exploratory drillship’s activities on the surface biota in 
144 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

the Manteo Unit. Once potential effects of the exploration well were discussed, remaining time was 

spent on additional concerns, assuming further development and production were to occur. 

Lee, D.S., and N. Vina. 1993. A Re-evaluation of the Status of the Endangered Black-Capped Petrel, 

Pterodroma hasitata, in Cuba. Ornithological Neotropical 4: 99-101. 

*The Black-capped Petrel, Pterodroma hasitata, is the only extant gadfly petrel known to breed in the 

West Indies region. Now seriously threatened or endangered, breeding populations are known on only 

one of the five historically documented breeding islands (the extinct Pterodroma of Jamaica is 

considered a separate species; Mike Imber, pers. comm.). The extant breeding populations on the 

island of Hispaniola (Dominican Republic and Haiti) are small, fragmented, and currently believed to 

be declining, although the exact sizes, locations, and detailed chronologies of the breeding colonies 

remain poorly-studied. Nesting sites are now limited to open-canopy highland forest on inaccessible 

cliff faces. In addition to direct exploitation by colonists in previous centuries and recent declines in 

breeding habitat due to deforestation, introduced predators may have played a role in the species’ 

decline. In the late 1970’s the reported discovery of a nesting population in a remote area in Cuba (see 

below) suggested that the species had at least one additional nesting area and that this one was 

relatively stable. 

Lee has heard these Petrels vocalizing at sea off the North Carolina coast in December. 

Lee, D.S., and R.A. Rowlett. 1979. Additions to the Seabird Fauna of North Carolina. The Chat 43(1): 1-

9. 

During the last several years the knowledge of North Carolina’s pelagic and offshore avifauna has 

been greatly enhanced. Not only is information available concerning expected seasonal occurrence of 

the known fauna (Lee and Booth, in prep.), but documented seabird diversity has significantly 

increased. Although some information has been obtained accidentally from storm casualties, most of 

the recent data are a direct result of numerous planned offshore trips for the express purpose of 

observing and identifying birds at sea. These trips have contributed significantly to the understanding 

of the seasonal and geographic distribution of seabirds in the western North Atlantic. This paper 

provides documentation of seven species not previously recognized as occurring in North Carolina’s 

offshore waters, and additional records for the Black-capped Petrel. 

The records presented here are mostly incidental observations from a long-range study by Lee on the 

natural history of seabirds in North Carolina’s offshore waters. Information on measurements, 

geographical and seasonal distribution, food items, and resource partitioning will be presented 

elsewhere. Studies on external parasites (M.M. Browne, N.C. State University), internal parasites 

(Ron Mobley, N.C. State University), heavy metal concentrations (Joseph Bonaventura. Duke 

University Marine Laboratory), and the oil glands (David W. Johnston, University of Florida) of these 

birds are in progress. Specimens have been deposited in the systematics collection of the North 

Carolina State Museum (NCSM) and the United States National Museum (USNM), and 

measurements of those cited in this paper are summarized in Table 1. 

Lee, D.S., and S.P. Platania. 1979. Unverified Sight Records of Seabirds in North Carolina Waters. The 

Chat 43: 79-81. 

*Five seabirds not officially recognized as occurring in North Carolina’s offshore waters have been 

sighted off Oregon Inlet between June 1977 and the present. These observations are, for the most part, 

probably inadequate for admission of the species to the state list. Our intent here is to inform bird 

students of these unverifiable occurrences so they will be aware of the possibility of encountering 

these species during those brief observation periods typical of offshore field trips. Although some of 
Marine Bird Chapter — 145 

this information was available when the paper concerning additions to North Carolina’s seabirds (Lee 

and Rowlett 1979) was submitted for publication, these birds were intentionally not included with 

those documented by specimens. 

Lee, D.S., and S.W. Cardiff. 1993. Status of the Arctic Tern in the Coastal and Offshore Waters of the 

Southeastern United States. Journal of Field Ornithology 64(2): 158-168. 

Sixty-one records of the Arctic Tern (Sterna paradisaea) in the coastal southeastern United States 

(Maryland-Texas, through spring 1991) that were mostly subsequent to a compilation of records by 

Clapp et at. (1983) are summarized, and a re-analysis of the 81 total regional records (excluding eight 

questionable reports) is presented. Data are provided on 11 specimen records. There are still no 

acceptable records for Alabama, Mississippi or Texas, and only sight records for Maryland and South 

Carolina. This summary supports the findings of Clapp et al. (1983) in that the majority (88%) of 

records are from spring, and that fall migration through the region is very limited (12%; no fall 

specimens or photographs). Spring migration is generally later and more protracted than previously 

indicated. The scarcity of Arctic Terns in fall is attributed to the clockwise Atlantic migration route. 

The species’ relative rarity in spring may result from migration routes that are well-offshore and 

largely bypass the recessed coast of the southeastern U.S.; June and July birds found along the 

northern Gulf Coast probably strayed and became “trapped” in the Gulf of Mexico. Caution in the 

identification of Arctic Terns, and in the evaluation of all (especially early spring) records of this 

species from the southeastern U.S., is advocated. 

Moser, M.L. and D.S. Lee. 1992. A Fourteen-Year Survey of Plastic Ingestion by Western North Atlantic 

Seabirds. Colonial Waterbirds 15(1): 83-94. 

To evaluate the incidence of ocean-borne plastic particle ingestion by western North Atlantic 

seabirds, we analyzed the gut contents of 1033 birds collected off the coast of North Carolina from 

1975-1989. Twenty-one of 38 seabird species (55%) contained plastic particles. Procellariiform birds 

contained the most plastic and the presence of plastic was clearly correlated with feeding mode and 

diet. Plastic ingestion by procellariiforms increased over the 14 year study period, probably as a result 

of increasing plastic particle availability. Some seabirds showed a tendency to select specific plastic 

shapes and colors, indicating that they may be mistaking plastics for potential prey items. We found 

no evidence that seabird health was affected by the presence of plastic, even in species containing the 

largest quantities: Northern Fulmars (Fulmarus glacialis), Red Phalaropes (Phalaropus fulicaria) and 

Greater Shearwaters (Puffinus gravis). 

Orbach, M. 1989. Plenary Session: How Could These Resources be Affected By the Proposed Drilling 

and What Mitigation Measures Might be Used to Prevent Irreversible Damage. pp. 63-64. In: 

Crawford, K. (ed.). Proceedings: 1989 Marine Expo: The Natural Resources Associated with Mobil’s 

Proposed Drill Site. NC Outer Continental Shelf Office, NC Department of Administration. Raleigh, 

NC. 

*The following is a summary of the plenary session. 

There appears to be a good deal of baseline information available about Mobil’s proposed drill site 

area. However, there was a general consensus that there are serious gaps in our understanding of the 

relationships and functions of the many communities found in and around the exploration area known 

as the “Manteo Prospect.” Some major areas of concern include protection of area benthos, impacts 

on community ecology, and effects of drilling discharges . 

There was almost unanimous support for a monitoring program of the drilling operations and their 

impacts. Programs should be devised to examine: 1) The fate of drilling discharges, including 

dispersion (range and extent) and accumulation along fronts and the ocean bottom; and 2) The effects 
146 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

(both chemical and mechanical) of drilling discharges on the benthos, the indigenous fisheries 

(including eggs/larvae), prey species, forage strategies, and the sargassum communities. 

Concerns were also raised regarding the effects the ship and anchor system might have on the biota as 

a result of displacement, noise, or collisions, and the impacts of exploration activities on the 

commercial and recreational fisheries found at “The Point.” 

Because of previous scientific work done at or near the proposed drill site, this area may be well 

suited to such monitoring programs. Not only would information from these programs be vital for 

developing mitigation measures, but it could also serve as a critical database on which to build a 

management framework for future development. In addition, data already collected on local fish 

resources, marine birds, the benthos and bottom conditions, and physical oceanography could provide 

an excellent base for further research. 

Platania, S.F., G.S. Grant, and D.S. Lee. 1986. Core Temperatures of Non-nesting Western Atlantic 

Seabirds. Brimleyana 12: 13-18. 

Core body temperatures of 23 species of birds collected off the North Carolina coast did not differ 

with sex, weight, time of day, or season. Within the orders Procellariiformes and Charadriiformes, 

there seems to be no correlation of temperature with mass. Temperature data on injured birds are 

similar to those of ones recently killed. Results of this study compared favorably with those obtained 

by other researchers and indicate no significant differences between body temperatures of foraging 

and non-incubating procellariiform birds at the nesting colonies. Temperature differences between 

birds taken at sea and those studied at nesting sites amount to about 1 oC and are best attributed to the 

activity state of the birds. 

Ross, S.W. 1985a. A Summary of Biological Processes in the Proposed VACAPES EMPRESS II Area 

Off North Carolina Relating to Plankton Communities, Pelagic Macroinvertebrates, Ichthyofauna, 

Sea turtles, Marine Mammals, and Sea Birds. Appendix B. In: U.S. Department of the Navy. 

EMPRESS II: Supplemental Draft Environmental Impact Statement for the Proposed Operation of the 

Navy Electromagnetic Pulse Radiation Environment Simulator for Ships (Empress II) in the 

Chesapeake Bay and Atlantic Ocean. United States Navy. Environmental/ Intergovernmental Section. 

Atlantic Division. Naval Facilities Engineering and Command. Norfolk, VA. 

*This technical report is Appendix B within the “EMPRESS II: Supplemental Draft Environmental 

Impact Statement for the Proposed Operation of the Navy Electromagnetic Pulse Radiation 

Environment Simulator for Ships (Empress II) in the Chesapeake Bay and Atlantic Ocean” report. 

This technical report is a Summary of Biological Processes in the Proposed VACAPES EMPRESS II 

area off North Carolina Relating to Planktonic Communities, Pelagic Macroinvertebrates, 

Ichthyofauna, Sea turtles, Marine Mammals, and Sea Birds. Technical reports supporting this 

summary have been written by authorities in each discipline and are included in Appendices. These 

supporting technical reports are cited individually. The southern portion of VACAPES EMPRESS II 

Area of North Carolina overlaps with the northern portion of the defined study area for the Data 

Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope (The Point) Area. 

Ross, S.W., and A. Scarborough-Bull. 1998. Biological Environment Work Session Results: Fisheries. 

pp. 76-79. In: Vigil, D.L. (ed.). North Carolina/Minerals Management Service Technical Workshop 

on Manteo Unit Exploration: February 4-5, 1998. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management 

Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region. New Orleans, LA. 

*These are the proceedings from a workshop/meeting (conducted on February 4-5, 1998) between the 

North Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources, and the U.S. Department of the 
Marine Bird Chapter — 147 

Interior’s Minerals Management Service (MMS). The geographic area being discussed is 

approximately 45 miles east-northeast of Cape Hatteras, NC, referred to as the Manteo Unit. This 

workshop reviewed environmental and socioeconomic information known and needed on the Manteo 

Unit. The MMS’s Gulf of Mexico OCS Regional Director gave an MMS perspective on history and 

status of the area. Chevron gave a presentation on how the exploratory well would be drilled. The 

scientific characterization was presented in greater detail by a number of scientific experts who spoke 

on the following disciplines physical environment, habitat and living resources, seabirds, marine 

mammals, sea turtles, and social and economic issues. Specific chapters are cited individually, when 

appropriate. 

The goal of this session was to raise scientific concerns/issues regarding the potential impacts of OCS 

drilling on fisheries. The session specifically recommended information needs on a short-term and 

long-term basis. The short-term was defined as the time period before exploratory drilling would take 

place in the Manteo Unit offshore North Carolina. The long-term was defined as the time period 

before development activities took place in the same location. Due to time constraints, the session 

spent more time in short-term information needs. 

Two major short-term issues were raised concerning fisheries and oil and gas exploration. (1) There is 

a need to define and describe usage of the area known as The Point. (2) There is a need to synthesize 

and inventory existing data. Three long-term issues were raised for discussion. Three major long-term 

issues were raised concerning fisheries and oil and gas exploration. (1) There is a need to better 

understand the trophodynamics/energetic pathways at The Point. (2) There is a need to understand 

ichthyoplankton and its ecological role at The Point. (3) There is a need to understand structuring 

mechanisms. Four additional issues were raised concerning fisheries and oil and gas exploration on a 

long-term basis. Due to time constraints these concerns were not discussed in detail. (1) Concerns 

related to discharges from both drilling and production. (2) Concerns related to the presence of either 

temporary or permanent structures. (3) Concerns related to the effects of noise. (4) Concerns related 

to the presence of lights. Any endeavors on this project should be tied to the study of the effects of 

light on the seabirds that feed and/or roost at The Point. 

Ross, S.W., K.J. Sulak, J. Gartner, and D.S. Lee. Unpublished data. Ongoing project: Definition of 

Ecological/Trophic Linkages Among Fishes and Other Nekton in the Area Known as The Point — 

North Carolina Continental Shelf Slope. 

*This is an on-going study of fishes, invertebrates, sargassum and marine birds at the area known as 

The Point. The emphasis is on trophic linkages. The summer 1999 and 2000 stations were mapped 

(Fig. 7). Seabird data were collected throughout the cruise. 

Rowlett, R.A. 1978. A Massive Flight of Cory’s Shearwaters at Cape Hatteras. The Chat 42: 45-46. 

*A massive migration of Cory’s Shearwaters (Puffinas diomedea) was observed from the beach at 

Cape Point, Cape Hatteras, Dare County, NC., on 28 October 1974. A total of more than 8850 Cory’s 

were counted during 4 hours of continuous observation in the morning and 3 hours late in the 

afternoon. In addition, Greater Shearwaters (P. gravis), Sooty Shearwaters (P. griseus), Northern 

Gannets (Morus bassanus), Pomarine Jaegers (Stercorarius pomarinus), Parasitic jaegers (S. 

parasiticus), Black-legged Kittiwakes (Rissa tridactyla), and Roseate Terns (Sterna dougallii) were 

seen. Table I summarizes our observations. The Point is mentioned. 

Shepard, A. (ed.). 1991. Undersea Research at The Point. NURC/UNCW 1991 Undersea Research: 

Informational Meeting. National Undersea Research Center, University of North Carolina at 

Wilmington. Wilmington, NC. 9 p. 
148 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

*This handout provides a summary of research being conducted at “The Point” area (Manteo Lease 

Block 467). 

The National Undersea Research Center at the University of North Carolina at Wilmington, funded 

by a grant from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s (NOAA) Office of Undersea 

Research (OUR), was established in 1980 to promote, facilitate, and conduct research in the 

Southeastern United States utilizing undersea techniques, including advanced wet diving and manned 

and unmanned submersibles. A main Center goal is to provide information to NOAA that will assist 

the agency in fulfilling its charter to explore, understand, conserve and manage the U.S. marine 

environment and associated resources. To help meet this goal, the Center supports and conducts 

interdisciplinary oceanographic research projects studying continental margin processes, particularly 

the interactions and linkages between estuarine, continental shelf, and slope (including submarine 

canyon) environments. 

Tove, M.H. 1997a. Fea’s Petrel in North America. Birding 29(3): 207-214. 

One of the world’s more controversial seabird groups in regard to taxonomy and identification is the 

soft-plumaged petrel complex. Most authorities currently recognize three species in the complex: 

Soft-plumaged Petrel (Pterodroma mollis), which is widespread throughout the Southern 

Hemisphere; Fea’s Petrel (P. feae); and Zino’s Petrel (P. madeira), which is nearly extinct. Fea’s and 

Zino’s Petrels breed only in the eastern Atlantic. Until recently, no member of this complex was 

thought to occur in the ABA Area. Then, one of them began to be seen regularly off North Carolina, 

as will be described in Part 11 of this two-part article. Conventional wisdom held that the three 

species were almost indistinguishable from each other in the field and nearly so in the hand. But, after 

a thorough re-examination of distribution, breeding cycles, and field identification of the three 

species, it has been determined that Fea’s is the species being seen in the ABA Area. 

—. 1997b. Fea’s Petrel in North America. Birding 29(4): 309-315. 

Part I of this article, which appeared in the June 1997 Birding, summarized the taxonomy, 

distribution, and identification of the soft-plumaged petrel complex: Soft-plumaged Petrel, Fea’s 

Petrel, and Zino’s Petrel. Since 1981, members of this complex have been seen in the ABA Areaprimarily off North Carolina and regularly since 1991 -with 17 records documented here in Part II as 

involving Fea’s Petrels or probable Fea’s Petrels. 

U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service. 1989. Environmental Report Visual II: 

Study Area for Coastal North Carolina. U.S. Department of the Interior, MMS Minerals Management 

Service, Atlantic OCS Region. 

*This map was developed using base mapping from Espey, Houston and Associates, Inc. Draft (base) 

map is included. This map (Environmental Report Visual II: Study Area for Coastal North Carolina) 

includes the project area and specifically shows lease blocks, including Manteo Lease Block 467. 

Features include: Habitat types, Bird Nesting Habitat (described by species), National Wildlife 

Refuge Boundaries, National Seashore Boundaries, Endangered/Threatened Species (e.g., birds, 

plants, sea turtles). 

U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service. 1990. Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf: 

Final Environmental Report on Proposed Exploratory Drilling Offshore North Carolina, U.S. 

Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, Atlantic OCS Region, Environmental 

Assessment Section. Herndon, VA. 

*Topics include: fisheries, birds, marine mammals, physical oceanography, chemical oceanography, 

geology, gas and oil production. The proposed action is to drill a single exploratory well 
Marine Bird Chapter — 149 

approximately 72 km (45 mi) east-northeast of Cape Hatteras, NC in 820 m (2,690 ft) of water. Total 

depth for the proposed well is 4,267 m (14,000 ft) and the location is on Block 467 on the Minerals 

Management Service Protraction diagram NI 18-2. The proposal has been submitted by Mobil for 

itself and 7 partners to drill the well on the approved 21-block exploration unit. 

U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service. 1992. Proceedings of the Fourth Atlantic 

OCS Region Information Transfer Meeting, September 1991. U.S. Department of the Interior, 

Minerals Management Service. Herndon, VA. 198 p. 

The Fourth Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) Regional Information Transfer Meeting (ITM) 

was held on 24-25 September, 1991, in Wilmington, NC. The focus of the meeting was on the OCS 

off North Carolina, specifically on activities related to a proposed exploratory well for oil and gas by 

Mobil on Block 467 a site 40 miles off the coast of North Carolina. The area of industry interest is 

known as the Manteo Prospect, while the activities surrounding the proposed drilling are referred to 

collectively as the Manteo Project. The wildcat wellsite is in 2,690 ft. (857 m) of water near the edge 

of the Gulf Stream. It is also near a fishing ground known locally as “The Point.” The area is believed 

to be gas prone rather than oil prone. The estimated size of the resource could be as high as 5 trillion 

cubic feet of gas. 

The purpose of the meeting was to exchange information on the leasing background, legislative 

activities, scientific results, and socioeconomic studies. Legislative-related reports include 

descriptions of the Oil Pollution Act of 1990, the Outer Banks Protection Act, the Environmental 

Studies Review Panel, and the North Carolina Physical Oceanography Panel. Reports of studies on 

marine life include benthic diatoms, benthic fauna, pelagic seabirds, sea turtles, and right whales. One 

report describes the use of airships (blimps) for ocean research a capability relevant to North Carolina 

because of the east coast airship facility is located in the state. Local marine science facilities 

described include NOAA’s National Undersea Research Center at the University of North Carolina at 

Wilmington (NURC/UNCW) and the National Marine Fisheries Service laboratory in Beaufort. 

Developments in oil spill cleanup technology and capabilities are described by both the Coast Guard 

and the industry. A socioeconomic report describes the effects of the oil and gas activities on the 

tourist industry. Lastly, research on the restoration of salt marshes indicates that rehabilitation of an 

area is possible when development or an accident has occurred. While the emphasis of the meeting 

was on oil and gas, two reports described the results of projects related to offshore sand mining. The 

appendix lists the names and addresses of speakers. Individual chapters are cited individually when 

appropriate. 

U.S. Department of the Navy. 1985. EMPRESS II: Supplemental Draft Environmental Impact Statement 

for the Proposed Operation of the Navy Electromagnetic Pulse Radiation Environment Simulator for 

Ships (Empress II) in the Chesapeake Bay and Atlantic Ocean. United States Navy. Environmental/ 

Intergovernmental Section. Atlantic Division. Naval Facilities Engineering and Command. Norfolk, 

VA. 

*This is a National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) document characterizing the proposed 

EMPRESS II project. Appendix B contains a Summary of Biological Processes in the Proposed 

VACAPES EMPRESS II area off North Carolina Relating to Planktonic Communities, Pelagic 

Macroinvertebrates, Ichthyofauna, Sea turtles, Marine Mammals, and Sea Birds. Technical reports 

supporting this summary have been written by authorities in each discipline and are included in 

Appendices. The technical reports are cited individually. The southern portion of VACAPES 

EMPRESS II Area of North Carolina overlaps with the northern portion of the defined study area for 

the Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope (The Point) Area. 
150 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

Vigil, D.L. (ed.). 1998. North Carolina/Minerals Management Service Technical Workshop on Manteo 

Unit Exploration: February 4-5, 1998. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management Service. Gulf 

of Mexico OCS Region. New Orleans, LA. 168 p. 

*These are the proceedings from a workshop/meeting (conducted on February 4-5, 1998) between the 

North Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources, and the U.S. Department of the 

Interior’s Minerals Management Service (MMS). The geographic area being discussed is 

approximately 45 miles east-northeast of Cape Hatteras, NC, referred to as the Manteo Unit. This 

workshop reviewed environmental and socioeconomic information known and needed on the Manteo 

Unit. The MMS’s Gulf of Mexico OCS Regional Director gave an MMS perspective on history and 

status of the area. Chevron gave a presentation on how the exploratory well would be drilled. The 

scientific characterization was presented in greater detail by a number of scientific experts who spoke 

on the following disciplines physical environment, habitat and living resources (invertebrates and 

fish), seabirds, marine mammals, sea turtles, and social and economic issues. Specific chapters are 

cited individually, when appropriate. 

Watson, G.E., D.S. Lee, and E.S. Backus. 1986. Status and subspecific identity of White-faced StormPetrels in the western North Atlantic Ocean. American Birds 40(3): 401-407. 

Since 1885, there have been at least 47 records of White-faced Storm-Petrels (Pelagodroma marina) 

in the western North Atlantic Ocean (Table 1). Some of the earliest records are of pelagic sightings 

from vessels crossing the Atlantic Ocean. Others, particularly in recent years, have been recorded on 

day trips or short cruises within 100 miles of the coast from Cape Hatteras, North Carolina, North to 

waters off southern New England. Twelve were collected as specimens; ten of these have been 

preserved and photographs exist of an eleventh permitting identification of the subspecies that reaches 

North American waters. 

Whaling, P., D.S. Lee, J. Bonaventura, and M. Rentzepis. 1980. The body burden approach of looking at 

natural mercury accumulation in pelagic seabirds (abstract). Annual Meeting of American 

Ornithologist’s Union. 

*This citation includes research conducted within the defined study area for The Point (D. Lee, pers. 

comm. 24 February 2000). Mr. Lee did not have a copy of this document and we could not otherwise 

find the document. 

Whaling, P. and P.E. Olsen. 1981. Substantial levels of natural mercury found in three species of pelagic 

seabird (abstract). Southeastern Coastal and Estuarine Birds: A Conference. Baruch Institute, Univ. of 

SC. 

*This citation includes research conducted within the defined study area for The Point (D. Lee, pers. 

comm. 24 February 2000). Mr. Lee did not have a copy of this document and we could not otherwise 

find the document. 

Wiley, H., and D.S. Lee. 1998. Long-tailed Jeager Stercorarius longicaudus. The Birds of North America 

365. 

*A discussion of distinguishing characteristics, distribution, systematics, migration, habitat, food 

habits, behavior, breeding and migratory distribution for the Long-tailed Jeager Stercorarius 

longicaudus including the defined study area for The Point. This citation includes research conducted 

within the defined study area for The Point (D. Lee, pers. comm. 24 February 2000). Mr. Lee did not 

have a copy of this document and we could not otherwise find the document. 
Marine Bird Chapter — 151 

Wiley, R.H., and D.S. Lee. 1999. Parasitic Jeager Stercorarius parasiticus. The Birds of North America 

445: 1-28. 

*A discussion of distinguishing characteristics, distribution, systematics, migration, habitat, food 

habits, behavior, breeding and migratory distribution for the Parasitic Jeager Stercorarius parasiticus

including the defined study area for The Point. 

—. 2000. Pomarine Jeager Stercorarius pomarinus. The Birds of North America 483. 

*A discussion of distinguishing characteristics, distribution, systematics, migration, habitat, food 

habits, behavior, breeding and migratory distribution for the Pomarine Jeager Stercorarius pomarinus

including the defined study area for The Point. This citation includes research conducted within the 

defined study area for The Point (D. Lee, pers. comm. 24 February 2000). Mr. Lee did not have a 

copy of this document and we could not otherwise find the document. 

Wingate, D.B., T. Haas, E.S. Brinkley, and J.B. Patteson. 1998. Identification of Bermuda Petrel. Birding

30: 18-36. 

Though there have been several probable sight records of Bermuda Petrel in the ABA Area over the 

last three decades, the species has been documented with photographs within the ABA Area only 

once, on 26 May 1996 off Hatteras, North Carolina; these photographs are reproduced in the 

following article. Since its rediscovery in 1951, when only 17 pairs were found, the species has made 

a slow but steady comeback from the brink of extinction, with 52 nesting pairs at Bermuda and a 

world population of about 180 birds as of 1996. Past sight records have been clouded by confusion 

over the identification of this rare seabird, especially its differences from its presumed close relative, 

the Black-capped Petrel. Increases in both numbers of Bermuda Petrels and in Gulf Stream pelagic 

trips off the coast of North Carolina might result in more records of the “Cahow” in the ABA Area. In 

order to distinguish Bermuda Petrel at sea from a small Black-capped Petrel, the following features 

(in decreasing order of importance) should be observed or evident in photographs: 

 A dark eye-patch with deep gray plumage surrounding it, merging with a gray crown and 

nape, rather than a well-defined dark cap. 

 A very limited, amount of white in a narrow fringe bordering the black rump, with the 

rest of the uppertail area uniformly gray or dark gray — or an uppertail area entirely dark. 

 A diffuse area of pale gray, or gray-brown extending down the side of the neck and 

breast, giving the bird a hooded or cowled appearance overall, rather than a narrow, dark, 

elongate mark at the side of the breast, as in Black-capped Petrel. 

 A relatively small head and especially a smaller bill with less overall arch in the nail of 

the maxilla, than Black-capped Petrel. 

 Underwing pattern similar to that of Black-capped Petrel but with more dark plumage 

relative to the white internal areas of the underwing. 

 Overall size at sea noticeably smaller than, and flight behavior distinctly different from, 

Black-capped Petrel: the Bermuda Petrel is more buoyant, with wings held slightly 

bowed and oriented closer to the horizontal than to the vertical during dynamic flight. 

For all of these features to he considerable, it is helpful to have numbers of Black-capped Petrels in 

the vicinity for comparison, and to have a prolonged study of the suspected Bermuda Petrel at close 

range. On most pelagic trips conducted off North Carolina, fortunately, Black-capped Petrels are 

observed in good numbers, so that such a comparison would likely be possible. 
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MARINE MAMMAL CHAPTER 
Marine Mammal Chapter — 157 

MARINE MAMMAL CHAPTER 

Abernathy, S.A., M.T. Baer, C.S. Benner, M.S. Brody, D.K. Francois, J.K. Gilliam, L.K. Good, C.J. 

Ohara, and J.V. Martin. 1989. Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf: Description of the Mid-Atlantic 

Environment. Abernathy, S. A. (ed.). U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, 

Atlantic OCS Region, Environmental Assessment Section. Herndon, VA. 167 p. 

*This document discusses the major issues and areas of concern for the mid-Atlantic environment 

that are considered in the planning process for oil and gas leasing and operations on the Outer 

Continental Shelf (OCS). The issues are addressed with respect to the potential environmental 

consequences of mid Atlantic oil and gas exploration, development and production. A section 

discussing The Physical Environment (e.g., geology, non-petroleum minerals, physical oceanography, 

chemical oceanography and water quality, ocean dumping, meteorology, air quality), Biological 

resources (e.g., plankton, benthos, fishery resources, marine reptiles, marine mammals, marine and 

coastal birds, estuaries, wetlands, sensitive coastal habitats, canyon areas), Socioeconomic 

Environment, and other issues (e.g., archaeological resources, marine vessel traffic, National 

Aeronautics and Space Administration/ Department of Defense activities, oil and gas infrastructure, 

marine sanctuaries, and estuarine research reserves) is included. Most of the figures showing fisheries 

resource distribution are taken from fisheries data compiled for bottom-trawl and shellfish surveys of 

the National Marine Fisheries Service, Northeast Fisheries Center, Woods Hole, MA. 

Bowen, W.B., III. 1989. Marine Mammals and Drilling. p. 62. In: Crawford, K. (ed.). Proceedings: 1989 

Marine Expo: The Natural Resources Associated with Mobil’s Proposed Drill Site. NC Outer 

Continental Shelf Office, NC Department of Administration. Raleigh, NC. 

There are approximately seven species of whales and dolphins that frequent the North Carolina 

coastal waters from the 100 fathom mark to the inner bays and sounds. Of these seven, three are 

baleen whales and four are toothed whales and dolphins. The Right Whale (Eubalaena glacialis), 

Atlantic Bottlenose Dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) and the Pigmy Sperm Whale are the most dominant. 

Of these, the Right Whale is the most endangered. Right Whales utilize southern migration routes in 

the fall to Florida and South Carolina, with many of them remaining along the South Carolina coast 

where calving and females with calves feed. Then they proceed north in the spring utilizing routes 

from as near as 500 yards of the shoreline past to the Gulf Stream. There is little known about their 

habits in vicinity of drilling sites or how they react to heavy boat traffic. Dolphins in the Gulf of 

Mexico are known to leave drilling sites for weeks to months. The reason may be due to disturbance 

of the site causing changes to the food source or from sound disturbance. Much can be learned from 

this type of operation, before, during, and after the fact. By so doing, this will allow all parties to 

correct or eliminate future problems. 

CETAP: Cetacean and Turtle Assessment Program. 1979. A Characterization of Marine Mammals and 

Turtles in the Mid- and North- Atlantic Areas of the U.S. Outer Continental Shelf: Annual Report for 

1979, Cetacean and Turtle Assessment Program, University of Rhode Island. 68 p. 

Published reports of sea turtles in the region from Cape Hatteras to Nova Scotia are limited primarily 

to records of strandings of dead or dying individuals (Bleakney, 1965, Brongersma, 1972). Schwartz 

(1967) reported the occurrence of sea turtles in near-shore and bay waters of Maryland and Lazell 

(1976) reported records around Cape Cod, Massachusetts, with added comments and questions about 

sea turtle in the area. Babcock (1919) summarized information on sea turtles in the Northeast, 

including locality data, but his work did not include Kemp’s ridley turtle, which may have been 

mistakenly identified at the time as the hawks- bill. While sea turtles have long been known from the 
158 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

region, no comprehensive studies of the temporal distributions and relative numbers were made prior 

to this study. This chapter addresses data generated in the first year of a study on marine turtles in 

United States waters up to 200 n.mi. offshore from Cape Hatteras, North Carolina to Nova Scotia as 

part of the CETAP (Cetacean and Turtle Assessment Program) funded by the Bureau of Land 

Management. This chapter includes all 1978 and 1979 data collected on Turtle Watch Group (TWG) 

field efforts, all other CETAP field efforts, and analyses of the data generated by these groups. 

Additional information contributed by other observers is included as well. 

All sea turtles in the area are classified as endangered or threatened. The purpose of this ongoing 

project is to provide basic information on sea turtles for resource management. Completion of the 

entire project may change certain data interpretations, ideas, or suppositions presented herein. 

Crawford, K. (ed.). 1989. Proceedings: 1989 Marine Expo: The Natural Resources Associated with 

Mobil’s Proposed Drill Site. NC Outer Continental Shelf Office, NC Department of Administration. 

Raleigh, NC. 64 p. 

*This report contains abstracts from each presenter. Chapter topics include: Mobil’s Proposal, 

Geologic Overview — Introduction and Potential for Oil and Gas Discovery, Oceanographic 

Conditions, Comments on Last MMS Modeling, Biological Production Near the Bottom 

(invertebrates), Fisheries Resources, Commercial and Recreational Marine Fisheries, Winter Storm 

Effects on Spawning and Larval Drift of Pelagic Fish, Marine Birds, Sea Turtles in North Carolina, 

Marine Mammals, Plenary Session, Summary. Each chapter also cited individually when appropriate. 

Hoss, D.E. 1992. Research at the Beaufort Laboratory. pp. 51-54. In: Department of the Interior, Minerals 

Management Service. Proceedings of the Fourth Atlantic OCS Region Information Transfer Meeting, 

September 1991. U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service. Herndon, VA. 

The Fourth Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) Regional Information Transfer Meeting (ITM) 

was held on 24-25 September, 1991, in Wilmington, NC. The focus of the meeting was on the OCS 

off North Carolina, specifically on activities related to a proposed exploratory well for oil and gas by 

Mobil on Block 467 a site 40 miles off the coast of North Carolina. The area of industry interest is 

known as the Manteo Prospect, while the activities surrounding the proposed drilling are referred to 

collectively as the Manteo Project. The wildcat wellsite is in 2,690 ft. (857 m) of water near the edge 

of the Gulf Stream. It is also near a fishing ground known locally as “The Point.” The area is believed 

to be gas prone rather than oil prone. The estimated size of the resource could be as high as 5 trillion 

cubic feet of gas. 

The purpose of the meeting was to exchange information on the leasing background, legislative 

activities, scientific results, and socioeconomic studies. Legislative-related reports include 

descriptions of the Oil Pollution Act of 1990, the Outer Banks Protection Act, the Environmental 

Studies Review Panel, and the North Carolina Physical Oceanography Panel. Reports of studies on 

marine life include benthic diatoms, benthic fauna, pelagic seabirds, sea turtles, and right whales. One 

report describes the use of airships (blimps) for ocean research a capability relevant to North Carolina 

because of the east coast airship facility is located in the state. Local marine science facilities 

described include NOAA’s National Undersea Research Center at the University of North Carolina at 

Wilmington (NURC/UNCW) and the National Marine Fisheries Service laboratory in Beaufort. 

Developments in oil spill cleanup technology and capabilities are described by both the Coast Guard 

and the industry. A socioeconomic report describes the effects of the oil and gas activities on the 

tourist industry. Lastly, research on the restoration of salt marshes indicates that rehabilitation of an 

area is possible when development or an accident has occurred. While the emphasis of the meeting 

was on oil and gas, two reports described the results of projects related to offshore sand mining. The 
Marine Mammal Chapter — 159 

appendix lists the names and addresses of speakers. Individual chapters are cited individually when 

appropriate. 

*This section describes the ongoing research at the National Marine Fisheries Laboratory in Beaufort, 

NC. A description of North Carolina marine reptile, marine mammal, coastal, and fishery research is 

included. 

Kraus, S.D. 1992. Right Whales Along the Southeastern United States. pp. 119-25. In: Department of the 

Interior, Minerals Management Service. Proceedings of the Fourth Atlantic OCS Region Information 

Transfer Meeting, September 1991. U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service. 

Herndon, VA. 

The Fourth Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) Regional Information Transfer Meeting (ITM) 

was held on 24-25 September, 1991, in Wilmington, NC. The focus of the meeting was on the OCS 

off North Carolina, specifically on activities related to a proposed exploratory well for oil and gas by 

Mobil on Block 467 a site 40 miles off the coast of North Carolina. The area of industry interest is 

known as the Manteo Prospect, while the activities surrounding the proposed drilling are referred to 

collectively as the Manteo Project. The wildcat wellsite is in 2,690 ft. (857 m) of water near the edge 

of the Gulf Stream. It is also near a fishing ground known locally as “The Point.” The area is believed 

to be gas prone rather than oil prone. The estimated size of the resource could be as high as 5 trillion 

cubic feet of gas. 

The purpose of the meeting was to exchange information on the leasing background, legislative 

activities, scientific results, and socioeconomic studies. Legislative-related reports include 

descriptions of the Oil Pollution Act of 1990, the Outer Banks Protection Act, the Environmental 

Studies Review Panel, and the North Carolina Physical Oceanography Panel. Reports of studies on 

marine life include benthic diatoms, benthic fauna, pelagic seabirds, sea turtles, and right whales. One 

report describes the use of airships (blimps) for ocean research a capability relevant to North Carolina 

because of the east coast airship facility is located in the state. Local marine science facilities 

described include NOAA’s National Undersea Research Center at the University of North Carolina at 

Wilmington and the National Marine Fisheries Service laboratory in Beaufort. 

Developments in oil spill cleanup technology and capabilities are described by both the Coast Guard 

and the industry. A socioeconomic report describes the effects of the oil and gas activities on the 

tourist industry. Lastly, research on the restoration of salt marshes indicates that rehabilitation of an 

area is possible when development or an accident has occurred. While the emphasis of the meeting 

was on oil and gas, two reports described the results of projects related to offshore sand mining. The 

appendix lists the names and addresses of speakers. Individual chapters are cited individually when 

appropriate. 

*This section describes the importance of coastal North Carolina (and the entire Southeastern United 

States) as a migratory corridor for right whales (Eubalaena glacialis). 

Lee, D.S. 1985a. Marine Mammals off the North Carolina Coast with Particular Reference to Possible 

Impact of Proposed EMPRESS II. Appendix G. In: U.S. Department of the Navy. EMPRESS II: 

Supplemental Draft Environmental Impact Statement for the Proposed Operation of the Navy 

Electromagnetic Pulse Radiation Environment Simulator for Ships (Empress II) in the Chesapeake 

Bay and Atlantic Ocean. United States Navy. Environmental/Intergovernmental Section. Atlantic 

Division. Naval Facilities Engineering and Command. Norfolk, VA. 

*This report documents the marine mammals known to occur in North Carolina’s offshore waters. 

The southern portion of the VACAPES EMPRESS II Area of North Carolina overlaps with the 
160 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

northern portion of the defined study area for the Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope 

(The Point) Area. 

—. 1991a. Offshore Research of NC State Museum in Area of the Point. pp. 2-3. In: Shepard, A. (ed.). 

NURC — UNCW 1991 Undersea Research: Informational Meeting. National Undersea Research 

Center, University of North Carolina at Wilmington. Wilmington, NC. 

Although the current information on the biology, distribution, and season of occurrence of seabirds, 

marine mammals, and marine turtles in North Carolina is still incomplete, it is better than what is 

available for most other areas of the world. A 15- year extensive study conducted by the NC State 

Museum (NCSM) is perhaps the longest and most intensive ocean study of seabirds and marine 

mammals conducted anywhere. The Hatteras area has long been regarded as a biological “MasonDixon Line” between boreal and tropical maritime elements. North Carolina is at a latitude usually 

associated with temperate seas; however, boreal, temperate, and tropical species are transported, or 

follow prey items transported by converging oceanic currents to the outer continental shelf area at 

Hatteras. This, in part, explains the diversity. North Carolina has the largest documented marine bird 

(over 50 species) and marine mammal (28 species) fauna of any geographic unit in the North Atlantic. 

Much of what has been added to fauna of the state is the result of studies in the area known as “The 

Point.” It is primarily the location of the state in general, and “The Point” in particular, in relation to 

tropical and subtropical areas, migration routes and oceanic currents that account for the diversity of 

species. The relatively rich diversity is offset by comparatively low densities, but many of the species 

found here are tropical ones with small populations, so densities are naturally low. For a tropical — 

subtropical environment the densities are really quite high. The Sargassum community is also 

discussed. 

Lee, D.S., and M.C. Socci . 1989. Potential Effects of Oil Spills on Seabirds and Selected Other Oceanic 

Vertebrates Off the North Carolina Coast. North Carolina Biological Survey and the North Carolina 

State Museum of Natural Sciences. Occasional Papers of the NC Biological Survey. 1989-1. Raleigh, 

NC. 64p. 

*The main purpose of this report is to delineate the possible detrimental effects of an offshore oil spill 

on the marine fauna of North Carolina. Understandably, there is concern about oil reaching North 

Carolina’s beaches and coastal fauna. Unfortunately, the effects of oil on the offshore ecosystem may 

be even more devastating and less obvious. Many of the offshore fauna, particularly birds, exist at 

low populations or have such low reproductive output that population recovery in the event of a spill 

would be difficult. Large portions of the total populations of many of these species assemble regularly 

or seasonally in deep waters off the Outer Banks of North Carolina. These species would be 

particularly vulnerable to oil pollution, and adequate strategies must be developed to protect them if a 

spill should occur. 

Since 1975, the North Carolina State Museum (NCSM) has been studying the marine birds, 

mammals, and, to a lesser extent, turtles off the coast of North Carolina. By chance, the principal 

study site has been in the general oil-lease area and centered near “The Point”, a well-known deep-sea 

area for sport and commercial fishing southeast of Oregon Inlet. Much of what is presented in this 

report has been compiled from unpublished information collected during the studies and is on file in 

the NCSM. (Figure 1 illustrates the current oil-lease sites, and Figures 2-13 show various monthly 

observation points recorded during the 14 years of study. Collectively, these figures illustrate the 

general area of the surveys. Table I provides the total number of field days per month devoted to 

offshore surveys.) 

Anyone interested in oil exploration or drilling off North Carolina must consider the state’s unique 

position in the Atlantic ecosystem. North Carolina has the largest documented marine bird and 
Marine Mammal Chapter — 161 

mammal fauna of any geographic unit in the North Atlantic. In part, the documented diversity is a 

result of intensive field research. Studies by the NCSM have provided extensive long-term surveys 

available for any oceanic area. More than one-third of the birds known from the state’s offshore 

waters were first documented by these studies. However, it is primarily the location of the state in 

relation to tropical and subtropical areas, migration routes, and oceanic currents that accounts for the 

diversity of species. For example, the winter avifauna is composed essentially of boreal species that 

winter in or migrate through North Carolina waters. The summer avifauna consists mainly of foraging 

tropical and subtropical birds or vagrants of species that normally migrate in the eastern Atlantic. 

Many of these birds, and others, appear to reach either the northern or southern limits of their known 

or expected ranges in NC waters. 

Another reason that oil companies must give special consideration to North Carolina’s marine 

avifauna is that most birds have relatively protracted periods of occurrence here. There are several 

factors that account for this, the more obvious of which include: (1) local oceanic currents and 

upwellings that provide important foraging areas for both low and high latitude species, (2) extended 

migratory periods for particular species, and (3) a typically long adolescence in some species during 

which subadults may linger in local waters for extended periods before returning to nesting areas. 

Therefore, an oil spill in any season could affect a large number of birds. 

Several endangered species occur off the North Carolina coast. In addition, many species in the area 

represent populations of special concern, i.e., they are species whose global populations could be 

damaged by an oil spill. Although many of the organisms, particularly birds, have not been regarded 

as endangered by the US Fish and Wildlife Service, present data suggest possible oversights. Before 

the NCSM studies, it was not known that significant portions of certain populations concentrate off 

the Outer Banks, making them particularly vulnerable to spills occurring there. Furthermore, before 

the threat of oil spills, nothing in their marine environment could be considered immediately harmful. 

Appendix I and Appendix II provide complete lists of the marine birds, mammals, and turtles 

presently known from North Carolina. 

Lee, D.S., W.A. McLellan, R. Boettcher, and W.H. Lang. 1998. Habitat and Living Resources Review: 

Recent Information on Pelagic Seabirds, Marine Mammals, and Sea Turtles of the North Carolina 

Outer Continental Shelf and an Evaluation of Effects of Proposed Offshore Oil and Gas Exploration. 

pp. 53-63. In: Vigil, D.L. (ed.). North Carolina/Minerals Management Service Technical Workshop 

on Manteo Unit Exploration: February 4-5, 1998. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management 

Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region. New Orleans, LA. 

*These are the proceedings from a workshop/meeting (conducted on February 4-5, 1998) between the 

North Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources, and the U.S. Department of the 

Interior’s Minerals Management Service (MMS). The geographic area being discussed is 

approximately 45 miles east-northeast of Cape Hatteras, NC, referred to as the Manteo Unit. This 

workshop reviewed environmental and socioeconomic information known and needed on the Manteo 

Unit. The MMS’s Gulf of Mexico OCS Regional Director gave an MMS perspective on history and 

status of the area. Chevron gave a presentation on how the exploratory well would be drilled. The 

scientific characterization was presented in greater detail by a number of scientific experts who spoke 

on the following disciplines physical environment, habitat and living resources, seabirds, marine 

mammals, sea turtles, and social and economic issues. Specific chapters are cited individually, when 

appropriate. 

During the late 1980’s, the state of North Carolina responded to a proposal by the Mobil Oil 

Corporation to undertake exploratory gas/oil operations in Federal lease blocks on the Outer 

Continental Shelf (OCS) known as the Manteo Unit. One of the products resulting form the permit 
162 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

request was a report that addressed potential biological effects from offshore drilling activities as the 

related to sea birds and other fauna of the region (Lee and Socci 1989). Chevron USA now proposes 

an exploratory well on one of the same Manteo blocks originally leased to various oil companies by 

the Minerals Management Service (MMS). Since 1989, additional information concerning the 

seabirds, marine mammals, and sea turtles on the North Carolina OCS has been obtained, and new 

research is planned or underway. This paper is intended to highlight recent development and briefly 

mention some concerns associated with offshore oil and gas activities that may affect these animals 

(e.g., Pelagic Seabirds: Globally Endangered Species, Seabirds of Concern; Marine Mammals; Sea 

Turtles; Potential Effects From Drillship Operations). 

Lee, D.S., and W.H. Lang. 1998. Biological Environment: Surface Biota. pp. 84-86. In: Vigil, D.L. (ed.). 

North Carolina/Minerals Management Service Technical Workshop on Manteo Unit Exploration: 

February 4-5, 1998. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS 

Region. New Orleans, LA . 

*These are the proceedings from a workshop/meeting (conducted on February 4-5, 1998) between the 

North Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources, and the U.S. Department of the 

Interior’s Minerals Management Service (MMS). The geographic area being discussed is 

approximately 45 miles east-northeast of Cape Hatteras, NC, referred to as the Manteo Unit. This 

workshop reviewed environmental and socioeconomic information known and needed on the Manteo 

Unit. The MMS’s Gulf of Mexico OCS Regional Director gave an MMS perspective on history and 

status of the area. Chevron gave a presentation on how the exploratory well would be drilled. The 

scientific characterization was presented in greater detail by a number of scientific experts who spoke 

on the following disciplines physical environment, habitat and living resources, seabirds, marine 

mammals, sea turtles, and social and economic issues. Specific chapters are cited individually, when 

appropriate. 

Surface biota during this session was defined as a catch-word phrase to refer to a combination of 

seabirds, cetaceans, (whales and dolphins), and sea turtles. The group was tasked to discuss 

immediate concerns that could result from one exploratory drillship’s activities on the surface biota in 

the Manteo Unit. Once potential effects of the exploration well were discussed, remaining time was 

spent on additional concerns, assuming further development and production were to occur. 

Orbach, M. 1989. Plenary Session: How Could These Resources be Affected By the Proposed Drilling 

and What Mitigation Measures Might be Used to Prevent Irreversible Damage. pp. 63-64. In: 

Crawford, K. (ed.). Proceedings: 1989 Marine Expo: The Natural Resources Associated with Mobil’s 

Proposed Drill Site. NC Outer Continental Shelf Office, NC Department of Administration. Raleigh, 

NC. 

*The following is a summary of the plenary session. 

There appears to be a good deal of baseline information available about Mobil’s proposed drill site 

area. However, there was a general consensus that there are serious gaps in our understanding of the 

relationships and functions of the many communities found in and around the exploration area known 

as the “Manteo Prospect.” Some major areas of concern include protection of area benthos, impacts 

on community ecology, and effects of drilling discharges. 

There was almost unanimous support for a monitoring program of the drilling operations and their 

impacts. Programs should be devised to examine: 1) The fate of drilling discharges, including 

dispersion (range and extent) and accumulation along fronts and the ocean bottom; and 2) The effects 

(both chemical and mechanical) of drilling discharges on the benthos, the indigenous fisheries 

(including eggs/larvae), prey species, forage strategies, and the sargassum communities. 
Marine Mammal Chapter — 163 

Concerns were also raised regarding the effects the ship and anchor system might have on the biota as 

a result of displacement, noise, or collisions, and the impacts of exploration activities on the 

commercial and recreational fisheries found at “The Point.” 

Because of previous scientific work done at or near the proposed drill site, this area may be well 

suited to such monitoring programs. Not only would information from these programs be vital for 

developing mitigation measures, but it could also serve as a critical database on which to build a 

management framework for future development. In addition, data already collected on local fish 

resources, marine birds, the benthos and bottom conditions, and physical oceanography could provide 

an excellent base for further research. 

*This text also mentions marine mammals and Threatened and Endangered species (marine reptiles). 

Ross, S.W. 1985a. A Summary of Biological Processes in the Proposed VACAPES EMPRESS II Area 

Off North Carolina Relating to Plankton Communities, Pelagic Macroinvertebrates, Ichthyofauna, 

Sea turtles, Marine Mammals, and Sea Birds. Appendix B. In: U.S. Department of the Navy. 

EMPRESS II: Supplemental Draft Environmental Impact Statement for the Proposed Operation of the 

Navy Electromagnetic Pulse Radiation Environment Simulator for Ships (Empress II) in the 

Chesapeake Bay and Atlantic Ocean. United States Navy. Environmental/ Intergovernmental Section. 

Atlantic Division. Naval Facilities Engineering and Command. Norfolk, VA. 

*This technical report is Appendix B in the “EMPRESS II: Supplemental Draft Environmental 

Impact Statement for the Proposed Operation of the Navy Electromagnetic Pulse Radiation 

Environment Simulator for Ships (Empress II) in the Chesapeake Bay and Atlantic Ocean” report. 

The report is a Summary of Biological Processes in the Proposed VACAPES EMPRESS II area off 

North Carolina Relating to Planktonic Communities, Pelagic Macroinvertebrates, Ichthyofauna, Sea 

turtles, Marine Mammals, and Sea Birds. Technical reports supporting this summary were written by 

authorities in each discipline and are included in Appendices. These supporting technical reports are 

cited individually. The southern portion of VACAPES EMPRESS II Area of North Carolina overlaps 

with the northern portion of the defined study area for the Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras 

Middle Slope (The Point) Area. 

Shepard, A. (ed.). 1991. Undersea Research at The Point. NURC/UNCW 1991 Undersea Research: 

Informational Meeting. National Undersea Research Center, University of North Carolina at 

Wilmington. Wilmington, NC. 9 p. 

*This handout provides a summary of research being conducted at “The Point” area (Manteo Lease 

Block 467). 

The National Undersea Research Center at the University of North Carolina at Wilmington, funded 

by a grant from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s (NOAA) Office of Undersea 

Research, was established in 1980 to promote, facilitate, and conduct research in the Southeastern 

United States utilizing undersea techniques, including advanced wet diving and manned and 

unmanned submersibles. A main Center goal is to provide information to NOAA that will assist the 

agency in fulfilling its charter to explore, understand, conserve and manage the U.S. marine 

environment and associated resources. To help meet this goal, the Center supports and conducts 

interdisciplinary oceanographic research projects studying continental margin processes, particularly 

the interactions and linkages between estuarine, continental shelf, and slope (including submarine 

canyon) environments. 

U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service. 1990. Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf: 

Final Environmental Report on Proposed Exploratory Drilling Offshore North Carolina, U.S. 
164 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, Atlantic OCS Region, Environmental 

Assessment Section. Herndon, VA. 

*Topics include: fisheries, birds, marine mammals, physical oceanography, chemical oceanography, 

geology, gas and oil production. The proposed action is to drill a single exploratory well 

approximately 72 km (45 mi) east-northeast of Cape Hatteras, NC in 820 m (2,690 ft) of water. Total 

depth for the proposed well is 4,267 m (14,000 ft) and the location is on Block 467 on the Minerals 

Management Service Protraction diagram NI 18-2. The proposal has been submitted by Mobil for 

itself and 7 partners to drill the well on the approved 21-block exploration unit. 

U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service. 1992. Proceedings of the Fourth Atlantic 

OCS Region Information Transfer Meeting, September 1991. U.S. Department of the Interior, 

Minerals Management Service. Herndon, VA. 198 p. 

The Fourth Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) Regional Information Transfer Meeting (ITM) 

was held on 24-25 September, 1991, in Wilmington, NC. The focus of the meeting was on the OCS 

off North Carolina, specifically on activities related to a proposed exploratory well for oil and gas by 

Mobil on Block 467 a site 40 miles off the coast of North Carolina. The area of industry interest is 

known as the Manteo Prospect, while the activities surrounding the proposed drilling are referred to 

collectively as the Manteo Project. The wildcat wellsite is in 2,690 ft. (857 m) of water near the edge 

of the Gulf Stream. It is also near a fishing ground known locally as “The Point.” The area is believed 

to be gas prone rather than oil prone. The estimated size of the resource could be as high as 5 trillion 

cubic feet of gas. 

The purpose of the meeting was to exchange information on the leasing background, legislative 

activities, scientific results, and socioeconomic studies. Legislative-related reports include 

descriptions of the Oil Pollution Act of 1990, the Outer Banks Protection Act, the Environmental 

Studies Review Panel, and the North Carolina Physical Oceanography Panel. Reports of studies on 

marine life include benthic diatoms, benthic fauna, pelagic seabirds, sea turtles, and right whales. One 

report describes the use of airships (blimps) for ocean research a capability relevant to North Carolina 

because of the east coast airship facility is located in the state. Local marine science facilities 

described include NOAA’s National Undersea Research Center at the University of North Carolina at 

Wilmington and the National Marine Fisheries Service laboratory in Beaufort. 

Developments in oil spill cleanup technology and capabilities are described by both the Coast Guard 

and the industry. A socioeconomic report describes the effects of the oil and gas activities on the 

tourist industry. Lastly, research on the restoration of salt marshes indicates that rehabilitation of an 

area is possible when development or an accident has occurred. While the emphasis of the meeting 

was on oil and gas, two reports described the results of projects related to offshore sand mining. The 

appendix lists the names and addresses of speakers. Individual chapters are cited individually when 

appropriate. 

U.S. Department of the Navy. 1985. EMPRESS II: Supplemental Draft Environmental Impact Statement 

for the Proposed Operation of the Navy Electromagnetic Pulse Radiation Environment Simulator for 

Ships (Empress II) in the Chesapeake Bay and Atlantic Ocean. United States Navy. Environmental/ 

Intergovernmental Section. Atlantic Division. Naval Facilities Engineering and Command. Norfolk, 

VA. 

*This is a National Environmental Policy Act document characterizing the proposed EMPRESS II 

project. Appendix B contains a Summary of Biological Processes in the Proposed VACAPES 

EMPRESS II area off North Carolina Relating to Planktonic Communities, Pelagic 

Macroinvertebrates, Ichthyofauna, Sea turtles, Marine Mammals, and Sea Birds. Technical reports 
Marine Mammal Chapter — 165 

supporting this summary have been written by authorities in each discipline and are included in 

Appendices. The technical reports are cited individually. The southern portion of VACAPES 

EMPRESS II Area of North Carolina overlaps with the northern portion of the defined study area for 

the Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope (The Point) Area. 

Vigil, D.L. (ed.). 1998. North Carolina/Minerals Management Service Technical Workshop on Manteo 

Unit Exploration: February 4-5, 1998. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management Service. Gulf 

of Mexico OCS Region. New Orleans, LA. 168 p. 

*These are the proceedings from a workshop/meeting (February 4-5, 1998) between the North 

Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources and the U.S. Department of the 

Interior’s Minerals Management Service (MMS). The geographic area being discussed is 

approximately 45 miles east-northeast of Cape Hatteras, NC, referred to as the Manteo Unit. This 

workshop reviewed environmental and socioeconomic information known and needed on the Manteo 

Unit. The MMS’s Gulf of Mexico OCS Regional Director gave an MMS perspective on history and 

status of the area. Chevron gave a presentation on how the exploratory well would be drilled. The 

scientific characterization was presented in greater detail by a number of scientific experts who spoke 

on the following disciplines physical environment, habitat and living resources (invertebrates and 

fish), seabirds, marine mammals, sea turtles, and social and economic issues. Specific chapters are 

cited individually, when appropriate. 

Wiley, D.N., R.A. Asmutis, T.D. Pitchford, and D.P. Gannon. 1994. Stranding and mortality of 

humpback whales, Megaptera novaeangliae, in the mid-Atlantic and southeast United States, 1985-

1992. Fishery Bulletin 93: 196-205. 

Marine mammal strandings are a result of, or result in, mortality that may be attributed to natural or 

anthropogenic factors. As such, stranding data can provide insight on spatial distribution, seasonal 

movements, and mortality factors pertaining to marine mammal populations (Woodhouse, 1991; 

Mead). 

The general distribution and migratory movements of humpback whales, Megaptera novaeangliae, in 

the western North Atlantic are well known from numerous studies based on the identification of 

individual animals and on other techniques. Humpbacks feed in high latitude areas during the summer 

months, including waters of the Gulf of Maine, eastern Canada, West Greenland, and Iceland (Hain et 

al., 1982; Martin et al., 1984; Perkins et al., 1984; Katona and Beard 1990). In the winter, whales 

from all populations migrate to breeding grounds in the West Indies (Balcomb and Nichols, 1982; 

Mattila and Clapham, 1989; Mattila et al., 1989; Katona and Beard 1990). Between these migratory 

end points, little is known of the distribution of the species. In recent years, however, there has been 

an apparent increase in the frequency of sightings of humpback whales off the mid-Atlantic coast of 

the United States (Swingle et al., 1993). Furthermore, a considerable number of strandings have been 

documented along the mid-Atlantic and southeast coasts, many in midwinter, a time when the 

majority of humpbacks are thought to be located in tropical waters. In this paper, we analyze data 

from these strandings, discuss implication regarding distribution and possible spatial segregation by 

age class and examine apparent causes of mortality. 
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MARINE REPTILE CHAPTER 
Marine Reptile Chapter — 171 

MARINE REPTILE CHAPTER 

Abernathy, S.A., M.T. Baer, C.S. Benner, M.S. Brody, D.K. Francois, J.K. Gilliam, L.K. Good, C.J. 

Ohara, and J.V. Martin. 1989. Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf: Description of the Mid-Atlantic 

Environment. Abernathy, S.A. (ed.). U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, 

Atlantic OCS Region, Environmental Assessment Section. Herndon, VA. 167 p. 

*This document discusses the major issues and areas of concern for the mid-Atlantic environment 

that are considered in the planning process for oil and gas leasing and operations on the Outer 

Continental Shelf. The issues are addressed with respect to the potential environmental consequences 

of mid Atlantic oil and gas exploration, development and production. A section discussing The 

Physical Environment (e.g., geology, non-petroleum minerals, physical oceanography, chemical 

oceanography and water quality, ocean dumping, meteorology, air quality), Biological resources (e.g., 

plankton, benthos, fishery resources, marine reptiles, marine mammals, marine and coastal birds, 

estuaries, wetlands, sensitive coastal habitats, canyon areas), Socioeconomic Environment, and other 

issues (e.g., archaeological resources, marine vessel traffic, National Aeronautics and Space 

Administration/ Department of Defense activities, oil and gas infrastructure, marine sanctuaries, and 

estuarine research reserves) is included. Most of the figures showing fisheries resources are taken 

from bottom-trawl and shellfish surveys of the National Marine Fisheries Service, Northeast Fisheries 

Center, Woods Hole, MA. 

CETAP: Cetacean and Turtle Assessment Program. 1979. A Characterization of Marine Mammals and 

Turtles in the Mid- and North- Atlantic Areas of the U.S. Outer Continental Shelf: Annual Report for 

1979, Cetacean and Turtle Assessment Program, University of Rhode Island. 68 p. 

Published reports of sea turtles in the region from Cape Hatteras to Nova Scotia are limited primarily 

to records of strandings of dead or dying individuals (Bleakney, 1965, Brongersma, 1972). Schwartz 

(1967) reported the occurrence of sea turtles in near-shore and bay waters of Maryland and Lazell 

(1976) reported records around Cape Cod, Massachusetts, with added comments and questions about 

sea turtle in the area. Babcock (1919) summarized information on sea turtles in the Northeast, 

including locality data, but his work did not include Kemp’s ridley turtle, which may have been 

mistakenly identified at the time as the hawks- bill. While sea turtles have long been known from the 

region, no comprehensive studies of the temporal distributions and relative numbers were made prior 

to this study. This chapter addresses data generated in the first year of a study on marine turtles in 

United States waters up to 200 n.mi. offshore from Cape Hatteras, North Carolina to Nova Scotia as 

part of the CETAP (Cetacean and Turtle Assessment Program) funded by the Bureau of Land 

Management. This chapter includes all 1978 and 1979 data collected on Turtle Watch Group (TWG) 

field efforts, all other CETAP field efforts, and analyses of the data generated by these groups. 

Additional information contributed by other observers is included as well. 

All sea turtles in the area are classified as endangered or threatened. The purpose of this ongoing 

project is to provide basic information on sea turtles for resource management. Completion of the 

entire project may change certain data interpretations, ideas, or suppositions presented herein. 

Coles, W.C., and J.A. Musick. 2000. Satellite sea surface temperature analysis and correlation with sea 

turtle distribution off North Carolina. Copeia 2000(2): 551-554. 

We used satellite sea surface temperature data and aerial survey data to identify an upper (28 C) and 

lower (13.3 C) thermal limit to preferred loggerhead sea turtle temperatures. The available 

temperature range for the turtles to occupy, during this study (May 1991 to Sept. 1992), was 4.9 C to 
172 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

32.2 C. These thermal limits fall within the ranges previously identified in the laboratory. This study 

suggests that sea turtles are not geographically randomly distributed but stay within preferred 

temperature ranges which are seasonally variable. 

Coston-Clements, L., L.R. Settle, D.E. Hoss, and F.A. Cross. 1991. Utilization of the Sargassum Habitat 

by Marine Invertebrates and Vertebrates — A Review. National Marine Fisheries Service. NOAA. 

Southeast Fisheries Science Center, Beaufort Laboratory. Beaufort, NC. 32 p. 

Numerous species of brown algae (Class Cyclosporeae: Order Fucales: Family Fucaceae) of the 

genus Sargassum occur throughout the world’s tropical and temperate oceans. The pelagic complex 

in the western North Atlantic is comprised primarily of Sargassum natans and S. fluitans. Both 

species are hyponeustonic and fully adapted to a pelagic existence (Parr, 1939). Known commonly as 

gulf-weed, sea holly, or sargassum, they are characterized by a brushy, highly branched thallus (stem) 

with numerous leaf-like blades and berry-like pneumatocysts (floats). These floating plants may be up 

to several meters in length-but are typically much smaller. There is a well known assemblage of small 

fishes associated with sargassum rafts, many of which serve as forage for commercially or 

recreationally exploited species (Table 2). Dooley (1972) described 54 species from 23 families in the 

sargassum community of the Florida Current. Only 14 species from 11 families are known from the 

Sargasso Sea (Fedoryako, 1980; 1989). During the pelagic stage, hatchling loggerhead, Caretta 

caretta, green, Chelonia mydas, Kemp’s ridley, Lepidochelys kempi, and hawksbill, Eretmochelys 

imbricata, sea turtles have been observed in sargassum off Florida, Georgia, North Carolina, and 

Texas (Smith, 1968; Fletemeyer, 1978; Carr and Meylan, 1980; Carr, 1986; 1987a; Schwartz, 1988; 

1989; Manzella and Williams, 1991; Schwartz, pers. comm.). Schwartz (1988) reported numerous 

loggerhead hatchlings captured during commercial trawling for sargassum. This observation 

constitutes the largest known aggregation of loggerhead hatchlings encountered off the North 

Carolina coast. 

Crawford, K. (ed.). 1989. Proceedings: 1989 Marine Expo: The Natural Resources Associated with 

Mobil’s Proposed Drill Site. NC Outer Continental Shelf Office, NC Department of Administration. 

Raleigh, NC. 64 p. 

*This report contains abstracts from each presenter. Chapter topics include: Mobil’s Proposal, 

Geologic Overview — Introduction and Potential for Oil and Gas Discovery, Oceanographic 

Conditions, Comments on Last MMS Modeling, Biological Production Near the Bottom 

(invertebrates), Fisheries Resources, Commercial and Recreational Marine Fisheries, Winter Storm 

Effects on Spawning and Larval Drift of Pelagic Fish, Marine Birds, Sea Turtles in North Carolina, 

Marine Mammals, Plenary Session, Summary. Each chapter also cited individually when appropriate. 

Epperly, S.P., J. Braun, A.J. Chester, F.A. Cross, J.V. Merriner, and P.A. Tester. 1995. Winter 

distribution of sea turtles in the vicinity of Cape Hatteras and their interactions with the summer 

flounder trawl fishery. Bulletin of Marine Science 56(2): 547-568. 

