OCS Study 

MMS 2004-033 

Alaska OCS Region 

Proceedings of a Workshop on the 

Variability of Arctic Cisco (Qaaktaq) 

in the Colville River 

November 18, 19, and 20, 2003 

Kisik Community Center 

Nuiqsut, Alaska 

MMS U.S. Department of the Interior 

Minerals Management Service

Alaska OCS Region
OCS Study 

MMS 2004-033 

Proceedings of a Workshop on 

the Variability of Arctic Cisco (Qaaktaq) 

in the Colville River 

November 18, 19, and 20, 2003 

Kisik Community Center 

Nuiqsut, Alaska 

Prepared for: 

U. S. Department of the Interior 

Minerals Management Service 

Alaska OCS Region 

3801 Centerpoint Drive 

Anchorage, Alaska 99503 

Prepared by: 

MBC Applied Environmental Sciences 

3000 Redhill Avenue 

Costa Mesa, California 92626 

Under Contract No. 1435-01-02-CT-31150 

Task Order No. 72125 
DISCLAIMER 

This report has been reviewed by the Alaska OCS Region, Minerals Management Service, U. S. 

Department of the Interior and approved for publication. The opinions, findings, conclusions, or 

recommendations expressed in the report are those of the authors, and do not necessarily reflect

the view of the Minerals Management Service. Mention of trade names for commercial products

does not constitute endorsement or recommendations for use. This report is exempt from review 

by the Minerals Management Service Technical Publication Unit and Regional Editor. 

REPORT AVAILABILITY

This document is available to the public through:

National Technical Information Service 

5285 Port Royal Road 

Springfield, Virginia 22161 

FAX: (703) 605-6900 

www.ntis.gov 

CITATION

Suggested citation:

MBC Applied Environmental Sciences. 2004. Proceedings of a Workshop on the Variability of Arctic 

Cisco (Qaaktaq) in the Colville River. OCS Study MMS 2004-033. Prepared by MBC Applied 

Environmental Sciences, Costa Mesa, CA. Prepared for the U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals

Management Service, Alaska OCS Region, Anchorage, AK. 60 pp. plus appendices. 

ii 
Table of Contents 

Page 

Disclaimer...................................................................................................................................................ii

Acknowledgements................................................................................................................................... iv 

Executive Summary................................................................................................................................... v 

Introduction ............................................................................................................................................... 1

Welcoming Remarks................................................................................................................................. 2

Background Presentations 

Life History of Arctic Cisco in the Alaskan Beaufort Sea - Larry Moulton .......................................... 7 

Physical Environment and Habitat of the Arctic Cisco - Bob Fechhelm............................................... 9 

Traditional Knowledge Panel Discussion

Eli Nukapigak ...................................................................................................................................... 11 

Carl Brower ......................................................................................................................................... 12 

Gordon Brown ..................................................................................................................................... 14 

Joeb Woods, Sr. ................................................................................................................................... 15 

Marjorie Ahnupkana............................................................................................................................ 17 

Ruth Nukapigak................................................................................................................................... 18 

Dora Nukapigak................................................................................................................................... 19 

General Discussion .............................................................................................................................. 20 

Workshop Presentations 

Mackenzie River Arctic Cisco Biology and Population Trends – Randal Pokiak............................... 26 

Alaska Beaufort Arctic Cisco Biology and Population Trends – Bob Fechhelm ................................ 30 

Colville River Arctic Cisco Population Trends – Larry Moulton........................................................ 33 

Canadian Beaufort Nearshore Oceanography and Mackenzie River 

 Winter Hydrology – David Fissel ............................................................................................... 35 

Beaufort Oceanography and Colville River Hydrology – Kate Wedemeyer....................................... 37 

Arctic Ocean Climates Cycles – Kate Wedemeyer.............................................................................. 39 

Possible Global Warming and Arctic Oscillation Impacts on Small Fish Stocks – Two Crow........... 42 

Exploitation Dynamics of Small Fish Stocks like Arctic Cisco – Jennifer Nielsen............................. 45 

Modeling Approaches to Understanding Variability in Small Fish Stocks – Terrance Quinn II......... 47 

Working Group Discussions and Recommendations 

General Comments ........................................................................................................................ 49 

Studies Categorized ........................................................................................................................ 54 

Information Sources ........................................................................................................................ 56 

Funding and Partnering........................................................................................................................ 57 

Closing Remarks ..............................................................................................................58

Appendix A - Questions and Issues listed by Group 

Appendix B – Attendee List 

Appendix C – Agenda 

Appendix D – Arctic Cisco Bibliography 

iii 
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 

We would like to acknowledge Leonard Lampe, Sr. for his invaluable assistance 

in making this workshop a success. We appreciate the participation of the panel 

of elders and local experts including: Leonard Lampe, Sr., Eli Nukapigak, Carl 

Brower, Gordon Brown, Joeb Woods, Sr., Marjorie Ahnupkana, Ruth 

Nukapigak, and Dora Nukapigak 

In addition, although she was unable to attend, we would like to acknowledge 

Lois Harwood, Dept. of Fisheries and Oceans Canada for her efforts in 

coordinating participation from Canada. We would especially like to thank 

Randal and James Pokiak, from Tuk Harbor, Canada. Even though due to travel 

complications they did not make it to the meeting, we appreciate their enormous 

efforts. 

MMS would like to thank Larry Moulton for sharing his extensive Arctic cisco 

bibliography 

iv
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 

It is the responsibility of MMS to manage the offshore development of oil and gas 

resources in an environmentally sound and safe manner. For more than 20 years MMS 

investigators have studied how to protect natural resources that could be affected by

offshore development. 

Falling catches of Arctic cisco in recent years and the possible correlations with 

offshore development are of great concern to residents of the North Slope Borough. 

MMS convened this workshop to bring together local experts from Nuiqsut, Kaktovik, 

and Barrow Alaska and Tuktoyaktuk, Canada, as well as scientists from the United 

States and Canada. Collectively they represent a wealth of expertise and experience. 

The primary goals were to share their knowledge of the Arctic cisco, to identify

important questions and consider how those questions might be answered in the future. 

The present scientific theory is that the Arctic cisco found in the Colville River are 

carried west as young-of-the year by wind-driven currents from the Mackenzie River in 

Canada. They feed in brackish waters along the coast in the summer and in August 

enter the Colville Delta to overwinter. They remain in the Colville Delta region 

reaching maturity at 7 to 8 years of age, and then migrate one or more times to the 

Mackenzie River to spawn. 

Commercial catches within the Colville Delta have been monitored since 1967, and 

subsistence catches since 1985. Reported catches have been variable over time with 

higher than average catches in 1974, 1985, 1994, 1997, and lower than average catches 

in 1980, 1989, 1995, and a series of declining catches from 1997 to 2002. It is this latter 

sequence that has caused community concern. 

A panel of community elders and local experts recounted to fellow workshop 

participants their personal observations of historical catches of Arctic cisco, and events 

associated with the rise and fall of the catches or availability of the fish. Some of these 

observations were before 1940. The changes most emphasized in the presentations were 

the decreases in subsistence catches from nets set under the ice of the Colville River 

during the 1970s, with many examples of catches dropping from hundreds of fish per 

day to tens of fish or less per day. Residents reported Arctic cisco have also decreased 

in size, now requiring the use of smaller mesh nets. Concerns and possible correlations 

with oil development include both onshore and offshore activities. The elders noted 

changes in the landscape with erosion; changes in weather; faster earlier breakups, 

slower later freeze ups; more west winds; unusual weather; and sudden turbulent ocean 

currents in the absence of winds. Additional presentations of Arctic cisco ecology, 

oceanography, genetics techniques and fisheries modeling continued with discussions 

of issues and information needs. 

Some of the participants were asked directly “what was the most surprising or 

significant piece of information they had learned during the prior day.” One of the 

elders, Ruth Nukapigak (age 79 yrs), responded with the statement that she “already 

knew all of the stuff the scientists had said.” Indeed, she had recounted observations 

v 
that had validated the scientific observations, and in turn the scientists had validated the 

traditional observations. 

The participants divided into two discussion groups, each with a mix of local experts, 

elders and scientific disciplines. Each group assembled a prioritized list of issues and 

questions regarding Arctic cisco that need to be addressed in future studies. Each 

participant contributed what he or she considered the most important issues or 

information needs. Once each participant had the opportunity to present at least one 

idea, the process was repeated to insure that all issues were recorded and understood. 

Each participant identified the three information needs or issues they felt were most 

important. Those top priority rankings were combined to obtain the group-prioritized 

list. 

One discussion group’s top concerns included: 

1. Using existing long term data from Endicott causeway studies, e.g., fyke net 

data 

2. Using the long term fisheries catch data. 

3. Gather genetic data to ascertain spawning stock sources. 

4. Is the diet of the fish changing or being affected by activity from industry?

5. Gather and document traditional knowledge from the elders about the 

biology, ecology, etc. of arctic cisco. 

6. Identify factors that affect survival from age 0-5. 

The second discussion group’s top concerns included: 

1. Exploration and development effects on Arctic cisco and their migration. 

2. Better understanding of Arctic cisco stocks and source populations. 

3. Fish health and whether the fish are safe to eat. 

4. Effects from ice bridges on current flow, starting with the Colville River. 

5. How the changing depths of the Colville River and the delta affect Arctic 

cisco migration into the Colville River. 

6. The decreasing size of Arctic cisco. 

The discussion groups reassembled as one group to present the lists, seek clarification, 

and entertain questions. The final priority of study topics based on combining all 

participant votes was: 

1. Effects of Development and Human Activities 

2. Review Previously Collected Canada and Alaska Data, including Elders’ 

information 

3. Arctic cisco life history

4. Migration of Young of the Year from Mackenzie River 

5. Water quality, contaminants 

6. Genetics, source stocks 

7. Colville River Dynamics 

8. Ice roads and bridges 

9.5 Seismic, noise 

9.5 Climate change 

11. Socio-economics 

Conceptually, there was a consensus that initial efforts should be made to collect and 

synthesize available information. There are very good catch statistics for both the 

commercial fishery since 1967 and the subsistence fishery since 1985. There is relevant 

vi
data on the fisheries, fishes, oceanography, weather, water quality, and land use. If it 

were necessary to rely on “to-be-collected” data, the time required to attempt to answer 

some of the questions asked during the workshop, would probably be more than a 

decade. Such a time interval is unacceptable. 

If a database were assembled and synthesized it would be of great assistance in 

identifying gaps. Such a study would make use of the existing data to gain further 

understanding of the observed trends in Arctic cisco abundance and estimate what 

factors influence population variation. It would also help weight priority data to be 

acquired in future studies. 

Therefore, emphasis should be given to a careful examination of the database available 

so that its use can be maximized to identify trends over space and time. Proposed 

studies for future efforts can be used to both validate past trends and correlations, and to 

focus on specific questions that have not been previously addressed. 

There was also considerable interest in genetic and otolith microchemistry studies to 

address questions on stock structure and life history information in terms of migratory

patterns. 

Some of the existing data sets participants were aware of include: 

Iñupiaq archives of interviews and records on catch patterns over time. 

Catch data and otoliths from studies of causeway effects in the 1980s 

Catch data and 15 years of otoliths since 1984 on Nuiqsut subsistence fisheries 

MMS, USFWS fyke net studies in lagoons and coastal waters, 1970s and 1980s 

DNA genetics data from 1991 study

Freshwater Institute of Canada tagged fish data in the 1960s 

Because MMS is limited in the types of projects that can be funded, the participants 

identified potential state, federal and international agencies or organizations that may be 

approached for joint efforts or possible funding. Particular importance was given to the 

potential for a cooperative or collaborative effort between the Canadian and Alaskan 

communities. For some concerns such as water quality, ground water contamination, 

and measurements of body burden levels of possible contaminants in subsistence foods 

there are existing programs the community can ask for assistance or participation. 

vii 
INTRODUCTION 

It is the responsibility of MMS to manage the offshore development of oil and gas resources in an 

environmentally sound and safe manner. For more than 20 years MMS investigators have studied 

how to protect natural resources that could be affected by offshore development. In recent years 

residents of the North Slope Borough have been concerned with falling catches of Arctic cisco 

and the possible correlations with offshore development. MMS offered to convene a workshop 

bringing together local experts from Nuiqsut, Kaktovik, and Barrow, Alaska and Tuktoyaktuk, 

Canada, as well as scientists from the United States and Canada. The primary goals were to share 

knowledge of the Arctic cisco, and to identify important questions and how those questions might 

be answered in the future. 

Presenters and panelists were provided the opportunity to review this document. Please 

note that we have made every effort to accurately transcribe places names. We apologize if any

are misspelled. 

1 
WELCOMING REMARKS 

Leonard Lampe, Sr. 

President, Native Village of Nuiqsut 

Kuukpik Corporation, P.O. Box 187, Nuiqsut, AK 99789 

(907) 480-6220, FAX (907) 480-6126, E-mail: llampe@astacalaska.net 

I am glad that you have all come up today from many parts of the States. I appreciate you taking 

the time to come up to the workshop. I also want to thank our residents for taking the time to join 

the workshop. I know it takes a lot to come up to Nuiqsut; we are not a regular stop with Alaska 

Airlines. Again, thank you for taking the time. Arctic cisco is a big traditional part of our village 

lifestyle in Nuiqsut. We have always been a thriving fishing community. Approximately 30-40%

of our diet is from the fish of the rivers of the Nigliq Channel and Colville River. We depend on 

the cisco quite heavily. Before I go any further on the agenda I am going to first welcome you all 

to Nuiqsut and of course as I have expressed, thank you all for coming. I am going to go ahead 

and introduce our panel members as well as village residents that are here to participate in the 

workshop. But first I will ask Adeline Hopson to give us the blessing to start this meeting. Please 

stand for a prayer. It is a tradition among the Eskimo people on the North Slope to start off 

meetings with a blessing so that the meeting will go a lot easier and smoother as people give their 

views and to recognize the One above who has brought us here today. 

Blessing from Adeline Hopson: 

I want to thank everybody for being here and thank Leonard for asking me to lead 

this blessing. Let’s pray. Lord we thank you for this beautiful day and we thank you 

for helping us to all come here safely to attend this gathering. And Lord let every 

person here today be a part of something that needs to happen and give us the 

resources and knowledge to do our best. Oh Lord we thank you for this meeting, for 

our families, and all the love that you give us. Let us share what we know and all 

that needs to happen as we discuss this very important food source in this 

community. And Lord thank you for all of your guidance and your help. In Jesus 

name, we pray. Amen. 

Our facilitator is Chuck Mitchell. Ben Nageak is our translator for the elders. I again would like 

to thank you for being here and we welcome you to Nuiqsut. Kate Wedemeyer from MMS will be 

saying a few words. Now I would like to make the introductions of our Nuiqsut panel. I will first 

recognize our elders and then residents of the village. Marjorie Ahnupkana is an elder that has 

been here on the Colville River all of her life. She is very knowledgeable of the rivers and the 

patterns of the animals and the fishes of the Colville and the Nigliq channel. Joeb Woods, Sr. is 

very familiar with the Nigliq channel as well. He has family history on the Nigliq channel. His 

family was the only family that stayed and resided in the area when everybody moved back in the 

1940s. So Joeb is very knowledgeable about this area. 

Paul Okarok is also a resident of the Colville area and Nigliq channel. He has lived in the area all 

of this life. Paul is very familiar with the traditional knowledge of the area. Ruth Nukapigak has 

also been in the area all of her life. She knows the patterns and the seasons of the animals and the 

cycles of the fish. She is very active in the village and the community as well. Gordon Brown is a 

fisherman here who subsistence hunts. He has also held many titles here in the village. He helped 

start up the subsistence panel in the village. Carl Brower is also a fisherman in the village. He is 

also in the work force of the village corporation. He is a whaler and, more specifically, he is our 

2 
whaler. He has killed all the whales in the past few years for the village. Eli Nukapigak has also 

held many titles in the village. He is a fisherman and a subsistence hunter of the area. He is very

knowledgeable of the area. Dora Nukapigak is a fisherwoman of the Nigliq channel as well as the 

Colville. She is a very active hunter and fisherwoman. Her family is a very active subsistence 

family in the village. Her mother is Ruth. She is also a participant member of the community and 

other organizations as well as subsistence organizations. 

James Taalak, who works for Conoco-Phillips, is our “eyes and ears.” If there are any problems 

we go directly to James. He also deals with the local panels on subsistence issues, projects, and 

informs the leaders on what is happening and whom we can contact further if we want more 

details. Later we are expecting Isaac Nukapigak, he is also a fisherman of the area. Perhaps 

Bernice Kaigelak will make it. She is a local schoolteacher who is also an active fisherwoman of 

the Nigliq channel. So hopefully, she will be joining us later. Joeb Woods, Sr. may also come. 

This is our local panel and thank you for coming. 

Kate Wedemeyer 

Agency Coordinator for Arctic Fish Studies, US Minerals Management Service 

949 E. 36th Avenue, #308, Anchorage, AK 99508-4363 

(907) 271-6424, FAX (907) 271-6507, E-mail: kate.wedemeyer@mms.gov 

Paglaqivsi! I would say welcome in Iñupiaq but you probably wouldn’t understand my heavy

accent! Instead, on behalf of the Minerals Management Service, I’ll say in English, Welcome! 

As we begin I would like to especially thank the Nuiqsut residents for allowing us to come to 

your village and for sharing your knowledge with us today and tomorrow. Speakers and 

attendees, thank you for the benefit of your participation. Special thanks go out to our Canadian 

attendees for your willingness to take the long trip by plane. Some of them had to travel from

Tuktoyaktuk Harbor southeast to Edmonton, west to Seattle and back north to Fairbanks where 

they are stuck until tomorrow. For them it would have been shorter and more reliable to come

directly west by dogsled! Finally, thank you to MBC for arranging to get us here and for keeping 

us on track the next two days. 

In your packet is a sheet that describes the MMS mission. I’ll briefly describe that mission and 

why MMS sponsored this meeting. It is the MMS responsibility to manage oil and gas 

exploration and development on the Outer Continental Shelf–that is three miles or more offshore–

in an environmentally sound and safe manner. Within MMS, the Environmental Studies 

Program’s goal is to carry out studies that help us to predict, and minimize potential effects of 

offshore oil and gas activities on the humans, animals and plants in and around the Beaufort Sea. 

As the MMS Coordinator for Arctic Fish Studies it is my responsibility to collect information 

about fish that helps MMS to make better decisions, to monitor in case there are changes that we 

do not expect, and to help apply the information to improve future management decisions. 

Why did MMS sponsor this Arctic cisco workshop? For twenty years, MMS studied how to 

protect resources that might be affected by offshore development. Local residents were telling 

MMS about the low Arctic cisco catch and the North Slope Borough invited MMS to join the 

Arctic Cisco Working Group. That group identified the need to gather experts to share 

information and develop a plan to identify the causes. MMS offered to organize this workshop. 

3 
Why are local residents concerned? There have been record low numbers of Arctic cisco in the 

subsistence catch in recent years. The theory is that east winds that carry young Arctic cisco from

the Mackenzie River to the Colville River have been less strong. But that theory doesn’t seem to 

completely answer the record low numbers. We also need to look at how other physical and 

biological factors, including human activities, may be part of the reason for the decline in Arctic 

cisco numbers. 

Who was invited to this workshop? First of all, experts who have ten thousand years of 

experience with Arctic cisco, residents of Nuiqsut and Kaktovik, Alaska and of Tuktoyaktuk 

Harbor, Canada. We also invited Scientists who study Arctic cisco in Canada and Alaska, as well 

as local, state, federal, and industry representatives. 

Our workshop goals are: 

Share what we already know about the variability of Arctic cisco abundance, 

List the questions we need to answer to understand the causes, and 

Identify the most important questions, and how to answer them. 

Tomorrow evening we’ll: 

Identify which questions, in particular, can be related to the MMS mission, 

Develop brief study descriptions on how to answer them, 

Identify existing data, and 

Identify potential local, state, federal, and industry partners who can help answer the 

questions. 

What and where are the human activities to consider in relation to Arctic cisco? To orient us, 

here’s a map (Figure 1) of the Alaskan Beaufort coast. (I apologize for my American computer 

cutting off the Mackenzie River and Tuktoyaktuk Harbor in Canada on this map.) The coastal 

population centers on or near the coast include the villages of Barrow, Nuiqsut, Kaktovik, and 

Tuktoyaktuk Harbor. Nuiqsut, Kaktovik, and Tuk Harbor residents harvest Arctic cisco and share 

with other residents. 

The oil and gas development activities and areas include, the Barrow gas line and the National 

Petroleum Reserve (managed by BLM) to the west of Nuiqsut, the Alpine development on local 

lands, and to the east of Nuiqsut are all the developments on State leases around Prudhoe Bay and 

up to 3 miles offshore. To the north, MMS is responsible for developments farther offshore; to 

date that is only North Star, which is actually tapping both State and Federal leases. Are there any

important human activities I’ve missed?