Aerial surveys of North Carolina offshore waters between Cape Lookout and the North 

Carolina/Virginia state line were conducted November l991-March 1992 to determine the abundance 

of sea turtles in the area where a trawl fishery for summer flounder was active, and to relate the 

distribution of turtles to physical oceanographic processes. Turtles were sighted throughout the winter 

as far north as Oregon Inlet. Individual surveys yielded surface density estimates greater than 12 

turtles / l00 km2

, depending on the method of analysis. The distribution of turtles appeared to be 

related to water temperature, with turtles being mostly in waters >11° C. Favorable temperature and 

depth regimes for sea turtles occur throughout the winter along the western edge of the Gulf Stream 

from the vicinity of Cape Hatteras southward. The nearshore waters of Raleigh Bay, more than any 
Marine Reptile Chapter — 173 

other nearshore area of the South Atlantic Bight, are affected in the winter by the warm, fast-moving 

Gulf Stream and its frontal eddies that impinge upon and override the narrow continental shelf. 

Characteristically the waters in the vicinity of Cape Hatteras are warmer in the winter than nearshore 

areas to the south. The narrowness of the continental shelf and the influence of the Gulf Stream on 

these nearshore regions serve to concentrate sea turtles emigrating from nearshore waters in the 

Middle Atlantic Bight and Pamlico and Core Sounds in the late fall and early winter. Thus, sea turtles 

can be at greater risk for interaction with fishing activity on the continental shelf near Cape Hatteras, 

during the winter, than in any other area in the South Atlantic Bight. The summer flounder fishery, 

operating between Cape May, New Jersey and Cape Lookout, North Carolina during November 

1991-February 1992, was monitored for interactions with sea turtles. Observers were aboard nearly 

6% of the reported trips landed in Virginia and North Carolina. The sea turtle catch comprised 

loggerheads (60%), Kemp’s ridleys (36%), greens (2%), and a hawksbill (1%). The catch of Kemp’s 

ridleys during November-December 1991 south of Cape Hatteras was high (N = 26). Overall turtle 

catch rates were similar to those reported for the Atlantic shrimp fishery, but catch rates south of 

Cape Hatteras were 6-8 times higher than catch rates north of the Cape. A total of 1,063 turtles was 

estimated to have been caught November 1991-February 1992, and 89-181 were estimated to have 

died as a result of the trawl fishery. None of the turtles tagged during this study was recaptured during 

the study period, but three were recaptured subsequently; one had been resuscitated. Trawl activity 

was aggregated, and a number of turtles required resuscitation after 60 min tows. Sea turtle 

conservation regulations are needed for this fishery because the turtle/fishery interaction is great (> 

1,000 turtles estimated caught), the proportion caught that is Kemp’s ridleys is high (35%), and the 

physical processes that concentrate the sea turtles on the fishing grounds are operable every winter. 

Epperly, S.P., N.B. Thompson, J.A. Keinath, J.A. Musick, and D.T. Crouse. 1989. Sea Turtles in North 

Carolina. pp. 49-61. In: Crawford, K. (ed.). Proceedings: 1989 Marine Expo: The Natural Resources 

Associated with Mobil’s Proposed Drill Site. NC Outer Continental Shelf Office. NC Department of 

Administration. Raleigh, NC. 

In 1973 Congress enacted the Endangered Species Act (PL93-205) immediately listing the 

leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea ), hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata), and Kemp’s ridley 

(Lepidochelys kempi) as endangered sea turtles. In 1978 the loggerhead (Caretta caretta), green 

(Chelonia mydas), and olive ridley (L. olivacea ) were listed as threatened species except that the 

Florida and Mexican Pacific coast breeding populations of green sea turtles, and the Mexican Pacific 

coast breeding population of olive ridleys were listed as endangered (U.S. Dept. Commerce 1978). 

Only the flatback sea turtle of Australia (C. depressa ) has not been listed. Of the six species of sea 

turtles in the Atlantic Ocean, all but one of them, the olive ridley, has been reported off the coast of 

North America. 

In summary, the offshore waters of North Carolina regularly harbor all North American species of sea 

turtles except the hawksbill, which is infrequently reported. Inshore waters of the Pamlico-Albemarle 

Estuarine Complex and of the Chesapeake Bay seasonally contain numbers of loggerhead and 

Kemp’s ridley sea turtles, and in Pamlico and Core Sounds, the green sea turtle is also present. The 

turtles’ seasonal abundance in the area is probably a function of water temperature — as the waters 

warm they immigrate or migrate through, and as the waters cool, they emigrate. Sea turtles are 

capable of hibernating and sometimes overwinter in cool waters by burying in the substrate (Ogren 

and McVea 1982). Although there have been a couple of reports of turtles overwintering in North 

Carolina (T. Henson, N.C. Wildlife Resources Commission, pers. commun.), there are no data to 

indicate the extent to which turtles hibernate in the state’s waters. 

George, R.Y., and A.W. Hulbert (eds.). 1989. North Carolina Coastal Symposium. National Undersea 

Research Program, NOAA. Rockville, MD. 582 p. 
174 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

*This is a multidisciplinary Marine Scientific Proceedings, with frequent reference to the North 

Carolina Coastal Oceanography. Two studies (also cited individually) include maps with study plots 

(p. 283; reef site) or migratory movements (p. 309; sea turtles) in the project study area. 

Zoogeography and ecology of fishes inhabiting North Carolina’s Marine Waters to depths of 600 

meters are included. The transcript from speaker representing Outer Continental Shelf (p. 549) 

mentions offshore oil drilling off North Carolina Coast and mid-Atlantic region. The speaker does not 

refer to a specific site. 

Hoss, D.E. 1992. Research at the Beaufort Laboratory. pp. 51-54. In: Department of the Interior, Minerals 

Management Service. Proceedings of the Fourth Atlantic OCS Region Information Transfer Meeting, 

September 1991. U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service. Herndon, VA. 

The Fourth Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) Regional Information Transfer Meeting (ITM) 

was held on 24-25 September, 1991, in Wilmington, NC. The focus of the meeting was on the OCS 

off North Carolina, specifically on activities related to a proposed exploratory well for oil and gas by 

Mobil on Block 467 a site 40 miles off the coast of North Carolina. The area of industry interest is 

known as the Manteo Prospect, while the activities surrounding the proposed drilling are referred to 

collectively as the Manteo Project. The wildcat wellsite is in 2,690 ft. (857 m) of water near the edge 

of the Gulf Stream. It is also near a fishing ground known locally as “The Point.” The area is believed 

to be gas prone rather than oil prone. The estimated size of the resource could be as high as 5 trillion 

cubic feet of gas. 

The purpose of the meeting was to exchange information on the leasing background, legislative 

activities, scientific results, and socioeconomic studies. Legislative-related reports include 

descriptions of the Oil Pollution Act of 1990, the Outer Banks Protection Act, the Environmental 

Studies Review Panel, and the North Carolina Physical Oceanography Panel. Reports of studies on 

marine life include benthic diatoms, benthic fauna, pelagic seabirds, sea turtles, and right whales. One 

report describes the use of airships (blimps) for ocean research a capability relevant to North Carolina 

because of the east coast airship facility is located in the state. Local marine science facilities 

described include NOAA’s National Undersea Research Center at the University of North Carolina at 

Wilmington (NURC/UNCW) and the National Marine Fisheries Service laboratory in Beaufort. 

Developments in oil spill cleanup technology and capabilities are described by both the Coast Guard 

and the industry. A socioeconomic report describes the effects of the oil and gas activities on the 

tourist industry. Lastly, research on the restoration of salt marshes indicates that rehabilitation of an 

area is possible when development or an accident has occurred. While the emphasis of the meeting 

was on oil and gas, two reports described the results of projects related to offshore sand mining. The 

appendix lists the names and addresses of speakers. Individual chapters are cited individually when 

appropriate. 

*Ongoing research at the National Marine Fisheries Laboratory in Beaufort, NC is described. A 

description of North Carolina marine reptile, marine mammal, coastal, and fishery research is 

included. 

Keinath, J.A. 1992. Sea Turtles Off the North Carolina Coast. pp. 111-117. In: Department of the Interior, 

Minerals Management Service. Proceedings of the Fourth Atlantic OCS Region Information Transfer 

Meeting, September 1991. U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service. Herndon, 

VA. 

The Fourth Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) Regional Information Transfer Meeting was held 

on 24-25 September, 1991, in Wilmington, NC. The focus of the meeting was on the OCS off North 

Carolina, specifically on activities related to a proposed exploratory well for oil and gas by Mobil on 
Marine Reptile Chapter — 175 

Block 467 a site 40 miles off the coast of North Carolina. The area of industry interest is known as the 

Manteo Prospect, while the activities surrounding the proposed drilling are referred to collectively as 

the Manteo Project. The wildcat wellsite is in 2,690 ft. (857 m) of water near the edge of the Gulf 

Stream. It is also near a fishing ground known locally as “The Point.” The area is believed to be gas 

prone rather than oil prone. The estimated size of the resource could be as high as 5 trillion cubic feet 

of gas. 

The purpose of the meeting was to exchange information on the leasing background, legislative 

activities, scientific results, and socioeconomic studies. Legislative-related reports include 

descriptions of the Oil Pollution Act of 1990, the Outer Banks Protection Act, the Environmental 

Studies Review Panel, and the North Carolina Physical Oceanography Panel. Reports of studies on 

marine life include benthic diatoms, benthic fauna, pelagic seabirds, sea turtles, and right whales. One 

report describes the use of airships (blimps) for ocean research a capability relevant to North Carolina 

because of the east coast airship facility is located in the state. Local marine science facilities 

described include NOAA’s National Undersea Research Center at the University of North Carolina at 

Wilmington and the National Marine Fisheries Service laboratory in Beaufort. 

Developments in oil spill cleanup technology and capabilities are described by both the Coast Guard 

and the industry. A socioeconomic report describes the effects of the oil and gas activities on the 

tourist industry. Lastly, research on the restoration of salt marshes indicates that rehabilitation of an 

area is possible when development or an accident has occurred. While the emphasis of the meeting 

was on oil and gas, two reports described the results of projects related to offshore sand mining. The 

appendix lists the names and addresses of speakers. Individual chapters are cited individually when 

appropriate. 

*This section describes sea turtle data (e.g., from strandings, tagging programs, trawl fisheries, aerial 

surveys, and telemetry) from coastal North Carolina. These data suggest coastal North Carolina is 

used as a migratory corridor by sea turtles. The role of sargassum mats as habitat is described. 

Lazzell, J.D., Jr. 1980. New England Waters: Critical Habitat for Marine Turtles. Copeia 1980(2): 290-

295. 

New England waters, herein defined as all marine habitats north of the Nantucket Lightship, out to 

the “200 mile” limit, and north to Canadian territory, contain the largest known late summer and 

autumn (August to November) concentrations of the leatherback in the Atlantic. Inshore habitats in 

the southern sector (primarily Massachusetts) formerly supported thousands of Kemp’s ridleys 

seasonally; despite overall decline of Lepidochelys kempi, they are still common in Massachusetts 

today. A significant population of subadult greens summers in Nantucket Sound. The hawksbill is 

rare and probably accidental. 

*Figure 1 Mercator projection of the North Atlantic region showing major migration routes of the 

leatherback, with key locations marked, (p. 292) includes the defined study area for The Point. 

Lee, D.S. 1985b. Marine Turtles in North Carolina Waters. Appendix F. In: U.S. Department of the Navy. 

EMPRESS II: Supplemental Draft Environmental Impact Statement for the Proposed Operation of the 

Navy Electromagnetic Pulse Radiation Environment Simulator for Ships (Empress II) in the 

Chesapeake Bay and Atlantic Ocean. United States Navy. Environmental/ Intergovernmental Section. 

Atlantic Division. Naval Facilities Engineering and Command. Norfolk, VA. 

*This report describes seasonal distributions of marine turtles in North Carolina’s offshore waters. 

Lee and Palmer (1981) previously summarized this material. The southern portion of the VACAPES 

EMPRESS II Area of North Carolina overlaps with the northern portion of the defined study area for 

the Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope (The Point) Area. 
176 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

—. 1991a. Offshore Research of NC State Museum in Area of the Point. pp. 2-3. In: Shepard, A. (ed.). 

NURC — UNCW 1991 Undersea Research: Informational Meeting. National Undersea Research 

Center, University of North Carolina at Wilmington. Wilmington, NC. 

Although the current information on the biology, distribution, and season of occurrence of seabirds, 

marine mammals, and marine turtles in North Carolina is still incomplete, it is better than what is 

available for most other areas of the world. A 15- year extensive study conducted by the NC State 

Museum (NCSM) is perhaps the longest and most intensive ocean study of seabirds and marine 

mammals conducted anywhere. The Hatteras area has long been regarded as a biological “MasonDixon Line” between boreal and tropical maritime elements. North Carolina is at a latitude usually 

associated with temperate seas; however, boreal, temperate, and tropical species are transported, or 

follow prey items transported by converging oceanic currents to the outer continental shelf area at 

Hatteras. This, in part, explains the diversity. North Carolina has the largest documented marine bird 

(over 50 species) and marine mammal (28 species) fauna of any geographic unit in the North Atlantic. 

Much of what has been added to fauna of the state is the result of studies in the area known as “The 

Point.” It is primarily the location of the state in general, and “The Point” in particular, in relation to 

tropical and subtropical areas, migration routes and oceanic currents that account for the diversity of 

species. The relatively rich diversity is offset by comparatively low densities, but many of the species 

found here are tropical ones with small populations, so densities are naturally low. For a tropical — 

subtropical environment the densities are really quite high. The Sargassum community is also 

discussed. 

Lee, D.S., and W.H. Lang. 1998. Biological Environment: Surface Biota. pp. 84-86. In: Vigil, D.L. (ed.). 

North Carolina/Minerals Management Service Technical Workshop on Manteo Unit Exploration: 

February 4-5, 1998. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS 

Region. New Orleans, LA . 

*These are the proceedings from a workshop/meeting (February 4-5, 1998) between the North 

Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources and the U.S. Department of the 

Interior’s Minerals Management Service (MMS). The geographic area discussed is approximately 45 

miles east-northeast of Cape Hatteras, NC, referred to as the Manteo Unit. This workshop reviewed 

environmental and socioeconomic information known and needed on the Manteo Unit. The MMS’s 

Gulf of Mexico OCS Regional Director gave an MMS perspective on history and status of the area. 

Chevron gave a presentation on how the exploratory well would be drilled. The scientific 

characterization was presented in greater detail by a number of scientific experts who spoke on the 

following disciplines physical environment, habitat and living resources, seabirds, marine mammals, 

sea turtles, and social and economic issues. Specific chapters are cited individually, when appropriate. 

Surface biota during this session was defined as a catch-word phrase to refer to a combination of 

seabirds, cetaceans, (whales and dolphins), and sea turtles. The group was tasked to discuss 

immediate concerns that could result from one exploratory drillship’s activities on the surface biota in 

the Manteo Unit. Once potential effects of the exploration well were discussed, remaining time was 

spent on additional concerns, assuming further development and production were to occur. 

Lee, D.S., W.A. McLellan, R. Boettcher, and W.H. Lang. 1998. Habitat and Living Resources Review: 

Recent Information on Pelagic Seabirds, Marine Mammals, and Sea Turtles of the North Carolina 

Outer Continental Shelf and an Evaluation of Effects of Proposed Offshore Oil and Gas Exploration. 

pp. 53-63. In: Vigil, D.L. (ed.). North Carolina/Minerals Management Service Technical Workshop 

on Manteo Unit Exploration: February 4-5, 1998. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management 

Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region. New Orleans, LA. 
Marine Reptile Chapter — 177 

*These are the proceedings from a workshop/meeting (February 4-5, 1998) between the North 

Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources and the U.S. Department of the 

Interior’s Minerals Management Service (MMS). The geographic area discussed is approximately 45 

miles east-northeast of Cape Hatteras, NC, referred to as the Manteo Unit. This workshop reviewed 

environmental and socioeconomic information known and needed on the Manteo Unit. The MMS’s 

Gulf of Mexico OCS Regional Director gave an MMS perspective on history and status of the area. 

Chevron gave a presentation on how the exploratory well would be drilled. The scientific 

characterization was presented in greater detail by a number of scientific experts who spoke on the 

following disciplines physical environment, habitat and living resources, seabirds, marine mammals, 

sea turtles, and social and economic issues. Specific chapters are cited individually, when appropriate. 

During the late 1980’s, the state of North Carolina responded to a proposal by the Mobil Oil 

Corporation to undertake exploratory gas/oil operations in Federal lease blocks on the Outer 

Continental Shelf (OCS) known as the Manteo Unit. One of the products resulting form the permit 

request was a report that addressed potential biological effects from offshore drilling activities as the 

related to sea birds and other fauna of the region (Lee and Socci 1989). Chevron USA now proposes 

an exploratory well on one of the same Manteo blocks originally leased to various oil companies by 

the Minerals Management Service (MMS). Since 1989, additional information concerning the 

seabirds, marine mammals, and sea turtles on the North Carolina OCS has been obtained, and new 

research is planned or underway. This paper is intended to highlight recent development and briefly 

mention some concerns associated with offshore oil and gas activities that may affect these animals 

(e.g., Pelagic Seabirds: Globally Endangered Species, Seabirds of Concern; Marine Mammals; Sea 

Turtles; Potential Effects From Drillship Operations). 

Lee, D.S., and W.M. Palmer. 1981. Records of Leatherback Turtles, Dermochelys coriacea (Linnaeus), 

and Other Marine Turtles in North Carolina Waters. Brimleyana 5: 95-106. 

New information is presented on the occurrence of five species of marine turtles in North Carolina 

waters Dermochelys coriacea and Caretta caretta, the two most commonly occurring species, are 

emphasized. Thirty-three unpublished records of Dermochelys, for North Carolina, and information 

from other sources, indicate that in North Carolina at least, this turtle typically occurs throughout the 

warmer months in relatively shallow shelf waters. It may not be an open-ocean wanderer. 

Musick, J.A. 1985. Final Report on the Distribution and Abundance of Sea Turtles in the Proposed 

EMPRESS II Operating Sites. Appendix I: In: U.S. Department of the Navy. EMPRESS II: 

Supplemental Draft Environmental Impact Statement for the Proposed Operation of the Navy 

Electromagnetic Pulse Radiation Environment Simulator for Ships (Empress II) in the Chesapeake 

Bay and Atlantic Ocean. United States Navy. Environmental/ Intergovernmental Section. Atlantic 

Division. Naval Facilities Engineering and Command. Norfolk, VA. 

*This report describes distribution and abundance of marine turtles from the Chesapeake Bay, 

Virginia to North Carolina’s coastal waters. The southern portion of the VACAPES EMPRESS II 

Area of North Carolina overlaps with the northern portion of the defined study area for the Data 

Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope (The Point) Area. 

Orbach, M. 1989. Plenary Session: How Could These Resources be Affected By the Proposed Drilling 

and What Mitigation Measures Might be Used to Prevent Irreversible Damage. pp. 63-64. In: 

Crawford, K. (ed.). Proceedings: 1989 Marine Expo: The Natural Resources Associated with Mobil’s 

Proposed Drill Site. NC Outer Continental Shelf Office, NC Department of Administration. Raleigh, 

NC. 

*The following is a summary of the plenary session. 
178 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

There appears to be a good deal of baseline information available about Mobil’s proposed drill site 

area. However, there was a general consensus that there are serious gaps in our understanding of the 

relationships and functions of the many communities found in and around the exploration area known 

as the “Manteo Prospect.” Some major areas of concern include protection of area benthos, impacts 

on community ecology, and effects of drilling discharges . 

There was almost unanimous support for a monitoring program of the drilling operations and their 

impacts. Programs should be devised to examine: 1) The fate of drilling discharges, including 

dispersion (range and extent) and accumulation along fronts and the ocean bottom; and 2) The effects 

(both chemical and mechanical) of drilling discharges on the benthos, the indigenous fisheries 

(including eggs/larvae), prey species, forage strategies, and the sargassum communities. 

Concerns were also raised regarding the effects the ship and anchor system might have on the biota as 

a result of displacement, noise, or collisions, and the impacts of exploration activities on the 

commercial and recreational fisheries found at “The Point.” 

Because of previous scientific work done at or near the proposed drill site, this area may be well 

suited to such monitoring programs. Not only would information from these programs be vital for 

developing mitigation measures, but it could also serve as a critical database on which to build a 

management framework for future development. In addition, data already collected on local fish 

resources, marine birds, the benthos and bottom conditions, and physical oceanography could provide 

an excellent base for further research. 

*This text also mentions marine mammals and Threatened and Endangered species (marine reptiles). 

Renaud, M., G. Gitschlag, E. Klima, A. Shah, D. Koi, and J. Nance. 1993. Loss of shrimp by turtle 

excluder devices (TEDS) in coastal waters of the United States, North Carolina to Texas: March 

1988-August 1990. Fishery Bulletin 91: 129-137. 

Observers from the National Marine Fisheries Service collected information on catch rates of shrimp 

aboard commercial shrimp vessels during March 1988-August 1990. Comparisons were made 

between nets equipped with Turtle Excluder Devices (TEDS) and standard shrimp nets. Three types 

of TEDs were tested: Georgia TEDs with and without accelerator funnels, and Super Shooter TEDs 

with funnels. 

Fishing areas, time of day, and duration of tows were controlled by the captain of each vessel to 

simulate commercial conditions. A statistically-significant (P<0.05) mean loss in shrimp catch-perunit-effort (CPUE) of 0.24 lb/h (3.6%) and 0.93 lb/h (13.6%) was exhibited by nets equipped with 

Georgia TEDs (with and without funnels, respectively) compared with standard nets. There was no 

significant difference in shrimp CPUE between standard nets and nets equipped with Super Shooter 

TEDs with a funnel. 

Ross, S.W. 1985a. A Summary of Biological Processes in the Proposed VACAPES EMPRESS II Area 

Off North Carolina Relating to Plankton Communities, Pelagic Macroinvertebrates, Ichthyofauna, 

Sea turtles, Marine Mammals, and Sea Birds. Appendix B. In: U.S. Department of the Navy. 

EMPRESS II: Supplemental Draft Environmental Impact Statement for the Proposed Operation of the 

Navy Electromagnetic Pulse Radiation Environment Simulator for Ships (Empress II) in the 

Chesapeake Bay and Atlantic Ocean. United States Navy. Environmental/ Intergovernmental Section. 

Atlantic Division. Naval Facilities Engineering and Command. Norfolk, VA. 

*This technical report is Appendix B within the “EMPRESS II: Supplemental Draft Environmental 

Impact Statement for the Proposed Operation of the Navy Electromagnetic Pulse Radiation 

Environment Simulator for Ships (Empress II) in the Chesapeake Bay and Atlantic Ocean” report. 
Marine Reptile Chapter — 179 

The report is a Summary of Biological Processes in the Proposed VACAPES EMPRESS II area off 

North Carolina Relating to Planktonic Communities, Pelagic Macroinvertebrates, Ichthyofauna, Sea 

turtles, Marine Mammals, and Sea Birds. Technical reports supporting this summary were written by 

authorities in each discipline and are included in Appendices. These supporting technical reports are 

cited individually. The southern portion of VACAPES EMPRESS II Area of North Carolina overlaps 

with the northern portion of the defined study area for the Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras 

Middle Slope (The Point) Area. 

Schwartz, F.J. 1989. Outer Continental Shelf. pp. 309-332. In: George, R.Y. and A.W. Hulbert (eds.). 

North Carolina Coastal Symposium. National Undersea Research Program. NOAA. Rockville, MD. 

Five species of rare and endangered sea turtles frequent North Carolina’s coast. Their abundance and 

seasonality is influenced by water mass and Gulf Stream currents, seasonal water temperatures, and 

effects of natural and man’s alteration of the available habitat. Annually, 200 — 500 loggerhead nests 

are found on state beaches. Green turtles have nested in recent years on only six occasions. The 

pattern of nesting varies depending on position of the Gulf Stream and seasonal water temperatures. 

Natural causes (cold stunning or attacks by sharks) account for some turtle deaths. A limited number 

of deaths result from ingestion of artificial substances. Most deaths are man induced. Recent, often 

meager, conservation efforts have attempted to protect incubating nests by screening or removal to 

hatcheries. A sanctuary was established off one of the most productive beaches in the state (Onslow 

Beach) to lessen fishing fleet influence on adult turtles. Accommodation must be made by man to 

further protect sea turtles, otherwise a valuable heritage will be lost forever. 

*A map showing sea turtle migratory routes (Fig. 1) through the defined project area for The Point is 

included. 

Settle, L.R. 1997. Commercial harvest of pelagic Sargassum: A summary of landings since June 1995. In: 

South Atlantic Fishery Management Council. Essential Fish Habitat Workshop # 9: October 7 — 8, 

1997 Pelagic Habitat Sargassum and Water Column. South Atlantic Fishery Management Council. 

Charleston, SC. May 1997. 66 p. 

The commercial harvest of pelagic Sargassum resumed in June 1995. To date the fishery is 

prosecuted by a single firm, Aqua-10 Corporation of Beaufort, North Carolina. Aqua-10 processes the 

raw algae into a variety of agricultural fertilizers and dietary supplements used in the swine and 

poultry industries. The firm purchases algae harvested by local fishing vessels. Two vessels, the FV 

Outer Banks (16.5 m snapper boat) and the FV Rising Sun (15 m long-liner) have been equipped with 

Sargassum nets by Aqua- 10. The gear consists of a 1.2 in x 0.9 n frame trawl rigged with 7.6 am 

mesh trawl webbing. The vessels harvest algae ancillary to their normal fishing activities. When algae 

are landed, Aqua-10 notifies the NMFS, Beaufort Laboratory. The algae are examined for by-catch at 

dockside and at the processing plant. Vessel captains are interviewed to obtain data on the date and 

location of harvests, effort, and by-catch. 

All algae have been harvested from off the North Carolina coast from northern Onslow Bay to 

northeast of Cape Hatteras (Fig. 2). Although Sargassum has been harvested on the continental shelf, 

most was obtained in the Gulf Stream (Fig. 3). The observed by-catch has been minimal in terms of 

numbers of individuals. No sea turtles and few fishes have been noted. Most fish have been young 

juveniles and are generally in advanced stages of decomposition. Identifiable taxa include filefish 

(Monacanthus hispidus), amberjacks (Seriola spp.), blue runner (Caranx crysos), jacks (Caranx spp.), 

flyingfish (Exocoetidae), sergeant major (Abudefduf saxatilis), gray triggerfish (Balistes capriscus), 

sargassum fish (Histrio histrio), and pipefish (Syngnathus spp.). The most commonly observed 

macrofaunal by-catch have been crustaceans including several shrimp (genera Hippolyte, Latreutes, 

and Leander) and crabs (genera Planes and Portunus). 
180 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

Shepard, A. (ed.). 1991. Undersea Research at The Point. NURC/UNCW 1991 Undersea Research: 

Informational Meeting. National Undersea Research Center, University of North Carolina at 

Wilmington. Wilmington, NC. 9 p. 

*This handout is a summary of research being conducted at “The Point” area (Manteo Lease Block 

467). 

The National Undersea Research Center at the University of North Carolina at Wilmington, funded 

by a grant from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s (NOAA) Office of Undersea 

Research, was established in 1980 to promote, facilitate, and conduct research in the Southeastern 

United States utilizing undersea techniques, including advanced wet diving and manned and 

unmanned submersibles. A main Center goal is to provide information to NOAA that will assist the 

agency in fulfilling its charter to explore, understand, conserve and manage the U.S. marine 

environment and associated resources. To help meet this goal, the Center supports and conducts 

interdisciplinary oceanographic research projects studying continental margin processes, particularly 

the interactions and linkages between estuarine, continental shelf, and slope (including submarine 

canyon) environments. 

Shoop, C.R., and R.D. Kenny. 1992. Seasonal distributions and abundances of loggerhead and 

leatherback sea turtles in waters of the northeastern United States. Herpetological Monographs 6: 43-

67. 

Seasonal distributions and abundances of loggerhead (Caretta caretta) and leatherback (Dermochelys 

coriacea) sea turtles in continental shelf waters off the coast of the northeastern United States were 

derived from more than three years of aerial and shipboard surveys. There were 3460 sea turtle 

sightings, including 2841 loggerheads, 128 leatherbacks, and 491 unidentified. Relative abundance 

patterns, corrected for uneven distribution of survey effort, demonstrated an extensive area of 

loggerhead distribution from near Long Island, New York, along the mid-shelf to near Cape Hatteras, 

North Carolina. Areas of high relative abundance of leatherbacks were more scattered. with clusters 

south of Long Island and in the central and eastern Gulf of Maine. Loggerheads occurred significantly 

farther south (x = 38° 20′ N) than leatherbacks (x = 40° 05′ N), and in significantly warmer waters 

(mean surface temperatures of 22.9° C and 20.4° C, respectively). The two species did not differ 

significantly in water depth or bottom slope at sighting; the modal depth interval for both was 21-40 

m. Patterns of distribution and concentration of sea turtles differed greatly from nearly all species of 

marine mammals, suggesting little overlap in resource utilization. Both relative and absolute density 

estimates were much higher for loggerheads. Overall mean relative densities were 21.6 loggerheads 

per 1000 km of survey track, and 6.85 leatherbacks per 1000 km. Absolute density estimates, derived 

from 454 special aerial surveys, ranged from 1.64 x 10-3 to 5.10 x 10-1 loggerheads km-2 and 2.09 x 

10-3 to 2.16 x 10-2 leatherbacks km-2. The maximum densities for both species were higher than values 

reported for the Gulf of Mexico and off the eastern Florida shore. Total study area populations during 

the summer were estimated at 2200-11,000 loggerheads and 100-900 leatherbacks. These estimates 

are minimal because they are based on observations of turtles at the surface, and may represent much 

greater abundances. The patterns of relative abundance derived from this analysis could be used as a 

basis for the designation of critical sea turtle habitat off the northeastern U.S. 

U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service. 1989. Environmental Report Visual II: 

Study Area for Coastal North Carolina. U.S. Department of the Interior, MMS Minerals Management 

Service, Atlantic OCS Region. 

*This map was developed using base mapping from Espey, Houston and Associates, Inc. This map 

(Environmental Report Visual II: Study Area for Coastal North Carolina) includes the project area 

and specifically shows lease blocks, including Manteo Lease Block 467. Features include: Habitat 
Marine Reptile Chapter — 181 

types, Bird Nesting Habitat (described by species), National Wildlife Refuge Boundaries, National 

Seashore Boundaries, Endangered/Threatened Species (e.g., birds, plants, sea turtles). 

U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service. 1992. Proceedings of the Fourth Atlantic 

OCS Region Information Transfer Meeting, September 1991. U.S. Department of the Interior, 

Minerals Management Service. Herndon, VA. 198 p. 

The Fourth Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) Regional Information Transfer Meeting was held 

on 24-25 September 1991 in Wilmington, NC. The focus of the meeting was on the OCS off North 

Carolina, specifically on activities related to a proposed exploratory well for oil and gas by Mobil on 

Block 467 a site 40 miles off the coast of North Carolina. The area of industry interest is known as the 

Manteo Prospect, while the activities surrounding the proposed drilling are referred to collectively as 

the Manteo Project. The wildcat wellsite is in 2,690 ft. (857 m) of water near the edge of the Gulf 

Stream. It is also near a fishing ground known locally as “The Point.” The area is believed to be gas 

prone rather than oil prone. The estimated size of the resource could be as high as 5 trillion cubic feet 

of gas. 

The purpose of the meeting was to exchange information on the leasing background, legislative 

activities, scientific results, and socioeconomic studies. Legislative-related reports include 

descriptions of the Oil Pollution Act of 1990, the Outer Banks Protection Act, the Environmental 

Studies Review Panel, and the North Carolina Physical Oceanography Panel. Reports of studies on 

marine life include benthic diatoms, benthic fauna, pelagic seabirds, sea turtles, and right whales. One 

report describes the use of airships (blimps) for ocean research a capability relevant to North Carolina 

because of the east coast airship facility is located in the state. Local marine science facilities 

described include NOAA’s National Undersea Research Center at the University of North Carolina at 

Wilmington and the National Marine Fisheries Service laboratory in Beaufort. 

Developments in oil spill cleanup technology and capabilities are described by both the Coast Guard 

and the industry. A socioeconomic report describes the effects of the oil and gas activities on the 

tourist industry. Lastly, research on the restoration of salt marshes indicates that rehabilitation of an 

area is possible when development or an accident has occurred. While the emphasis of the meeting 

was on oil and gas, two reports described the results of projects related to offshore sand mining. The 

appendix lists the names and addresses of speakers. Individual chapters are cited individually when 

appropriate. 

U.S. Department of the Navy. 1985. EMPRESS II: Supplemental Draft Environmental Impact Statement 

for the Proposed Operation of the Navy Electromagnetic Pulse Radiation Environment Simulator for 

Ships (Empress II) in the Chesapeake Bay and Atlantic Ocean. United States Navy. Environmental/ 

Intergovernmental Section. Atlantic Division. Naval Facilities Engineering and Command. Norfolk, 

VA. 

*This is a National Environmental Policy Act document characterizing the proposed EMPRESS II 

project. Appendix B is a Summary of Biological Processes in the Proposed VACAPES EMPRESS II 

area off North Carolina Relating to Planktonic Communities, Pelagic Macroinvertebrates, 

Ichthyofauna, Sea turtles, Marine Mammals, and Sea Birds. Technical reports (cited individually) 

supporting this summary were written by authorities in each discipline and are included in 

Appendices. The southern portion of VACAPES EMPRESS II Area of North Carolina overlaps with 

the northern portion of the defined study area for the Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle 

Slope (The Point) Area. 
182 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

Vigil, D.L. (ed.). 1998. North Carolina/Minerals Management Service Technical Workshop on Manteo 

Unit Exploration: February 4-5, 1998. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management Service. Gulf 

of Mexico OCS Region. New Orleans, LA. 168 p. 

*These are the proceedings from a workshop/meeting (February 4-5, 1998) between the North 

Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources and the U.S. Department of the 

Interior’s Minerals Management Service (MMS). The geographic area being discussed is 

approximately 45 miles east-northeast of Cape Hatteras, NC, referred to as the Manteo Unit. This 

workshop reviewed environmental and socioeconomic information known and needed on the Manteo 

Unit. The MMS’s Gulf of Mexico OCS Regional Director gave an MMS perspective on history and 

status of the area. Chevron gave a presentation on how the exploratory well would be drilled. The 

scientific characterization was presented in greater detail by a number of scientific experts who spoke 

on the following disciplines physical environment, habitat and living resources (invertebrates and 

fish), seabirds, marine mammals, sea turtles, and social and economic issues. Specific chapters are 

cited individually, when appropriate. 

Witzell, W.N. 1999. Distribution and relative abundance of sea turtles caught incidentally by the U.S. 

pelagic longline fleet in the western North Atlantic Ocean, 1992-1995. Fishery Bulletin 97: 200-211. 

*This paper examines the seasonal distribution and relative abundance of threatened and endangered 

sea turtles (e.g., loggerhead sea turtle, Caretta caretta; and leatherback sea turtle, Dermochelys 

coriacea) caught incidentally by the U.S. Atlantic pelagic longline fishery for tuna, Thunnus spp., and 

swordfish, Xiphias gladius from 1992-1995. 
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BIOLOGICAL OCEANOGRAPHY CHAPTER 
Biological Oceanography Chapter — 187 

BIOLOGICAL OCEANOGRAPHY CHAPTER 

Abernathy, S.A., M.T. Baer, C.S. Benner, M.S. Brody, D.K. Francois, J.K. Gilliam, L.K. Good, C.J. 

Ohara, and J.V. Martin. 1989. Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf: Description of the Mid-Atlantic 

Environment. Abernathy, S.A. (ed.). U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, 

Atlantic OCS Region, Environmental Assessment Section. Herndon, VA. 167 p. 

*This document discusses the major issues and areas of concern for the mid-Atlantic environment 

that are considered in the planning process for oil and gas leasing and operations on the Outer 

Continental Shelf (OCS). The issues are addressed with respect to the potential environmental 

consequences of mid Atlantic oil and gas exploration, development and production. A section 

discussing The Physical Environment (e.g., geology, non-petroleum minerals, physical oceanography, 

chemical oceanography and water quality, ocean dumping, meteorology, air quality), Biological 

resources (e.g., plankton, benthos, fishery resources, marine reptiles, marine mammals, marine and 

coastal birds, estuaries, wetlands, sensitive coastal habitats, canyon areas), Socioeconomic 

Environment, and other issues (e.g., archaeological resources, marine vessel traffic, National 

Aeronautics and Space Administration/ Department of Defense activities, oil and gas infrastructure, 

marine sanctuaries, and estuarine research reserves) is included. Most of the figures showing fisheries 

resource distribution are taken from fisheries data compiled for bottom-trawl and shellfish surveys of 

the National Marine Fisheries Service, Northeast Fisheries Center, Woods Hole, MA. 

Atkinson, L.P., D.W. Menzel, and K.A. Bush. 1985. Oceanography of the Southeastern U.S. Continental 

Shelf. American Geophysical Union. Washington, DC. 156 p. 

*This book contains 12 chapters: an introduction; four chapters on physical oceanography; a chapter 

on hydrography and nutrients; four biological chapters (covering phytoplankton, zooplankton, 

bacteria, and macroinfauna); a chemical chapter on trace metals; and a summary chapter describing 

future research plans. Research included was conducted between 1975 and the early 1980’s and was 

largely funded by the Department of Energy and the Minerals Management Service (formerly Bureau 

of Land Management). The South Atlantic Bight (SAB) extends from the temperate waters of Cape 

Hatteras, NC to subtropical waters of West Palm Beach, FL. The ocean region is influenced by Gulf 

Stream dynamics on the eastern boundary, synoptic winds and weather events, river and estuarine 

inputs. 

Barber, R.T. 1985. Nutrients, Productivity and Phytoplankton in the EMPRESS II Research Area. 

(Appendix C). In: U.S. Department of the Navy. EMPRESS II: Supplemental Draft Environmental 

Impact Statement for the Proposed Operation of the Navy Electromagnetic Pulse Radiation 

Environment Simulator for Ships (Empress II) in the Chesapeake Bay and Atlantic Ocean. United 

States Navy. Environmental/ Intergovernmental Section. Atlantic Division. Naval Facilities 

Engineering and Command. Norfolk, VA. 

*This report describes the lower food chain (nutrients and phytoplankton) characteristics of the 

Virginia Capes region where the EMPRESS II experiment is proposed and identifies the physical 

processes that determine this character. The primary focus is biological oceanography, with a 

description of physical and chemical processes in the area. The southern portion VACAPES 

EMPRESS II Area of North Carolina overlaps with the northern portion of the defined study area for 

the Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope (The Point) Area. 

Blair, N. 1998. A Scientific Overview of the Region Surrounding Lease Blocks 467 and 510. pp. 14-17. 

In: Vigil, D.L. (ed.). North Carolina/Minerals Management Service Technical Workshop on Manteo 
188 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

Unit Exploration: February 4-5, 1998. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, Gulf 

of Mexico OCS Region. New Orleans, LA. 

*These are the proceedings from a workshop/meeting (February 4-5, 1998) between the North 

Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources, and the U.S. Department of the 

Interior’s Minerals Management Service (MMS). The geographic area being discussed is 

approximately 45 miles east-northeast of Cape Hatteras, NC, referred to as the Manteo Unit. This 

workshop reviewed environmental and socioeconomic information known and needed on the Manteo 

Unit. The MMS’s Gulf of Mexico OCS Regional Director gave an MMS perspective on history and 

status of the area. Chevron gave a presentation on how the exploratory well would be drilled. The 

scientific characterization was presented in greater detail by a number of scientific experts who spoke 

on the following disciplines physical environment, habitat and living resources, seabirds, marine 

mammals, sea turtles, and social and economic issues. Specific chapters are cited individually, when 

appropriate. 

The continental margin offshore Cape Hatteras, NC has been the focus of numerous oceanographic 

studies. The objective of this report is to provide an overview of physical, biological, geological, and 

chemical processes that operate in the region so that the results from individual disciplinary studies 

can be placed in a system-wide context. This section discusses hydrocarbon potential, water column 

observations and processes, benthic observations and processes, summary and the future. 

Cahoon, L.B., R.A. Laws, and C.J. Thomas. 1994. Viable diatoms and chlorophyll a in continental slope 

sediments off Cape Hatteras, North Carolina. Deep-Sea Research II 41(4-6): 767-782. 

Continental slope sediments off Cape Hatteras, North Carolina, were sampled by box coring in late 

summer, 1992. The chlorophyll a concentrations measured in sediments from 16 sites at depths 

ranging from 530 to 2003 m averaged 19.9 mg chl a m -2, a concentration much higher than observed 

elsewhere on the eastern U.S. continental slope, indicating high depositional rates for microalgal 

material. The variability in the chlorophyll a values suggests strong environmental heterogeneity at 

both small and large spatial scales in this slope habitat, probably a consequence of both topography 

and bioturbation. Viable diatoms were found in sediment samples across the range of depths sampled, 

and up to 14 cm deep in sediments, indicating high rates of deposition and bioturbation. Bulk 

sediment samples contained planktonic, tychopelagic and benthic diatoms, indicating that both 

phytoplankton and benthic microalgae from the continental shelf may be sources of organic matter for 

these slope sediments. 

Costlow, J. 1992. The Outer Banks Protection Act. pp. 11-15. In: U.S. Department of the Interior, 

Minerals Management Service. Proceedings of the Fourth Atlantic OCS Region Information Transfer 

Meeting, September 1991. U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service. Herndon, 

VA. 

The Fourth Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) Regional Information Transfer Meeting was held 

on 24-25 September 1991, in Wilmington, NC. The focus of the meeting was on the OCS off North 

Carolina, specifically on activities related to a proposed exploratory well for oil and gas by Mobil on 

Block 467 a site 40 miles off the coast of North Carolina. The area of industry interest is known as the 

Manteo Prospect, while the activities surrounding the proposed drilling are referred to collectively as 

the Manteo Project. The wildcat wellsite is in 2,690 ft. (857 m) of water near the edge of the Gulf 

Stream. It is also near a fishing ground known locally as “The Point.” The area is believed to be gas 

prone rather than oil prone. The estimated size of the resource could be as high as 5 trillion cubic feet 

of gas. 
Biological Oceanography Chapter — 189 

The purpose of the meeting was to exchange information on the leasing background, legislative 

activities, scientific results, and socioeconomic studies. Legislative-related reports include 

descriptions of the Oil Pollution Act of 1990, the Outer Banks Protection Act, the Environmental 

Studies Review Panel, and the North Carolina Physical Oceanography Panel. Reports of studies on 

marine life include benthic diatoms, benthic fauna, pelagic seabirds, sea turtles, and right whales. One 

report describes the use of airships (blimps) for ocean research a capability relevant to North Carolina 

because of the east coast airship facility is located in the state. Local marine science facilities 

described include NOAA’s National Undersea Research Center at the University of North Carolina at 

Wilmington and the National Marine Fisheries Service laboratory in Beaufort. 

Developments in oil spill cleanup technology and capabilities are described by both the Coast Guard 

and the industry. A socioeconomic report describes the effects of the oil and gas activities on the 

tourist industry. Lastly, research on the restoration of salt marshes indicates that rehabilitation of an 

area is possible when development or an accident has occurred. While the emphasis of the meeting 

was on oil and gas, two reports described the results of projects related to offshore sand mining. The 

appendix lists the names and addresses of speakers. Individual chapters are cited individually when 

appropriate. 

*In August 1990, President Bush signed Federal oil spill legislation that included a provision called 

the Outer Banks Protection Act (OBPA). The OBPA prohibited the Minerals Management Service 

(MMS) from approving any exploration plan off North Carolina until October 1991. The Act also 

created a five-member Environmental Sciences Review Panel (ESRP) to evaluate the adequacy of 

information on the Mobil proposal. This section describes the OBPA and ESRP. Physical 

oceanography, biological oceanography, and socioeconomics are mentioned. 

Crawford, K. (ed.). 1989. Proceedings: 1989 Marine Expo: The Natural Resources Associated with 

Mobil’s Proposed Drill Site. NC Outer Continental Shelf Office, NC Department of Administration. 

Raleigh, NC. 64 p. 

*This report contains abstracts from each presenter. Chapter topics include: Mobil’s Proposal, 

Geologic Overview — Introduction and Potential for Oil and Gas Discovery, Oceanographic 

Conditions, Comments on Last MMS Modeling, Biological Production Near the Bottom 

(invertebrates), Fisheries Resources, Commercial and Recreational Marine Fisheries, Winter Storm 

Effects on Spawning and Larval Drift of Pelagic Fish, Marine Birds, Sea Turtles in North Carolina, 

Marine Mammals, Plenary Session, Summary. Each chapter also cited individually when appropriate. 

Curtin, T.B. 1979a. Ocean Outfall Wastewater Disposal Feasibility and Planning: Oceanographic Field 

Observations off North Carolina Spring Survey 12 — 22 May 1978, Report No. 79-4. Dept. of 

Marine Science and Engineering, NCSU. 242 p. 

The objectives of the oceanographic field observations within the overall Ocean Outfall Feasibility 

and Planning Study (Langfelder et al. 1979) were both to provide input data for boundary condition 

initialization and to provide reference data for diagnostic testing of a series of coastal numerical 

circulation models under development. The data acquisition program was designed to parallel the 

model development in that a series of successive scales of variability were addressed. These scales 

have been defined as the shelf-scale, the nearshore scale, and the diffusive scale, and were 

characterized for the purposes of the study by temporal and spatial resolutions. Of particular overall 

interest in this project, with its ultimate focus on the nearshore coastal environment, was the 

interaction of the larger regional scale processes with those on smaller or local scale. 

*Shellfish closure is discussed. 
190 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

—. 1979b. Ocean Outfall Wastewater Disposal Feasibility and Planning: Oceanographic Field 

Observations off North Carolina Winter Survey 2-12 February 1978, Report No. 79-3. Dept. of 

Marine Science and Engineering, NCSU. 149 p. 

The objectives of the oceanographic field observations within the overall Ocean Outfall Feasibility 

and Planning Study (Langfelder et al. 1979) were both to provide input data for boundary condition 

initialization and to provide reference data for diagnostic testing of a series of coastal numerical 

circulation models under development. The data acquisition program was designed to parallel the 

model development in that a series of successive scales of variability were addressed. These scales 

have been defined as the shelf-scale, the nearshore scale, and the diffusive scale, and were 

characterized for the purposes of the study by temporal and spatial resolutions. Of particular overall 

interest in this project, with its ultimate focus on the nearshore coastal environment, was the 

interaction of the larger regional scale processes with those on smaller or local scale. 

*Shellfish closure is discussed. 

—. 1979c. Ocean Outfall Wastewater Disposal Feasibility and Planning: Oceanographic Field 

Observations off North Carolina Fall Survey 1-11 November 1977, Report No. 79-5. Dept. of Marine 

Science and Engineering, NCSU. 248 p. 

The objectives of the oceanographic field observations within the overall Ocean Outfall Feasibility 

and Planning Study (Langfelder et al. 1979) were both to provide input data for boundary condition 

initialization and to provide reference data for diagnostic testing of a series of coastal numerical 

circulation models under development. The data acquisition program was designed to parallel the 

model development in that a series of successive scales of variability were addressed. These scales 

have been defined as the shelf-scale, the nearshore scale, and the diffusive scale, and were 

characterized for the purposes of the study by temporal and spatial resolutions. Of particular overall 

interest in this project, with its ultimate focus on the nearshore coastal environment, was the 

interaction of the larger regional scale processes with those on smaller or local scale. 

*Shellfish closure is discussed. 

—. 1979d. Ocean Outfall Wastewater Disposal Feasibility and Planning: Oceanographic Field 

Observations Off North Carolina Summer Survey 2-12 August 1977, Report No. 79-2. Dept. of 

Marine Science and Engineering, NCSU. 303 p. 

The objectives of the oceanographic field observations within the overall Ocean Outfall Feasibility 

and Planning Study (Langfelder et al. 1979) were both to provide input data for boundary condition 

initialization and to provide reference data for diagnostic testing of a series of coastal numerical 

circulation models under development. The data acquisition program was designed to parallel the 

model development in that a series of successive scales of variability were addressed. These scales 

have been defined as the shelf-scale, the nearshore scale, and the diffusive scale, and were 

characterized for the purposes of the study by temporal and spatial resolutions. Of particular overall 

interest in this project, with its ultimate focus on the nearshore coastal environment, was the 

interaction of the larger regional scale processes with those on smaller or local scale. 

*Shellfish closure is discussed. 

Cutter, G.R., R.J. Diaz, and J.A. Blake. 1994a. Deep-Sea Research II: CD-ROM APPENDIX. Deep-Sea 

Research II 41(4-6): 981-982. 

The contents of the CD-ROM Appendix are data and images of the bottom from five of the articles in 

this issue. The CD-ROM was mastered in a format that can be read by both Macintosh and PC 

computers. It is organized in an hierarchical structure by folders, with data in one and images in 
Biological Oceanography Chapter — 191 

another. To access a particular file, sequentially open folders until the file of interest appears. Data 

and figure captions are provided as: (.txt) ASCII text with no line breaks; (.tlb) ASCII text with line 

breaks; (.wor) Microsoft Word; and (.wp) Word Perfect 5.1 files. Images are in TIFF format (.tif). 

Data (ACSAR, Hatteras), Images and Captions (ACSAR, Profile, 3Dbathy, Sled, Surface, x-ray) are 

included. 

Diaz, R. J., J. Blake, B. Hecker, and D.C. Rhoads. 1993b. A Highly Productive Area of the Continental 

Slope Off Cape Hatteras. Benthic Ecology Meeting, 1-4 April, 1993, Mobile, AL. 57 p. 

The continental slope off Cape Hatteras is atypical for the U.S. Atlantic coast. Unusually high 

numbers of infauna, megafauna, and demersal fish were found over a broad area. Benthic organisms 

appear to be well adapted to physical processes that converge on the Cape Hatteras continental slope. 

These physical processes impart a high degree of instability to the bottom and also supply large 

amounts of organic matter which sustain the elevated densities and biomass. The nature of these 

communities and mechanisms which regulate them will be discussed. 

Harvey, H.R. 1994. Fatty acids and sterols as source markers of organic matter in sediments of the North 

Carolina continental slope. Deep-Sea Research II 41(4-6): 783-796. 

To estimate the source and diagenetic state of organic matter reaching bottom sediments, fatty acids 

and sterols were measured in unconsolidated surface material (flocs) at 12 sites ranging from 600 to 

2000 m across the mid-Atlantic continental slope off Cape Hatteras, North Carolina. Total free and 

esterified fatty acids were similar in description and concentration to other coastal systems, with 

values ranging from 0.64 to 46.52 g mg-1 organic carbon (1.10-68.85 g mg-1dry sediment). Although 

shallow (600 m) stations contained significantly greater fatty acid concentrations than deep (>1400 

m) stations, high variability observed at mid-depth (800 m) collections precluded a consistent 

relationship between total fatty acid concentration and station depth. At three sites where underlying 

sediments were also collected, decreases in total fatty acid reduced amounts of polyenoic acids and 

significant presence of bacterial fatty acids suggest rapid reworking of labile organic material that 

reaches the sediment surface. The distribution of sterols was remarkably consistent among all sites 

even though there were large variations in concentrations (1.8-20.7g mg-1 organic carbon). Sterol 

composition indicated phytoplankton, principally diatoms and dinoflagellates, as the principal source 

of labile organic matter to sediments, together with a significant input of cholesterol typical of 

zooplankton and their feeding activity. A minor but widespread terrigenous input was also evident 

based upon significant concentrations of sterols dominant in vascular plants. 

Kirby-Smith, W.W. 1989a. Biological Production Near the Bottom. p. 25. In: Crawford, K. (ed.). 

Proceedings: 1989 Marine Expo: The Natural Resources Associated with Mobil’s Proposed Drill Site. 

NC Outer Continental Shelf Office, NC Department of Administration. Raleigh, NC. 

Satellite photographs show that North Carolina has an incredibly diverse oceanographic setting 

which, in turn, produces highly diverse communities of fishes and invertebrates. The three bottom 

types found off the continental shelf of North Carolina include: 1) sand, 2) shell, and 3) rock 

outcrops. Across the continental shelf, the primary producers that support fisheries include 

microalgae and macroalgae. The bottom-dwelling microalgae (small microscopic plants) grow, 

rapidly and are very important to the total productivity of the whole water column. As much as half of 

the primary productivity on the shelf may be due to this benthic component. The secondary producers 

on rock outcrops, which include sponges, corals, worms and small arthropods, are a major food 

source for small fish. From a scientific perspective, the proposed drill site is an exciting area with a 

high biomass and low diversity. In my opinion, the exploration well itself would have little or no 

impact on the resources in the area; however, a major find of oil or gas could lead to a tremendous 
192 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

amount of industrial development, which could compete economically with other coastal industries, 

such as tourism and fisheries. 

Langfelder, J., T.B. Curtin, D.N. Hyman, G. Janowitz, J. Maiolo, W. Queen, F.Y. Sorrell, M. Amien, V. 

Bellis, M. Brinson, G. Davis, C.Y. Lee, C. O’Rear, L. Pearce, C.Y. Peng, S. Riggs, B. Smith, M. 

Sobsey, and P. Tschetter. 1979. Final Report: Ocean Outfall Wastewater Disposal Feasibility and 

Planning, Report No. 79-1. Dept. of Marine Science and Engineering, NCSU; Report No. 5, Institute 

for Coastal and Marine Resources, ECU. 482 p. 

*This report follows an EIS format and is cited as a single document. Individual chapters are not 

stand-alone documents. Major findings of the study were: 1) Construction and operation of a well 

designed and operated sewage treatment plant that utilizes an ocean outfall and secondary treatment 

should not adversely affect the water column on fishery resources. Some build up of effluent 

constituents may occur in the bottom sediments in the immediate vicinity of the diffuser and could 

result in bottom community changes. 2) Effluent discharge should have essentially no adverse affect 

on recreational swimming in the areas of the diffuser. Areas now closed to shellfishing in the 

estuaries could be reopened as a result of reduced pathogen loadings: these pathogens are presently 

coming from septic tanks and treatment plants that discharge into these waters. 3) Centralized sewer 

systems will increase land values, allow reduced lot size and stimulate growth. This will lead to 

change in the population composition and demands for expanded goods and services. 

Laws, R.A., and L.B. Cahoon. 1992. Benthic Diatoms from the North Carolina shelf and slope. pp. 103-

10. In: U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service. Proceedings of the Fourth 

Atlantic OCS Region Information Transfer Meeting, September 1991. U.S. Department of the 

Interior, Minerals Management Service. Herndon, VA. 

The Fourth Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) Regional Information Transfer Meeting was held 

on 24-25 September 1991, in Wilmington, NC. The focus of the meeting was on the OCS off North 

Carolina, specifically on activities related to a proposed exploratory well for oil and gas by Mobil on 

Block 467 a site 40 miles off the coast of North Carolina. The area of industry interest is known as the 

Manteo Prospect, while the activities surrounding the proposed drilling are referred to collectively as 

the Manteo Project. The wildcat wellsite is in 2,690 ft. (857 m) of water near the edge of the Gulf 

Stream. It is also near a fishing ground known locally as “The Point.” The area is believed to be gas 

prone rather than oil prone. The estimated size of the resource could be as high as 5 trillion cubic feet 

of gas. 

The purpose of the meeting was to exchange information on the leasing background, legislative 

activities, scientific results, and socioeconomic studies. Legislative-related reports include 

descriptions of the Oil Pollution Act of 1990, the Outer Banks Protection Act, the Environmental 

Studies Review Panel, and the North Carolina Physical Oceanography Panel. Reports of studies on 

marine life include benthic diatoms, benthic fauna, pelagic seabirds, sea turtles, and right whales. One 

report describes the use of airships (blimps) for ocean research a capability relevant to North Carolina 

because of the east coast airship facility is located in the state. Local marine science facilities 

described include NOAA’s National Undersea Research Center at the University of North Carolina at 

Wilmington and the National Marine Fisheries Service laboratory in Beaufort. 

Developments in oil spill cleanup technology and capabilities are described by both the Coast Guard 

and the industry. A socioeconomic report describes the effects of the oil and gas activities on the 

tourist industry. Lastly, research on the restoration of salt marshes indicates that rehabilitation of an 

area is possible when development or an accident has occurred. While the emphasis of the meeting 

was on oil and gas, two reports described the results of projects related to offshore sand mining. The 
Biological Oceanography Chapter — 193 

appendix lists the names and addresses of speakers. Individual chapters are cited individually when 

appropriate. 

Conventional wisdom has it that phytoplankton are at the base of the food chain. However, another 

important food source has been documented — the benthic microalgae. The green-brown mat one 

sometimes sees on the ocean floor is, in fact, a mat of benthic diatoms. These microalgae are an 

important food source. At times and places, these benthic flora exceed those of the water column in 

productivity. This section describes the role of benthic microalgae in the project area. 

Levin, L., N. Blair, D. DeMaster, G. Plaia, W. Fornes, C. Martin, and C. Thomas. 1997. Rapid subduction 

of organic matter by maldanid polychaetes on the North Carolina slope. Journal of Marine Research 

55: 595-611. 

In situ tracer experiments conducted on the North Carolina continental slope reveal that tube-building 

worms (Polychaeta: Maldanidae) can, without ingestion, rapidly subduct freshly deposited, algal 

carbon (13C-labeled diatoms) and inorganic materials (slope sediment and glass beads) to depths of 10 

cm or more in the sediment column. Transport over 1.5 days appears to be nonselective but spatially 

patchy, creating localized, deep hotspots. As a result of this transport, relatively fresh organic matter 

becomes available soon after deposition to deep-dwelling microbes and other infauna, and both 

aerobic and anaerobic processes may be enhanced. Comparison of tracer subduction with estimates 

from a diffusive mixing model using 234Th-based coefficients, suggests that maldanid subduction 

activities, within 1.5 d of particle deposition, could account for 25-100% of the mixing below 5 cm 

that occurs on 100-day time scales. Comparison of community data from the North Carolina slope for 

different places and times indicate a correlation between the abundance of deep-welling maldanids 

and the abundance and the dwelling depth in the sediment column of other infauna. Pulsed inputs of 

organic matter occur frequently in margin environments and maldanid polychaetes are a common 

component of continental slope macrobenthos. Thus, the activities we observe are likely to be 

widespread and significant for chemical cycling (natural and anthropogenic materials) on the slope. 

We propose that species like maldanids, that rapidly redistribute labile organic matter within the 

seabed, probably function as keystone resource modifiers. They may exert a disproportionately strong 

influence (relative to their abundance) on the structure of infaunal communities and on the timing, 

location and nature of organic matter diagenesis and burial in continental margin sediments. 

Milliman, J.D., R.J. Diaz, J.A. Blake, and G.R. Cutter Jr. (eds.). 1994. Topical Studies in Oceanography: 

Input, Accumulation and Cycling of Materials on the Continental Slope Off Cape Hatteras. Deep-Sea 

Research II Vol. 41. 982 p. 

*This is a compilation of studies on Input, Accumulation and Cycling of Materials on the Continental 

Slope Off Cape Hatteras. Geology, sediments, organics, and benthic fauna are discussed. A CD-ROM 

is included. Each chapter (study) is cited independently, when appropriate. Some papers in this issue 

were derived from Diaz et al. (1993). 

Nash, R.M., J.J. Magnuson, C.S. Clay, and T.K. Stanton. 1987. A Synoptic View of the Gulf Stream 

Front with 70-kHz Sonar: Taking Advantage of a Closer Look. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and 

Aquatic Sciences 44(11): 2022-2024. 

Acoustical scattering across the near surface frontal zone of the Gulf Stream off Cape Hatteras was 

greatest in the thermal front. Little biological scattering was evident in the colder Slope water, but in 

the Gulf Stream, scatters formed five horizontal bands. Interpretation and new applications of 

acoustical information in biological oceanography are discussed. 
194 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

O’Reilly, J.E., and C. Zetlin. 1998. Seasonal, Horizontal, and Vertical Distribution of Phytoplankton 

Chlorophyll a in the Northeast U.S. Continental Shelf Ecosystem. NOAA Technical report NMFS 

139. U.S. Department of Commerce. Seattle, WA. 120 p. 

The broad scale features in the horizontal, vertical, and seasonal distribution of phytoplankton 

chlorophyll a on the northeast U.S. continental shelf are described based on 57,088 measurements 

made during 78 oceanographic surveys from 1977 through 1988. Highest mean water column 

chlorophyll concentration (Chlw) is usually observed in nearshore areas adjacent to the mouths of the 

estuaries in the Middle Atlantic Bight (MAB), over the shallow water on Georges Bank, and a small 

area sampled along the southeast edge of Nantucket Shoals. Lowest Chlw (<O.125 ug l-1) is usually 

restricted to the most seaward stations sampled along the shelf-break and the central deep waters in 

the Gulf of Maine. There is at least a twofold seasonal variation in phytoplankton biomass in all areas, 

with highest phytoplankton concentrations (m3

) and highest integrated standing stocks (m2) occurring 

during the winter-spring (WS) bloom, and the lowest during summer, when vertical density 

stratification is maximal. In most regions, a secondary phytoplankton biomass pulse is evident during 

convective destratification in fall, usually in October. Fall bloom in some areas of Georges Bank 

approaches the magnitude of the WS-bloom, but Georges Bank and Middle Atlantic Bight fall blooms 

are clearly subordinate to WS-blooms. 

Measurements of chlorophyll in two size-fractions of the phytoplankton, netplankton (>20 um) and 

nanoplankton (<20 u m), revealed that the smaller nanoplankton are responsible for most of the 

phytoplankton biomass on the northeast U.S. shelf Netplankton tend to be more abundant in 

nearshore areas of the MAB and shallow water on Georges Bank, where chlorophyll a is usually high; 

nanoplankton dominate deeper water at the shelf-break and deep water in the Gulf of Maine, where 

Chlw is usually low. As a general rule, the percent of phytoplankton in the netplankton size-fraction 

increases with increasing depth below surface and decreases proceeding offshore. 

There are distinct seasonal and regional patterns in the vertical distribution of chlorophyll a and 

percent netplankton, as revealed in composite vertical profiles of chlorophyll a constructed for 11 

layers of the water column. Subsurface chlorophyll a maxima are ubiquitous during summer in 

stratified water. Chlorophyll a in the subsurface maximum layer is generally 2-8 times the 

concentration in the overlying and underlying water and approaches 50 to 75% of the levels observed 

in surface water during WS-bloom. The distribution of the ratio of the subsurface maximum 

chlorophyll a to surface chlorophyll a (SSR) during summer parallels the shelfwide pattern for 

stability, indexed as the difference in density (sigma-t) between 40 in and surface (stability40). The 

weakest stability and lowest SSR’s are found in shallow tidally-mixed water on Georges Bank; the 

greatest stability and highest SSR’s (8-12:1) are along the mid and outer MAB shelf, over the winter 

residual water known as the “cold band.’ On Georges Bank, the distribution of SSR and the 

stability4o are roughly congruent with the pattern for maximum surface tidal current velocity, with 

values above 50 cms-1 defining SSR’s less than 2:1 and the well-mixed area. 

Physical factors (bathymetry, vertical mixing by strong tidal currents, and seasonal and regional 

differences in the intensity and duration of vertical stratification) appear to explain much of the 

variability in phytoplankton chlorophyll a throughout this ecosystem. 

Pietrafesa, L.J. 1998. Physical Environment Review: An Overview of the Meteorology and Physical 

Oceanography Surrounding Lease Blocks 467 and 510. pp. 31-32. In: Vigil, D.L. (ed.). North 

Carolina/Minerals Management Service Technical Workshop on Manteo Unit Exploration: February 

4-5, 1998. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region. 

New Orleans, LA. 
Biological Oceanography Chapter — 195 

*These are the proceedings from a workshop/meeting (February 4-5, 1998) between the North 

Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources, and the U.S. Department of the 

Interior’s Minerals Management Service (MMS). The geographic area being discussed is 

approximately 45 miles east-northeast of Cape Hatteras, NC, referred to as the Manteo Unit. This 

workshop reviewed environmental and socioeconomic information known and needed on the Manteo 

Unit. The MMS’s Gulf of Mexico OCS Regional Director gave an MMS perspective on history and 

status of the area. Chevron gave a presentation on how the exploratory well would be drilled. The 

scientific characterization was presented in greater detail by a number of scientific experts who spoke 

on the following disciplines physical environment, habitat and living resources, seabirds, marine 

mammals, sea turtles, and social and economic issues. Specific chapters are cited individually, when 

appropriate. 

This section discusses Atmospheric Weather and Climatology, Physical Oceanography, Recent 

Findings (e.g., Hatteras Confluence region, offshelf transport), Issues (e.g., ability to predict oil spill 

trajectory, ability of oil rigs to withstand cyclone forcing, ability of drill ship to evacuate site during 

genesis of atmospheric bombs, role of physical oceanography in biological productivity). 

Shepard, A. (ed.). 1991. Undersea Research at The Point. NURC/UNCW 1991 Undersea Research: 

Informational Meeting. National Undersea Research Center, University of North Carolina at 

Wilmington. Wilmington, NC. 9 p. 

*This handout is a summary of research being conducted at “The Point” area (Manteo Lease Block 

467). 

The National Undersea Research Center at the University of North Carolina at Wilmington, funded 

by a grant from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s (NOAA) Office of Undersea 

Research (OUR), was established in 1980 to promote, facilitate, and conduct research in the 

Southeastern United States utilizing undersea techniques, including advanced wet diving and manned 

and unmanned submersibles. A main Center goal is to provide information to NOAA that will assist 

the agency in fulfilling its charter to explore, understand, conserve and manage the U.S. marine 

environment and associated resources. To help meet this goal, the Center supports and conducts 

interdisciplinary oceanographic research projects studying continental margin processes, particularly 

the interactions and linkages between estuarine, continental shelf, and slope (including submarine 

canyon) environments. 