In your folder is this map of the Colville River Delta. Many of the place names came from the 

publication “Nuiqsut, Land Use Values Through Time” published about 30 years ago. It was so 

interesting that, with the permission of the Nuiqsut Village Tribal Council, we sent a copy on CD 

to many of you. We appreciate any additions or corrections that you may want to write on your 

map and call to our attention. 

Also in your folder is a list of fish and ice terms in Iñupiaq, English and “scientific.” If you have 

are any additions or corrections, please let us know. Again, welcome and thank you for coming. 

4 
Appro

NauyOlikSeal WesEndiCrosKaktDemHersMacTuktBarr

Figure 1. Discussion Map for MMS Colville River Arctic Cisco Workshop. 

5 
Chuck Mitchell, Meeting Chair 

MBC Applied Environmental Sciences 

3000 Redhill Ave. Costa Mesa, CA 92626 

(714) 850-4830, FAX (714) 850-4840, E-mail: cmitchell@mbcnet.net 

Thank you Leonard and Kate. I am Chuck Mitchell. I am from MBC Applied Environmental 

Sciences and we are contractors to MMS. I will be facilitating the meeting over the next couple of 

days. Before we start, I, too, would like to thank the community of Nuiqsut for allowing us to 

have the meeting here in the community center. Thank you to the elders and the other residents 

that are here. It is really quite an honor to be here and help put together this workshop. Most of 

our participants, as Leonard has mentioned, have really come along way. We have brought people 

in from everywhere. So some of us are unfamiliar with the area and some of us are very familiar 

area. It ranges from one spectrum to the other. At this point I was going to introduce Leonard, but 

he obviously doesn’t need an introduction now. And I thank you for that Leonard. It was a big 

help and thank you for introducing you panel. I would have probably stumbled hopelessly

through all of those names. 

Over the next two days, we’ll collectively be sharing what we know about the Arctic cisco, its 

environment, and how the environment has changed in recent years. The decline in catch that we 

have all seen and that you all have been talking about are of great concern. It is our hope with all 

the expertise that is assembled here that somehow over the next couple of days, we can examine 

and prioritize possible causes and formulate study plans to identify or test for those causes. 

Collectively, I believe that we represent a wealth of expertise and experience. Each of us brings a 

part of the puzzle to share here of the next couple of days. I think we all have slightly different 

experiences and perspectives and that is what we need to exchange. Perhaps it is like an old paintby-the-number picture. As we fill in those little segments, the picture will be come apparent, with 

a little luck at all, by the end of the two days. I don’t want to over look any of the input from any

participant, any of the people here. So I am asking please don’t be shy. Be forthright, forthcoming 

with your descriptions and your input, and I’ll be seeking out input from each one of you. So in 

essence you can’t hide, I will come and get you because I want that input from everyone. There 

are no wallflowers here. To start the proceedings, we will have two speakers to provide us with 

general background on Arctic cisco life history and physical environmental and habitat 

6 
BACKGROUND PRESENTATIONS 

LIFE HISTORY OF ARCTIC CISCO IN 

THE ALASKAN BEAUFORT SEA 

Lawrence L. Moulton 

MJM Research, 1012 Shoreland Drive, Lopez Island, WA 98261 

(360) 468-4821 E-mail: lmoulton@rockisland.com

Arctic cisco is a migratory member of the whitefish complex that is found along the Alaskan 

Beaufort Sea coast. As with other ciscoes and whitefishes, they spawn in the fall in large rivers. 

Eggs hatch in spring and young are swept downstream during breakup. Sub-adults spend 

summers feeding along the coast, returning to river deltas to winter. For fish in the Alaskan 

Beaufort Sea, wintering is primarily in the Colville Delta, with some also in the Sagavanirktok 

Delta. Arctic cisco mature at 7 to 8 years old, at which time they migrate to spawning areas. 

Studies of Arctic cisco in this region began during the mid-1970s with the MMS-sponsored 

Simpson Lagoon Studies. The researchers noticed that mature and spawned-out fish were not 

present in the Colville region, while similar stages for other whitefishes were commonly found. In 

addition, tagged least cisco remained in the fishery for many years, while tagged Arctic cisco 

rapidly disappeared from the population. Based on little direct evidence, it was theorized that the 

Arctic cisco found in the Colville River migrated to the region from the Mackenzie River during 

their first year, remained there until maturity, and then returned to the Mackenzie River to spawn. 

Subsequent field research demonstrated that the Mackenzie-origin theory is probably correct: 

young-of-the-year Arctic cisco have been documented moving along the coast from the 

Mackenzie to the Colville, and adult Arctic cisco tagged in Alaska have been recovered in the 

Mackenzie River. The recruitment of young fish is dependent on prevailing winds during 

summer, with strong easterly winds during July and August favoring strong recruitments and 

predominantly westerly winds preventing recruitment. 

Discussion 

Terry Quinn – Where does the data come from? 

Larry Moulton – The Mackenzie data is from Bill Bonds’ work in the Mackenzie Delta. The least 

cisco ages and the Arctic cisco ages are from data that I have collected here. 

Terry Quinn – Does the data come from the fishery? 

Larry Moulton – Yes. The least cisco and the Colville Arctic cisco are from the 1999 samples 

taken from the Colville River. The numbers for the 4 to 7 year old fish are going to change quite a 

bit because you have one year class that dominates. It is going to move through the fishery. 

Dora Nukapigak – Were those studies done just during the summer? 

Larry Moulton – No, those are done just during the fall fishery. 

Two Crow – Do Arctic cisco spawn in Russian waters? 

7 
Larry Moulton – Not the Arctic cisco that we are discussing now, but other populations do spawn 

there. Bering cisco rather than the Arctic cisco. 

Eli Nukapigak – Bering cisco that we are catching now... 

Larry Moulton – It looks like they are coming from the Yukon River. Bering cisco are very 

different including the age structure of the fish. 

Carl Brower – Are Colville Arctic cisco going to Barrow in the summer? 

Larry Moulton –Bering cisco are traveling over to Barrow. They have a very different life history. 

Some Arctic cisco are also coming from the Mackenzie River; about 80% are Bering cisco and 

about 20% are Arctic cisco. 

Bill Streever – Looking at the data, there are no age classes representing years 1-2. Does this 

reflect the sampling methods or the actual numbers? 

Larry Moulton – Gill nets are used to sample therefore we are unable to catch the small fishes 

that comprise those age classes. It is all standardized to one mesh size, 3-inch mesh. 

Eli Nukapigak – When is maturity reached? I have seen some big fish. I’ve caught a 10 year old. 

Larry Moulton – Maturity is reached at about 7 years of age. The big fish that have been 

observed are usually between 9 and 10 years old. Some fish start maturing as late as 8 years old. 

There is no exact age when maturity is reached. 

Jennifer Nielsen – This question is for the local community, is there any information or memory 

of a change in size of the fish caught traditionally other than the data taken from the 1999 

sampling? 

Dora Nukapigak – Last year the fish were very small. 

Carl Brower – In the 1970s the fish were very large. Compared to the 1970s when we had large 

fish, last year we had small ones. They’ve grown smaller every year. 

Marjorie Ahnupkana – In the 1970s I remember the fish being very large and over the years the 

fish have been getting smaller. I have seen a lot of changes of the years in the size of the Arctic 

cisco. Black spots are the difference between Bering and Arctic cisco. 

Joeb Woods, Sr. – In 1948 we used larger nets, 3 inches or larger. We saw both the Bering cisco 

and Arctic cisco and were able to tell the difference between the two species of fish. In 1970, we 

noticed changes starting to occur, the fish seemed to be getting smaller and smaller. We had to 

go down the river farther because of the currents and again the fish are not as fat. 

8 
PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT AND HABITAT 

OF THE ARCTIC CISCO 

Bob Fechhelm 

LGL, 1410 Cavitt St., Bryan, TX 77801 

(979) 775-2000, FAX (979) 775-2002, E-mail: bfechhelm@excite.com

Fishes of the North Slope are typically classified in terms of four life-history strategies. They are 

either anadromous, amphidromous, freshwater, or marine. The habitat preferences of freshwater 

and marine species are obvious. Freshwater species spend their entire lives in freshwater lakes, 

streams, and rivers of the North Slope. Marine species spend their entire lives in the marine 

environment, although some species like fourhorn sculpin and Arctic flounder migrate into 

nearshore brackish coastal water areas during summer and have been known to move 

considerable distances upriver. 

Amphidromous species spend the winter beneath the ice in freshwater systems of the North 

Slope. Overwintering areas must ultimately be deeper than six feet to allow for ice cover in late 

winter. During summer, amphidromous species migrate out into coastal waters of the Beaufort 

Sea where they feed. Most growth and weight gain is achieved during this summer feeding 

season. Amphidromous species also have large components of their population that remain in 

freshwater lakes, ponds, and streams during summer. Amphidromous species use both the 

freshwater and marine environment during the open-water season. 

Once in coastal waters, amphidromous species generally remain nearshore where river discharge 

and solar heating tend to keep waters warmer and less saline than offshore marine waters. 

Westerly winds tend to keep this brackish water from flowing offshore. This band of nearshore 

water forms a migratory corridor within which fish move up and down the coast to feed. Areas 

behind barrier islands are very protected from the influence of offshore marine waters. During 

east winds, warm, brackish water flows seaward along the surface and bottom marine water 

moves onshore. If this onshore movement of marine water is strong enough to disrupt the 

nearshore band of warm brackish water it may prevent fish from moving along the coast. 

Anadromous species spawn in freshwater, then migrate out to sea where they spend their entire 

lives. They only return to freshwater to spawn. Salmon are among the most well known 

anadromous species. Qaaktaq (Arctic cisco) are considered anadromous because they only enter 

freshwater to spawn. However, unlike salmon, they do not remain at sea during most of their 

lives. Arctic cisco overwinter in brackish waters of major river systems like the Colville in Alaska 

and the Mackenzie in Canada. During summer, they disperse out into coastal waters to feed like 

the amphidromous species. 

Thus, qaaktaq are neither truly anadromous (they do not spend their lives at sea) nor 

amphidromous (they do not enter freshwater to overwinter). Because they require saline water for 

overwintering, they are confined to brackish habitats of the lower Colville Delta. These areas 

should be considered critical habitat for Arctic cisco. 

9 
Discussion 

Bob Fechhelm – In the beginning of August, the Arctic cisco turn around and start moving back 

into the river. Large fish seem to disperse a long way east and west from the Mackenzie River. 

Other white fish from the Mackenzie peter out at Herschel Island. Other fish from the Colville 

peter out at Flaxman Island. But Arctic cisco are found all the way along between the Colville 

and Mackenzie. 

Ruth Nukapigak – I have fished most of my life and have noticed that the fish follow the currents. 

During the summer months we would never have to leave the shore to catch fish. I also remember 

that most of the Arctic cisco caught during the summer had eggs within them. Starting in July 

when it starts getting darker, they follow the salinity of the ocean. They never leave the shoreline 

in summer. The families used to fish where Helmerick put his cabin. Once the causeway was 

built, the seawater treatment plant, changes began to occur. These changes affected the size and 

abundance of fish. 

Bob Fechhelm – That is very interesting. Do you think the plant changed the salinity of the water 

within the area, which in turn affected the fish? 

Ruth Nukapigak – There are lots of fish within the area. The plant sucks in the yearling fish and 

also changes the salinity of the water within the area. The place where the most cisco are found is 

where Old Nuiqsut, currently Helmericks fishery, was located. Causeways could block the fish 

from traveling between the Mackenzie and Colville Rivers. 

10 
TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE PANEL 

Eli Nukapigak, Carl Brower, Gordon Brown, Joeb Woods, Sr., 

Marjorie Ahnupkana, Ruth Nukapigak, Dora Nukapigak 

Eli Nukapigak 

I am concerned with the effects from North Star and the pipeline development that began in 1999. 

The ocean turned muddy for three to four months straight and the marine life within the area 

between the Mackenzie Delta and Colville Delta moved offshore. It has affected the migration of 

Arctic cisco from the Mackenzie to the Colville River. There was a sharp drop off of Arctic cisco 

in the fall. This development has affected our fisheries. I am very concerned with the 

development of future offshore islands. How many more offshore islands are they going to 

develop? And they need to have a better plan than the one they had with North Star. 

Discussion 

Chuck Mitchell – What kinds of effects did you notice from the offshore oil exploration? 

Eli Nukapigak –I noticed gravel within the water that was stirred up during ice dredging. They 

were mixing gravel and water and putting it on the ice [for islands and/or ice roads].

 

Isaac Nukapigak – Dredging affects the turbidity of the water and in turn affects the Arctic cisco 

and their migration patterns. 

Leonard Lampe, Sr. – Dredging also changes the natural surroundings. 

Two Crow – A gravel island was built? Where is North Star located, on the map? 

Isaac Nukapigak – It sits where the two contours meet, the 30-foot and the 60-foot contours, 

which has had an affect on the cisco. The construction also affected the turbidity of the water. 

Chuck Mitchell – It is an area of current interface. 

Jennifer Nielsen – In which months did you notice the three to four months of fish disturbance in 

that area occurring. 

Eli Nukapigak – During winter and into spring; about 15 April. The fishnet was getting [only] 3-

5 fish in 3 to 4 days. This year the catch is up with a mixture of Bering cisco and other species 

that we don’t usually see in our river. So there are two different ciscoes in our delta. This summer 

we mostly had west winds and hardly any east winds. We could see some saffron cod moving in 

and out of the river within the 30 psu salinity water where the two ocean currents mix. 

Jennifer Nielsen – What was the size of the cod? 

Eli Nukapigak – They were pretty big in size because we had used a 2.5- to 3-inch mesh net. 

Some were about 18 inches long. 

Jana Harcharek – There used to be tons of them but not in the river. What other kinds of fish 

were present? 

11 
Ben Nageak – Saffron cod, first time catching these fish this year. 

Craig George –Saffron cod, uuqaq, Saffron cod, used to be quite rare. We would catch them 

occasionally offshore using a marine net or fyke net and they were small. Kaktovik reported 

catching large ones and now they are being to be caught in Nuiqsut. 

Ruth Nukapigak – Earlier when they were living at Oliktok there used to be tons of them. 

Ben Nageak – They used to be found only along the coast in the summer time but now the fish are 

showing up in rivers. 

Ruth Nukapigak – When did the numbers increase in Kaktovik for the saffron cod? 

Craig George – In 1999, I was in Kaktovik for the fall whaling and they reported the saffron cod 

as something unusual. 

Carl Brower 

I’ve worked for the Kuukpik and also as a polar bear tagger for the Alaska Department of Fish 

and Game and for Clean Seas. When we moved into the area, there were lots of fish that we could 

catch right here off the boat dock. We would catch 200 per day. Now, when we put our nets are 

put out, there aren’t even 10-20 per day. In the 1970s we use to put nets out and never catch any

fish that were contaminated. 

The fish today, have contaminated skin and meat. I want to know why the fish have big 

gouges in their skin, not like bites. I wonder if it is the contamination from the oil 

industry or is it just from the ocean. 

Discussion 

Kate Wedemeyer – Have you noticed the size of the fish remaining the same or are they different? 

Carl Brower – The fish are smaller nowadays. 

Leonard Lampe, Sr. –To set our nets we have a tool that is a 15 –20 foot stick with a hook on the 

end. We cut through the first hole and then drop the hook with a weight attached. We move to the 

second hole and pull the rope using the tool in that hole; then move to next hole and pull the rope 

again, until all the holes have the rope connecting them. The net then gets pulled into the water 

and lies under the ice. 

Everyday we have to cut through the ice by hand to check the net; the thickness of ice is about 2 

to 3 inches. This is all done in the cold, no tents and no warm-up shack. 

It takes one person 1 to 1.5 hours to perform this activity. The nets must be checked every day 

that takes about 20-40 minutes. Fifteen to 18 miles at 40 below and then finding one or two fish. 

It isn’t fun after a while. 

12 
You can see the frustration; frustrated not only with industry, but the State and agencies, 

because, “How could this be happening to us?” We used to be a thriving fishing community. Now 

all of a sudden we get two to three cisco. It is very frustrating to an individual and as a family as 

well. You spend time and effort and money. The average family will set two nets, sometimes three 

nets to try to make up the loss of one net. It takes a lot of money to fish; prepare the snowmobile, 

buy gas and nets and you have to spend time away from your family and home. Our diet consists 

of 30-60% Arctic cisco. 

Bob Fechhelm – Do the different families all go to the same spot or do you all spread out? 

Leonard Lampe, Sr. – Everybody generally spreads out trying different spots in order to find a 

productive location. 

Bill Streever – What area of the river do you cover when fishing? 

Leonard Lampe, Sr. – The most active fishing sites are down river at Uyagagvik “a place of 

rocks.” It used to be, 20 years ago, we could just step outside and fish the river right here within 

the village. Some people believe that the closer you are to the mouth of the river the greater the 

catch. Which is true sometimes. 

Ben Nageak – In Barrow, we used to go out fishing in September but the past few years the ice 

didn’t freeze until mid-October. How was it here in Nuiqsut? 

Leonard Lampe, Sr. – It depends on Mother Nature. We wait until freeze up occurs. This is when 

the ice is two to three inches thick, safest for the snowmobiles to go out on. The first person out is 

generally the most successful. Joeb Woods usually doesn’t wait this long, he parks his 

snowmobile on the shore and walks out onto the ice rather than riding out on a snowmobile. 

There are a lot of myths on how far and deep you should put your nets. Everyone is learning new 

ways. We always ask Larry Moulton if we are going to have a good fish year. 

Chuck Mitchell – Are the nets always set perpendicular to the shoreline? 

Leonard Lampe, Sr. – Yes, we set perpendicular from one shoreline to the other. 

Rosemary Ahtuangaruak – It depends on whether the channel is narrow or wide. Where it is too 

narrow, it can’t be put out perpendicular. 

Chuck Mitchell – Is there ever any difference in the catch between the two sides of the net? 

Larry Moulton – No, we haven’t found any differences between the sides of the nets. However, we 

have noticed some vertical differences. 

Dora Nukapigak – Farther out toward the mouth of the river, the fish are bigger. This year my 

mother[Ruth] thought the run occurred early. We had our nets out in September. It was still 

accessible by boat. We were catching qaaktaq. She had her three-inch and five-inch mesh gill 

nets out in open water for broad whitefish and she was getting least cisco right before freeze up. 

Terry Quinn – What is the duration of the season? 

13 
Leonard Lampe, Sr. – The season lasts six weeks to two months; the nets go out between the last 

week of August and the first week of September, whenever the first freeze is. By the last week of 

September and the first week of October everybody has their nets out. Generally, the nets get 

pulled in November but the hardcore fisherman will stay out through December. This year 45 

nets were fished in comparison to last year when 60-80 nets were fished. 

Gordon Brown 

I’ve worked for the oil companies; I was a subsistence representative for Arco, moved on to 

Conoco-Phillips. I am on the subsistence advisory panel, Kuukpik Subsistence Oversight Panel. 

I have noticed that fishing varied up and down until 1999. I am skeptical that the drill rig that was 

put at Nanuq, the CD2, a satellite of Alpine, affected the fish. I think that the constant noise from

the development disturbed the fish. From 1999 to last year, the fish abundance went down, the 

lowest catches were during that time. We are all skeptical as to what is happening to the fish. We 

all know that they have periods when they don’t come in. I was wondering if the noise bothers the 

fish. I think that the drill rig affects the fish counts. The reason I said up to last year is that they

started to pull up oil from the CD2 area. So they are probably not drilling as much as they did 

when they were making the pad. So drilling has slowed down which makes me think that the fish 

are starting to come back in again because the noise has gone down. Fish counts seem to be better 

this year and the noise has been reduced. 

Discussion 

Leonard Lampe, Sr. – CD2 is a drill rig satellite of Alpine. The drilling has slowed down this 

year. It is located one mile from the Nigliq Channel going east of the Colville River. It was 

always a concern of the village. Five years ago the elders within the community stated that the 

development of CD2 was too close to the river and that it would disturb the habitat that the fish 

utilize. In addition they stated that it would also affect the caribou. The main Alpine pad is also 

located next to another river, the Tammaayagiaq, the middle channel, which is important to other 

species of fish, dog salmon. 

Caryn Rea – I just put up a poster that shows the locations of the different sites. So you can see 

where CD2 and Alpine are located. 

Leonard Lampe, Sr. – That shows you specifically where these sites are located on the Nigliq 

Channel. 

James Patkotak – With 45 nets that Nuiqsut has out on the river, how has the catch been this 

year? 

Gordon Brown – From what I have observed from the beginning of the season, the first nets out 

did very well and then fish counts began to decline. This year the fish came in early. We don’t 

really know that. But personally, when I put my nets in the first time I caught the most. I was way 

up ahead of everyone. 

Leonard Lampe, Sr. – The fish were plentiful from the second week of October until the first week 

of November. We fished 300% better than last year; caught 36 fish the first day. Last year I 

14 
caught less than 36 fish total. This was the first year that some caught a hundred fish, but this 

lasted only 5-9 days. Last year I was catching only a single fish a day. 