Shepard, A., and A.H. Hulbert (eds.). 1994. Workshop Report: Present and Future Research Initiatives on 

the Upper Hatteras Slope off North Carolina. National Undersea Research Center at the University of 

North Carolina at Wilmington. Wilmington, NC. 30p. 

*This report is the result of the May 1993 workshop held in Raleigh, NC. The topics of discussion 

were research (present and planned) at the Upper Hatteras Slope (UHS) and potential funding 

sources. The workshop was sponsored by National Undersea Research Center at the University of 

North Carolina at Wilmington. The report provides a brief description of the UHS invertebrates, 

biological oceanography, chemical oceanography, geological oceanography (bathymetry, oil and gas 

exploration), physical oceanography, fisheries, and Sargassum. Appendix A is a workshop agenda 

and list of speakers. No abstracts for speakers are provided. Appendix B is a list of potential funding 

sources. Appendix C contains a list of publications pertaining to the UHS. 

U.S. Department of the Navy. 1985. EMPRESS II: Supplemental Draft Environmental Impact Statement 

for the Proposed Operation of the Navy Electromagnetic Pulse Radiation Environment Simulator for 

Ships (Empress II) in the Chesapeake Bay and Atlantic Ocean. United States Navy. Environmental/ 
196 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

Intergovernmental Section. Atlantic Division. Naval Facilities Engineering and Command. Norfolk, 

VA. 

*This is a National Environmental Policy Act document characterizing the proposed EMPRESS II 

project. Appendix B contains a Summary of Biological Processes in the Proposed VACAPES 

EMPRESS II area off North Carolina Relating to Planktonic Communities, Pelagic 

Macroinvertebrates, Ichthyofauna, Sea turtles, Marine Mammals, and Sea Birds. Technical reports 

supporting this summary were written by authorities in each discipline and are included in 

Appendices. The reports are cited individually. The southern portion of VACAPES EMPRESS II 

Area of North Carolina overlaps with the northern portion of the defined study area for the Data 

Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope (The Point) Area. 

Verity, P. 1998. Habitat and Living Resources Review: Water Column Biology at Cape Hatteras. p. 52. 

In: Vigil, D. L. (ed.). North Carolina/Minerals Management Service Technical Workshop on Manteo 

Unit Exploration: February 4-5, 1998. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, Gulf 

of Mexico OCS Region. New Orleans, LA. 

*These are the proceedings from a workshop/meeting (February 4-5, 1998) between the North 

Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources, and the U.S. Department of the 

Interior’s Minerals Management Service (MMS). The geographic area being discussed is 

approximately 45 miles east-northeast of Cape Hatteras, NC, referred to as the Manteo Unit. This 

workshop reviewed environmental and socioeconomic information known and needed on the Manteo 

Unit. The MMS’s Gulf of Mexico OCS Regional Director gave an MMS perspective on history and 

status of the area. Chevron gave a presentation on how the exploratory well would be drilled. The 

scientific characterization was presented in greater detail by a number of scientific experts who spoke 

on the following disciplines physical environment, habitat and living resources, seabirds, marine 

mammals, sea turtles, and social and economic issues. Specific chapters are cited individually, when 

appropriate. 

It is essential in any overview of pelagic food web structure and function to place it in the proper 

physical perspective. In the Carolina Capes region in general, phytoplankton biomass is typically 

highest in late winter/early spring, associated with a vernal bloom. Higher concentrations occur closer 

to shore and along shelf/slope fronts. Immediately south of Cape Hatteras is a large area of high 

upwelling. This massive nitrate flux in to the euphotic zone induces substantial plankton 

development, which advents northward from the South Atlantic Bight (SAB) past Cape Hatteras. The 

latter is also at the confluence of southward-flowing Mid Atlantic Bight (MAB) water which exists at 

Cape Hatteras. 

Vigil, D.L. (ed.). 1998. North Carolina/Minerals Management Service Technical Workshop on Manteo 

Unit Exploration: February 4-5, 1998. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management Service. Gulf 

of Mexico OCS Region. New Orleans, LA. 168 p. 

*These are the proceedings from a workshop/meeting (February 4-5, 1998) between the North 

Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources, and the U.S. Department of the 

Interior’s Minerals Management Service (MMS). The geographic area being discussed is 

approximately 45 miles east-northeast of Cape Hatteras, NC, referred to as the Manteo Unit. This 

workshop reviewed environmental and socioeconomic information known and needed on the Manteo 

Unit. The MMS’s Gulf of Mexico OCS Regional Director gave an MMS perspective on history and 

status of the area. Chevron gave a presentation on how the exploratory well would be drilled. The 

scientific characterization was presented in greater detail by a number of scientific experts who spoke 

on the following disciplines physical environment, habitat and living resources (invertebrates and 
Biological Oceanography Chapter — 197 

fish), seabirds, marine mammals, sea turtles, and social and economic issues. Specific chapters are 

cited individually, when appropriate. 

Walsh, J.J. 1994. Particle export at Cape Hatteras. Deep-Sea Research II Vol. 41(2-3): 603-628. 

A simple model of shelf, slope and basin waters near Cape Hatteras, North Carolina is used to 

estimate the sources and sinks of organic carbon within the Gulf Stream System. The analysis 

employs water transport estimates, nutrient data. satellite imagery, surficial sediment records and 

particle distributions caught by bottle, camera and sediment trap to compute vertical and lateral fluxes 

of particulate carbon. Particle export from the SAB and MAB shelf ecosystems may constitute 62-

82% of the source of the carbon flux within the Gulf Stream near 75 W, after settling at 100 m day -1, 

with an oxidation loss of 4% day-1, to a nominal mid-depth of 1000 m on the slope. 

As a result of light limitation, denitrification and DON solubilization, partial utilization of onwelled 

nitrate from the Gulf Stream System by coastal phytoplankton suggests that the time-averaged f ratio 

may be as small as 0.12 for the ratio of the “new” portion of primary production to the total. After 

burial loss, the export of particulate matter from the shelves then represents at most 11% of the total 

carbon fixation of coastal waters. If the shelf export of DON and unutilized NO3 is consumed within 

adjacent slope waters, however, the f ratio and the percentage of particle export from the carbon 

fixation of shelf-affected waters might increase to 0.25 and 24%. 

Willey, J.D., and L.B. Cahoon. 1991. Enhancement of chlorophyll a production in Gulf Stream surface 

seawater by rainwater nitrate. Marine Chemistry 34: 63-75. 

The concentration of nitrate commonly found in rain from continental storm systems passing over 

eastern North Carolina was sufficient to stimulate chlorophyll a production in surface Gulf Stream 

water collected over the continental slope near Cape Hatteras, NC, in mid-October 1989. Two 

bioassay experiments were conducted on board ship by mixing Gulf Stream surface seawater with 

synthetic rainwater (5% rainwater). These bioassays indicated an increased production of chlorophyll 

a in response to rainwater nitrate but not phosphate. The response was apparent after incubation for 2 

days after the chlorophyll a concentration increased approximately 2.5 times relative to controls in 

both experiments. 
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Figure 13. Biological Oceanography Citations

N

W E

S

5 0 5 
Key to Biological Oceanography Citations (Figure 13).

Broad Regional Studies

Studies that Focus on the Manteo Lease Blocks

Studies that Cover the HatteMiddle Slope Area ("The Po

Mapped Citations

Lease BlocksStudy Area Boundary

a Harvey (1994)

#S O'Reilly & Zetlin (1998)

Barber (1985); U.S. Dept. Navy (1985)

%U Levin et al. (1997)

` Cahoon et al. (1994)

&\ Curtain (1979 a-d); Langfelder et al. (1979)

Cutter et al. (1994a); Milliman et al. (1994)Nash et al. (1987)

+ +

Abernathy et al. (1989)Atkinson et al. (1985)Walsh (1994)

Diaz et al. (1993b)Kirby-Smith (1989a)Shepard (1991)Willey & Cahoon (1991)

Blair (1998)Costlow (1992)Crawford (1989)Laws & Cahoon (1992)Pietrafesa (1998)Shepard & Hulbert (1994)Verity (1998)Vigil (1998)
CHEMICAL OCEANOGRAPHY CHAPTER 
Chemical Oceanography Chapter — 203 

CHEMICAL OCEANOGRAPHY CHAPTER 

Abernathy, S.A., M.T. Baer, C.S. Benner, M.S. Brody, D.K. Francois, J.K. Gilliam, L.K. Good, C.J. 

Ohara, and J.V. Martin. 1989. Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf: Description of the Mid-Atlantic 

Environment. Abernathy, S.A. (ed.). U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, 

Atlantic OCS Region, Environmental Assessment Section. Herndon, VA. 167 p. 

*This document discusses the major issues and areas of concern for the mid-Atlantic environment 

that are considered in the planning process for oil and gas leasing and operations on the Outer 

Continental Shelf (OCS). The issues are addressed with respect to the potential environmental 

consequences of mid Atlantic oil and gas exploration, development and production. A section 

discussing The Physical Environment (e.g., geology, non-petroleum minerals, physical oceanography, 

chemical oceanography and water quality, ocean dumping, meteorology, air quality), Biological 

resources (e.g., plankton, benthos, fishery resources, marine reptiles, marine mammals, marine and 

coastal birds, estuaries, wetlands, sensitive coastal habitats, canyon areas), Socioeconomic 

Environment, and other issues (e.g., archaeological resources, marine vessel traffic, National 

Aeronautics and Space Administration/ Department of Defense activities, oil and gas infrastructure, 

marine sanctuaries, and estuarine research reserves) is included. Most of the figures showing fisheries 

resource distribution are taken from fisheries data compiled for bottom-trawl and shellfish surveys of 

the National Marine Fisheries Service, Northeast Fisheries Center, Woods Hole, MA. 

Anderson, R.F., G.T. Rowe, P.F. Kemp, S. Trumbore, and P.E. Biscaye. 1994. Carbon budget for the 

mid-slope depocenter of the Middle Atlantic Bight. Deep-Sea Research II Vol. 41(2-3): 669-703. 

A mass budget was constructed for organic carbon on the upper slope of the Middle Atlantic Bight. A 

region thought to serve as a depocenter for fine-grained material exported from the adjacent shelf. 

Various components of the budget are internally consistent, and observed differences can be 

attributed to natural spatial variability or to the different time scales, over which measurements were 

made. The flux of organic carbon to the sediments in the core of the depocenter zone, at it water depth 

of ~ 1000 m, was measured with sediment traps to be 65 mg C m-2 day-1 is buried. Oxygen fluxes into 

the sediments, measured with incubation chambers attached to a free vehicle lander, correspond to 

total carbon remineralization rates of 49-79 mg C m-2 day -1. Carbon remineralization rates estimated 

from gradients of Corg within the mixed layer, and from gradients of dissolved ammonia and 

phosphate in pore waters, sum to only ~4-6 mg C m-2 day-1. 

Most of the Corg deposited on the upper slope sediments is supplied by lateral transport from other 

regions, but even if all of this material were derived from the adjacent shelf, it represents, <2% of the 

mean annual shelf productivity. This value is further lowered by recognizing that as much as half of 

the Corg deposited on the slope is refractory, having originated by reworking from older deposits. 

Refractory Corg arrives at the seabed with an average 14C age 600-900 years older than the pre-bomb 

14C age of DIC in seawater, and has a mean life in the sediments with respect to biological 

remineralization of at least 1000 years. Labile carbon supplied to the slope, on the other hand, is 

rapidly and (virtually) completely remineralized, with a mean life of < ~ 1 year. Carbon-14 ages of 

fine-grained carbonate and organic carbon present within the interstices of shelf sands are consistent 

with this material acting as a source for the old carbon supplied to the slope. Winnowing and export 

of reworked carbon may contribute to the often-described relationship between organic carbon 

preservation and accumulation rate of marine sediments. 
204 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

Anderson, W.W., and J.W. Gehringer. 1959a. Physical oceanographic, biological, and chemical data, 

South Atlantic coast of the United States, M/V Theodore N. Gill cruise 7. US Department of the 

Interior, US Fish and Wildlife Service, Special Scientific Report — Fisheries No. 278. 277 p. 

*This report documents stations sampled throughout the South Atlantic Bight during June-July 1954. 

Weather, water chemistry, and sea state data were collected. Plankton samples were collected and fish 

were sampled by dip net and trolling. A few stations were near or within the southern border of our 

study area. 

—. 1959b. Physical oceanographic, biological, and chemical data, South Atlantic coast of the United 

States, M/V Theodore N. Gill cruise 8. US Department of the Interior, US Fish and Wildlife Service, 

Special Scientific Report — Fisheries No. 303. 227 p. 

*This report documents stations sampled throughout the South Atlantic Bight during August — 

September 1954. Weather, water chemistry, and sea state data were collected. Plankton samples were 

collected and fish were sampled by dip net and trolling. A few stations were near or within the 

southern border of our study area. 

Anderson, W.W., J.W. Gehringer, and E. Cohen. 1956. Physical oceanographic, biological, and chemical 

data, South Atlantic coast of the United States, Theodore N. Gill cruise 2. US Department of the 

Interior, US Fish and Wildlife Service, Special Scientific Report — Fisheries No. 198. 270 p. 

*This report documents stations sampled throughout the South Atlantic Bight during May 1953. 

Weather, water chemistry, and sea state data were collected. Plankton samples were collected and fish 

were sampled by dip net and trolling. A few stations were near or within the southern border of our 

study area. 

Anderson, W.W., J.E. Moore, and H.R. Gordy. 1961. Oceanic salinities off the South Atlantic coast of the 

United States, Theodore N. Gill cruises 1-9, 1953-1954. US Department of the Interior, US Fish and 

Wildlife Service, Special Scientific Report — Fisheries No. 389. 207 p. 

Salinity data secured on nine cruises of the M/V Theodore N. Gill off the south Atlantic coast of the 

United States are further processed and organized in a much more usable and readily available form. 

Surface water salinities are presented graphically by season. 

Atkinson, L.P. 1985. Hydrography and Nutrients of the Southeastern U.S. Continental Shelf. 

Oceanography of the Southeastern U.S. Continental Shelf. Coastal and Estuarine Sciences 2: 77-92. 

The distribution of properties such as temperature and salinity, of nutrients such as nitrate, phosphate, 

and silicate, and of derived properties such as buoyancy in the South Atlantic Bight depends on 

complex interactions of shelf waters with rivers, coastal estuaries and sounds, atmospheric forcing, 

and, most importantly, the Gulf Stream. Seasonal variations in temperature depend on the seasonal 

heating cycle, air-sea exchange processes, and Gulf Stream interaction. The result is extreme 

variations in temperature both seasonally and spatially. Salinity variations are mainly related to 

seasonal river flow, which peaks in the spring, and subsequent shelf circulation processes. Variations 

in temperature and salinity occur over shorter time scales because of Gulf Stream meanders and 

frontal eddies that cause intrusions of surface or subsurface water into the shelf waters. Intrusion 

frequency and cross-shelf excursion vary seasonally and latitudinally. The supply of nutrients mainly 

depends on Gulf Stream intrusions. Gulf Stream water colder than about 20°C contains significant 

amounts of nutrients. Such waters invade the shelf more frequently during the summer in the southern 

bight. Chemical tracers such as phenolic aldehydes, humic compound fluorescence, and tritium have 

been used successfully to trace coastal waters. 
Chemical Oceanography Chapter — 205 

Atkinson, L.P., D.W. Menzel, and K.A. Bush. 1985. Oceanography of the Southeastern U.S. Continental 

Shelf. American Geophysical Union. Washington, DC. 156 p. 

*This book contains 12 chapters: an introduction; four chapters on physical oceanography; a chapter 

on hydrography and nutrients; four biological chapters (covering phytoplankton, zooplankton, 

bacteria, and macroinfauna); a chemical chapter on trace metals; and a summary chapter describing 

future research plans. Research included was conducted between 1975 and the early 1980’s and was 

largely funded by the Department of Energy and the Minerals Management Service (formerly Bureau 

of Land Management). The South Atlantic Bight extends from the temperate waters of Cape Hatteras, 

NC to subtropical waters of West Palm Beach, FL. The ocean region is influenced by Gulf Stream 

dynamics on the eastern boundary, synoptic winds and weather events, river and estuarine inputs. 

Bailey, T.G., M.J. Youngbluth, and G.P. Owen. 1995. Chemical composition and metabolic rates of 

gelatinous zooplankton from midwater and benthic boundary layer environments off Cape Hatteras, 

North Carolina, USA . Marine Ecology Progress Series 122: 121-134. 

Quantitative determinations of chemical composition and oxygen consumption rates were made for 7 

species of gelatinous zooplankton (ctenophores and medusae) from midwater and benthic boundary 

layer habitats off Cape Hatteras, NC, USA. Although there were no apparent trends in chemical 

composition with depth of occurrence, midwater species were generally less robust, in terms of 

protein and lipid content, than those from benthopelagic depths. These differences in chemical 

compositions between midwater and benthopelagic species are probably related to factors associated 

with swimming behaviors required for prey capture and predator avoidance. Measurements of carbon 

specific metabolic rates (0.59 to 17.9 ul O mg 1

 C h 1) indicated that minimum daily rations required 

by mesopelagic gelatinous zooplankton can impact carbon cycling and energy transfer in deep-water 

ecosystems. These data are consistent with a growing inventory of metabolic measurements 

undertaken with submersible platforms and strongly implicate gelatinous zooplankton as ecologically 

important components of pelagic communities. 

Barrett, J.R., Jr. 1965. Subsurface currents off Cape Hatteras. Deep-Sea Research 12: 173-184. 

In October 1962, direct current measurements at depths of 800 m to 2500 m beneath the zone of 

swiftest surface currents near Cape Hatteras revealed a subsurface flow to the south. Analysis of 

temperature-salinity and dissolved oxygen distributions indicate that the immediate source of the 

southward flowing water was the region east of Cape Hatteras between the Gulf Stream and the 

Continental Slope. These measurements seem to affirm that continuity exists between the deep 

westward flow observed in the Slope Water region by Volkmann and the southward flow east of Cape 

Roman, near 33N, reported by Swallow and Worthington. The geostrophic volume transport of the 

southward flow was between 4 million and 12 million m3

 sec-1. The surface of zero axial velocity was 

at a depth of about 500 m at the left side of the region of swift surface current (inshore), and deepened 

rapidly in the offshore direction. 

Blair, N. 1998. A Scientific Overview of the Region Surrounding Lease Blocks 467 and 510. pp. 14-17. 

In: Vigil, D.L. (ed.). North Carolina/Minerals Management Service Technical Workshop on Manteo 

Unit Exploration: February 4-5, 1998. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, Gulf 

of Mexico OCS Region. New Orleans, LA. 

*These are the proceedings from a workshop/meeting (February 4-5, 1998) between the North 

Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources, and the U.S. Department of the 

Interior’s Minerals Management Service (MMS). The geographic area being discussed is 

approximately 45 miles east-northeast of Cape Hatteras, NC, referred to as the Manteo Unit. This 

workshop reviewed environmental and socioeconomic information known and needed on the Manteo 
206 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

Unit. The MMS’s Gulf of Mexico OCS Regional Director gave an MMS perspective on history and 

status of the area. Chevron gave a presentation on how the exploratory well would be drilled. The 

scientific characterization was presented in greater detail by a number of scientific experts who spoke 

on the following disciplines physical environment, habitat and living resources, seabirds, marine 

mammals, sea turtles, and social and economic issues. Specific chapters are cited individually, when 

appropriate. 

The continental margin offshore Cape Hatteras, NC has been the focus of numerous oceanographic 

studies. The objective of this report is to provide an overview of physical, biological, geological, and 

chemical processes that operate in the region so that the results from individual disciplinary studies 

can be placed in a system-wide context. This section discusses hydrocarbon potential, water column 

observations and processes, benthic observations and processes, summary and the future. 

Blair, N.E., L.A. Levin, D.J. DeMaster, and G. Plaia. 1996. The short-term fate of fresh algal carbon in 

continental slope sediments. Limnol. Oceanogr. 41(6): 1208-1219. 

Emplacement of tracer mixture containing 13C-labeled green algae on the sea floor of the continental 

slope offshore Cape Hatteras, North Carolina, elicited a rapid responses over 1.5 d from the dense 

benthic community. Certain deposit-feeding annelids (e.g. Scalibregma inflatum and Aricidea 

quadrilobata) became heavily labeled with 13C-labeled organic matter was transported to a depth of at 

least 4-5 cm into the seabed during the 1.5 d period, presumably as a consequence of feedingassociated activity. Nonlocal transport produced subsurface peaks in organic 13C at 2-3 cm. Dissolved 

inorganic 13C, produced by the oxidation of the labeled algae, penetrated to 10-cm depth. The 

transport of highly reactive organic matter from the sediment surface at initial velocities ≥ 3 cm d -1 is 

expected to be an important control of subsurface benthic processes in slope environments 

characterized by abundant macrofaunal populations. Anaerobic processes, which are enhanced on the 

Cape Hatteras slope relative to adjacent areas, may be promoted by the rapid injection of reactive 

material into subsurface sediments. The transport, in turn, is a consequence of the dense infaunal 

populations that are supported by the rapid depositions of organic carbon in this region. 

Blair, N.E., G.R. Plaia, S.E. Boehme, D.J. DeMaster, and L.A. Levin. 1994. The remineralization of 

organic carbon on the North Carolina continental slope. Deep-Sea Research II Vol. 41(4-6): 755-766. 

The sources and fates of metabolized organic carbon were examined at three sites on the North 

Carolina slope positioned offshore of Cape Fear, Cape Lookout, and Cape Hatteras. The 12C/12C 

composition ( 13C) of the solid phase organic matter, and the dissolved inorganic carbon (Σ CO2) 

produced during its oxidation, suggested that the labile fraction was predominantly marine in origin. 

The Σ CO2 concentration gradient across the sediment-water interface, and by inference the Σ CO2 

flux and production rate increased northward from Cape Fear to Cape Hatteras. Methane distributions 

and Σ CO2  13C values suggest that the rate of anaerobic diagenesis increased northward as well. 

The differences in sedimentary biogeochemistry are most likely driven by an along-slope gradient of 

reactive organic carbon flux to the seabed. This trend in reactive organic carbon flux correlates well 

worth macrofaunal densities previously observed at the three sites. Proximity to the shelf and the 

transport of particulate material by surface boundary currents may control the deposition of 

metabolized material on the Carolina slope. 

Evidence of methanogenesis is found only on the Cape Hatteras slope. The methane, which was 

produced at a depth of approximately 1 m in the seabed, was consumed nearly quantitatively in the 

biologically mixed layer as it diffused upward. Irrigation of the sediments by infauna may have 

provided the necessary oxidant for the consumption of the methane. 
Chemical Oceanography Chapter — 207 

Blair, N., L. Levin, and D. DeMaster. 1991. Biology and Carbon Cycling on the Carolina Slope. p. 9. 

Shepard, A. (ed.). NURC/UNCW 1991 Undersea Research: Informational Meeting. National 

Undersea Research Center, University of North Carolina at Wilmington. Wilmington, NC. 

Resources as diverse as fisheries, some minerals and fossil fuels, as well as the atmosphere and 

climate have been linked to the cycling of carbon and the associated biogenic nutrients along 

continental margins. The continental slope is an area which has been poorly studied even though it is 

the site of intense biogeochemical activity. An interdisciplinary program which focuses on the 

biogeochemistry of the Carolina slope environment is currently underway to investigate the 

relationship of carbon cycling with the sediment-dwelling ecosystem. Three sites, all at 850 meters 

water depth, have been studied. Sites I and II, which are off Charleston, South Carolina, and Cape 

Lookout, North Carolina, respectively, are representative of typical slope environments in terms of 

animal populations, sediment geochemistry and sediment accumulation. Site III, which is off of Cape 

Hatteras and near “The Point,” has significantly higher populations of bottom-dwelling animals, 

different animal species and higher rates of organic matter degradation. Biogenic methane formation 

occurs at Site III but not at the other sites. These differences are thought to be related to the delivery 

rate of organic matter (food) to the seafloor. The convergence of boundary currents in this region may 

prove to be an important controlling factor by transporting organic matter into the area or by 

stimulating localized surface production via the delivery of nutrients. In contrast to the other sites, the 

sea floor at Site III is an area of high-relief and is more prone to episodic sedimentation and mass 

wasting. The combination of the high-relief bottom with the relatively large delivery rate of organic 

carbon to the seafloor may have resulted in a uniquely adapted ecosystem. 

Future directions in research include identifying the sources of the sedimentary organic matter and the 

relationship between the ocean physics and the carbon delivery rate. The rates of organic matter 

delivery, decomposition and burial need to be measured as they represent important controls on the 

benthic ecosystems. Specific relationships between the benthic communities, the carbon cycle and 

sediment dynamics are to be investigated. Descriptions of the cliff-face communities are needed as 

they represent an important component of the overall ecosystems at Site III. 

Blake, J.A., and R.J Diaz. 1994. Input, accumulation and cycling of materials on the continental slope off 

Cape Hatteras: An introduction. Deep-Sea Research II Vol. 41(4-6): 707-710. 

The studies reported in this special issue of Deep-Sea Research are largely derived from data 

collected as part of programs supported by the U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals Management 

Service (MMS) in response to concerns about the effect of oil and gas exploration on the largely 

unknown continental slope environment. Results of the MMS U.S. South Atlantic continental slope 

and rise program conducted off the Carolinas from Cape Hatteras to off Charleston in depths raging 

from 600 to 3500 m identified the importance of the slope off Cape Hatteras in cycling of materials 

from the shelf to the deep sea. Other more detailed investigations followed which numerous gaps in 

our knowledge of the role played by such special regions of the continental slope in the global cycling 

of carbon and other minerals. 

Blake, J.A., B. Hecker, J.F. Grassle, B. Brown, M. Wade, P.D. Boehm, E. Baptiste, B. Hilbig, N. 

Maciolek, R. Petrecca, R.E. Ruff, V. Starczak, and L. Watling. 1987. Study of Biological Processes 

on the U.S. South Atlantic Slope and Rise: Phase 2. U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals 

Management Service, Atlantic OCS Region, Environmental Assessment Section. Herndon, VA. 

A total of 16 stations were sampled during a 2 year field program designed to characterize the 

biological, chemical, and sedimentary processes on the slope and rise off North and South Carolina. 

Box cores were taken along a 4 transects at depths of 600 to 3500 m. The infauna yielded a total of 

1202 species, 520 of which were new to science. Annelids were dominant taxa in terms of density and 
208 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

numbers of species. Species diversity was highest at an 800 m site off Charleston. Infaunal densities 

were highest on the upper slope (600 m) and lowest on the rise (3000 m). Life history analysis yielded 

evidence of seasonality for two polychaete species. Two stations off Cape Hatteras in depths of 600 m 

and 2000 m had higher infaunal density, lower species diversity, and higher biomass than elsewhere 

on the Atlantic slope and rise. Higher than normal lead and carbon inventories suggest enhanced 

scavenging processes in this area. Faunal patterns on the Cape Lookout transect were generally 

typical for other localities on the Atlantic Slope and Rise. Faunal changes were detected off Cape 

Fear and Charleston that may be related to the influence of the Gulf Stream and associated sediment 

changes. Epifauna were most unusual on the Charleston Bump, where a hard bottom fauna dominated 

by filter feeding corals and sponges thrives in an area strongly swept by the Gulf Stream. Consistent 

faunal differences were found between the upstream and downstream sides of the bump. Data 

generated in the infaunal and epifaunal surveys supported the view that a partial zoogeographic 

barrier exists on the slope off North Carolina. This break was most evident between Cape Lookout 

and Cape Fear. 

Blumberg, A.F., and G.L. Mellor. 1983. Diagnostic and Prognostic Numerical Circulation Studies of the 

South Atlantic Bight. Journal of Geophysical Research 88 C(8): 4579-4592. 

Some of the results from a series of diagnostic and prognostic numerical simulations of the circulation 

in the South Atlantic Bight (SAB) are described. The numerical model developed for the study is a 

three-dimensional, primitive equation, time dependent, a coordinate model with an imbedded, 

turbulent closure submodel which should yield realistic Ekman surface and bottom layers. An implicit 

numerical scheme in the vertical direction and a mode-splitting technique in time are adopted for 

computational efficiency. A significant portion of the paper is concerned with realistic specification 

of initial conditions for temperature and salinity, surface forcing, and lateral open boundary 

conditions. The latter are determined by a simple diagnostic (geostrophic and Ekman dynamics) 

model which provides dynamically consistent temperature, salinity, and velocity boundary conditions. 

It appears from an examination of the numerical simulations that the full model yields results that 

share many features in common with our general understanding of the circulation of the South 

Atlantic Bight; the region includes shallow shelf waters as well as deeper water dominated by the 

Gulf Stream. Data for synoptic skill assessment, however, are not available. 

Curtin, T.B. 1979a. Ocean Outfall Wastewater Disposal Feasibility and Planning: Oceanographic Field 

Observations off North Carolina Spring Survey 12 — 22 May 1978, Report No. 79-4. Dept. of 

Marine Science and Engineering, NCSU. 242 p. 

The objectives of the oceanographic field observations within the overall Ocean Outfall Feasibility 

and Planning Study (Langfelder et al. 1979) were both to provide input data for boundary condition 

initialization and to provide reference data for diagnostic testing of a series of coastal numerical 

circulation models under development. The data acquisition program was designed to parallel the 

model development in that a series of successive scales of variability were addressed. These scales 

have been defined as the shelf-scale, the nearshore scale, and the diffusive scale, and were 

characterized for the purposes of the study by temporal and spatial resolutions. Of particular overall 

interest in this project, with its ultimate focus on the nearshore coastal environment, was the 

interaction of the larger regional scale processes with those on smaller or local scale. 

*Shellfish closure is discussed. 

—. 1979b. Ocean Outfall Wastewater Disposal Feasibility and Planning: Oceanographic Field 

Observations off North Carolina Winter Survey 2-12 February 1978, Report No. 79-3. Dept. of 

Marine Science and Engineering, NCSU. 149 p. 
Chemical Oceanography Chapter — 209 

The objectives of the oceanographic field observations within the overall Ocean Outfall Feasibility 

and Planning Study (Langfelder et al. 1979) were both to provide input data for boundary condition 

initialization and to provide reference data for diagnostic testing of a series of coastal numerical 

circulation models under development. The data acquisition program was designed to parallel the 

model development in that a series of successive scales of variability were addressed. These scales 

have been defined as the shelf-scale, the nearshore scale, and the diffusive scale, and were 

characterized for the purposes of the study by temporal and spatial resolutions. Of particular overall 

interest in this project, with its ultimate focus on the nearshore coastal environment, was the 

interaction of the larger regional scale processes with those on smaller or local scale. 

*Shellfish closure is discussed. 

—. 1979c. Ocean Outfall Wastewater Disposal Feasibility and Planning: Oceanographic Field 

Observations off North Carolina Fall Survey 1-11 November 1977, Report No. 79-5. Dept. of Marine 

Science and Engineering, NCSU. 248 p. 

The objectives of the oceanographic field observations within the overall Ocean Outfall Feasibility 

and Planning Study (Langfelder et al. 1979) were both to provide input data for boundary condition 

initialization and to provide reference data for diagnostic testing of a series of coastal numerical 

circulation models under development. The data acquisition program was designed to parallel the 

model development in that a series of successive scales of variability were addressed. These scales 

have been defined as the shelf-scale, the nearshore scale, and the diffusive scale, and were 

characterized for the purposes of the study by temporal and spatial resolutions. Of particular overall 

interest in this project, with its ultimate focus on the nearshore coastal environment, was the 

interaction of the larger regional scale processes with those on smaller or local scale. 

*Shellfish closure is discussed. 

—. 1979d. Ocean Outfall Wastewater Disposal Feasibility and Planning: Oceanographic Field 

Observations Off North Carolina Summer Survey 2-12 August 1977, Report No. 79-2. Dept. of 

Marine Science and Engineering, NCSU. 303 p. 

The objectives of the oceanographic field observations within the overall Ocean Outfall Feasibility 

and Planning Study (Langfelder et al. 1979) were both to provide input data for boundary condition 

initialization and to provide reference data for diagnostic testing of a series of coastal numerical 

circulation models under development. The data acquisition program was designed to parallel the 

model development in that a series of successive scales of variability were addressed. These scales 

have been defined as the shelf-scale, the nearshore scale, and the diffusive scale, and were 

characterized for the purposes of the study by temporal and spatial resolutions. Of particular overall 

interest in this project, with its ultimate focus on the nearshore coastal environment, was the 

interaction of the larger regional scale processes with those on smaller or local scale. 

*Shellfish closure is discussed. 

Cutter, G.R., R.J. Diaz, and J.A. Blake. 1994a. Deep-Sea Research II: CD-ROM APPENDIX. Deep-Sea 

Research II Vol. 41(4-6): 981-982. 

The contents of the CD-ROM Appendix are data and images of the bottom from five of the articles in 

this issue. The CD-ROM was mastered in a format that can be read by both Macintosh and PC 

computers. It is organized in an hierarchical structure by folders, with data in one and images in 

another. To access a particular file, sequentially open folders until the file of interest appears. Data 

and figure captions are provided as: (.txt) ASCII text with no line breaks; (.tlb) ASCII text with line 

breaks; (.wor) Microsoft Word; and (.wp) Word Perfect 5.1 files. Images are in TIFF format (.tif). 
210 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

Data (ACSAR, Hatteras), Images and Captions (ACSAR, Profile, 3Dbathy, Sled, Surface, x-ray) are 

included. 

Cutter, G.R., R. Diaz, and J. Lee. 1994b. Foraminifera from the continental slope off Cape Hatteras, 

North Carolina. Deep-Sea Research II Vol. 41(4-6): 951-963. 

The recent benthic meiofaunal foraminiferal assemblage from the continental slope (590-2003 m) off 

Cape Hatteras, North Carolina exhibits high species richness and evenness, moderate diversity values, 

and lacks numerically dominant species. The preserved planktic assemblage has relatively low 

species richness, high evenness, low diversity, and a few numerically dominant species. 

Approximately 9% of the benthic species are those that typically live within continental shelf depth 

ranges. The benthic assemblage abundances and diversities do not follow depth patterns or 

geophysical characteristics. No biogeographic boundary can be described within the study area for 

meiofaunal foraminifers. Oxygen limitation does not appear to be a factor affecting the benthos of the 

North Carolina continental slope based upon the community structure of the benthic foraminifers, if 

total assemblage is assumed to reflect the recently living community. The high carbonate content of 

sediments in the area may be explained by foraminiferal tests. Within the study area, the foraminiferal 

assemblages are uniform, and probably reflect relative consistency of primary environmental 

variables as well as dynamic downslope transport and high influx of material from the water column 

in the vicinity where the Gulf Stream and the Western Boundary Undercurrent cross. 

DeMaster, D.J., R.H Pope, L.A. Levin, and N.E. Blair. 1994. Biological mixing intensity and rates of 

organic carbon accumulation in North Carolina slope sediments . Deep-Sea Research II Vol. 41(4-6): 

735-753. 

Sediment accumulation rates and biological mixing intensities were determined at three sites on the 

North Carolina slope based on profiles of naturally occurring 14C, 210Ph and 234Th. The three sites all 

were at a water depth of 850 m with a spacing of 150 — 180 km between sites. Sediment 

accumulation rates increase from south to north from values of 7 cm ky-1 at Site I, to 160 cm ky-1 at 

Site II, to 1100 cm ky-1 at Site III. The organic carbon burial rate a these sites also increases in the 

northward direction from 0.65 (Site I) to 20 (Site II) to ≤ 150 g Corg m-2 year-1 (Site III). These data 

indicate that continental margin environments can exhibit highly variable carbon fluxes over 

relatively small distances on the seafloor. The rate of organic carbon accumulation at Site III is one of 

the highest values reported for the marine environment. Based on these accumulation rates and 

dissolved inorganic carbon flux estimates from each site, the seabed organic carbon preservation 

efficiency (i.e. the ratio of Corg accumulation rate to Corg deposition rate times 100) was estimated to 

vary from 6.0% to 54% to 88%, at Sites I, II and III, respectively. The 14C age of organic matter in 

surface sediments was older at Site III (1800 years BP), than at Sites I and II (800 years BP), 

indicating that Site III receives it greater proportion of old sediment from either up-slope areas or 

from terrigenous sources. Inventories of excess 234Th (half-life of 24 days) were used as it tracer for 

particle flux covering the 100 days prior to the October 1989, July-August 1990 and August 1991 

cruises. The mean 234Th inventories at the three sites were 4.7 ± 1.9, 8.4 ± 6.3 and 23.1 ± 7.3 dpm cm2

, for Sites I, II and III, respectively. 

Diaz, R.J., J.A. Blake, and D.P. Lohse. 1993a. Volume II Final Report: Benthic Study of the Continental 

Slope off Cape Hatteras, North Carolina. Virginia Institute of Marine Science, School of Marine 

Science, College of William and Mary, Gloucester Pt., VA. Science Applications International 

Corporation, Woods Hole, MA. 135 p. 

*This is a study of the nature and spatial extent of continental slope benthic communities off Cape 

Hatteras, NC, with emphasis on the Manteo Area lease block 467. Macrofaunal abundance and 
Chemical Oceanography Chapter — 211 

biomass in this area higher than anywhere else along the entire South Atlantic continental slope and 

rise. Species composition of the infauna off Cape Hatteras is also different from other slope habitats. 

Species richness and diversity are lower with a high degree of dominance by species that are 

cosmopolitan in distribution. Trends in abundance of invertebrate megafauna on the continental slope 

off Cape Hatteras appear to be similar to the macrofauna. Demersal fish fauna off Cape Hatteras is 

distinctive in terms of composition and population density. Overall, abundance of benthic fish off 

Cape Hatteras is four to seven times higher than adjacent area. Site sediment characteristics (e.g., 

source, texture, and physico-chemistry) and potential impact to benthic community by sediment 

discharge during drilling are described. Volume III contains Appendices A-E. 

Much of the data in this report were used in the Special Deep Research issue (1994. 41(4-6)). 

Fornes, W.L., D.J. Demaster, L.A. Levin, and N.E. Blair. 1999. Bioturbation and particle transport in 

Carolina slope sediments: A radiochemical approach. Journal of Marine Research 57: 335-355. 

In situ tracer experiments investigated short-term sediment mixing processes at two Carolina 

continental margin sites (water depth = 850 m) characterized by different organic C fluxes, 234Th 

mixing coefficients (Db) and benthic assemblages. Phytoplankton, slope sediment, and sand-sized 

glass beads tagged with 210Pb, 113Sn, and 228Th, respectively, were placed via submersible at the 

sediment-water interface at both field sites (Site I off Cape Fear, and Site III off Cape Hatteras). 

Experimental plots were sampled at 0, 1.5 days, and 90 days after tracer emplacement to examine 

short-term, vertical transport. Both sites are initially dominated by nonlocal mixing. Transport to the 

bottom of the surface mixed layer at both sites occurs more rapidly than 234Th-based Db values 

predict; after 1.5 days, tagged particles were observed 5 cm below the sediment-water interface at Site 

I and 12 cm below at Site III. Impulse tracer profiles after 90 days at Site III exhibit primarily 

diffusive distributions, most likely due to a large number of random. nonlocal mixing events. The Db

values determined from 90-day particle lagging experiments are comparable with those obtained from 

naturally occurring 234Th profiles (100-day time scales) from nearby locations. The agreement 

between impulse tracer mixing coefficients and steady-state natural tracer mixing coefficients 

suggests that the diffusive analogue for bioturbation on monthly time scales is a realistic and useful 

approach. Tracer profiles from both sites exhibit some degree of particle selective mixing, but the 

preferential transport of the more labile carbon containing particles only occurred 30% of the time. 

Consequently, variations in the extent to which age-dependent mixing occurs in marine sediments 

may depend on factors such as faunal assemblage and organic carbon flux. 

Harvey, H.R. 1994. Fatty acids and sterols as source markers of organic matter in sediments of the North 

Carolina continental slope. Deep-Sea Research II Vol. 41(4-6): 783-796. 

To estimate the source and diagenetic state of organic matter reaching bottom sediments, fatty acids 

and sterols were measured in unconsolidated surface material (flocs) at 12 sites ranging from 600 to 

2000 m across the mid-Atlantic continental slope off Cape Hatteras, North Carolina. Total free and 

esterified fatty acids were similar in description and concentration to other coastal systems, with 

values ranging from 0.64 to 46.52 g mg-1 organic carbon (1.10-68.85 g mg-1dry sediment). Although 

shallow (600 m) stations contained significantly greater fatty acid concentrations than deep (>1400 

m) stations, high variability observed at mid-depth (800 m) collections precluded a consistent 

relationship between total fatty acid concentration and station depth. At three sites where underlying 

sediments were also collected, decreases in total fatty acid reduced amounts of polyenoic acids and 

significant presence of bacterial fatty acids suggest rapid reworking of labile organic material that 

reaches the sediment surface. The distribution of sterols was remarkably consistent among all sites 

even though there were large variations in concentrations (1.8-20.7g mg-1 organic carbon). Sterol 

composition indicated phytoplankton, principally diatoms and dinoflagellates, as the principal source 
212 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

of labile organic matter to sediments, together with a significant input of cholesterol typical of 

zooplankton and their feeding activity. A minor but widespread terrigenous input was also evident 

based upon significant concentrations of sterols dominant in vascular plants. 

Langfelder, J., T.B. Curtin, D.N. Hyman, G. Janowitz, J. Maiolo, W. Queen, F.Y. Sorrell, M. Amien, V. 

Bellis, M. Brinson, G. Davis, C.Y. Lee, C. O’Rear, L. Pearce, C.Y. Peng, S. Riggs, B. Smith, M. 

Sobsey, and P. Tschetter. 1979. Final Report: Ocean Outfall Wastewater Disposal Feasibility and 

Planning, Report No. 79-1. Dept. of Marine Science and Engineering, NCSU; Report No. 5, Institute 

for Coastal and Marine Resources, ECU. 482 p. 

*This report follows an EIS format and is cited as a single document. Individual chapters are not 

stand-alone documents. Major findings of the study were: 1) Construction and operation of a well 

designed and operated sewage treatment plant that utilizes an ocean outfall and secondary treatment 

should not adversely affect the water column on fishery resources. Some build up of effluent 

constituents may occur in the bottom sediments in the immediate vicinity of the diffuser and could 

result in bottom community changes. 2) Effluent discharge should have essentially no adverse affect 

on recreational swimming in the areas of the diffuser. Areas now closed to shellfishing in the 

estuaries could be reopened as a result of reduced pathogen loadings: these pathogens are presently 

coming from septic tanks and treatment plants that discharge into these waters. 3) Centralized sewer 

systems will increase land values, allow reduced lot size and stimulate growth. This will lead to 

change in the population composition and demands for expanded goods and services. 

Levin, L., N. Blair, D. DeMaster, G. Plaia, W. Fornes, C. Martin, and C. Thomas. 1997. Rapid subduction 

of organic matter by maldanid polychaetes on the North Carolina slope. Journal of Marine Research 

55: 595-611. 

In situ tracer experiments conducted on the North Carolina continental slope reveal that tube-building 

worms (Polychaeta: Maldanidae) can, without ingestion, rapidly subduct freshly deposited, algal 

carbon (13C-labeled diatoms) and inorganic materials (slope sediment and glass beads) to depths of 10 

cm or more in the sediment column. Transport over 1.5 days appears to be nonselective but spatially 

patchy, creating localized, deep hotspots. As a result of this transport, relatively fresh organic matter 

becomes available soon after deposition to deep-dwelling microbes and other infauna, and both 

aerobic and anaerobic processes may be enhanced. Comparison of tracer subduction with estimates 

from a diffusive mixing model using 234Th-based coefficients, suggests that maldanid subduction 

activities, within 1.5 d of particle deposition, could account for 25-100% of the mixing below 5 cm 

that occurs on 100-day time scales. Comparison of community data from the North Carolina slope for 

different places and times indicate a correlation between the abundance of deep-welling maldanids 

and the abundance and the dwelling depth in the sediment column of other infauna. Pulsed inputs of 

organic matter occur frequently in margin environments and maldanid polychaetes are a common 

component of continental slope macrobenthos. Thus, the activities we observe are likely to be 

widespread and significant for chemical cycling (natural and anthropogenic materials) on the slope. 

We propose that species like maldanids, that rapidly redistribute labile organic matter within the 

seabed, probably function as keystone resource modifiers. They may exert a disproportionately strong 

influence (relative to their abundance) on the structure of infaunal communities and on the timing, 

location and nature of organic matter diagenesis and burial in continental margin sediments. 

Manheim, F.T., R.H. Meade, and G.C. Bond. 1970. Suspended Matter in Surface Waters of the Atlantic 

Continental Margin from Cape Cod to the Florida Keys. Science 167: 371-376. 

Appreciable amounts of suspended matter (> 1.0 milligram per liter) in surface waters are restricted to 

within a few kilometers of the Atlantic coast, articles that escape estuaries or are discharged by rivers 
Chemical Oceanography Chapter — 213 

into the shelf region and to travel longshoreward rather than seaward. Suspended matter farther 

offshore, chiefly amorphous organic particles, totals 0.1 milligram per liter or less. Soot, fly ash, 

processed cellulose, and other pollutants are widespread. 

McCann, M.P., L.J. Pietrafesa, G.S. Janowitz, and T.B. Curtin. 1984. Physical Processes Influencing 

Temperature and Salinity on the North Carolina Cape Shoals, Contract No. DOE-AS09-76-EY00902; 

NOAA Contract No. 04-6-158-44054. 138 p. 

Cross-spectral analysis and heat budget are used to relate atmospheric and river runoff data within 

seven years of daily surface temperature and salinity on the North Carolina continental shelf. Salinity 

on Diamond Shoals is highly correlated with alongshore wind stress implying wind driven advection 

of the front between Virginia Coastal Water and Carolina Coastal Water. In the presence of strong 

horizontal and vertical temperature gradients, temperature at Diamond Shoals quickly responds to 

cross-shelf winds. At Frying Pan Shoals, the plume of the Cape Fear River is detected when winds 

blow seaward. Atmospheric fluxes primarily control the cycle of heating and cooling at Frying Pan 

Shoals, but advection of heat buffers the water temperature in the winter and summer. 

Milliman, J.D. 1994. Organic matter content in the U.S. Atlantic continental slope sediments: Decoupling 

the grain-size factor. Deep-Sea Research II Vol. 41(4-6): 797-808. 

Decoupling organic content in sediments from grain size can help define spatial variations in 

biological productivity, transport or preservation in continental margin sediments. Upper slope and 

upper rise sediments off the eastern United States have organic nitrogen contents similar to or lower 

than those predicted by grain size, whereas mid-slope sediments between Norfolk Canyon and Cape 

Fear have much higher organic contents. These elevated values probably result from off-shelf 

transport, combined with rapid burial and correspondingly reduced rates of remineralization, while 

lower values on the upper rise presumable result from low input of organic matter and low rates of 

burial and increased oxic degradation. 

Milliman, J.D., R.J. Diaz, J.A. Blake, and G.R. Cutter Jr., (eds.). 1994. Topical Studies in Oceanography: 

Input, Accumulation and Cycling of Materials on the Continental Slope Off Cape Hatteras. Deep-Sea 

Research Part II Vol. 41. 982 p. 

*This is a compilation of studies on Input, Accumulation and Cycling of Materials on the Continental 

Slope Off Cape Hatteras. Geology, sediments, organics, and benthic fauna are discussed. A CD-ROM 

is included. Each chapter (study) is cited independently, when appropriate. Some papers in this issue 

were derived from Diaz et al. (1993). 

Newton, J.G., O.H. Pilkey, and O.H. Blanton. 1971. An Oceanographic Atlas of the Carolina Continental 

Margin. Division of Mineral Resources. North Carolina Department of Conservation and 

Development. Raleigh, NC. 57 p. 

*This atlas is a synthesis of oceanographic information describing the North Carolina coast. It 

contains data collected on RV Eastward Cruises 1964-1969. Sea floor topography and geology 

(sediment samples, rock and reef soundings), shipwreck locations, sea floor photography, and water 

characteristics (temperature and salinity) are described and mapped. 

Ocean Margins Program (OMP). 1993. Research program plan, DOE Office of Energy Research, 

Environmental Science Division. Washington, DC. 

The Ocean Margins Program (OMP) program is within the defined study area for The Point. The 

OMP Data Management Plan objective is to provide a single repository for all time series data 

collected on OMP moorings in a simple format that does not require collaborators to purchase or 
214 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

learn to use any specific software products. Access to these data will be provided at any time without 

the intervention of an operator. Sampled parameters include: date, time, East component of velocity 

(cm/sec), North component of velocity (cm/sec), Temperature (C), Salinity (PS78, psu), Pressure — 

absolute (dbar), Acoustic backscatter intensity (dB); Estimated biomass (mg/m3

); Temperature at 

ADCP — (C); Dissolved oxygen concentration (umole/kg), Dissolved oxygen saturation (percent), 

fluorometric chlorophyll (ug/l), Transmissometer light transmission (l/meter), PAR — photosynthetic 

active radiation (umole/m2

/sec). 

Phalen, P.S. 1980. Computerization of RV Dan Moore Data Relevant to OCS Phosphates Area on the 

North Carolina Continental Shelf. North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries, Department of 

Natural Resources and Community Development. Morehead City, NC. 

The RV Dan Moore, an 85 foot steel stern trawler, collected over 4,400 samples during service with 

the North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries (DMF), 1968-1981. The vessel’s purpose was to 

conduct applied research to enable the Division to manage and develop coastal fisheries resources for 

the benefit of all North Carolinians. Objectives of individual cruises included gear tests, fish tagging, 

relative abundance and distribution surveys, biological investigations (i.e., age and growth), bottom 

type surveys, etc. Information collected consisted of location, environmental, and catch data. In many 

instances, these RV Dan Moore data are the only biological data for certain areas of the Continental 

Shelf. Results of cruises were summarized in bulletins from 1968-1974. Complete cruise reports 

describing methods and results were filed for the remaining cruises. 

The RV Dan Moore data that were found necessary to the contractor to complete an economic 

feasibility study of OCS Phosphates-Environmental Impact Statement have been coded, key entered, 

and summarized. The following completion report identifies the amount and type of data entered and 

summarizes the objectives, methods, and result of cruises that sampled within the specified OCS 

phosphates areas. 

Pietrafesa, L.J., J.M. Morrison, M.P. McCann, J. Churchill, E. Bohm, and R.W. Houghton. 1994. Water 

mass linkages between the Middle and South Atlantic Bights. Deep-Sea Research II Vol. 41(2-3): 

365-389. 

Time and frequency domain analysis are used to relate coastal meteorological data with 7 years of 

daily surface temperature and salinity collected at three coastal light stations: offshore of the mouth of 

Chesapeake Bay, Virginia, on Diamond Shoals, at Cape Hatteras, North Carolina and on Frying Pan 

Shoals, off Cape Fear, North Carolina. Salinity fluctuations at Diamond Shoals are highly correlated 

with alongshore wind stress, implying wind driven advection of the front between Virginia Coastal 

Water (VCW) and Carolina Coastal Water (CCW) across Diamond Shoals. The data collected at 

Diamond Shoals indicate that more than half the time there is significant encroachment of Mid 

Atlantic Bight water into the South Atlantic Bight around Cape Hatteras, contrary to the notion that 

VCW is entirely entrained into the Gulf Stream. In fact, VCW can appear as far south as Frying Pan 

Shoals, thereby extending across the entire North Carolina Capes inner to mid shelf. Temperature and 

salinity time series also indicate that water mass, overlying Diamond Shoals respond quickly to crossshelf winds, Cross-shelf wind stress, is significantly correlated with surface water temperature at 

Diamond Shoals, for periods between 2 and 12 days. Changes in temperature can be brought about by 

wind-driven cross-shelf circulation and by wind-induced upwelling. Seasurface temperature satellite 

(AVHRR) image taken during the SEEP II confirm these concepts. 

Schaff, T., L. Levin, N. Blair, D. DeMaster, R. Pope, and S. Boehme. 1992. Spatial heterogeneity of 

benthos on the Carolina continental slope: large (100 km)-scale variation. Marine Ecology Progress 

Series 88: 143-160. 
Chemical Oceanography Chapter — 215 

Large-scale spatial heterogeneity of macrofaunal and microbial communities was examined on the 

continental slope off North and South Carolina, USA, by comparing 3 sites, separated by 130 to 150 

km and all at 850 m water depth. Significant variation was found among macrofaunal assemblages at 

all 3 sites, and between microbial counts at 2 sites. We investigated the hypothesis that 100 km scale 

heterogeneity was driven by variation in organic C flux to the sea floor. The northernmost site (Site 

III, off Cape Hatteras, NC) was found to have macrofaunal abundances (>55000 m-2) higher than any 

previous recorded from this depth, and significantly higher than those at Site II (off Cape Lookout, 

North Carolina) (21319 m-2) or Site I (off Charleston, SC) (9438 m-2). Trends in macrofaunal 

abundance did not follow those sediment TOC (total organic carbon), but agreed well with estimates 

of total carbon flux for the three sites. Mixing coefficients determined from profiles of naturally 

occurring 234 Th (half life 24 d) indicate that the sediments at Site III are mixed 2 to 6 times faster 

than at the other 2 sites, which is consistent with the trends in macrofaunal abundance and biomass. 

Using 14 C-based sedimentation rates and sediment carbon content, we estimated carbon flux to be 

0.6, 20 and > 70 g C m -2 yr -1 at sites I, II and III, respectively. Inventories of 234 Th and downcore 

concentration profiles of dissolved SO4

=

 , CO2 and CH4 within the sediment provided evidence that 

the flux of metabolized carbon was greater at Site III than at the other sites. Polychaetes, which 

comprised 43, 74 and 65 % of the fauna at Sites I, II and III, respectively, exhibited lower diversity, 

higher dominance, and a completely different species composition at Site III than at the other 2 sites. 

Scalibregma inflatum and Aricidea quadrilobata comprised 33 % of total macrofauna at Site III, but 

were absent at Sites I and II. The species composition, high dominance, and prevalence of juveniles 

among polychaetes at Site III is suggestive of a response to organic enrichment. Enrichment of the 

Site III benthos is attributed to physical oceanographic and geophysical causes, including Gulf 

Stream-induced upwelling, a confluence of currents focused by bottom topography, and lateral inputs 

resulting from mass wasting processes. Despite significant differences in macrofaunal abundance, 

Sites I and II exhibited considerable overlap in microbial counts, polychaete species composition, 

dominance and diversity patterns. 

Shepard, A. (ed.). 1991. Undersea Research at The Point. NURC/UNCW 1991 Undersea Research: 

Informational Meeting. National Undersea Research Center, University of North Carolina at 

Wilmington. Wilmington, NC. 9 p. 

*This handout is a summary of research being conducted at “The Point” area (Manteo Lease Block 

467). 

The National Undersea Research Center at the University of North Carolina at Wilmington, funded 

by a grant from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s (NOAA) Office of Undersea 

Research (OUR), was established in 1980 to promote, facilitate, and conduct research in the 

Southeastern United States utilizing undersea techniques, including advanced wet diving and manned 

and unmanned submersibles. A main Center goal is to provide information to NOAA that will assist 

the agency in fulfilling its charter to explore, understand, conserve and manage the U.S. marine 

environment and associated resources. To help meet this goal, the Center supports and conducts 

interdisciplinary oceanographic research projects studying continental margin processes, particularly 

the interactions and linkages between estuarine, continental shelf, and slope (including submarine 

canyon) environments. 

Shepard, A., and A.H. Hulbert (eds.). 1994. Workshop Report: Present and Future Research Initiatives on 

the Upper Hatteras Slope off North Carolina. National Undersea Research Center at the University of 

North Carolina at Wilmington. Wilmington, NC. 30p. 

*This report is the result of the May 1993 workshop held in Raleigh, NC. The topics of discussion 

were research (present and planned) at the Upper Hatteras Slope (UHS) and potential funding 
216 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

sources. The workshop was sponsored by National Undersea Research Center at the University of 

North Carolina at Wilmington. The report provides a brief description of the UHS invertebrates, 

biological oceanography, chemical oceanography, geological oceanography (bathymetry, oil and gas 

exploration), physical oceanography, fisheries, and Sargassum. Appendix A is a workshop agenda 

and list of speakers. No abstracts for speakers are provided. Appendix B is a list of potential funding 

sources. Appendix C contains a list of publications pertaining to the UHS. 

Stefansson, U., and L.P. Atkinson. 1967. Physical and chemical properties of the shelf and slope waters 

off North Carolina. Technical report. Duke University Marine Laboratory. Beaufort, NC. 240 p. 

The present report includes a compilation of data collected during several cruises aboard the RV 

Eastward in the period June 1965-April 1967. The objective of this work was to study the broad 

features of the circulation and distribution of properties on the shelf, and attempt to relate the 

observed distributions in different seasons to various meteorological factors and processes affecting 

the renewal of shelf waters. These various aspects are dealt with separate publications. This report 

includes a short preliminary description of the main results, charts showing the horizontal distribution 

of temperature, salinity, density and dynamic topography, illustrations of vertical distribution of 

physical and chemical properties, and a tabulation of the data obtained at each station from 

hydrographic casts. 

Stefansson, U., L.P. Atkinson, and D.F Bumpus. 1971. Hydrographic properties and circulation of the 

North Carolina Shelf and Slope Waters. Deep-Sea Research 18: 383-420. 

Processes affecting the renewal of the North Carolina Shelf Waters are discussed on the basis of 

temperature, salinity, dissolved oxygen, nutrients, runoff and wind data collected during 1965-1967. 

These consist of horizontal advection near the coast from the north, meanders of the Gulf Stream, 

subsurface intrusion, cascading and runoff. 

The wind-driven Virginia Water transport past Cape Hatteras may markedly reduce the temperature 

and salinity, and accelerate the freshwater exchange. The runoff from the watershed north of Cape 

Hatteras, when driven south by northerly winds, especially during the peak period in early spring, has 

a much greater influence on the circulation in Raleigh and Onslow Bays than does that from the 

adjacent rivers south of Cape Hatteras. Meanders in the Gulf Stream may renew the shelf waters with 

warm, saline water. Intrusion of subsurface Caribbean Water on to the outer part of the shelf takes 

place most frequently during the late summer following a period of southerly winds. It is postulated 

that during the cold part of the year when the surface layers are only partly stratified, such an 

intrusion may lead to upwelling near the shelf break. Cascading from the shelf down the slope may 

occur during the cold season following periods of low air temperature. Intrusion of subsurface water 

replenishes nutrients in the area, while cascading reduces the available supply of nutrients. 

U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service. 1990. Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf: 

Final Environmental Report on Proposed Exploratory Drilling Offshore North Carolina, U.S. 

Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, Atlantic OCS Region, Environmental 

Assessment Section. Herndon, VA. 

Topics include: fisheries, birds, marine mammals, physical oceanography, chemical oceanography, 

geology, gas and oil production. The proposed action is to drill a single exploratory well 

approximately 72 km (45 mi) east-northeast of Cape Hatteras, North Carolina in 820 m (2,690 ft) of 

water. Total depth for the proposed well is 4,267 m (14,000 ft) and the location is on Block 467 on 

the Minerals Management Service Protraction diagram NI 18-2. The proposal has been submitted by 

Mobil for itself and 7 partners to drill the well on the approved 21-block exploration unit. 
Chemical Oceanography Chapter — 217 

Uchupi, E. 1967. The continental margin south of Cape Hatteras, North Carolina: shallow structure. SE 

Geol. 8: 155-177. 

Continuous seismic profiles, drill hole data and dredge hauls show that the geologic history of the 

continental margin south of the Cape Hatteras has been complex, marked by carbonate deposition, 

erosion by the Gulf Stream, and differential subsidence. The Blake Escarpment east of the Blake 

Plateau is believed to represent a chain of algal banks that flourished during the Cretaceous. A thick 

sequence of shallow-water carbonate sediments accumulated on the Blake Plateau behind the algal 

sandbanks to the east. Soon after the banks died during Late Cretaceous submergence of the area the 

Gulf Stream extended its course across the Blake Plateau. During the Tertiary, the locus of deposition 

shifted westward to the area near the present shelf-break, where 600 to 1000 meters of shallow-water 

sediments were deposited. South of Latitude 32 sediment prograded against the westward margin of 

the Gulf Stream throughout the Tertiary. Farther north, where the Gulf Stream lies farther offshore, 

outbuilding extended beyond the eastern margin of the Blake Plateau. Vertical uplifts followed by 

erosion by the Gulf Stream during the Pleistocene modified this sedimentary framework. 

Vigil, D.L. (ed.). 1998. North Carolina/Minerals Management Service Technical Workshop on Manteo 

Unit Exploration: February 4-5, 1998. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management Service. Gulf 

of Mexico OCS Region. New Orleans, LA. 168 p. 

*These are the proceedings from a workshop/meeting (February 4-5, 1998) between the North 

Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources, and the U.S. Department of the 

Interior’s Minerals Management Service (MMS). The geographic area being discussed is 

approximately 45 miles east-northeast of Cape Hatteras, North Carolina, referred to as the Manteo 

Unit. This workshop reviewed environmental and socioeconomic information known and needed on 

the Manteo Unit. The MMS’s Gulf of Mexico OCS Regional Director gave an MMS perspective on 

history and status of the area. Chevron gave a presentation on how the exploratory well would be 

drilled. The scientific characterization was presented in greater detail by a number of scientific 

experts who spoke on the following disciplines physical environment, habitat and living resources 

(invertebrates and fish), seabirds, marine mammals, sea turtles, and social and economic issues. 

Specific chapters are cited individually, when appropriate. 

Walsh, J.J. 1994. Particle export at Cape Hatteras. Deep-Sea Research II Vol. 41(2-3): 603-628. 

A simple model of shelf, slope and basin waters near Cape Hatteras, North Carolina is used to 

estimate the sources and sinks of organic carbon within the Gulf Stream System. The analysis 

employs water transport estimates, nutrient data. satellite imagery, surficial sediment records and 

particle distributions caught by bottle, camera and sediment trap to compute vertical and lateral fluxes 

of particulate carbon. Particle export from the SAB and MAB shelf ecosystems may constitute 62-

82% of the source of the carbon flux within the Gulf Stream near 75 W, after settling at 100 m day -1, 

with an oxidation loss of 4% day-1, to a nominal mid-depth of 1000 m on the slope. 

As a result of light limitation, denitrification and DON solubilization, partial utilization of onwelled 

nitrate from the Gulf Stream System by coastal phytoplankton suggests that the time-averaged f ratio 

may be as small as 0.12 for the ratio of the “new” portion of primary production to the total. After 

burial loss, the export of particulate matter from the shelves then represents at most 11% of the total 

carbon fixation of coastal waters. If the shelf export of DON and unutilized NO3 is consumed within 

adjacent slope waters, however, the f ratio and the percentage of particle export from the carbon 

fixation of shelf-affected waters might increase to 0.25 and 24%. 

Willey, J.D., and L.B. Cahoon. 1991. Enhancement of chlorophyll a production in Gulf Stream surface 

seawater by rainwater nitrate. Marine Chemistry 34: 63-75. 
218 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

The concentration of nitrate commonly found in rain from continental storm systems passing over 

eastern North Carolina was sufficient to stimulate chlorophyll a production in surface Gulf Stream 

water collected over the continental slope near Cape Hatteras, NC, in mid-October 1989. Two 

bioassay experiments were conducted on board ship by mixing Gulf Stream surface seawater with 

synthetic rainwater (5% rainwater). These bioassays indicated an increased production of chlorophyll 

a in response to rainwater nitrate but not phosphate. The response was apparent after incubation for 2 

days after the chlorophyll a concentration increased approximately 2.5 times relative to controls in 

both experiments. 
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GEOLOGICAL OCEANOGRAPHY CHAPTER 
Geological Oceanography Chapter — 223 

GEOLOGICAL OCEANOGRAPHY CHAPTER 

Abernathy, S.A., M.T. Baer, C.S. Benner, M.S. Brody, D.K. Francois, J.K. Gilliam, L.K. Good, C.J. 

Ohara, and J.V. Martin. 1989. Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf: Description of the Mid-Atlantic 

Environment. Abernathy, S.A. (ed.). U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, 

Atlantic OCS Region, Environmental Assessment Section. Herndon, VA. 167 p. 

*This document discusses the major issues and areas of concern for the mid-Atlantic environment 

that are considered in the planning process for oil and gas leasing and operations on the Outer 

Continental Shelf (OCS). The issues are addressed with respect to the potential environmental 

consequences of mid Atlantic oil and gas exploration, development and production. A section 

discussing The Physical Environment (e.g., geology, non-petroleum minerals, physical oceanography, 

chemical oceanography and water quality, ocean dumping, meteorology, air quality), Biological 

resources (e.g., plankton, benthos, fishery resources, marine reptiles, marine mammals, marine and 

coastal birds, estuaries, wetlands, sensitive coastal habitats, canyon areas), Socioeconomic 

Environment, and other issues (e.g., archaeological resources, marine vessel traffic, National 

Aeronautics and Space Administration/ Department of Defense activities, oil and gas infrastructure, 

marine sanctuaries, and estuarine research reserves) is included. Most of the figures showing fisheries 

resource distribution are taken from fisheries data compiled for bottom-trawl and shellfish surveys of 

the National Marine Fisheries Service, Northeast Fisheries Center, Woods Hole, MA. 

Amato, R.V. 1994. Sand and Gravel Maps of the Atlantic Continental Shelf with Explanatory Text. U.S. 

Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, Office of International Activities and 

Marine Minerals. 35 p. 

*Deposits and mixtures of sand, gravel, silt, and clay are shown on four maps of the U.S. Atlantic 

Continental Shelf at a scale of 1:1,000,000 for the North, Mid-, and South Atlantic and South Florida 

offshore areas. The maps also show major differences in mineralogical content, from carbonate-rich 

sediments in the South Florida area to quartz-rich sediments north of Cape Hatteras. The maps were 

compiled from published literature and from published and unpublished maps at various scales and 

sizes of areas covered. 

Anderson, R. F., G. T. Rowe, P. F. Kemp, S. Trumbore, and P. E. Biscaye. 1994. Carbon budget for the 

mid-slope depocenter of the Middle Atlantic Bight. Deep-Sea Research II Vol. 41 (2-3): 669-703. 

A mass budget was constructed for organic carbon on the upper slope of the Middle Atlantic Bight. A 

region thought to serve as a depocenter for fine-grained material exported from the adjacent shelf. 

Various components of the budget are internally consistent, and observed differences can be 

attributed to natural spatial variability or to the different time scales, over which measurements were 

made. The flux of organic carbon to the sediments in the core of the depocenter zone, at it water depth 

of ~ 1000 m, was measured with sediment traps to be 65 mg C m-2 day-1 is buried. Oxygen fluxes into 

the sediments, measured with incubation chambers attached to a free vehicle lander, correspond to 

total carbon remineralization rates of 49-79 mg C m-2 day -1. Carbon remineralization rates estimated 

from gradients of Corg within the mixed layer, and from gradients of dissolved ammonia and 

phosphate in pore waters, sum to only ~4-6 mg C m-2 day-1. 

Most of the Corg deposited on the upper slope sediments is supplied by lateral transport from other 

regions, but even if all of this material were derived from the adjacent shelf, it represents, <2% of the 

mean annual shelf productivity. This value is further lowered by recognizing that as much as half of 

the Corg deposited on the slope is refractory, having originated by reworking from older deposits. 
224 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

Refractory Corg arrives at the sea bed with an average 14C age 600-900 years older than the pre-bomb 

14C age of DIC in seawater, and has a mean life in the sediments with respect to biological 

remineralization of at least 1000 years. Labile carbon supplied to the slope, on the other hand, is 

rapidly and (virtually) completely remineralized, with a mean life of < ~ 1 year. Carbon-14 ages of 

fine-grained carbonate and organic carbon present within the interstices of shelf sands are consistent 

with this material acting as a source for the old carbon supplied to the slope. Winnowing and export 

of reworked carbon may contribute to the often-described relationship between organic carbon 

preservation and accumulation rate of marine sediments. 

Atkinson, L., L. Heilman, and T. Curtin. 1998. Appendix E: Bathymetric and Physical Oceanographic 

Description of the Manteo Lease Area. pp.108-20. In: Vigil, D.L. (ed.). North Carolina/Minerals 

Management Service Technical Workshop on Manteo Unit Exploration: February 4-5, 1998. U.S. 

Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region. New Orleans, LA. 

*These are the proceedings from a workshop/meeting (February 4-5, 1998) between the North 

Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources, and the U.S. Department of the 

Interior’s Minerals Management Service (MMS). The geographic area being discussed is 

approximately 45 miles east-northeast of Cape Hatteras, NC, referred to as the Manteo Unit. This 

workshop reviewed environmental and socioeconomic information known and needed on the Manteo 

Unit. The MMS’s Gulf of Mexico OCS Regional Director gave an MMS perspective on history and 

status of the area. Chevron gave a presentation on how the exploratory well would be drilled. The 

scientific characterization was presented in greater detail by a number of scientific experts who spoke 

on the following disciplines physical environment, habitat and living resources, seabirds, marine 

mammals, sea turtles, and social and economic issues. Specific chapters are cited individually, when 

appropriate. 

The waters off Cape Hatteras exhibit some of the most energetic coastal dynamics anywhere. Here 

the broad shelves of the Middle and South Atlantic Bight narrow nearly isolating shelf waters north 

and south of Cape Hatteras from each other. Offshore, one of the strongest currents in the ocean, the 

Gulf Stream, moves northward. In addition to that variability in the large-scale current regime, both 

winter storms and tropical hurricanes are prevalent in the region. This paper discusses the physical 

oceanographic properties at the Manteo site and their variability. This section also discusses 

Bathymetry of the Region, Physical Oceanography, Climate, Weather, Gulf Stream, and Coastal 

Currents. 

Bane, J.M., Jr. 1983. Initial Observations of the Subsurface Structure and Short-Term Variability of the 

Seaward Deflection of the Gulf Stream off Charleston, South Carolina. Journal of Geophysical 

Research 88 C(8): 4673-4684. 

A recurring seaward deflection of the surface layer of the Gulf Stream has been observed near 32° N 

latitude off the coast of the southeastern United States. It has been suggested that a ridge and trough 

bottom feature (the so-called ‘Charleston bump’) on the upper continental slope off the Georgia/South 

Carolina coast produces the deflection through a bottom steering effect. Present data indicate that the 

deflection is great enough to direct the Gulf Stream’s shoreward surface thermal front to the east, and 

even south of east, about 70% of the time. Air-deployed expendable bathythermograph surveys have 

been made with sufficient coverage to provide several synoptic, three-dimensional views of the Gulf 

Stream’s thermal frontal zone in the region between Savannah, Georgia, and Cape Hatteras, North 

Carolina. These views show the subsurface structure of the seaward deflection to exhibit large shortterm variability. During wintertime conditions (February 1979) the greatest deflection (>090° true) of 

the near-surface front occurred at a time when the deeper front was more aligned (~080° true) with 

local topography. Within the few days following this observation the deflection angle at all depths 
Geological Oceanography Chapter — 225 

decreased to near or below 070° true. Two large-amplitude Gulf Stream meanders progressed 

northeastward away from the deflection region during this time period. Deflection angles at all levels 

during late summertime conditions (November 1979) were observed to be near 070° true. A simple, 

kinematical model which incorporates growing, propagating Gulf Stream meanders is proposed to 

explain the deflection’s short-term variability. A dome-shaped volume of cold water was observed to 

be located over the upper continental slope immediately downstream of the deflection. The existence 

and persistence of this cold dome suggest that upwelling is important in its maintenance, a hypothesis 

consistent with its hydrographic properties. 

Bane, J.M., Jr., and D.A. Brookes. 1979. Gulf Stream Meanders along the continental margin from the 

Florida Straights to Cape Hatteras. Geophysical Research Letters 6: 280-282. 

*This geophysical research is cited in Journal of Geophysical Research volume 88, number C-8: pp. 

4651-4662 (Hood and Bane 1983), and pp. 4673-4684 (Bane 983). Figure 1 The continental margin 

of the southeastern United States (p. 4562, Hood and Bane 1983), and Figure 8 The mean position ± 1 

standard deviation (shaded) of the Gulf Stream’s shoreward surface thermal front calculated for a 64 

week period, (p. 4682, Bane 1983) provide general location data. A cruise on the RV Endeavor (no 

cruise dates provided) is cited (Hood and Bane 1983). 

Blair, N. 1998. A Scientific Overview of the Region Surrounding Lease Blocks 467 and 510. pp. 14-17. 

In: Vigil, D.L. (ed.). North Carolina/Minerals Management Service Technical Workshop on Manteo 

Unit Exploration: February 4-5, 1998. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, Gulf 

of Mexico OCS Region. New Orleans, LA. 

*These are the proceedings from a workshop/meeting (February 4-5, 1998) between the North 

Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources, and the U.S. Department of the 

Interior’s Minerals Management Service (MMS). The geographic area being discussed is 

approximately 45 miles east-northeast of Cape Hatteras, NC, referred to as the Manteo Unit. This 

workshop reviewed environmental and socioeconomic information known and needed on the Manteo 

Unit. The MMS’s Gulf of Mexico OCS Regional Director gave an MMS perspective on history and 

status of the area. Chevron gave a presentation on how the exploratory well would be drilled. The 

scientific characterization was presented in greater detail by a number of scientific experts who spoke 

on the following disciplines physical environment, habitat and living resources, seabirds, marine 

mammals, sea turtles, and social and economic issues. Specific chapters are cited individually, when 

appropriate. 

The continental margin offshore Cape Hatteras, NC has been the focus of numerous oceanographic 

studies. The objective of this report is to provide an overview of physical, biological, geological, and 

chemical processes that operate in the region so that the results from individual disciplinary studies 

can be placed in a system-wide context. This section discusses hydrocarbon potential, water column 

observations and processes, benthic observations and processes, summary and the future. 

Blair, N.E., L.A. Levin, D.J. DeMaster, and G. Playa. 1996. The short-term fate of fresh algal carbon in 

continental slope sediments. Limnol. Oceanogr. 41(6): 1208-1219. 

Emplacement of tracer mixture containing 13C-labeled green algae on the sea floor of the continental 

slope offshore Cape Hatteras, North Carolina, elicited a rapid responses over 1.5 d from the dense 

benthic community. Certain deposit-feeding annelids (e.g. Scalibregma inflatum and Aricidea 

quadrilobata) became heavily labeled with 13C-labeled organic matter was transported to a depth of at 

least 4-5 cm into the seabed during the 1.5 d period, presumably as a consequence of feedingassociated activity. Nonlocal transport produced subsurface peaks in organic 13C at 2-3 cm. Dissolved 

inorganic 13C, produced by the oxidation of the labeled algae, penetrated to 10-cm depth. The 
226 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

transport of highly reactive organic matter from the sediment surface at initial velocities ≥ 3 cm d -1 is 

expected to be an important control of subsurface benthic processes in slope environments 

characterized by abundant macrofaunal populations. Anaerobic processes, which are enhanced on the 

Cape Hatteras slope relative to adjacent areas, may be promoted by the rapid injection of reactive 

material into subsurface sediments. The transport, in turn, is a consequence of the dense infaunal 

populations that are supported by the rapid depositions of organic carbon in this region. 

Blair, N.E., G.R. Plaia, S.E. Boehme, D.J. DeMaster, and L.A. Levin. 1994. The remineralization of 

organic carbon on the North Carolina continental slope. Deep-Sea Research II Vol. 41(4-6): 755-766. 

The sources and fates of metabolized organic carbon were examined at three sites on the North 

Carolina slope positioned offshore of Cape Fear, Cape Lookout, and Cape Hatteras. The 12C/12C 

composition (‘delta’ 13C) of the solid phase organic matter, and the dissolved inorganic carbon 

(‘sigma’ CO2) produced during its oxidation, suggested that the labile fraction was predominantly 

marine in origin. The ‘sigma’ CO2 concentration gradient across the sediment-water interface, and by 

inference the ‘sigma’ CO2 flux and production rate increased northward from Cape Fear to Cape 

Hatteras. Methane distributions and ‘sigma’ CO2 ‘delta’ 13C values suggest that the rate of anaerobic 

diagenesis increased northward as well. The differences in sedimentary biogeochemistry are most 

likely driven by an along-slope gradient of reactive organic carbon flux to the seabed. This trend in 

reactive organic carbon flux correlates well worth macrofaunal densities previously observed at the 

three sites. Proximity to the shelf and the transport of particulate material by surface boundary 

currents may control the deposition of metabolized material on the Carolina slope. 

Evidence of methanogenesis is found only on the Cape Hatteras slope. The methane, which was 

produced at a depth of approximately 1 m in the seabed, was consumed nearly quantitatively in the 

biologically mixed layer as it diffused upward. Irrigation of the sediments by infauna may have 

provided the necessary oxidant for the consumption of the methane. 

Blake, J.A., and R.J. Diaz. 1994. Input, accumulation and cycling of materials on the continental slope off 

Cape Hatteras: An introduction. Deep-Sea Research II Vol. 41(4-6): 707-710. 

The studies reported in this special issue of Deep-Sea Research are largely derived from data 

collected as part of programs supported by the U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals Management 

Service (MMS) in response to concerns about the effect of oil and gas exploration on the largely 

unknown continental slope environment. Results of the MMS U.S. South Atlantic continental slope 

and rise program conducted off the Carolinas from Cape Hatteras to off Charleston in depths raging 

from 600 to 3500 m identified the importance of the slope off Cape Hatteras in cycling of materials 

from the shelf to the deep sea. Other more detailed investigations followed which numerous gaps in 

our knowledge of the role played by such special regions of the continental slope in the global cycling 

of carbon and other minerals. 

Blake, J.A., and R.J. Diaz. 1998. Habitat and Living Resources Review: Benthic Ecology of the Cape 

Hatteras Continental Slope. pp. 43-51. In: Vigil, D.L. (ed.). North Carolina/Minerals Management 

Service Technical Workshop on Manteo Unit Exploration: February 4-5, 1998. U.S. Dept. of the 

Interior, Minerals Management Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region. New Orleans, LA. 

*These are the proceedings from a workshop/meeting (February 4-5, 1998) between the North 

Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources, and the U.S. Department of the 

Interior’s Minerals Management Service (MMS). The geographic area being discussed is 

approximately 45 miles east-northeast of Cape Hatteras, NC, referred to as the Manteo Unit. This 

workshop reviewed environmental and socioeconomic information known and needed on the Manteo 

Unit. The MMS’s Gulf of Mexico OCS Regional Director gave an MMS perspective on history and 
Geological Oceanography Chapter — 227 

status of the area. Chevron gave a presentation on how the exploratory well would be drilled. The 

scientific characterization was presented in greater detail by a number of scientific experts who spoke 

on the following disciplines physical environment, habitat and living resources, seabirds, marine 

mammals, sea turtles, and social and economic issues. Specific chapters are cited individually, when 

appropriate. 

The benthic communities of the continental slope off the Carolinas has been described as part of 

extensive surveys conducted by the Minerals Management Service to assess potential impacts due to 

exploratory drilling for oil and gas. The initial effort was the Atlantic Continental Slope Rise 

(ACSAR) Program, which included transects across the Carolina slope from Cape Hatteras in the 

north to off the Charleston Bump in the south (Blake et al. 1985, 1987; Blake and Grassle 1994). Out 

of 15 stations sampled for benthic infauna, the most unusual were found off Cape Hatteras in Manteo 

Lease Block 510 at a depth of 550 m. The benthic fauna at this site included unusually high densities 

of infauna, epifaunal invertebrates, and fish (Blake and Grassle 1994; Hecker 1994). Much of the 

surface was seen to be carpeted with white tubes that later proved to be a giant foraminiferan, 

Bathysiphon filiformis. A control site at 2000 m down slope from the 550 m station also exhibited 

unusually high densities of infauna for a depth range. Overall, the abundance and biomass of the 

benthos was found to be about 6 and 10 times higher than other areas of the Carolina slope. This 

section discusses MMS Field Surveys and Methods, Results and Discussion Sedimentology; and 

Benthic Communities. Figure 4; Location of Benthic Stations and Camera Transects on the Cape 

Hatteras Slope in 1992, indicating sampling occurred in designated study area, is located on page 45. 

Blake, J.A., and J.F. Grassle. 1994. Benthic community structure on the U.S. South Atlantic slope off the 

Carolinas: Spatial heterogeneity in a current- dominated system. Deep-Sea Research II Vol. 41(4-6): 

835-874. 

*Faunal communities of the continental slope and rise seaward of North and South Carolina (U.S.A.) 

are strongly influenced by the Gulf Stream, the Western Boundary Undercurrent, and an increasingly 

steep declination of the slope toward Cape Hatteras. Sixteen stations in depths of 600-3500 m were 

sampled to characterize the sediment and benthic macrofauna. Box cores were taken along four 

transects Cape Hatteras, Cape Lookout, Cape Fear, and Charleston. On the Cape Hatteras transect 

infaunal densities at the 600-m station were as high as those typical of shallower waters, and the 

dominant organisms were species that are more characteristic of continental shelf depths. There is 

high, nearly continuous sedimentation of terrigenous fine sandy sediments that are funneled over the 

Cape Hatteras slope by southerly-flowing, long-shelf currents. We postulate that organic material is 

transported rapidly over the site and that the high depositional rates are enhanced by scavenging 

activities of filter-feeding organisms. Large, deep-burrowing deposit feeders serve to carry organic 

material deep into the sediments. The shallow stations on the Charleston transects were dominated by 

sand waves generated by the Gulf Stream, while deeper stations were enriched by microalgae 

transported downslope. Transects off Cape Lookout and Cape Fear were more typical of those found 

elsewhere in the western North Atlantic. 

Blake, J.A., B. Hecker, J.F. Grassle, B. Brown, M. Wade, P.D. Boehm, E. Baptiste, B. Hilbig, N. 

Maciolek, R. Petrecca, R.E. Ruff, V. Starczak, and L. Watling. 1987. Study of Biological Processes 

on the U.S. South Atlantic Slope and Rise: Phase 2. U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals 

Management Service, Atlantic OCS Region, Environmental Assessment Section. Herndon, VA. 

A total of 16 stations were sampled during a 2 year field program designed to characterize the 

biological, chemical, and sedimentary processes on the slope and rise off North and South Carolina. 

Box cores were taken along a 4 transects at depths of 600 to 3500 m. The infauna yielded a total of 

1202 species, 520 of which were new to science. Annelids were dominant taxa in terms of density and 
228 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

numbers of species. Species diversity was highest at an 800 m site off Charleston. Infaunal densities 

were highest on the upper slope (600 m) and lowest on the rise (3000 m). Life history analysis yielded 

evidence of seasonality for two polychaete species. Two stations off Cape Hatteras in depths of 600 m 

and 2000 m had higher infaunal density, lower species diversity, and higher biomass than elsewhere 

on the Atlantic slope and rise. Higher than normal lead and carbon inventories suggest enhanced 

scavenging processes in this area. Faunal patterns on the Cape Lookout transect were generally 

typical for other localities on the Atlantic Slope and Rise. Faunal changes were detected off Cape 

Fear and Charleston that may be related to the influence of the Gulf Stream and associated sediment 

changes. Epifauna were most unusual on the Charleston Bump, where a hard bottom fauna dominated 

by filter feeding corals and sponges thrives in an area strongly swept by the Gulf Stream. Consistent 

faunal differences were found between the upstream and downstream sides of the bump. Data 

generated in the infaunal and epifaunal surveys supported the view that a partial zoogeographic 

barrier exists on the slope off North Carolina. This break was most evident between Cape Lookout 

and Cape Fear. 

Blake, J.A., and B. Hilbig. 1994. Dense infaunal assemblages on the continental slope off Cape Hatteras, 

North Carolina. Deep-Sea Research II Vol. 41(4-6): 875-899. 

*Unusually dense assemblages of benthic infaunal invertebrates have been discovered in continental 

slope sediments off Cape Hatteras, North Carolina. Densities were highest on the upper slope, ranging 

from 24,055 to 61,244 (X = 46,255) individuals m2

 in nine samples taken at a 600-m site in 1984 and 

1985, and from 15,522 to 89,566 (X = 37,282) individuals m2 in single samples at 15 stations over a 

wider depth range of 530 to 1535 m in1992. A lower slope station at 2000 m sampled six times in 

1984-1985 and again in 1992, had densities consistently higher than 8500 individuals m2

. Species 

richness and diversity are consistently lower on the Cape Hatteras slope than at other locations off 

North Carolina and elsewhere in the western North Atlantic. 

Brown, B. 1991. Biomass of Deep-Sea Benthic Communities: Polychaetes and other Invertebrates. 

Bulletin of Marine Science 48(2): 401-411. 

Biomass measurements were made for benthic samples from the U.S. Atlantic continental slope and 

rise as part of a program on benthic processes in the deep sea. Box-core samples were collected from 

off Georges Bank near Massachusetts south to off Georgia, primarily along the 2000-m depth 

contour. Ash-free dry weight (AFDW) measurements were made on replicates from six stations. 

Samples were sieved through nested 0.3 mm and 2.0 mm screens. AFDW biomass ranged between 

0.1665 and 2.1439 g m-2. Polychaetes dominated biomass in the 0.3-mm fractions and in the 2.0-mm 

fraction except whenever large organisms, such as echinoderms, were present. Wet weight biomass 

was measured on samples taken from off Cape Hatteras in depths varying between 583 and 3500 m. 

A sharp decrease (five- to ten-fold) in biomass was observed between 2000 and 3000 m depth. 

Cahoon, L.B., R.A. Laws, and C.J. Thomas. 1994. Viable diatoms and chlorophyll a in continental slope 

sediments off Cape Hatteras, North Carolina. Deep-Sea Research II Vol. 41(4-6): 767-782. 

Continental slope sediments off Cape Hatteras, North Carolina, were sampled by box coring in late 

summer, 1992. The chlorophyll a concentrations measured in sediments from 16 sites at depths 

ranging from 530 to 2003 m averaged 19.9 mg chl a m -2, a concentration much higher than observed 

elsewhere on the eastern U.S. continental slope, indicating high depositional rates for microalgal 

material. The variability in the chlorophyll a values suggests strong environmental heterogeneity at 

both small and large spatial scales in this slope habitat, probably a consequence of both topography 

and bioturbation. Viable diatoms were found in sediment samples across the range of depths sampled, 

and up to 14 cm deep in sediments, indicating high rates of deposition and bioturbation. Bulk 
Geological Oceanography Chapter — 229 

sediment samples contained planktonic, tychopelagic and benthic diatoms, indicating that both 

phytoplankton and benthic microalgae from the continental shelf may be sources of organic matter for 

these slope sediments. 

Cleary, W.J., and P.A. Thayer. 1973. Petrography of Carbonate Sands on the Carolina Continental Shelf. 

Transactions: Gulf Coast Association of Geological Societies 23rd Annual Convention: October 24, 

25, 26, 1973, Houston, TX. 

*In order to provide petrographic criteria for interpreting ancient mixed clastic-carbonate shelf 

deposits, 300 thin sections were studied from the Carolina continental shelf in an area extending from 

Raleigh Bay, North Carolina, to Cape Romain, South Carolina. As shown by previous investigators, 

percentage of carbonate grains in this area is chiefly a function of dilution from adjacent terrigenous 

sources. Skeletal components, the dominant carbonate grain type, form 10 to 60 percent of the total 

sediment and are mainly pelecypods, gastropods, and coralline algae. Foraminifers, bryozoans, 

echinoderms, barnacles, ostracodes, corals and worm tubes are minor constituents. Non-skeletal 

constituents, which usually comprise less than 10 percent of the total sediment, consist of peloids, 

ooids, lumps, and assorted carbonate lithoclasts (oomicrites, biomicrites, and biosparites). 

Terrigenous constituents are chiefly quartz, with subordinate amounts of feldspar, rock fragments, 

and heavy minerals. Glauconite and phosphorite are also present. 

Continental Shelf Associates, Inc. 1983. North Carolina Fisheries and Environmental Data Search and 

Synthesis Study: Final Report. Continental Shelf Associates, Inc. Jupiter, FL. 

Available information on the living marine resources and habitats of the North Carolina OCS, from 

shore to a depth of 200 m (656 ft), was collected, annotated, and synthesized. Over 1,450 published 

and unpublished data sources were reviewed. Written synthesis chapters summarized the geology, 

oceanography, biological communities, commercial and sport fisheries, endangered and threatened 

species, and sensitive biological areas and unique habitats. Data gaps were identified, implications to 

OCS development were discussed, and suggestions for additional research were provided. In addition, 

a computer program was designed to catalog and sort all of the pertinent annotated information 

sources. The purpose of this computer program is to provide the MMS with a useful and viable 

method of maintaining, updating, and expanding the data base. 

The North Carolina OCS is a transition zone between the South and Middle Atlantic Bight. The 

climate, proximity and behavior of the Gulf Stream, and the presence of cuspate projecting shoals and 

capes influence unique oceanographic and biological features. Extensive hard/live bottom areas are 

present within Onslow Bay and along the North Carolina continental shelf edge. Upwelling along the 

North Carolina continental shelf edge and the intrusion of nutrient rich eddies into middle- and innershelf waters occur frequently along this coast. The upwelling-eddy, formation-intrusion phenomenon 

is not well understood and its ecological implications are just beginning to be studied. The present 

lack of knowledge in this area makes risk assessment for OCS development activities difficult. 

Additional studies of the coupling of physical and biological processes along the North Carolina 

continental shelf are needed in order to formulate effective OCS management policies for that area. 

—. 1989. CSA Live Bottom Survey. Continental Shelf Associates, Inc. Jupiter, FL. 45 p. 

This report describes the results of a Live-Bottom Survey (LBS) conducted from 9 to 24 July 1989. 

The purpose of this video/still camera photodocumentation survey was to document the topographical 

features, substrate types, and associated biota at the sites around the proposed well location and 

proposed anchor locations. As shown in Figure 1.2, the survey area extends into Manteo Area Blocks 

466, 510, and 511. Proposed anchor locations were chosen to be placed in relatively low-relief areas 

based on bathymetric and high-resolution geophysical data. Water depths within the sites surveyed 
230 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

ranged from 305 to 1,355 m (1,001 to 4,446 ft). Due to the water depth and the highly irregular 

topography within the survey area, a state-of-the-art deepwater remotely operated vehicle (ROV) was 

needed to obtain the survey data. Other less sophisticated options, such as towed video/still camera 

systems or lesser ROV systems, would not have performed satisfactorily. 

Costlow, J., K. Brink, M. Orbach, C. Peterson, J. Teal, and A. Robertson. 1992. North Carolina 

Environmental Sciences Review Panel. Report to the Secretary of the Interior from the North 

Carolina Environmental Sciences Review Panel as mandated by the Oil Pollution Act of 1990. 83 p. 

The Oil Pollution Act of 1990, in a section cited as the Outer Banks Protection Act, prohibits the 

Secretary of the Interior from proceeding with a number of actions relative to development of oil and 

gas resources offshore North Carolina for which he is responsible under the Outer Continental Shelf 

Lands Act (OCLSA). Actions prohibited include: (1) conducting a lease sale; (2) issuing any new 

lease; (3) approving any exploration plan; (4) approving any development and production plan; (5) 

approving any application for permit to drill; and (6) permitting any drilling. The prohibition on these 

actions is mandated to remain in effect until the latter of: (1) October 1, 1991 or (2) 45 days of 

contiguous session of the Congress following the submission of a written report from the Secretary 

certifying that the information available to him is sufficient to carry out his responsibilities under the 

OCSLA. 

In his report, the Secretary is required to take into consideration findings and recommendations of a 

panel established by the Outer Banks Protection Act, the North Carolina Environmental Sciences 

Review Panel, and to include a detailed explanation of any differences between his certification if 

sufficient information and the findings and recommendations of this group. The panel is charged by 

the Act with: (1) assessing the adequacy of the available physical oceanographic, ecological, and 

socioeconomic information to enable the Secretary to fulfill his responsibilities under the OCSLA and 

(2) identifying any additional information deemed essential to enable the Secretary to carry out these 

responsibilities. The Panel’s response to this charge is the subject of this document. 

As provided in the Outer Banks Protection Act, the North Carolina Environmental Sciences Review 

Panel is composed of five members, a marine scientist selected by the Secretary of the Interior, a 

marine scientist selected by the Governor of North Carolina, and three scientists, one each from the 

disciplines of physical oceanography, ecology, and social sciences, selected jointly by the Secretary 

and the Governor from a list developed by the National Academy of Sciences. Unless specifically 

indicated in the text, the conclusions and recommendations presented in the report represent the 

unanimous decision of the Panel members. A summary of findings including Physical Oceanography, 

Ecology, Socioeconomics, Sources of Information, Adequacy of Information, and Panel’s 

Recommended Studies is included. Appendix A: Literature Review, and Appendix B: Factors 

Influencing the Definition if Adequacy of Information are also included. 

Crawford, K. (ed.). 1989. Proceedings: 1989 Marine Expo: The Natural Resources Associated with 

Mobil’s Proposed Drill Site. NC Outer Continental Shelf Office, NC Department of Administration. 

Raleigh, NC. 64 p. 

*This report contains abstracts from each presenter. Chapter topics include: Mobil’s Proposal, 

Geologic Overview — Introduction and Potential for Oil and Gas Discovery, Oceanographic 

Conditions, Comments on Last MMS Modeling, Biological Production Near the Bottom 

(invertebrates), Fisheries Resources, Commercial and Recreational Marine Fisheries, Winter Storm 

Effects on Spawning and Larval Drift of Pelagic Fish, Marine Birds, Sea Turtles in North Carolina, 

Marine Mammals, Plenary Session, Summary. Each chapter also cited individually when appropriate. 
Geological Oceanography Chapter — 231 

—. 1998. North Carolina’s Coastal Energy Policies — A Framework for Reviewing OCS Proposals. pp. 

22-26. In: Vigil, D.L. (ed.). North Carolina/Minerals Management Service Technical Workshop on 

Manteo Unit Exploration: February 4-5, 1998. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management 

Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region. New Orleans, LA. 

*These are the proceedings from a workshop/meeting (February 4-5, 1998) between the North 

Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources, and the U.S. Department of the 

Interior’s Minerals Management Service (MMS). The geographic area being discussed is 

approximately 45 miles east-northeast of Cape Hatteras, NC, referred to as the Manteo Unit. This 

workshop reviewed environmental and socioeconomic information known and needed on the Manteo 

Unit. The MMS’s Gulf of Mexico OCS Regional Director gave an MMS perspective on history and 

status of the area. Chevron gave a presentation on how the exploratory well would be drilled. The 

scientific characterization was presented in greater detail by a number of scientific experts who spoke 

on the following disciplines physical environment, habitat and living resources, seabirds, marine 

mammals, sea turtles, and social and economic issues. Specific chapters are cited individually, when 

appropriate. 

In 1990 North Carolina found Mobil’s exploration plan and discharge permit for Block 467 

inconsistent with its coastal program due to inadequate information. Neither Mobil nor the federal 

government provided information to address the state’s concerns regarding potential environmental 

and socioeconomic impacts. The proposal for Block 467 is still under federal appeal and in litigation. 

This section discusses What the State Learned from Mobil’s Drilling Proposal, The NC Coastal 

Management Program and Coastal Energy Policies, Strengthening the State’s Coastal Energy 

Policies, and NC’s Process for Reviewing Chevron’s Exploration Proposal. 

Cutter, G.R., R.J. Diaz, and J.A. Blake. 1994a. Deep-Sea Research II: CD-ROM APPENDIX. Deep-Sea 

Research II Vol. 41(4-6): 981-982. 

The contents of the CD-ROM Appendix are data and images of the bottom from five of the articles in 

this issue. The CD-ROM was mastered in a format that can be read by both Macintosh and PC 

computers. It is organized in an hierarchical structure by folders, with data in one and images in 

another. To access a particular file, sequentially open folders until the file of interest appears. Data 

and figure captions are provided as: (.txt) ASCII text with no line breaks; (.tlb) ASCII text with line 

breaks; (.wor) Microsoft Word; and (.wp) Word Perfect 5.1 files. Images are in TIFF format (.tif). 

Data (ACSAR, Hatteras), Images and Captions (ACSAR, Profile, 3Dbathy, Sled, Surface, x-ray) are 

included. 

Cutter, G.R., R. Diaz, and J. Lee. 1994b. Foraminifera from the continental slope off Cape Hatteras, 

North Carolina. Deep-Sea Research II Vol. 41(4-6): 951-963. 

The recent benthic meiofaunal foraminiferal assemblage from the continental slope (590-2003 m) off 

Cape Hatteras, North Carolina exhibits high species richness and evenness, moderate diversity values, 

and lacks numerically dominant species. The preserved planktic assemblage has relatively low 

species richness, high evenness, low diversity, and a few numerically dominant species. 

Approximately 9% of the benthic species are those that typically live within continental shelf depth 

ranges. The benthic assemblage abundances and diversities do not follow depth patterns or 

geophysical characteristics. No biogeographic boundary can be described within the study area for 

meiofaunal foraminifers. Oxygen limitation does not appear to be a factor affecting the benthos of the 

North Carolina continental slope based upon the community structure of the benthic foraminifers, if 

total assemblage is assumed to reflect the recently living community. The high carbonate content of 

sediments in the area may be explained by foraminiferal tests. Within the study area, the foraminiferal 

assemblages are uniform, and probably reflect relative consistency of primary environmental 
232 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

variables as well as dynamic downslope transport and high influx of material from the water column 

in the vicinity where the Gulf Stream and the Western Boundary Undercurrent cross. 

DeMaster, D.J., R.H. Pope, L.A. Levin, and N.E. Blair. 1994. Biological mixing intensity and rates of 

organic carbon accumulation in North Carolina slope sediments . Deep-Sea Research II Vol. 41(4-6): 

735-753. 

Sediment accumulation rates and biological mixing intensities were determined at three sites on the 

North Carolina slope based on profiles of naturally occurring 14C, 210Ph and 234Th. The three sites all 

were at a water depth of 850 m with a spacing of 150 — 180 km between sites. Sediment 

accumulation rates increase from south to north from values of 7 cm ky-1 at Site I, to 160 cm ky-1 at 

Site II, to 1100 cm ky-1 at Site III. The organic carbon burial rate a these sites also increases in the 

northward direction from 0.65 (Site I) to 20 (Site II) to ≤ 150 g Corg m-2 year-1 (Site III). These data 

indicate that continental margin environments can exhibit highly variable carbon fluxes over 

relatively small distances on the seafloor. The rate of organic carbon accumulation at Site III is one of 

the highest values reported for the marine environment. Based on these accumulation rates and 

dissolved inorganic carbon flux estimates from each site, the seabed organic carbon preservation 

efficiency (i.e. the ratio of Corg accumulation rate to Corg deposition rate times 100) was estimated to 

vary from 6.0% to 54% to 88%, at Sites I, II and III, respectively. The 14C age of organic matter in 

surface sediments was older at Site III (1800 years BP), than at Sites I and II (800 years BP), 

indicating that Site III receives it greater proportion of old sediment from either up-slope areas or 

from terrigenous sources. Inventories of excess 234Th (half-life of 24 days) were used as it tracer for 

particle flux covering the 100 days prior to the October 1989, July-August 1990 and August 1991 

cruises. The mean 234Th inventories at the three sites were 4.7 ± 1.9, 8.4 ± 6.3 and 23.1 ± 7.3 dpm cm2

, for Sites I, II and III, respectively. 

Diaz, R.J., J.A. Blake, and D.P. Lohse. 1993a. Volume II Final Report: Benthic Study of the Continental 

Slope off Cape Hatteras, North Carolina. Virginia Institute of Marine Science, School of Marine 

Science, College of William and Mary, Gloucester Pt., VA. Science Applications International 

Corporation, Woods Hole, MA. 135 p. 

*This is a study of the nature and spatial extent of continental slope benthic communities off Cape 

Hatteras, NC, with emphasis on the Manteo Area lease block 467. Macrofaunal abundance and 

biomass in this area higher than anywhere else along the entire South Atlantic continental slope and 

rise. Species composition of the infauna off Cape Hatteras is also different from other slope habitats. 

Species richness and diversity are lower with a high degree of dominance by species that are 

cosmopolitan in distribution. Trends in abundance of invertebrate megafauna on the continental slope 

off Cape Hatteras appear to be similar to the macrofauna. Demersal fish fauna off Cape Hatteras is 

distinctive in terms of composition and population density. Overall, abundance of benthic fish off 

Cape Hatteras is four to seven times higher than adjacent area. Site sediment characteristics (e.g., 

source, texture, and physico-chemistry) and potential impact to benthic community by sediment 

discharge during drilling are described. Volume III contains Appendices A-E. 

Much of the data in this report were used in the Special Deep Research issue (1994. 41 (4-6)). 

Diaz, R.J., G.R. Cutter, and J.A. Blake. 1998. Appendix F: A Review: Findings of the Benthic Study of 

the Continental Slope Off Cape Hatteras, North Carolina. pp. 121-136. In: Vigil, D.L. (ed.). North 

Carolina/Minerals Management Service Technical Workshop on Manteo Unit Exploration: February 

4-5, 1998. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region. 

New Orleans, LA. 
Geological Oceanography Chapter — 233 

*These are the proceedings from a workshop/meeting (February 4-5, 1998) between the North 

Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources, and the U.S. Department of the 

Interior’s Minerals Management Service (MMS). The geographic area being discussed is 

approximately 45 miles east-northeast of Cape Hatteras, NC, referred to as the Manteo Unit. This 

workshop reviewed environmental and socioeconomic information known and needed on the Manteo 

Unit. The MMS’s Gulf of Mexico OCS Regional Director gave an MMS perspective on history and 

status of the area. Chevron gave a presentation on how the exploratory well would be drilled. The 

scientific characterization was presented in greater detail by a number of scientific experts who spoke 

on the following disciplines physical environment, habitat and living resources, seabirds, marine 

mammals, sea turtles, and social and economic issues. Specific chapters are cited individually, when 

appropriate. 

Because of the potential environmental impacts associated with development and production 

activities, the Oil Pollution Act of 1990 mandated that a panel of experts be convened. This panel, 

North Carolina Environmental Sciences Review Panel (NCESRP), was to consider whether the 

available scientific information was adequate for making decisions about oil and gas leasing, 

exploration, and development off North Carolina. The Costlow et al. (1992) report to the Secretary of 

the Interior made several recommendations on the information needed to understand the basic 

ecology of the leased areas. Among them was the recommendation that the spatial extent of the 

benthic community found within some of the lease blocks should be determined before any 

exploration or development activity occurred off Cape Hatteras. The present study was developed by 

the Minerals Management Service to determine the aerial extent of the community found by Blake et 

al. (1985, 1987). Results are published as a special issue of Deep-Sea Research Part II (Diaz et al. 

1994), which included a CD-ROM with data and selected bottom images (Cutter et al. 1994). 

*Sediments and Sedimentation Rates, Biological Communities (invertebrates and fish), Physical 

Habitat (geomorphology), Benthic Community Characterization and Distribution are discussed. 

Diaz, R.J., G.R. Cutter, and D.C. Rhoads. 1994. The importance of bioturbation to continental slope 

sediment structure and benthic processes off Cape Hatteras, North Carolina. Deep-Sea Research II 

Vol. 41(4-6): 719-734. 

Even though the continental slope off Cape Hatteras has sediment accumulation rates on the order of 

1 cm/year, large areas of soft sediment are intensively reworked by infaunal organisms. Primary 

sedimentary structures are dominated by the bioturbation activities of a deep burrowing infauna (to at 

least 30 cm). The layer actively mixed by the benthos, as evidenced by sediment profile and X-ray 

images, is estimated to range from 5 to 20 cm, with the residence time for particles within the surface 

mixed layer ranging from about 4.5 to 18 years. The biological mixing parameter (G) ranges from 0.4 

to 5.5, which indicates moderate to strong biological mixing relative to accumulation and strata 

formation. Bioturbation contributes to the dynamic forces affecting the surface sediments by 

decreasing compaction of sediment layers and dilating sediment fabrics by sediment mixing, and 

introducing large water-filled burrows and voids to subsurface sediments. The sediment profile 

images captured numerous subsurface feeding voids, and worms in the process of making deep 

burrows, many of which extended below the 5 to 10 cm average depth of the apparent color redox 

potential discontinuity layer. High rates of accumulation of organic-rich sediment lead to high 

standing stocks of benthos and intensive feeding/burrowing activity that result in organic rich 

stratagraphic sequences that are thoroughly mixed. Cape Hatteras is an apparent focusing point for the 

transport of shallow water sediments to the deep sea. Sediments across other areas of the continental 

slope just 100’s of kilometers south of Cape Hatteras are not as thoroughly mixed or biologically 

active. 
234 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

Dillon, W.P., and P. Popenoe. 1988. The Blake Plateau Basin and Carolina Trough. pp. 291-328. In: 

Sheridan, R.E., and J.A. Grow. The Atlantic Continental Margin: U.S. Vol. I — 2. 

*This is a chapter in a geology text titled The Atlantic Continental Margin. Presently, the continental 

margin of the southeastern United States forms a zone of transition between the actively building, 

steep-fronted carbonate platform of the Bahamas and the typical eastern North American terrigenous 

clastic-dominated, drowned, shelf-slope-rise configuration. This region of the continental margin is 

underlain by two major sedimentary basins the Blake Plateau Basin and the Carolina Trough — 

which are different in shape, basement structure, and history. The two southern basins show some of 

the greatest contrasts of any basins of the eastern North America, especially in their early response to 

rifting and in the change from rifting to drifting. The region has experienced abrupt major changes in 

geological conditions, most notably the onset of Gulf Stream flow in the early Tertiary. 

Morphologically, the area is dominated by the broad, flat Blake Plateau at about 800-1000 m water 

depth. The plateau is bounded to the east by the extremely steep Blake Escarpment, descending to 

5,000 m water depths. 

Duplantier, D. 1998. Manteo Prospect: How Can it Be Done? pp. 18-21. In: Vigil, D.L. (ed.). North 

Carolina/Minerals Management Service Technical Workshop on Manteo Unit Exploration: February 

4-5, 1998. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region. 

New Orleans, LA. 

*These are the proceedings from a workshop/meeting (February 4-5, 1998) between the North 

Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources, and the U.S. Department of the 

Interior’s Minerals Management Service (MMS). The geographic area being discussed is 

approximately 45 miles east-northeast of Cape Hatteras, NC, referred to as the Manteo Unit. This 

workshop reviewed environmental and socioeconomic information known and needed on the Manteo 

Unit. The MMS’s Gulf of Mexico OCS Regional Director gave an MMS perspective on history and 

status of the area. Chevron gave a presentation on how the exploratory well would be drilled. The 

scientific characterization was presented in greater detail by a number of scientific experts who spoke 

on the following disciplines physical environment, habitat and living resources, seabirds, marine 

mammals, sea turtles, and social and economic issues. Specific chapters are cited individually, when 

appropriate. 

Chevron participated in the MMS Information transfer Meeting on December 18, 1997 in New 

Orleans and a Technical Workshop in North Carolina on February 4, 1998 to explain how a well 

would be drilled off the coast of North Carolina. The focus of Chevron’s presentations was the 

geologic nature of the prospect. Participants in these two proceedings include state and federal 

agencies as well as members of the scientific community. 

This section discusses the Plan of Activity for the Manteo Prospect, Geologic Prospect, and Drilling 

Technology. 

EEZ-SCAN 87 Scientific Staff. 1991. Atlas of the U.S. Exclusive Economic Zone, Atlantic Continental 

Margin. U.S. Geological Survey. Denver, CO. 174 p. 

*This atlas is one in a series in which the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) presents images of the sea 

floor and other geophysical data from the deepwater regions off the U.S. coasts. Containing the first 

comprehensive compilation of sea-floor imagery of the Atlantic continental margin, this volume 

provides the first broad-scale view of sea-floor features and the effects of systems of sedimentary 

processes that have been unknown or poorly known, until know. These data are a unique set of basic 

information that will support future studies by government, academic and industry workers. The 
Geological Oceanography Chapter — 235 

region covered is within the U.S. Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) (Fig. 1), which extends 200 

nautical miles seaward from the shore. 

In 1984 the USGS began a systematic program of reconnaissance-scale imaging of the poorly 

explored deepwater parts of the EEZ, using a long-range sidescan-sonar system known as GLORIA 

(Geological Long Range Inclined Asdic). Data collected in this survey of the U.S. Atlantic EEZ 

include GLORIA sidescan-sonar imagery; shallow-penetration, medium-resolution seismic profiles; 

high-resolution seismic-reflection profiles; echo-sounder profiles; and measurements of total 

magnetic intensity. The field program, carried out during five cruises from February to May 1987, 

covered the Atlantic EEZ seaward of the continental shelf edge, from the Canadian border southward 

to the northern Blake Plateau off Florida (Figs. 26 and 27). 

Emery, K.O. 1970. Continental Margins of the World. The Geology of the East Atlantic Continental 

Margin: General Economic Papers, ICSU/SCOR 70(13): 7-29. 

Sediments of most continental shelves are retained by tectonic or reef dams; those of other shelves are 

held by the angle of rest of the adjacent continental slope. Continental rises at the base of the slopes 

are huge masses of sediment deposited by turbidity currents and the sinking of pelagic debris; some 

of them subsequently are modified by mass movements and bottom currents. Rises occur only where 

the continental margins lie within crustal plates; they are absent where deep-sea trenches mark zones 

of convergence at the edges of crustal plates. In the Atlantic Ocean the continental margins date from 

Permian-Triassic times when the rifting between continents began. 

—. 1971. The Geology of the Atlantic Continental Shelf and Slope. Underwater Naturalist 5(1): 4-7. 

Traditionally, the work of land geologists and that of marine geologists have been separated at the 

shoreline. This separation is due partly to the differences in geological tools needed in the two 

environments and partly to limitations in charters of organizations that sponsored the geological 

work. Future progress in both environments will be aided by cooperative studies of continental 

margins, particularly of continental shelves. These areas are significant to geologists because they 

have great crustal mobility and thick accumulations of sediments; they may therefore contain some of 

the keys to our future understanding of the origin and growth of continents. The relationships between 

the water environment and the unconsolidated sediments must be understood before we can correctly 

estimate the environment in which the lithified end products were originally deposited. Within the 

strata of many continental margins are structural and stratigraphic traps that contain petroleum. The 

regional study of geological history and the regional mapping of mineral resources thus forms a 

general framework that should promote continuation by private industry on a detailed local basis prior 

to exploitation of the resources. 

Ewing, M., and E.M. Thorndike. 1965. Suspended Matter in Deep Ocean Water. Science 147: 1291-1294. 

A nepheloid layer had been observed by optical means in the lower part of the water column on the 

continental slope and rise. By sampling it has been found to be a suspension of lutite, apparently in 

sufficient quantity to induce downslope flow. Sediment transport in the nepheloid layer may be a 

major component of deep-sea sediment bodies. 

Fornes, W.L., D.J. Demaster, L.A. Levin, and N.E. Blair. 1999. Bioturbation and particle transport in 

Carolina slope sediments: A radiochemical approach. Journal of Marine Research 57: 335-355. 

In situ tracer experiments investigated short-term sediment mixing processes at two Carolina 

continental margin sites (water depth = 850 m) characterized by different organic C fluxes, 234Th 

mixing coefficients (Db) and benthic assemblages. Phytoplankton, slope sediment, and sand-sized 

glass beads tagged with 210Pb, 113Sn, and 228Th, respectively, were placed via submersible at the 
236 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

sediment-water interface at both field sites (Site I off Cape Fear, and Site III off Cape Hatteras). 

Experimental plots were sampled at 0, 1.5 days, and 90 days after tracer emplacement to examine 

short-term, vertical transport. Both sites are initially dominated by nonlocal mixing. Transport to the 

bottom of the surface mixed layer at both sites occurs more rapidly than 234Th-based Db values 

predict; after 1.5 days, tagged particles were observed 5 cm below the sediment-water interface at Site 

I and 12 cm below at Site III. Impulse tracer profiles after 90 days at Site III exhibit primarily 

diffusive distributions, most likely due to a large number of random. nonlocal mixing events. The Db

values determined from 90-day particle lagging experiments are comparable with those obtained from 

naturally occurring 234Th profiles (100-day time scales) from nearby locations. The agreement 

between impulse tracer mixing coefficients and steady-state natural tracer mixing coefficients 

suggests that the diffusive analogue for bioturbation on monthly time scales is a realistic and useful 

approach. Tracer profiles from both sites exhibit some degree of particle selective mixing, but the 

preferential transport of the more labile carbon containing particles only occurred 30% of the time. 

Consequently, variations in the extent to which age-dependent mixing occurs in marine sediments 

may depend on factors such as faunal assemblage and organic carbon flux. 

Gettleson, D.A. 1992. Results of a Benthic Visual Survey Within the Manteo Block 467. pp. 159-168. In: 

U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service. Proceedings of the Fourth Atlantic 

OCS Region Information Transfer Meeting, September 1991. U.S. Department of the Interior, 

Minerals Management Service. Herndon, VA. 

The Fourth Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) Regional Information Transfer Meeting (ITM) 

was held on 24-25 September, 1991, in Wilmington, NC. The focus of the meeting was on the OCS 

off North Carolina, specifically on activities related to a proposed exploratory well for oil and gas by 

Mobil on Block 467 a site 40 miles off the coast of North Carolina. The area of industry interest is 

known as the Manteo Prospect, while the activities surrounding the proposed drilling are referred to 

collectively as the Manteo Project. The wildcat wellsite is in 2,690 ft. (857 m) of water near the edge 

of the Gulf Stream. It is also near a fishing ground known locally as “The Point.” The area is believed 

to be gas prone rather than oil prone. The estimated size of the resource could be as high as 5 trillion 

cubic feet of gas. 

The purpose of the meeting was to exchange information on the leasing background, legislative 

activities, scientific results, and socioeconomic studies. Legislative-related reports include 

descriptions of the Oil Pollution Act of 1990, the Outer Banks Protection Act, the Environmental 

Studies Review Panel, and the North Carolina Physical Oceanography Panel. Reports of studies on 

marine life include benthic diatoms, benthic fauna, pelagic seabirds, sea turtles, and right whales. One 

report describes the use of airships (blimps) for ocean research a capability relevant to North Carolina 

because of the east coast airship facility is located in the state. Local marine science facilities 

described include NOAA’s National Undersea Research Center at the University of North Carolina at 

Wilmington and the national marine Fisheries Service laboratory in Beaufort. 

Developments in oil spill cleanup technology and capabilities are described by both the Coast Guard 

and the industry. A socioeconomic report describes the effects of the oil and gas activities on the 

tourist industry. Lastly, research on the restoration of salt marshes indicates that rehabilitation of an 

area is possible when development or an accident has occurred. While the emphasis of the meeting 

was on oil and gas, two reports described the results of projects related to offshore sand mining. The 

appendix lists the names and addresses of speakers. Individual chapters are cited individually when 

appropriate. 

*This summary describes the results of a video- and still-camera photodocumentation survey 

conducted from July 9 to 24, 1989 in the Manteo Area Block 467 (Figure 37). Block 467 is located 

along a steep, highly irregular portion of the continental slope on the northern fringe of the Hatteras 
Geological Oceanography Chapter — 237 

canyon system. The purpose of this photodocumentation survey was to document the topographical 

features, substrate types, and associated biota around a proposed well and anchor locations in block 

467 (figure 38). Water depths within the sites surveyed ranged from 299 to 1.393 meters (m) (980 to 

4,570 feet (ft)). Because of the water depth and the highly irregular topography within the survey 

area, a state-of the-art deepwater remotely operated vehicle (ROV) was used to obtain the survey 

data. Live bottom site characterization (invertebrates and fish present) are described. 

Harris, W.B. 1989. The Natural Resources Associated with Mobil’s Proposed Exploratory Well: Geologic 

Overview Introduction. pp. 8-15. In: Crawford, K. (ed.). Proceedings: 1989 Marine Expo: The 

Natural Resources Associated with Mobil’s Proposed Drill Site. NC Outer Continental Shelf Office, 

NC Department of Administration. Raleigh, NC. 

In this part of the program, Dr. Charles Paull of UNC-Chapel Hill will presented a geologic overview 

of the proposed site and the site’s potential for a gas or oil discovery. But before turning the program 

over to Dr. Paull I would like to spend a few minutes attempting to set the stage and answer the 

question, Why is Mobil Here? Why North Carolina? 

*This is a transcript from a slide presentation. The socioeconomic issues associated with mineral 

harvest are discussed. 

Harvey, H.R. 1994. Fatty acids and sterols as source markers of organic matter in sediments of the North 

Carolina continental slope. Deep- Vol. 41(4-6): 783-796. 

To estimate the source and diagenetic state of organic matter reaching bottom sediments, fatty acids 

and sterols were measured in unconsolidated surface material (flocs) at 12 sites ranging from 600 to 

2000 m across the mid-Atlantic continental slope off Cape Hatteras, North Carolina. Total free and 

esterified fatty acids were similar in description and concentration to other coastal systems, with 

values ranging from 0.64 to 46.52 g mg-1 organic carbon (1.10-68.85 g mg-1dry sediment). Although 

shallow (600 m) stations contained significantly greater fatty acid concentrations than deep (>1400 

m) stations, high variability observed at mid-depth (800 m) collections precluded a consistent 

relationship between total fatty acid concentration and station depth. At three sites where underlying 

sediments were also collected, decreases in total fatty acid reduced amounts of polyenoic acids and 

significant presence of bacterial fatty acids suggest rapid reworking of labile organic material that 

reaches the sediment surface. The distribution of sterols was remarkably consistent among all sites 

even though there were large variations in concentrations (1.8-20.7g mg-1 organic carbon). Sterol 

composition indicated phytoplankton, principally diatoms and dinoflagellates, as the principal source 

of labile organic matter to sediments, together with a significant input of cholesterol typical of 

zooplankton and their feeding activity. A minor but widespread terrigenous input was also evident 

based upon significant concentrations of sterols dominant in vascular plants. 

Heezen, B. C. 1968. The Atlantic Continental Margin. UMR Journal 1: 5-25. 

*Turbidity currents, surface and subsurface currents carry detritus from the land across the 

continental shelf to the adjacent continental slope where slumps and turbidity currents transport the 

sediment downslope for hundreds of miles to greater depths, and deep geostrophic contour currents 

transport it thousands of miles down-current in a direction parallel to the bathymetric contours. The 

combined effect of these processes has been to create a wide, thick, geosynclinal apron of sediment at 

the base of the continental slope. 

Hilbig, B. 1994. Faunistic and zoogeographical characterization of the benthic infauna on the Carolina 

continental slope. Deep-Sea Research II Vol. 41(4–6): 929-950. 
238 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

The species composition of the benthic infauna on the Carolina continental slope is described, based 

on the analysis of 146 quantitative boxcore samples taken between 1983 and 1986 and in 1992, The 

samples were collected between Cape Hatteras and the Charleston Bump in depths ranging from 600 

to 3500 m. From these samples, nearly 1300 species were identified, more than one-third of them 

being new to science. Almost half of all species were polychaetes, the largest family being the 

Spionids with 63 species. Arthropods accounted for about 22% of all species, about one-third of 

which belonged to the tanaidaceans. Among the mollusks (16% of all species), the largest group was 

thyasirid bivalves. Pogonophorans were represented by 15 species. Distributional patterns of some of 

the major taxa are discussed, and the existence of a zoogeographical barrier off Cape Hatteras and/or 

Cape Lookout is revisited. The most striking difference between the slope off Cape Hatteras and 

comparable depths further south (e.g. Cape Lookout) is the greatly reduced number of polychaetes off 

Cape Hatteras. The zoogeographical barrier reported by Cutler [(1975) 22, 893-901] exists for most 

cumaceans, some aplacophorans, and many polychaetes identified from the present data set, but it 

appears to be virtually nonexistent for bivalves. 

Inman, D.L., and R. Dolan. 1989. The Outer Banks of North Carolina: Budget of Sediment and Inlet 

Dynamics Along a Migrating Barrier System. Journal of Coastal Research 5(2): 193-237. 

The Outer Banks are barrier islands separating Pamlico, Albemarle and Currituck Sounds from the 

Atlantic Ocean. These barriers are transgressing landward, with average rates of shoreline recession 

of 1.4 m/yr between False Cape and Cape Hatteras. Oregon Inlet, 63 km north of Cape Hatteras, is the 

only opening in the nearly 200 km between Cape Henry and Cape Hatteras which bounds the Hatteras 

Littoral Cell. Oregon Inlet is migrating south at an average rate of 23 m/yr and landward at a rate of 5 

m/yr The net southerly longshore transport of sand in the vicinity of Oregon Inlet is between one-half 

and one million m3/yr. 

Oregon Inlet is the most dynamic physical feature within the Hatteras Littoral Cell. The combination 

of waves and tidal currents deposit ebb-tide bars offshore of the entrance and form extensive tidal 

islands, bars and shoals in Pamlico Sound. These deposits lag behind as the inlet migrates. The 

offshore deposits are gradually returned to the beach by waves and reincorporated into the littoral 

drift system. The flood-tide inlet deposits in the sound are eventually reincorporated into the landward 

migrating barrier as the inlet moves to the south. The integrity of the landward side of the 

transgressing barrier is maintained by washover deposits, wind- blown sand deposits, and inlet 

deposits. 

Averaged over the 160 km from False Cape to Cape Hatteras, sealevel rise accounts for 21% of the 

measured shoreline recession of 1.4 m/yr. Analysis of the budget of sediment indicates that the 

remaining erosion of 1.1 m/yr is apportioned between overwash processes (39%) longshore transport 

out of the cell (22%), windblown sand transport (18%), inlet deposits (10%), and removal by 

dredging at Oregon Inlet (11%). This analysis indicates that the barrier system moves as a whole, so 

that the sediment balance is relative to the moving shoreline (Lagrangian grid). Application of a 

continuity model to the budget suggests that, in places, the barrier system is supplied with sand from 

the shelf. 

Janowitz, G.S. 1989. Comments on the Latest MMS Meeting. pp. 22-24. In: Crawford, K. (ed.). 

Proceedings: 1989 Marine Expo: The Natural Resources Associated with Mobil’s Proposed Drill Site. 

NC Outer Continental Shelf Office, NC Department of Administration. Raleigh, NC. 

In the early 1980s, MMS funded a modeling effort but utilized only predicted monthly averaged 

currents, combined with a time-varying surface wind-driven current in its risk analysis. The monthly 

averaged currents were very weak over the shelf and showed none of the energetic flows associated 

with the Gulf Stream-induced eddies and filaments present over the shelf. As it is possible that parcels 
Geological Oceanography Chapter — 239 

may cross the shelf in a matter of days, MMS’s use of mean monthly currents was challenged by the 

state of North Carolina. 

A joint State-Federal Technical Advisory Panel concluded that the approach taken by NMS was 

inadequate. It recommended that a field study of the eddy-filament structure be funded and that a new 

ocean circulation model be developed. The model was to be verified by comparison with data prior to 

its incorporation into the trajectory calculations. Both projects were funded by MMS. 

The Frontal Eddy Dynamics experiment, or FRED experiment for short, provided, among other data, 

current measurements in Onslow and Raleigh Bays and satellite imagery in this region and further 

north into the Mobil area. The study was not designed to measure currents in what is now the Mobil 

area. At this time, I have no details on the latest circulation model, the state of its verification, or the 

proposed method of incorporation into the trajectory analysis. 

JAYCOR. 1980. Final Report 1978: Physical Oceanographic Model Evaluation for the South Atlantic 

OCS Region. BLM Contract AA551-CT8-34. JAYCOR. Alexandria, VA. 327 p. 

*This report is comprised primarily of mathematical models. Geological Oceanography is discussed 

in Appendix A: Geospecific Aspects of the South Atlantic OCS Region (L.J. Pietrafesa). 

For twelve months, JAYCOR Personnel were under contract to the Bureau of Land Management 

(BLM) to conduct an evaluation of physical oceanographic models that could have applicability to the 

South Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf (SAOS) area. The objectives of this evaluation were to 

determine: 1) which models, if any were best suited to the BLM program needs in assessing the 

distribution of pollutants resulting from offshore activities and in assessing the probability of 

occurrence of circumstances hazardous to offshore structures; 2) which models best fit the physics of 

the SAOS region; 3) the sensitivity of various models to data input; and 4) the quantity and quality of 

existing input data to drive the models. 

More than twelve-hundred papers have been reviewed in a three-step process; semi-qualitative, 

detailed qualitative, and quantitative. All of the models, and background material are included in 

Appendix B of this report. This appendix includes a designation for each citation indicating the level 

at which the material reviewed was useful for this project. It should be emphasized that this model 

evaluation was done in the context of the South Atlantic OCS Region, and the results are not 

necessarily applicable to all OCS regions, although a significant portion of the information is 

transferable to other similar areas. 

Kirby-Smith, W.W. 1989a. Biological Production Near the Bottom. p. 25. In: Crawford, K. (ed.). 

Proceedings: 1989 Marine Expo: The Natural Resources Associated with Mobil’s Proposed Drill Site. 

NC Outer Continental Shelf Office, NC Department of Administration. Raleigh, NC. 

Satellite photographs show that North Carolina has an incredibly diverse oceanographic setting 

which, in turn, produces highly diverse communities of fishes and invertebrates. The three bottom 

types found off the continental shelf of North Carolina include; 1) sand, 2) shell, and 3) rock 

outcrops. Across the continental shelf, the primary producers that support fisheries include 

microalgae and macroalgae. The bottom-dwelling microalgae (small microscopic plants) grow, 

rapidly and are very important to the total productivity of the whole water column. As much as half of 

the primary productivity on the shelf may be due to this benthic component. The secondary producers 

on rock outcrops, which include sponges, corals, worms and small arthropods, are a major food 

source for small fish. From a scientific perspective, the proposed drill site is an exciting area with a 

high biomass and low diversity. In my opinion, the exploration well itself would have little or no 

impact on the resources in the area; however, a major find of oil or gas could lead to a tremendous 
240 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

amount of industrial development, which could compete economically with other coastal industries, 

such as tourism and fisheries. 

—. 1989b. The Community of Small Macroinvertebrates Associated with Rock Outcrops in the 

Continental Shelf of North Carolina. pp. 279-305. In: . George, R.Y., and A.W. Hulbert (eds.). North 

Carolina Coastal Symposium. National Undersea Research Program, NOAA. Rockville, MD. 

Communities of small benthic organisms associated with rock outcrops on the continental shelf of 

North Carolina were examined for patterns in community structure related to season and depth. The 

communities were dominated by polychaetes, amphipods and mollusks. The number of species per 

0.5m2 ranged from 40 to 214 and the number of individuals from 180 to 1657. Diversity was high 

with H’ values of 4 to 6. Diversity was slightly greater at the middle shelf stations as compared to 

inner and outer shelf. The number of species and individuals was greatest at all three locations in the 

spring and fall and least in the winter and summer: a pattern similar to that of temperate coastal 

plankton. An index of community similarity indicated the presence of cold (winter/spring) and warm 

(summer/fall) communities at each of the three locations. Moreover at the middle and inner shelf the 

communities were more related to season (cold and warm) than to location (inner and middle). Outer 

shelf communities also had a strong seasonal component but were very different when compared with 

the middle and inner shelf communities. Different sampling gear (grabs versus diver suction) may 

explain some of the outer shelf uniqueness. 

*The site ISO4 location data cited by Kirby-Smith are incorrect. Data cited by Kirby-Smith for site 

ISO4 resulted from unpublished data collected during a SCUBA dive by S.W. Ross on 18 August 

1980. The correct location for this site [SWR -SCUBA-80-20] is 35o 20.7′N; 75o 21.2′W; depth 70-80 

feet. Selected fish, invertebrate, and bottom habitat data were collected. These data are unpublished 

and the site was not visited again (S.W. Ross, pers. comm., 19 November 1999). 

Lee, T. (ed.) 1983. Oceanography of the Southeast U.S. Continental Shelf and Adjacent Gulf Stream. 

Journal of Geophysical Research 88 C(8): 4539 to 4738. 

*This is reprinted from Journal of Geophysical Research, Volume 88 C(8). Individual chapters are 

cited independently when appropriate. 

Recent studies of shelf circulation and Gulf Stream variability in the area between Cape Hatteras, 

North Carolina, and Cape Canaveral, Florida, (South Atlantic Bight) have significantly enlarged the 

regional data ensemble available for dynamical interpretation. As national interests shifted to the 

finding of new and alternative energy resources, the need to understand better the oceanography of 

the SAB with its possible oil reserves became apparent. It is the purpose of this dedicated issue to 

combine the results of studies funded separately by the Department of Energy, the Bureau of Land 

Management (now Minerals Management Service), the National Science Foundation, and the Office 

of Naval Research in order that they may be viewed together for a more complete understanding of 

the important physical processes in the region. 

Legeckis, R., and J.M. Bane Jr. 1983. Comparison of the TIROS-N Satellite and Aircraft Measurements 

of Gulf Stream Surface Temperatures. Journal of Geophysical Research 88 C(8): 4611-4616. 

A comparison is made between multi-channel infrared (3.7 and 11 um) temperatures measured by the 

TIROS-N satellite and aircraft single channel radiometer and AXBT measurements over the Gulf 

Stream between Cape Hatteras and Savannah, Georgia, on November 27, 1979. After reducing the 

noise in the 3.7 um TIROS-N data, a multi-channel method is used to estimate the sea surface 

temperatures. For a temperature band of 19 to 26°C, the estimated and AXBT measurements are in 

agreement within a standard error estimate of 0.5°C. A bias of 1.2°C was found between the aircraft 
Geological Oceanography Chapter — 241 

radiometer and the AXBT measurements, and part of this bias is attributed to radiometer calibration 

errors. 

Levin, L., N. Blair, D. DeMaster, G. Plaia, W. Fornes, C. Martin, and C. Thomas. 1997. Rapid subduction 

of organic matter by maldanid polychaetes on the North Carolina slope. Journal of Marine Research 

55: 595-611. 

In situ tracer experiments conducted on the North Carolina continental slope reveal that tube-building 

worms (Polychaeta: Maldanidae) can, without ingestion, rapidly subduct freshly deposited, algal 

carbon (13C-labeled diatoms) and inorganic materials (slope sediment and glass beads) to depths of 10 

cm or more in the sediment column. Transport over 1.5 days appears to be nonselective but spatially 

patchy, creating localized, deep hotspots. As a result of this transport, relatively fresh organic matter 

becomes available soon after deposition to deep-dwelling microbes and other infauna, and both 

aerobic and anaerobic processes may be enhanced. Comparison of tracer subduction with estimates 

from a diffusive mixing model using 234Th-based coefficients, suggests that maldanid subduction 

activities, within 1.5 d of particle deposition, could account for 25-100% of the mixing below 5 cm 

that occurs on 100-day time scales. Comparison of community data from the North Carolina slope for 

different places and times indicate a correlation between the abundance of deep-welling maldanids 

and the abundance and the dwelling depth in the sediment column of other infauna. Pulsed inputs of 

organic matter occur frequently in margin environments and maldanid polychaetes are a common 

component of continental slope macrobenthos. Thus, the activities we observe are likely to be 

widespread and significant for chemical cycling (natural and anthropogenic materials) on the slope. 