Dora Nukapigak – But that only lasted a few days. 

Eric ____- I spoke with some fisheries guys and they said the catch was 300% better than last 

year. 

Isaac Nukapigak – A lot of people used to fish in Nuiqsapigat [First Nuiqsut]. The 

AlaskaDepartment of Fish and Game (ADF&G) gave a permit for a commercial fishery, 

Helmericks, allowing them to harvest 160,000 pounds of fish a year. Helmericks moved to that 

area because of the abundance of Arctic cisco. At times that person blocked the Colville and that 

in turn put a hardship on the community. The Nigliq, north on the Colville Delta, was the heart 

for cisco fishing for us and now we have to go up a ways. 

Rosemary Ahtuangaruak – The number of nets fished could be dependent on the other subsistence 

resources. For example, if caribou hunting is good or whaling is good, families don’t have to fish 

as much, there isn’t that high demand. However, last year many households really needed to have 

other resources and really wanted to get fish. The need was very high. Therefore there were a lot 

of families out fishing. 

Leonard Lampe, Sr. – I would like to recognize Brent and Matt. They collect data pertaining to 

the cisco for Larry Moulton and MJM. How is this fishing season going in comparison to the last 

couple of years? And what do you foresee for the next year? We are looking to you for hope. 

Brent Seavey – The fishing is very good this year compared to the last couple of years. It has 

slowed down a little bit. But fishing has been excellent. This is the best year in the 15 years that I 

have been here. 

Dora Nukapigak – Brent, have you ever counted the fish from Helmericks or the number of nets 

that they fish? 

Brent Seavey – No. 

Larry Moulton – Helmericks used to fish 30 to 40 nets. Now he fishes only four nets for the last 

five years and the number of fish he caught has been less since the kids left home. Fish counts get 

reported to the Department of Fish and Game every year. 

Joeb Woods, Sr. 

I have resided in Nuiqsut all my life. In 1949-1950 we first started fishing as a family; at Woods’ 

fish camp. We would check the nets twice a day because they would catch up to 800 fish per day

caught with one net. The Arctic cisco were very abundant then. I never noticed a change in 

abundance for many, many years. There was a constant catch of that amount of fish for many

years without ever noticing a change in cycles. It was all good fishing. 

15 
My family also possessed a commercial fishing license. We used nets that were 8-9 feet tall, with 

2.5-inch mesh, and 100 feet long right at Nigliq (Woods camp). We noticed changes in the 

landscape along the river from erosion. We first had a sod house then a cabin. But we had to 

move the cabin 150 feet from the river because of erosion. We used to have a cellar located 100 

feet from the river that eroded away. There was lots of ice [permafrost] where our cellar was and 

it eroded away very fast. And the water level is coming up higher than in the past when it used to 

be east winds. The west wind causes the water to rise. The ice movement was so tremendous that 

it started affecting the landscape and eroding the bluffs. 

Discussion 

Leonard Lampe, Sr. – The ice movement was so tremendous that it started affecting the landscape 

and eroding the bluffs. The water level is coming up a lot higher than it used to. 

Ben Nageak – Paul Ogarok mentioned during the break that there used to be floods all along the 

delta several years ago. When there were west winds, there was flooding. 

Chuck Mitchell – So floods are associated with west winds? 

Dora Nukapigak – The west wind causes the water level to rise and the east wind makes it go 

down. 

Chuck Mitchell – So what happens to the fishing? 

Gordon Brown – We have always thought that the west winds brought in the cisco for us along 

with the salinity of water. 

Larry Moulton - The east winds bring in the smaller size fish. 

Kate Wedemeyer – Have you noticed if winter or spring is arriving sooner or later? Have you 

noticed changes in the weather? 

Joeb Woods, Sr. – In 1964 there was a big storm in Barrow that blew a strong west wind. I have 

noticed that freeze up occurs later than it used to than in the past. 

Isaac Nukapigak – The past five years have been very unusual. There has been an early spring 

thaw out. We would be boating when it wasn’t the time for us to be boating. This weather has 

been a phenomenon. 

Ben Nageak – We see that change in Barrow also. We go out hunting in mid- to late June. The ice 

is gone. 

Craig George – There was whaling in November this year. 

Jana Harcharek – Mr. Jesse Walker, with the Louisiana State University, would be a good source 

of historical information regarding longitudinal erosion. 

Craig George – In October of 1964 there was a tremendous storm in Barrow. The sea level rose 

11 feet in Barrow. It was a devastating storm. Still there has been nothing like it in anyone’s 

memory. I am wondering how that big storm in 1964 affected the Kuukpik [east channel] area? 

16 
Joeb Woods, Sr. – When the area flooded, my brother’s big boat, like they have in Barrow, got 

swept across the river. 

Ben Nageak – In Kaktovik in 1964, a 600-pound ship that sat on one spot for many years was 

swept across the river all the way to Demarcation Point and onto the bank. 

Craig George – How did this affect the fish? 

Joeb Woods, Sr. – We noticed the fish were smaller in size and had darker stomach contents. We 

used to find krill with the stomach of the fish but since then, we don’t find the krill. 

Ruth Nukapigak – These events occurred all along the coast, not just this area in 1964. 

Leonard Lampe, Sr. – Other fishing camps also had to relocate. 

Craig George – Did it change the river? 

Leonard Lampe, Sr. – No, it pretty much changed where the structures were sitting. 

Ruth Nukapigak – Two years ago I noticed erosion occurred all the way up the coast. 

Isaac Nukapigak – In 1979-1980, the 100-year flood occurred. The entire delta was underwater 

and that was from the natural run off. 

Marjorie Ahnupkana 

During the break up of Kuukpik River, there used to be floods all the way up to Kayuqtusiluk. 

During the ice break up of 1945 the water level rose 20-30 feet. I haven’t seen that since. In 1973 

when we moved here, I remember catching lots of fish right by the school. I used 3-inch mesh net 

back then to catch the large fish that were present then. 

Now I use a 2-inch mesh net because the fish are a lot smaller. So I have seen changes in the size 

of the fish. My sons used to help me fish for qaaktaq in those days. This fall there was a slow 

start; my son set out a net and didn’t catch any Arctic cisco for three days. We did catch the least 

cisco and humpback whitefish using a 2-inch mesh net. 

Joeb Woods, Sr. – You don’t want the lead line on the net to be too heavy or it will stretch the 

mesh therefore making the mesh larger and allowing the fish to pass through. The larger the 

mesh size the easier it is for the smaller fish to pass right through. 

17 
Ruth Nukapigak 

I was raised in and round this area. I was raised on the fish of the area and I was very happy. I 

have fished ever since I was a small child and continue to fish today at Nigliq. 

At my home I have a barometer and have learned how to read it. This year and the past few years, 

I have noticed changes that occur. The barometer would indicate that a wind from the west would 

be coming and then out of the blue an east wind would come and vice versa. So it seems like our 

weather cycle has done a circle. So what is occurring with the weather is actually opposite of 

what the barometer is indicating that it should do. 

I also know about fish and that scientists come in to conduct studies only during the fall and 

summer but not in the winter. There is opportunity for studies to be done during the long winter 

period. 

My daughter set five nets last year between Kuupigruak and here and hardly caught any fish. The 

river mouth is shallow. When it froze there were strong winds and slush collected around the 

mouth of the river and thus blocked the fish from coming in. The few fish that we did catch last 

year were fat. This year the size is quite variable. 

While I was in Anchorage at the AFN [Alaska Federation of Natives convention, October 20-24, 

2003], my son caught 400 fish within the four nets that he had set. So this year is quite different. 

This could be due to the strong ocean currents entering into the river. The fish follow the ocean 

currents. In August there were lots of fish already in the river and I was beginning to catch 

qaaktaq in my nets. There are lots of qaaktaq this year. So many we can’t even count them. I 

started putting fish in a bag before it was frozen. When the fish froze, the bag was really heavy.

So there was maybe 100 fish in a sack. In addition, I noticed that caribou were around the area in 

healthy numbers. There were a lot of broad-nosed whitefish in the nets this summer. 

When Alpine was built and up and running, I thought we were in for change. I had an opportunity

to take a tour during development of Seal Island before Alpine was built. We rode around in a 

bus. All along the way, we could see where they had cut through the ice and were using a 

backhoe. However, a lot of sediment was being dispersed into the water while it was being 

brought up from depths. That is why we didn’t see a lot of material being placed on the ice on the 

side. The plan was to bury two pipelines on the ocean bottom. The marine or aquatic plants must 

have been disturbed in this process and may have been a contributing factor to the decline in the 

fish populations. 

For many years in the past, we haven’t had a lot of fish. Then this year, our river didn’t freeze for 

a long time. So it was open enough for the fish to be able to come in. What I suspect that they are 

going into deeper parts of the river where there isn’t such a current. This year the river didn’t 

freeze until later on in the season thus the fish were able to come into our river and remain in the 

deeper pools. 

When I heard about the description of the burying of the pipeline into the ocean bottom, I was 

skeptical because of the material that was being brought in to cover the pipe. I was skeptical 

because I knew that the sediment would be dispersed while being brought up through the water 

column. I was really skeptical about the process that they were describing. I wonder how much of 

this process is contributing to the changes that we are seeing these days. 

18 
In addition, last year caribou and fish were scarce; therefore we didn’t have as much traditional 

sustenance as we were used to. As a result the community was unhealthy and we had fewer jobs. 

We had to buy products from the stores in order to eat. Last year was very hard for us all. 

At this place called Putu, it used to have a river when we first moved back here. Nowadays, it 

doesn’t flow anymore. When they started producing oil, I suspect that the water level went down 

due to the removal of the sediment and thus making the river more and more shallow. The slush 

can collect in that area and contribute more to the blockage of fish entering and as a result the fish 

counts could be reduced. 

The pingo islands within the delta are beautiful places that our ancestors used at one time. When 

they returned to the mainland from those islands, in June, they would set their nets. The fish from

the ocean that they would catch would have an earthy taste. Why do they taste this way? We are 

now catching different varieties of fish and are not catching the types of fish we used to catch. 

Thank you for listening. 

Dora Nukapigak 

I have learned about fishing from my mother. When I was a child, we used to catch over 100 fish 

with a single net, 60 foot by 8 foot nets. We could fish a lot closer to the village back then. When 

North Star was being built, I noticed a decrease in our qaaktaq. Other fish are coming in but not 

the Arctic cisco. 

Many people say that we should blame the winds or the slush is blocking the mouth of the river, 

but if this were the case how are we catching other fish in our nets and not the Arctic cisco. The 

least cisco, where are they coming from? I used to have a net, and rather than go all the way to 

Nigliq, I would have it close to Drill Site 2. 

Prior to the development of Alpine I would catch hundreds of fish at the drill sites. As Gordon 

Brown said, it might be the noise and vibrations that are affecting the fish. The year the CD2 was 

built right on the bank, I caught a single fish. Where, in past years prior to the CD2, I would catch 

hundreds of fish. I used the same nets with the same mesh size. I noticed the vibration within the 

area; I could feel it. Fish abundance declined in the family net in that area. Using a 3-inch mesh, 

we were not catching many fish. 

One year we had a drill site outside of the Colville, at Kalupik. We didn’t catch many fish when 

that drill rig was there. 

There was one year where they said because of the slush in Nigliq, people weren’t catching fish. 

When they are not catching they tend to go to Nuiqsapiat. As deep as the Kuukpik (channel) is 

there is pretty much a wide channel. There catch had decreased as well. Our fish used to be a lot 

bigger. We have gone from 3-inch mesh nets to 2 and a half-inch mesh. 

Before industry, there were no complaints about fishing. I never heard people saying, “Oh, it 

must be the winds today. We are not catching any fish.” Everyone was happy. They were 

catching 20 or 30 sacks of fish, sending them to Barrow. Today, after all of the development in 

our community, the catch has really declined. 

19 
There was a decrease of Arctic cisco in Colville after a few years of the HDD drilling. Since it is 

up and operating and drilling has stopped, it seems like the Arctic cisco run is getting better. Now 

the fish counts seem to be getting better, perhaps because there is less industry activity, less 

underwater drilling. 

It is a lot of work to go out there and chisel ice and coming back the next day to check the nets 

and there is only one fish. It was really sad last year. I barely made a half a sack of fish. When we 

caught fish, we send some to Barrow. Last year we sent three fish to Barrow and two elders 

fought over them. This year they are happy with what we are catching. We are able to send more. 

I hope it gets better. 

I feel the decline in fish occurred when development began. It has really declined after three years 

of construction of the HDD (horizontal drilling under the river) near Putu. This year they drilled 

at Iqalliqpik (Fish Creek); we didn’t catch many fish when that rig was there. Now that 

development is slowing down, we hopefully will see the fish counts increase. I believe noise and 

development are the cause for the decline in fish counts. Prior to development there were no 

complainants with the fish counts. First there was Alpine and then North Star. 

Now the fish counts seem to be getting better, perhaps because there is less industry activity, less 

underwater drilling. When we catch fish, we send some to Barrow. Last year we sent three fish to 

Barrow and this year we are able to send more. The decline in fish occurred when development 

began. Now that development is slowing down, we hopefully will see the fish counts increase. I 

believe noise and development are the cause for the decline in fish counts. Prior to development 

there were no complaints with the fish counts. First there was Alpine and then North Star. 

Discussion 

Leonard Lampe, Sr.. – Our fish used to be a lot bigger. We have gone from 3-inch mesh net to 2.5 

inch. One year they said the low catch in the Nigliq was because of the slush. After the first year 

of the crossing [HDD drilling under the river], there was a lot of drilling mud that was lost. 

Scientists and biologists believe that this mud has not affected or harmed the fish because the 

mud contains a lot of salt. Some people are skeptical; they feel that this didn’t help the fish at all. 

Dora Nukapigak – Not only did we have a decline in the qaaktaq when they were doing the 

horizontal drilling, we used to go fish at the Putu for burbot. After the HDD, there was no more. I 

had never heard complaints before the development was here. Our fishing was great every year. 

After Alpine, after North Star... everyone wants to blame global warming. 

General Discussion 

Chuck Mitchell – We have heard your opinions and we have heard about the things that you have 

observed over the years, the changes, and we have heard about possible causes. One cause 

mentioned was turbidity. Water clarity may be a potential cause whether it be from natural runoff 

or construction such as installation of pipelines, gravel filled causeways, or pads. We have heard 

that sound and vibrations could be a possible cause. Changes in characteristics of habitats 

whether it is due to gouging of ice and erosion from either natural causes such as flooding or the 

ice. Changes in salinity and changes in wind patterns were also mentioned. The next step is to 

hear from you all on how you would go about looking for solutions and answers. We need to try 

to set up some study plan and maybe go back and look over historical information looking for 

patterns. 

20 
Joeb Woods, Sr. – I want to know why is it that there are a lot of cisco offshore and along the 

coast but not up in the river were we usually fish for them? Why are the fish active around 

islands, and the coastline but we don’t see them here within the river? I also want to know what 

their stomach contents contain. 

Chuck Mitchell – So perhaps there could be stomach content analysis on fish going from down 

river, up river, offshore, and then laterally? 

Joeb Woods, Sr. – I made a trip to Oregon and New York, where they discussed stomach content 

analysis and the finding worms in the stomachs of fish. I want to know more about that in relation 

to the Arctic cisco. Also during the summer, the Arctic cisco are located along the coast where we 

would expect to see them. Why is there such a drastic change after they enter into the river? 

Where are they going if we don’t see them in the abundance that is expected? 

Chuck Mitchell – Perhaps conduct both stomach content analysis in relation to feeding patterns 

and try to find out where the fish are going. 

Dora Nukapigak – Maybe it is not just the qaaktaq that have changed. This summer I noticed that 

the broad whitefish had lumps in their stomachs, which is the favorite part of the fish to eat. The 

lumps are hard nodules like beans located within the lining of the stomach. 

Ruth Nukapigak – The fish are scared and won’t inhabit areas that have soap or rotten meat in 

the water. 

Joeb Woods, Sr. – I have also noticed soap and rotting meat thrown into the water. People are 

not taking their nets out of the water and the fish begin to rot. In turn, fish will not inhabit these 

areas. 

Marjorie Ahnupkana – As a small child, I was taught not to put soap in the water, not to throw 

trash, or even play within the river. I have noticed a few children play in the river nearby 

washing themselves with soap. There were no more fish in the area where they were washing. I 

just want people to be aware that washing with soap should be done in a bucket and dumped out 

onshore instead of in the river. 

Chuck Mitchell – That is a good practice. Are there any other sources of soap? It is a common 

contaminant with domestic sewage. It can migrate through the soil quite fast and can be used as 

a trace material for tracing underground sewage waste and leaking pipes. It does have an 

adverse effect on a lot of things in the water table in both seawater and freshwater. 

Isaac Nukapigak – Other factors that need to be looked at are unknown toxins. Take samples at 

the DEW line (old military sites) along the coast at Oliktok Point. When we first came in 1973, 

there were so many barrels and debris scattered around. There was a lot of dumping early on 

that was just buried over and now this has created a problem with the onset of erosion. I think 

these could be some factors affecting the water. 

Chuck Mitchell – Has there ever been any water quality studies in the Colville? Has anybody 

ever come down and measured the chemistry, priority pollutants, and metals? 

Caryn Rea – At Alpine, they inject their waste and sewage. The wastewater is treated. 

21 
Leonard Lampe, Sr. – Not on a regular basis. A major oil company here on the North Slope was 

fined heavily for illegally dumping at Endicott, which is on the migration route of the Arctic cisco 

to the Colville. I feel that illegal dumping is a serious problem, whereas five kids playing in a 

swimming hole is probably not the problem that has wiped out the cisco. 

Isaac Nukapigak – There are a lot of factors that need to be looked at scientifically. We need data 

to see if those factors do have an affect on the fish habitat. We even need to consider whether to 

continue these OCS lease sales. These are all factors that need to be addressed. 

Chuck Mitchell – It seems to me that there should be a considerable database on water quality 

along the coast but I am not sure if there is for the watershed. 

Isaac Nukapigak – Cisco are the migratory fish that migrate from the Mackenzie. They migrate 

based on the current. They migrate a long way from point A to point B. There has to be some 

factor between these two points that is affecting these fish. 

Joeb Woods, Sr.– In the past, contractors used to dump chemicals, contaminants, oil, etc. onto the 

tundra without any thought. Also materials from seismic operations, such as dynamite, were left 

behind. 

Dora Nukapigak – Caryn [Caryn Rea of Conoco Phillips] do you take water samples during the 

summer or at the lakes when you do your work? 

Caryn Rea – Yes, we take water samples but we don’t conduct chemical analysis on them. 

Larry Moulton – It depends on what you mean by water quality. There are many different aspects 

to water quality studies. If you are looking for contaminants... There was a study by the U.S. 

Army Corps of Engineers regarding burbot. So there has to be some information there. 

Chuck Mitchell – When scientists go out and take fish samples, they will frequently take physical 

parameters like salinity, dissolved oxygen, and turbidity, in order to try to explain why the 

patterns are the way they are. In addition to those physical parameters there is another set that 

look at chemistry and sediment loads. However, these are very expensive. An EPA priority 

pollutant test probably runs about $1500 per sample. Some communities take samples once every 

couple of years and scan those marine samples, both water and sediment. This way, comparisons 

can be made over time. So you can see if there are any changes. 

Joeb Woods, Sr. – There was a lake study at Anaktuvuk that occurred two years ago that looked 

at contaminant levels in the tissue of burbot, broad whitefish, and ling cod. In 1981, Canada did 

a similar study. 

Kate Wedemeyer – I want to go back to Joeb’s first suggestion about why are there a lot of Arctic 

cisco located along the coast but are not found in the rivers when you would expect to see them. 

Do you have any ideas or suggestions on how to study or figure out this problem? 

Joeb Woods, Sr. – I believe that sediment studies along the DEW line should be looked at. 

Nowadays, the fish are skinny and not fat like they used to be. You should look at those problems 

from the past. Perhaps the fish have an altered migration path in order to avoid contaminated 

areas. Maybe they migrate out in the ocean farther. But there is something that is causing a 

change in their migration route. They are traveling longer distances and that is evidenced by the 

fact that they are not as fat as usual. 

22 
Bernice Kaigelak – I have fished all of my life. We need to establish a fishing association in case 

of an oil spill and in order to do this we need someone to fund it. This is important because 

migration patterns have changed. We used to fish right by the school and now we have to go 

farther. There have been a lot of changes. We need to look at stomach content and have to find 

out what is going on. 

Leonard Lampe, Sr. – I am concerned with industry building more and more ice bridges every 

year. They build these ice bridges over the rivers of the Nigliq Channel as well as the Colville 

River. These ice bridges are used to enable rigs to travel over the river in order to reach the 

drilling site. These ice bridges are built in December and January. 