We propose that species like maldanids, that rapidly redistribute labile organic matter within the 

seabed, probably function as keystone resource modifiers. They may exert a disproportionately strong 

influence (relative to their abundance) on the structure of infaunal communities and on the timing, 

location and nature of organic matter diagenesis and burial in continental margin sediments. 

Luternauer, J.L., and O.H. Pilkey. 1967. Phosphorite Grains: Their application to the Interpretation of 

North Carolina shelf sedimentation. Marine Geology 5(1967): 315-320. 

Study of phosphorite grains in North Carolina continental shelf, beach, sound, and river sediments 

reveals that: (1) the shelf is an important source of beach sediment, and (2) North Carolina shelf 

cuspate embayments are essentially independent entities, in terms of sediment content and transport. 

Macintyre, G., and M. Milliman. 1970. Physiographic Features on the Outer Shelf and Upper Slope, 

Atlantic Continental Margin, Southeastern United States. Geological Society of America Bulletin 81: 

2577-2598. 

Both erosional and constructional processes appear to have formed physiographic features near the 

shelf break along the southeastern United States, as indicated by extensive echo sounder profiles, 

rock-dredge material, and bottom photographs. Between Cape Hatteras, North Carolina, and Fort 

Lauderdale, Florida, four distinct physiographic areas are delineated, each having characteristic 

morphologies and lithologies. 

The ridges and well-defined troughs on the outer shelf and upper slope (depths of about 50 to 150 m) 

between Cape Hatteras and Cape Fear may be related largely to earlier Gulf Stream erosion, and the 

rocks (algal limestones and sandstones) and sediments dredged from these features probably are 

mainly Holocene, relict shallow-water deposits forming a thin veneer over this erosional surface of 

the sea floor. Relatively rapid accumulation of pre-Holocene sediments may account for the general 

absence of pronounced physiographic features on the outer shelf and upper slope from Cape Fear to 

Cape Kennedy. Ledges, small terraces, and rises (depths of 50 to 110 m) In this area are probably 

Holocene features eroded into, or constructed on the pre-Holocene sediments, which are covered by 
242 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

transgressive Holocene algal lime- stones and sandstones similar to those collected to the north. The 

lithology, together with radiocarbon dates of rock material, indicate that well-defined ridges in depths 

of 70 to 90 in between Cape Kennedy and Palm Beach are relict oolitic ridges or “dunes” formed 

during the Holocene transgression; these features are now covered by modern Oculina sp. coral 

debris. From Palm Beach to Fort Lauderdale, where the continental shelf is narrow and shallow, a 

small ridge present at the shelf break (15 to 30 m) is thought to be an “inactive” coral reef. 

Manheim, F.T., R.H. Meade, and G.C. Bond. 1970. Suspended Matter in Surface Waters of the Atlantic 

Continental Margin from Cape Cod to the Florida Keys. Science 167: 371-376. 

Appreciable amounts of suspended matter (> 1.0 milligram per liter) in surface waters are restricted to 

within a few kilometers of the Atlantic coast, articles that escape estuaries or are discharged by rivers 

into the shelf region and to travel longshoreward rather than seaward. Suspended matter farther 

offshore, chiefly amorphous organic particles, totals 0.1 milligram per liter or less. Soot, fly ash, 

processed cellulose, and other pollutants are widespread. 

McLawhorn, D.F. 1998. Looking for the Lodestar in the Shifting Sands of the Manteo Unit. pp. 27-30. In: 

Vigil, D.L. (ed.). North Carolina/Minerals Management Service Technical Workshop on Manteo Unit 

Exploration: February 4-5, 1998. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, Gulf of 

Mexico OCS Region. New Orleans, LA. 

*These are the proceedings from a workshop/meeting (February 4-5, 1998) between the North 

Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources, and the U.S. Department of the 

Interior’s Minerals Management Service (MMS). The geographic area being discussed is 

approximately 45 miles east-northeast of Cape Hatteras, NC, referred to as the Manteo Unit. This 

workshop reviewed environmental and socioeconomic information known and needed on the Manteo 

Unit. The MMS’s Gulf of Mexico OCS Regional Director gave an MMS perspective on history and 

status of the area. Chevron gave a presentation on how the exploratory well would be drilled. The 

scientific characterization was presented in greater detail by a number of scientific experts who spoke 

on the following disciplines physical environment, habitat and living resources, seabirds, marine 

mammals, sea turtles, and social and economic issues. Specific chapters are cited individually, when 

appropriate. 

The pending proposal by Chevron to drill an exploratory well offshore North Carolina presents 

several extraordinary legal issues. These new legal issues, the unresolved legal issues pending from 

the Mobil proposal to drill, and the two potential drilling scenarios presented by Chevron, make it 

even more difficult to define the legal position of the State vis-a-vis the present proposal. Because the 

factors that can influence the State’s policy decision are regularly shifting, it is impossible to find the 

legal lodestar by which the state can prevail with it’s position decision — a source of constant quest 

for the State’s attorneys in the Mobil/Chevron case. This section discusses Current Legal Status, New 

Legal Issues, Block 467, and Block 510. 

Mellor, C.A. 1998. Submarine canyon formation and continental slope morphology: A synthesis of 

geophysical data from the Manteo 467 lease block off North Carolina. M.S. Thesis. University of 

North Carolina at Chapel Hill. 63 p. 

Detailed geomorphology and stratigraphic development of submarine canyon heads are delineated 

using acoustic survey data from the Manteo 467 Lease Block, on the Continental Slope off North 

Carolina. At least 5 well developed canyons are defined by Sea Beam bathymetry. Seafloor textural 

variations are mapped using sidescan sonargrams. Smooth seafloor occurs primarily along ridge 

crests and their upper flanks and is underlain by layered sediments, indicating that ridges may be 

accretionary. Irregular seafloor is found predominantly in canyon axes and along canyon walls. 
Geological Oceanography Chapter — 243 

Gullies occur at canyon heads and down canyon walls. Irregular seafloor and gullying suggest 

erosion. Canyon development was initiated in the late Neocene because seismic reflectors correlating 

to pre-late Pliocene sediments indicate no submarine canyon development. An erosional 

unconformity in upper Pliocene sediments shows two submarine canyons corresponding with present 

day features. Subsequent canyon formation and development has occurred progressively as the result 

of mass wasting and differential deposition. 

Mellor, C.A., and C.K. Paull. 1994. Sea Beam bathymetry of the Manteo 467 Lease Block off Cape 

Hatteras, North Carolina. Deep-Sea Research II Vol. 41(4-6): 711-718. 

Continental slope morphology of a small area off Cape Hatteras, North Carolina, is illustrated on the 

basis of detailed Sea Beam bathymetry. The data reveal the complexity of the seafloor in this region, 

with many gullies marking the upper continental slope, coalescing downslope into larger submarine 

canyons. Submarine canyon morphology changes from “V” shaped valleys with sharp ridge crests 

above ~1200 m water depth, to “U” shaped valleys with rounded ridge crests below ~1200 m water 

depth. 

Milliman, J.D. 1994. Organic matter content in the U.S. Atlantic continental slope sediments: Decoupling 

the grain-size factor. Deep-Sea Research II Vol. 41(4-6): 797-808. 

Decoupling organic content in sediments from grain size can help define spatial variations in 

biological productivity, transport or preservation in continental margin sediments. Upper slope and 

upper rise sediments off the eastern United States have organic nitrogen contents similar to or lower 

than those predicted by grain size, whereas mid-slope sediments between Norfolk Canyon and Cape 

Fear have much higher organic contents. These elevated values probably result from off-shelf 

transport, combined with rapid burial and correspondingly reduced rates of remineralization, while 

lower values on the upper rise presumable result from low input of organic matter and low rates of 

burial and increased oxic degradation. 

Milliman, J.D., R.J. Diaz, J.A. Blake, and G.R. Cutter Jr. (eds.). 1994. Topical Studies in Oceanography: 

Input, Accumulation and Cycling of Materials on the Continental Slope Off Cape Hatteras. Deep-Sea 

Research Part II Vol. 41. 982 p. 

*This is a compilation of studies on Input, Accumulation and Cycling of Materials on the Continental 

Slope Off Cape Hatteras. Geology, sediments, organics, and benthic fauna are discussed. A CD-ROM 

is included. Each chapter (study) is cited independently, when appropriate. Some papers in this issue 

were derived from Diaz et al. (1993). 

Mills, G.B. 1992. Update of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s Bathymetric 

Mapping Program Along the Mid-Atlantic Coast. pp. 95-102. In: U.S. Department of the Interior, 

Minerals Management Service. Proceedings of the Fourth Atlantic OCS Region Information Transfer 

Meeting, September 1991. U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service. Herndon, 

VA. 

The Fourth Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) Regional Information Transfer Meeting (ITM) 

was held on 24-25 September 1991, in Wilmington, NC. The focus of the meeting was on the OCS 

off North Carolina, specifically on activities related to a proposed exploratory well for oil and gas by 

Mobil on Block 467 a site 40 miles off the coast of North Carolina. The area of industry interest is 

known as the Manteo Prospect, while the activities surrounding the proposed drilling are referred to 

collectively as the Manteo Project. The wildcat wellsite is in 2,690 ft. (857 m) of water near the edge 

of the Gulf Stream. It is also near a fishing ground known locally as “The Point.” The area is believed 
244 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

to be gas prone rather than oil prone. The estimated size of the resource could be as high as 5 trillion 

cubic feet of gas. 

The purpose of the meeting was to exchange information on the leasing background, legislative 

activities, scientific results, and socioeconomic studies. Legislative-related reports include 

descriptions of the Oil Pollution Act of 1990, the Outer Banks Protection Act, the Environmental 

Studies Review Panel, and the North Carolina Physical Oceanography Panel. Reports of studies on 

marine life include benthic diatoms, benthic fauna, pelagic seabirds, sea turtles, and right whales. One 

report describes the use of airships (blimps) for ocean research a capability relevant to North Carolina 

because of the east coast airship facility is located in the state. Local marine science facilities 

described include NOAA’s National Undersea Research Center at the University of North Carolina at 

Wilmington and the National Marine Fisheries Service laboratory in Beaufort. 

Developments in oil spill cleanup technology and capabilities are described by both the Coast Guard 

and the industry. A socioeconomic report describes the effects of the oil and gas activities on the 

tourist industry. Lastly, research on the restoration of salt marshes indicates that rehabilitation of an 

area is possible when development or an accident has occurred. While the emphasis of the meeting 

was on oil and gas, two reports described the results of projects related to offshore sand mining. The 

appendix lists the names and addresses of speakers. Individual chapters are cited individually when 

appropriate. 

*The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) began systematically mapping the 

continental slope along the U.S. mid-Atlantic slope in 1990 as part of its multibeam mapping program 

of the United States’ Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ). Eight surveys covering more than 2,500 

square nautical miles (nmi2) have been conducted in this region, using the sophisticated seafloor 

mapping systems Sea Beam and Hydrocart II. This section further describes NOAA’s ocean mapping 

program. 

Moffit, D. 1989a. Brief Description of Mobil’s Proposal and the State’s Response. Proceedings: 1989 

Marine Expo: The Natural Resources Associated with Mobil’s Proposed Drill Site. K. Crawford (ed.), 

pp. 1-8. NC Outer Continental Shelf Office, NC Department of Administration. Raleigh, NC. 

North Carolina has state law jurisdiction over oil and gas activities located in waters out to three miles 

from the shoreline. The Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act (OCSLA) gives jurisdiction to the federal 

government from the three-mile line to the limits of U.S. claims of sovereignty (200 miles). On 

September 1, 1989, a draft exploration plan was submitted to the federal government and the state by 

Mobil Oil Exploration and Producing Southeast Inc. pursuant to the July 12,1989 Memorandum of 

Understanding (MOU) between the State of North Carolina, the Minerals Management Service 

(MMS) of the U.S. Department of the Interior, and Mobil. Mobil will submit its final exploration plan 

to the state no earlier than February 1, 1990. 

*This introductory section describes oil and gas exploration at The Point. Maps of the Manteo Lease 

Blocks are included in this section. 

Moffitt, D. 1989b. Outer Continental Shelf (OCS). pp. 549-551. In: George, R.Y. and A.W. Hulbert 

(eds.). North Carolina Coastal Symposium. National Undersea Research Program, NOAA. Rockville, 

MD. 

This is a transcript from general presentation discussing Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) off-shore oil 

drilling off North Carolina Coast at Cape Hatteras and the location within the south-Atlantic/midAtlantic region. Lease blocks offshore North Carolina are mentioned. The speaker does not refer to a 

specific site. 
Geological Oceanography Chapter — 245 

Moser, M.L., S.W. Ross, S.W. Snyder, and R.C. Dentzman. 1995. Distribution of Bottom Habitats on the 

Continental Shelf off North Carolina, Final Report to Marine Resources Research Institute South 

Carolina Department of Marine Resources for the Southeast Area Monitoring and Assessment 

Program — Bottom Mapping Workgroup. Wilmington, NC. 

*This report documents the compilation and evaluation of the North Carolina SEAMAP Hardbottom 

data. In situ observations of hard bottom type and relief were made from submersibles or SCUBA 

divers. These data are in video and/or 35 mm still photographs. Black and white, 35 mm still 

photographs from RV Eastward research cruises (1964-1973) also provided evidence of bottom type 

and relief. USACOE drilling logs (1983) characterized sub-surface stability. Fish trawl and trap data 

from NMFS-Woods Hole (groundfish surveys 1964-1994), NMFS- Pascagoula (archive data 1954-

1984), SEAMAP data (since 1984) and NCDMF (RV Dan Moore, and reef data) were evaluated for 

the presence of obligate (primary) reef fishes as evidence for the location of hard bottoms. 

Newton, J.G., O.H. Pilkey, and O.H. Blanton. 1971. An Oceanographic Atlas of the Carolina Continental 

Margin. Division of Mineral Resources. North Carolina Department of Conservation and 

Development. Raleigh, NC. 57 p. 

*This atlas is a synthesis of oceanographic information describing the North Carolina coast. It 

contains data collected on RV Eastward Cruises 1964-1969. Sea floor topography and geology 

(sediment samples, rock and reef soundings), shipwreck locations, sea floor photography, and water 

characteristics (temperature and salinity) are described and mapped. 

Orbach, M. 1989. Plenary Session: How Could These Resources be Affected By the Proposed Drilling 

and What Mitigation Measures Might be Used to Prevent Irreversible Damage. pp. 63-64. In: 

Crawford, K. (ed.). Proceedings: 1989 Marine Expo: The Natural Resources Associated with Mobil’s 

Proposed Drill Site. NC Outer Continental Shelf Office, NC Department of Administration. Raleigh, 

NC. 

*The following is a summary of the plenary session. 

There appears to be a good deal of baseline information available about Mobil’s proposed drill site 

area. However, there was a general consensus that there are serious gaps in our understanding of the 

relationships and functions of the many communities found in and around the exploration area known 

as the “Manteo Prospect.” Some major areas of concern include protection of area benthos, impacts 

on community ecology, and effects of drilling discharges . 

There was almost unanimous support for a monitoring program of the drilling operations and their 

impacts. Programs should be devised to examine: 1) The fate of drilling discharges, including 

dispersion (range and extent) and accumulation along fronts and the ocean bottom; and 2) The effects 

(both chemical and mechanical) of drilling discharges on the benthos, the indigenous fisheries 

(including eggs/larvae), prey species, forage strategies, and the sargassum communities. 

Concerns were also raised regarding the effects the ship and anchor system might have on the biota as 

a result of displacement, noise, or collisions, and the impacts of exploration activities on the 

commercial and recreational fisheries found at “The Point.” 

Because of previous scientific work done at or near the proposed drill site, this area may be well 

suited to such monitoring programs. Not only would information from these programs be vital for 

developing mitigation measures, but it could also serve as a critical database on which to build a 

management framework for future development. In addition, data already collected on local fish 

resources, marine birds, the benthos and bottom conditions, and physical oceanography could provide 

an excellent base for further research. 
246 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

*This text also mentions marine mammals and Threatened and Endangered species (marine reptiles). 

Oynes, C. 1998. The MMS Perspective: History/Status of the Manteo Leases. pp. 7-13. In: Vigil, D.L. 

(ed.). North Carolina/Minerals Management Service Technical Workshop on Manteo Unit 

Exploration: February 4-5, 1998. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, Gulf of 

Mexico OCS Region. New Orleans, LA . 

*These are the proceedings from a workshop/meeting (February 4-5, 1998) between the North 

Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources, and the U.S. Department of the 

Interior’s Minerals Management Service (MMS). The geographic area being discussed is 

approximately 45 miles east-northeast of Cape Hatteras, NC, referred to as the Manteo Unit. This 

workshop reviewed environmental and socioeconomic information known and needed on the Manteo 

Unit. The MMS’s Gulf of Mexico OCS Regional Director gave an MMS perspective on history and 

status of the area. Chevron gave a presentation on how the exploratory well would be drilled. The 

scientific characterization was presented in greater detail by a number of scientific experts who spoke 

on the following disciplines physical environment, habitat and living resources, seabirds, marine 

mammals, sea turtles, and social and economic issues. Specific chapters are cited individually, when 

appropriate. 

This section discusses U.S. Department of the Interior’s Minerals Management Service (MMS) 

studies (socioeconomic and environmental), Manteo Leases, Exploration plans, the North Carolina 

Environmental Sciences Review Panel, Exploratory Drilling Scenarios, Perspectives on Exploratory 

Drilling, and Workshop Objectives. 

Paull, C. 1989. Geologic Overview: Potential for Gas and Oil Discovery. pp. 16-18. In: Crawford, K. 

(ed.). Proceedings: 1989 Marine Expo: The Natural Resources Associated with Mobil’s Proposed 

Drill Site. NC Outer Continental Shelf Office, NC Department of Administration. Raleigh, NC. 

The petroleum geologists at Mobil identified Block 467 as having potential for gas accumulations. 

The arguments that these geologists must have made to their management can be partly recreated 

using basic geologic principles. There are three requirements that need to be met for either oil or gas 

to accumulate: 1) there must be a source of organic matter; 2) the organic matter that is buried in the 

ground must be converted to hydrocarbons through a process known as maturation (which is a 

function of temperature, pressure and time); and 3) the hydrocarbons must be concentrated into a 

reservoir. Reservoirs are large bodies of porous strata that are covered or sealed by relatively 

impervious strata that trap buoyant fluids like oil or gas. 

—. 1991. Geologic Overview: Potential for Gas and Oil Discovery. p. 8. In: Shepard, A. (ed.). 

NURC/UNCW 1991 Undersea Research: Informational Meeting, National Undersea Research 

Center, University of North Carolina at Wilmington. Wilmington, NC. 

The petroleum geologists at Mobil identified Block 467 as having potential for gas accumulations. 

The arguments that these geologists must have made to their management can be partly recreated 

using basic geologic principles. There are three requirements that need to be met for either oil or gas 

to accumulate: 1) there must be a source of organic matter; 2) the organic matter that is buried in the 

ground must be converted to hydrocarbons through a process known as maturation (which is a 

function of temperature, pressure, and time); and 3) the hydrocarbons must be concentrated into a 

reservoir. Reservoirs are large bodies of porous strata that are covered or sealed by relatively 

impervious strata that trap buoyant fluids like oil or gas. 

—. 1998. Physical Environment Review: Slope Stability and Other Shallow Hazards for Drilling and 

Production in the Manteo 467 and 510 Lease Blocks. pp. 33-36. In: Vigil, D.L. (ed.). North Carolina/ 
Geological Oceanography Chapter — 247 

Minerals Management Service Technical Workshop on Manteo Unit Exploration: February 4-5, 1998. 

U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region. New Orleans, 

LA. 

*These are the proceedings from a workshop/meeting (February 4-5, 1998) between the North 

Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources, and the U.S. Department of the 

Interior’s Minerals Management Service (MMS). The geographic area being discussed is 

approximately 45 miles east-northeast of Cape Hatteras, NC, referred to as the Manteo Unit. This 

workshop reviewed environmental and socioeconomic information known and needed on the Manteo 

Unit. The MMS’s Gulf of Mexico OCS Regional Director gave an MMS perspective on history and 

status of the area. Chevron gave a presentation on how the exploratory well would be drilled. The 

scientific characterization was presented in greater detail by a number of scientific experts who spoke 

on the following disciplines physical environment, habitat and living resources, seabirds, marine 

mammals, sea turtles, and social and economic issues. Specific chapters are cited individually, when 

appropriate. 

This section provides a description of the geomorphology, an overview of the potential drilling 

hazards and a description of “shallow hazards” in the Manteo area. This information is based on 

“shallow hazard” survey data. 

Paull, C.K. 1992. Overview of the Hydrocarbon Potential in the Manteo Prospect off Cape Hatteras, 

North Carolina. pp. 87-94. In: U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service. 

Proceedings of the Fourth Atlantic OCS Region Information Transfer Meeting, September 1991. U.S. 

Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service. Herndon, VA. 

The Fourth Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) Regional Information Transfer Meeting (ITM) 

was held on 24-25 September, 1991, in Wilmington, NC. The focus of the meeting was on the OCS 

off North Carolina, specifically on activities related to a proposed exploratory well for oil and gas by 

Mobil on Block 467 a site 40 miles off the coast of North Carolina. The area of industry interest is 

known as the Manteo Prospect, while the activities surrounding the proposed drilling are referred to 

collectively as the Manteo Project. The wildcat wellsite is in 2,690 ft. (857 m) of water near the edge 

of the Gulf Stream. It is also near a fishing ground known locally as “The Point.” The area is believed 

to be gas prone rather than oil prone. The estimated size of the resource could be as high as 5 trillion 

cubic feet of gas. 

The purpose of the meeting was to exchange information on the leasing background, legislative 

activities, scientific results, and socioeconomic studies. Legislative-related reports include 

descriptions of the Oil Pollution Act of 1990, the Outer Banks Protection Act, the Environmental 

Studies Review Panel, and the North Carolina Physical Oceanography Panel. Reports of studies on 

marine life include benthic diatoms, benthic fauna, pelagic seabirds, sea turtles, and right whales. One 

report describes the use of airships (blimps) for ocean research a capability relevant to North Carolina 

because of the east coast airship facility is located in the state. Local marine science facilities 

described include NOAA’s national Undersea research Center at the University of North Carolina at 

Wilmington (NURC/UNCW) and the National Marine Fisheries Service laboratory in Beaufort. 

Developments in oil spill cleanup technology and capabilities are described by both the Coast Guard 

and the industry. A socioeconomic report describes the effects of the oil and gas activities on the 

tourist industry. Lastly, research on the restoration of salt marshes indicates that rehabilitation of an 

area is possible when development or an accident has occurred. While the emphasis of the meeting 

was on oil and gas, two reports described the results of projects related to offshore sand mining. The 

appendix lists the names and addresses of speakers. 
248 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

*This section provides a brief overview of the Manteo lease block program and an overview of the 

hydrocarbon potential in the Manteo Prospect off Cape Hatteras, North Carolina. 

Pietrafesa, L.J. 1983. Shelfbreak Circulation, Fronts and Physical Oceanography: East and West Coast 

Perspectives. Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists 33: 233-250. 

*A survey of fundamental physical oceanographic processes that may affect sediment distribution 

along shelfbreak regions is presented, emphasizing the Atlantic and Pacific coasts of the USA. The 

processes encompass the entire spectrum of known motions and are thus generic to all the shelfbreak 

interfacial zones. These shelfbreak strips couple the bounded coastal oceans to the open seas, but 

there is no systematic pattern to this coupling. In the South Atlantic bight, the Gulf Stream acts like a 

vibrating, permeable wall which can variously entrain shelf waters, flood the shelf with North 

Atlantic Central Water and violently mix shelf waters by towing whirling vortices through the outer 

shelf. Middle Atlantic Bight, New York Bight and Gulf of Maine shelfbreak processes contain many 

of the dynamic elements of their southeastern counterpart, but the relative importance of various 

random surface and offshore driving forces change. 

Pratt, R.M. 1968. Atlantic Continental Shelf and Slope of The United States — Physiography and 

Sediments Of the Deep-Sea Basin. Geological Survey Professional Paper 529-B. United States 

Printing Office. Washington, DC. 44 p. 

*This study is a summary of the widely scattered information on the sedimentary environments of the 

North American Basin off the east coast of the United States. It is an extension of a joint study of the 

continental shelf and slope by the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution and the U.S. Geological 

Survey (Emery 1966). 

Rhoads, D.C., and B. Hecker. 1994. Processes on the continental slope off North Carolina with special 

reference to the Cape Hatteras region. Deep-Sea Research II Vol. 41(4-6): 965-980. 

Historical data from the slope off Cape Hatteras show this environment to be atypical of the rest of 

the Atlantic slope in terms of high rates of sedimentation and high benthic/demersal standing stocks. 

This paper focuses on identifying potential sources for sediments and nutrients on the Hatteras slope 

and on likely transport mechanisms. 

Sediments consist mainly of subequal mixtures of sand, silt, and clay and contain an average of 1% 

carbon. This pool of carbon represents weathered organic matter containing polyunsaturated fatty 

acids (PUFA) and sterols typical of relatively refractory shelf/estuarine sediments. The labile organic 

fraction is derived from phytoplankton and zooplankton as reflected in short chain fatty acids (< 

C22), planktic sterols, and chlorophyll a that are found in higher concentrations than observed 

elsewhere on the eastern U.S. continental slope. The inventory of organic nitrogen is much higher on 

the mid-slope (800-1000 m) than shallower or deeper bottom areas as predicted from plots of organic 

nitrogen versus grain-size for the U.S. Atlantic continental margin. The mid- slope region is the major 

focusing area for sedimentation. Bioturbation is an important diagenetic process that has profound 

influence on sediment profiles of sulphate, methane, fatty acids, sterols, chlorophyll a, viable diatoms, 

and metals. The low inventory of relatively refractory carbon (1%) stands in contrast to high 

measured rates of organic carbon sedimentation (28-121 g organic C m-2 year- 1). This paradox is 

probably related to high remineralization rates in the water column and on the bottom. The refractory 

nature of the small residual pool of deposited organic matter may define the trophic niche filled by 

those benthos found on this slope that are more typically encountered on the shelf (e.g. oligochaetes 

and opportunistic polychaetes). 
Geological Oceanography Chapter — 249 

A likely mechanism for high input rates of both organic and inorganic particulates to the Hatteras 

slope may be attributed to the position of Cape Hatteras relative to the adjacent narrow shelf. The 

Cape extends outward almost to the shelf edge topographically diverting sediment and primary 

production seaward that is moving southward along the outer shelf (the ‘funnel’ hypothesis). 

Transport of outer shelf sands to the slope may take place by the impingement of Gulf Stream eddies 

on the outer shelf and upper slope as well as by storm-generated waves. Once shelf sediment is 

deposited on the upper slope, it is apparently redistributed, as no strong on-shore to off-shore or 

depth-related gradients are observed in any of the measured sedimentary parameters. 

The Hatteras slope apparently represents an estuarine type of sedimentary/nutrient regime that is 

displaced to an otherwise oceanic deep-sea environment by outwelling and funneling of nutrients and 

sediments from the shelf to the slope. 

Rona, P.A. 1969. Middle Atlantic Continental Slope of United States: Deposition and Erosion. The 

American Association of Petroleum Geologist Bulletin 53 (7): 1453-1465. 

Continuos seismic reflection profiles across outer continental terrace (outer continental shelf and 

slope) show that directly off Cape Hatteras reflection interfaces (sedimentary strata) with low seaward 

inclination (≤ 1) underlie the continental shelf and terminate at the continental slope, which inclines 

about 9. On traverses about 200 km north of Cape Hatteras, reflection interfaces (sedimentary strata) 

do not terminate but incline about 3, nearly parallel with the continental slope. On the continental 

lope about 100 km north of Cape Hatteras both relationships are present. 

—. 1970. Submarine canyon origin on upper continental slope off Cape Hatteras. Journal of Geology 

78(2): 141-152. 

The configuration of sedimentary strata revealed by continuous seismic-reflection profiles over 

submarine canyons in the upper continental slope off Cape Hatteras is best explained by the 

hypothesis of composite origin of submarine canyons. The canyons were originally incised into a 

post-Miocene surface of unconformity. The intercanyon areas were constructed by deposition of 

sediment up to several hundred meters thick forming the canyon walls while the canyons were 

maintained by sediment removal processes over the sites of original incision. 

Canyon heads are presently buried under a smooth sediment cover which extends from the shelf break 

at about 90 m down to about 400 m below sea level, where the canyons emerge from the cover. The 

depth of emergence of canyons approximately coincides with the inferred level of motion between the 

northeast-flowing Florida Current and the southwest-flowing Western Boundary Undercurrent. 

Ross, S.W. 1991. Fisheries Resources Potentially Impacted by Proposed Drilling On the US Atlantic 

Continental Slope and Rise Off Cape Hatteras, North Carolina . p. 6. In: Shepard, A. (ed.). 

NURC/UNCW 1991 Undersea Research: Informational Meeting. National Undersea Research 

Center, University of North Carolina at Wilmington. Wilmington, NC. 

An area known colloquially as “The Point” by fishermen, lies within the Manteo oil and gas lease 

blocks, just north of block 467, site of the proposed exploratory drill hole. ‘The Point” is 

characterized by a productive pelagic fishery and complex submarine topography. Although a small, 

canyon-like feature underlies the area, “The Point” is not a spot on the bottom, but rather a shifting 

location that may coincide with the confluence of water masses. 

In 1991, we will use a research submersible to describe the pelagic and benthic fish populations near 

Manteo Block 467. Specific objectives are to determine the distribution of: (1) pelagic fish with 

respect to depth and hydrographic features throughout the water column; and (2) benthic fish with 

respect to depth and topographic features. 
250 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

—. Unpublished (a). Selected fish, invertebrate and bottom habitat data. 

*This is unpublished data, collected by collected by S.W. Ross during a SCUBA dive on 18 August 

1980. The location for this site [SWR -SCUBA-80-20] is 35o 20.7′N; 75o 21.2′W; depth 70-80 feet. 

Selected fish, invertebrate, and bottom habitat data were collected. These data are unpublished and 

the site was not visited again. This cite (no date presented) is listed as ISO4 by Kirby-Smith (1989). 

The location data assigned for site ISO4 by Kirby-Smith (1989) were incorrect. The data cited by 

Kirby-Smith for site ISO4 were data collected by S.W. Ross at site [SWR -SCUBA-80-20] (S.W. 

Ross, pers. comm. 19 November 1999). 

—. Unpublished (c). Seabeam Bathymetry in the area off Cape Hatteras, NC known as “The Point.” 

*During the week of 13 November 1989 the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 

National Ocean Service (NOAA, NOS) used the R/V Mt. Mitchell and its SeaBeam bottom mapping 

system to map a portion of the area off Cape Hatteras known as “The Point” (mostly in Manteo lease 

block 467). The cruise was not specifically directed toward this area, but the mapping effort was fit 

into the vessel’s schedule as it transited between projects. This maping was done at the request of 

Steve W. Ross who served as the state contact for the data. Mr. Don Prior served as the NOAA/NOS 

contact. The data were originally provided as a hard copy plot of depth contours at a scale of 1:12,500 

with contours at 25 m intervals on a transverse Mercator projection using NAD 83 datum. During this 

bibliographic project this hard copy map was digitized and incorporated into ArcView GIS where 

both two and three dimensional maps could be produced. These are the same data referenced and used 

by Mellor (1998) and Mellor and Paull (1994). These unpublished data are currently archived by the 

NC National Estuarine Research Reserve (contact Dr. S.W. Ross or J. Ott). 

Rowe, G.T. 1971. Observations on bottom currents and epibenthic populations in Hatteras Submarine 

Canyon. Deep-Sea Research 18: 569-581. 

Bottom currents and populations of large epifauna were surveyed using bottom photography in the 

Pamlico axis of the Hatteras Submarine Canyon system. Most species known to be numerically 

dominant along the continental slope north and south of the canyon were absent or found in reduced 

densities, whereas other species were found only near or in the canyon and can be considered canyon 

indicator species. The implication of previous studies (Rowe and Menzies 1969; Sanders and Hessler 

1969) that narrow faunal zonation is continuous along the margins of ocean basins must be modified 

to acknowledge the exceptional zonations found in canyons. 

The photographs and current meter data indicated that the bottom current to the southwest along the 

lower continental rise, but turned to the west and northwest, or up the canyon, at lesser depths. 

Indurated sedimentary outcrops common to the canyon were probably a result of intermittent 

slumping and turbidity current flows. 

Schneider, E.D., P.J. Fox, C.D. Hollister, H.D. Needham, and B.C. Heezen. 1967. Further Evidence of 

Contour Currents in the Western North Atlantic. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 2: 351-359. 

A study of compass-oriented sea-floor photographs, echograms and sediment cores on the Atlantic 

continental margin of North America has been made in order to evaluate the role of deep-sea contour 

currents in the shaping of the continental rise. 

The sediments on the upper continental rise consist of lutites which are being deposited on the 

seafloor in an environment devoid of strong bottom currents. Below an abrupt change in regional 

slope, that marks the boundary between the upper and lower continental rise, a swift bottom current is 

observed which flows to the southwest parallel to the contours. Beneath this current the surface 

sediments are distinctly coarser grained and long cores show many quartz silt laminations in the 
Geological Oceanography Chapter — 251 

sedimentary column. Further downslope on the lower continental rise the currents are variable in 

direction and weaker. Measurements of northerly directions indicate that at certain locations the Gulf 

Stream may intermittently scour the sea floor. In the area of the Lower Continental Rise Hill a swift 

southwesterly current is again observed. Hyperbolic echo traces on echograms, prolonged multiple 

echo sequences, and wedging of sub-bottom reflecting interfaces can be mapped as distinct zones. 

These zones of sea floor micromorphology parallel the region contours of the continental rise, and are 

produced by erosional and depositional processes of bottom currents. We conclude that the 

continental rise is a large sediment wedge which owes its shape to deep geostrophic contour currents. 

Shepard, A. (ed.). 1991. Undersea Research at The Point. NURC/UNCW 1991 Undersea Research: 

Informational Meeting. National Undersea Research Center, University of North Carolina at 

Wilmington. Wilmington, NC. 9 p. 

*This handout is a summary of research being conducted at “The Point” area (Manteo Lease Block 

467). 

The National Undersea Research Center at the University of North Carolina at Wilmington, funded 

by a grant from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s (NOAA) Office of Undersea 

Research (OUR), was established in 1980 to promote, facilitate, and conduct research in the 

Southeastern United States utilizing undersea techniques, including advanced wet diving and manned 

and unmanned submersibles. A main Center goal is to provide information to NOAA that will assist 

the agency in fulfilling its charter to explore, understand, conserve and manage the U.S. marine 

environment and associated resources. To help meet this goal, the Center supports and conducts 

interdisciplinary oceanographic research projects studying continental margin processes, particularly 

the interactions and linkages between estuarine, continental shelf, and slope (including submarine 

canyon) environments. 

Shepard, A., and A.H. Hulbert (eds.). 1994. Workshop Report: Present and Future Research Initiatives on 

the Upper Hatteras Slope off North Carolina. National Undersea Research Center at the University of 

North Carolina at Wilmington. Wilmington, NC. 30p. 

*This report is the result of the May 1993 workshop held in Raleigh, NC. The topics of discussion 

were research (present and planned) at the Upper Hatteras Slope (UHS) and potential funding 

sources. The workshop was sponsored by National Undersea Research Center at the University of 

North Carolina at Wilmington. The report provides a brief description of the UHS invertebrates, 

biological oceanography, chemical oceanography, geological oceanography (bathymetry, oil and gas 

exploration), physical oceanography, fisheries, and Sargassum. Appendix A is a workshop agenda 

and list of speakers. No abstracts for speakers are provided. Appendix B is a list of potential funding 

sources. Appendix C contains a list of publications pertaining to the UHS. 

Shepard, A.N. 1992. A North Carolina Oceanographic Facility: The National Oceanographic and 

Atmospheric Administration’s National Undersea Research Center. pp. 55-65. In: U.S. Department of 

the Interior, Minerals Management Service. Proceedings of the Fourth Atlantic OCS Region 

Information Transfer Meeting, September 1991. U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals 

Management Service. Herndon, VA. 

The Fourth Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) regional Information Transfer Meeting was held 

on 24-25 September 1991 in Wilmington, NC. The focus of the meeting was on the OCS off North 

Carolina, specifically on activities related to a proposed exploratory well for oil and gas by Mobil on 

Block 467 a site 40 miles off the coast of North Carolina. The area of industry interest is known as the 

Manteo Prospect, while the activities surrounding the proposed drilling are referred to collectively as 

the Manteo Project. The wildcat wellsite is in 2,690 ft. (857 m) of water near the edge of the Gulf 
252 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

Stream. It is also near a fishing ground known locally as “The Point.” The area is believed to be gas 

prone rather than oil prone. The estimated size of the resource could be as high as 5 trillion cubic feet 

of gas. 

The purpose of the meeting was to exchange information on the leasing background, legislative 

activities, scientific results, and socioeconomic studies. Legislative-related reports include 

descriptions of the Oil Pollution Act of 1990, the Outer Banks Protection Act, the Environmental 

Studies Review Panel, and the North Carolina Physical Oceanography Panel. Reports of studies on 

marine life include benthic diatoms, benthic fauna, pelagic seabirds, sea turtles, and right whales. One 

report describes the use of airships (blimps) for ocean research a capability relevant to North Carolina 

because of the east coast airship facility is located in the state. Local marine science facilities 

described include NOAA’s National Undersea Research Center at the University of North Carolina at 

Wilmington and the national marine Fisheries Service laboratory in Beaufort. 

Developments in oil spill cleanup technology and capabilities are described by both the Coast Guard 

and the industry. A socioeconomic report describes the effects of the oil and gas activities on the 

tourist industry. Lastly, research on the restoration of salt marshes indicates that rehabilitation of an 

area is possible when development or an accident has occurred. While the emphasis of the meeting 

was on oil and gas, two reports described the results of projects related to offshore sand mining. The 

appendix lists the names and addresses of speakers. Individual chapters are cited individually when 

appropriate. 

*Within the oil and gas lease blocks of the Manteo Prospect lies “The Point.” This productive pelagic 

fishing ground lies at the confluence of major currents and water masses, and contains complex and 

rugged submarine topography. The National Undersea Research Center (NURC) located at the 

University of North Carolina at Wilmington is one of the oceanographic facilities near The Point. 

This center has a record of research in the area and has experience, equipment, and staff that will be 

invaluable to future studies. 

Shephard, A.N., T. Schaff, N. Mountford, and A.W. Hulbert. 1993. Relationship of Benthic Infuna and 

Slope Angle on the Continental Slope Off Cape Hatteras, NC. Benthic Ecology Meeting, 1-4 April, 

1993, Mobile, AL. 57 p. 

Minerals Management Service was recently charged, by legislative mandate, with describing the 

nature and extent of the benthic community inhabiting oil and gas lease blocks on the Continental 

Slope off Cape Hatteras, NC. Once the benthic community is described, the assumption is that the 

potential impacts of oil and gas exploration and development activities can be assessed. A significant 

difficulty with this assumption is that the area of the lease blocks is extremely rugged. The primary 

techniques used to sample infauna on MMS funded research have been surface deployed box cores. 

Such box cores generally sample on relatively flat bottom. NOAA’s National Undersea Research 

Center at the University of North Carolina at Wilmington funded a manned submersible cruise in 

1992, in part, to sample steep areas that are inaccessible to surface deployed box cores. Preliminary 

results suggest that substrate angle significantly affects infaunal abundance and species composition. 

In rugged, non-indurated areas, substrate angle must be considered when describing benthic 

communities. 

U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service. 1990. Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf: 

Final Environmental Report on Proposed Exploratory Drilling Offshore North Carolina, U.S. 

Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, Atlantic OCS Region, Environmental 

Assessment Section. Herndon, VA. 
Geological Oceanography Chapter — 253 

*Topics include: fisheries, birds, marine mammals, physical oceanography, chemical oceanography, 

geology, gas and oil production. The proposed action is to drill a single exploratory well 

approximately 72 km (45 mi) east-northeast of Cape Hatteras, NC in 820 m (2,690 ft) of water. Total 

depth for the proposed well is 4,267 m (14,000 ft) and the location is on Block 467 on the Minerals 

Management Service Protraction diagram NI 18-2. The proposal has been submitted by Mobil for 

itself and 7 partners to drill the well on the approved 21-block exploration unit. 

U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service. 1992. Proceedings of the Fourth Atlantic 

OCS Region Information Transfer Meeting, September 1991. U.S. Department of the Interior, 

Minerals Management Service. Herndon, VA. 198 p. 

The Fourth Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) Regional Information Transfer Meeting was held 

on 24-25 September 1991 in Wilmington, NC. The focus of the meeting was on the OCS off North 

Carolina, specifically on activities related to a proposed exploratory well for oil and gas by Mobil on 

Block 467 a site 40 miles off the coast of North Carolina. The area of industry interest is known as the 

Manteo Prospect, while the activities surrounding the proposed drilling are referred to collectively as 

the Manteo Project. The wildcat wellsite is in 2,690 ft. (857 m) of water near the edge of the Gulf 

Stream. It is also near a fishing ground known locally as “The Point.” The area is believed to be gas 

prone rather than oil prone. The estimated size of the resource could be as high as 5 trillion cubic feet 

of gas. 

The purpose of the meeting was to exchange information on the leasing background, legislative 

activities, scientific results, and socioeconomic studies. Legislative-related reports include 

descriptions of the Oil Pollution Act of 1990, the Outer Banks Protection Act, the Environmental 

Studies Review Panel, and the North Carolina Physical Oceanography Panel. Reports of studies on 

marine life include benthic diatoms, benthic fauna, pelagic seabirds, sea turtles, and right whales. One 

report describes the use of airships (blimps) for ocean research a capability relevant to North Carolina 

because of the east coast airship facility is located in the state. Local marine science facilities 

described include NOAA’s National Undersea Research Center at the University of North Carolina at 

Wilmington and the National Marine Fisheries Service laboratory in Beaufort. 

Developments in oil spill cleanup technology and capabilities are described by both the Coast Guard 

and the industry. A socioeconomic report describes the effects of the oil and gas activities on the 

tourist industry. Lastly, research on the restoration of salt marshes indicates that rehabilitation of an 

area is possible when development or an accident has occurred. While the emphasis of the meeting 

was on oil and gas, two reports described the results of projects related to offshore sand mining. The 

appendix lists the names and addresses of speakers. Individual chapters are cited individually when 

appropriate. 

Uchupi, E. 1967. The continental margin south of Cape Hatteras, North Carolina: shallow structure. SE 

Geol. 8: 155-177. 

Continuous seismic profiles, drill hole data and dredge hauls show that the geologic history of the 

continental margin south of the Cape Hatteras has been complex, marked by carbonate deposition, 

erosion by the Gulf Stream, and differential subsidence. The Blake Escarpment east of the Blake 

Plateau is believed to represent a chain of algal banks that flourished during the Cretaceous. A thick 

sequence of shallow-water carbonate sediments accumulated on the Blake Plateau behind the algal 

sandbanks to the east. Soon after the banks died during Late Cretaceous submergence of the area the 

Gulf Stream extended its course across the Blake Plateau. During the Tertiary, the locus of deposition 

shifted westward to the area near the present shelf-break, where 600 to 1000 meters of shallow-water 

sediments were deposited. South of Latitude 32 sediment prograded against the westward margin of 

the Gulf Stream throughout the Tertiary. Farther north, where the Gulf Stream lies farther offshore, 
254 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

outbuilding extended beyond the eastern margin of the Blake Plateau. Vertical uplifts followed by 

erosion by the Gulf Stream during the Pleistocene modified this sedimentary framework. 

Uchupi, E., and K.O. Emery. 1967. Structure of Continental Margin Off Atlantic Coast of United States. 

The American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 51(2): 223-234. 

Seismic profiler recordings in 44 profiles between Nova Scotia and the Florida Keys indicate that the 

continental margin was performed by upbuilding on the shelf and prograding on the slope. 

Upbuilding on the shelf during Tertiary and Quaternary Periods ranged from 200 to 1,000 meters, and 

sea-ward prograding on the slope during the same span of time was from 5 to more than 35 

kilometers. The greatest progradation occurred where the slope is flanked by the Blake Plateau rather 

than by the deep sea. The beds are truncated along some sections of the slope as though the slope had 

been steepened by submarine erosion. Off Nova Scotia the beds of the slope continue into the 

continental rise; off New England rise consists of sedimentary layers that have buried the base of the 

continental lope; and off southeastern United States the beds of the Florida-Hatteras Slope have 

prograded atop the older surface of the Blake Plateau. 

Vigil, D.L. (ed.). 1998. North Carolina/Minerals Management Service Technical Workshop on Manteo 

Unit Exploration: February 4-5, 1998. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management Service. Gulf 

of Mexico OCS Region. New Orleans, LA. 168 p. 

*These are the proceedings from a workshop/meeting (February 4-5, 1998) between the North 

Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources, and the U.S. Department of the 

Interior’s Minerals Management Service (MMS). The geographic area being discussed is 

approximately 45 miles east-northeast of Cape Hatteras, North Carolina, referred to as the Manteo 

Unit. This workshop reviewed environmental and socioeconomic information known and needed on 

the Manteo Unit. The MMS’s Gulf of Mexico OCS Regional Director gave an MMS perspective on 

history and status of the area. Chevron gave a presentation on how the exploratory well would be 

drilled. The scientific characterization was presented in greater detail by a number of scientific 

experts who spoke on the following disciplines physical environment, habitat and living resources 

(invertebrates and fish), seabirds, marine mammals, sea turtles, and social and economic issues. 

Specific chapters are cited individually, when appropriate. 

Walsh, J.J. 1994. Particle export at Cape Hatteras. Deep-Sea Research II Vol. 41(2-3): 603-628. 

A simple model of shelf, slope and basin waters near Cape Hatteras, North Carolina is used to 

estimate the sources and sinks of organic carbon within the Gulf Stream System. The analysis 

employs water transport estimates, nutrient data. satellite imagery, surficial sediment records and 

particle distributions caught by bottle, camera and sediment trap to compute vertical and lateral fluxes 

of particulate carbon. Particle export from the SAB and MAB shelf ecosystems may constitute 62-

82% of the source of the carbon flux within the Gulf Stream near 75 W, after settling at 100 m day -1, 

with an oxidation loss of 4% day-1, to a nominal mid-depth of 1000 m on the slope. 

As a result of light limitation, denitrification and DON solubilization, partial utilization of onwelled 

nitrate from the Gulf Stream System by coastal phytoplankton suggests that the time-averaged f ratio 

may be as small as 0.12 for the ratio of the “new” portion of primary production to the total. After 

burial loss, the export of particulate matter from the shelves then represents at most 11% of the total 

carbon fixation of coastal waters. If the shelf export of DON and unutilized NO3 is consumed within 

adjacent slope waters, however, the f ratio and the percentage of particle export from the carbon 

fixation of shelf-affected waters might increase to 0.25 and 24%. 
Geological Oceanography Chapter — 255 

Weetman, B.G. 1992. The Manteo Story. pp. 3-10. In: U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals 

Management Service. Proceedings of the Fourth Atlantic OCS Region Information Transfer Meeting, 

September 1991. U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service. Herndon, VA. 

The Fourth Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) Regional Information Transfer Meeting was held 

on 24-25 September 1991 in Wilmington, NC. The focus of the meeting was on the OCS off North 

Carolina, specifically on activities related to a proposed exploratory well for oil and gas by Mobil on 

Block 467 a site 40 miles off the coast of North Carolina. The area of industry interest is known as the 

Manteo Prospect, while the activities surrounding the proposed drilling are referred to collectively as 

the Manteo Project. The wildcat wellsite is in 2,690 ft. (857 m) of water near the edge of the Gulf 

Stream. It is also near a fishing ground known locally as “The Point.” The area is believed to be gas 

prone rather than oil prone. The estimated size of the resource could be as high as 5 trillion cubic feet 

of gas. 

The purpose of the meeting was to exchange information on the leasing background, legislative 

activities, scientific results, and socioeconomic studies. Legislative-related reports include 

descriptions of the Oil Pollution Act of 1990, the Outer Banks Protection Act, the Environmental 

Studies Review Panel, and the North Carolina Physical Oceanography Panel. Reports of studies on 

marine life include benthic diatoms, benthic fauna, pelagic seabirds, sea turtles, and right whales. One 

report describes the use of airships (blimps) for ocean research a capability relevant to North Carolina 

because of the east coast airship facility is located in the state. Local marine science facilities 

described include NOAA’s national Undersea research Center at the University of North Carolina at 

Wilmington and the National Marine Fisheries Service laboratory in Beaufort. 

Developments in oil spill cleanup technology and capabilities are described by both the Coast Guard 

and the industry. A socioeconomic report describes the effects of the oil and gas activities on the 

tourist industry. Lastly, research on the restoration of salt marshes indicates that rehabilitation of an 

area is possible when development or an accident has occurred. While the emphasis of the meeting 

was on oil and gas, two reports described the results of projects related to offshore sand mining. The 

appendix lists the names and addresses of speakers. Individual chapters are cited individually when 

appropriate. 

*This section provides a brief overview of national energy issues pertaining to the Manteo Prospect. 

In the fall of 1988, Mobil initiated efforts preparatory to drilling an exploratory well on the area for 

which it held the lease Block 467, approximately 40 miles off the coast of North Carolina (Fig. 1). 

This site was contained in what petroleum geologists refer to as the Manteo Prospect. The activities 

(scientific, legal, industrial, and political) that surround the proposed drilling are collectively referred 

to as the Manteo project. 
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PHYSICAL OCEANOGRAPHY CHAPTER 
Physical Oceanography Chapter — 263 

PHYSICAL OCEANOGRAPHY CHAPTER 

Abernathy, S.A., M.T. Baer, C.S. Benner, M.S. Brody, D.K. Francois, J.K. Gilliam, L.K. Good, C.J. 

Ohara, and J.V. Martin. 1989. Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf: Description of the Mid-Atlantic 

Environment. Abernathy, S.A. (ed.). U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, 

Atlantic OCS Region, Environmental Assessment Section. Herndon, VA. 167 p. 

*This document discusses the major issues and areas of concern for the mid-Atlantic environment 

that are considered in the planning process for oil and gas leasing and operations on the Outer 

Continental Shelf (OCS). The issues are addressed with respect to the potential environmental 

consequences of mid Atlantic oil and gas exploration, development and production. A section 

discussing The Physical Environment (e.g., geology, non-petroleum minerals, physical oceanography, 

chemical oceanography and water quality, ocean dumping, meteorology, air quality), Biological 

resources (e.g., plankton, benthos, fishery resources, marine reptiles, marine mammals, marine and 

coastal birds, estuaries, wetlands, sensitive coastal habitats, canyon areas), Socioeconomic 

Environment, and other issues (e.g., archaeological resources, marine vessel traffic, National 

Aeronautics and Space Administration/ Department of Defense activities, oil and gas infrastructure, 

marine sanctuaries, and estuarine research reserves) is included. Most of the figures showing fisheries 

resource distribution are taken from fisheries data compiled for bottom-trawl and shellfish surveys of 

the National Marine Fisheries Service, Northeast Fisheries Center, Woods Hole, MA. 

Adams, C.E., T.J. Berger, W.C. Boicourt, J.C. Churchill, M.D. Earle, P. Hamilton, F.M. Vukovich, R.J. 

Wayland, and R.D. Watts. 1993. A Review of the Physical Oceanography of the Cape Hatteras, North 

Carolina Region: Volume I Literature Synthesis. MMS Contract 14-35-0001-30594. Science 

Applications International Corporation. 152 p. 

*This is a literature synthesis of Physical Oceanography (pre-1993) studies within the defined study 

area for “The Point.” These materials were compiled by Science Applications International 

Corporation for the Minerals Management Service: U.S. Department of the Interior, Atlantic OCS 

Region. Appropriate citations from this annotated bibliography will be cited independently with a 

description of location when location information is available. 

Anderson, W.W., and J.W. Gehringer. 1959a. Physical oceanographic, biological, and chemical data, 

South Atlantic coast of the United States, M/V Theodore N. Gill cruise 7. US Department of the 

Interior, US Fish and Wildlife Service, Special Scientific Report — Fisheries No. 278. 277 p. 

*This report documents stations sampled throughout the South Atlantic Bight during June-July 1954. 

Weather, water chemistry, and sea state data were collected. Plankton samples were collected and fish 

were sampled by dip net and trolling. A few stations were near or within the southern border of our 

study area. 

__________. 1959b. Physical oceanographic, biological, and chemical data, South Atlantic coast of the 

United States, M/V Theodore N. Gill cruise 8. US Department of the Interior, US Fish and Wildlife 

Service, Special Scientific Report — Fisheries No. 303. 227 p. 

*This report documents stations sampled throughout the South Atlantic Bight during August — 

September 1954. Weather, water chemistry, and sea state data were collected. Plankton samples were 

collected and fish were sampled by dip net and trolling. A few stations were near or within the 

southern border of our study area. 
264 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

Anderson, W.W., J.W. Gehringer, and E. Cohen. 1956. Physical oceanographic, biological, and chemical 

data, South Atlantic coast of the United States, Theodore N. Gill cruise 2. US Department of the 

Interior, US Fish and Wildlife Service, Special Scientific Report — Fisheries No. 198. 270 p. 

*This report documents stations sampled throughout the South Atlantic Bight during May 1953. 

Weather, water chemistry, and sea state data were collected. Plankton samples were collected and fish 

were sampled by dip net and trolling. A few stations were near or within the southern border of our 

study area. 

Anderson, W.W., J.E. Moore, and H.R. Gordy. 1961. Oceanic salinities off the South Atlantic coast of the 

United States, Theodore N. Gill cruises 1-9, 1953-1954. US Department of the Interior, US Fish and 

Wildlife Service, Special Scientific Report — Fisheries No. 389. 207 p. 

Salinity data secured on nine cruises of the M/V Theodore N. Gill off the south Atlantic coast of the 

United States are further processed and organized in a much more usable and readily available form. 

Surface water salinities are presented graphically by season. 

Ashjian, C.J., S.L. Smith, C.N. Flagg, A.J. Mariano, W.J. Behrens, and P.V.Z. Lane. 1994. The influence 

of a Gulf Stream meander on the distribution of zooplankton biomass in the Slope Water, and the 

Gulf Stream, and the Sargasso Sea, described using a shipboard acoustic Doppler current profiler. 

Deep-Sea Research I 41(1): 23-50. 

The influence of a Gulf Stream meander on the distribution of zooplankton biomass in the Slope 

Water, the Gulf Stream, and the Sargasso Sea, described using a shipboard acoustic Doppler current 

profiler Patterns in zooplankton biomass distribution in a Gulf Stream meander were documented 

wing a ship-mounted acoustic Doppler current profiler (ADCP) in fall 1988 as part of the 

BIOSYNOP program. The dominant signal in biomass was the regional variation between water 

masses, with greatest biomass recorded in the Slope Water, intermediate biomass at the Slope WaterGulf Stream front, and lowest biomass in the Gulf Stream/Sargasso Sea. Biomass was more variable 

in the Slope Water than in the Sargasso Sea. Diel variation, a consequence of diel vertical migration, 

was also observed. Comprehensive maps of the surveyed region documented meander associated 

enhancement of zooplankton biomass. Elevated biomass was documented in the region downstream 

of the meander crest, where entrainment of Slope Water and convergence of flow are hypothesized to 

occur. The ADCP was demonstrated to be an effective means of documenting patterns in zooplankton 

biomass, including estimates of the variability (patchiness). 

Atkinson, L.P. 1985. Hydrography and Nutrients of the Southeastern U.S. Continental Shelf . 

Oceanography of the Southeastern U.S. Continental Shelf Coastal and Estuarine Sciences 2: 77-92. 

The distribution of properties such as temperature and salinity, of nutrients such as nitrate, phosphate, 

and silicate, and of derived properties such as buoyancy in the South Atlantic Bight depends on 

complex interactions of shelf waters with rivers, coastal estuaries and sounds, atmospheric forcing, 

and, most importantly, the Gulf Stream. Seasonal variations in temperature depend on the seasonal 

heating cycle, air-sea exchange processes, and Gulf Stream interaction. The result is extreme 

variations in temperature both seasonally and spatially. Salinity variations are mainly related to 

seasonal river flow, which peaks in the spring, and subsequent shelf circulation processes. Variations 

in temperature and salinity occur over shorter time scales because of Gulf Stream meanders and 

frontal eddies that cause intrusions of surface or subsurface water into the shelf waters. Intrusion 

frequency and cross-shelf excursion vary seasonally and latitudinally. The supply of nutrients mainly 

depends on Gulf Stream intrusions. Gulf Stream water colder than about 20°C contains significant 

amounts of nutrients. Such waters invade the shelf more frequently during the summer in the southern 
Physical Oceanography Chapter — 265 

bight. Chemical tracers such as phenolic aldehydes, humic compound fluorescence, and tritium have 

been used successfully to trace coastal waters. 

—. 1992. The North Carolina Physical Oceanographic Panel: Deliberations and Results. pp.17-23. In: 

U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service. Proceedings of the Fourth Atlantic 

OCS Region Information Transfer Meeting, September 1991. U.S. Department of the Interior, 

Minerals Management Service. Herndon, VA. 

The Fourth Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) Regional Information Transfer Meeting (ITM) 

was held on 24-25 September, 1991, in Wilmington, NC. The focus of the meeting was on the OCS 

off North Carolina, specifically on activities related to a proposed exploratory well for oil and gas by 

Mobil on Block 467 a site 40 miles off the coast of North Carolina. The area of industry interest is 

known as the Manteo Prospect, while the activities surrounding the proposed drilling are referred to 

collectively as the Manteo Project. The wildcat wellsite is in 2,690 ft. (857 m) of water near the edge 

of the Gulf Stream. It is also near a fishing ground known locally as “The Point.” The area is believed 

to be gas prone rather than oil prone. The estimated size of the resource could be as high as 5 trillion 

cubic feet of gas. 

The purpose of the meeting was to exchange information on the leasing background, legislative 

activities, scientific results, and socioeconomic studies. Legislative-related reports include 

descriptions of the Oil Pollution Act of 1990, the Outer Banks Protection Act, the Environmental 

Studies Review Panel, and the North Carolina Physical Oceanography Panel. Reports of studies on 

marine life include benthic diatoms, benthic fauna, pelagic seabirds, sea turtles, and right whales. One 

report describes the use of airships (blimps) for ocean research a capability relevant to North Carolina 

because of the east coast airship facility is located in the state. Local marine science facilities 

described include NOAA’s National Undersea Research Center at the University of North Carolina at 

Wilmington (NURC/UNCW) and the National Marine Fisheries Service Laboratory in Beaufort, NC. 

Developments in oil spill cleanup technology and capabilities are described by both the Coast Guard 

and the industry. A socioeconomic report describes the effects of the oil and gas activities on the 

tourist industry. Lastly, research on the restoration of salt marshes indicates that rehabilitation of an 

area is possible when development or an accident has occurred. While the emphasis of the meeting 

was on oil and gas, two reports described the results of projects related to offshore sand mining. The 

appendix lists the names and addresses of speakers. 

*To clarify, the North Carolina Physical Oceanography Panel is different from the Environmental 

Sciences Review panel. The North Carolina panel came about as a result of the FY 1990 

appropriations report from the Department of the Interior. Study subject is the Manteo Area Block 

467. The panel has concluded its work, providing the Minerals Management Service with a study 

design for physical oceanography and recommending a synthesis of physical oceanography both for 

the offshore area of North Carolina. This section briefly summarizes the objectives of the panel, 

members, and findings. 

Atkinson, L.P., D.W. Menzel, and K.A. Bush. 1985. Oceanography of the Southeastern U.S. Continental 

Shelf. American Geophysical Union. Washington, DC. 156 p. 

*This book contains 12 chapters: an introduction; four chapters on physical oceanography; a chapter 

on hydrography and nutrients; four biological chapters (covering phytoplankton, zooplankton, 

bacteria, and macroinfauna); a chemical chapter on trace metals; and a summary chapter describing 

future research plans. Research included was conducted between 1975 and the early 1980’s and was 

largely funded by the Department of Energy and the Minerals Management Service (formerly Bureau 

of Land Management). The South Atlantic Bight extends from the temperate waters of Cape Hatteras, 
266 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

NC to subtropical waters of West Palm Beach, FL. The ocean region is influenced by Gulf Stream 

dynamics on the eastern boundary, synoptic winds and weather events, river and estuarine inputs. 

Atkinson, L., L. Heilman, and T. Curtin. 1998. Appendix E: Bathymetric and Physical Oceanographic 

Description of the Manteo Lease Area. pp.108-120. In: Vigil, D.L. (ed.). North Carolina/Minerals 

Management Service Technical Workshop on Manteo Unit Exploration: February 4-5, 1998. U.S. 

Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region. New Orleans, LA. 

*These are the proceedings from a workshop/meeting (February 4-5, 1998) between the North 

Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources, and the U.S. Department of the 

Interior’s Minerals Management Service (MMS). The geographic area being discussed is 

approximately 45 miles east-northeast of Cape Hatteras, NC, referred to as the Manteo Unit. This 

workshop reviewed environmental and socioeconomic information known and needed, on the Manteo 

Unit. The MMS’s Gulf of Mexico OCS Regional Director gave an MMS perspective on history and 

status of the area. Chevron gave a presentation on how the exploratory well would be drilled. The 

scientific characterization was presented in greater detail by a number of scientific experts who spoke 

on the following disciplines physical environment, habitat and living resources, seabirds, marine 

mammals, sea turtles, and social and economic issues. Specific chapters are cited individually, when 

appropriate. 

The waters off Cape Hatteras exhibit some of the most energetic coastal dynamics anywhere. Here 

the broad shelves of the Middle and South Atlantic Bights narrow nearly isolating shelf waters north 

and south of Cape Hatteras from each other. Offshore, one of the strongest currents in the ocean, the 

Gulf Stream, moves northward. In addition to that variability in the large-scale current regime, both 

winter storms and tropical hurricanes are prevalent in the region. This paper discusses the physical 

oceanographic properties at the Manteo site and their variability. This section also discusses 

Bathymetry of the Region, Physical Oceanography, Climate, Weather, Gulf Stream, and Coastal 

Currents. 

Bane, J.M., Jr. 1983. Initial Observations of the Subsurface Structure and Short-Term Variability of the 

Seaward Deflection of the Gulf Stream Off Charleston, South Carolina. Journal of Geophysical 

Research 88 C(8): 4673-4684. 

A recurring seaward deflection of the surface layer of the Gulf Stream has been observed near 32° N 

latitude off the coast of the southeastern United States. It has been suggested that a ridge and trough 

bottom feature (the so-called ‘Charleston bump’) on the upper continental slope off the Georgia/South 

Carolina coast produces the deflection through a bottom steering effect. Present data indicate that the 

deflection is great enough to direct the Gulf Stream’s shoreward surface thermal front to the east, and 

even south of east, about 70% of the time. Air-deployed expendable bathythermograph surveys have 

been made with sufficient coverage to provide several synoptic, three-dimensional views of the Gulf 

Stream’s thermal frontal zone in the region between Savannah, Georgia, and Cape Hatteras, North 

Carolina. These views show the subsurface structure of the seaward deflection to exhibit large shortterm variability. During wintertime conditions (February 1979) the greatest deflection (>090° true) of 

the near-surface front occurred at a time when the deeper front was more aligned (~080° true) with 

local topography. Within the few days following this observation the deflection angle at all depths 

decreased to near or below 070° true. Two large-amplitude Gulf Stream meanders progressed 

northeastward away from the deflection region during this time period. Deflection angles at all levels 

during late summertime conditions (November 1979) were observed to be near 070° true. A simple, 

kinematical model which incorporates growing, propagating Gulf Stream meanders is proposed to 

explain the deflection’s short-term variability. A dome-shaped volume of cold water was observed to 

be located over the upper continental slope immediately downstream of the deflection. The existence 
Physical Oceanography Chapter — 267 

and persistence of this cold dome suggest that upwelling is important in its maintenance, a hypothesis 

consistent with its hydrographic properties. 

Bane, J.M., Jr., and D.A. Brookes. 1979. Gulf Stream Meanders along the continental margin from the 

Florida Straights to Cape Hatteras. Geophysical Research Letters 6: 280-282. 

*This geophysical research is cited in Journal of Geophysical Research vol. 88 C(8): 4651-4662 

(Hood and Bane 1983), and pp. 4673-4684 (Bane 1983). Figure 1 The continental margin of the 

southeastern United States (p. 4562, Hood and Bane 1983), and Figure 8 The mean position ± 1 

standard deviation (shaded) of the Gulf Stream’s shoreward surface thermal front calculated for a 64 

week period, (p. 4682, Bane, 1983) provide general location data. A cruise on the RV Endeavor (no 

cruise dates provided) is cited (Hood and Bane 1983). 

Barrett, J.R., Jr. 1965. Subsurface currents off Cape Hatteras. Deep-Sea Research 12: 173-184. 

In October 1962, direct current measurements at depths of 800 m to 2500 m beneath the zone of 

swiftest surface currents near Cape Hatteras revealed a subsurface flow to the south. Analysis of 

temperature-salinity and dissolved oxygen distributions indicate that the immediate source of the 

southward flowing water was the region east of Cape Hatteras between the Gulf Stream and the 

Continental Slope. These measurements seem to affirm that continuity exists between the deep 

westward flow observed in the Slope Water region by Volkmann and the southward flow east of Cape 

Roman, near 33N, reported by Swallow and Worthington. The geostrophic volume transport of the 

southward flow was between 4 million and 12 million m3

 sec-1. The surface of zero axial velocity was 

at a depth of about 500 m at the left side of the region of swift surface current (inshore), and deepened 

rapidly in the offshore direction. 

Blair, N. 1998. A Scientific Overview of the Region Surrounding Lease Blocks 467 and 510. pp. 14-17. 

In: Vigil, D.L. (ed.). North Carolina/Minerals Management Service Technical Workshop on Manteo 

Unit Exploration: February 4-5, 1998. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, Gulf 

of Mexico OCS Region. New Orleans, LA. 

*These are the proceedings from a workshop/meeting (February 4-5, 1998) between the North 

Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources, and the U.S. Department of the 

Interior’s Minerals Management Service (MMS). The geographic area being discussed is 

approximately 45 miles east-northeast of Cape Hatteras, NC, referred to as the Manteo Unit. This 

workshop reviewed environmental and socioeconomic information known and needed on the Manteo 

Unit. The MMS’s Gulf of Mexico OCS Regional Director gave an MMS perspective on history and 

status of the area. Chevron gave a presentation on how the exploratory well would be drilled. The 

scientific characterization was presented in greater detail by a number of scientific experts who spoke 

on the following disciplines physical environment, habitat and living resources, seabirds, marine 

mammals, sea turtles, and social and economic issues. Specific chapters are cited individually, when 

appropriate. 

The continental margin offshore Cape Hatteras, NC has been the focus of numerous oceanographic 

studies. The objective of this report is to provide an overview of physical, biological, geological, and 

chemical processes that operate in the region so that the results from individual disciplinary studies 

can be placed in a system-wide context. This section discusses hydrocarbon potential, water column 

observations and processes, benthic observations and processes, summary and the future. 

Blair, N., L. Levin, and D. DeMaster. 1991. Biology and Carbon Cycling on the Carolina Slope. p. 9. In: 

Shepard, A. (ed.). NURC/UNCW 1991 Undersea Research: Informational Meeting. National 

Undersea Research Center, University of North Carolina at Wilmington. Wilmington, NC. 
268 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

Resources as diverse as fisheries, some minerals and fossil fuels, as well as the atmosphere and 

climate have been linked to the cycling of carbon and the associated biogenic nutrients along 

continental margins. The continental slope is an area which has been poorly studied even though it is 

the site of intense biogeochemical activity. An interdisciplinary program which focuses on the 

biogeochemistry of the Carolina slope environment is currently underway to investigate the 

relationship of carbon cycling with the sediment-dwelling ecosystem. Three sites, all at 850 meters 

water depth, have been studied. Sites I and II, which are off Charleston, South Carolina, and Cape 

Lookout, North Carolina, respectively, are representative of typical slope environments in terms of 

animal populations, sediment geochemistry and sediment accumulation. Site III, which is off of Cape 

Hatteras and near “The Point,” has significantly higher populations of bottom-dwelling animals, 

different animal species and higher rates of organic matter degradation. Biogenic methane formation 

occurs at Site III but not at the other sites. These differences are thought to be related to the delivery 

rate of organic matter (food) to the seafloor. The convergence of boundary currents in this region may 

prove to be an important controlling factor by transporting organic matter into the area or by 

stimulating localized surface production via the delivery of nutrients. In contrast to the other sites, the 

sea floor at Site III is an area of high-relief and is more prone to episodic sedimentation and mass 

wasting. The combination of the high-relief bottom with the relatively large delivery rate of organic 

carbon to the seafloor may have resulted in a uniquely adapted ecosystem. 

Future directions in research include identifying the sources of the sedimentary organic matter and the 

relationship between the ocean physics and the carbon delivery rate. The rates of organic matter 

delivery, decomposition and burial need to be measured as they represent important controls on the 

benthic ecosystems. Specific relationships between the benthic communities, the carbon cycle and 

sediment dynamics are to be investigated. Descriptions of the cliff-face communities are needed as 

they represent an important component of the overall ecosystems at Site III. 

Blake, J.A., B. Hecker, J.F. Grassle, B. Brown, M. Wade, P.D. Boehm, E. Baptiste, B. Hilbig, N. 

Maciolek, R. Petrecca, R.E. Ruff, V. Starczak, and L. Watling. 1987. Study of Biological Processes 

on the U.S. South Atlantic Slope and Rise: Phase 2. U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals 

Management Service, Atlantic OCS Region, Environmental Assessment Section. Herndon, VA. 

A total of 16 stations were sampled during a 2 year field program designed to characterize the 

biological, chemical, and sedimentary processes on the slope and rise off North and South Carolina. 

Box cores were taken along a 4 transects at depths of 600 to 3500 m. The infauna yielded a total of 

1202 species, 520 of which were new to science. Annelids were dominant taxa in terms of density and 

numbers of species. Species diversity was highest at an 800 m site off Charleston. Infaunal densities 

were highest on the upper slope (600 m) and lowest on the rise (3000 m). Life history analysis yielded 

evidence of seasonality for two polychaete species. Two stations off Cape Hatteras in depths of 600 m 

and 2000 m had higher infaunal density, lower species diversity, and higher biomass than elsewhere 

on the Atlantic slope and rise. Higher than normal lead and carbon inventories suggest enhanced 

scavenging processes in this area. Faunal patterns on the Cape Lookout transect were generally 

typical for other localities on the Atlantic Slope and Rise. Faunal changes were detected off Cape 

Fear and Charleston that may be related to the influence of the Gulf Stream and associated sediment 

changes. Epifauna were most unusual on the Charleston Bump, where a hard bottom fauna dominated 

by filter feeding corals and sponges thrives in an area strongly swept by the Gulf Stream. Consistent 

faunal differences were found between the upstream and downstream sides of the bump. Data 

generated in the infaunal and epifaunal surveys supported the view that a partial zoogeographic 

barrier exists on the slope off North Carolina. This break was most evident between Cape Lookout 

and Cape Fear. 
Physical Oceanography Chapter — 269 

Blumberg, A.F., and G.L. Mellor. 1983. Diagnostic and Prognostic Numerical Circulation Studies of the 

South Atlantic Bight. Journal of Geophysical Research 88 C(8): 4579-4592. 

Some of the results from a series of diagnostic and prognostic numerical simulations of the circulation 

in the South Atlantic Bight (SAB) are described. The numerical model developed for the study is a 

three-dimensional, primitive equation, time dependent, a coordinate model with an imbedded, 

turbulent closure submodel which should yield realistic Ekman surface and bottom layers. An implicit 

numerical scheme in the vertical direction and a mode-splitting technique in time are adopted for 

computational efficiency. A significant portion of the paper is concerned with realistic specification 

of initial conditions for temperature and salinity, surface forcing, and lateral open boundary 

conditions. The latter are determined by a simple diagnostic (geostrophic and Ekman dynamics) 

model which provides dynamically consistent temperature, salinity, and velocity boundary conditions. 

It appears from an examination of the numerical simulations that the full model yields results that 

share many features in common with our general understanding of the circulation of the South 

Atlantic Bight; the region includes shallow shelf waters as well as deeper water dominated by the 

Gulf Stream. Data for synoptic skill assessment, however, are not available. 

Bumpus, D.F. 1973. A Description of the Circulation on the Continental Shelf of the East Coast of the 

United States. pp. 111-157. Progress in Oceanography Vol. 6, Pergamon Press, New York. 

The circulation on the continental shelf of the east coast of the United States is discussed, including 

the historical development of the concepts, and the surface and bottom circulation based on driftbottle data and sea-bed drifter data. Suggestions for future research to further our understanding of the 

circulation problem are offered. 

Checkley, D.M., Jr., S. Raman, L. Maillet, and K.M. Mason. 1988. Winter Storm Effects on the 

Spawning and Larval Drift of a Pelagic Fish. Nature 335(6188): 346-348. 

Recruitment for many marine organisms depends on survival and transport of eggs and larvae from 

spawning grounds to nursery areas. We investigated the effects of winter storms and the Gulf Stream 

on the spawning, development and drift of the Atlantic menhaden, Brevoortia tyrannus, which 

spawns offshore and metamorphoses in estuaries. Spawning was maximal during storms in water 

upwelled near the western edge of the Gulf Stream. Eggs and larvae drifted shoreward with abundant 

food in the warm surface stratum of a density-driven circulation maintained by the large sea-air heat 

flux. We suggest that the Atlantic menhaden and other species have evolved to reproduce in winter 

near warm boundary currents, including the Gulf Stream and Kuroshio, as a result of physical 

conditions that permit the rapid development and shoreward drift of their eggs and larvae, with 

consequent high recruitment and fitness. 

—. 1989. Winter Storm Effects on the Spawning and Larval Drift of a Pelagic Fish. pp. 45-46. In: 

Crawford, K. (ed.). Proceedings: 1989 Marine Expo: The Natural Resources Associated with Mobil’s 

Proposed Drill Site. NC Outer Continental Shelf Office, NC Department of Administration. Raleigh, 

NC. 

Recruitment for many marine organisms depends on survival and transport of eggs and larvae from 

spawning grounds to nursery areas. We investigated the effects of winter storms and the Gulf Stream 

on the spawning, development and drift of the Atlantic menhaden, Brevoortia tyrannus, which 

spawns offshore and metamorphoses in estuaries. Spawning was maximal during storms in water 

upwelled near the western edge of the Gulf Stream. Eggs and larvae drifted shoreward with abundant 

food in the warm surface stratum of a density-driven circulation maintained by the large sea-air heat 

flux. We suggest that the Atlantic menhaden and other species have evolved to reproduce in winter 

near warm boundary currents, including the Gulf Stream and Kuroshio, as a result of physical 
270 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

conditions that permit the rapid development and shoreward drift of their eggs and larvae, with 

consequent high recruitment and fitness. 

Clark, J., W.G. Smith, A.W. Kendall Jr, and M.P. Fahay. 1969. Studies of Estuarine Dependance of 

Atlantic coastal fishes. US Fish and Wildlife Service Technical Papers of the Bureau of Sport 

Fisheries and Wildlife 28. 132 p. 

*This is Data Report I covering surveys (eight cruises: Dec 1965-Dec 1966) from Cape Cod, MA to 

Cape Lookout, NC by the R/V Dolphin. These cruises were directed toward larval fishes. 

Temperatures, salinities, and lists of catches from plankton and midwater nets are reported in tables 

and maps. Station transects L and M overlap our study area. 

Coles, W.C., and J.A. Musick. 2000. Satellite sea surface temperature analysis and correlation with sea 

turtle distribution off North Carolina. Copeia 2000(2): 551-554. 

We used satellite sea surface temperature data and aerial survey data to identify an upper (28 C) and 

lower (13.3 C) thermal limit to preferred loggerhead sea turtle temperatures. The available 

temperature range for the turtles to occupy, during this study (May 1991 to Sept. 1992), was 4.9 C to 

32.2 C. These thermal limits fall within the ranges previously identified in the laboratory. This study 

suggests that sea turtles are not geographically randomly distributed but stay within preferred 

temperature ranges which are seasonally variable. 

Cook, S.K., B.P. Collins, and C.S. Carty. 1979. Expendable Bathythermograph Observations From the 

NMFS/MARAD Ship of Opportunity Program for 1975. NOAA Technical Report SSRF-727. 

NOAA-NMFS. Seattle, WA. 93 p. 

This report is designed to show the results of the fifth year of operation of the NMFS/MARAD Ship 

of Opportunity Program (SOOP). The data are presented in the form of vertical distributions of 

temperature and horizontal distributions of sea surface temperature and salinity. Operational and data 

management procedures are discussed, and a descriptive analysis of the most dynamic transacts 

showing the Yucatan, Loop, Florida, and Gulf Stream current systems is presented. The annual 

development and subsequent degradation of the cold cell off the Middle Atlantic Bight is also 

discussed. 

Costlow, J. 1992. The Outer Banks Protection Act. pp. 11-15. In: U.S. Department of the Interior, 

Minerals Management Service. Proceedings of the Fourth Atlantic OCS Region Information Transfer 

Meeting, September 1991. U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service. Herndon, 

VA. 

The Fourth Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) Regional Information Transfer Meeting (ITM) 

was held on 24-25 September, 1991, in Wilmington, NC. The focus of the meeting was on the OCS 

off North Carolina, specifically on activities related to a proposed exploratory well for oil and gas by 

Mobil on Block 467 a site 40 miles off the coast of North Carolina. The area of industry interest is 

known as the Manteo Prospect, while the activities surrounding the proposed drilling are referred to 

collectively as the Manteo Project. The wildcat wellsite is in 2,690 ft. (857 m) of water near the edge 

of the Gulf Stream. It is also near a fishing ground known locally as “The Point.” The area is believed 

to be gas prone rather than oil prone. The estimated size of the resource could be as high as 5 trillion 

cubic feet of gas. 

The purpose of the meeting was to exchange information on the leasing background, legislative 

activities, scientific results, and socioeconomic studies. Legislative-related reports include 

descriptions of the Oil Pollution Act of 1990, the Outer Banks Protection Act, the Environmental 

Studies Review Panel, and the North Carolina Physical Oceanography Panel. Reports of studies on 
Physical Oceanography Chapter — 271 

marine life include benthic diatoms, benthic fauna, pelagic seabirds, sea turtles, and right whales. One 

report describes the use of airships (blimps) for ocean research a capability relevant to North Carolina 

because of the east coast airship facility is located in the state. Local marine science facilities 

described include NOAA’s National Undersea Research Center at the University of North Carolina at 

Wilmington (NURC/UNCW) and the National Marine Fisheries Service laboratory in Beaufort. 

Developments in oil spill cleanup technology and capabilities are described by both the Coast Guard 

and the industry. A socioeconomic report describes the effects of the oil and gas activities on the 

tourist industry. Lastly, research on the restoration of salt marshes indicates that rehabilitation of an 

area is possible when development or an accident has occurred. While the emphasis of the meeting 

was on oil and gas, two reports described the results of projects related to offshore sand mining. The 

appendix lists the names and addresses of speakers. Individual chapters are cited individually when 

appropriate. 

*In August 1990, President Bush signed Federal oil spill legislation that included a provision called 

the Outer Banks Protection Act (OBPA). The OBPA prohibited the Minerals Management Service 

(MMS) from approving any exploration plan off North Carolina until October 1991. The Act also 

created a five-member Environmental Sciences Review Panel (ESRP) to evaluate the adequacy of 

information on the Mobil proposal. This section describes the OBPA and ESRP. Physical 

oceanography, biological oceanography, and socioeconomics are mentioned. 

Costlow, J., K. Brink, M. Orbach, C. Peterson, J. Teal, and A. Robertson. 1992. North Carolina 

Environmental Sciences Review Panel. Report to the Secretary of the Interior from the North 

Carolina Environmental Sciences Review Panel as mandated by the Oil Pollution Act of 1990. 83 p. 

The Oil Pollution Act of 1990, in a section cited as the Outer Banks Protection Act, prohibits the 

Secretary of the Interior from proceeding with a number of actions relative to development of oil and 

gas resources offshore North Carolina for which he is responsible under the Outer Continental Shelf 

Lands Act (OCSLA). Actions prohibited include: (1) conducting a lease sale; (2) issuing any new 

lease; (3) approving any exploration plan; (4) approving any development and production plan; (5) 

approving any application for permit to drill; and (6) permitting any drilling. The prohibition on these 

actions is mandated to remain in effect until the latter of: (1) October 1, 1991 or (2) 45 days of 

contiguous session of the Congress following the submission of a written report from the Secretary 

certifying that the information available to him is sufficient to carry out his responsibilities under the 

OCSLA. 

In his report, the Secretary is required to take into consideration findings and recommendations of a 

panel established by the Outer Banks Protection Act, the North Carolina Environmental Sciences 

Review Panel, and to include a detailed explanation of any differences between his certification if 

sufficient information and the findings and recommendations of this group. The panel is charged by 

the Act with: (1) assessing the adequacy of the available physical oceanographic, ecological, and 

socioeconomic information to enable the Secretary to fulfill his responsibilities under the OCSLA and 

(2) identifying any additional information deemed essential to enable the Secretary to carry out these 

responsibilities. The Panel’s response to this charge is the subject of this document. 

As provided in the Outer Banks Protection Act, the North Carolina Environmental Sciences Review 

Panel is composed of five members, a marine scientist selected by the Secretary of the Interior, a 

marine scientist selected by the Governor of North Carolina, and three scientists, one each from the 

disciplines of physical oceanography, ecology, and social sciences, selected jointly by the Secretary 

and the Governor from a list developed by the National Academy of Sciences. Unless specifically 

indicated in the text, the conclusions and recommendations presented in the report represent the 

unanimous decision of the Panel members. A summary of findings including Physical Oceanography, 
272 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

Ecology, Socioeconomics, Sources of Information, Adequacy of Information, and Panel’s 

Recommended Studies is included. Appendix A: Literature Review, and Appendix B: Factors 

Influencing the Definition if Adequacy of Information are also included. 

Crawford, K. (ed.). 1989. Proceedings: 1989 Marine Expo: The Natural Resources Associated with 

Mobil’s Proposed Drill Site. NC Outer Continental Shelf Office, NC Department of Administration. 

Raleigh, NC. 64 p. 

*This report contains abstracts from each presenter. Chapter topics include: Mobil’s Proposal, 

Geologic Overview — Introduction and Potential for Oil and Gas Discovery, Oceanographic 

Conditions, Comments on Last MMS Modeling, Biological Production Near the Bottom 

(invertebrates), Fisheries Resources, Commercial and Recreational Marine Fisheries, Winter Storm 

Effects on Spawning and Larval Drift of Pelagic Fish, Marine Birds, Sea Turtles in North Carolina, 

Marine Mammals, Plenary Session, Summary. Each chapter also cited individually when appropriate. 

Csanady, G.T., and P. Hamilton. 1988. Circulation of slopewater. Continental Shelf Research 8(5-7): 565-

624. 

The recently conducted Mid-Atlantic Slope and Rise (MASAR) experiment yielded much new 

information on the structure and behavior of slopewater, the water mass occupying the upper “Slope 

Sea”, a narrow band of ocean between the Gulf Stream and the continental shelf from Cape Hatteras 

to the Grand Banks. The results of this experiment, combined with earlier evidence, have been used to 

construct a new empirical schema of slopewater circulation. Key features are: (1) inflow of Coastal 

Labrador Sea Water (CLSW) across the Grand Banks at the rate of 4 x106

 M3 s

-1 and isopycnal 

advection from the Gulf Stream thermocline at the rate of 6 x 106

 M3 s-1, the total draining eastward; 

(2) a closed cyclonic gyre in the western Slope Sea, transporting approximately 3 x 106

 M3 s-1 along 

the New Jersey coast southward; and (3) seasonal formation of a pycnostad by convective overturn 

and its flushing in approximately 6 months. 

Some of the CLSW inflow retroflects and turns eastward following entry into the Slope Sea, but a 

significant fraction flows westward along the coast and rounds the western gyre before draining 

eastward. 

The circulation just described reaches to an approximate depth of 500 m. Deeper layers move through 

the Slope Sea southwestward. The layers of the Gulf Stream thermocline in contact with slopewater 

along isopycnals encompass the Antarctic Intermediate Water (AAIW) core, as well as the nutrient 

maximum and oxygen minimum layers. Shoreward advection of these layers and seasonal overturn to 

200 m establishes conditions favoring productivity in the upper slopewater, as well as on the shelf. 

Cutler, E.B. 1975. Zoogeographical barrier on the continental slope off Cape Lookout, North Carolina. 

Deep-Sea Research 22: 893-901. 

The distribution of Sipuncula and Pogonophora on the continental slope off North and South Carolina 

suggests a zoogeographical barrier southeast of Cape Lookout, North Carolina around 34 N between 

150 and 2500 m for 14 of 27 species found. Similarity coefficients and a group average cluster 

analysis support the conclusions. This barrier may result from the effects of bottom currents on larval 

dispersion. 

Cutter, G.R., R.J. Diaz, and J.A. Blake. 1994a. Deep-Sea Research II: CD-ROM APPENDIX. Deep-Sea 

Research II Vol. 41(4-6): 981-982. 

The contents of the CD-ROM Appendix are data and images of the bottom from five of the articles in 

this issue. The CD-ROM was mastered in a format that can be read by both Macintosh and PC 
Physical Oceanography Chapter — 273 

computers. It is organized in an hierarchical structure by folders, with data in one and images in 

another. To access a particular file, sequentially open folders until the file of interest appears. Data 

and figure captions are provided as: (.txt) ASCII text with no line breaks; (.tlb) ASCII text with line 

breaks; (.wor) Microsoft Word; and (.wp) Word Perfect 5.1 files. Images are in TIFF format (.tif). 

Data (ACSAR, Hatteras), Images and Captions (ACSAR, Profile, 3Dbathy, Sled, Surface, x-ray) are 

included. 

Cutter, G.R., R. Diaz, and J. Lee. 1994b. Foraminifera from the continental slope off Cape Hatteras, 

North Carolina. Deep-Sea Research II Vol. 41(4-6): 951-963. 

The recent benthic meiofaunal foraminiferal assemblage from the continental slope (590-2003 m) off 

Cape Hatteras, North Carolina exhibits high species richness and evenness, moderate diversity values, 

and lacks numerically dominant species. The preserved planktic assemblage has relatively low 

species richness, high evenness, low diversity, and a few numerically dominant species. 

Approximately 9% of the benthic species are those that typically live within continental shelf depth 

ranges. The benthic assemblage abundances and diversities do not follow depth patterns or 

geophysical characteristics. No biogeographic boundary can be described within the study area for 

meiofaunal foraminifers. Oxygen limitation does not appear to be a factor affecting the benthos of the 

North Carolina continental slope based upon the community structure of the benthic foraminifers, if 

total assemblage is assumed to reflect the recently living community. The high carbonate content of 

sediments in the area may be explained by foraminiferal tests. Within the study area, the foraminiferal 

assemblages are uniform, and probably reflect relative consistency of primary environmental 

variables as well as dynamic downslope transport and high influx of material from the water column 

in the vicinity where the Gulf Stream and the Western Boundary Undercurrent cross. 

DeMaster, D.J., R.H. Pope, L.A. Levin, and N.E. Blair. 1994. Biological mixing intensity and rates of 

organic carbon accumulation in North Carolina slope sediments . Deep-Sea Research II Vol. 41(4-6): 

735-753. 

Sediment accumulation rates and biological mixing intensities were determined at three sites on the 

North Carolina slope based on profiles of naturally occurring 14C, 210Ph and 234Th. The three sites all 

were at a water depth of 850 m with a spacing of 150 — 180 km between sites. Sediment 

accumulation rates increase from south to north from values of 7 cm ky-1 at Site I, to 160 cm ky-1 at 

Site II, to 1100 cm ky-1 at Site III. The organic carbon burial rate a these sites also increases in the 

northward direction from 0.65 (Site I) to 20 (Site II) to ≤ 150 g Corg m-2 year-1 (Site III). These data 

indicate that continental margin environments can exhibit highly variable carbon fluxes over 

relatively small distances on the seafloor. The rate of organic carbon accumulation at Site III is one of 

the highest values reported for the marine environment. Based on these accumulation rates and 

dissolved inorganic carbon flux estimates from each site, the seabed organic carbon preservation 

efficiency (i.e. the ratio of Corg accumulation rate to Corg deposition rate times 100) was estimated to 

vary from 6.0% to 54% to 88%, at Sites I, II and III, respectively. The 14C age of organic matter in 

surface sediments was older at Site III (1800 years BP), than at Sites I and II (800 years BP), 

indicating that Site III receives it greater proportion of old sediment from either up-slope areas or 

from terrigenous sources. Inventories of excess 234Th (half-life of 24 days) were used as it tracer for 

particle flux covering the 100 days prior to the October 1989, July-August 1990 and August 1991 

cruises. The mean 234Th inventories at the three sites were 4.7 ± 1.9, 8.4 ± 6.3 and 23.1 ± 7.3 dpm cm2

, for Sites I, II and III, respectively. 

Diaz, R.J., J. Blake, B. Hecker, and D.C. Rhoads. 1993b. A Highly Productive Area of the Continental 

Slope Off Cape Hatteras. Benthic Ecology Meeting, 1-4 April 1993, Mobile AL. 57 p. 
274 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

The continental slope off Cape Hatteras is atypical for the U.S. Atlantic coast. Unusually high 

numbers of infauna, megafauna, and demersal fish were found over a broad area. Benthic organisms 

appear to be well adapted to physical processes that converge on the Cape Hatteras continental slope. 

These physical processes impart a high degree of instability to the bottom and also supply large 

amounts of organic matter which sustain the elevated densities and biomass. The nature of these 

communities and mechanisms which regulate them will be discussed. 

Edwards, R.L., R.L. Livingstone Jr., and P.E. Hamer. 1962. Winter water temperatures and an annotated 

list of fishes Nantucket Shoals to Cape Hatteras: Albatross Cruise no. 126. Special Scientific Report 

Fisheries No. 397. United States Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. Washington, 

DC. 

Cruise no. 126 of the Albatross III was planned and conducted to gather information about the 

distribution of fishes across the Continental Shelf from Nantucket Shoals to Cape Hatteras during the 

late winter period when water temperatures generally are at their minimum. The shelf here has a 

general hydrographic similarity from north to south, well described by Bigelow (1933), that makes it 

a particularly worthwhile area in which to study the relation of fish distribution to water temperature, 

depth, and other factors of the environment. Since the fish of this portion of the shelf support several 

different, relatively important food and industrial fisheries, as well as an intensive marine sport 

fishery, Cruise no. 126 served to provide data valuable to several research programs. This area has a 

distinctive fauna attributed in part to the thermal barrier present across the shelf at Cape Hatteras, as 

well as another such barrier, less marked, separating the waters of southern New England and the 

Gulf of Maine. 

FRED Group. 1989a. Frontal Eddy Dynamics (FRED) Experiment off North Carolina: Volume I 

Executive Summary. C.C. Ebbesmeyer (ed.). U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals Management 

Service. Herndon, VA. 16 p. 

During May to November 1967, oceanographic measurements were made off North Carolina to 

examine the effects of Gulf Stream frontal eddies on the circulation over the continental shelf. 

Satellite images were collected daily, and currents were measured at eight moorings containing 21 

current meters. During a 2-week time period in May three eddies were intensively examined using 

satellite imagery, drifting buoys, aircraft and survey vessel launched temperature probes, and an 

Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler. 

The Gulf Stream appears to behave in two distinct modes. 1) Small meander mode, the Gulf Stream 

lies at the shelf break and meanders of the front have smaller amplitudes. Frontal eddies and 

associated warm water filaments are smaller and farther from shore during this mode. 2) Large 

meander mode, the Gulf Stream Front is displaced offshore of the shelf break and meanders of the 

front have large amplitudes. Frontal eddies and associated warm water filaments are larger and closer 

to shore during this made, with some of the filaments nearly reaching the Barrier Islands. 

Eddies migrate past locations off the North Carolina coast approximately once every five days. After 

an eddy passes, parts of the filament may stagnate on the Shelf for approximately a week before 

dissipating or moving northward out of the study area. 

——. 1989b. Frontal Eddy Dynamics (FRED) Experiment off North Carolina: Volume II Technical 

Report. C.C. Ebbesmeyer (ed.). U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service. 

Herndon, VA. 325 p. 

During May to November 1967, oceanographic measurements were made off North Carolina to 

examine the effects of Gulf Stream frontal eddies on the circulation over the continental shelf. 
Physical Oceanography Chapter — 275 

Satellite images were collected daily, and currents were measured at eight moorings containing 21 

current meters. During a 2-week time period in May three eddies were intensively examined using 

satellite imagery, drifting buoys, aircraft and survey vessel launched temperature probes, and an 

Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler. 

The Gulf Stream appears to behave in two distinct modes. 1) Small meander mode, the Gulf Stream 

lies at the shelf break and meanders of the front have smaller amplitudes. Frontal eddies and 

associated warm water filaments are smaller and farther from shore during this mode. 2) Large 

meander mode, the Gulf Stream Front is displaced offshore of the shelf break and meanders of the 

front have large amplitudes. Frontal eddies and associated warm water filaments are larger and closer 

to shore during this made, with some of the filaments nearly reaching the Barrier Islands. 

Eddies migrate past locations off the North Carolina coast approximately once every five days. After 

an eddy passes, parts of the filament may stagnate on the Shelf for approximately a week before 

dissipating or moving northward out of the study area. 

Gray, I.E., and M.J. Cerame-Vivas. 1963. The Circulation of Surface waters in Raleigh Bay, North 

Carolina. Limnology and Oceanography 8(3): 330-337. 

Returns from helicopter-released drift bottles over Diamond Shoals, in April August 1962, revealed a 

definite southwesterly coastal flow from Cape Hatteras, North Carolina. Influenced by northeast 

winds the flow was more pronounced in late summer thank in late spring, some of the bottles 

rounding Cape Lookout. Recovery of drift bottles from Onslow Bay and Bogue Sound strongly 

supports the theory that the temporary winter populations of distinctly northern species in the 

Beaufort, North Carolina, area established from planktonic larvae that originated north of Cape 

Hatteras and were transported around the capes. A postulated circulation, involving the influence of 

Diamond and Lookout shoals, runoff, northeasterly and southwesterly winds, and back eddies from 

the Florida Current and from wind-induced currents, is presented for Raleigh Bay. 

Hamilton, P., and T. Berger. 1992. Current Measurements in Manteo Block 467. pp. 169-177. In: U.S. 

Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service. Proceedings of the Fourth Atlantic OCS 

Region Information Transfer Meeting, September 1991, U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals 

Management Service. Herndon, VA. 

The Fourth Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) Regional Information Transfer Meeting (ITM) 

was held on 24-25 September 1991 in Wilmington, NC. The focus of the meeting was on the OCS off 

North Carolina, specifically on activities related to a proposed exploratory well for oil and gas by 

Mobil on Block 467 a site 40 miles off the coast of North Carolina. The area of industry interest is 

known as the Manteo Prospect, while the activities surrounding the proposed drilling are referred to 

collectively as the Manteo Project. The wildcat wellsite is in 2,690 ft. (857 m) of water near the edge 

of the Gulf Stream. It is also near a fishing ground known locally as “The Point.” The area is believed 

to be gas prone rather than oil prone. The estimated size of the resource could be as high as 5 trillion 

cubic feet of gas. 

The purpose of the meeting was to exchange information on the leasing background, legislative 

activities, scientific results, and socioeconomic studies. Legislative-related reports include 

descriptions of the Oil Pollution Act of 1990, the Outer Banks Protection Act, the Environmental 

Studies Review Panel, and the North Carolina Physical Oceanography Panel. Reports of studies on 

marine life include benthic diatoms, benthic fauna, pelagic seabirds, sea turtles, and right whales. One 

report describes the use of airships (blimps) for ocean research a capability relevant to North Carolina 

because of the east coast airship facility is located in the state. Local marine science facilities 
276 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

described include NOAA’s National Undersea Research Center at the University of North Carolina at 

Wilmington (NURC/UNCW) and the national marine Fisheries Service laboratory in Beaufort. 

Developments in oil spill cleanup technology and capabilities are described by both the Coast Guard 

and the industry. A socioeconomic report describes the effects of the oil and gas activities on the 

tourist industry. Lastly, research on the restoration of salt marshes indicates that rehabilitation of an 

area is possible when development or an accident has occurred. While the emphasis of the meeting 

was on oil and gas, two reports described the results of projects related to offshore sand mining. The 

appendix lists the names and addresses of speakers. Individual chapters are cited individually when 

appropriate. 

*Science Applications International Corporation measured the currents in Manteo Block 467, at the 

continental shelf break east of Cape Hatteras, North Carolina, from march 1989 through September 

1990 as part of a program for Mobil Corporation. In addition to providing valuable information 

required for engineering purposes, the data also provide new information about the nature of the Gulf 

Steam circulation near Cape Hatteras. 

Hare, J.A. and R.K. Cowen. 1996. Transport mechanisms of larval and pelagic juvenile bluefish 

(Pomatomus saltatrix) from South Atlantic Bight spawning grounds to Middle Atlantic Bight nursery 

habitats. Limnology and Oceanography 41(6): 1264-1280. 

In this study we examined the mechanisms by which Pomatomus saltatrix (Pisces: Pomatomidae) 

larvae and pelagic juveniles are transported from South Atlantic Bight spawning grounds to Middle 

Atlantic Bight estuarine nursery habitats. Data on larval and pelagic juvenile distributions, estuarine 

juvenile recruitment, hydrography, wind speed and direction and satellite-derived, sea surface 

temperature were used to examine potential larval transport mechanisms. On the basis of these 

analyses, a scenario for northward transport of P. saltatrix was developed. Gulf Stream-associated 

flow moves P. saltatrix larvae northeastward from their South Atlantic Bight spawning grounds. 

Larval transport from the Gulf Stream to the Middle Atlantic Bight shelf edge occurs in warm-core 

ring streamers, but some more developed individuals may swim across. Finally, P. saltatrix pelagic 

juveniles actively swim across the Middle Atlantic Bight shelf, a behavior initiated when the surface 

shelf-slope temperature front dissipates in late spring. This scenario predicts that the number of South 

Atlantic Bight-spawned P. saltatrix juveniles entering estuaries (i.e. recruitment) is determined in part 

by warm-core ring streamer activity. The timing of recruitment, however, is determined almost 

entirely by the timing of the dissipation of the surface shelf-slope temperature front. 

Heezen, B.C. 1968. The Atlantic Continental Margin. UMR Journal 1: 5-25. 

*Turbidity currents, surface and subsurface currents carry detritus from the land across the 

continental shelf to the adjacent continental slope where slumps and turbidity currents transport the 

sediment downslope for hundreds of miles to greater depths, and deep geostrophic contour currents 

transport it thousands of miles down-current in a direction parallel to the bathymetric contours. The 

combined effect of these processes has been to create a wide, thick, geosynclinal apron of sediment at 

the base of the continental slope. 

Hood, C.A., and J.M. Bane Jr. 1983. Subsurface energetics of the Gulf Stream cyclonic frontal zone off 

Onslow Bay, North Carolina. Journal of Geophysical Research 88 C(8): 4651-4562. 

It has been shown with the use of 4-month-long time series of velocity, temperature, and conductivity 

that fluctuating kinetic and potential energy was converted into kinetic and potential energy of the 

mean flow following a fluid particle in the subsurface Gulf Stream cyclonic frontal zone off Onslow 

Bay, North Carolina, during early 1979. This result agrees well with earlier measurements made in 
Physical Oceanography Chapter — 277 

the surface layer off Onslow Bay. These flux calculations represent an important step in verifying the 

direction of the net cross-stream energy flux within the Stream off Onslow Bay. According to an 

hypothesis presented for the growth and decay of Gulf Stream meanders along the continental margin 

of the southeastern United States, Onslow Bay is an area of decreasing meander amplitude. The 

direction of the energy conversion from meanders to the mean flow, determined from our 

calculations, is consistent with this hypothesis. Relatively low velocity covariances were found to be 

associated with relatively small transfers of kinetic energy during a period of low meander activity. 

This finding supports the notion that meanders play a significant role in the energy transformation 

processes. The presence of such ‘quiet’ periods may indicate a low-frequency modulation of Gulf 

Stream meander activity. 

Inman, D.L., and R. Dolan. 1989. The Outer Banks of North Carolina: Budget of Sediment and Inlet 

Dynamics Along a Migrating Barrier System. Journal of Coastal Research 5(2): 193-237. 

The Outer Banks are barrier islands separating Pamlico, Albemarle and Currituck Sounds from the 

Atlantic Ocean. These barriers are transgressing landward, with average rates of shoreline recession 

of 1.4 m/yr between False Cape and Cape Hatteras. Oregon Inlet, 63 km north of Cape Hatteras, is the 

only opening in the nearly 200 km between Cape Henry and Cape Hatteras which bounds the Hatteras 

Littoral Cell. Oregon Inlet is migrating south at an average rate of 23 m/yr and landward at a rate of 5 

m/yr The net southerly longshore transport of sand in the vicinity of Oregon Inlet is between one-half 

and one million m3/yr. 

Oregon Inlet is the most dynamic physical feature within the Hatteras Littoral Cell. The combination 

of waves and tidal currents deposit ebb-tide bars offshore of the entrance and form extensive tidal 

islands, bars and shoals in Pamlico Sound. These deposits lag behind as the inlet migrates. The 

offshore deposits are gradually returned to the beach by waves and reincorporated into the littoral 

drift system. The flood-tide inlet deposits in the sound are eventually reincorporated into the landward 

migrating barrier as the inlet moves to the south. The integrity of the landward side of the 

transgressing barrier is maintained by washover deposits, wind- blown sand deposits, and inlet 

deposits. Averaged over the 160 km from False Cape to Cape Hatteras, sea level rise accounts for 

21% of the measured shoreline recession of 1.4 m/yr. Analysis of the budget of sediment indicates 

that the remaining erosion of 1.1 m/yr is apportioned between overwash processes (39%) longshore 

transport out of the cell (22%), windblown sand transport (18%), inlet deposits (10%), and removal 

by dredging at Oregon Inlet (11%). This analysis indicates that the barrier system moves as a whole, 

so that the sediment balance is relative to the moving shoreline (Lagrangian grid). Application of a 

continuity model to the budget suggests that, in places, the barrier system is supplied with sand from 

the shelf. 

Isley, I.E., R.D. Pillsbury, and E.P. Laine. 1990. The genesis and character of benthic turbid events, 

Northern Hatteras Abyssal Plain. Deep-Sea Research 37(7): 1099-1119. 

Benthic turbid events, with particle concentrations of up to 1.5 mg l -1, occupy about 20 % of a twoyear record of near-bottom light attenuation made above the Northern Hatteras Abyssal Plain. They 

are most often associated with deep-sea mesoscale eddies, although rare events occur during periods 

when southward contour flow predominates. In a temporal sense, the presence of deep-sea mesoscale 

eddies corresponds strongly to periods when cold-core Gulf Stream rings propagated through surface 

waters of the study area. Additionally, over half of the benthic turbid events observed are initiated 

within a day of the passage of atmospheric storms with propagation speeds in excess of 800 km day−1

. 
278 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

Janowitz, G.S. 1989. Comments on the Latest MMS Meeting. pp. 22-24. In: Crawford, K. (ed.). 

Proceedings: 1989 Marine Expo: The Natural Resources Associated with Mobil’s Proposed Drill Site. 

NC Outer Continental Shelf Office, NC Department of Administration. Raleigh, NC. 

In the early 1980s, MMS funded a modeling effort but utilized only predicted monthly averaged 

currents, combined with a time-varying surface wind-driven current in its risk analysis. The monthly 

averaged currents were very weak over the shelf and showed none of the energetic flows associated 

with the Gulf Stream-induced eddies and filaments present over the shelf. As it is possible that parcels 

may cross the shelf in a matter of days, MMS’s use of mean monthly currents was challenged by the 

state of North Carolina. 

A joint State-Federal Technical Advisory Panel concluded that the approach taken by NMS was 

inadequate. It recommended that a field study of the eddy-filament structure be funded and that a new 

ocean circulation model be developed. The model was to be verified by comparison with data prior to 

its incorporation into the trajectory calculations. Both projects were funded by MMS. 

The Frontal Eddy Dynamics experiment, or FRED experiment for short, provided, among other data, 

current measurements in Onslow and Raleigh Bays and satellite imagery in this region and further 

north into the Mobil area. The study was not designed to measure currents in what is now the Mobil 

area. At this time, I have no details on the latest circulation model, the state of its verification, or the 

proposed method of incorporation into the trajectory analysis. 

Janowitz, G.S., and L.J. Pietrafesa. 1996. Subtidal frequency fluctuations in coastal sea level in the Mid 

and South Atlantic Bights: A prognostic for coastal flooding. Journal of Coastal Research 12(1): 79-

89. 

An analytical model is used to determine spatial and temporal variations in coastal sea level. The 

model is developed for subtidal frequency motions in the viscous parameter regime, where advection 

of relative vorticity can be neglected with respect to production of relative vorticity by bottom Ekman 

layer pumping. The latter is then balanced by the topographically induced vertical velocity. The 

effects of the atmospheric wind stress on coastal sea level are assessed; and it is found that an 

upwelling (downwelling) favorable wind stress causes a continual drop (rise) in coastal sea level 

downstream from an initial cross-shelf location, with modifying effects of cross-shelf profile and 

initial location on the downstream variation in coastal sea level also being important. The model is 

applied over the Mid Atlantic Bight from Woods Hole, Massachusetts to Cape Hatteras, North 

Carolina and then to Charleston, South Carolina. Reasonable agreement exists between observations 

and model results which suggests that a predictive capability has been established; dimensionless 

mean squared errors range from 0. 122 to 0.294 with a mean of 0.181 over the six test cages. The 

model can be driven by several days of forecast winds to determine the timing of coastal flooding, 

with linear superposition of location specific predicted astronomical tides onto the subtidal frequency 

model predictions. 

JAYCOR. 1980. Final Report 1978: Physical Oceanographic Model Evaluation for the South Atlantic 

OCS Region. BLM Contract AA551-CT8-34. JAYCOR. Alexandria, VA. 327 p. 

*This report is comprised primarily of mathematical models. Geological Oceanography is discussed 

in Appendix A: Geospecific Aspects of the South Atlantic OCS Region (L.J. Pietrafesa). 

For twelve months, JAYCOR Personnel were under contract to the Bureau of Land Management 

(BLM) to conduct an evaluation of physical oceanographic models that could have applicability to the 

South Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf (SAOS) area. The objectives of this evaluation were to 

determine: 1) which models, if any were best suited to the BLM program needs in assessing the 

distribution of pollutants resulting from offshore activities and in assessing the probability of 
Physical Oceanography Chapter — 279 

occurrence of circumstances hazardous to offshore structures; 2) which models best fit the physics of 

the SAOS region; 3) the sensitivity of various models to data input; and 4) the quantity and quality of 

existing input data to drive the models. 

More than twelve-hundred papers have been reviewed in a three-step process; semi-qualitative, 

detailed qualitative, and quantitative. All of the models, and background material are included in 

Appendix B of this report. This appendix includes a designation for each citation indicating the level 

at which the material reviewed was useful for this project. It should be emphasized that this model 

evaluation was done in the context of the South Atlantic OCS Region, and the results are not 

necessarily applicable to all OCS regions, although a significant portion of the information is 

transferable to other similar areas. 

Johns, W.E., and D.R. Watts. 1986. Time scales and structure of topographic Rossby waves and meanders 

in the deep Gulf Stream. Journal of Marine Research 44: 267-290. 

During July-November 1982, current and temperature records were collected from six current meters 

spanning the lower 2000 m of the water column on two moorings in the Gulf Stream northeast of 

Cape Hatteras, N.C. Frequency domain EOF analysis of the velocity cross-spectra reveals that there 

are two kinematically distinct wave processes present in the subinertial range, identifiable as 

topographic Rossby wave and meander-associated motions, which are energetically dominant at 

periods longer than and shorter than 14 days, respectively. Simultaneous thermocline depth 

measurements obtained using inverted echo sounders show that the low-frequency topographic 

Rossby wave motions are uncoupled with near-surface displacements of the Gulf Stream path, but 

that cross-stream velocity fluctuations in the 14-day and 5-day period bands are associated with 

vertically coherent meanders of the Gulf Stream temperature front. 

Kirshen, P.H. 1979. Summary and analysis of physical oceanographic and meteorological information on 

the continental shelf from Cape Hatteras to Cape Canaveral, Volume 2. pp. 19-213. BLM Contract 

AA550-CT7-16. Environmental Research and Technology, Inc. Concord, MA. 

*This is a summary and analysis of physical oceanographic and meteorological information on the 

continental shelf from Cape Hatteras to Cape Canaveral. 

Lang, W.H. 1998. Appendix D: A Review: Findings of the North Carolina Environmental Sciences 

Review Panel (ESRP). pp. 98-107. In: Vigil, D.L. (ed.). North Carolina/Minerals Management 

Service Technical Workshop on Manteo Unit Exploration: February 4-5, 1998. U.S. Dept. of the 

Interior, Minerals Management Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region. New Orleans, LA. 

*These are the proceedings from a workshop/meeting (February 4-5, 1998) between the North 

Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources, and the U.S. Department of the 

Interior’s Minerals Management Service (MMS). The geographic area being discussed is 

approximately 45 miles east-northeast of Cape Hatteras, NC, referred to as the Manteo Unit. This 

workshop reviewed environmental and socioeconomic information known and needed on the Manteo 

Unit. The MMS’s Gulf of Mexico OCS Regional Director gave an MMS perspective on history and 

status of the area. Chevron gave a presentation on how the exploratory well would be drilled. The 

scientific characterization was presented in greater detail by a number of scientific experts who spoke 

on the following disciplines physical environment, habitat and living resources, seabirds, marine 

mammals, sea turtles, and social and economic issues. Specific chapters are cited individually, when 

appropriate. 

The Oil Pollution Act of 1990, in a section cited as the Outer Banks Protection Act (OBPA), created 

the ESRP (Costlow et al. 1992). The review panel was to be composed of five members: a marine 

scientist selected by the Secretary of the Interior, a marine specialist selected by the Governor of 
280 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

North Carolina, and three scientists, one each from the disciplines of physical oceanography, ecology, 

and social sciences, selected jointly by the Secretary and the Governor from a list developed by the 

national Academy of Sciences. 

This sections describes: The Panel, the Review Process, Adequacy Findings, and Recommended 

Studies. The summary of the ESRP findings indicates, “General information relating to the physical 

oceanography and ecology in the vicinity of Manteo Block 467 has been presented in the DOI 

decision documents for oil and gas resource development at this site. However, this information is not 

sufficiently quantitative or process-oriented to provide an adequate understanding of potential impacts 

related to such development. Socioeconomic information or all phases of development activity ranges 

from inadequate to non-existent. 

Lee, T. (ed.) 1983. Oceanography of the Southeast U.S. Continental Shelf and Adjacent Gulf Stream. 

Journal of Geophysical Research 88 C(8): 4539-4738. 

*This is reprinted from Journal of Geophysical Research (88 C (8)). Individual chapters are cited 

independently when appropriate. 

Recent studies of shelf circulation and Gulf Stream variability in the area between Cape Hatteras, 

North Carolina, and Cape Canaveral, Florida, (South Atlantic Bight) have significantly enlarged the 

regional data ensemble available for dynamical interpretation. As national interests shifted to the 

finding of new and alternative energy resources, the need to understand better the oceanography of 

the SAB with its possible oil reserves became apparent. It is the purpose of this dedicated issue to 

combine the results of studies funded separately by the Department of Energy, the Bureau of Land 

Management (now Minerals Management Service), the National Science Foundation, and the Office 

of Naval Research in order that they may be viewed together for a more complete understanding of 

the important physical processes in the region. 

Magnuson, J.J., C.L. Harrington, D.J. Stewart, and G.N. Herbst. 1981. Responses of macrofauna to 

short-term dynamics of a Gulf Stream front on the continental shelf. pp. 441-448. In: Richards, F.R. 

(ed.). Coastal Upwelling. American Geophysical Union. 

Benthic and near-bottom fishes, decapod crustaceans, and echinoderms were sampled in two areas 

through which a Gulf Stream front moved just north of Cape Hatteras along 75°13′ W longitude in 

October 1977. We tested the hypothesis that the frontal aggregations resulted from the response of 

organisms to the front itself rather than to a geographically fixed feature of the region. The front, 8.5° 

C and 3.5 o

/oo wide, was characterized by horizontal gradients of at least 0.5 C/km and speeds of 30 cm/s. Bottom trawling was conducted day and night in each area (northern and southern) when the 

front was present and when it was absent. Both areas contained more species and individuals of fish 

when the front was present. Atlantic croaker, weakfish, and spot left when the front left. Decapods 

exhibited some response to the front, especially at night. During the day, fewer echinoderms were 

caught when the front was present — perhaps because the sudden changes in temperature induced 

burrowing. During the day all three groups were more abundant in the northern than in the southern 

area in terms of species and individuals. The front itself and more geographically fixed features both 

influenced distributions. 

Marshall, N. 1951. Hydrography of North Carolina waters. pp. 1-76. In: Taylor, H.F. (ed.). Survey of 

Marine Fisheries of North Carolina. University of North Carolina Press. Chapel Hill, NC. 

*This paper synthesizes hydrographic data for all of NC’s marine waters, including the major 

estuaries. Offshore bathymetry is provided. Offshore temperature data are provided and the Gulf 
Physical Oceanography Chapter — 281 

Stream circulation is discussed. The relationship between hydrography and offshore fisheries is 

discussed, particularly in the Cape Hatteras area. 

McCann, M.P., L.J. Pietrafesa, G.S. Janowitz, and T.B. Curtin. 1984. Physical Processes Influencing 

Temperature and Salinity on the North Carolina Cape Shoals. Contract No. DOE-AS09-76-EY00902; 

NOAA Contract No. 04-6-158-44054. 138 p. 

Cross-spectral analysis and heat budget are used to relate atmospheric and river runoff data within 

seven years of daily surface temperature and salinity on the North Carolina continental shelf. Salinity 

on Diamond Shoals is highly correlated with alongshore wind stress implying wind driven advection 

of the front between Virginia Coastal Water and Carolina Coastal Water. In the presence of strong 

horizontal and vertical temperature gradients, temperature at Diamond Shoals quickly responds to 

cross-shelf winds. At Frying Pan Shoals, the plume of the Cape Fear River is detected when winds 

blow seaward. Atmospheric fluxes primarily control the cycle of heating and cooling at Frying Pan 

Shoals, but advection of heat buffers the water temperature in the winter and summer. 

McGowan, M.F. and W.J. Richards. 1989. Bluefin tuna, Thunnus thynnus, larvae in the Gulf Stream off 

the southeastern United States: satellite and shipboard observations of their environment. Fishery 

Bulletin 87: 615-631. 

The primary spawning area of the western Atlantic stock of bluefin tuna is presumed to be in the Gulf 

of Mexico. However, bluefin tuna larvae were collected in April and May 1985 along the shelf edge 

from Palm Beach, Florida to Cape Fear, North Carolina and offshore as far as 260 km east of 

Jacksonville, Florida over the Blake Plateau. Satellite and shipboard sea-temperature data indicate 

that the larvae over the shelf edge were advected there in meanders of the Gulf Stream. Bluefin larvae 

previously reported in the Straits of Florida and off Cape Hatteras were also in the Gulf Stream 

according to retrospective analyses of temperature and salinity data. Based on age-length 

relationships and current velocity, one small larva was probably spawned north of Miami, Florida 

while others could have been advected into the Gulf Stream from the eastern Gulf. Spawning by a 

few unspent migrating adults could also account for some bluefin larvae in this region. The estimated 

total larvae off the southeastern United States in 1985 could have been produced by 5% of the 

spawning stock. Bluefin larvae were found within a narrow range of sea surface temperatures and 

salinities at offshore stations. Preliminary assessment of larval habitat indicates that waters off the 

southeastern United States are unfavorable for growth and survival of bluefin larvae relative to 

hypothesized larval retention areas in the Gulf of Mexico. 

Milliman, J.D., R.J. Diaz, J.A. Blake, and G.R. Cutter Jr. (eds.). 1994. Topical Studies in Oceanography: 

Input, Accumulation and Cycling of Materials on the Continental Slope Off Cape Hatteras. Deep-Sea 

Research Part II Vol. 41. 982 p. 

*This is a compilation of studies on Input, Accumulation and Cycling of Materials on the Continental 

Slope Off Cape Hatteras. Geology, sediments, organics, and benthic fauna are discussed. A CD-ROM 

is included. Each chapter (study) is cited independently, when appropriate. Some papers in this issue 

were derived from Diaz et al. (1993). 

Mills, G.B. 1992. Update of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s Bathymetric 

Mapping Program Along the Mid-Atlantic Coast. pp. 95-102. In: U.S. Department of the Interior, 

Minerals Management Service. Proceedings of the Fourth Atlantic OCS Region Information Transfer 

Meeting, September 1991. U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service. Herndon, 

VA. 
282 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

The Fourth Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) Regional Information Transfer Meeting (ITM) 

was held on 24-25 September, 1991, in Wilmington, NC. The focus of the meeting was on the OCS 

off North Carolina, specifically on activities related to a proposed exploratory well for oil and gas by 

Mobil on Block 467 a site 40 miles off the coast of North Carolina. The area of industry interest is 

known as the Manteo Prospect, while the activities surrounding the proposed drilling are referred to 

collectively as the Manteo Project. The wildcat wellsite is in 2,690 ft. (857 m) of water near the edge 

of the Gulf Stream. It is also near a fishing ground known locally as “The Point.” The area is believed 

to be gas prone rather than oil prone. The estimated size of the resource could be as high as 5 trillion 

cubic feet of gas. 

he purpose of the meeting was to exchange information on the leasing background, legislative 

activities, scientific results, and socioeconomic studies. Legislative-related reports include 

descriptions of the Oil Pollution Act of 1990, the Outer Banks Protection Act, the Environmental 

Studies Review Panel, and the North Carolina Physical Oceanography Panel. Reports of studies on 

marine life include benthic diatoms, benthic fauna, pelagic seabirds, sea turtles, and right whales. One 

report describes the use of airships (blimps) for ocean research a capability relevant to North Carolina 

because of the east coast airship facility is located in the state. Local marine science facilities 

described include NOAA’s National Undersea Research Center at the University of North Carolina at 

Wilmington (NURC/UNCW) and the National Marine Fisheries Service laboratory in Beaufort. 

Developments in oil spill cleanup technology and capabilities are described by both the Coast Guard 

and the industry. A socioeconomic report describes the effects of the oil and gas activities on the 

tourist industry. Lastly, research on the restoration of salt marshes indicates that rehabilitation of an 

area is possible when development or an accident has occurred. While the emphasis of the meeting 

was on oil and gas, two reports described the results of projects related to offshore sand mining. The 

appendix lists the names and addresses of speakers. Individual chapters are cited individually when 

appropriate. 

*The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) began systematically mapping the 

continental slope along the U.S. mid-Atlantic slope in 1990 as part of its multibeam mapping program 

of the United States’ Exclusive Economic Zone. Eight surveys covering more than 2,500 square 

nautical miles (nmi2) have been conducted in this region, using the sophisticated seafloor mapping 

systems Sea Beam and Hydrocart II. This section further describes NOAA’s ocean mapping program. 

Nash, R.M., J.J. Magnuson, C.S. Clay, and T.K. Stanton. 1987. A Synoptic View of the Gulf Stream 

Front with 70-kHz Sonar: Taking Advantage of a Closer Look. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and 

Aquatic Sciences 44(11): 2022-2024. 

Acoustical scattering across the near surface frontal zone of the Gulf Stream off Cape Hatteras was 

greatest in the thermal front. Little biological scattering was evident in the colder Slope water, but in 

the Gulf Stream, scatters formed five horizontal bands. Interpretation and new applications of 

acoustical information in biological oceanography are discussed. 

Nash, R.M., J.J. Magnuson, T.K. Stanton, and C.S Clay. 1989. Distribution of peaks of 70 kHz acoustic 

scattering in relation to depth and temperature during day and night at the edge of the Gulf StreamEchoFront 83. Deep-Sea Research 36(4): 587-596. 

The depth and temperature distribution of acoustical scattering peaks in the near- surface frontal zone 

of the Gulf Stream was examined with a 70 kHz downward-looking sonar to 130 m. A peak was 

defined as a layer with relatively more scattering than layers just above or below it. Data were 

collected during the day and night in July 1983, approximately 115 km ENE of Cape Hatteras in a 

front with sharp thermal gradients above 130 m, and in the Gulf Stream with rather homogeneous 
Physical Oceanography Chapter — 283 

temperatures above 130 m. “Peaks” in the front occurred more frequently both day and night above 

60 m and at temperatures warmer than 15°C; in the Gulf Stream peaks occurred more frequently only 

above 20 m and at temperatures warmer than 24.5°C and then only during the day. The distribution of 

peaks was more homogeneous with depth and temperature in the Gulf Stream than in the front. Day 

and night distribution also differed with temperature in the front but with depth in the Gulf Stream. 

Acoustical scattering intensity in the peaks generally increased at night in the Gulf Stream at all 

depths above 130 m; in the front scattering levels appeared to increase both above and below the 

gradient but decrease in the gradient. Differences in the nocturnal increase in scattering between the 

front and Gulf Stream supports the concept of thermoclines as barriers to vertical migrants. 

Nero, R.W., J.J. Magnuson, S.B. Brandt, T.K. Stanton, and J.M. Jech. 1990. Finescale biological 

patchiness of 70 kHz acoustic scattering at the edge of the Gulf Stream-EchoFront 85. Deep-Sea 

Research. 37(6): 999-1016. 

The spatial distribution of biological scatterers within the Gulf Stream front is inferred from an 

analysis of patch statistics obtained from digitally recorded backscattering data. Acoustic data were 

collected along 10 transacts perpendicular to the front using a downward-looking 70 kHz 

echosounder. Patches were defined using an algorithm selected to search for finescale patches from 

within 200 x 900 element (approx. 200 m depth x 24 km length) integrated echo data. Based on 

principal component analyses of 17 patch parameters, we identified the third most important 

component as a measure of “acoustic roughness” (containing the coefficient of variance and 

coefficient of toughness of the integrated echo independent of echo intensity). This third component 

was a good descriptor of differences among patches within scattering layers and between water 

masses. It is independent of echo strength and patch size which constitute the first two components. 

We interpret higher acoustic roughness within patches to indicate a more contagious (clumped) 

distribution of animals within those patches. Classification of patches on acoustic roughness showed 

that patches were often acoustically different from distant neighbors but more similar to neighbors 

within the same scattering layer or region. We infer that finescale layers are made up of small patches 

of like animals exhibiting a similar spatial arrangement throughout the layer. Cross-stream differences 

in acoustic roughness indicate a greater number of solitary scatterers occur within the slope water 

than within the Gulf Stream. Acoustic roughness is also reduced at night when compared with day, 

indicating that the ascent of vertical migrators into the near-surface waters (<200 m) results in a more 

dispersed spatial pattern. 

Nesbit, R.A, and W.C. Neville. 1935. Conditions Affecting the Southern Winter Trawl Fishery. Fishery 

Circular No. 18. U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Fisheries. 12 p. 

With the opening of another season of the winter-trawl fishery off the Virginia capes, questions have 

been raised as to what might be expected during the coming winter (Jan.-Mar. 1935). It is the present 

intention to answer these questions as completely as is permitted by the results of the Bureau’s studies 

of the winter and summer fishery for scup, sea bass, and fluke, these being the three most important 

fishes in the southern winter-trawl fishery. The discussion will be more complete as to scup for there 

is more information on that fish than on sea bass or fluke. However, much of what is said about scup 

in the winter fishery generally applies to sea bass and fluke since all three fishes were subject to the 

same conditions and were affected in about the same general way, though to differing degrees. 

*This paper also discusses Changes in the Summer Fishery, Changes in the Winter Fishery, Changes 

in Temperature, Scup Scatter in Warm Winters, Sea Bass in Warmer Water Than Scup, Fluke in 

More Northerly Part of Ground, Outlook for the Winter of 1935 (January- March), and Conservation 

Problems. 
284 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

Nickerson, S.R., and D.G. Mountain. 1983. Surface and Bottom Temperature Salinity Distributions on the 

Continental Shelf, Cape Hatteras to Cape Sable from MARMAP Cruises, 1977-1982. MARMAP 

Contribution MED/NEFC 83-16. Northeast Fisheries Center, Woods Hole Laboratory. Woods Hole, 

MA. 83 p. 

*This report presents surface and bottom temperatures and salinity distributions observed on twentyfive cruises between 1977 and 1982. These cruises were part of the Marine resources Monitoring and 

Assessment Program (MARMAP) conducted by the Northeast Fisheries Center of the National 

Marine Fisheries Service. The Area observations extended over the continental shelf from Cape 

Hatteras to Nova Scotia, although complete coverage was not made on all cruises due to time and 

weather limitations. Generally, the area was covered from south to north over a period of 

approximately six weeks. Vessels included are: 

1977: Argus cruise 77-10; 15 Oct-11 Nov 

Mt. Mitchell-Kelez cruise 77-11; 12 Nov-04 Dec 

1978: Delaware II cruise 78-02; 14 Feb-13 Mar 

Argus cruise 78-04; 13 Apr-24 May 

Albatross IV cruise 78-07; 22 Jun-01 Jul 

Belogosrk cruise 78-01; 09 Aug-05 Sep 

Belogosrk cruise 78-03; 05-20 Oct 

Belogosrk cruise 78-04; 16-29 Nov 

1979: Delaware II cruise 79-03; 23 Feb-15 Mar 

Delaware II cruise 79-05; 06-29 May 

Albatross IV cruise 79-06; 17 Jun-12 July 

Belogosrk cruise 79-01; 11 Aug-02 Sep 

Albatross IV cruise 79-11; 03 Sep-29 Oct 

Albatross IV cruise 79-13; 15 Nov-20 Dec 

1980: Albatross IV cruise 80-02; 27 Feb-04 Apr 

Delaware II cruise 80-03; 23 May-12 Jun 

Erika cruise 80-04; 25-29 Jun 

Albatross IV cruise 80-10; 24 Sep-30 Oct 

Albatross IV cruise 80-12; 19 Nov-21 Dec 

1981: Albatross IV cruise 81-01; 17 Feb-24 Mar 

Kelez cruise 81-03, 04; 18 Mar-09 Apr 

Delaware II cruise 81-03; 20 May-18 Jun 

Albatross IV cruise 81-14; 16 Nov-22 Dec 

1982: Albatross IV cruise 82-02; 16 Feb-25 Mar 

Delaware II cruise 82-03; 17 May-11 Jun 

Albatross IV cruise 82-09; 15 Nov-22 Dec. 

Norcross, B.L. and H.M. Austin. 1988. Middle Atlantic Bight meridional wind component effect on 

bottom water temperatures and spawning distribution of Atlantic croaker. Continental Shelf Research. 

8(1): 69-88. 

Predominantly southerly winds over the Middle Atlantic Bight result in offshore flow in surface 

waters and corresponding onshore flow in a bottom Ekman layer. Seasonal heating results in 

maximum surface temperatures in August while the bottom onshore Ekman flow results in cold 

summer bottom water temperatures. Bottom temperatures do not peak until autumn after the seasonal 

wind shift resulting in a cessation of the southerly winds and overturning of the surface waters. Strong 

episodes of this onshore bottom flow of cold water (upwelling) have been previously reported as 

unusually cold surf zone temperatures. 
Physical Oceanography Chapter — 285 

Fifteen-day moving averages of meridional components of winds from Norfolk International Airport, 

Virginia revealed few of the 15 years examined in which there was an abrupt seasonal shift in wind 

patterns from summer to winter regimes. Twenty-six collections of bottom water temperature data 

were reviewed for the Middle Atlantic Bight during the years 1967-1981. The average time of 

cessation of the strong southerly (summer) meridional wind component during those years was the 

end of August/beginning of September. A correlation of 0.74 exists between the time of cessation and 

the extent (km2

) of warm nearshore bottom waters, as indicated by the 16° C isotherm. The transition 

from a southerly to a northerly wind pattern occurs over a period of time ranging from 10 days to 3 

months, while the response of ocean bottom isotherms to the cessation of the southerly component 

can typically be seen in 10-20 days. 

Migration and spawning behavior of many fish is cued by water temperatures. The autumn areal 

distribution of the Atlantic croaker (Micropogonias undulates) is strongly correlated (r2

 = 0.78) with 

the areal distribution of bottom waters warmer than 16° C on the shelf. Furthermore, there is a 

correlation (r2

 = 0.64) between the time of cessation of the summer southerly wind and the areal 

extent of croaker. Therefore, we propose that if the wind relaxation occurs prior to the autumn 

migration of croaker out of the estuaries, spawning would occur in northern and middle sections of 

the Middle Atlantic Bight. Prolonged summer winds would keep the nearshore waters cool, and force 

croaker to migrate further southward to spawn, potentially shifting the distribution of juvenile 

recruitment to Pamlico Sound with entrance through Oregon Inlet in the Middle Atlantic Bight or 

through inlets south of Cape Hatteras. 

O’Reilly, J.E., and C. Zetlin. 1998. Seasonal, Horizontal, and Vertical Distribution of Phytoplankton 

Chlorophyll a in the Northeast U.S. Continental Shelf Ecosystem. NOAA Technical report NMFS 

139. U.S. Department of Commerce. Seattle, WA. 120 p. 

The broad scale features in the horizontal, vertical, and seasonal distribution of phytoplankton 

chlorophyll a on the northeast U.S. continental shelf are described based on 57,088 measurements 

made during 78 oceanographic surveys from 1977 through 1988. Highest mean water column 

chlorophyll concentration (Chlw) is usually observed in nearshore areas adjacent to the mouths of the 

estuaries in the Middle Atlantic Bight (MAB), over the shallow water on Georges Bank, and a small 

area sampled along the southeast edge of Nantucket Shoals. Lowest Chlw (<O.125 ug l-1) is usually 

restricted to the most seaward stations sampled along the shelf-break and the central deep waters in 

the Gulf of Maine. There is at least a twofold seasonal variation in phytoplankton biomass in all areas, 

with highest phytoplankton concentrations (m3

) and highest integrated standing stocks (m2) occurring 

during the winter-spring (WS) bloom, and the lowest during summer, when vertical density 

stratification is maximal. In most regions, a secondary phytoplankton biomass pulse is evident during 

convective destratification in fall, usually in October. Fall bloom in some areas of Georges Bank 

approaches the magnitude of the WS-bloom, but Georges Bank and Middle Atlantic Bight fall blooms 

are clearly subordinate to WS-blooms. 