My theory is that late in the season, with the building of ice bridges, migration routes are being 

blocked. With ice bridges being built across rivers, it naturally forms ice underneath. By the time 

the ice road was done in April we found about 70 feet of ice formed beneath the bridges and only 

about five feet of open water left at the bottom for the fish to pass. That practically covers the 

whole river and prevents any wildlife or fish to pass the river at these areas where ice bridges 

have been built. I would like a study to be done to determine if these bridges are being grounded 

to the ground. I feel that the bridges affect the fish greatly as well as the community. Industry says 

no, we need the oil here, but further studies need to be done to do it right. 

Gordon Brown – I have watched these ice bridges seasonally. The ice gets built up, and over time 

from heavy equipment going over them, the ice tends to fall and potentially blocks the flow. I have 

addressed my concerns prior to this and was told that there is some flow at the bottom still. But 

how do we really know that there is still flow below? I feel this needs to be further looked at. We 

need to see how the flow is down below these bridges because the surface flow does get blocked. 

People have come out that have sent a steam hose down in order to ensure flow but we don’t 

know how it is at the bottom of the river. The ice bridge does ground out at the bottom of the 

river. I have noticed that the east side of where the bridge is located is shallower than that of the 

delineated west side. You have to be there and watch this in order to understand what I mean. 

This has become a big concern. 

Leonard Lampe, Sr. – This is a concern because the fish travel within a specific temperature of 

water and a specific depth. When the ice forms and blocks those specific areas they will turn 

around and go back or elsewhere. They probably will not go underneath and figure it out. A 

similar situation is seen among the caribou and the pipeline height. When the caribou encounter 

the pipeline they will turn away and go somewhere else. They will not stop and think that perhaps 

nearby there is a crossing path that could be used. With the forming of ice bridges I believe that 

the fish that encounter it will turn around and go back. I don’t think they will go under it. 

Ruth Nukapigak – The current fish studies set out fyke nets to study the fish. Why are the studies 

focusing on the small fish and not the big fish that are the important ones to us? Why don’t you 

use the mesh size that we fish with and use our traditional ways? 

Larry Moulton – We are trying to learn about the habitat and patterns of the small fish so that 

they will be harvestable later on. We are not trying to harvest them to use them as you are; we 

are just trying to make sure that they will be there later. So we are developing methods to look at 

the younger ones because those are the ones that will provide the food supply later. 

Ruth Nukapigak – I was told by a researcher that that is how you find out how many fish there 

are by looking at the little fish. I want you to study the mature fish as well as the smaller fish. 

23 
Larry Moulton – We try to use methods that don’t kill the fish. We are not trying to harvest the 

fish. We only want to catch them to learn more about their habits. 

Bill Streever – Fyke nets can catch all different size ranges of fishes, both small and large. 

Joeb Woods, Sr. – There are nets that have differing size mesh. I have seen them with 1, 1.5, 2, 

2.5, and 3-inch mesh. 

Eli Nukapigak – Are there any studies being done over winter in the Colville Delta pertaining to 

ice bridges and the migration of Arctic cisco? 

Chuck Mitchell – Would you like to have studies that are conducted over the winter as well as 

other times? 

Eli Nukapigak – Yes, focusing on ice crossings and ice bridges as well. 

Dora Nukapigak – I want to elaborate on ice roads that are used to connect ice pads. There were 

two pads that blocked the route to Kuupik from Oliktok to Amoniktuk through July. Usually these 

pads are completely melted and we can hunt seals. Generally we can take our boats and go 

across our hunting grounds but with this big iceberg in our way, we had to work our way around. 

Usually we have complete boat access at the beginning of July. Also when the cost of gas was 

$4.00, we used to go by 4x4 in order to travel to Oliktok to buy cheaper gas. When construction 

was taking place, they would push the snow into the roads that we traveled making it more 

difficult to travel. Within the Nigliq Channel we had to follow 7 to 11 miles of ice when we went 

out seal hunting. 

Isaac Nukapigak – Another study that should be done is looking at the watershed of the delta and 

the channels. Every year the channel is getting narrower and narrower and slush is coming in 

from the north. This slush creates a blockage. The delta then freezes easier due to the slush. The 

mud and silt is becoming a problem and the delta is getting shallower and shallower. I have 

observed this because I am a whaler. 

Leonard Lampe, Sr. – What are the natural predators of the Arctic cisco? Have they increased or 

changed? That might be another factor that we haven’t considered. 

Isaac Nukapigak – Perhaps we need to look at dredging out the channels in order to keep them 

open. 

Roger____ – The past three years the sewer is going out into the water. Instead of checking the 

whole river, get ten gallons of water and put a fish in it and see if it lives. Do one site at a time. 

Chuck Mitchell – There are standard tests just like you are describing that are called bioassays. 

Carl Brower – There are pollutants in the water that contaminate the fish and marine life. My 

entire family has been affected by these contaminants. I feel that tests should be conducted on the 

pollutants within the water as well as body tissue analysis. 

Marjorie Ahnupkana – The flesh of the fish I catch in the net is paler than what I used to catch. 

24 
Leonard Lampe, Sr. – What about lakes? They are being depleted in order to build ice roads. 

What effects if any do these have on the fish or their spawning? Millions of gallons are being 

pumped from these lakes. 

Larry Moulton – None, this does not affect the Arctic cisco. 

Marjorie Ahnupkana – I saw the water within the delta dry up until there was just a sand bar left, 

this occurred early fall. This is evidence that something is going on within the delta. Up in the 

area of Ocean Point, there are small rivers that dry up. In turn, more water gets distributed to 

other rivers and the current gets stronger. 

Isaac Nukapigak – This can create a nautical problem. 

Sara Kunaknana – I remember when the delta was deeper, in 1940, and now it is shallower. 

When the water is shallower during the winter, the delta freezes and gets grounded therefore 

there are not so many fish around. This year there was a lot of west wind and more currents; 

therefore there was good fishing. 

Isaac Nukapigak – Perhaps on the next OCS lease sale, part of the mitigation measures could be 

looking at a study and possible dredging of the channel. 

Comment – When fall comes, we get north winds with natural slush. It turns solid and is 

grounded. Out in the ocean from Nelson Camp, it is very shallow. Also, where the Tammaayagiaq 

enters. 

25 
WORKSHOP PRESENTATIONS 

MACKENZIE RIVER ARCTIC CISCO BIOLOGY 

AND POPULATION TRENDS 

Randal Boogie Pokiak 

Tuktoyaktuk NT, P.O. Box 335 Tuktoyaktuk NT X0E 1C0. Canada 

(867) 997-2170, FAX (867) 997-2399 

(Due to travel complications Mr. Randal Pokiak and his brother James Pokiak were unable to 

attend the meeting but did provide this presentation summary.) 

Fishery and Oceans of Canada 

The Department of Fishery and Oceans is the Federal Agency that plans, manages, and regulates 

all aspects of fish and marine mammals within Canadian waters (in and off-shore). Recently in 

Canada the DFO has focused their attention to the oceans in Canadian Jurisdiction. Water quality

is one of the major concerns especially in the Canadian Beaufort and the Arctic Ocean, due to the 

oil/gas interest of some major oil companies and their rights to their leases offshore with their 

ideas of developing their oil/gas fields in the future. In the Inuvialuit Settlement Regions (ISR) 

there are several research activities that are identified by local harvesters where DFO has 

contributed funds to help answer some technical and biological questions for the benefit of all to 

produce a management plan for the harvesters and the oil/gas activity within the Canadian 

Beaufort Sea where applicable. 

Arctic Cisco 

The Arctic cisco has been one of the species targeted and researched within the ISR. DFO has 

done some research with the support of FJMC/IGC (Fishery and Joint Management 

Committee/Inuvialuit Game Council). Once the Inuvialuit has identified and supported a research 

program, funds are sought to develop and administer the research. 

In the case of the research of the Arctic cisco, there have been some results and evaluations done 

by the technical and biological resources of DFO with the help of harvesters and the FJMC. 

Key points: 

-Arctic cisco are widely distributed in the southeast Beaufort Sea of the ISR. Harvested 

historically and today along the entire coastline of the ISR where harvesters are present or 

they target them in their seasonal runs in specific areas (Tuk harbor being one of the 

places). 

-They are more tolerant of their salty environment that other fish that concentrate from time to 

time in waters that are fed by fresh water which flows into the Beaufort Sea (fishing with 

gill nets has been done to capture them at different times in locations that have been 

identified in different seasons during open water and under the ice). 

-The youngest mature fish is 6 years old, but most mature at age 7 or 8. 

-Spawning is located in the major tributaries in the Peel, the Arctic Red, Great Bear, and the Liard 

Rivers. 

-In the spring the Arctic cisco eggs hatch and the larvae are swept downstream. Once the young 

reach the Beaufort Sea the prevailing winds supposedly determines which side of the 

26 
Mackenzie River system they will concentrate to come to maturity and go reproduce 

when they are ready upstream of the Mackenzie River. 

-The Arctic cisco tend to over-winter in harbors and bays that has a certain amount of freshwater 

that flows into it and there is some discoloration in the water due to this out flow. 

-Seasonally the Arctic cisco move around and migrate into different areas in large numbers which 

produces the runs making ideal for harvesting. 

-In July the Arctic cisco that are not mature and not able to spawn tend to go feed out in the sea 

while the mature go upstream to spawn. 

-In the fall the fish that spawned then come back to the Beaufort and distributes itself to their 

original habitat areas (Canadian and Alaskan waters) to feed and stage. 

Traditional knowledge of the Arctic Cisco within the Tuktoyaktuk area 

Throughout generations the Inuvialuit were distributed across the coastline and inland waters in 

large harvesting communities as well as camps with smaller family groups between the major 

harvesting communities of that time. Fishing for targeted fish species (Arctic cisco being one of 

them) while on site and also targeting specific seasonally migrating animals, mammals, and birds. 

Arctic cisco was harvested in large numbers due to the different ways of preparing it for 

traditional foods. Gill nets made out of sinew were used historically to catch the Arctic cisco in 

sheltered harbors and bays throughout the ISR. When the weather permitted the nets were set on 

the outside shores of the coastline where there was no protection from the elements and 

monitored closely to keep from losing the valuable nets. The cisco (qaktuq) were harvested in 

large numbers, when made into dry fish (bipsi) eaten at the time much like what goes on today

with folks eating chips and the other junk food due to it being so handy and preserved in oil. 

July was the season for making the dry fish when there was 24 hours of daylight, temperatures are 

hot and the first run on qaktuq were harvested. When drying the qaktuq smoke from driftwood 

(nin-u-a-luit) was used to keep the blue flies from laying their eggs on the dry fish, the smoke 

from the wood produced a flavor that made it more delicious. Three days later they were cut into 

bite size pieces and put into containers; then the container filled with oil to preserve it, then 

stored. The qaktuq when in season were cooked on open fire continuously throughout the harvest 

both in July and September for daily meals. They were scaled and hung in smoke houses, made 

into ba-aut-si-aq in large numbers and eaten like sushi that the Japanese eat. Ba-aut-si-at was 

made in large quantities and some stored for use during the rest of the year until the qaktuq run 

returned the next year. Before freeze-up in the fall harvest when the qaktuq returned to the 

harbors in large numbers, they were gill netted and stored in pits made just for the purpose of 

fermenting the fish and made into di-paq-dut. This was done when the weather cooled off and the 

blue fly season was over. 

During the fall and winter the di-paq-dut was a delicacy and eaten frozen or raw with oil and/or 

muk-tuk. After freeze-up the qaktuq are gill netted under the ice until they leave the harbor or the 

ice gets thick and the extreme cold weather sets in for the winter. These fish that are harvested are 

frozen and eaten as fresh qu-aq. There was no need to transport the qaktuq from camp to camp 

because the numbers harvested were so great at each location. Each camp or harvest community

stored enough for their own use as well as for visitors from the surrounding ISR that came at 

certain times for gatherings and festivals. We have to understand that at the time of this part of 

our history there were no stores as we know them today, the only food available was from what 

was harvested, qaktuq being one of the fish species targeted. Being on site in various parts of the 

ISR made sure that the harvest of qaktuq was done to the greatest extent. 

27 
Harvesting of qaktuq today and the distribution 

Today, 2003 that value of the qaktuq for food hasn’t changed and it is still required by the 

Inuvialuit prepared the traditional style. During the July run and while hunting the beluga whale 

in the harvest locations the qaktuq are still targeted and prepared for the family and their 

immediate family and friends. The families that have or take the time are just a fraction of the 

harvesters that do this activity from the historical numbers. Historically our Inuvialuit population 

in the ISR was anywhere from six to eight thousand. We now have those numbers back in the 

population but as mentioned the families that harvest qaktuq are very few. Most families harvest 

and store enough qaktuq product for themselves their immediate families and some friends and 

then turn to other activity that now occupies their time. Most are too busy working for wages or 

don’t have the equipment so they make a deal with active harvesters to prepare the food for them. 

To make it short the harvest from historic levels has dropped down considerably but the demand 

for the traditional food is still there by the majority of the Inuvialuit population. Those of us that 

make a living by our harvest and country food preparation can’t keep up with the demand 

especially with the changes that are taking place with the runs and cycle of fish distribution we 

are experiencing today. 

The utilization of the ISR for the qaktuq harvest has been reduced due to the community setup of 

our time. Only areas close to the communities are at the moment utilized. The community of 

Tuktoyaktuk is still at one of the historic locations of the major hunting community and we still 

harvest and prepare qaktuq in fairly large numbers. Population is 90% Inuvialuit. Because of the 

qaktuq being within the Tuk harbor and other smaller sheltered harbors being close by the 

demand for qaktuq and the fish being prepared for food the traditional style there is a great 

demand for our harvest. De-paq-duk, pip-si, and ba-au-chi-aq are in great demand. All the 

surrounding Inuvialuit communities expect those active harvesters from Tuk to have the qaktuq

products available for sale or trade. The amount of qaktuq harvested by the residents of Tuk 

doesn’t come close to the harvest levels that were historically harvested even with the harvesting 

of qaktuq with a sweep net for the dog teams of local members. When sweeping for the qaktuq

we can select the fish for quality and size that we put aside for human consumption. 

Impact of the local fisheries due to the Oil/Gas activity (1960s - 2003) 

The industrial activity has affected the harvest in the Tuk harbor especially when there was 

dredging permitted by the GNWT/Federal Government. Dredging was done to make the channel 

to the Beaufort deeper for supply vessels to get to the oil exploration facilities offshore. Coupled 

with the dredging for landfill for community use when the GNWT had control over the lands and 

industrial activity. There was a huge amount of dredging in the shallower waters of the 

Mackenzie basin offshore of the Mackenzie River in the 1970s and part of the 1980s. Locally we 

don’t know the impact the dredging had on the sea and the resources at that time since we didn’t 

have our IFA and Inuvialuit had no authority over any the way the industrial activity was 

conducted within the region and offshore. The impact from the dredging in Tuk harbor was the 

only development that we could get an idea from of how much impact the disturbance of 

dredging the seabed could have on the qaktuq distribution. Since the dredging of Tuk harbor the 

fishing and harvesting hasn’t been close to the levels we were accustomed to harvesting. All the 

dredged areas within the harbor produce less of a harvest and the fish concentration that comes 

into the dredged area don’t seem to stay too long once the run has started. 

The size of the fish caught has reduced in size, too, the large fish only seem to come into the 

harbor for a few days then they are gone. The gill net fishing where the seabed was undisturbed 

close to the mouth of the channels in Tuk harbor still harvest at a decent level and there is high 

28 
concentration of nets in the qaktuq run in those areas. To harvest without too much competition a 

harvester has to leave Tuk to locations in other harbors farther along the shoreline and usually

there are a large number of other species of fish that are harvested as well. There are more and 

more Inuvialuit on the wage economy and that demands a service from the active harvesters. 

Those working for the industry, local contractors and the municipal governments as well as others 

without their own equipment all place a demand for the harvested qaktuq resource. 

The region also demands or expects the active harvesters from Tuk to meet their nutritional 

needs. Almost for any country food besides the qaktuq demand, the community of Tuk is 

expected to meet all the nutritional needs of the region to a certain extent. The only problem for 

the time being is that the residents from Tuk are still trying to adjust to the change in the fishing 

at Tuk harbor. Just like anything else one hopes that the next season or year will produce a better 

harvest in the Tuk harbor but if there is any improvement we can’t clearly and honestly see 

results since the time of the last dredging activity. When the supply vessels used to be active in 

using the channel before the dredging, the fishing nets adjacent to the channel used to catch large 

numbers when they were chased out of the channel, so the noise level and the large volume of 

water displacement played a big part of the distribution at certain times in a confined place. 

Technical and local Traditional Knowledge working together on studies 

Since the IGC/JS (Joint Secretariat) was recognized through the IFA there has been great 

improvement in the way industry and the governments at all levels are looking to achieve the best 

results from research activity within the ISR especially in specific and identified areas of interest 

to the Industry and the regulating agencies. Harvesters are utilized as much as possible by all 

those involved to help the research and try to extend the dollar value by managing the project 

more effectively. DFO has worked with the FJMC and now know the local harvesters that could 

be used with a certain amount of training to do as much fieldwork as possible on the fish as well 

as other wildlife species. DFO now has in-place Inuvialuit and/or their families that are on site of 

the research areas working together with technical personnel. The Arctic cisco is one of the 

research projects that has been successful. DFO finds the funds to finance the research and 

harvesters being employed sizing, weighing, documenting and taking samples required by the 

technical resource to evaluate the results that can be read and traced. Technical and Traditional 

Knowledge (TK) are working together and recognized for their respective expertise. The cisco 

research tagged a large number of cisco from the Tuk area to try and determine the movements 

and the distribution of the Arctic cisco. Due to lack of funding and the vastness of the ISR the 

cisco research was confined to the Tuk harbor and vicinity. The evaluation of the technical 

personnel and the locals with the TK still has to go farther in working together and answer more 

questions and TK gaps that were not considered while the research project was conducted. 

29 
ALASKA BEAUFORT ARCTIC CISCO BIOLOGY 

AND POPULATION TRENDS 

Bob Fechhelm 

LGL, 1410 Cavitt St., Bryan, TX 77801 

(979) 775-2000, FAX (979) 775-2002, E-mail: bfechhelm@excite.com

For nearly 22 consecutive summers, fishery-monitoring studies have been conducted in coastal 

waters near Prudhoe Bay, Alaska. The fish start showing up around August 15. The principal 

sampling gear is the fyke net which is a live-capture device that fishes 24 hours a day. The fyke 

net is set along the shore. Fish swimming along the shore are diverted seaward where they enter a 

series of traps. Once a day, a boat crew empties the net into floating holding pens. Fish are then 

identified, counted, and for important species like qaaktaq, measured. All fish are then released. 

Over the years, fishermen began noting that in some summers nets would suddenly be filled with 

very small Arctic cisco measuring from 65-80 millimeters (mm; 2.5-3.0 inches) in length. Aging 

studies showed these fish to be young-of-the-year (age-0), or fish hatched that very summer. In 

other summers, nets would be fished throughout the summer on into September and yet no age-0 

fish would be caught. By the late 1980s, researchers realized that age-0 were caught in summers 

characterized by strong east winds whereas no fish were caught in summers characterized by

weak east winds or net west winds. These data were consistent with the hypothesis of Gallaway et 

al. (1983), which proposed that Arctic cisco found in Alaskan waters actually originate from

spawning grounds in the Mackenzie River system. They theorized that in spring, newly hatched 

young-of-the-year (age-0) fish are flushed down the Mackenzie River to ice-free coastal waters 

adjacent to the Delta. In summers characterized by strong and persistent east winds, large 

numbers of these fish are transported westward by wind-driven coastal currents. Once in Alaska, 

they take up overwintering residence the Colville River. Arctic cisco remain in the Colville River 

until the onset of sexual maturity beginning at about age 7, at which time they are believed to 

migrate back to the Mackenzie River to spawn. Fish aged 5-8 support the Colville River 

subsistence fishery.

As studies proceeded into the 1990s, the wind-recruitment relationship became more obvious. In 

summer when the average wind speed was from the east a greater than 3 mph large numbers of 

age-0 fish were caught in the fyke nets. In summers when average easterly wind were less than 3 

mph, or from the west, catches were low. This pattern has persisted for 22 years. This same 

pattern is evident in the Helmericks fishery, which has maintained catch records since the late 

1970s. Fish hatched in years of poor east winds never contribute strongly to the fishery. However, 

some year classes hatched in years of strong east winds contribute to large harvests while others 

do not. Note in Figures 2 and 2 that the 1985-year class was strongly recruited into Alaska yet did 

not contribute strongly to the fishery. Strong recruitment as age 0 fish but poor representation in 

the fishery may indicate high mortality during the years following their arrival. Fish must survive 

the 5-6 years it takes for then to grow to harvestable size. 