Measurements of chlorophyll in two size-fractions of the phytoplankton, netplankton (>20 um) and 

nanoplankton (<20 u m), revealed that the smaller nanoplankton are responsible for most of the 

phytoplankton biomass on the northeast U.S. shelf Netplankton tend to be more abundant in 

nearshore areas of the MAB and shallow water on Georges Bank, where chlorophyll a is usually high; 

nanoplankton dominate deeper water at the shelf-break and deep water in the Gulf of Maine, where 

Chlw is usually low. As a general rule, the percent of phytoplankton in the netplankton size-fraction 

increases with increasing depth below surface and decreases proceeding offshore. 

There are distinct seasonal and regional patterns in the vertical distribution of chlorophyll a and 

percent netplankton, as revealed in composite vertical profiles of chlorophyll a constructed for 11 

layers of the water column. Subsurface chlorophyll a maxima are ubiquitous during summer in 
286 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

stratified water. Chlorophyll a in the subsurface maximum layer is generally 2-8 times the 

concentration in the overlying and underlying water and approaches 50 to 75% of the levels observed 

in surface water during WS-bloom. The distribution of the ratio of the subsurface maximum 

chlorophyll a to surface chlorophyll a (SSR) during summer parallels the shelfwide pattern for 

stability, indexed as the difference in density (sigma-t) between 40 in and surface (stability40). The 

weakest stability and lowest SSR’s are found in shallow tidally-mixed water on Georges Bank; the 

greatest stability and highest SSR’s (8-12:1) are along the mid and outer MAB shelf, over the winter 

residual water known as the “cold band.” On Georges Bank, the distribution of SSR and the 

stability4o are roughly congruent with the pattern for maximum surface tidal current velocity, with 

values above 50 cms-1 defining SSR’s less than 2:1 and the well-mixed area. 

Physical factors (bathymetry, vertical mixing by strong tidal currents, and seasonal and regional 

differences in the intensity and duration of vertical stratification) appear to explain much of the 

variability in phytoplankton chlorophyll a throughout this ecosystem. 

Ocean Margins Program (OMP). 1993. Research program plan. DOE Office of Energy Research, 

Environmental Science Division. Washington, DC. 

The OMP Data Management Plan objective is to provide a single repository for all time series data 

collected on OMP moorings in a simple format that does not require collaborators to purchase or 

learn to use any specific software products. Access to these data will be provided at any time without 

the intervention of an operator. Sampled parameters include; date, time; East component of velocity 

(cm/sec); North component of velocity (cm/sec); Temperature (C); Salinity (PS78, psu); Pressure — 

absolute (dbar); Acoustic backscatter intensity (dB); Estimated biomass (mg/m3

); Temperature at 

ADCP — (C); Dissolved oxygen concentration (umole/kg); Dissolved oxygen saturation (percent); 

fluorometric chlorophyll (ug/l); Transmissometer light transmission (l/meter); PAR — photosynthetic 

active radiation (umole/m2

/sec). 

Olson, D.B., O.B. Brown, and S.R. Emmerson. 1983. Gulf Stream Frontal Statistics From Florida Straits 

to Cape Hatteras Derived From Satellite and Historical Data. Journal of Geophysical Research 88 

C(8): 4569-4577. 

A 5 year record (1976-1980) of weekly Gulf Stream paths digitized from the U.S. Navy Ocean 

Frontal Analysis is analyzed to define a mean Gulf Stream path and weekly space-time series of 

fluctuations about the mean between the Florida Straits and Cape Hatteras. This satellite-derived Gulf 

Stream frontal mean locus is used as a natural coordinate system in which NODC historical 

expendable bathythermograph (XBT) data is averaged to determine the mean cross stream thermal 

structure. The results show that the satellite-derived front; that is, the cold wall of the stream as 

derived from IR imagery is in good agreement with a classical definition of the stream path. The Gulf 

Stream path is discussed in relationship to the bottom topography. Frontal location time series at 

various locations along the Gulf Stream are analyzed to generate occupation statistics and spectra for 

stream position. A steady increase in the variance of stream position occurs from Cape Canaveral to 

the Charleston Bump. This trend is followed by a sharp increase in variance just downstream of the 

bump and then a gradual decay from a proximately 33°N to Cape Hatteras. A similar distribution of 

variance is found in the depth of the 15°C isotherm. An annual signal is seen in the path data all along 

the U.S. east coast. The stream front north of Charleston (~32°N) exhibits the strongest annual 

variation with the surface front being further offshore in the late winter and early spring. This annual 

signal is not obvious at the thermocline level (15°C). It is consistent, however, with observed shifts in 

the isotherm patterns in the upper 100 m. 
Physical Oceanography Chapter — 287 

Petterson, J.S. 1998. Appendix G: Coastal North Carolina Socioeconomic Study Program. pp. 137-43. In: 

Vigil, D.L. (ed.). North Carolina/Minerals Management Service Technical Workshop on Manteo Unit 

Exploration: February 4-5, 1998. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, Gulf of 

Mexico OCS Region. New Orleans, LA. 

*These are the proceedings from a workshop/meeting (February 4-5, 1998) between the North 

Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources, and the U.S. Department of the 

Interior’s Minerals Management Service (MMS). The geographic area being discussed is 

approximately 45 miles east-northeast of Cape Hatteras, NC, referred to as the Manteo Unit. This 

workshop reviewed environmental and socioeconomic information known and needed on the Manteo 

Unit. The MMS’s Gulf of Mexico OCS Regional Director gave an MMS perspective on history and 

status of the area. Chevron gave a presentation on how the exploratory well would be drilled. The 

scientific characterization was presented in greater detail by a number of scientific experts who spoke 

on the following disciplines physical environment, habitat and living resources, seabirds, marine 

mammals, sea turtles, and social and economic issues. Specific chapters are cited individually, when 

appropriate. 

The Oil Pollution Act of 1990, in a section cited as the Outer Banks Protection Act (OBPA), created 

the ESRP (Costlow et al. 1992). The review panel was to be composed of five members, a marine 

scientist selected by the Secretary of the Interior, a marine specialist selected by the Governor of 

North Carolina, and three scientists, one each from the disciplines of physical oceanography, ecology, 

and social sciences, selected jointly by the Secretary and the Governor from a list developed by the 

national Academy of Sciences. After a series of deliberations and public hearings during 1991-1992, 

this panel submitted its recommendations to the Secretary of Commerce identifying the two areas in 

greatest need of additional study (1) benthic oceanographic studies; and (2) socioeconomic studies. 

Pietrafesa, L. 1989. Oceanographic Conditions. pp. 19-21. In: Crawford, K. (ed.). Proceedings: 1989 

Marine Expo: The Natural Resources Associated with Mobil’s Proposed Drill Site. NC Outer 

Continental Shelf Office, NC Department of Administration. Raleigh, NC. 

In the vicinity of Cape Hatteras, physical oceanographic processes on the outer continental shelf are 

such that subdiurnal frequency motions and thermohaline distributions on the Carolina Capes 

continental shelf are controlled by navifacial momentum and buoyancy flux exchanges and offshore 

Gulf Stream frontal events. Atmospheric forcing dominates current fluctuations and thermohaline 

variability in inner to mid-shelf waters particularly to the south of Cape Hatteras where Gulf Stream 

frontal meanders and filaments become increasingly more important from middle to outer continental 

shelf waters. Gulf Stream frontal events are created as a result of the interaction of the Gulf Stream 

and the Charleston bump, a topographic feature at 32° N, 79° W, and propagate north into North 

Carolina waters. The alongshore component of the wind provides the principal forcing of inner to 

mid-shelf waters and even in outer shelf waters to the north of Hatteras. Wind effects are manifested 

directly and mechanically via Ekman dynamics, but also occur indirectly through the setup of coastal 

pressure gradients. 

—. 1991. Oceanographic Conditions. p. 7. In: Shepard, A. (ed.). NURC/UNCW 1991 Undersea Research: 

Informational Meeting. National Undersea Research Center, University of North Carolina at 

Wilmington. Wilmington, NC. 

In the vicinity of Cape Hatteras, physical oceanographic processes on the outer continental shelf are 

such that subdiurnal frequency motions and thermohaline distributions on the Carolina Capes 

continental shelf are controlled by navifacial momentum and buoyancy flux exchanges and offshore 

Gulf Stream frontal events. Atmospheric forcing dominates current fluctuations and thermohaline 

variability in inner to mid-shelf waters particularly to the south of Cape Hatteras where Gulf Stream 
288 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

frontal meanders and filaments become increasingly more important from middle to outer continental 

shelf waters. Gulf Stream frontal events are created as a result of the interaction of the Gulf Stream 

and the Charleston bump, a topographic feature at 32° N, 79° W, and propagate north into North 

Carolina waters. The alongshore component of the wind provides the principal forcing of inner to 

mid-shelf waters and even in outer shelf waters to the north of Hatteras. Wind effects are manifested 

directly and mechanically via Ekman dynamics, but also occur indirectly through the setup of coastal 

pressure gradients. 

Pietrafesa, L.J. 1983. Shelfbreak Circulation, Fronts and Physical Oceanography: East and West Coast 

Perspectives. Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists 33: 233-250. 

*A survey of fundamental physical oceanographic processes that may affect sediment distribution 

along shelfbreak regions is presented, emphasizing the Atlantic and Pacific coasts of the USA. The 

processes encompass the entire spectrum of known motions and are thus generic to all the shelfbreak 

interfacial zones. These shelfbreak strips couple the bounded coastal oceans to the open seas, but 

there is no systematic pattern to this coupling. In the South Atlantic bight, the Gulf Stream acts like a 

vibrating, permeable wall which can variously entrain shelf waters, flood the shelf with North 

Atlantic Central Water and violently mix shelf waters by towing whirling vortices through the outer 

shelf. Middle Atlantic Bight, New York Bight and Gulf of Maine shelfbreak processes contain many 

of the dynamic elements of their southeastern counterpart, but the relative importance of various 

random surface and offshore driving forces change. 

—. 1998. Physical Environment Review: An Overview of the Meteorology and Physical Oceanography 

Surrounding Lease Blocks 467 and 510. pp. 31-32. In: D.L. Vigil (ed.). North Carolina/ Minerals 

Management Service Technical Workshop on Manteo Unit Exploration: February 4-5, 1998. U.S. 

Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region. New Orleans, LA. 

*These are the proceedings from a workshop/meeting (February 4-5, 1998) between the North 

Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources, and the U.S. Department of the 

Interior’s Minerals Management Service (MMS). The geographic area being discussed is 

approximately 45 miles east-northeast of Cape Hatteras, NC, referred to as the Manteo Unit. This 

workshop reviewed environmental and socioeconomic information known and needed on the Manteo 

Unit. The MMS’s Gulf of Mexico OCS Regional Director gave an MMS perspective on history and 

status of the area. Chevron gave a presentation on how the exploratory well would be drilled. The 

scientific characterization was presented in greater detail by a number of scientific experts who spoke 

on the following disciplines physical environment, habitat and living resources, seabirds, marine 

mammals, sea turtles, and social and economic issues. Specific chapters are cited individually, when 

appropriate. 

This section discusses Atmospheric Weather and Climatology, Physical Oceanography, Recent 

Findings (e.g., Hatteras Confluence region, offshelf transport), Issues (e.g., ability to predict oil spill 

trajectory, ability of oil rigs to withstand cyclone forcing, ability of drill ship to evacuate site during 

genesis of atmospheric bombs, role of physical oceanography in biological productivity). 

Pietrafesa, L.J., R.D. Amato, C. Gabriel, and R.J. Sawyer. 1978. Continental Margin Atmospheric 

Climatology and Sea Level 1974-75. Department of Energy Contract No. E(38-1)-902; UNC-SG-78-

09; NC State University Report No. 78-2. 189 p. 

*This report discuses Continental Margin Atmospheric Climatology and Coastal Sea Level, based on 

data from 4 Meteorological Stations (Cape Hatteras, NC; Wilmington, NC; Charleston, SC; 

Savannah, GA) and 5 Sea Level Stations (Beaufort, NC; Beaufort Inlet, NC; Wilmington, NC; Frying 

Pan Shoals, NC; Charleston, SC). The atmospheric climate overlying the South Atlantic Bight is 
Physical Oceanography Chapter — 289 

determined by both polar and tropical marine air masses, resulting in a “temperate rainy” climate with 

mild winters, long hot summers, and adequate moisture in all seasons, according to Koppen (see 

Pettersen, 1969). The polar front, the actual zone of maximum temperature contrast which separates 

the colder continental air from the warmer, more moist tropical air both intensifies and shifts 

southward in the winter to near Cape Hatteras, resulting in a region of intense cyclogenesis stretching 

along the eastern U.S. seaboard from Florida towards northern Europe. Most of the intense 

extratropical lows develop over the southeast U.S. but show their greatest growth as the storms more 

offshore over the warmer ocean, especially in the neighborhood of the Gulf Stream. 

Pietrafesa, L.J., J.0. Blanton, J.D. Wang, V. Kourafalou, T.N. Lee, and K.A. Bush. 1985a. The Tidal 

Regime in the South Atlantic Bight. Oceanography of the Southeastern U.S. Continental Shelf 

Coastal and Estuarine Sciences 2: 63-76. 

Tidal currents, particularly at the M, frequency, dominate South Atlantic Bight inner shelf and 

midshelf dynamics, with M2 tides accounting for almost 80% of the total kinetic energy there. 

Maximum energy occurs offshore of Savannah, where the shelf is widest. Outer shelf dynamics are 

less influenced by tides and more dependent on Gulf Stream interaction. There appear to be some 

seasonal differences in the tidal currents. A simple vertically integrated two-dimensional tidal model 

was used to reproduce tidal characteristics in the midshelf region during well-mixed winter 

conditions. 

Pietrafesa, L.J., G.S. Janowitz, and P.A Wittman. 1985b. Physical Oceanographic Processes in the 

Carolina Capes. Oceanography of the Southeastern U.S. Continental Shelf: Coastal Estuarine 

Sciences 2.

Oceanographic processes in the Carolina Capes region of the South Atlantic Bight, are influenced by 

the cuspate shore line and prominent shoals that extend to the shelf break. Meteorological, 

hydrographic, and moored current data indicate that synoptic scale wind and Gulf Stream events are 

the primary driving forces in the region. Topographically enhanced upwelling maybe important at the 

shelf break. 

Pietrafesa, L.J., J.M. Morrison, M.P. McCann, J. Churchill, E. Bohm, and R.W. Houghton. 1994. Water 

mass linkages between the Middle and South Atlantic Bights . Deep-Sea Research II Vol. 41(2-3): 

365-389. 

Time and frequency domain analysis are used to relate coastal meteorological data with 7 years of 

daily surface temperature and salinity collected at three coastal light stations: offshore of the mouth of 

Chesapeake Bay, Virginia, on Diamond Shoals, at Cape Hatteras, North Carolina and on Frying Pan 

Shoals, off Cape Fear, North Carolina. Salinity fluctuations at Diamond Shoals are highly correlated 

with alongshore wind stress, implying wind driven advection of the front between Virginia Coastal 

Water (VCW) and Carolina Coastal Water (CCW) across Diamond Shoals. The data collected at 

Diamond Shoals indicate that more than half the time there is significant encroachment of Mid 

Atlantic Bight water into the South Atlantic Bight around Cape Hatteras, contrary to the notion that 

VCW is entirely entrained into the Gulf Stream. In fact, VCW can appear as far south as Frying Pan 

Shoals, thereby extending across the entire North Carolina Capes inner to mid shelf. Temperature and 

salinity time series also indicate that water mass, overlying Diamond Shoals respond quickly to crossshelf winds, Cross-shelf wind stress, is significantly correlated with surface water temperature at 

Diamond Shoals, for periods between 2 and 12 days. Changes in temperature can be brought about by 

wind-driven cross-shelf circulation and by wind-induced upwelling. Seasurface temperature satellite 

(AVHRR) image taken during the SEEP II confirm these concepts. 
290 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

Richardson, P.L. 1977. On the crossover between the Gulf Stream and Western Boundary Undercurrent. 

Deep-Sea Research 24: 139-159. 

To determine how the Gulf Stream and Western Boundary Undercurrent cross each other near Cape 

Hatteras, six current meters were moored from May to July 1971 along a line normal to the Gulf 

Stream axis and 100 m above the ocean floor in depths from 1200 to 4200 m. Peak velocities of the 

six records (including one 47 cm s ̄1

) and the mean velocities of four of the deepest records (2800 to 

4000 m) were in the southwest quadrant. During the observations the Gulf Stream did not extend to 

the bottom of this area except in brief current reversals to the northeast. The Western Boundary 

Undercurrent flowed southwest under the Gulf Stream parallel to the bottom contours. The transport 

of the undercurrent, estimated using two geostrophic velocity sections and deep current meter 

observations, was 24 x 106 m3 s ̄1

). 

Rona, P.A. 1970. Submarine canyon origin on upper continental slope off Cape Hatteras. Journal of 

Geology 78(2): 141-152. 

The configuration of sedimentary strata revealed by continuous seismic-reflection profiles over 

submarine canyons in the upper continental slope off Cape Hatteras is best explained by the 

hypothesis of composite origin of submarine canyons. The canyons were originally incised into a 

post-Miocene surface of unconformity. The intercanyon areas were constructed by deposition of 

sediment up to several hundred meters thick forming the canyon walls while the canyons were 

maintained by sediment removal processes over the sites of original incision. 

Canyon heads are presently buried under a smooth sediment cover which extends from the shelf break 

at about 90 m down to about 400 m below sea level, where the canyons emerge from the cover. The 

depth of emergence of canyons approximately coincides with the inferred level of motion between the 

northeast-flowing Florida Current and the southwest-flowing Western Boundary Undercurrent. 

Ross, S.W. 1991. Fisheries Resources Potentially Impacted by Proposed Drilling On the US Atlantic 

Continental Slope and Rise Off Cape Hatteras, North Carolina. p. 6. In: Shepard, A. (ed.). 

NURC/UNCW 1991 Undersea Research: Informational Meeting. National Undersea Research 

Center, University of North Carolina at Wilmington. Wilmington, NC. 

An area known colloquially as “The Point” by fishermen, lies within the Manteo oil and gas lease 

blocks, just north of block 467, site of the proposed exploratory drill hole. ‘The Point” is 

characterized by a productive pelagic fishery and complex submarine topography. Although a small, 

canyon-like feature underlies the area, “The Point” is not a spot on the bottom, but rather a shifting 

location that may coincide with the confluence of water masses. 

In 1991, we will use a research submersible to describe the pelagic and benthic fish populations near 

Manteo Block 467. Specific objectives are to determine the distribution of: (1) pelagic fish with 

respect to depth and hydrographic features throughout the water column; and (2) benthic fish with 

respect to depth and topographic features. 

—. 1998. Habitat and Living Resource Review: Scientific Data for Fisheries and Sargassum at the 

Hatteras Middle Slope (Including “The Point” and Manteo Exploration Unit). pp. 37-42. In: Vigil, 

D.L. (ed.). North Carolina/Minerals Management Service Technical Workshop on Manteo Unit 

Exploration: February 4-5, 1998. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, Gulf of 

Mexico OCS Region. New Orleans, LA. 

*These are the proceedings from a workshop/meeting (February 4-5, 1998) between the North 

Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources, and the U.S. Department of the 

Interior’s Minerals Management Service (MMS). The geographic area being discussed is 
Physical Oceanography Chapter — 291 

approximately 45 miles east-northeast of Cape Hatteras, NC, referred to as the Manteo Unit. This 

workshop reviewed environmental and socioeconomic information known and needed on the Manteo 

Unit. The MMS’s Gulf of Mexico OCS Regional Director gave an MMS perspective on history and 

status of the area. Chevron gave a presentation on how the exploratory well would be drilled. The 

scientific characterization was presented in greater detail by a number of scientific experts who spoke 

on the following disciplines physical environment, habitat and living resources, seabirds, marine 

mammals, sea turtles, and social and economic issues. Specific chapters are cited individually, when 

appropriate. 

The purpose of this review is to provide a brief summary of the state of fisheries and Sargassum

knowledge in and near to the geographic region proposed for oil exploration activities off of North 

Carolina (referred to here as the Hatters Middle Slope, HMS). This will result in a basic listing of 

what we know about the subjects and what we still need to know. This treatment is restricted to the 

HMS area and thus is not to be a complete description of the North Carolina ichthyofauna. Time and 

space constraints imposed by the North Carolina/Minerals Management Service Technical Workshop 

do not allow a full treatment of this subject nor a detailed presentation of the data that support various 

conclusions. Prioritized and expanding the list of data needs will require additional discussions, some 

completed at this meeting, with input from a variety of scientist, managers, and the public. Since the 

last such summaries (1989 and 1991), considerable data have been collected (much of it published) 

related to the HMS. Ironically, the major impetus (upper water column fishery concerns around “The 

Point”) for research here resulted in most studies being conducted on or near the bottom close to the 

proposed drill site rather than studies about the processes driving fisheries at “The Point.” This 

section discusses Benthic Slope, Mid-Water Mesopelagic, Surface-Upper Water Column, Sargassum 

Community, Commercial/Recreational Fisheries, Oil Exploration/Development Concerns, and a 

Summary of Data/Study Needs including: Trophodynamic/Energetic Pathways (Plus Other Life 

History Data); Fisheries at “The Point”; Data Inventory Around HMS and “The Point”; Larval Fish 

Data; Lighting Effects; Mechanisms Structuring Benthic and Mid-water Fish Communities of the 

HMS; and Physical Oceanography. 

Rowe, G.T. 1971. Observations on bottom currents and epibenthic populations in Hatteras Submarine 

Canyon. Deep-Sea Research 18: 569-581. 

Bottom currents and populations of large epifauna were surveyed using bottom photography in the 

Pamlico axis of the Hatteras Submarine Canyon system. Most species known to be numerically 

dominant along the continental slope north and south of the canyon were absent or found in reduced 

densities, whereas other species were found only near or in the canyon and can be considered canyon 

indicator species. The implication of previous studies (Rowe and Menzies 1969; Sanders and Hessler 

1969) that narrow faunal zonation is continuous along the margins of ocean basins must be modified 

to acknowledge the exceptional zonations found in canyons. 

The photographs and current meter data indicated that the bottom current to the southwest along the 

lower continental rise, but turned to the west and northwest, or up the canyon, at lesser depths. 

Indurated sedimentary outcrops common to the canyon were probably a result of intermittent 

slumping and turbidity current flows. 

Schaff, T., L. Levin, N. Blair, D. DeMaster, R. Pope, and S. Boehme. 1992. Spatial heterogeneity of 

benthos on the Carolina continental slope: large (100 km)-scale variation. Marine Ecology Progress 

Series 88: 143-160. 

Large-scale spatial heterogeneity of macrofaunal and microbial communities was examined on the 

continental slope off North and South Carolina, USA, by comparing 3 sites, separated by 130 to 150 

km and all at 850 m water depth. Significant variation was found among macrofaunal assemblages at 
292 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

all 3 sites, and between microbial counts at 2 sites. We investigated the hypothesis that 100 km scale 

heterogeneity was driven by variation in organic C flux to the sea floor. The northernmost site (Site 

III, off Cape Hatteras, NC) was found to have macrofaunal abundances (>55000 m-2) higher than any 

previous recorded from this depth, and significantly higher than those at Site II (off Cape Lookout, 

North Carolina) (21319 m-2) or Site I (off Charleston, SC) (9438 m-2). Trends in macrofaunal 

abundance did not follow those sediment TOC (total organic carbon), but agreed well with estimates 

of total carbon flux for the three sites. Mixing coefficients determined from profiles of naturally 

occurring 234 Th (half life 24 d) indicate that the sediments at Site III are mixed 2 to 6 times faster 

than at the other 2 sites, which is consistent with the trends in macrofaunal abundance and biomass. 

Using 14 C-based sedimentation rates and sediment carbon content, we estimated carbon flux to be 

0.6, 20 and > 70 g C m 2

 yr 1 at sites I, II and III, respectively. Inventories of 234 Th and downcore 

concentration profiles of dissolved SO4

=

 , CO2 and CH4 within the sediment provided evidence that 

the flux of metabolized carbon was greater at Site III than at the other sites. Polychaetes, which 

comprised 43, 74 and 65 % of the fauna at Sites I, II and III, respectively, exhibited lower diversity, 

higher dominance, and a completely different species composition at Site III than at the other 2 sites. 

Scalibregma inflatum and Aricidea quadrilobata comprised 33 % of total macrofauna at Site III, but 

were absent at Sites I and II. The species composition, high dominance, and prevalence of juveniles 

among polychaetes at Site III is suggestive of a response to organic enrichment. Enrichment of the 

Site III benthos is attributed to physical oceanographic and geophysical causes, including Gulf 

Stream-induced upwelling, a confluence of currents focused by bottom topography, and lateral inputs 

resulting from mass wasting processes. Despite significant differences in macrofaunal abundance, 

Sites I and II exhibited considerable overlap in microbial counts, polychaete species composition, 

dominance and diversity patterns. 

Schneider, E.D., P.J. Fox, C.D. Hollister, H.D. Needham, and B.C. Heezen. 1967. Further Evidence of 

Contour Currents in the Western North Atlantic. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 2: 351-359. 

A study of compass-oriented sea-floor photographs, echograms and sediment cores on the Atlantic 

continental margin of North America has been made in order to evaluate the role of deep-sea contour 

currents in the shaping of the continental rise. The sediments on the upper continental rise consist of 

lutites which are being deposited on the seafloor in an environment devoid of strong bottom currents. 

Below an abrupt change in regional slope, that marks the boundary between the upper and lower 

continental rise, a swift bottom current is observed which flows to the southwest parallel to the 

contours. Beneath this current the surface sediments are distinctly coarser grained and long cores 

show many quartz silt laminations in the sedimentary column. Further downslope on the lower 

continental rise the currents are variable in direction and weaker. Measurements of northerly 

directions indicate that at certain locations the Gulf Stream may intermittently scour the sea floor. In 

the area of the Lower Continental Rise Hill a swift southwesterly current is again observed. 

Hyperbolic echo traces on echograms, prolonged multiple echo sequences, and wedging of subbottom reflecting interfaces can be mapped as distinct zones. These zones of sea floor 

micromorphology parallel the region contours of the continental rise, and are produced by erosional 

and depositional processes of bottom currents. We conclude that the continental rise is a large 

sediment wedge which owes its shape to deep geostrophic contour currents. 

Science Applications International Corporation. 1991. Physical Oceanographic Field Program Offshore 

North Carolina: Field Measurement Plan. MMS Contract 14-35-0001-30599; SAIC Report 91/1212. 

Science Applications International Corporation. Raleigh, NC. 33 p. 

This plan encompasses SAIC’s discussion of the details on exactly how the scientific plan for the 

Physical Oceanographic Program Offshore North Carolina (the “North Carolina Field Program”) will 

be carried out under MMS Contract 14-35-0001-30599. Field measurements include current meter 
Physical Oceanography Chapter — 293 

deployments (mooring deployment, rotation and recovery cruises), hydrographic measurements 

(cruises concurrent with mooring cruises), special event surveys (detailed hydrography and shipboard 

ADCP sections and GPS drifter experiments), a series of Lagrangian drifter experiments designed to 

provide a statistically significant sample of the potential form materials discharged near the shelf 

break to reach the near shore again. 

Collateral data in the form of satellite imagery (AVHRR and real time GOES/AVHRR support for 

special events), meteorological data along the coast within 500 km of Cape Hatteras; and water level 

data in the same region will be collected and used to support analysis and synthesis of the primary 

data. 

*The rest of the report details field operations. 

Shepard, A. (ed.). 1991. Undersea Research at The Point. NURC/UNCW 1991 Undersea Research: 

Informational Meeting. National Undersea Research Center, University of North Carolina at 

Wilmington. Wilmington, NC. 9 p. 

*This handout is a summary of research being conducted at “The Point” area (Manteo Lease Block 

467). 

The National Undersea Research Center at the University of North Carolina at Wilmington, funded 

by a grant from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s (NOAA) Office of Undersea 

Research (OUR), was established in 1980 to promote, facilitate, and conduct research in the 

Southeastern United States utilizing undersea techniques, including advanced wet diving and manned 

and unmanned submersibles. A main Center goal is to provide information to NOAA that will assist 

the agency in fulfilling its charter to explore, understand, conserve and manage the U.S. marine 

environment and associated resources. To help meet this goal, the Center supports and conducts 

interdisciplinary oceanographic research projects studying continental margin processes, particularly 

the interactions and linkages between estuarine, continental shelf, and slope (including submarine 

canyon) environments. 

Shepard, A., and A.H. Hulbert (eds.). 1994. Workshop Report: Present and Future Research Initiatives on 

the Upper Hatteras Slope off North Carolina. National Undersea Research Center at the University of 

North Carolina at Wilmington. Wilmington, NC. 30p. 

*This report is the result of the May 1993 workshop held in Raleigh, NC. The topics of discussion 

were research (present and planned) at the Upper Hatteras Slope (UHS) and potential funding 

sources. The workshop was sponsored by National Undersea Research Center at the University of 

North Carolina at Wilmington. The report provides a brief description of the UHS invertebrates, 

biological oceanography, chemical oceanography, geological oceanography (bathymetry, oil and gas 

exploration), physical oceanography, fisheries, and Sargassum. Appendix A is a workshop agenda 

and list of speakers. No abstracts for speakers are provided. Appendix B is a list of potential funding 

sources. Appendix C contains a list of publications pertaining to the UHS. 

Shepard, A.N. 1992. A North Carolina Oceanographic Facility: The National Oceanographic and 

Atmospheric Administration’s National Undersea Research Center. pp. 55-65. In: U.S. Department of 

the Interior, Minerals Management Service. Proceedings of the Fourth Atlantic OCS Region 

Information Transfer Meeting, September 1991. U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals 

Management Service. Herndon, VA. 

The Fourth Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) regional Information Transfer Meeting (ITM) 

was held on 24-25 September 1991 in Wilmington, NC. The focus of the meeting was on the OCS off 

North Carolina, specifically on activities related to a proposed exploratory well for oil and gas by 
294 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

Mobil on Block 467 a site 40 miles off the coast of North Carolina. The area of industry interest is 

known as the Manteo Prospect, while the activities surrounding the proposed drilling are referred to 

collectively as the Manteo Project. The wildcat wellsite is in 2,690 ft. (857 m) of water near the edge 

of the Gulf Stream. It is also near a fishing ground known locally as “The Point.” The area is believed 

to be gas prone rather than oil prone. The estimated size of the resource could be as high as 5 trillion 

cubic feet of gas. 

The purpose of the meeting was to exchange information on the leasing background, legislative 

activities, scientific results, and socioeconomic studies. Legislative-related reports include 

descriptions of the Oil Pollution Act of 1990, the Outer Banks Protection Act, the Environmental 

Studies Review Panel, and the North Carolina Physical Oceanography Panel. Reports of studies on 

marine life include benthic diatoms, benthic fauna, pelagic seabirds, sea turtles, and right whales. One 

report describes the use of airships (blimps) for ocean research a capability relevant to North Carolina 

because of the east coast airship facility is located in the state. Local marine science facilities 

described include NOAA’s national Undersea research Center at the University of North Carolina at 

Wilmington (NURC/UNCW) and the national marine Fisheries Service laboratory in Beaufort. 

Developments in oil spill cleanup technology and capabilities are described by both the Coast Guard 

and the industry. A socioeconomic report describes the effects of the oil and gas activities on the 

tourist industry. Lastly, research on the restoration of salt marshes indicates that rehabilitation of an 

area is possible when development or an accident has occurred. While the emphasis of the meeting 

was on oil and gas, two reports described the results of projects related to offshore sand mining. The 

appendix lists the names and addresses of speakers. Individual chapters are cited individually when 

appropriate. 

*Within the oil and gas lease blocks of the Manteo Prospect lies “The Point.” This productive pelagic 

fishing ground lies at the confluence of major currents and water masses, and contains complex and 

rugged submarine topography. The National Undersea Research Center located at the University of 

North Carolina at Wilmington is one of the oceanographic facilities near The Point. This center has a 

record of research in the area and has experience, equipment, and staff that will be invaluable to 

future studies. 

Stefansson, U., and L.P. Atkinson. 1967. Physical and chemical properties of the shelf and slope waters 

off North Carolina. Technical report. Duke University Marine Laboratory. Beaufort, NC. 240 p. 

The present report includes a compilation of data collected during several cruises aboard the RV 

Eastward in the period June 1965-April 1967. The objective of this work was to study the broad 

features of the circulation and distribution of properties on the shelf, and attempt to relate the 

observed distributions in different seasons to various meteorological factors and processes affecting 

the renewal of shelf waters. These various aspects are dealt with separate publications. This report 

includes a short preliminary description of the main results, charts showing the horizontal distribution 

of temperature, salinity, density and dynamic topography, illustrations of vertical distribution of 

physical and chemical properties, and a tabulation of the data obtained at each station from 

hydrographic casts. 

Stefansson, U., L.P. Atkinson, and D.F Bumpus. 1971. Hydrographic properties and circulation of the 

North Carolina Shelf and Slope Waters. Deep-Sea Research 18: 383-420. 

Processes affecting the renewal of the North Carolina Shelf Waters are discussed on the basis of 

temperature, salinity, dissolved oxygen, nutrients, runoff and wind data collectedduring 1965-1967. 

These consist of horizontal advection near the coast from the north, meanders of the Gulf Stream, 

subsurface intrusion, cascading and runoff. 
Physical Oceanography Chapter — 295 

The wind-driven Virginia Water transport past Cape Hatteras may markedly reduce the temperature 

and salinity, and accelerate the freshwater exchange. The runoff from the watershed north of Cape 

Hatteras, when driven south by northerly winds, especially during the peak period in early spring, has 

a much greater influence on the circulation in Raleigh and Onslow Bays than does that from the 

adjacent rivers south of Cape Hatteras. Meanders in the Gulf Stream may renew the shelf waters with 

warm, saline water. Intrusion of subsurface Caribbean Water on to the outer part of the shelf takes 

place most frequently during the late summer following a period of southerly winds. It is postulated 

that during the cold part of the year when the surface layers are only partly stratified, such an 

intrusion may lead to upwelling near the shelf break. Cascading from the shelf down the slope may 

occur during the cold season following periods of low air temperature. Intrusion of subsurface water 

replenishes nutrients in the area, while cascading reduces the available supply of nutrients. 

U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service. 1990. Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf: 

Final Environmental Report on Proposed Exploratory Drilling Offshore North Carolina, U.S. 

Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, Atlantic OCS Region, Environmental 

Assessment Section. Herndon, VA. 

*Topics include: fisheries, birds, marine mammals, physical oceanography, chemical oceanography, 

geology, gas and oil production. The proposed action is to drill a single exploratory well 

approximately 72 km (45 mi) east-northeast of Cape Hatteras, North Carolina in 820 m (2,690 ft) of 

water. Total depth for the proposed well is 4,267 m (14,000 ft) and the location is on Block 467 on 

the Minerals Management Service Protraction diagram NI 18-2. The proposal has been submitted by 

Mobil for itself and 7 partners to drill the well on the approved 21-block exploration unit. 

U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service. 1992. Proceedings of the Fourth Atlantic 

OCS Region Information Transfer Meeting, September 1991. U.S. Department of the Interior, 

Minerals Management Service. Herndon, VA. 198 p. 

The Fourth Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) Regional Information Transfer Meeting (ITM) 

was held on 24-25 September, 1991, in Wilmington, NC. The focus of the meeting was on the OCS 

off North Carolina, specifically on activities related to a proposed exploratory well for oil and gas by 

Mobil on Block 467 a site 40 miles off the coast of North Carolina. The area of industry interest is 

known as the Manteo Prospect, while the activities surrounding the proposed drilling are referred to 

collectively as the Manteo Project. The wildcat wellsite is in 2,690 ft. (857 m) of water near the edge 

of the Gulf Stream. It is also near a fishing ground known locally as “The Point.” The area is believed 

to be gas prone rather than oil prone. The estimated size of the resource could be as high as 5 trillion 

cubic feet of gas. 

The purpose of the meeting was to exchange information on the leasing background, legislative 

activities, scientific results, and socioeconomic studies. Legislative-related reports include 

descriptions of the Oil Pollution Act of 1990, the Outer Banks Protection Act, the Environmental 

Studies Review Panel, and the North Carolina Physical Oceanography Panel. Reports of studies on 

marine life include benthic diatoms, benthic fauna, pelagic seabirds, sea turtles, and right whales. One 

report describes the use of airships (blimps) for ocean research a capability relevant to North Carolina 

because of the east coast airship facility is located in the state. Local marine science facilities 

described include NOAA’s National Undersea Research Center at the University of North Carolina at 

Wilmington (NURC/UNCW) and the National Marine Fisheries Service laboratory in Beaufort. 

Developments in oil spill cleanup technology and capabilities are described by both the Coast Guard 

and the industry. A socioeconomic report describes the effects of the oil and gas activities on the 

tourist industry. Lastly, research on the restoration of salt marshes indicates that rehabilitation of an 

area is possible when development or an accident has occurred. While the emphasis of the meeting 
296 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

was on oil and gas, two reports described the results of projects related to offshore sand mining. The 

appendix lists the names and addresses of speakers. Individual chapters are cited individually when 

appropriate. 

Uchupi, E., and K.O. Emery. 1967. Structure of the Continental Margin off Atlantic Coast of United 

States. The American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 51(2): 223-234. 

Seismic profiler recordings in 44 profiles between Nova Scotia and the Florida Keys indicate that the 

continental margin was performed by upbuilding on the shelf and prograding on the slope. 

Upbuilding on the shelf during Tertiary and Quaternary Periods ranged from 200 to 1,000 meters, and 

sea-ward prograding on the slope during the same span of time was from 5 to more than 35 

kilometers. The greatest progradation occurred where the slope is flanked by the Blake Plateau rather 

than by the deep sea. The beds are truncated along some sections of the slope as though the slope had 

been steepened by submarine erosion. Off Nova Scotia the beds of the slope continue into the 

continental rise; off New England rise consists of sedimentary layers that have buried the base of the 

continental lope; and off southeastern United States the beds of the Florida-Hatteras Slope have 

prograded atop the older surface of the Blake Plateau. 

Verity, P. 1998. Habitat and Living Resources Review: Water Column Biology at Cape Hatteras. p. 52. 

In: Vigil, D.L. (ed.). North Carolina/Minerals Management Service Technical Workshop on Manteo 

Unit Exploration: February 4-5, 1998. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, Gulf 

of Mexico OCS Region. New Orleans, LA. 

*These are the proceedings from a workshop/meeting (February 4-5, 1998) between the North 

Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources, and the U.S. Department of the 

Interior’s Minerals Management Service (MMS). The geographic area being discussed is 

approximately 45 miles east-northeast of Cape Hatteras, NC, referred to as the Manteo Unit. This 

workshop reviewed environmental and socioeconomic information known and needed on the Manteo 

Unit. The MMS’s Gulf of Mexico OCS Regional Director gave an MMS perspective on history and 

status of the area. Chevron gave a presentation on how the exploratory well would be drilled. The 

scientific characterization was presented in greater detail by a number of scientific experts who spoke 

on the following disciplines physical environment, habitat and living resources, seabirds, marine 

mammals, sea turtles, and social and economic issues. Specific chapters are cited individually, when 

appropriate. 

It is essential in any overview of pelagic food web structure and function to place it in the proper 

physical perspective. In the Carolina Capes region in general, phytoplankton biomass is typically 

highest in late winter/early spring, associated with a vernal bloom. Higher concentrations occur closer 

to shore and along shelf/slope fronts. Immediately south of Cape Hatteras is a large area of high 

upwelling. This massive nitrate flux in to the euphotic zone induces substantial plankton 

development, which advents northward from the South Atlantic Bight (SAB) past Cape Hatteras. The 

latter is also at the confluence of southward-flowing Mid Atlantic Bight (MAB) water which exists at 

Cape Hatteras. 

Vigil, D.L. (ed.). 1998. North Carolina/Minerals Management Service Technical Workshop on Manteo 

Unit Exploration: February 4-5, 1998. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management Service. Gulf 

of Mexico OCS Region. New Orleans, LA. 168 p. 

*These are the proceedings from a workshop/meeting (February 4-5, 1998) between the North 

Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources, and the U.S. Department of the 

Interior’s Minerals Management Service (MMS). The geographic area being discussed is 

approximately 45 miles east-northeast of Cape Hatteras, NC, referred to as the Manteo Unit. This 
Physical Oceanography Chapter — 297 

workshop reviewed environmental and socioeconomic information known and needed on the Manteo 

Unit. The MMS’s Gulf of Mexico OCS Regional Director gave an MMS perspective on history and 

status of the area. Chevron gave a presentation on how the exploratory well would be drilled. The 

scientific characterization was presented in greater detail by a number of scientific experts who spoke 

on the following disciplines physical environment, habitat and living resources (invertebrates and 

fish), seabirds, marine mammals, sea turtles, and social and economic issues. Specific chapters are 

cited individually, when appropriate. 

Wadell, E. 1984a. South Atlantic Physical Oceanography Study: Volume I Executive Summary. MMS 

Contract 14-12-0001-29201. Science Applications. Raleigh, NC. 13 p. 

This is a two-volume report describing physical oceanography in the South Atlantic Bight. One 

volume is an Executive Summary. The second volume is a Technical Summary. The South Atlantic 

Physical Oceanography Study (SAPOS) is a Minerals Management program funded under contract 

with Science Applications, Inc. (SAI), to document major circulation producing processes an their 

impact on the South Atlantic Bight (SAB) and adjacent regions It is expected that insights from the 

SAPOS will provide a basis for informed management decisions relating to outer continental shelf 

(OCS) oil and gas activities. Two key objectives of the SAPOS are: (1) To examine and understand 

the influence of tide, wind, density and the Gulf Stream (GS); i.e., all major forcing mechanisms 

producing observed SAB circulation patterns, (2) To document and explain the spatial and temporal 

variability of SAB hydrographic conditions (temperature, salinity, density, dissolved oxygen and 

selected nutrients). 

—. 1984b. South Atlantic Physical Oceanography Study: Volume II Technical Summary. MMS Contract 

14-12-0001-29201. Science Applications. Raleigh, NC. 223 p. 

This is a two-volume report describing physical oceanography in the South Atlantic Bight. One 

volume is an Executive Summary. The second volume is a Technical Summary. The South Atlantic 

Physical Oceanography Study (SAPOS) is a Minerals Management program funded under contract 

with Science Applications, Inc. (SAI), to document major circulation producing processes an their 

impact on the South Atlantic Bight (SAB) and adjacent regions It is expected that insights from the 

SAPOS will provide a basis for informed management decisions relating to outer continental shelf 

(OCS) oil and gas activities. Two key objectives of the SAPOS are: (1) To examine and understand 

the influence of tide, wind, density and the Gulf Stream (GS); i.e., all major forcing mechanisms 

producing observed SAB circulation patterns, (2) To document and explain the spatial and temporal 

variability of SAB hydrographic conditions (temperature, salinity, density, dissolved oxygen and 

selected nutrients). 

Walsh, J.J. 1994. Particle export at Cape Hatteras. Deep-Sea Research II Vol. 41(2-3): 603-628. 

A simple model of shelf, slope and basin waters near Cape Hatteras, North Carolina is used to 

estimate the sources and sinks of organic carbon within the Gulf Stream System. The analysis 

employs water transport estimates, nutrient data. satellite imagery, surficial sediment records and 

particle distributions caught by bottle, camera and sediment trap to compute vertical and lateral fluxes 

of particulate carbon. Particle export from the SAB and MAB shelf ecosystems may constitute 62-

82% of the source of the carbon flux within the Gulf Stream near 75 W, after settling at 100 m day -1, 

with an oxidation loss of 4% day-1, to a nominal mid-depth of 1000 m on the slope. 

As a result of light limitation, denitrification and DON solubilization, partial utilization of onwelled 

nitrate from the Gulf Stream System by coastal phytoplankton suggests that the time-averaged f ratio 

may be as small as 0.12 for the ratio of the “new” portion of primary production to the total. After 

burial loss, the export of particulate matter from the shelves then represents at most 11% of the total 
298 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

carbon fixation of coastal waters. If the shelf export of DON and unutilized NO3 is consumed within 

adjacent slope waters, however, the f ratio and the percentage of particle export from the carbon 

fixation of shelf-affected waters might increase to 0.25 and 24%. 

Welby, C.W., and L.J. Pietrafesa. 1979. Combined Satellite Imagery of Water Circulation Along North 

Carolina Coast. Fifth Annual W.T. Pecora Memorial Symposium on Remote Sensing. pp. 15-17, 25. 

The purpose of the investigation was to evaluate satellite imagery for studying circulation patterns in 

the middle to inner shelf regions of the North Carolina coast. Specifically, the remote sensing aspect 

of the investigation was directed to the study of the utilization of combined Landsat and NOAA-5 

imagery as an aid in shelf circulation studies. 

Spatial scale differences, and to a certain extent map projection incompatibilities, can discourage 

combined use of the two types of imagery. On the other hand, since imagery from each of the two 

satellite systems extracts information about the coastal waters from different parts of the 

electromagnetic spectrum, combination of the NOAA imagery with the Landsat imagery expands the 

ability to view the coastal waters in a multispectral context. 

During the period 4 April — 2 August 1978 arrays of unattended, sub- surface, vertically moored 

current meters were maintained in Onslow Bay, North Carolina, as part of the U.S. Department of 

Energy’s continental shelf studies program. Conditions favorable for essentially simultaneous 

imagining of all or part of Onslow Bay by the Landsat and NOAA satellites occurred on 9 April, and 

6 May 1978. Thus the opportunity arose to compare the different imagery types obtained 

contemporaneously with the collection of moored current and temperature data. An 8 April Landsat 

image covered part of Raleigh Bay and a part of the North Carolina coast north of Cape Hatteras. The 

circumstances also give rise to the opportunity to assess the amount of information which can be 

extracted from satellite imagery for use in shelf circulation studies. 

Wells, H.W., and I.E. Gray. 1960. Summer Upwelling, off the Northeast Coast of North Carolina. 

Limnology and Oceanography 5(1): 108-109. 

Surface water temperatures reveal the occurrence of an upwelling of cold waters along the 

northeastern North Carolina coast during summer months. Southwesterly winds prevailed in the Cape 

Hatteras region in July and August 1958 (U.S. Weather Bureau, 1958). Whereas southwesterly winds 

blow parallel to the coastline in the Ocracoke area, they blow onshore in the region just south of Cape 

Hatteras where the coastline runs east and west, and they blow offshore in the Nag’s Head area where 

the coastline runs northwest and southeast. In Figure 1, the solid line shows the water temperatures 

recorded on July 2, when southwesterly winds prevailed in this region. Where these winds blow 

parallel to or towards the shore, water temperature was over 25°C; but where these winds blow 

offshore, north of Rodanthe, water temperatures were less than 20°C. A similar distribution of water 

temperature was found on July 25 and July 27, after an extended period of southwesterly winds. 

Water at Oregon Inlet was as much as 6.3°C colder than water at Hatteras or Ocracoke Inlets, south of 

the Cape. 

Wilk, S.J. and M.J. Silverman. 1976. Fish and hydrographic collections made by the research vessels 

Dolphin and Delaware II during 1968-72 from New York to Florida. NOAA Technical Report NMFS 

SSRF-697. 159 p. 

Information is given in tabular form for fish and hydrographic observations collected during 18 

cruises made by the research vessels Dolphin and Delaware II from New York to Florida during 

1968-72. Tables include station locations with related hydrographic observations and number, weight, 

and size range of fish species caught. 
Physical Oceanography Chapter — 299 

Wittman, P.A., L.J. Pietrafesa, G.S. Janowitz, and T.B. Curtin. 1984. The winter spring transition along 

the Carolina Capes. Department of Marine, Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, NC State University. 

Raleigh, NC. 101 p. 

The winter spring transitions of the thermal structures of Onslow and Long bays are investigated 

using hydrographic and current meter data from 1978. Generally, the shelf waters are vertically wellmixed during the winter and vertically stratified during the summer. The spring transition occurs 

during May and is due to heating of the surface water. Monthly heat flux calculations indicate that the 

heating of the surface waters during the spring is dominated by vertical heat fluxes with horizontal 

advection playing a lesser role. 

Mean monthly currents are found to be consistent with mean monthly wind velocities during 1978. 

The forcing mechanism for these very low frequency currents is investigated using sea level, wind 

and hydrographic data. Density gradients are found to be too small to account for the observed 

vertical velocity shears, and these shears can be attributed to frictional influences of the bottom. Mean 

monthly wind velocities are found to be too small to drive the observed currents at 10 meters depth. 

Indirect wind forcing through cross-shelf transport in the surface layer and the resulting cross-shelf 

pressure gradient give velocity directions consistent with those of the measured currents. The 

seasonal reversal of the alongshore currents off Charleston, SC, occurs in concert with the reversal of 

the alongshore winds. No seasonal cycle of the alongshore currents are observed at mid-shelf in 

Onslow Bay, which appears to be dominated by Gulf Stream forcing. 
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SARGASSUM CHAPTER 
Sargassum Chapter — 305 

SARGASSUM CHAPTER 

Ashjian, C.J., S.L. Smith, C.N. Flagg, A.J. Mariano, W.J. Behrens, and P.V.Z. Lane. 1994. The influence 

of a Gulf Stream meander on the distribution of zooplankton biomass in the Slope Water, and the 

Gulf Stream, and the Sargasso Sea, described using a shipboard acoustic Doppler current profiler. 

Deep-Sea Research I 41(1): 23-50. 

The influence of a Gulf Stream meander on the distribution of zooplankton biomass in the Slope 

Water, the Gulf Stream, and the Sargasso Sea, described using a shipboard acoustic Doppler current 

profiler Patterns in zooplankton biomass distribution in a Gulf Stream meander were documented 

wing a ship-mounted acoustic Doppler current profiler (ADCP) in fall 1988 as part of the 

BIOSYNOP program. The dominant signal in biomass was the regional variation between water 

masses, with greatest biomass recorded in the Slope Water, intermediate biomass at the Slope WaterGulf Stream front, and lowest biomass in the Gulf Stream/Sargasso Sea. Biomass was more variable 

in the Slope Water than in the Sargasso Sea. Diel variation, a consequence of diel vertical migration, 

was also observed. Comprehensive maps of the surveyed region documented meander associated 

enhancement of zooplankton biomass. Elevated biomass was documented in the region downstream 

of the meander crest, where entrainment of Slope Water and convergence of flow are hypothesized to 

occur. The ADCP was demonstrated to be an effective means of documenting patterns in zooplankton 

biomass, including estimates of the variability (patchiness). 

Butler, J.N., B.F. Morris, J. Cadwallader, and A.W. Stoner. 1983. Studies of Sargassum and the 

Sargassum Community. Special Publication No. 22. Bermuda Biological Station for Research. 

*Chapter 1 The Quantity of Sargassum in the Sargasso Sea, and Chapter 2 The Sargassum 

Community include the defined study area for The Point. 

The quantity and distribution of Sargassum in the Sargasso Sea, as estimated by various investigators, 

is reviewed. There has apparently been no significant change in the biomass of Sargassum from 1933 

to 1981, except for an area northeast of the Antilles (20-25° N, 62-68° W) where measurements made 

in November 1977 and November 1980 were about 0.1% of values measured in February and March 

1933. Because of the lack of change in the Bermuda region, the Bahamas region, or the Gulf Stream 

region, this effect does not appear to be due to pollution or broad climatic changes; it is most likely 

due to a seasonal or long-term shift of the currents defining the southwestern boundary of the 

Sargasso Sea. 

Motile macrofauna on Sargassum were identified and counted for 244 samples taken at Station ‘S’ 

near Bermuda, and for 155 samples taken from other parts of the western North Atlantic and 

Caribbean. The nature of this community and its seasonal variations are discussed. Preliminary 

studies of the food web, as well as of the microfauna (copepods) and sessile fauna are reported. 

Although petroleum hydrocarbon residues are found in all samples of Sargassum and its larger 

associated fauna, the variability of individual samples is so extreme that no correlation of community 

structure with hydrocarbon pollution could be demonstrated. 

Chen, Chin, and N.S. Hillman. 1970. Shell-bearing Pteropods as Indicators of Water Masses off Cape 

Hatteras, North Carolina. Bulletin of Marine Science 20(2): 350-367. 

Three water masses occur within a radius of 120 nautical miles off Cape Hatteras, North Carolina. 

Several species of shell-bearing pteropods characterize these water masses: subarctic Limacina 

retroversa in the slope water, subtropical Limacina inflata in the Sargasso Sea, and tropical Limacina 

trochiformis and Creseis virgula in the Gulf Stream. 
306 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

The pattern of vertical distribution of pteropod species is compatible with the seasonal structure of the 

water. In summer, a thin, warm surface 1ayer bearing tropical species of pteropods overlies thick, 

cold, slope water carrying subarctic species in the region of 35o30′N to 37o10′N. In winter, the slope 

water surfaces at about 36N. The sharp gradient exhibited by the vertical slope of isotherms acts as a 

temperature barrier separating subarctic from tropical species of pteropods. 

Pteropod shells are found in sediments beneath the Gulf Stream at depth of about 400-2150 m. 

Creseis virgula conica is the dominant species in the sediments. 

Coston-Clements, L., L.R. Settle, D.E. Hoss, and F.A. Cross. 1991. Utilization of the Sargassum Habitat 

by Marine Invertebrates and Vertebrates — A Review. National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA, 

Southeast Fisheries Science Center, Beaufort Laboratory. Beaufort, NC. 32 p. 

Numerous species of brown algae (Class Cyclosporeae: Order Fucales: Family Fucaceae) of the 

genus Sargassum occur throughout the world’s tropical and temperate oceans. The pelagic complex 

in the western North Atlantic is comprised primarily of Sargassum natans and S. fluitans. Both 

species are hyponeustonic and fully adapted to a pelagic existence (Parr, 1939). Known commonly as 

gulf-weed, sea holly, or sargassum, they are characterized by a brushy, highly branched thallus (stem) 

with numerous leaf-like blades and berry-like pneumatocysts (floats). These floating plants may be up 

to several meters in length-but are typically much smaller. There is a well known assemblage of small 

fishes associated with sargassum rafts, many of which serve as forage for commercially or 

recreationally exploited species (Table 2). Dooley (1972) described 54 species from 23 families in the 

sargassum community of the Florida Current. Only 14 species from 11 families are known from the 

Sargasso Sea (Fedoryako, 1980; 1989). During the pelagic stage, hatchling loggerhead, Caretta 

caretta, green, Chelonia mydas, Kemp’s ridley, Lepidochelys kempi, and hawksbill, Eretmochelys 

imbricata, sea turtles have been observed in sargassum off Florida, Georgia, North Carolina, and 

Texas (Smith, 1968; Fletemeyer, 1978; Carr and Meylan, 1980; Carr, 1986; 1987a; Schwartz, 1988; 

1989; Manzella and Williams, 1991; Schwartz, pers. comm.). Schwartz (1988) reported numerous 

loggerhead hatchlings captured during commercial trawling for sargassum. This observation 

constitutes the largest known aggregation of loggerhead hatchlings encountered off the North 

Carolina coast. 

Crawford, K. (ed.). 1989. Proceedings: 1989 Marine Expo: The Natural Resources Associated with 

Mobil’s Proposed Drill Site. NC Outer Continental Shelf Office, NC Department of Administration. 

Raleigh, NC. 64 p. 

*This report contains abstracts from each presenter. Chapter topics include: Mobil’s Proposal, 

Geologic Overview — Introduction and Potential for Oil and Gas Discovery, Oceanographic 

Conditions, Comments on Last MMS Modeling, Biological Production Near the Bottom 

(invertebrates), Fisheries Resources, Commercial and Recreational Marine Fisheries, Winter Storm 

Effects on Spawning and Larval Drift of Pelagic Fish, Marine Birds, Sea Turtles in North Carolina, 

Marine Mammals, Plenary Session, Summary. Each chapter also cited individually when appropriate. 

Fedoryako, B.I. 1989. A Comparative Characteristic of Oceanic Fish Assemblages Associated with 

Floating Debris. Journal of Ichthyology 29: 128-137. 

A comparative characteristic of fish assemblages associated with oceanic debris (drifting 

macrophytes, terrestrial material and epipelagic invertebrates) of tropical ocean zones was made. In 

the floating debris of the oceanic pelagial 110 species of 35 families were found. About 30% of all 

fish species were found only in some assemblages. The highest species diversity was associated with 

macrophytes (75% of all species), and terrestrial material (78% of all species). Representatives of the 

majority of common species, up to a certain size, occurred in the macrophytes. Fishes associated with 
Sargassum Chapter — 307 

drifting macrophytes formed more abundant assemblages than those associated with terrestrial 

material. Over 50% of species associated with oceanic flotsam occurred commonly in the neritic 

zone. With the increasing distance of the flotsam from the coast the species diversity decreases and 

the dominant species change. 

Keinath, J.A. 1992. Sea Turtles Off the North Carolina Coast. pp. 111-117. In: Department of the Interior, 

Minerals Management Service. Proceedings of the Fourth Atlantic OCS Region Information Transfer 

Meeting, September 1991. U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service. Herndon, 

VA. 

The Fourth Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) Regional Information Transfer Meeting (ITM) 

was held on 24-25 September, 1991, in Wilmington, NC. The focus of the meeting was on the OCS 

off North Carolina, specifically on activities related to a proposed exploratory well for oil and gas by 

Mobil on Block 467 a site 40 miles off the coast of North Carolina. The area of industry interest is 

known as the Manteo Prospect, while the activities surrounding the proposed drilling are referred to 

collectively as the Manteo Project. The wildcat wellsite is in 2,690 ft. (857 m) of water near the edge 

of the Gulf Stream. It is also near a fishing ground known locally as “The Point.” The area is believed 

to be gas prone rather than oil prone. The estimated size of the resource could be as high as 5 trillion 

cubic feet of gas. 

The purpose of the meeting was to exchange information on the leasing background, legislative 

activities, scientific results, and socioeconomic studies. Legislative-related reports include 

descriptions of the Oil Pollution Act of 1990, the Outer Banks Protection Act, the Environmental 

Studies Review Panel, and the North Carolina Physical Oceanography Panel. Reports of studies on 

marine life include benthic diatoms, benthic fauna, pelagic seabirds, sea turtles, and right whales. One 

report describes the use of airships (blimps) for ocean research a capability relevant to North Carolina 

because of the east coast airship facility is located in the state. Local marine science facilities 

described include NOAA’s National Undersea Research Center at the University of North Carolina at 

Wilmington (NURC/UNCW) and the National Marine Fisheries Service laboratory in Beaufort. 

Developments in oil spill cleanup technology and capabilities are described by both the Coast Guard 

and the industry. A socioeconomic report describes the effects of the oil and gas activities on the 

tourist industry. Lastly, research on the restoration of salt marshes indicates that rehabilitation of an 

area is possible when development or an accident has occurred. While the emphasis of the meeting 

was on oil and gas, two reports described the results of projects related to offshore sand mining. The 

appendix lists the names and addresses of speakers. Individual chapters are cited individually when 

appropriate. 

*This section describes sea turtle data (e.g., from strandings, tagging programs, trawl fisheries, aerial 

surveys, and telemetry) from coastal North Carolina. These data suggest coastal North Carolina is 

used as a migratory corridor by sea turtles. The role of sargassum mats as habitat is described. 

Lee, D.S. 1991. Offshore Research of NC State Museum in Area of the Point. pp. 2-3. In: Shepard, A. 

(ed.). NURC — UNCW 1991 Undersea Research: Informational Meeting. National Undersea 

Research Center, University of North Carolina at Wilmington. Wilmington, NC. 

Although the current information on the biology, distribution, and season of occurrence of seabirds, 

marine mammals, and marine turtles in North Carolina is still incomplete, it is better than what is 

available for most other areas of the world. A 15- year extensive study conducted by the NC State 

Museum (NCSM) is perhaps the longest and most intensive ocean study of seabirds and marine 

mammals conducted anywhere. The Hatteras area has long been regarded as a biological “MasonDixon Line” between boreal and tropical maritime elements. North Carolina is at a latitude usually 
308 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

associated with temperate seas; however, boreal, temperate, and tropical species are transported, or 

follow prey items transported by converging oceanic currents to the outer continental shelf area at 

Hatteras. This, in part, explains the diversity. North Carolina has the largest documented marine bird 

(over 50 species) and marine mammal (28 species) fauna of any geographic unit in the North Atlantic. 

Much of what has been added to fauna of the state is the result of studies in the area known as “The 

Point.” It is primarily the location of the state in general, and “The Point” in particular, in relation to 

tropical and subtropical areas, migration routes and oceanic currents that account for the diversity of 

species. The relatively rich diversity is offset by comparatively low densities, but many of the species 

found here are tropical ones with small populations, so densities are naturally low. For a tropical — 

subtropical environment the densities are really quite high. The Sargassum community is also 

discussed. 

Lee, D.S. 1992. Pelagic Seabirds Off the North Carolina Coast: An Overview of 16 Years of Surveys. pp. 

78-86. In: Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service. Proceedings of the Fourth 

Atlantic OCS Region Information Transfer Meeting, September 1991. U.S. Department of the 

Interior, Minerals Management Service. Herndon, VA. 

The Fourth Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) Regional Information Transfer Meeting (ITM) 

was held on 24-25 September, 1991, in Wilmington, NC. The focus of the meeting was on the OCS 

off North Carolina, specifically on activities related to a proposed exploratory well for oil and gas by 

Mobil on Block 467 a site 40 miles off the coast of North Carolina. The area of industry interest is 

known as the Manteo Prospect, while the activities surrounding the proposed drilling are referred to 

collectively as the Manteo Project. It is also near a fishing ground known locally as “The Point.” The 

area is believed to be gas prone rather than oil prone. The estimated size of the resource could be as 

high as 5 trillion cubic feet of gas. 

The purpose of the meeting was to exchange information on the leasing background, legislative 

activities, scientific results, and socioeconomic studies. Legislative-related reports include 

descriptions of the Oil Pollution Act of 1990, the Outer Banks Protection Act, the Environmental 

Studies Review Panel, and the North Carolina Physical Oceanography Panel. Reports of studies on 

marine life include benthic diatoms, benthic fauna, pelagic seabirds, sea turtles, and right whales. One 

report describes the use of airships (blimps) for ocean research a capability relevant to North Carolina 

because of the east coast airship facility is located in the state. Local marine science facilities 

described include NOAA’s National Undersea Research Center at the University of North Carolina at 

Wilmington (NURC/UNCW) and the National Marine Fisheries Service laboratory in Beaufort. 

Developments in oil spill cleanup technology and capabilities are described by both the Coast Guard 

and the industry. A socioeconomic report describes the effects of the oil and gas activities on the 

tourist industry. Lastly, research on the restoration of salt marshes indicates that rehabilitation of an 

area is possible when development or an accident has occurred. While the emphasis of the meeting 

was on oil and gas, two reports described the results of projects related to offshore sand mining. The 

appendix lists the names and addresses of speakers. Individual chapters are cited individually when 

appropriate. 

*This section provides a brief overview of pelagic seabirds off the North Carolina coast with an 

overview of 16 years of surveys. Figure 14 An Example of Seabird Sightings Compiled by the North 

Carolina State Museum, is on page 78. The role of sargassum patches as bird habitat is described. 

Lee, D.S., and M.L. Moser. 1998. Importance des Sargasses pelagiques pour la recherché alimentaire des 

oiseaux marins. El Pitirre 11(3): 111-112. 
Sargassum Chapter — 309 

Based on gut contents of 16 genera and 38 seabird species (n = 1033) and 240 days of at sea 

observations we document importance and species specific variation in use of Sargassum ‘reefs’. 

Over half the seabird species studied forage in this tropical pelagic community. We classify these 

birds as Sargassum specialists (> 25% occurrence of associated prey), users (up to 25% of prey), and 

incidentals (evidence of use but no associated prey identified). 

Sargassum association was documented in most Procellariiforms (9 of 10 species) and less frequently 

in Charadriiforms (12 of 25 ). Five seabirds had > 25 % documented use (Audubon’s Shearwaters, 

59%; Masked Boobies, 100%; Red-necked Phalaropes, 62%; Royal Terns, 40%; and Bridled Terns, 

58%). These birds target Sargassum for feeding, and the presence or absence of this alga drives local 

occurrence and abundance. Selected prey tends to be small (15-40 mm) fishes, but each avian species 

used the resource in specific ways. 