The Prudhoe Bay fyke net studies represent about a 5-6 year leading indicator of qaaktaq 

population status in the Colville River. As stated above, the Colville River fisheries rely largely

on fish age 5 to 8. Based upon catch data at Prudhoe Bay, the 1993 fishery was expected to be 

good because three of the four year classes susceptible to the fishery were strongly recruited into 

Alaska. The 1993 fishery was indeed one of the strongest in the historic record. Conversely, the 

2001 fishery was expected to be poor because three of the four year classes susceptible to the 

fishery were poorly recruited into Alaska. The 2001 harvest was poor. The 2003 fishery was 

30 
expected to be good because three of the four year classes susceptible to the fishery were strongly

recruited into Alaska. The 2003 fishery has picked up considerable compared to the past few 

years. 

Another goal of the Prudhoe Bay fyke net studies is to monitor the health and status of year 

classes that are strongly recruited into Alaska. Figure 1 illustrates catch rates of different year 

classes of qaaktaq. The method of calculation is based upon the aging of fish apportioned into 

overall catch data, the analytical details of which are far beyond the scope of this presentation. 

However, one can get a feel for the strength of different year classes overwintering in the Colville 

River over time. The 1986, 1987, and 1990 year classes remained relatively strong into the 5-8 

year age range. All three of these year classes contributed strongly to the fishery. The 1982 and 

1984 year classes were poorly recruited into Alaska and never contributed to the qaaktaq harvest. 

Through the summer of 2002, the 1997-year class remains one the most abundant ever recorded 

in the 22-year history of the fyke net surveys. We expected this year class to enter the fishery in 

2002, but it did not. It is suspected that slow growth may have delayed their entry by a year. This 

year class is likely responsible for the stronger fishery in 2003. Strong back-to-back 1997 and 

1998-year classes should provide good fishing for several more years. 

There has been no recruitment of qaaktaq into the Prudhoe Bay area in 2001, 2002, and 2003 

because of poor wind conditions. The absence of these year classes is expected to result in a very

poor fishery beginning in 2006 and lasting for several years. 

Bibliography 

Gallaway, B.J., W.B. Griffiths, P.C. Craig, W.J. Gazey, and J.W. Helmericks. 1983. An 

assessment of the Colville River delta stock of Arctic cisco - migrants from Canada? 

Biological Papers of the University of Alaska 24:153-165. 

31 
32 

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15

CPUE

Figure 1. Catch-per-unit-effort (CPUE = fish/net/24 hr) for individual year classes (YC) of Arctic cisco by age based upon 

aging analysis. No histogram means no estimate could be made. Estimates where CPUE is very low to zero are denoted by th

the first panel illustrates how the 1980 year class was represented in the years 1988-1991; in 1988, the 1980 year-class wa

approximately 1 fish/net/24 hr. Years denoted by boxes indicate no data available because no aging studies were conducte

Fechhelm. 
COLVILLE RIVER ARCTIC CISCO POPULATION TRENDS 

Lawrence L. Moulton 

MJM Research, 1012 Shoreland Drive, Lopez Island, WA 98261 

(360) 468-4821 E-mail: lmoulton@rockisland.com

Arctic cisco catch rates from the commercial fishery in the Colville Delta show substantial 

fluctuation between 1967 and the present (Figure 1). Monitoring of the Nuiqsut catch rates began 

in 1985. Since that time, catch rates for both the village and commercial fishery have fluctuated in 

a similar manner, indicating that the catch rates are reflecting changes in regional abundance of 

Arctic cisco (Figure 2). 

Regional abundance of Arctic cisco in the Alaskan Beaufort Sea is a function of sporadic large 

recruitments of young-of-the-year that originate in the Mackenzie River. When winds are 

favorable, young-of-the-year Arctic cisco are transported into the Alaskan Beaufort Sea, where 

they establish in the Colville River and remain until they reach maturity in 7 or 8 years. When 

they reach harvestable size, typically at 5 to 7 years, they support targeted fisheries until they

mature and leave the region. 

The cyclic nature of the recruitment process allows some prediction of the harvest rates in the 

village and commercial fisheries that target Arctic cisco. High recruitments result in high fishery

catch rates after a 5 to 6 year lag, while low recruitments result in low catch rates. Since Arctic 

cisco are important food items in the region, the years of low abundance cause considerable 

concern among the user groups. 

Abundance indices developed from catches of juvenile Arctic cisco by fyke nets in Prudhoe Bay

allow pre-season predictions of catch rates so that residents will have some idea of what to expect 

from the upcoming season. Harvest predictions based on fyke net indices of summer abundance 

are still subject to considerable error because changes in brackish water in the delta during the 

fishing season will change the distribution of Arctic cisco in relation to the main fishing areas. 

Arctic cisco seem to orient to salinities in the range of 15-25 parts per thousand (ppt), which are 

commonly found in the lower portion of the delta during the fishery, from mid-October to late 

November. In some years, however, the water will remain fresh, and Arctic cisco do not enter the 

areas being fished, even though substantial numbers may be present. The highest catch rates have 

been recorded when high abundance coincides with a favorable salinity distribution during the 

fishing season. 

Discussion 

Question – How far up the river does the salt water go? 

Larry Moulton – Some years the salinity goes up past the Itkillik River mouth. 

33 
Arctic Cisco Harvest Data 1967-2003

0

10000

20000

30000

40000

50000

60000

70000

80000

90000

1967196919711973197519771979198119831985198719891991199319951997199920012003

Number of Fish Caught

Subsistence Harvest Commercial Harvest Total Harvest

Figure 1. Arctic Cisco Harvest Data, 1967 to 2003. Source: Larry Moulton. 

Arctic Cisco Average Catch Per Net Per Day 1967-2003

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

200

1967196919711973197519771979198119831985198719891991199319951997199920012003

Number of Fish Caught Per Net Per Day

Subsistence Catch Com mercial-Adjusted CPUE Catch*

Note: * = CPUE adjusted between CPUE and effort during the period 1967 - 1990.

Figure 2. Arctic Cisco Catch Per Net Per Day, 1967 to 2003. Source: Larry Moulton. 

34 
CANADIAN BEAUFORT NEARSHORE OCEANOGRAPHY AND 

MACKENZIE RIVER WINTER HYDROLOGY 

David Fissel 

ASL Environmental Sciences Inc., 1986 Mills Road, Sidney BC Canada 

(250) 656-0177 x112, FAX (250) 656-2162, E-mail: dfissel@aslenv.com

Physical processes in the Canadian Beaufort Sea and the Mackenzie River are discussed and 

presented in terms of their possible influence on the population of Arctic Cisco within the 

Alaskan North Slope Rivers and adjoining coastal areas. 

The Mackenzie River is one of the great rivers of the world (ranked number 10 by drainage area 

and number 15 by total annual discharge. Unlike most Arctic rivers, the Mackenzie River 

discharges water continuously throughout the winter (5,000 cubic feet per second [cfs]) and 

spring months, since its drainage basin extends as far south as latitude 53° N in western Alberta. 

During the freshet period, water discharges increase considerably, and water levels rise by an 

average of 5.5 m. The freshet results in flooding of the Mackenzie Delta, beginning in late April 

to early May at Red River due to snowmelt in southern reaches of Mackenzie drainage area. As 

river discharge increases, water overflows onto ice covered channels due to ice jams, onto lakes 

and ice in lower delta and ocean bays. The Mackenzie Delta has about 25,000 lakes in addition to 

the complex pattern of river channels. Two-thirds of the lakes are flooded every year during 

spring freshet and most of the rest are flooded every 2 to 5 years. Discharge peaks and flooding 

can also occur in the summer due to major rainstorms upstream of the Delta, as well as high water 

levels in the lower Delta due to high sea levels. 

Mackenzie River discharges into the ocean occur onto a shallow continental shelf extending 60 to 

80 km offshore. In spring, the shelf is nearly entirely covered by floating ice, with extensive 

ridging of sea ice occurring along the shelf break and anchored “landfast” ice covering the inner 

reaches of the coastal shelf. During the spring freshet, the fresh river water floods the landfast ice 

and extends offshore to the ridged ice at the shelf break as well as over 100 km to the northwest 

along the coastline, to the area of Herschel Island. The heated Mackenzie River water 

significantly advances the dates of break-up and clearing of the coastal ice cover by up to 2 weeks 

by comparison with adjoining areas to the west. Break-up and dispersal of the sea ice cover 

usually occurs between mid-June and mid-July over the Mackenzie shelf region. 

Water properties over the continental shelf are highly variable in both spatial pattern and with 

time. The freshwater discharged from the Mackenzie River, as well as lesser contributions from

other smaller coastal rivers, result in brackish and comparatively warm bands of water, initially

located along the coastline. Much colder and more saline Arctic Water is also present over much 

of the shelf area. The spatial distribution of these highly distinct water types is determined by the 

combined and time-varying influences of: river discharges; wind patterns; and the proximity of 

the landward edge of the Arctic Ocean ice pack to the coastline. Ocean currents over the shelf are 

pre-dominantly wind driven. 

The regional winds are bi-modal in nature, and dominated by: easterly winds (generally of light to 

moderate speed); as well as westerly-northwesterly winds, having moderate to strong speeds but 

usually of shorter duration. Easterly winds move the brackish and warmer riverine influenced 

waters to the west, although under strong easterly winds, this water mass is displaced offshore 

and can be replaced by colder water up welled from below in inshore areas. Westerly or 

35 
northwesterly winds concentrate the warmer and brackish water along the coastline with a 

pronounced easterly movement. 

Sea ice distributions over the continental shelf are highly variable from one summer to another, 

and within the summer season. In some years, major incursions of pack ice onto the shelf result in 

much colder surface water temperatures and reduced wind driven circulation. The coastline itself 

also has a significant effect on coastal currents and water properties. Herschel Island, and the 

nearby Mackenzie Canyon, has a pronounced effect on the circulation patterns. The extensive 

network of lagoons and barrier islands along the coastline, to the west of Herschel Island, also 

results in significant alterations to coastal water properties and transport. 

Discussion 

David Fissel – The Mackenzie River discharges 5,000 cfs throughout the winter and spring. The 

spring flooding starts at the Red River in late April or early May. The spring flooding is 

consistent within a week but there is considerable variation in the volume of flow from year to 

year. The ridge at the landfast ice contains the fresh waters when the Mackenzie River floods. 

The east winds favor Arctic cisco moving into the Colville River. The westerly or northwesterly 

winds also increase the sea level. 

What is the effect on fish? July 1 to August 15 is about 46 days for fish to move from the 

Mackenzie to Prudhoe Bay. In a good year the east wind is about six miles per hour and could 

transport fish about 200 miles. In a bad year the east wind can average 0.6 miles per hour, 

resulting in only 20 miles of transport. If the fish were swimming, they could swim about 200 

miles. In a good year they could swim 200 miles and be moved 200 miles by wind or 400 miles 

total to the east. In a bad year they could swim 200 miles and be transported another 20 miles by 

wind or 220 miles total. 

Potential disruptions to westward movement include blockage, such as in 1973 and 1975 when no 

fish moved past the ice, resulting in poor fishing in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Other 

disruptions could be reduced wind fetch, or unfavorable water qualities. With industrial 

development, causeways might have a disrupting effect. 

James Patkotak – What is the water depth within the Mackenzie Delta? 

David Fissel – Approximately 30 miles offshore the depth is 20 m; whereas, the water within the 

first 5 miles offshore is very shallow. 

James Patkotak – What about silt accumulation? 

David Fissel – Siltation is a natural process within the delta. We dredge our important 

navigational channels regularly. 

Leonard Lampe, Sr. – It is illegal to dredge here in Alaska. 

Isaac Nukapigak – It is up to the Army Corps of Engineers. 

Leonard Lampe, Sr. – Is there evidence or proof that causeways or bridges disturb the migration 

of the cisco? 

36 
David Fissel – In Canada we use floating devices instead of causeways so I am unable to 

comment on that question. 

Bob Fechhelm – I feel that causeways don’t result in blockage. We haven’t noticed this as being 

an effect among the young-of-the-year Arctic cisco. They just follow the current that goes around 

the causeway like they would along the coastal land points. Swimming fish could be affected. 

Leonard Lampe, Sr. – So you are saying that if there are 10 fish in the area, all 10 fish will go 

around the obstruction and all 10 fish will be present on the other side? 

Bob Fechhelm – The first year of a fish’s life is that of a planktonic stage and therefore I believe 

that all 10 fish would make it to the other side. 

Bill Steever – I believe that there is no difference between either side of the causeways. What 

types of dams or bridges are found within the Mackenzie Delta? 

David Fissel – There are no dams or bridges within the area of the delta. Once there was a 

proposed dam but got turned down because of the disruption of migration patterns. I don’t know 

very well where they spawn. Fish have been seen as far north as the Liard River but I don’t know 

the numbers. 

Bob Fechhelm – They spawn in the Peel and Red rivers, fairly close to the delta. 

BEAUFORT OCEANOGRAPHY AND COLVILLE RIVER HYDROLOGY 

Kate Wedemeyer 

Agency Coordinator for Arctic Fish Studies, US Minerals Management Service 

949 E 36th Avenue, #308, Anchorage, AK 99508-4363 

(907) 271-6424, FAX (907) 271-6507, E-mail: kate.wedemeyer@mms.gov 

Because our Alaskan oceanographer had a family medical emergency, I was “volunteered” to 

make this presentation. I know that there are many in this room who know more than I about the 

Beaufort Sea and the Colville River, so please correct any misstatements I may make. 

 

Because the Pacific water level is higher than the Atlantic, surface water generally flows from the 

Pacific Ocean, through the Arctic Ocean to the Atlantic Ocean at least on the surface. The 

Beaufort Gyre, called the flywheel of the Arctic Ocean, is like a giant eddy in the Arctic Ocean. 

Other currents include the warm, less salty, nutrient rich Alaska coastal current, the weak tidal 

current (range of 2-4 inches) and the warm fresh water currents moving out of the two biggest 

rivers, the Mackenzie and Colville, toward the west. 

We believe that, along with the winds, these spring river freshets play a major role in carrying the 

arctic cisco larvae from the Mackenzie west to the Colville or east to Tuktoyaktuk harbor. The 

freshwater (<5 psu) river plumes flow out under or over the shorefast ice in surface sheets about 

four feet (1.5 meters) thick and can carry sediments at least 20 km offshore under the ice. 

37 
It is the wind, predominantly from the northeast and the southwest, which drives the dynamics of 

the Beaufort Sea nearshore waters (<130 feet or 40 meters deep) more than the currents, 

freshwater discharge, ice melting, depth, or the shape of the coast. 

Wind speeds average 11 miles per hour (mph) (5 meters per second [mps]) or about 50 times 

faster than the current speeds of 0.05 to 2 mph (2.5-10 cm/sec). Wind speed > 18 mph (8 mps) 

can fully mix the freshwater sheets into the water column. The water is pushed about 3-5% of the 

speed of the wind and is affected within 1-3 hours of a wind change. Northeasterly winds that 

move the water to the west toward the Colville are typically more persistent in June and July. As 

the open-water season progresses, southwesterly winds that move water to the east toward Tuk 

harbor are more frequent. They also move water to or from shore, gradually warm brackish water 

to or from shore, keeping it concentrated or spreading it out. 

We know the wind direction and speed are very changeable and we know the winds, river plumes 

and coastal currents all have complex density and circulation fields, such as fronts meanders and 

eddies that can accumulate or rapidly disperse across and along the shelf. For instance, local 

residents have testified at MMS meetings about the very high strong winds nowadays at Cross 

Island and Sara Kunakana indicated that a warm breeze and warming temperatures in the summer 

are indicators of an impending major storm. However, though these are levels of complexity that 

are quite likely to affect Arctic cisco, recording stations are too far apart and we are unable model 

their dynamics. 

The major Alaskan Arctic cisco overwintering is in the Colville River, midway between Barrow 

and Kaktovik. The Colville drains 29% of the North Slope of Alaska. The Colville and the 

Mackenzie, another important Arctic cisco river, are two of the 8 major rivers with significant 

freshwater input to the Arctic Ocean and the two largest rivers in arctic North America. 

Peak flow is typically between mid-May and mid-June and main channel is free of ice within a 

few days before or after this peak. The river’s volume and heavy sediment load produces a 

dynamic deltaic system characterized by numerous shallow lakes and pond, sandbars, mud flats, 

sand dunes and low polygons. The two main delta channels, the Kuupigruaq (the “big big river” 

or east channel) and Nechelik carry 60-80% and 20-40%, respectively, of the total discharge 

flows. The waters of the Colville have been estimated to churn up the sediments about 5 feet 

deep, and up to as much as 9 feet deep. While measures of the winter flow have yielded velocity

readings of zero, since current meters do not detect flows of 0.1 feet per second (fps), the flow 

could be as much as 10,000 cubic feet per second (cfs). 

In places, the east Colville channel is wide enough that wind driven waves can be whipped up and 

erosion can average just over a foot per year compared to coastal erosion averages of 5-3 feet per 

year. Individual storms, however, may cause erosion up to 30 feet on the coast or within the river 

delta. Erosion seems to be least in straight sections of the channels and greatest along the eastern 

banks of the East Channel because southwesterly winds are most common during summer storms. 

The seasonal cycle begins as rivers flood over the nearshore sea ice in late May. The river 

floodwaters drain from the surface of the sea ice in early June. The floating and grounded land 

fast ice breakup, water opens along the coast and water warms in the Colville River in early to 

mid-July. Winds are often mixing the nearshore less salty water with the more salty water by

August. The shore ice forms, the river deltas freeze, frazil, brash and grease ice form in bays and 

near the coast in September. Smoothed, first year ice forms within bays and near the coast in midOctober and the sea ice covers more than 97% of the Beaufort Sea shelf November through May.

38 
ARCTIC OCEAN CLIMATE CYCLES 

Kate Wedemeyer 

Agency Coordinator for Arctic Fish Studies, US Minerals Management Service 

949 E 36th Avenue, #308, Anchorage, AK 99508-4363 

(907) 271-6424, FAX (907) 271-6507, E-mail: kate.wedemeyer@mms.gov 

Several MMS studies have looked at Arctic climate cycles in the Beaufort and Chukchi Seas from

1940 to 2000. Figure 1 is a graph of cyclonic and anticyclonic climate cycles is based on sea level 

pressure which is used to estimate wind speeds–which I just said have more influence on the 

waters than the currents or salinity or temperature differences. 

Figure 1. Cyclonic and anticyclonic climate cycles in the Beaufort Sea. Source: Proshutinsky, et al., 

MMS 2003-024. 

Anticyclonic or clockwise “winter” cycles circulate with the Beaufort gyre circulation and are 

represented by positive light shaded bars on the chart where zero equals the average of all years. 

The warmer, windier Cyclonic “summer” cycles circulate opposite the Beaufort gyre. (The blue 

dash-dot line represents high or low annual river runoff into the Arctic Ocean). The grey

anticyclonic cycle, or “winter” years, include: 1946-52, 58-62, 72-79, 84-88, and 98-2001. The 

red cyclonic or “summer” years are: 1953-57, 63-71, 80-83, 89-97, and 2002. 

Most of the 1990s (89-97) and the year 2000 were in cyclonic “warmer” cycle years, so it may be 

useful to look at how cyclonic conditions, in particular, differ from the overall average conditions 

in the Beaufort. 

The most significant aspect of these cycles for Arctic cisco is that the biggest difference in the 

wind circulation is primarily in summer when Arctic cisco larvae are being blown to and fro. In 

39 
the cyclonic years (the1990s and 2000), the summer winds blew counter clockwise, west to east. 

Furthermore, cyclonic wind speeds averaged (0.9 miles per hour [mph]) (0.4 meters per second 

[mps]), about 10% faster, than anticyclonic cycle winds. In August they averaged 2.4 mps (1.1 

mps) faster! Buoy drift speeds in the Beaufort averaged 1 centimeter per second (cm/sec) faster 

overall with increasing differences from July (0.25cm/sec;.005 meters per hour; 0.1 miles per 

day) through October (4cm/sec; ~0.1 mph). 

Arctic cisco seem to prefer warm, semi-fresh or brackish water. Average summer salinities are 

slightly lower. Average water temperatures are slightly higher in early summer but slightly lower 

in late summer during cyclonic cycles. 

Cyclonic cycles may also have some positive significance for Arctic cisco as increased spring 

runoff may reduce the coastal salinity. Precipitation in cyclonic “summer” years increases over 

the Arctic Ocean (actually >70° latitude which is Nuiqsut and north) for all seasons and decreases 

over land only in summer. While we have only a few estimates of Colville River discharges, they

are probably more similar to the Mackenzie River than to other smaller rivers on the Beaufort 

coast. The high and low periods of Mackenzie River discharge relates well to the cyclonic and 

anticyclonic cycles over the past 30 years. Therefore there may be more favorable conditions in 

the coastal nearshore summer foraging habitat from the Mackenzie to the Colville. 

Bibliography 

Jorgenson, M.T., J.W. Aldrich, E.R. Pullman, S.R. Ray, Y. Shur, M.D. Smith, A. A. Stickney,

and H. J. Walker. 1996. Geomorphology and Hydrology of the Colville River Delta, 

Alaska, 1995. Anchorage, AK: Arco Alaska, Inc. and Kuukpik Unit Owners, 135p. 