It is assumed that birds use this community throughout the tropical and sub-tropical North Atlantic. In 

view of the low productivity of nutrient poor surface waters in the tropics, the importance of 

Sargassum to seabird abundance and seasonal distribution is assumed to be high. Estimates in the 

Sargasso Sea (an area larger than the United States) suggest a standing crop of 2.0 — 5.5 metric 

tons/sq. nautical mile. In the Gulf Stream off the Carolina coast an additional standing crop of 57,290 

tons occurs, where Sargassum productivity is estimated at 27,074 tons/year. The number of fishes/ton 

is about 2,400 individuals and the total fish biomass is usually > 1% of the Sargassum

Lee, D.S., and W.H. Lang. 1998. Biological Environment: Surface Biota. pp. 84-86. In: Vigil, D.L. (ed.). 

North Carolina/Minerals Management Service Technical Workshop on Manteo Unit Exploration: 

February 4-5, 1998. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS 

Region. New Orleans, LA. 

*These are the proceedings from a workshop/meeting (February 4-5, 1998) between the North 

Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources, and the U.S. Department of the 

Interior’s Minerals Management Service (MMS). The geographic area being discussed is 

approximately 45 miles east-northeast of Cape Hatteras, NC, referred to as the Manteo Unit. This 

workshop reviewed environmental and socioeconomic information known and needed on the Manteo 

Unit. The MMS’s Gulf of Mexico OCS Regional Director gave an MMS perspective on history and 

status of the area. Chevron gave a presentation on how the exploratory well would be drilled. The 

scientific characterization was presented in greater detail by a number of scientific experts who spoke 

on the following disciplines physical environment, habitat and living resources, seabirds, marine 

mammals, sea turtles, and social and economic issues. Specific chapters are cited individually, when 

appropriate. 

Surface biota during this session was defined as a catch-word phrase to refer to a combination of 

seabirds, cetaceans, (whales and dolphins), and sea turtles. The group was tasked to discuss 

immediate concerns that could result from one exploratory drillship’s activities on the surface biota in 

the Manteo Unit. Once potential effects of the exploration well were discussed, remaining time was 

spent on additional concerns, assuming further development and production were to occur. 

Moser, M.L., P.J. Auster, and J.B. Bichy. 1997. Effects of mat morphology on large Sargassumassociated fishes: observations from a remotely operated vehicle (ROV) and free-floating video 

camcorders. Attachment 10. In: South Atlantic Fishery Management Council. Essential Fish Habitat 

Workshop # 9: October 7 — 8, 1997 Pelagic Habitat Sargassum and Water Column. South Atlantic 

Fishery Management Council. Charleston, SC. 

Attachment 10: Vagile larger juvenile and adult fishes are often under-represented in traditional 

sampling of Sargassum-associated fishes in the open ocean. We used underwater video recordings 
310 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

from free-floating camcorders and a remotely operated vehicle (ROV) to assess the relative 

abundance of large mobile fishes under large Sargassum mats (> 10 m diameter), under dispersed 

clumps of Sargassum (< 1 m diameter), and in open water without Sargassum as a reference. In 

addition, we conducted dipnet sampling in each Sargassum treatment for a comparison to traditional 

methods. All samples were obtained in September 1992 along the western wall of the Gulf Stream off 

Cape Hatteras, North Carolina. A total of 31 fish taxa were identified from both video and dipnet 

collections. Only 8 taxa were identified in both video and dipnet collections, while 11 taxa were seen 

only in video and 10 were only found in dipnet collections. Dipnet collections were dominated by 

juvenile balistids and other small, cryptic fishes, while the video observations were mainly of larger, 

rapidly-moving carangids. Fish diversity increased with the amount of continuous Sargassum habitat: 

four taxa were observed when no Sargassum was present, 12 under clumps, and 19 under mats. Our 

results indicated that mat morphology significantly affects the Sargassum-associated fishes, and that 

both video and traditional capture methods are complementary and should be used together to 

accurately census this community. 

*This is the same abstract from Moser et al. (1998) 

—. 1998. Effects of mat morphology on large Sargassum-associated fishes: observations from a remotely 

operated vehicle (ROV) and free-floating video camcorders. Environmental Biology of Fishes 51: 

391-398. 

Vagile larger juvenile and adult fishes are often under-represented in traditional sampling of 

Sargassum-associated fishes in the open ocean. We used underwater video recordings from freefloating camcorders and a remotely operated vehicle (ROV) to assess the relative abundance of large 

mobile ashes under large Sargassum mats (> 10 m diameter), under dispersed clumps of Sargassum 

(< 1 m diameter), and in open water without Sargassum as a reference. In addition, we conducted 

dipnet sampling in each Sargassum treatment for a comparison to traditional methods. All samples 

were obtained in September 1992 along the western wall of the Gulf Stream off Cape Hatteras, North 

Carolina. A total of 31 fish taxa were identified from both video and dipnet collections. Only 8 taxa 

were identified in both video and dipnet collections, while 11 taxa were seen only in video and 10 

were only found in dipnet collections. Dipnet collections were dominated by juvenile balistids and 

other small, cryptic fishes, while the video observations were mainly of larger, rapidly-moving 

carangids. Fish diversity increased with the amount of continuous Sargassum habitat: four taxa were 

observed when no Sargassum was present, 12 under clumps, and 19 under mats. Our results indicated 

that mat morphology significantly affects the Sargassum-associated fishes, and that both video and 

traditional capture methods are complementary and should be used together to accurately census this 

community. 

Myers, T.D. 1968. Horizontal and Vertical Distribution of Thecosomatous Pteropods off Cape Hatteras. 

Ph.D. Dissertation. Department of Zoology, Duke University. 223 p. 

Cape Hatteras, North Carolina lies at the confluence of the warms northerly flowing Gulf Stream and 

a cool, southerly flowing Virginian Coastal Current. Previous workers have demonstrated marked 

north-south changes in the species composition Of benthic marine invertebrates at Cape Hatteras and 

have noted that this change is associated with the different types of water present in the area. 

This investigation attempts to determine whether a similar change in faunal composition can be found 

in a holoplanktonic group of animals in the waters off Cape Hatteras. The Thecosomata, or shelled 

pteropods were chosen for study. 

A total of 26 species of Thecosomata within 9 genera have been found in six water types sampled in 

the Cape Hatteras area. The greatest number of thecosomes was found in the upper 60 meters of the 
Sargassum Chapter — 311 

water column with a concentration maximum of 10,000-20,000 animals/1,000 m3

 water filtered being 

present as a persistent feature of the 15-30 meter depth range in the Gulf Stream and Sargasso Sea. 

The number of species present in the water column is 5-8 In Carolinian Coastal Water, 12-17 in Gulf 

Stream and Sargasso Sea, one in winter Virginian Coastal Water and Slope Water, and 1-5 in seminar 

Virginian Coastal Water and Slope Water. 

Orbach, M. 1989. Plenary Session: How Could These Resources be Affected By the Proposed Drilling 

and What Mitigation Measures Might be Used to Prevent Irreversible Damage. pp. 63-64. In: 

Crawford, K. (ed.). Proceedings: 1989 Marine Expo: The Natural Resources Associated with Mobil’s 

Proposed Drill Site. NC Outer Continental Shelf Office, NC Department of Administration. Raleigh, 

NC. 

*The following is a summary of the plenary session. 

There appears to be a good deal of baseline information available about Mobil’s proposed drill site 

area. However, there was a general consensus that there are serious gaps in our understanding of the 

relationships and functions of the many communities found in and around the exploration area known 

as the “Manteo Prospect.” Some major areas of concern include protection of area benthos, impacts 

on community ecology, and effects of drilling discharges . 

There was almost unanimous support for a monitoring program of the drilling operations and their 

impacts. Programs should be devised to examine: 1) The fate of drilling discharges, including 

dispersion (range and extent) and accumulation along fronts and the ocean bottom; and 2) The effects 

(both chemical and mechanical) of drilling discharges on the benthos, the indigenous fisheries 

(including eggs/larvae), prey species, forage strategies, and the sargassum communities. 

Concerns were also raised regarding the effects the ship and anchor system might have on the biota as 

a result of displacement, noise, or collisions, and the impacts of exploration activities on the 

commercial and recreational fisheries found at “The Point.” 

Because of previous scientific work done at or near the proposed drill site, this area may be well 

suited to such monitoring programs. Not only would information from these programs be vital for 

developing mitigation measures, but it could also serve as a critical database on which to build a 

management framework for future development. In addition, data already collected on local fish 

resources, marine birds, the benthos and bottom conditions, and physical oceanography could provide 

an excellent base for further research. 

*This text also mentions marine mammals and Threatened and Endangered species (marine reptiles). 

Ross, J. 1989. Commercial and Recreational Marine Fisheries off North Carolina’s Outer Banks. pp. 40-

44. In: Crawford, K. (ed.). Proceedings: 1989 Marine Expo: The Natural Resources Associated with 

Mobil’s Proposed Drill Site. NC Outer Continental Shelf Office. NC Department of Administration. 

Raleigh, NC. 

*This section provides an overview of year round, recreational fishing, commercial fishing, and 

fisheries harvests in the study area. The potential project-related-impacts to fisheries-based 

socioeconomics, and the impact of project-related pollution are discussed. Sargassum is mentioned. 

Ross, S.W. 1998. Habitat and Living Resource Review: Scientific Data for Fisheries and Sargassum at 

the Hatteras Middle Slope (Including “The Point” and Manteo Exploration Unit). pp. 37-42. In: Vigil, 

D.L. (ed.). North Carolina/Minerals Management Service Technical Workshop on Manteo Unit 

Exploration: February 4-5, 1998. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, Gulf of 

Mexico OCS Region. New Orleans, LA. 
312 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

*These are the proceedings from a workshop/meeting (February 4-5, 1998) between the North 

Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources, and the U.S. Department of the 

Interior’s Minerals Management Service (MMS). The geographic area being discussed is 

approximately 45 miles east-northeast of Cape Hatteras, NC, referred to as the Manteo Unit. This 

workshop reviewed environmental and socioeconomic information known and needed on the Manteo 

Unit. The MMS’s Gulf of Mexico OCS Regional Director gave an MMS perspective on history and 

status of the area. Chevron gave a presentation on how the exploratory well would be drilled. The 

scientific characterization was presented in greater detail by a number of scientific experts who spoke 

on the following disciplines physical environment, habitat and living resources, seabirds, marine 

mammals, sea turtles, and social and economic issues. Specific chapters are cited individually, when 

appropriate. 

The purpose of this review is to provide a brief summary of the state of fisheries and Sargassum 

knowledge in and near to the geographic region proposed for oil exploration activities off of North 

Carolina (referred to here as the Hatters Middle Slope, HMS). This will result in a basic listing of 

what we know about the subjects and what we still need to know. This treatment is restricted to the 

HMS area and thus is not to be a complete description of the North Carolina ichthyofauna. Time and 

space constraints imposed by the North Carolina/Minerals Management Service Technical Workshop 

do not allow a full treatment of this subject nor a detailed presentation of the data that support various 

conclusions. Prioritized and expanding the list of data needs will require additional discussions, some 

completed at this meeting, with input from a variety of scientist, managers, and the public. Since the 

last such summaries (1989 and 1991), considerable data have been collected (much of it published) 

related to the HMS. Ironically, the major impetus (upper water column fishery concerns around “The 

Point”) for research here resulted in most studies being conducted on or near the bottom close to the 

proposed drill site rather than studies about the processes driving fisheries at “The Point.” This 

section discusses Benthic Slope, Mid-Water Mesopelagic, Surface-Upper Water Column, Sargassum 

Community, Commercial/Recreational Fisheries, Oil Exploration/Development Concerns, and a 

Summary of Data/Study Needs including: Trophodynamic/Energetic Pathways (Plus Other Life 

History Data); Fisheries at “The Point”; Data Inventory Around HMS and “The Point”; Larval Fish 

Data; Lighting Effects; Mechanisms Structuring Benthic and Mid-water Fish Communities of the 

HMS; and Physical Oceanography. 

Ross, S.W., K.J. Sulak, J. Gartner, and D.S. Lee. Unpublished data. Ongoing project: Definition of 

Ecological/Trophic Linkages Among Fishes and Other Nekton in the Area Known as The Point — 

North Carolina Continental Shelf Slope. 

*This is an on-going study of fishes, invertebrates, sargassum and marine birds at the area known as 

The Point. The emphasis is on trophic linkages throughout the water column. The summer 1999 and 

2000 stations were mapped. 

Settle, L.R. 1993. Spatial and Temporal Variability in the Distribution and Abundance of Larval and 

Juvenile Fishes Associated with Pelagic Sargassum. M.S. Thesis. University of North Carolina at 

Wilmington. 65 p. 

A survey of the larval and juvenile fishes associated with the pelagic Sargassum habitat in the South 

Atlantic Bight and adjacent western Atlantic Ocean was conducted from July 1991 through March 

1993. Fishes representing 104 taxonomic categories were identified, including reef fishes, coastal 

demersal, coastal pelagic, epipelagic and mesopelagic species. The most important families were 

Balistidae and Carangidae, each represented by 15 species. Species composition, species diversity and 

abundance varied both seasonally and regionally. Diversity was highest during spring through fall 

over the outer continental shelf and in the Gulf Stream. Abundance decreased from spring through 
Sargassum Chapter — 313 

winter and from the continental shelf into offshore waters. The numbers of fishes and fish biomass 

were found to be positively correlated with the wet weight of algae in most cases examined. The 

results of this study will be useful to fisheries managers assessing the potential impacts of commercial 

Sargassum harvesting in the region. 

Settle, L.R. 1997. Commercial harvest of pelagic Sargassum: A summary of landings since June 1995. In: 

South Atlantic Fishery Management Council. Essential Fish Habitat Workshop # 9: October 7 — 8, 

1997 Pelagic Habitat Sargassum and Water Column. South Atlantic Fishery Management Council. 

Charleston, SC. May 1997. 66 p. 

Attachment 11: The commercial harvest of pelagic Sargassum resumed in June 1995. To date the 

fishery is prosecuted by a single firm, Aqua-10 Corporation of Beaufort, North Carolina. Aqua-10 

processes the raw algae into a variety of agricultural fertilizers and dietary supplements used in the 

swine and poultry industries. The firm purchases algae harvested by local fishing vessels. Two 

vessels, the FV Outer Banks (16.5 m snapper boat) and the FV Rising Sun (15 m long-liner) have 

been equipped with Sargassum nets by Aqua- 10. The gear consists of a 1.2 in x 0.9 n frame trawl 

rigged with 7.6 am mesh trawl webbing. The vessels harvest algae ancillary to their normal fishing 

activities. When algae are landed, Aqua-10 notifies the NMFS, Beaufort Laboratory. The algae are 

examined for by-catch at dockside and at the processing plant. Vessel captains are interviewed to 

obtain data on the date and location of harvests, effort, and by-catch. 

All algae have been harvested from off the North Carolina coast from northern Onslow Bay to 

northeast of Cape Hatteras (Fig. 2). Although Sargassum has been harvested on the continental shelf, 

most was obtained in the Gulf Stream (Fig. 3). The observed by-catch has been minimal in terms of 

numbers of individuals. No sea turtles and few fishes have been noted. Most fish have been young 

juveniles and are generally in advanced stages of decomposition. Identifiable taxa include filefish 

(Monacanthus hispidus), amberjacks (Seriola spp.), blue runner (Caranx crysos), jacks (Caranx spp.), 

flyingfish (Exocoetidae), sergeant major (Abudefduf saxatilis), gray triggerfish (Balistes capriscus), 

sargassum fish (Histrio histrio), and pipefish (Syngnathus spp.). The most commonly observed 

macrofaunal by-catch have been crustaceans including several shrimp (genera Hippolyte, Latreutes, 

and Leander) and crabs (genera Planes and Portunus). 

Shepard, A. (ed.). 1991. Undersea Research at The Point. NURC/UNCW 1991 Undersea Research: 

Informational Meeting. National Undersea Research Center, University of North Carolina at 

Wilmington. Wilmington, NC. 9 p. 

*This handout is a summary of research being conducted at “The Point” area (Manteo Lease Block 

467). 

The National Undersea Research Center at the University of North Carolina at Wilmington, funded 

by a grant from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s (NOAA) Office of Undersea 

Research (OUR), was established in 1980 to promote, facilitate, and conduct research in the 

Southeastern United States utilizing undersea techniques, including advanced wet diving and manned 

and unmanned submersibles. A main Center goal is to provide information to NOAA that will assist 

the agency in fulfilling its charter to explore, understand, conserve and manage the U.S. marine 

environment and associated resources. To help meet this goal, the Center supports and conducts 

interdisciplinary oceanographic research projects studying continental margin processes, particularly 

the interactions and linkages between estuarine, continental shelf, and slope (including submarine 

canyon) environments. 
314 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

Shepard, A., and A.H. Hulbert (eds.). 1994. Workshop Report: Present and Future Research Initiatives on 

the Upper Hatteras Slope off North Carolina. National Undersea Research Center at the University of 

North Carolina at Wilmington. Wilmington, NC. 30p. 

*This report is the result of the May 1993 workshop held in Raleigh, NC. The topics of discussion 

were research (present and planned) at the Upper Hatteras Slope (UHS) and potential funding 

sources. The workshop was sponsored by National Undersea Research Center at the University of 

North Carolina at Wilmington. The report provides a brief description of the UHS invertebrates, 

biological oceanography, chemical oceanography, geological oceanography (bathymetry, oil and gas 

exploration), physical oceanography, fisheries, and Sargassum. Appendix A is a workshop agenda 

and list of speakers. No abstracts for speakers are provided. Appendix B is a list of potential funding 

sources. Appendix C contains a list of publications pertaining to the UHS. 

South Atlantic Fishery Management Council. 1998. FINAL Habitat Plan for the South Atlantic Region: 

Essential Fish Habitat Requirements for Fishery Management Plans of the South Atlantic Fishery 

Management Council: The Shrimp Fishery Management Plan; The Red Drum Fishery Management 

Plan; The Snapper Group Fishery Plan; The Coastal Migratory Pelagics Fishery Management Plan; 

The Golden Crab Fishery Management Plan; The Spiny Lobster Fishery Management Plan; The 

Coral, Coral Reefs, and Live/Hard Bottom Fishery Management Plan; The Sargassum Habitat Fishery 

Management Plan; and The Calico Scallop Fishery Management Plan. South Atlantic Fishery 

Management Council. Charleston, SC. 457 p. 

*This report emphasizes South Atlantic Coast, nearshore habitat (from shore to 200m isobath). On 

pages 125-133 Sargassum habitat is described. Page 134-135 mentions “The Point” within Section 

3.2.3.2.1 Description of Water Column Habitats. Figure A Water Masses off Cape Hatteras, is located 

on p. 135 and shows a schematic diagram of “The Point”, relative to the Gulf Steam, Virginia 

(longshore) Current and Sargasso Sea. Table 18b taxonomic list of larval and early-juvenile fishes 

from offshore of Cape Lookout to Cape Hatteras including the region known as “The Point” is 

located on pp. 139-145. Oil and gas exploration, development and transposition are mentioned in 

section 4.1.2.4 on page 323 (Offshore Cape Hatteras, NC is mentioned, but no specific reference to 

“The Point” is made). 

Stoner, A.W. 1983. Pelagic Sargassum: Evidence for a major decrease in biomass. Deep-Sea Research

30(4) A: 469-474. 

A survey of pelagic Sargassum spp. in the North Atlantic Ocean, Caribbean Sea, and the Gulf of 

Mexico between 1977 and 1981 showed that the biomass of the plants in the Sargasso Sea was <6% 

of the values in 1933 to 1935. There were also major decreases in the Gulf of Mexico, in the slope 

water mass of North America, and near the Bahama Islands. The drastic reduction over the past half 

century may be related to an increase in anthropogenic materials in the ocean. 

U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service. 1992. Proceedings of the Fourth Atlantic 

OCS Region Information Transfer Meeting, September 1991. U.S. Department of the Interior, 

Minerals Management Service. Herndon, VA. 198 p. 

The Fourth Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) Regional Information Transfer Meeting (ITM) 

was held on 24-25 September, 1991, in Wilmington, NC. The focus of the meeting was on the OCS 

off North Carolina, specifically on activities related to a proposed exploratory well for oil and gas by 

Mobil on Block 467 a site 40 miles off the coast of North Carolina. The area of industry interest is 

known as the Manteo Prospect, while the activities surrounding the proposed drilling are referred to 

collectively as the Manteo Project. The wildcat wellsite is in 2,690 ft. (857 m) of water near the edge 

of the Gulf Stream. It is also near a fishing ground known locally as “The Point.” The area is believed 
Sargassum Chapter — 315 

to be gas prone rather than oil prone. The estimated size of the resource could be as high as 5 trillion 

cubic feet of gas. 

The purpose of the meeting was to exchange information on the leasing background, legislative 

activities, scientific results, and socioeconomic studies. Legislative-related reports include 

descriptions of the Oil Pollution Act of 1990, the Outer Banks Protection Act, the Environmental 

Studies Review Panel, and the North Carolina Physical Oceanography Panel. Reports of studies on 

marine life include benthic diatoms, benthic fauna, pelagic seabirds, sea turtles, and right whales. One 

report describes the use of airships (blimps) for ocean research a capability relevant to North Carolina 

because of the east coast airship facility is located in the state. Local marine science facilities 

described include NOAA’s National Undersea Research Center at the University of North Carolina at 

Wilmington and the National Marine Fisheries Service laboratory in Beaufort. 

Developments in oil spill cleanup technology and capabilities are described by both the Coast Guard 

and the industry. A socioeconomic report describes the effects of the oil and gas activities on the 

tourist industry. Lastly, research on the restoration of salt marshes indicates that rehabilitation of an 

area is possible when development or an accident has occurred. While the emphasis of the meeting 

was on oil and gas, two reports described the results of projects related to offshore sand mining. The 

appendix lists the names and addresses of speakers. Individual chapters are cited individually when 

appropriate. 

Vigil, D.L. (ed.). 1998. North Carolina/Minerals Management Service Technical Workshop on Manteo 

Unit Exploration: February 4-5, 1998. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management Service. Gulf 

of Mexico OCS Region. New Orleans, LA. 168 p. 

*These are the proceedings from a workshop/meeting (February 4-5, 1998) between the North 

Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources, and the U.S. Department of the 

Interior’s Minerals Management Service (MMS). The geographic area being discussed is 

approximately 45 miles east-northeast of Cape Hatteras, NC, referred to as the Manteo Unit. This 

workshop reviewed environmental and socioeconomic information known and needed on the Manteo 

Unit. The MMS’s Gulf of Mexico OCS Regional Director gave an MMS perspective on history and 

status of the area. Chevron gave a presentation on how the exploratory well would be drilled. The 

scientific characterization was presented in greater detail by a number of scientific experts who spoke 

on the following disciplines physical environment, habitat and living resources (invertebrates and 

fish), seabirds, marine mammals, sea turtles, and social and economic issues. Specific chapters are 

cited individually, when appropriate. 

Witzell, W.N. 1999. Distribution and relative abundance of sea turtles caught incidentally by the U.S. 

pelagic longline fleet in the western North Atlantic Ocean, 1992-1995. Fishery Bulletin 97: 200-211. 

*This paper examines the seasonal distribution and relative abundance of threatened and endangered 

sea turtles (e.g., loggerhead sea turtle, Caretta caretta; and leatherback sea turtle, Dermochelys 

coriacea) caught incidentally by the U.S. Atlantic pelagic longline fishery for tuna, Thunnus spp., and 

swordfish, Xiphias gladius from 1992 through 1995. Sargassum is mentioned. 
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SOCIOECONOMIC CHAPTER 
Socioeconomic Chapter — 321 

SOCIOECONOMIC CHAPTER 

Abernathy, S.A., M.T. Baer, C.S. Benner, M.S. Brody, D.K. Francois, J.K. Gilliam, L.K. Good, C.J. 

Ohara, and J.V. Martin. 1989. Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf: Description of the Mid-Atlantic 

Environment. Abernathy, S.A. (ed.). U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, 

Atlantic OCS Region, Environmental Assessment Section. Herndon, VA. 167 p. 

*This document discusses the major issues and areas of concern for the mid-Atlantic environment 

that are considered in the planning process for oil and gas leasing and operations on the Outer 

Continental Shelf (OCS). The issues are addressed with respect to the potential environmental 

consequences of mid Atlantic oil and gas exploration, development and production. A section 

discussing The Physical Environment (e.g., geology, non-petroleum minerals, physical oceanography, 

chemical oceanography and water quality, ocean dumping, meteorology, air quality), Biological 

resources (e.g., plankton, benthos, fishery resources, marine reptiles, marine mammals, marine and 

coastal birds, estuaries, wetlands, sensitive coastal habitats, canyon areas), Socioeconomic 

Environment, and other issues (e.g., archaeological resources, marine vessel traffic, National 

Aeronautics and Space Administration/ Department of Defense activities, oil and gas infrastructure, 

marine sanctuaries, and estuarine research reserves) is included. Most of the figures showing fisheries 

resource distribution are taken from fisheries data compiled for bottom-trawl and shellfish surveys of 

the National Marine Fisheries Service, Northeast Fisheries Center, Woods Hole, MA. 

Costlow, J. 1992. The Outer Banks Protection Act. pp. 11-15. In: U.S. Department of the Interior, 

Minerals Management Service. Proceedings of the Fourth Atlantic OCS Region Information Transfer 

Meeting, September 1991. U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service. Herndon, 

VA. 

The Fourth Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) Regional Information Transfer Meeting (ITM) 

was held on 24-25 September, 1991, in Wilmington, NC. The focus of the meeting was on the OCS 

off North Carolina, specifically on activities related to a proposed exploratory well for oil and gas by 

Mobil on Block 467 a site 40 miles off the coast of North Carolina. The area of industry interest is 

known as the Manteo Prospect, while the activities surrounding the proposed drilling are referred to 

collectively as the Manteo Project. The wildcat wellsite is in 2,690 ft. (857 m) of water near the edge 

of the Gulf Stream. It is also near a fishing ground known locally as “The Point.” The area is believed 

to be gas prone rather than oil prone. The estimated size of the resource could be as high as 5 trillion 

cubic feet of gas. 

The purpose of the meeting was to exchange information on the leasing background, legislative 

activities, scientific results, and socioeconomic studies. Legislative-related reports include 

descriptions of the Oil Pollution Act of 1990, the Outer Banks Protection Act, the Environmental 

Studies Review Panel, and the North Carolina Physical Oceanography Panel. Reports of studies on 

marine life include benthic diatoms, benthic fauna, pelagic seabirds, sea turtles, and right whales. One 

report describes the use of airships (blimps) for ocean research a capability relevant to North Carolina 

because of the east coast airship facility is located in the state. Local marine science facilities 

described include NOAA’s National Undersea Research Center at the University of North Carolina at 

Wilmington (NURC/UNCW) and the National Marine Fisheries Service laboratory in Beaufort. 

Developments in oil spill cleanup technology and capabilities are described by both the Coast Guard 

and the industry. A socioeconomic report describes the effects of the oil and gas activities on the 

tourist industry. Lastly, research on the restoration of salt marshes indicates that rehabilitation of an 

area is possible when development or an accident has occurred. While the emphasis of the meeting 
322 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

was on oil and gas, two reports described the results of projects related to offshore sand mining. The 

appendix lists the names and addresses of speakers. Individual chapters are cited individually when 

appropriate. 

*In August 1990, President Bush signed Federal oil spill legislation that included a provision called 

the Outer Banks Protection Act (OBPA). The OBPA prohibited the Minerals Management Service 

(MMS) from approving any exploration plan off North Carolina until October 1991. The Act also 

created a five-member Environmental Sciences Review Panel (ESRP) to evaluate the adequacy of 

information on the Mobil proposal. This section describes the OBPA and ESRP. Physical 

oceanography, biological oceanography, and socioeconomics are mentioned. 

Costlow, J., K. Brink, M. Orbach, C. Peterson, J. Teal, and A. Robertson. 1992. North Carolina 

Environmental Sciences Review Panel. Report to the Secretary of the Interior from the North 

Carolina Environmental Sciences Review Panel as mandated by the Oil Pollution Act of 1990. 83 p. 

The Oil Pollution Act of 1990, in a section cited as the Outer Banks Protection Act, prohibits the 

Secretary of the Interior from proceeding with a number of actions relative to development of oil and 

gas resources offshore North Carolina for which he is responsible under the Outer Continental Shelf 

Lands Act (OCLSA). Actions prohibited include: (1) conducting a lease sale; (2) issuing any new 

lease; (3) approving any exploration plan; (4) approving any development and production plan; (5) 

approving any application for permit to drill; and (6) permitting any drilling. The prohibition on these 

actions is mandated to remain in effect until the latter of: (1) October 1, 1991 or (2) 45 days of 

contiguous session of the Congress following the submission of a written report from the Secretary 

certifying that the information available to him is sufficient to carry out his responsibilities under the 

OCSLA. 

In his report, the Secretary is required to take into consideration findings and recommendations of a 

panel established by the Outer Banks Protection Act, the North Carolina Environmental Sciences 

Review Panel, and to include a detailed explanation of any differences between his certification if 

sufficient information and the findings and recommendations of this group. The panel is charged by 

the Act with: (1) assessing the adequacy of the available physical oceanographic, ecological, and 

socioeconomic information to enable the Secretary to fulfill his responsibilities under the OCSLA and 

(2) identifying any additional information deemed essential to enable the Secretary to carry out these 

responsibilities. The Panel’s response to this charge is the subject of this document. 

As provided in the Outer Banks Protection Act, the North Carolina Environmental Sciences Review 

Panel is composed of five members, a marine scientist selected by the Secretary of the Interior, a 

marine scientist selected by the Governor of North Carolina, and three scientists, one each from the 

disciplines of physical oceanography, ecology, and social sciences, selected jointly by the Secretary 

and the Governor from a list developed by the National Academy of Sciences. Unless specifically 

indicated in the text, the conclusions and recommendations presented in the report represent the 

unanimous decision of the Panel members. A summary of findings including Physical Oceanography, 

Ecology, Socioeconomics, Sources of Information, Adequacy of Information, and Panel’s 

Recommended Studies is included. Appendix A: Literature Review, and Appendix B: Factors 

Influencing the Definition if Adequacy of Information are also included. 

Crawford, K. (ed.). 1989. Proceedings: 1989 Marine Expo: The Natural Resources Associated with 

Mobil’s Proposed Drill Site. NC Outer Continental Shelf Office, NC Department of Administration. 

Raleigh, NC. 64 p. 

*This report contains abstracts from each presenter. Chapter topics include: Mobil’s Proposal, 

Geologic Overview — Introduction and Potential for Oil and Gas Discovery, Oceanographic 
Socioeconomic Chapter — 323 

Conditions, Comments on Last MMS Modeling, Biological Production Near the Bottom 

(invertebrates), Fisheries Resources, Commercial and Recreational Marine Fisheries, Winter Storm 

Effects on Spawning and Larval Drift of Pelagic Fish, Marine Birds, Sea Turtles in North Carolina, 

Marine Mammals, Plenary Session, Summary. Each chapter also cited individually when appropriate. 

EEZ-SCAN 87 Scientific Staff. 1991. Atlas of the U.S. Exclusive Economic Zone, Atlantic Continental 

Margin. U.S. Geological Survey. Denver, CO. 174 p. 

*This atlas is one in a series in which the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) presents images of the sea 

floor and other geophysical data from the deepwater regions off the U.S. coasts. Containing the first 

comprehensive compilation of sea-floor imagery of the Atlantic continental margin, this volume 

provides the first broad-scale view of sea-floor features and the effects of systems of sedimentary 

processes that have been unknown or poorly known, until know. These data are a unique set of basic 

information that will support future studies by government, academic and industry workers. The 

region covered is within the U.S. Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) (Fig. 1), which extends 200 

nautical miles seaward from the shore, and which was claimed by presidential proclamation in 1983. 

In 1984 the USGS began a systematic program of reconnaissance-scale imaging of the poorly 

explored deepwater parts of the EEZ, using a long-range sidescan-sonar system known as GLORIA 

(Geological Long Range Inclined Asdic). 

Data collected in this survey of the U.S. Atlantic EEZ include GLORIA sidescan-sonar imagery; 

shallow-penetration, medium-resolution seismic profiles; high-resolution seismic-reflection profiles; 

echo-sounder profiles; and measurements of total magnetic intensity. The field program, carried out 

during five cruises from February to May 1987, covered the Atlantic EEZ seaward of the continental 

shelf edge, from the Canadian border southward to the northern Blake Plateau off Florida (figs. 26 

and 27, p. 10 and 11). 

Harris, W.B. 1989. The Natural Resources Associated with Mobil’s Proposed Exploratory Well: Geologic 

Overview Introduction. pp. 8-15. In: Crawford, K. (ed.). Proceedings: 1989 Marine Expo: The 

Natural Resources Associated with Mobil’s Proposed Drill Site. NC Outer Continental Shelf Office, 

NC Department of Administration. Raleigh, NC. 

In this part of the program, Dr. Charles Paull of UNC-Chapel Hill will present a geologic overview of 

the proposed site and the site’s potential for a gas or oil discovery. But before turning the program 

over to Dr. Paull I would like to spend a few minutes attempting to set the stage and answer the 

question, Why is Mobil Here? Why North Carolina? 

*This is a transcript from a slide presentation. The socioeconomic issues associated with mineral 

harvest are discussed. 

Kirby-Smith, W.W. 1989. Biological Production Near the Bottom. p. 25. In: Crawford, K. (ed.). 

Proceedings: 1989 Marine Expo: The Natural Resources Associated with Mobil’s Proposed Drill Site. 

NC Outer Continental Shelf Office, NC Department of Administration. Raleigh, NC. 

Satellite photographs show that North Carolina has an incredibly diverse oceanographic setting 

which, in turn, produces highly diverse communities of fishes and invertebrates. The three bottom 

types found off the continental shelf of North Carolina include; 1) sand, 2) shell, and 3) rock 

outcrops. Across the continental shelf, the primary producers that support fisheries include 

microalgae and macroalgae. The bottom-dwelling microalgae (small microscopic plants) grow, 

rapidly and are very important to the total productivity of the whole water column. As much as half of 

the primary productivity on the shelf may be due to this benthic component. The secondary producers 

on rock outcrops, which include sponges, corals, worms and small arthropods, are a major food 
324 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

source for small fish. From a scientific perspective, the proposed drill site is an exciting area with a 

high biomass and low diversity. In my opinion, the exploration well itself would have little or no 

impact on the resources in the area; however, a major find of oil or gas could lead to a tremendous 

amount of industrial development, which could compete economically with other coastal industries, 

such as tourism and fisheries. 

Orbach, M. K. 1998a. Habitat and Living Resources Review: Social and Economic Issues. pp. 64-67. In:

Vigil, D.L. (ed.). North Carolina/Minerals Management Service Technical Workshop on Manteo Unit 

Exploration: February 4-5, 1998. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, Gulf of 

Mexico OCS Region. New Orleans, LA. 

*These are the proceedings from a workshop/meeting (February 4-5, 1998) between the North 

Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources, and the U.S. Department of the 

Interior’s Minerals Management Service (MMS). The geographic area being discussed is 

approximately 45 miles east-northeast of Cape Hatteras, NC, referred to as the Manteo Unit. This 

workshop reviewed environmental and socioeconomic information known and needed on the Manteo 

Unit. The MMS’s Gulf of Mexico OCS Regional Director gave an MMS perspective on history and 

status of the area. Chevron gave a presentation on how the exploratory well would be drilled. The 

scientific characterization was presented in greater detail by a number of scientific experts who spoke 

on the following disciplines physical environment, habitat and living resources, seabirds, marine 

mammals, sea turtles, and social and economic issues. Specific chapters are cited individually, when 

appropriate. 

As a result of the recommendations of the North Carolina Environmental Science review Panel 

mandated by the Outer Banks Protection Act (Costlow et al. 1992), the North Carolina 

Socioeconomic Study (NCSS) was commissioned by the Atlantic OCS region of the Minerals 

Management Service (MMS). This study, which was completed in 1993, had five objectives: 1) a 

characterization of base case socioeconomic conditions in the five most potentially affected North 

Carolina counties, including standard aggregate variables, the structure of related industries, and 

relationships among private and public sector entities in the subject areas; 20 detailed community 

studies on representative communities potentially affected by OCS development, including 

sociocultural variables necessary to establish the context of the role and effect of potential OCS 

activities; 3) an aesthetic and perceptual issues study of representative components of the potentially 

affected populations in the region; 4) infrastructure studies performed in the potentially affected 

communities, focusing on the potential for changes in local and regional fiscal relationships derived 

from future OCS activity; and 5) the design of a longitudinal socioeconomic monitoring program that 

employs the key variables identified in the base case, community, infrastructure, and risk perception 

studies. This five-volume study was submitted to MMS in 1993 (NCSS 1993). 

—. 1998b. Social and Economic Issues Work Session Results: Socioeconomic Issues Associated With 

Human Uses of “The Point.” pp. 87-89. In: Vigil, D.L. (ed.). North Carolina/Minerals Management 

Service Technical Workshop on Manteo Unit Exploration: February 4-5, 1998. U.S. Dept. of the 

Interior, Minerals Management Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region. New Orleans, LA. 

*These are the proceedings from a workshop/meeting (February 4-5, 1998) between the North 

Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources, and the U.S. Department of the 

Interior’s Minerals Management Service (MMS). The geographic area being discussed is 

approximately 45 miles east-northeast of Cape Hatteras, NC, referred to as the Manteo Unit. This 

workshop reviewed environmental and socioeconomic information known and needed on the Manteo 

Unit. The MMS’s Gulf of Mexico OCS Regional Director gave an MMS perspective on history and 

status of the area. Chevron gave a presentation on how the exploratory well would be drilled. The 
Socioeconomic Chapter — 325 

scientific characterization was presented in greater detail by a number of scientific experts who spoke 

on the following disciplines physical environment, habitat and living resources, seabirds, marine 

mammals, sea turtles, and social and economic issues. Specific chapters are cited individually, when 

appropriate. 

The group addressed the question, “What socioeconomic information is needed for North Carolina 

and MMS to adequately judge a POE/EA regarding an exploratory well in the Manteo Prospect?” The 

following informational needs were discussed: (1) An update to the ECU study data. The information 

collected is now more than 10 years old. This information should include 1990 census data as well as 

document changes to the fishing industry and the continued increase in the tourism and retirement 

industry. (2) Establishment of a monitoring program. (3) Detailed assessment of uses and users of 

“The Point.” This might include some kind of cost/benefit analysis of The Point uses. (4) Economic 

modeling (demand curves, cost/benefit analysis). 

Oynes, C. 1998. The MMS Perspective: History/Status of the Manteo Leases. pp. 7-13. In: Vigil, D. L. 

(ed.). North Carolina/Minerals Management Service Technical Workshop on Manteo Unit 

Exploration: February 4-5, 1998. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, Gulf of 

Mexico OCS Region. New Orleans, LA. 

*These are the proceedings from a workshop/meeting (February 4-5, 1998) between the North 

Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources and the U.S. Department of the 

Interior’s Minerals Management Service (MMS). The geographic area being discussed is 

approximately 45 miles east-northeast of Cape Hatteras, NC, referred to as the Manteo Unit. This 

workshop reviewed environmental and socioeconomic information known and needed, on the Manteo 

Unit. The MMS’s Gulf of Mexico OCS Regional Director gave an MMS perspective on history and 

status of the area. Chevron gave a presentation on how the exploratory well would be drilled. The 

scientific characterization was presented in greater detail by a number of scientific experts who spoke 

on the following disciplines physical environment, habitat and living resources, seabirds, marine 

mammals, sea turtles, and social and economic issues. Specific chapters are cited individually, when 

appropriate. 

This section discusses U.S. Department of the Interior’s Minerals Management Service (MMS) 

studies (socioeconomic and environmental), Manteo Leases, Exploration plans, the North Carolina 

Environmental Sciences Review Panel, Exploratory Drilling Scenarios, Perspectives on Exploratory 

Drilling, and Workshop Objectives. 

Palmquist, R.B., P.W. Schuhmann, and J.A. Michael. 2000. Economic Analysis of “The Point” and 

Adjacent Counties: Baseline Information, Valuation, and Potential Impacts. Final Report to the North 

Carolina Division of Coastal Management and the U.S. Minerals Management Service under a grant 

from the North Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Agency Reference No. 

5-9081. 46 p. 

*The purpose of this study is to generate baseline economic information for the counties that might be 

affected by off-shore oil and gas exploration, explore the potential impacts of an oil spill off the Outer 

banks, provide information on the value of recreational fishing at “The Point”, and estimate the 

potential losses to recreational fishing at “The Point” if there were an oil spill. This study also 

presents information on the effects of coastal oil releases elsewhere to guide the scenarios used here. 

First, the report describes the economies of affected coastal counties and the role of tourism and 

commercial fishing in these areas. Next, the report describes the impacts of several significant oil spill 

cases in the U.S. that will be used to develop possible spill scenarios for North Carolina. Following 

that, the appropriateness of economic base and input-output analysis to this case is discussed, and the 
326 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

techniques are used to describe the baseline economies and to analyze the potential impacts on the 

coastal economy of an oil spill. 

Pearson, J.C. 1932. Winter Trawl Fishery off the Virgnia and North Carolina Coasts. U.S. Department of 

Commerce, Bureau of Fisheries. Fisheries Circular, Investigative Report 10(I): 31 p. 

*A winter trawl fishery has been established recently off the Virginia and North Carolina coasts and 

has expanded greatly during the past two years. This has been brought about by a considerable 

number of northen fishing vessels from Boston, Gloucester, New York, New Bedford, Bridgeport, 

Providence, Camden, and Wildwood, equipped with otter trawls, which are operating mainly out of 

Hampton Roads (VA) ports. Most of these vessels are engaged during the spring and summer months 

in purse seining for mackerel off the New England, New York and New Jersey coasts, often working 

in early spring as far south as North Carolina. Others are regularly engaged in flounder dragging off 

the southern New England or New Jersey coasts during the summer season. These vessels have found 

little to do during the winter months in northern waters, and with the development of this new fishery 

are turning to south waters. During the in winter of 1930-31 an increasing number of these vessels 

endeavored to open up the vast supply of summer shore fishes which winter in the deeper and warmer 

oceanic water in the general vicinity of Cape Hatteras NC. In view of the promising future of this 

fishery it was thought desirable for the Bureau of Fisheries to undertake a study of the fish in all its 

various aspects. This paper discusses History of the fishery, Location of the Fishery, Methods of the 

Fishery, Method of Investigation, Composition of Catch (e.g., quantity, species, size). Characteristics 

of scup, porgy fishery; croaker fishery, summer flounder or fluke fishery, sea bass fishery, gray sea 

trout and weakfish fishery, total catch data, and the socioeconomic impact of these fisheries are also 

discussed. 

Petterson, J.S. 1998. Appendix G: Coastal North Carolina Socioeconomic Study Program. pp. 137-143. 

In: Vigil, D.L. (ed.). North Carolina/Minerals Management Service Technical Workshop on Manteo 

Unit Exploration: February 4-5, 1998. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, Gulf 

of Mexico OCS Region. New Orleans, LA. 

*These are the proceedings from a workshop/meeting (February 4-5, 1998) between the North 

Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources, and the U.S. Department of the 

Interior’s Minerals Management Service (MMS). The geographic area being discussed is 

approximately 45 miles east-northeast of Cape Hatteras, NC, referred to as the Manteo Unit. This 

workshop reviewed environmental and socioeconomic information known and needed on the Manteo 

Unit. The MMS’s Gulf of Mexico OCS Regional Director gave an MMS perspective on history and 

status of the area. Chevron gave a presentation on how the exploratory well would be drilled. The 

scientific characterization was presented in greater detail by a number of scientific experts who spoke 

on the following disciplines physical environment, habitat and living resources, seabirds, marine 

mammals, sea turtles, and social and economic issues. Specific chapters are cited individually, when 

appropriate. 

The Oil Pollution Act of 1990, in a section cited as the Outer Banks Protection Act (OBPA), created 

the ESRP (Costlow et al. 1992). The review panel was to be composed of five members, a marine 

scientist selected by the Secretary of the Interior, a marine specialist selected by the Governor of 

North Carolina, and three scientists, one each from the disciplines of physical oceanography, ecology, 

and social sciences, selected jointly by the Secretary and the Governor from a list developed by the 

national Academy of Sciences. After a series of deliberations and public hearings during 1991-1992, 

this panel submitted its recommendations to the Secretary of Commerce identifying the two areas in 

greatest need of additional study (1) benthic oceanographic studies; and (2) socioeconomic studies. 
Socioeconomic Chapter — 327 

*This map (Environmental Report Visual I: Physical Features and Special Use Areas) includes the 

project area and specifically shows lease blocks, including Manteo Lease Block 467. Features 

include: Mid-Atlantic/South-Atlantic Planning Boundary, Marine Sanctuary and Buffer Zone, Leases 

Covered by the Memorandum of Understanding, Military Operating Areas, Ocean Dumpsites (e.g., 

General Dumping Grounds, Undetonated Explosives, Disused Radioactive Material), Traffic 

Separation Schemes, Submarine Transit Lanes, Coastal Zone County Boundaries, County 

Boundaries, State Boundaries. 

Ross, J. 1989. Commercial and Recreational Marine Fisheries off North Carolina’s Outer Banks. pp. 40-

44. In: Crawford, K. (ed.). Proceedings: 1989 Marine Expo: The Natural Resources Associated with 

Mobil’s Proposed Drill Site. NC Outer Continental Shelf Office, NC Department of Administration. 

Raleigh, NC. 

*This section provides an overview of year round, recreational fishing, commercial fishing, and 

fisheries harvests in the study area. The potential project-related-impacts to fisheries-based 

socioeconomics, and the impact of project-related pollution are discussed. Sargassum is mentioned. 

U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service. 1990. Environmental Report Visual I: 

Physical Features and Special Use Areas. U.S. Department of Interior, Minerals Management Service, 

Atlantic OCS Region. 

U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service. 1992. Proceedings of the Fourth Atlantic 

OCS Region Information Transfer Meeting, September 1991. U.S. Department of the Interior, 

Minerals Management Service. Herndon, VA. 198 p. 

The Fourth Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) Regional Information Transfer Meeting (ITM) 

was held on 24-25 September, 1991, in Wilmington, NC. The focus of the meeting was on the OCS 

off North Carolina, specifically on activities related to a proposed exploratory well for oil and gas by 

Mobil on Block 467 a site 40 miles off the coast of North Carolina. The area of industry interest is 

known as the Manteo Prospect, while the activities surrounding the proposed drilling are referred to 

collectively as the Manteo Project. The wildcat wellsite is in 2,690 ft. (857 m) of water near the edge 

of the Gulf Stream. It is also near a fishing ground known locally as “The Point.” The area is believed 

to be gas prone rather than oil prone. The estimated size of the resource could be as high as 5 trillion 

cubic feet of gas. 

The purpose of the meeting was to exchange information on the leasing background, legislative 

activities, scientific results, and socioeconomic studies. Legislative-related reports include 

descriptions of the Oil Pollution Act of 1990, the Outer Banks Protection Act, the Environmental 

Studies Review Panel, and the North Carolina Physical Oceanography Panel. Reports of studies on 

marine life include benthic diatoms, benthic fauna, pelagic seabirds, sea turtles, and right whales. One 

report describes the use of airships (blimps) for ocean research a capability relevant to North Carolina 

because of the east coast airship facility is located in the state. Local marine science facilities 

described include NOAA’s National Undersea Research Center at the University of North Carolina at 

Wilmington (NURC/UNCW) and the National Marine Fisheries Service laboratory in Beaufort. 

Developments in oil spill cleanup technology and capabilities are described by both the Coast Guard 

and the industry. A socioeconomic report describes the effects of the oil and gas activities on the 

tourist industry. Lastly, research on the restoration of salt marshes indicates that rehabilitation of an 

area is possible when development or an accident has occurred. While the emphasis of the meeting 

was on oil and gas, two reports described the results of projects related to offshore sand mining. The 

appendix lists the names and addresses of speakers. Individual chapters are cited individually when 

appropriate. 
328 — Literature and Data Inventory Related to the Hatteras Middle Slope Area

Vigil, D.L. (ed.). 1998. North Carolina/Minerals Management Service Technical Workshop on Manteo 

Unit Exploration: February 4-5, 1998. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management Service. Gulf 

of Mexico OCS Region. New Orleans, LA. 168 p. 

*These are the proceedings from a workshop/meeting (February 4-5, 1998) between the North 

Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources, and the U.S. Department of the 

Interior’s Minerals Management Service (MMS). The geographic area being discussed is 

approximately 45 miles east-northeast of Cape Hatteras, NC, referred to as the Manteo Unit. This 

workshop reviewed environmental and socioeconomic information known and needed on the Manteo 

Unit. The MMS’s Gulf of Mexico OCS Regional Director gave an MMS perspective on history and 

status of the area. Chevron gave a presentation on how the exploratory well would be drilled. The 

scientific characterization was presented in greater detail by a number of scientific experts who spoke 

on the following disciplines physical environment, habitat and living resources (invertebrates and 

fish), seabirds, marine mammals, sea turtles, and social and economic issues. Specific chapters are 

cited individually, when appropriate. 
Key to Socioeconomic Citations (no mapped citations).

Studies that Cover the HatteMiddle Slope Area ("The Po

Studies that Focus on the Manteo Lease Blocks

Costlow (1992)Crawford (1989)Harris (1989)Oynes (1998)Peterson (1998)U.S.D.O.I.-Minerals Mgmt. Service (1992)Vigil (1998) Broad Regional Studies

Abernathy et al. (1989)Costlow et al. (1992)EEZ-SCAN 87 Scientific StafPalmquist et al. (2000)Pearson (1932)

Kirby-Smith (1989)Orbach (1998a, 1998b)Ross, S. (1989)U.S.D.O.I.-Minerals Mgmt. Se
APPENDIX 

CITATION AND CHAPTER CROSS REFERENCE LIST 
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Citation Fishery Invert. Bird Mammal Reptile Biol. Chem. Geol. PhysAbernathy et al. (1989) X X X X X X X X X Able & Fahay (1998) X Able & Kaiser (1994) X Able et al. (1989) X Able et al. (1995) X XAdams et al. (1993) X Ahrenholz et al. (1987) X Almeida et al. (1984) X XAmato (1994) X Anderson (1979) X Anderson (1985) X Anderson & Gehringer (1959a) X XAnderson & Gehringer (1959b) X XAnderson et al. (1956) X X XAnderson et al. (1961) X XAnderson et al. (1994) X XAshjian et al. (1994) X X Atkinson (1985) X XAtkinson (1992) X Atkinson et al. (1985) X X X XAtkinson et al. (1998) X XAzarovitz (unpub.) X XBailey et al. (1991) X XBailey et al. (1995) X X
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Citation Fishery Invert. Bird Mammal Reptile Biol. Chem. Geol. PhysBane (1983) X X Bane & Brooks (1979) X X Barber (1985) X Barbieri et al. (1994) X Barrett (1965) X X Bedsole et al. (1980) X Berrien (1978) X Berrien & Sibunka (1999) X Berrien et al. (1978) X Blair (1998) X X X X X Blair et al. (1991) X X X Blair et al. (1994) X X Blair et al. (1996) X X X Blake (1993) X Blake (1994) X Blake & Avent (1998) X Blake & Diaz (1994) X X Blake & Diaz (1998) X X Blake & Grassle (1994) X X Blake & Hilbig (1994) X X Blake et al. (1987) X X X XBlumberg & Mellor (1983) X XBoreman (1983) X Bowen (1989) X 
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Citation Fishery Invert. Bird Mammal Reptile Biol. Chem. Geol. PhysBrinkley (1994a) X Brinkley (1994b) X Brodziak & Hendrickson (1999) X Brown (1991) X XBrown et al. (1996) X Browne (1980) X Buckley (1973) X Bullis & Cummins (1974) X Bumpus (1973) X Butler et al. (1983) X X Cahoon et al. (1994) X XCarter & Parnell (1974) X CETAP (1979) X XCheckley et al. (1988) X XCheckley et al. (1989) X XChen & Hillman (1970) X Clapp et al. (1982a) X Clapp et al. (1982b) X Clapp et al. (1983) X Clark et al. (1969) X XCleary & Thayer (1973) X Coles and Musick (2000) X XColvocoresses & Musick (1984) X Continental Shelf Assts. (1983) X X
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Citation Fishery Invert. Bird Mammal Reptile Biol. Chem. Geol. PhysContinental Shelf Assts. (1989) X X Continental Shelf Assts.(1991) X Cook et al. (1979) X Costlow (1992) X X Costlow et al. (1992) X X X Coston-Clements et al. (1991) X X X Crawford (1989) X X X X X X X X Crawford (1998) X Csanady & Hamilton (1988) X Currin & Ross (1999) X Curtin (1979a) X X X Curtin (1979b) X X X Curtin (1979c) X X X Curtin (1979d) X X X Cutler (1975) X X Cutler & Doble (1979) X Cutter et al. (1994a) X X X X X Cutter et al. (1994b) X X X X DeMaster et al. (1994) X X X Desfosse et al. (1990) X Diaz et al. (1993a) X X X XDiaz et al. (1993b) X X X XDiaz et al. (1994) X XDiaz et al. (1998) X X X
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Citation Fishery Invert. Bird Mammal Reptile Biol. Chem. Geol. PhysDillon & Popenoe (1988) X Dittmann et al. (1989) X Dryfoos et al. (1973) X Duplantier (1998) X Edwards et al. (1962) X XEEZ-SCAN 87 Scientific Staff (1991) 

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Emery (1970) X Emery (1971) X Epperly et al. (1989) X Epperly et al. (1995) X XEwing & Thorndike (1965) X Fedoryako (1989) X X Flescher (1980) X Flores-Coto & Warlen (1993) X Fogt (1992) X Fornes et al. (1999) X XFRED Group (1989a) X FRED Group (1989b) X George & Hulbert (1989) X X XGettleson (1992) X X XGillikin et al. (1978) X Gillikin et al. (1979) X XGillikin et al. (1980a) X Gillikin et al. (1980b) X 
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Citation Fishery Invert. Bird Mammal Reptile Biol. Chem. Geol. PhysGillikin et al. (1981) X Goldstein (1986) X Gooday et al. (1992) X Gray & Cerame-Vivas (1963) X Gray et al. (1968) X Grosslein & Azarovitz (1982) X X Gudger (1932) X Guthrie et al. (1980) X Guthrie et al. (1981) X X Hamilton & Berger (1992) X Hamm & Slater (1979) X Haney & Lee (1994) X Haney et al. (1991) X Haney et al. (1993) X Haney et al. (1999) X Hare & Cowen (1996) X X Harris (1989) X Harvey (1994) X X X Hass (1997) X Hass (in press) X Hastie (1995) X Hecker (1994) X Heezen (1968) X XHelmuth (1920) X 
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Citation Fishery Invert. Bird Mammal Reptile Biol. Chem. Geol. PhysHilbig (1994) X XHogans & Sulak (1992) X XHolland & Powell (1975) X Holland & Yelverton (1973) X Holland et al. (1975a) X Holland et al. (1975b) X Holland et al. (1976) X Holland et al. (1978a) X Holland et al. (1978b) X Holland et al. (1979a) X Holland et al. (1979b) X XHolland et al. (1980a) X Holland et al. (1980b) X Holland et al. (1981a) X XHolland et al. (1981b) X XHolland et al. (1981c) X Hood & Bane (1983) X Hoss (1992) X X XInman & Dolan (1989) X XIsley et al. (1990) X Janowitz (1989) X XJanowitz & Pietrafesa (1996) X Jaycor (1980) X XJohns & Watts (1986) X 
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Citation Fishery Invert. Bird Mammal Reptile Biol. Chem. Geol. PhysJohnson et al. (1978) X Johnson et al. (1981) X Johnson et al. (1983) X Jones (1967) X Keefe et al. (1975) X Keefe et al. (1976) X Keefe et al. (1977) X Keefe et al. (1978) X Keinath (1992) X Kendall (1972) X Kendall & Reintjes (1975) X Kennelly (1999) X Kirby- Smith (1985) X Kirby-Smith (1989a) X X X X Kirby-Smith (1989b) X X X Kirshen (1979) X Kohler et al. (1998) X Kraus (1992) X Lang (1998) X Langfelder et al. (1979) X X X X Laws & Cahoon (1992) X Lazzel (1980) X Lee (1977) X Lee (1979) X 
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Citation Fishery Invert. Bird Mammal Reptile Biol. Chem. Geol. PhysLee (1983) X XLee (1984) X Lee (1985a) X Lee (1985b) X Lee (1985c) X Lee (1986a) X Lee (1986b) X Lee (1986c) X Lee (1987a) X Lee (1987b) X Lee (1988a) X Lee (1988b) X Lee (1988c) X Lee (1989a) X Lee (1989b) X Lee (1991a) X X X Lee (1991b) X Lee (1992a) X Lee (1992b) X Lee (1995a) X Lee (1995b) X Lee (1999a) X Lee (1999b) X Lee (2000) X 
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Citation Fishery Invert. Bird Mammal Reptile Biol. Chem. Geol. PhysLee & Booth (1979) X Lee & Cardiff (1993) X Lee & Haney (1984) X Lee & Haney (1996) X Lee & Horner (1989) X Lee & Irvin (1983) X Lee & Lang (1998) X X X Lee & Moser (1998) X Lee & Palmer (1981) X Lee & Platania (1979) X Lee & Rowlett (1979) X Lee & Socci (1989) X X Lee & Vina (1993) X Lee & Walsh-McGehee (1998) X Lee et al. (1981) X Lee et al. (1998) X X X Legeckis & Bane (1983) X Levin (1991) X Levin et al. (1997) X X X X Loesch et al. (1977) X Lutenauer & Pilkey (1967) X MacIntyre & Milliman (1970) X Magnuson et al. (1981) X X XManheim et al. (1970) X XMarshall (1951) X X
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Citation Fishery Invert. Bird Mammal Reptile Biol. Chem. Geol. PhysMcCann et al. (1984) X XMcGowan & Richards (1989) X XMcLawhorn (1998) X Mellor (1998) X Mellor & Paull (1994) X Milliman (1994) X XMilliman et al. (1994) X X X X XMills (1992) X XMinerals Mgmt. Service (1982a) X XMinerals Mgmt. Service (1982b) X XMinerals Mgmt. Service (1982c) X XMinkler (unpub.) X Moffit (1989a) X Moffit (1989b) X Morse (1980) X Moser & Lee (1992) X Moser et al. (1995) X X XMoser et al. (1996) X Moser et al. (1997) X Moser et al. (1998) X Musick (1979) X Musick (1985) X Musick & Mercer (1977) X Myers (1968) X Nash et al. (1987) X XNash et al. (1989) X 
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Citation Fishery Invert. Bird Mammal Reptile Biol. Chem. Geol. PhysNMFS-SE Fisheries Center (1974) X NOAA-NMFS-NE Fish. Center (1977) X Nero et al. (1990) X Nesbit & Neville (1935) X X Newton et al. (1971) X X Nickerson & Mountain (1983) X X Nixon & Jones (1997) X Norcross (1983) X Norcross & Austin (1988) X X Ocean Margins Pgm. (OMP) (1993) X X Olney & Sedberry (1983) X Olson et al. (1983) X Orbach (1989) X X X X X Orbach (1998a) X Orbach (1998b) X O'Reilly & Zetlin (1998) X X Oynes (1998) X Pacheco (1973) X Palmquist et al. (2000) X Paull (1989) X Paull (1991) X Paull (1992) X Paull (1998) X Pearson (1932) X 
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Citation Fishery Invert. Bird Mammal Reptile Biol. Chem. Geol. PhysPeterson (1998) 

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Phalen (1980) X XPhalen (unpub. a) X Phalen (unpub. b) X Phalen (unpub. c) X Phalen (unpub. d) X Phalen (unpub. e) X XPhalen (unpub. f) X Phalen (unpub. g) X XPietrafesa (1983) X XPietrafesa (1989) X Pietrafesa (1991) X Pietrafesa (1998) X XPietrafesa et al. (1978) X Pietrafesa et al. (1985a) X Pietrafesa et al. (1985b) X Pietrafesa et al. (1994) X XPlatania et al. (1986) X Powell et al. (1975a) X Powell et al. (1975b) X Powell et al. (1975c) X XPowell et al. (1975d) X Powell et al. (1975e) X Powell et al. (1975f) X X
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Citation Fishery Invert. Bird Mammal Reptile Biol. Chem. Geol. PhysPowell et al. (1975g) X Pratt (1968) X Renaud et al. (1993) X X X Rhoads & Hecker (1994) X X Richards & Kendall (1973) X Richardson (1977) X Rona (1969) X Rona (1970) X X Ross, J. (1989) X Ross, J. (1991) X X Ross, S.(1985a) X X X X X Ross, S.(1985b) X Ross, S.(1988) X Ross, S.(1989) X Ross, S.(1991) X X X Ross, S.(1998) X X Ross, S.(unpub. a) X X X Ross, S.(unpub. b) X Ross, S.(unpub. c) X Ross & Moye (1989) X X Ross & Scarborough-Bull (1998) X XRoss et al. (1984) X XRoss et al. (1985) X XRoss et al. (1986) X X
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Citation Fishery Invert. Bird Mammal Reptile Biol. Chem. Geol. PhysRoss et al. (2001) X XRoss et al. (unpub.) X X X Rotunno & Cowen (1997) X Rowe (1971) X X XRowlett (1978) X Schaff (1991) X Schaff & Levin (1994) X Schaff et al. (1992) X X XSchneider et al. (1967) X XSchwartz (1989a) X Schwartz (1989b) X Science App. Intl. Corp. (1991) X Settle (1993) X Settle (1997) X X X Shepard (1991) X X X X X X X X X Shepard (1992) X XShepard & Hulbert (1994) X X X X X X Shepard et al. (1992) X Shepherd (1982) X Shepherd & Grimes (1983) X Shepherd & Terceiro (1994) X Shephard et al. (1993) X XShoop & Kenney (1992) X Smith (1973) X 
Oceanorgaphy: 

Citation Fishery Invert. Bird Mammal Reptile Biol. Chem. Geol. PhysSmith et al. (1975) X Sogard et al. (1992) X S.Atlantic Fish. Mgmt. Council (1998) X X Stancyk (in press) X X Stancyk et al. (1991) X Stancyk et al. (1998) X X Stefansson & Atkinson (1967) X X Stefansson et al. (1971) X X Stillwell & Kohler (1993) X Stoner (1983) Sulak (1992) X Sulak & Ross (1993) X Sulak & Ross (1996) X X Taylor et al. (1978) X Taylor et al. (1979) X Tove (1997a) X Tove (1997b) X Trent et al. (1983) X Uchupi & Emery (1967) X X Uchupi (1967) X XU.S. Dept. of Comm.-NOAA (1985) X USDOI-Minerals Mgmt. Ser. (1989) X XUSDOI-Minerals Mgmt. Ser. (1990a) X X X X X XUSDOI-Minerals Mgmt. Ser. (1990b) 
Oceanorgaphy: 

Citation Fishery Invert. Bird Mammal Reptile Biol. Chem. Geol. PhysUSDOI-Minerals Mgmt. Ser. (1992) X X X X X X X U.S. Dept. of the Navy (1985) X X X X X XUstach (unpub.) X Vaughn et al. (1976) X Verity (1998) X XVigil (1998) X X X X X X X X X Wadell (1984a) X Wadell (1984b) X Walsh (1994) X X X XWatson et al. (1986) X Weetman (1992) X Welby & Pietrafesa (1979) X Wells & Gray (1960) X Weston (1988) X Whaling & Olsen (1981) X Whaling et al. (1980) X Wiley & Lee (1998) X Wiley & Lee (1999) X Wiley & Lee (2000) X Wiley et al. (1994) X Wilk & Silverman (1976) X XWilk et al. (1980) X Willey & Cahoon (1991) X XWingate et al (1998) X 
Oceanorgaphy: 

Citation Fishery Invert. Bird Mammal Reptile Biol. Chem. Geol. PhysWittman et al. (1984) X Witzell (1999) X X Wollam (1970) X Total Number: 414 29 29 47 88 99 
The Department of the Interior Mission

As the Nation's principal conservation agency, the Department of the Interior has responsibility 

for most of our nationally owned public lands and natural resources. This includes fostering 

sound use of our land and water resources; protecting our fish, wildlife, and biological diversity; 

preserving the environmental and cultural values of our national parks and historical places; 

and providing for the enjoyment of life through outdoor recreation. The Department assesses 

our energy and mineral resources and works to ensure that their development is in the best 

interests of all our people by encouraging stewardship and citizen participation in their care. 

The Department also has a major responsibility for American Indian reservation communities 

and for people who live in island territories under U.S. administration. 

The Minerals Management Service Mission 

As a bureau of the Department of the Interior, the Minerals Management Service's (MMS) 

primary responsibilities are to manage the mineral resources located on the Nation's Outer 

Continental Shelf (OCS), collect revenue from the Federal OCS and onshore Federal and Indian 

lands, and distribute those revenues. 

Moreover, in working to meet its responsibilities, the Offshore Minerals Management Program 

administers the OCS competitive leasing program and oversees the safe and environmentally 

sound exploration and production of our Nation's offshore natural gas, oil and other mineral 

resources. The MMS Minerals Revenue Management meets its responsibilities by ensuring the 

efficient, timely and accurate collection and disbursement of revenue from mineral leasing and 

production due to Indian tribes and allottees, States and the U.S. Treasury. 

The MMS strives to fulfill its responsibilities through the general guiding principles of: (1) being 

responsive to the public's concerns and interests by maintaining a dialogue with all potentially 

affected parties and (2) carrying out its programs with an emphasis on working to enhance the 

quality of life for all Americans by lending MMS assistance and expertise to economic 

development and environmental protection.