Michael Baker Jr., Inc. 2003. Alpine Facilities 2003 Spring Breakup and Hydrologic Assessment. 

Report 100876-MBJ-Anchorage, AK: Conoco Phillips, 67p. 

Okkonen, S.R., and T.J. Weingartner. 2003. Nearshore circulation in the Alaska Beaufort Shelf in

Ninth Information Transfer Meeting and Barrow Information Update Meeting Final 

Proceedings. OCS Study MMS 2003-042. Anchorage, AK USDOI. MMS Alaska OCS 

Region. 

Proshutinsky, A. Y., M.A Johnson, T.O. Proshutinsky and J. A. Maslanik. 2003. Beaufort and 

Chukchi Sea Seasonal Variability for Two Arctic Climate States. OCS Study MMS 2003-

024. Anchorage, AK: USDOI, MMS Alaska OCS Region, 197p. 

United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) and GRID-arendal. ww.gria.no/db/maps . 

USDOI, MMS Alaska OCS Region. 2003. Alaska Outer Continental shelf Beaufort Sea Planning 

Area Oil and Gas Leas Sales 186,195, and 202, Final Environmental Impact Statement. 

Volumes 1. OCS EA/EIS MMS 2003-001. Anchorage, AK: USDOI, MMS Alaska OCS 

Region, pp III-13-III-18. 

Weingartner, T. J. 2003. Physical Oceanography of the Beaufort Sea, Workshop 

Recommendations. MMS 2003-045. Anchorage, AK: USDOI, MMS Alaska OCS 

Region, 37p. 

40 
Weingartner, T. J. and S. R Okkonen. 2001. Beaufort Sea Nearshore Under-Ice Currents: Science 

Analysis and Logistics. OCS Study MMS 2001-068. Anchorage, AK: USDOI, MMS 

Alaska OCS Region. 

Discussion 

Kate Wedemeyer – Some major unanswered questions about the nearshore and the Colville River 

include: How do the smaller scale complexities of the winds and ocean currents affect Arctic 

cisco? Do Colville River flows completely cease in all or some years? Are sediment berms in the 

Colville delta Arctic cisco migration barriers? Are there temperature or salinity barriers to 

young or adult fish migrating into the Colville? Could an ice bridge across a delta affect salinity 

in a river channel and exaggerate physical or chemical barriers? 

Sara Kunaknana – In April, springtime, the Arctic cisco move into higher salinity water. 

Ruth Nukapigak – The fall season brings in saline water in conjunction with the west wind. 

Currents also get strong this time of year. 

Kate Wedemeyer – Cyclonic warmer, summer winds blow from west to east. This was observed in 

1953-1957, 1964-1971, 1980-1983, 1989-1997, and 2002. Did those years seem like warmer 

winds from the west occurred? 

Ruth Nukapigak – I noticed more saline waters along the coast. The west winds are warmer and I 

noticed the tide rose within the river. 

Kate Wedemeyer – If the cyclonic cycles were responsible, Arctic cisco age classes 6 and older 

would have had low numbers in 1959-1963, 1970-1977, 1986-1989, 1995-2003, and would be 

projected to be low in 2008. Did anybody notice this trend? 

Johnny Ahtuangaruak – Before development began the abundance of fish was higher and the fish 

were fatter. Since the development started there has been a low recruitment of fish and they have 

become skinnier over the years. 

Isaac Nukapigak – From 1997-2002 I noticed a decline in cisco. 

Eli Nukapigak – There was lots of activity in the Beaufort Sea that even affected the bowhead 

whale migration. 

Johnny Ahtuangaruak – With the development of the seawater treatment plant, I could tell that a 

decline occurred. Also the fish have changed in size. 

Dora Nukapigak – I have noticed that when seismic activity is occurring during the hunting 

season, the whales were found about 30 miles off Cross Island. The first year after the activity 

stopped, the whales were found one mile off the island. 

Joeb Woods, Sr. – Pumping of the seawater at the plants I feel tends to suck fish into the plant. 

Bill Steever – There was a study done in Prudhoe Bay and though the plants sucked some larval 

fish in, it was found not to be a significant amount. 

41 
Larry Moulton – Another study was done focusing on large fish species. It was found that the 

seawater plant does not suck in any large fish, only small ones. 

Isaac Nukapigak – The sucking of the plant has an effect on the current of the water and this 

should be further looked at. 

Larry Moulton – Studies have been conducted at the low flow-through pump located at the 

screen. 

Leonard Lampe, Sr. – Only one Arctic cisco was ever found in the screen in the last 20 years. 

Joeb Woods, Sr. – The outer screen prevents fish from going into the plant and only one fish was 

found within. 

Leonard Lampe, Sr. – To clarify, only one fish was found within the inner screen. 

Joeb Woods, Sr. – Is there data for the outer screen studies? 

Larry Moulton – Prudhoe Bay studies indicate very few fish come into the forebay. This was 

determined utilizing video analysis. 

Leonard Lampe, Sr. – The pipelines that lay on the ocean floor are heated so that the oil can flow 

through them. Fish are sensitive to temperature. Does this temperature change around the piping 

have an effect on the migration of the fishes? 

Chuck Mitchell – There are entrainment and fish impingement studies that determine the 

abundance of fish that enter into the plants; these are EPA studies. In February 2004, new 

regulations will be set forth for “process waters.” 

POSSIBLE GLOBAL WARMING AND ARCTIC OSCILLATION IMPACTS 

ON SMALL FISH STOCKS 

Two Crow (AKA J.D. Schumacher) 

Two Crow Environmental, Inc, 288 Ivan Rd. Friday Harbor, WA 98250 

(360) 370-5591, FAX (360) 370-5591,E-mail: twocrow@rockisland.com

Since the 1960s and increasing in the 1990s many dramatic changes have occurred throughout the 

Arctic (e.g., Carmack and Macdonald 2002, SEARCH SSC 2001). Most notable is warming of air 

temperatures, together with marked changes in atmospheric pressure patterns, circulation, 

cloudiness, and likely in precipitation and evaporation. In response to these changes in 

atmospheric phenomena, sea ice has decreased in extent and thickness while ocean currents and 

ice drift changed. North America has experienced a decrease in snow cover, changes in 

permafrost temperatures, an increase in runoff (increased rain) of some major rivers, and changes 

in the time of river ice breakup and the onset of the summer peak in river flow. What portion of 

the warming is due to global warming (an increasing trend due to greater concentrations of 

human generated green house gases, e.g., Levitus et al. 2001), and how much can be attributed to 

natural cycles (e.g., seasonal, interannual, decadal like the Arctic Oscillation, and longer) is moot. 

Regardless of cause, warming is occurring: the climate of the Arctic is changing. 

42 
How might this climate change impact small stocks of fish, e.g., Arctic cisco in the Colville River 

system? As the atmosphere, oceans and rivers change, all life in them is affected. Populations of 

fish change as elements of the ecosystem that affect their survival change. Food may become

more/less available (changes in production and/or competition), predation may change (changes 

in predator populations, and/or new species), parasites and diseases may become more/less 

prevalent, and/or physiological stress due to temperature and salinity may change. 

One strategy is to construct reasonable scenarios of ecosystem change based on 

physical/biological fluctuations that are most likely to occur as climate changes (e.g., Carmack 

and Macdonald 2002), and that will impact fish. For example, between 1970-1991 summertime 

winds were often alongshore, providing the hypothesized transport mechanism for moving age-0 

ciscoes from the Mackenzie River to the Colville (Colonell and Gallaway 1997). If under climate 

change these winds diminish or reverse, then recruitment to the Colville by this pathway will 

cease. A requirement for this approach to be successful in forecasting impacts is a working 

knowledge of the fish and their accompanying physics. Even before successfully forecasting fish 

population changes, this process allows us to determine where our knowledge of biology and/or 

physics is insufficient or lacking. This, in turn, allows us to prioritize information needs that 

dictate what research should next be undertaken.

Bibliography 

Carmack, E. and R. W. Macdonald. 2002. Oceanography of the Canadian Shelf of the Beaufort 

Sea setting for marine life. Arctic 55: 29-45. 

Colonell, J. M. and B. J. Gallaway. 1997. Wind-driven transport and dispersion of age-0 Arctic 

ciscoes along the Alaska Beaufort coast. Am. Fish. Soc. Sym. 19: 90-103. 

Levitus, S., J. I. Antonov, J. Wang, T. L. Delworth, K. W. Dixon and A. J. Broccoli. 2001. 

Anthropogenic warming of the Earth’s climate system. Science, 292: 267-270. 

SEARCH SCC. 2001. SEARCH: Study of Environmental Arctic Change, Science Plan. Polar 

Science Center, Applied Physical Laboratory, University of Washington, Seattle, 91p. 

Acknowledgments 

I thank Eddie Carmack (IOS Canada), Tom Weingartner and Seth Danielson (IMS University of 

Alaska Fairbanks) for providing valuable information and discussion on climate change n the 

Arctic. 

Discussion 

Isaac Nukapigak – I noticed an earlier thaw, earlier break up, and a later freeze up. We are 

already observing some of the conditions that you were just describing. Natural runoff from the 

foothills could be found around the “pipes” heat. 

Two Crow – Yes, and with the increased runoff, you will get more problems with silt build-up as 

was talked about earlier. Winds, especially in summer, will get stronger; landfast ice will not go 

out as far as 60 feet deep. 

43 
Ruth Nukapigak – I noticed strong currents last July when we were traveling along the ice. When 

multiple currents hit together, it is turbulent and causes icebergs to break-up. Ice broke off and 

we were traveling with the ice pack. This was the first time I have seen a current so rough with no 

wind. I saw the iceberg and needed to get to shore but there wasn’t any wind. It took one hour to 

get to shore because the waves were so big and they had come out of nowhere. 

Bill Streever – Do you think we are seeing this now, the effects of global warming with these 

weak east winds? 

Two Crow – Yes, I believe since 1970 the effects are being observed. These changes include 

decreased ice cover (less production and food items), more storms and higher sea level from 

higher temperatures (and changes in upwelling), changing fronts and currents that affect fish 

migrations and distributions, and altered habitats. 

Sara Kunaknana – I am now 82 years old and can remember since the time I was 9, when there 

used to be slow transitions from cold conditions to warm conditions. Now, these transitions from 

cold to warm are fast and abrupt. Fall used to freeze fast and now it is the reverse, the fall freeze 

is slow. I also used to fish along the shore for qaaktaq all summer and I used to catch bigger and 

fatter fish. 

Two Crow – Wind-driven upwelling brings the nutrients and phytoplankton. If winds from the 

east diminish, then there may be little or no recruitment of Age-0 qaaktaq to the Colville River, 

and upwelling will decrease, meaning there is less food for the fish. With increased river 

discharge, faster currents could potentially transport Bering cisco to the Colville River region in 

less than two months. 

Eli Nukapigak – This fall there we had a lot of west wind and we saw both Arctic cisco and 

Bering cisco. 

Two Crow – If water temperature increases, then production and species change will occur. 

Given that other salmonids already exist in the region, the habitat becomes more favorable for 

them and they can out-compete ciscoes. There are also a lot of jellyfish in the Bering Sea. 

Isaac Patkotak – We need a plan of action. The oil companies need to get off our garden. 

Two Crow – There is a lot of basic life history knowledge that we need to collect to better 

understand these fish. What young of the year eat; what eats Arctic cisco. We do not know a lot 

about the nearshore Beaufort Sea. What is going on within ten miles of the shore is very complex. 

Like Sara said, all these turbulent currents when there are no winds. Another gap in our 

knowledge is about the processes. How do nutrients get into the nearshore zone? Especially what 

is happening under the ice? My elder told me when you see a problem; you need to think of a 

solution. 

To gather this information we need a network of permanent observation. Traditional knowledge 

comes from hundreds of years of observing. The observations made by people every day can help 

us to better understand the cisco. 

44 
EXPLOITATION DYNAMICS OF SMALL FISH STOCKS 

LIKE ARCTIC CISCO 

Jennifer Nielsen 

BRD/USGS, 1011 E. Tudor Rd., Anchorage, AK 99503 

(907) 786-3670, E-mail: Jennifer_Nielsen@usgu.gov 

Potential impacts to the Arctic cisco population fall into both demographic and behavioral 

categories. Possible demographic impacts include stock recruitment effects, limited escapement 

into marine habitats, and variable age-class reproductive success. Potential behavioral impacts 

involve migratory patterns, variable life histories, and strategies for seasonal feeding. Arctic cisco 

stocks are highly susceptible to over-exploitation due to our limited basic knowledge of the 

highly variable Arctic environment and the role they play in this dynamic ecosystem. 

Our knowledge of potential demographic changes is very limited, and it is necessary to determine 

the abundance and recruitment of the hypothesized Mackenzie River source population, the 

extent of the coastal migratory corridor, growth patterns, and coastal upwelling and mixing 

effects on population dynamics for this species. Information needed to answer some of the 

demographic questions includes basic evolutionary history and molecular genetics of Arctic cisco 

(for instance, are there contributions to the Arctic cisco stock from the Yukon?), what is the 

effective population size (i.e., breeding population size), and potential links to changes in climate. 

The basic behavioral questions include migratory and variable life history questions. For instance, 

the extent of movement back and forth between freshwater and the sea, age-specific differences 

in food web dynamics, and nearshore brackish and high salinity habitats are topics that should be 

studied. Life history data should be gathered to understand the variation in age at reproduction, 

salinity tolerance, scale and duration of the freshwater stage, survival, and adult migration. 

Both molecular and ecological tools should be integrated to manage the Arctic cisco stock(s), 

such as understanding global climate changes on patterns of harvest and recruitment, and the 

genetics of population structure and colonization. Perhaps other populations are contributing to 

the population within the Colville River other than only the Mackenzie River population. This 

needs further exploration. By examining otolith microchemistry, unique transitions from

freshwater to sea can be identified for these stocks. This may shed light on why some fish arrive 

at the mouth of the Colville River, while others don’t. 

Discussion 

Jennifer Nielsen – Do the elders remember such demographic changes in fish numbers and 

changes in the wind that I mentioned earlier? 

Johnny Ahtuangaruak – Just recently these changes have occurred. It hasn’t happened before. 

Prior to the pipeline being built, there was lots of fat fish offshore. Changes in body shape could 

be the result of a change in diet. Fish travel into the Colville River from waves out in the ocean. 

Animals migrate and travel in circles; they go all over. 

Comment – I think there are changes in what they are eating. 

Bill Streever – You had indicated that there are DNA data indicating that not all the Colville 

cisco come from the Mackenzie River but are from other sources? 

45 
Jennifer Nielsen – That is correct. There are three studies; one uses allozymes, that was done in 

the early 1980s; another more recent one used mitochondrial DNA; and one that looks at genome 

size. All the studies gave the high proportion of populations could be attributed to a Mackenzie 

source. 

Bill Streever – What are the other possible sources? 

Jennifer Nielsen – I have no idea what the other sources are, and the researchers have no idea. 

But genetically they were found not to come from the same source. All of the fish that were 

studied were taken from the commercial fishery. There could potentially be different stocks within 

the Mackenzie River. This is something that needs further studying and perhaps only a certain 

stock from the Mackenzie is in fact reaching the Colville. 

Bill Streever – I guess another question is that are there any other rivers that are a potential 

source stock of cisco? 

Larry Moulton – The fact is we haven’t looked east of the Mackenzie River. Some Canadian 

scientists are interested in this. 

Bill Streever – Nobody is suggesting that the fish are spawning within the Colville? 

Jennifer Nielsen – Correct, that is not being suggested. What is being suggested is that there are 

other source populations other than the Mackenzie or that there is a variable population within 

the Mackenzie River. If fish come from other places, how important are they, especially if 

something changes in the Mackenzie? 

Craig George – Warren Matumeak thinks some Arctic cisco spawn in the Dease Inlet rivers, 

Ikpikpuk for instance. I think we have hit on a key question that needs further studying. We need 

to identify the source populations and also look at site fidelity. That is a key question that we 

don’t know the answer to. Are the sons and daughters of the fish that went back, returning here? 

Jennifer Nielsen –I feel that genetics is the tool we can use to try to find answers to these 

questions. I want to know if the young-of-the-year (y-o-y) do not make it into the Colville River, 

why don’t they come back as 2, 3, or 4 year olds? 

James Patkotak – I want to know what Warren Matumeak thinks? 

Craig George – Warren Matumeak has always held out and said that he thinks that some qaaktaq 

have their babies in the Ikpikpuk as well as the Mackenzie. He thinks they spawn near Barrow as 

well. He can’t prove it. But that is what he thinks. 

Kate Wedemeyer – Jack Colonell, an oceanographer who was unable to attend, also believes 

there may be a source population to the west. 

Bob Fechhelm – We think if we have winds like recently, we couldn’t get any Arctic cisco here. 

The past two years we have seen back–to-back west winds. Yet a few young-of-the-year do always 

show up in our sample nets. There has never been a complete absence of an age class. I want to 

know where are those fish coming from? 

Gordon Brown – Is it possible that Arctic cisco could be coming from Russia? 

46 
Bob Fechhelm – I think an oceanographer would better be able to answer that question. They 

would need to calculate to determine if it is possible for the fish to come all that way through the 

Bering Straight. 

Jennifer Nielsen – It could be possible. 

Two Crow – There is a strong coastal Siberian coastal current along the northern coast of 

Russia. Dr. Tom Weingartner did work on that. It is very strong, about 20 miles a day. 

Jennifer Nielsen – I was just at a global change meeting where a lot of oceanographers were 

talking about Arctic change. We worked with a model that hypothesized that Atlantic salmon 

could make such a migration as a result of shifts in the Arctic currents and changes in ice cover. 

We need to look across scales – linking molecular and ecological tools, changes in climate and 

how the animal behaves. 

MODELING APPROACHES TO UNDERSTANDING 

VARIABILITY IN SMALL FISH STOCKS 

Terrance J. Quinn II 

Juneau Center, School of Fisheries and Ocean Sciences, University of Alaska Fairbanks, 

11120 Glacier Highway, Juneau AK 99801-8677 

(907) 465-5389, FAX (907) 465-8461, Email: Terry.Quinn@uaf.edu 

Assessment of exploited fish populations involves: (1) collection of data from the fishery and from

biological surveys, (2) mathematical and statistical modeling of the data to understand the population’s 

dynamics, and (3) development of biological reference points related to management to ensure 

sustainability of the population. 

Useful types of data collected from the fishery include the total amount harvested each year and 

composition of the harvest in terms of length, age, and sex. It may be possible to develop an index of 

abundance called catch-per-unit-effort from harvest and fishing effort information. Biological sampling 

entails measuring abundance of the population and its composition. Various methods exist to measure 

abundance, including mark-recapture, transect, removal, and survey sampling. It is also important to 

learn about key population parameters, such as natural and fishing mortality, growth, recruitment, 

movement, and reproductive parameters (maturity, fecundity). 

Modeling connects the data and the features of a population’s dynamics. The abundance of the 

population this year is equal to the population from the previous year, subtracting removals from natural 

causes and fishing, and adding new individuals from recruitment or migration. When little information is 

available, surplus production models can sometimes be used to understand a population’s productivity. 

More satisfactory models include information about length, age, and/or sex composition. A key aspect of 

population modeling is describing the relationship between recruitment and other variables. Recruitment 

is related to previous spawning abundance, environmental factors, and other potential causes (e.g., other 

species, pollution). Modeling provides a means for understanding the factors affecting the population 

and a means for forecasting the population into the future. 

47 
The fishing mortality that produces maximum sustainable yield (MSY) is the standard biological 

reference point for management. It requires the specification of the relationship between spawners and 

recruits. When this relationship is uncertain, many researchers favor biological reference points related 

to preserving reproductive potential of the population on a per recruit basis. In particular, the fishing 

mortality F40% that preserves spawning biomass or egg production per recruit at a level of no less than 

40% of an unfished population is commonly used. A different type of biological reference point is a 

population threshold. If the estimated population drops below the threshold, then all fishing is curtailed. 

A population threshold at 10 to 25% of the unfished population is often recommended. 

An example of this three-stage process for stock assessment is the humpback whitefish population in the 

Chatanika River (Merritt and Quinn 2000). Data included harvest at age, estimates of exploitable 

abundance from a mark-recapture experiment, and perceptions of data quality from the fishery manager. 

The best age-structured model was chosen by examining the fit of the model to the data, parameter 

uncertainty, conservatism of forecasts, and plausibility of results. The management policy set a threshold 

at 10,000 fish and increased exploitation rate up to a maximum of 15% as population size increased. 

Application of the model showed that sustainability depends on the presence of periodic strong yearclasses. If there is a linear relationship between spawners and recruits, then the probability of falling 

below the threshold in six years was high. The main feature of this three-way assessment process is to 

provide a tool for incorporating various types of data into a structured framework to quantify the risks to 

the population associated with various harvest strategies. 

Bibliography 

Merritt and T. J. Quinn. 2000. Using perceptions of data accuracy and empirical weighting of 

information: assessment of a recreational fish population. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 57: 

1459-1569 

48 
WORKING GROUP DISCUSSIONS 

AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The preceding Traditional Knowledge and scientific presentations provided excellent 

information. There was a wealth of expertise and knowledge represented at the workshop. At the 

end of the scientific presentations, Moderator Mitchell asked several of the workshop attendees to 

share some of the more significant or surprising things they had learned in the community forum.

General Comments 

James Patkotak – We need a plan of action for the wellness of the community. The oil industry 

needs to leave our garden alone and allow it to flourish. 

Two Crow – I think what strikes me is that how little we know about the whole system between the 

Mackenzie and this river: just the dynamics, the food, why is it growing, what the little guys are 

eating, what’s eating them. The whole thing seems to be rather nebulous. 

Larry Moulton –What was new to me was the input from the elders on the dynamics of the slush 

at the mouth of the river during the freeze up period and early winter when the fish are moving in. 

And the explanation on how complicated that process is, it just doesn’t freeze up and everything 

is the same every year. There is a lot of interannual variability. 

Craig George – It is amazing that the fish make it here at all. The journey is so great. They have 

to travel 300 miles down the Mackenzie and 400 miles this way. It looks like we are right on the 

edge of their distribution. After hearing about global changes, I am worried about the future of 

the Arctic cisco fishery here. 

Bob Fechhelm – I enjoyed listening to the elders talking about the location of the fish places in 

the past and where they are located now. After hearing Two Crow speak about Arctic oscillation, 

we can start to see things in more of a time frame. It puts things into perspective listening to 

stories from many years ago and looking at pure science. 

Chuck Mitchell – I would like to hear from the elders. What did they find surprising or notable? 

Marjorie Ahnupkana – I learned about what could potentially be within the water. I moved to 

Barrow in 1950 and then back to Nuiqsut 25 years later and noticed a great change from when I 

had originally left. 

Ruth Nukapigak – I can validate everything that has been said over the last couple of days. I have 

observed these trends first hand. We have known for a long time that changes have been 

occurring. I will be 79 in January, I have seen a lot and know a lot, and agree with what has been 

said. I became aware when I was a small child, and have chosen to live my lifestyle in 

accordance. I make observations about what is occurring around me within the environment. I 

don’t travel when the west wind is blowing because you never know how dangerous they could 

be. 

49 
Chuck Mitchell –I would like to add a comment. We are all researchers here, everyone in this 

room. We are all observers. I think it is important that Ruth Nukapigak is validating the science. 

If you talk with modelers you know that one of the first things they do after they “build a model” 

is “ground truth” it. They add real data to see if it works. Does it really reflect what happens in 

the real world? Ruth is our quality control person. Both scientists and elders have had made 

similar observations over the years so in effect they have validated each other. 

Jennifer Nielsen – It’s very important that you keep scientists aware of the human factors. It’s 

easy for scientists to get lost in the data. 

The participants divided into two discussion groups. Every attempt was made provide each group 

with participants of similar experience and knowledge. The stated goal for the discussion groups 

was to assemble a list of issues regarding Arctic cisco that needed to be addressed in future 

studies. After informal introductions, each participant was asked for what he or she considered 

the most important issues or information needs. All issues were listed as the discussion proceeded 

and when all of the participants had been canvassed, the process was repeated to insure that all 

issues and questions were recorded and understood. Each participant selected their three most 

important issues or questions from the group brainstorming list and recorded them in rank order 

on individual ballots. These ballots were then counted to reach the group’s ranked priority list. 

The two groups used slightly different procedures in the ranking process. Each person in Group A 

ranked their top three of their complete list of 41 specific questions or ideas. Each person in 

Group B Ranked the top three of the 16 generalized categories. The group lists are contained in 

full in the appendices. 

The two working groups re-assembled in the full group then reviewed their lists of issues. The 

meeting chair entertained questions and discussion for clarification. 

Final Ranking based on combining all participant votes 

Because the two groups used slightly different procedures in the ranking process, after the 

workshop MMS combined the issues and questions of all participants and calculated the 

following final ranks. 

1. Effects of Development and Human Activities 

Are there effects on Arctic cisco and their migration from offshore exploration and 

development? 

Are there effects on other fish species besides Arctic cisco (e.g., lingcod) and their migration 

from offshore exploration and development? 

Continuation of long-term fisheries data compared with recent record. Long term data from

Endicott – longitudinal data records. 

Diet of the fish in conjunction with change in industry.

Are fish migration routes changing in response to industry-related activities? 

Did the loss of the drilling mud during construction of the pipeline crossing affect fish 

populations and ecology? 

Tagging fish is like “messing with animals,” a social “no-no.” I wonder if these tagging 

activities have any effect on the health of the animals that are tagged. 

Detailed maps of the migratory paths of the cisco, including causeways, obstructions, and 

coastal changes. 

Berries that used to grow in this area (lots in 1970s) and after development of Prudhoe Bay

began, they don’t grow. 

50 
2. Review Previously Collected Canada and Alaska Data, including Elders’ information 

Previously collected data should be assembled and reviewed to determine possible 

explanations for the decline in abundance of Arctic cisco at Nuiqsut. 

Compare with Canadian Data, including elders’ information. 

Synthesize all the data we already have, including elders’ information for the entire migration 

of the cisco. 

Have both a biologist and an anthropologist together in order to ask the right questions of the 

elders to gain traditional knowledge? 

Details on how many nets are out there, how many total fish were caught this year in 

comparison to last year. 

Find out where the fish are in the Colville River in the fall. Is this changing over time? 

Spotted seals used to be seen on the upper reaches of the Colville as they followed qaaktaq 

and other fish. This no longer occurs. 

Data from the Canadians on the lower Mackenzie River; fishermen there harvest the larger 

fish not necessarily the Arctic cisco. There needs to be communication between the 

two areas, if our fish count is low with the assumption that the fish went east we need 

to be able to find out whether there fish counts were really good. 

Getting traditional knowledge on paper and comparing it to the science knowledge. Collect 

data from elders and compare with Canadian elders. 

Collect data from Canadian fisheries – compare data. 

Comparisons in the Mackenzie and Colville river delta dynamics need to be done. 

To what extent has fish size decreased with time, and what is the cause(s) of this decrease?

Look at the change in fish size with age. 

3. Arctic Cisco Life History 

What are the important/critical life stages, and the habitats necessary for each of these life 

stages?

What is the basic life history of Arctic cisco? Determine why fish don’t return to fishery if 

they don’t recruit in their second or third year. 

Identifying the factors that affect survival of 0-5 year old fish. 

What does determine the number of young fish in the Mackenzie River? 

From Mackenzie to Colville, start monitoring everything both physical and biological. Focus 

on the native villages. 

Are humans the only predators of the qaaktaq? nachiq? beluga?

What do Arctic cisco feed on, and has their diet changed with time?

4. Migration of Young of the Year from Mackenzie River 

What movement process(es) occur after dispersal? How do y-o-y leave the Mackenzie River, 

and do they have to make it to some critical area to survive? Describe overwintering 

areas. What happens to Arctic cisco that do not make it to that location?

What are the effects of varying wind direction and speed on movement of Arctic cisco? 

Identify the spatial extent of the overwintering habitat. 

What is going on the Mackenzie River and where exactly do the Colville qaaktaq come from

in the Mackenzie River?

What determines how many of those Mackenzie fish get to the Colville River? 

Overwintering habitats – what are the conditions with habitats, etc.? 

51 
5. Water Quality, Contaminants 

What is the extent of contamination in Arctic cisco? What contaminants are in the fish 

tissue(s), and do these contaminants affect the overall health of the fish?

Concerned about catching fish that appears to be “deformed” or harmed in some way by

something either polluted in the environment or by toxic materials being absorbed in 

the food chain. Can fish be sent somewhere for analysis? 

Is there a relationship between rising cancer and other health related issues and industry

activities. If so, what is it? 

Education program on contaminants, they are everywhere, but what effect do they really have?

– put this into perspective. 

Water sampling on currents. 

Start documenting and gathering data on water quality. 

Look at potential pollutants, more than just water quality; tissue samples, sediment cores. 

Put out a booklet on the types of pathology, with pictures, normally seen on fish so that one 

can refer to it and identify.

Need to understand what pollutants are out there and how it affects the fish and us, food chain. 

6. Genetics, Source Stocks 

Population genetics analyses. Is there more than one source population, and if so, how many

and where? Are there genetically distinct populations? 

Genetic studies to ascertain spawning stock sources. 

Identify spawning areas. 

Find the spawning site source. 

7. Colville River Dynamics 

Are there effects on Arctic cisco from changes in water depth in the Colville River and 

Colville Delta? 

The blockage of the delta, forcing qaaktaq to overwinter outside of the delta. Dynamics of 

fish and saltwater interface. What happens to fish that are prevented from entering 

the river by slushy conditions? 

8. Ice Roads and Bridges 

Do ice bridges impede movement of fishes? Determine effects from ice bridges on current 

flow; begin by examining the Colville River. 

What are the effects on fish stocks of water withdrawal for ice road construction and the use 

of lake surfaces for airstrips?

9.5 Seismic, Noise 

What are the physiological effects from noise/vibrations and seismic activity on various life 

stages of Arctic cisco?

Are the long-term effects associated with seismic work? 

Noise affecting the fish. 

52 
9.5 Climate Change 

Are there different effects from the different flooding regimes, and what effect has global 

warming had on Arctic cisco? 

Climate change, decrease in ice, food chain changes. 

Look at climate change and how it will affect the fish, impact fishery, algae, etc. 

11. Socio-Economics 

What are the socioeconomic effects in Nuiqsut from changes in the Arctic cisco fishery?

Discussion 

Two Crow – Global climate and how it ties in with traditional knowledge is very important. 

People want to know how much of this is affecting their local world. Do they have any control 

over it? If it is not industry and it is not ice bridges, if it is global climate, then all we can do is 

thank God that we are still alive. 

Leonard Lampe, Sr.—Will local expertise be involved? 

Kate Wedemeyer – We need to continue to gather traditional knowledge with any study 

conducted. You local residents are the experts with the most knowledge. That is why we came 

here this week. We want to receive your information and ideas. I think we need to gather that on 

every study. 

Jennifer Nielsen – Why are we prioritizing this list? Is there only so much money for funding? 

Or are these ideas that you are going to take back to your agencies, saying that these are some of 

the studies that we need to look at. 

Kate Wedemeyer – I hope that tomorrow we can create a prioritized list of studies relevant to 

MMS responsibilities in off shore oil and gas leasing. I will be able to present the list this group 

thinks are the most important to MMS and say these are the Arctic cisco studies we should 

pursue. Then the list goes in with every other type of study that is proposed but at least I’ll have 

submitted what this group has recommended. 

Leonard Lampe, Sr. – A fishing association is something we need as a community to protect 

ourselves. There hasn’t been much enthusiasm among the community and individuals to actually 

say, “Hey, let’s do this.” There has been only one or two of us and we can’t get very far with 

only us. To me an association would really help the interest of the village individuals. There is an 

association that protects the whalers if there is an oil spill, but there is nothing that protects the 

fishermen. There are no clauses for us. Anybody can build at anywhere, any time and that is a 

problem. We don’t have a voice as local fishermen. We don’t have the voice like the Alaska 

Eskimo Whaling Commission (AEWC) about noise disturbance. We don’t have that here. We 

don’t have the staff, we don’t have the attorneys, and it is very hard for an individual to try to get 

something started. We need cooperation with the North Slope Borough and other organizations 

that are supposed to help protect the people and the resources that we depend on. We could go a 

long ways but it takes more than just a couple of people to say, “Hey, we need this.” We have 

brought this to the attention of Fish and Game and it has not gotten us anywhere. 

53 
Jennifer Nielsen – There needs to be a trade off with industry leasing the land and them funding a 

study. 

Leonard Lampe, Sr. – What happens next, when do we find out the results from this workshop? I 

would like to see a follow up to this meeting and prioritize the studies that have been discussed 

here. I would like to have Kate return to Nuiqsut to inform the community about what studies 

have been funded and what results have been obtained from studies once they have started. 

Kate Wedemeyer – A future possible study could be another workshop in order to give updates. 

Leonard Lampe, Sr. – What about working with Canada? Perhaps another workshop could be 

held in Canada so that studies can be done on their side. 

Kate Wedemeyer – We share information and data with each other to an extent but a more 

specific type of partnership needs to be formed. 

On Day 3, the meeting chair listed the general topics of the two combined lists and presented the 

composite list of issues to the Workshop participants. Each issue was briefly discussed for 

clarification. The general subject areas were: 

Studies Categorized 

1. Contaminants 

• Potential pollutants 

• Stomach nodules in fish 

• Liver problems 

• Associations with body contaminants 

• Health related issues to village 

• Inputs from old sites of industry/waste dumping sites/air pollution 

• If diseased fish is found – how do we go about identifying it (ADF&G) 

• Deformed or harmed fish – why/how 

2. Food Webs 

• Diets of fish, are they changing 

• Effects by industry activities 

• Elders report changes in flesh, body weight, size, and amount of fat 

• Change in food habits 

• Possible predators other than humans that could be effecting the local populations 

3. Habitat Characterizations 

• Comparisons between Colville and Mackenzie River/Delta 

• Climate changes and impacts to the fishery

• Canadian elders/Nuiqsut elders: comparison of their traditional knowledge 

• Effects of flooding – natural process, sandbars, formation of slush barriers 

• Effects of ice roads 

• Effects of global warming and long-term trends 

• Odd occurrence of new fish species – occurrence of spotted seals showing up farther 

within the river at differing time of year 

• Effects of winds on fish movement, not just not of Arctic cisco but other fish species 

also 

54 
• Factors affecting the survival of fish – Colville River; show up or not, if not where 

are they going, if mortality, why

4. Migration Routes 

• Assemble detailed maps of Arctic cisco migration routes along coast and through the 

delta at differing times of years, potential industry effects, dredging, causeways, man 

made pads 

• Then note changes between these routes over time 

5. Outreach 

• Communication within and to communities – start education program of 

contaminants; if fish are found to be contaminates what are the effects that it could 

have on the villages that consume the meat 

• Concerns about fish diseases – produce a pamphlet that could discuss what it is that 

they are seeing 

[Craig George – There is a Wildlife Disease pamphlet but I’m not sure if it 

includes fish. So there may be something already published. However, it would 

need to be simplified to the Arctic species of this area and also include 

translations and pictures.]

• Socioeconomic effects and how the fishery is attributed 

• How should animals be handled 

[Ruth Nukapigak – By tagging fish, we believe that the fish are being “messed” 

with and that shouldn’t be done.]

[Chuck Mitchell – Perhaps, the native community could put a small handbook 

together on how the animals should be treated in accordance to native views.]

6. Overwintering 

• What is the spatial extent and magnitude; MMS is looking into this 

• Y-o-y fish, where do they overwinter and how are they surviving 

• What type of conditions are they enduring 

7. Spawning Habitat 

• Where are they located 

8. Stock Characterization 

• How are the fisheries and what do the populations look like 

• Need long-term data 

• Continue collecting data; from Colville and the Mackenzie Rivers 

• Decreasing size in the fishery; monitor the fishery and find out why this is occurring 

• Better communication between fishermen and researchers; Colville and Mackenzie 

Rivers 

• Changes between years and compare over a long period of time; every 10-20 years 

comparisons should be made 

[Craig George – Will weight tell us the condition or will we have to measure for oil 

content or calories when they say the fish are skinny?]

9. Source population(s) 

• Reproductive population; need more information 

• Genetic/DNA analysis 

• Determine population along coast, Mackenzie Delta, Colville Delta 

• We think some Colville Arctic cisco do come from other small reproductive 

populations; where/location 

55 
[Paul Okarok – Some fish that are coming from the Mackenzie River have tags. I 

have noticed that the Artic cisco coming from Canada taste different. They have an 

oily taste; I can tell this by tasting their eyes.]

[Sara Kunaknana – The Sagavanirktok River current is very strong and there is no 

way that the Arctic cisco would be able to move up the river. The name means “the 

one with the most current.”]

10. Water Quality/Water chemistry

• Physical properties such as turbidity

• Sediment analysis 

• Chemical analysis 

Information Sources 

The group reviewed the list of potential studies, identifying existing data sources, other 

researchers, and other research with what little time remained. Partnering opportunities and 

possible funding sources were also discussed. 

The group expressed considerable interest in Arctic cisco genetic studies. Analyses of DNA can 

provide a great deal of information on stocks at relative low costs. Additionally, tissue samples 

from past studies can provide historical information without having to field sampling efforts. 

Several scientific papers have addressed the genetics of the Arctic cisco stocks of the Mackenzie 

River. They provide background information on allozymes, genome size, and micro-satellites. 

Overwintering and stocks source questions would require additional site-specific sampling of 

adults and juveniles. 

A DNA archival system and repository so that future questions can be answered. For instance it is 

possible to link the genetic stock analysis with otolith microchemistry analysis and investigators 

could address questions on stock structure and get life history information in terms of migratory

patterns. Dr. Larry Moulton has 15 years of archived Arctic cisco otoliths. LGL also has otoliths 

from 1980s. These otoliths could provide an excellent view of climate changes over time. DNA 

analysis would be approximately $26 per sample plus $70 per sample for proposal cost and 

materials. Analysis is approximately $100 per otolith, plus a per otolith charge of $150-200 for 

data reduction and analysis. Jennifer Nielsen indicated she would like to seek funding to sponsor 

a graduate student at UAF to do the otolith microchemistry and integrate it into a Master’s 

program. 

MMS has funded a genetic study to determine if the Arctic cisco and Bering cisco are different 

species. Those DNA data are available for inclusion. 

The Freshwater Institute in Winnipeg, Manitoba has data from the 1960s on tagged fish that were 

caught in Nuiqsut the early 1970s. There are data not just on the Arctic cisco but also on a wide 

range of fish. All data from these studies are archived. However, there hasn’t been a great deal of 

recent work. 

The Iñupiaq History Language and Culture Commission has historical interviews and records on 

file. These archives may yield information on long-term catch trends. 

56 
The Outer Continental Shelf Environmental Assessment Program (OCSEAP) database beginning 

in the 1970s would also provide a variety of information that could be integrated into the Arctic 

cisco database. 

Funding and Partnering 

MMS is limited in the types of projects that can be funded. There are however a number of 

potential state, federal and international agencies or organizations that may be approached for 

possible funding or partnering. For some concerns such as water quality, ground water 

contamination, and measurements of body burden levels of possible contaminants in subsistence 

foods there are existing programs and the community has only to ask for assistance or 

participation. Particular importance was given to the potential for a cooperative or collaborative 

effort between the Canadian and Alaskan communities. In addition, the gas and oil industry has 

funded many of the studies presented at this workshop. It is anticipated that they would continue 

to support such efforts if justified and requested. Potential participants include: 

• Minerals Management Service: Anadromous fish overwintering habitat study (ongoing) 

• U.S. Geological Survey/Biological Resources Division: otolith microchemistry

• University of Guelph, Ontario, Canada: Historical data and otolith microchemistry

• Freshwater Institute of Canada: historical data and collaboration from the early 1970s 

• Inuvialuit Settlement people: cooperative fishery data exchange with Inuvialuit Science 

Board training people in Inuvialuit, Tuktoyaktuk Harbor 

• Inuit Circumpolar Conference (ICC): ICC is international. It has worked with Canada to 

get an international agreement 

• Native Science Board in Canada 

• North Slope Borough Fish and Wildlife Committee 

57 
CLOSING REMARKS 

Bill Streever – On behalf of BP Alaska Exploration, thanks very much for inviting me to come. I 

think this is incredibly useful to get the scientists and the local community together. It is just 

fantastic for me to see and it helps me in my world of BP where I have to make tough decisions 

about what to fund and what not to fund. It helps me to get this broader perspective. We really 

appreciate; it especially the native voice on what is going on. Even though we do not have any 

work going here in the area of Nuiqsut, it is very important for us to understand what you 

concerns are and to the extent we can, help you with those concerns. Thanks very much. 

Marjorie Ahnupkana – It is important that if we find anomalies on the fish, that we contact the 

scientists right away and keep that communication open. Thank you for coming. 

Sara Kunaknana – We should all go home and write reports and digest all that has been said 

here and look both ways at the information that has been presented. Then we can determine what 

work needs to be done. I was really excited to hear from Jennifer Nielsen about DNA and genetic 

studies. I think that that is really important. I also found Terry Quinn’s modeling presentation 

was very fascinating. So think about those things that were said when you go back home. Don’t 

forget about the discussion and questions that were generated here. 

Ben Nageak – Talk is cheap. Action is strong, especially for the people who live off these 

resources. These people have seen changes that we can’t even fathom. It is important to obtain 

the information from the elders while they are still with us. 

Marjorie Ahnupkana – I thank you for coming to help the community. I also know that injuries 

are occurring to the fish such as scars, so keep that in mind. There are a lot of things that can be 

learned from observations of fish. So thank you again. Please don’t forget. We just can’t let the 

communications end today. We need to follow up with actions. Back in the old days the taste of 

the fish was different. Today you can tell the difference in the taste with everything that has 

happened in the environment. Back in the old days when there was nothing around in this area, 

the taste of the fish was great. The taste today is different. There are effects when changes occur 

within the environment. 

Sara Kunaknana – Thank you for coming to share information and listen to us. I know how hard 

it is for two different peoples to work together especially since this is not your hometown. You are 

putting forth so much effort to try and recognize what is happening around this village. 

Leonard Lampe, Sr. – We Iñupiats have always adapted to change, that is what I have learned 

from the elders. They have taught us a lot. They have seen big changes during their lifetime, from 

sod houses, igloos, dog sled teams, and practically nothing. They have seen this, where we can 

only read about such events or hearing stories about them. I have never been on a dog sled team. 

They can tell us about the environment and how it has changed so much. There have been big 

changes that we have seen. We as the people have always adapted to change. 

Just look at our history: we went where the caribou went; we went where the fish went. We didn’t 

stay there if there were no animals because we would starve and die. So we always adapted to 

change. We always followed the caribou. We followed where the subsistence was. We can’t do 

that nowadays; it is not that way now. I can’t move my house to where the caribou go. Now you 

live in a town, you have a home in that town, and raise your family there. 

58 
As I said, we adapt to change easily but if this village were to run out of cisco we could adapt but 

a big part of our culture, of our heritage, of the people who we are would be lost. We are the 

people of the Colville. We have always been a thriving fishing community, whether it was in this 

area or the original Nuiqsut village or other spots along this river. We have always adapted to 

change, no matter where we are. We will always be proud of who we are and our culture. 

Like I said, we will not die without the cisco but it will be a big deficit in our culture and our 

history. Know that you are helping not only Nuiqsut. Not only does this village depend on cisco 

that we provide but other villages depend on the cisco. A lot of Barrow residents depend on us for 

the cisco. A lot of Anaktuvuk people depend on us. Point Hope, Point Lay. There are other 

villages that do subsistence fishing like Barrow and Kaktovik but not as much as this village. 

Practically the entire North Slope depends on Nuiqsut for the cisco. 

Seeing this workshop happen gives us hope that there are actually people who are listening to us 

about our concerns about the fish. For many years we felt alone and that we were fighting a 

losing battle. 

For nine years as a politician, I felt like I was speaking words and nobody was listening. I was 

putting a lot of pressure on the Federal government as well as the State government, trying to tell 

them that a change is occurring here. As agencies, as people, it is our responsibility to find out 

what is going on and try to determine what can be done to help people adapt to these changes. It 

used to be easier for them to adapt to changes, nowadays it is harder for us. 

And that is why I am very glad that you all came and educated us, and we will try to educate you 

through the elders. No matter how much we have learned from each other there are people other 

than us that are depending on the results from this workshop. I just want you to know that you are 

helping a lot of people, just not the people of this community. You are helping people Slope-wide. 

You are helping the Iñupiats try to keep a part of their culture. And that is really important and I 

thank you from the bottom of my heart, all of you, for taking the time to come here and staying the 

whole three days. 

Sara Kunaknana – I have lived and fished here on this river as well as the Prudhoe Bay area 

pretty much all of my life. But I have never understood where the fish are actually spawning. 

Because by the time they are here in the fall time, I noticed that their roe begins forming but 

where they eventually end up spawning is something that I have not been able to figure out. 

Leonard Lampe, Sr. – The village is always putting the blame on industry and industry in return 

is saying, “No it’s not us, we are not bothering the cisco.” I think they need to put their money 

where their mouth is and prove to us, the village, that “you” are not affecting the cisco. By 

funding some of these studies they could tell us whether they are affecting the cisco or not. I think 

that this is a real vital point to the industry. They want to clear their name. BP wants to clear 

their name, Conoco-Phillips Alaska wants to clear their name, and in order to do so they will 

fund these studies. They could fund the study and that way they will be able to say, “Yes we did 

have something to do with it or no we did not have anything to do with it.” They will fund their 

way in order to get out of those negative public relations. As long as they are in the fields of 

Nuiqsut they will always be blamed. This is one way for industry to take the blame away from 

their name by funding some of these studies so they can prove themselves. 

Chuck Mitchell – There is always the public perception that because industry funded the study, it 

is slanted towards their direction. 

59 
Ben Nageak – Not if it goes to peer review. 

Chuck Mitchell – Yes, we can submit it to peer review, and with the right people involved I think 

the credibility will increase. 

James Patkotak – On that note, I believe that maybe the Iñupiat Community of the Arctic Slope 

can speed up these studies and issues especially in the gathering of traditional knowledge for 

each village. I can help in that manner. 

Ben Nageak – There has been a request for a follow-up conference in order to keep the 

community of Nuiqsut informed regarding future plans of action. Leonard Lampe and Rosemary 

Ahtuangaruak are the contacts that should be kept notified and will represent Nuiqsut. 

Chuck Mitchell – Thank you all for your participation. Thank you to the community. 

60 
APPENDIX A 

Questions and Issues listed by Group 

Appendix A - Questions and Issues listed by Group 

Ranked Issues and Questions List from Group A: 

1. Long term data from Endicott: fyke net data, etc. 

2. Long term fisheries catch 

3. Genetic data needs to be gathered to ascertain spawning stock sources? 

4. Is the diet of the fish changing or being affected by activity from industry? 

5. Gather traditional knowledge from elders re: the biology, ecology, etc. of the fish 

and document it. 

6. Identify factors that affect survival from age 0-5. 

7. Climate change and global warming and how it may impact fishery, algae, etc. 

8. Address concerns with potential pollutants, anomalies in fish. 

9. Migration routes; are fish migration routes changing in response to industry 

related activity. 

10. Spawning areas? Where are they? 

11. Identify spatial extent of overwintering habitat. 

12. Is there an association between rising cancer and other health related issues, i.e., 

air pollution and industry activity? 

13. Did the loss of the drilling mud during the construction of the pipeline crossing 

affect fish populations and ecology? 

14. What determines the number of fish in the Mackenzie? 

15. Education program on contaminants needs to be initiated to debunk 

misperceptions and misinformation about effects on species and humans. 

16. Someone synthesize all the data including info from elders covering entire 

migration area in one place. 

17. Communication with fishermen and researchers in Mackenzie Delta to integrate 

data sets. 

18. Compare Canadian and American elder knowledge. 

19. Can the sampled fish be sent for analysis? 

20. Tagging fish is like "messing with animals," a social “no-no.” I wonder if these 

tagging activities of animals that are tagged. 

21. Where do the Colville River qaaktaq come from in the Mackenzie? 

22. What determines how many of Mackenzie fish get to the Colville? 

23. Overwintering habitats, what are the conditions with habitat, etc? 

24. Continue studies, ABR, LGL, MJM and longitudinal data compared with recent 

data. 

25. Detailed maps of cisco migration route that depicts manmade and natural changes. 

26. Are there long term effects associated with seismic work? 

27. Spotted seals used to be "spotted" on the upper reaches of the Colville as they 

followed the qaaktaq and other species; this no longer occurs, why? 

28. Gain a better understanding of the fish and salt water interface. 

29. Compare early data with recent data "moving baseline". 

30. Water sampling. 

31. Concern about catching fish that appear to be deformed or harmed in some way 

by something either polluted in the environment or by toxic materials being 

absorbed in the food chain, and if so, what? 
32. Berries that used to grow in this area (1970 lots) and after development in 

Prudhoe Bay began, they don't grow as they once used to. 

33. Change in fish size? 

34. Fish disease pamphlet 

35. Where in the Colville are they and does it change? 

36. Are humans the only predators? What about natchiq, beluga? 

37. Comparison of the Colville and Mackenzie delta dynamics 

38. What happens to fish that are prevented from entering the river by slushy 

conditions and what are the dynamics (delta)? 

Ranked Issues and Questions List from Group B:

1. Are there effects on Arctic cisco and their migration from offshore exploration 

and development? 

2. Do ice bridges impede movement of fishes? Determine effects from ice bridges 

on current flow; begin by examining the Colville River. 

3. Are there effects on Arctic cisco from changes in water depth in the Colville 

River and Colville Delta? 

4. What are the socioeconomic effects in Nuiqsut from the Arctic cisco fishery? 

5. What is the basic life history of Arctic cisco? Determine why fish don’t return to 

fishery if they don’t recruit in their second or third year. 

6. What are the effects of varying wind direction and speed on movement of Arctic 

cisco? 

7. What do Arctic cisco feed on, and has their diet changed with time? 

8. What movement process(es) occur after dispersal? How do y-o-y leave the 

Mackenzie River, and do they have to make it to some critical area to survive? 

Describe overwintering areas. What happens to Arctic cisco that don’t make it to 

that location? 

9. Population genetics analyses. Is there more than one source population, and if so, 

how many and where? Are there genetically distinct populations? 

10. What is the extent of contamination in Arctic cisco? What contaminants are in the 

fish tissue(s), and do these contaminants affect the overall health of the fish? 

11. Are there effects on other fish species besides Arctic cisco (e.g., lingcod) and their 

migration from offshore exploration and development? 

12. To what extent has fish size decreased with time, and what is the cause(s) of this 

decrease? 

13. What are the important/critical life stages, and the habitats necessary for each of 

these life stages? 

14. Are there different effects from the different flooding regimes, and what effect 

has global warming had on Arctic cisco? 

15. Previously collected data should be assembled and reviewed to determine possible 

explanations for the decline in abundance of Arctic cisco at Nuiqsut. 

16. What are the physiological effects from noise/vibrations and seismic activity on 

various life stages of Arctic cisco? 
APPENDIX B 

Attendee List 

Appendix A – Attendee List 

Ahnupkana, Clarence 

P.O. Box 125 

Nuiqsut, AK 99789 

(907) 480-2740 

Ahnupkana, Marjorie 

P.O. Box 125 

Nuiqsut, AK 99789 

(907) 480-2740 

Ahtuangaruak, Johnny 

P.O. Box 105 

Nuiqsut, Alaska 99789 

Ahtuangaruak, Rosemary, Mayor 

City of Nuiqsut 

P.O. Box 148 

Nuiqsut, AK 99789 

(907) 480-6727, FAX (907) 480-6928 

Carpenter, Terry 

US Army, COE 

CEPOA-CO-R, P.O. Box 6898 

 Elmendorf AFB, AK 99506-6898 

(907) 753-2798 

Terry.A.Carpenter@poa02.usace.army.mil 

Beck, Shane 

MBC Applied Environmental Sciences, 

3000 Redhill Ave. 

Costa Mesa, CA 92626 

(714) 850-4830, FAX (714) 850-4840 

sbeck@mbcnet.net 

Brower, Carl 

P.O. Box 89033 

Nuiqsut, AK 99789 

(907) 480-6618 

Brown, Jr., Gordon 

P.O. Box 151 

Nuiqsut, AK 99789 

wolverineman992004@yahoo.com 

gordonbrown@north-slope.org 

Brown, Randy J. 

Fishery Biologist 

USFWS 

101 12th Avenue, #222, Box 17, MS 651 

Fairbanks, AK 99701 

(907) 456-0218, FAX (907) 456-0454 

randy_j_brown@fws.gov 

Cherbone, Christine 

MBC Applied Environmental Sciences, 

3000 Redhill Ave. 

Costa Mesa, CA 92626 

(714) 850-4830, FAX (714) 850-4840 

ccherbone@mbcnet.net 

Duvall, Terra 

MBC Applied Environmental Sciences, 

3000 Redhill Ave. 

Costa Mesa, CA 92626 

(714) 850-4830, FAX (714) 850-4840 

tduvall@mbcnet.net 

Fechhelm, Robert 

LGL 

1410 Cavitt St. 

Bryan , TX 77801 

(979) 775-2000 FAX (979) 775-2002 

bfechhelm@excite.com 

Fissel, David 

ASL Environmental Sciences 

1986 Mills Road, Sidney, BC V8L 5Y3 

CANADA 

(250) 656-0177, ext. 112 (877) 656-0177, FAX 

(250) 656-2162 

dfissel@aslenv.com 

George, Craig 

Dept. of Wildlife Management 

North Slope Borough 

P.O. Box 69 

Barrow, AK 99723 

(907) 852-0350 

Harcharek, Jana 

Facilitator 

North Slope Borough School District 

(907) 852-9674/ 5065 

jana.harcharek1@nsbsd.org 

Hopson, Adeline 

P.O. Box 172 

Barrow, Alaska 99723 

(907) 852-5025, FAX (907) 852-2601 

eskimo@nuvuk.net 

Kunaknana, Sarah 

Nuiqsut, Alaska 99789 
Lampe, Annie 

P.O. Box 213 

Nuiqsut, AK 99789 

Lampe, Sr., Leonard, President 

Nuiqsut Tribal Village Council 

P.O. Box 107 

Nuiqsut, AK 99789 

(907) 480-3010, FAX (907) 480-6126 

llampe@astacalaska.net 

Long, Jr., Frank 

Nuiqsut Member 

North Slope Borough Assembly 

P.O. Box 209 

Nuiqsut, AK 99789 

Long, Vernon 

Kuukpikmiut Subsistence Oversight Panel 

P.O. Box 89206 

Nuiqsut, AK 99789 

Matumeak, Frank 

P.O. Box 60 

Nuiqsut, AK 997898 

(907) 480-2058 (message) 

Mitchell, Chuck 

President 

MBC Applied Environmental Sciences, 

3000 Redhill Ave. 

Costa Mesa, CA 92626 

(714) 850-4830, FAX (714) 850-4840 

cmitchell@mbcnet.net 

Mitchell, Kathy 

MBC Applied Environmental Sciences, 

3000 Redhill Ave. 

Costa Mesa, CA 92626 

(714) 850-4830, FAX (714) 850-4840 

kmitchell@mbcnet.net 

Moulton, Larry 

MJM Research 

1012 Shoreland Dr. 

Lopez Island, WA 98261 

(360) 468-4821, FAX (360) 468-4337 

lmoulton@rockisland.com 

Nageak, Ben 

Translator 

P.O. Box 914 

Barrow, AK 99723 

Nielsen, Jennifer 

Alaska Biological Science Center 

BRD/USGS, 1011 East Tudor Rd., 

Anchorage, AK 99503 

(907) 786-3670 

jennifer_nielsen@usgs.gov 

Nukapigak, Dora 

Kuukpikmiut Subsistence Oversight Panel 

P.O. Box 226 

Nuiqsut, AK 99789 

(907) 480-2065 

Nukapigak, Eli 

Kuukpikmiut Subsistence Oversight Panel 

P.O. Box 89206 

Nuiqsut, AK 99789 

(907) 480-2070 

Nukapigak, Isaac 

Kuukpikmiut Subsistence Oversight Panel 

P.O. Box 187 

Nuiqsut, AK 99789 

(907) 480-6220 

Nukapigak, Ruth 

P.O. Box 8 

Nuiqsut, AK 99789 

Patkotak, James 

Natural Resources Director 

Iñupiat Community of the Arctic Slope 

P.O. Box 934 

Barrow, AK 99723 

(907) 852-4227, FAX (907) 852-4246 

icasnrd@starband.net 

Quinn, Terry 

Fish/Ocean Sciences 

University of Alaska 

11120 Glacier Hwy. 

Juneau, AK 99801 

(907) 465-5389, FAX (907) 456-6320 

terry.quinn@uaf.edu 

Rea, Caryn 

Senior Staff Biologist 

Conoco-Phillips 

700 G Street 

P.O. Box 100360 

Anchorage, AK 99510-0360 

(907) 265-6515; (907) 223-0850 

clrea@conocophillips.com 
Schumacher, Jim, “Two Crow” 

Two Crow Environmental 

288 Ivan Rd. 

Friday Harbor, WA 98250 

(360) 370-5591 

twocrow@rockisland.com 

Streever, Bill 

Environmental Studies Leader 

BP Exploration (Alaska) 

P.O. Box 196612 

Anchorage, AK 99519-6612 

(907) 564-4383, cell (907) 440-8324, FAX (907) 

564-5020 

streevbj@bp.com 

Taalak, James 

Conoco-Phillips 

P.O. Box 264 

Nuiqsut, AK 99789 

(907) 480-4001, FAX (907) 480-4002 

James.J.Taalak@conoco.phillips.com 

Wedemeyer, Kate Fisheries Oceanographer 

MMS Agency Coordinator for Arctic Fish 

Studies 

Minerals Management Service 

949 E. 36th Avenue, 

Anchorage, AK 99508 

(907) 271-6424, FAX (907) 271-6507 

kate.wedemeyer@mms.gov 

Whitman, Matthew 

Fishery Biologist 

BLM, Northern Field Office 

1150 University Ave. 

Fairbanks, AK 99709 

(907) 474-2249 

matthew_whitman@blm.gov 

Woods, Sr., Joeb 

P.O. Box 203 

Nuiqsut, AK 99789 

(907) 480-6218 

APPENDIX C 

Agenda 

Appendix C – Agenda 

MMS Alaska OCS Region 

Arctic Cisco Workshop 

November 18 and 19, 2003 

Nuiqsut, Alaska 

Final Agenda 

Tuesday, November 18, 2003 

1:00 pm Blessing

Welcome and Introduction 

Leonard Lampe, Sr. President, Native Village of Nuiqsut I 

Kate Wedemeyer, MMS, Alaska OCS Region, Anchorage, AK 

1:15 pm Life history of Arctic cisco 

 Larry Moulton, Ph.D., MJM Research, Lopez Island, WA 

1:30 pm Physical environment and habitat of the Arctic cisco 

 Bob Fechhelm, Ph.D., LGL Research Associates, Bryan, TX 

1:45-3:00 pm Traditional Knowledge of Arctic cisco and fishery

 Marjorie Ahnupkana, Gordon Brown, Bernice Kaigelak, Isaac Kaigelak, Leonard Lampe, Sr., 

Gordon Matumeak, Dora Nukapigak, Ruth Nukapigak, George Woods, Nuiqsut, Alaska; 

Fenton Rexford, Kaktovik, Alaska; Randal and James Pokiak, Tuktoyaktuk Harbor, Canada 

3:00 pm Break 

3:15-5:00 pm Traditional Knowledge possible causes, study suggestions 

5:00 pm Dinner Break 

6:00 pm Mackenzie River Arctic cisco biology and population trends 

 Randal Pokiak, Tuktoyaktuk Hunters and Trappers Committee 

6:30 pm Alaska Beaufort Arctic cisco biology and population trends 

 Bob Fechhelm, Ph.D., LGL Research Associates 

7:00 pm Colville River Arctic cisco biology and population trends 

 Larry Moulton, Ph.D., MJM Research 

7:30 pm Break 

7:45 pm Canadian Beaufort nearshore oceanography and Mackenzie River winter hydrology 

 David Fissel, ASL Environmental Sciences, Sidney, BC, Canada 

8:15 pm Alaska Beaufort nearshore oceanography and Colville river winter hydrology 

 Kate Wedemeyer, MMS, Anchorage, AK 

8:35 pm Possible global warming and Arctic oscillation effects small fish stocks 

 Two Crow (J.D. Schumacher, Ph.D.) Two Crow Environmental, Inc., Friday Harbor, WA 

9:00 pm Adjourn 
MMS Alaska OCS Region 

Arctic Cisco Workshop 

November 18 and 19, 2003 

Nuiqsut, Alaska 

Final Agenda 

Wednesday, November 19, 2003

1:00 pm Exploitation dynamics of small fish stocks like Arctic cisco 

 Jennifer Nielson, Biological Resources Division, U.S. Geological Survey, Anchorage, 

AK 

1:30 pm Modeling approaches to understanding variability in small fish stocks 

Terry Quinn, Ph.D., Fisheries and Ocean Sciences, University of Alaska, Juneau, AK 

2:00 pm Break 

Integrated Arctic Cisco Research Planning 

2:15 pm Divide into discussion groups

2:30 pm Discussion group break-outs - Topics to be announced 

3:15 pm Present to full group 

3:45 pm Discussion group breakouts 

4:45 pm Present to full group 

5:00 pm Dinner break 

6:00 pm Reconvene as one group to design priority studies 

9:00 pm Closing comments 
APPENDIX D 

Arctic Cisco Bibliography 

Appendix D – Arctic cisco Bibliography 

Arctic Cisco Workshop Reference List 

Adams, A.B., and T.C. Cannon. 1987. Overwintering study. In: Endicott Environmental Monitoring 

Program, final reports, 1985. Vol. 7, Part V. Unpublished rep. Available at U.S. Army Corps 

of Eng., Anchorage, AK. 33 p. 

ARCO Alaska, Anadarko Petroleum and Union Texas Petroleum Alaska. 1997. Alpine Development 

Project environmental evaluation document. Prepared for USACE. Anchorage, AK. 315 p. 

Bendock, T.N. 1979. Beaufort Sea estuarine fishery study. In: Environmental Assessment of the 

Alaskan Continental Shelf, Final Reports of the Principal Investigators, BLM/NOAA, 

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