U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey

Open-File Report 2011–1235

An Analysis of Spatial Relation Predicates in 

U.S. Geological Survey Feature Definitions
Cover graphic: Word cloud.
An Analysis of Spatial Relation Predicates 

in U.S. Geological Survey Feature 

Definitions

By Holly K. Caro and Dalia E. Varanka

Open-File Report 2011–1235

U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey
U.S. Department of the Interior

KEN SALAZAR, Secretary

U.S. Geological Survey

Marcia K. McNutt, Director

U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia: 2011

Revised and reprinted: 2011

For more information on the USGS—the Federal source for science about the Earth, its natural and living 

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For an overview of USGS information products, including maps, imagery, and publications, 

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U.S. Government.

Although this report is in the public domain, permission must be secured from the individual copyright owners to 

reproduce any copyrighted materials contained within this report.

Suggested citation:

Caro, H.K., and Varanka, D.E., 2011, An analysis of spatial relation predicates in U.S. Geological Survey feature definitions: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2011–1235, 37 p.
iii

Contents

Abstract...........................................................................................................................................................1

Background and Objectives................................................................................................................1

Approach and Procedures..................................................................................................................2

Findings...................................................................................................................................................3

Results ...................................................................................................................................................4

Spatial Relations ..........................................................................................................................4

Feature Attributes........................................................................................................................4

Conclusions.....................................................................................................................................................5

References Cited............................................................................................................................................5

Appendixes .....................................................................................................................................................7

Tables

Table 1. Verb/preposition pairs functioning as predicates in feature term glossaries...................4

Abstract

The Semantic Web uses a data model called a triple, 

which consists of a subject –predicate – object structure. When 

represented as triples, geospatial data require a spatial relation term to serve as the predicate linking two spatial features. 

This document summarizes the approaches and procedures 

used during the identification of spatial relationships common 

between topographic features using terms from topographic 

data standards. This project identified verb-predicate arguments that could be used in the creation of data triples and 

ontologies for The National Map of the U.S. Geological Survey and also investigated the possibility of deriving ontology 

from predefined textual definitions. The primary purpose of 

this report is to present the data used for subsequent analysis. 

A summary of terms organized by basic categories is provided. 

Keywords: semantic technology, geospatial relations, 

topographic data

Background and Objectives

One of the prominent issues facing the field of geospatial information science is the design and implications of the 

emergent Semantic Web, coordinated through the World Wide 

Web Consortium (W3C) (Berners-Lee and others, 2001; W3C, 

2010). The Semantic Web is a vision and implementation of 

linked data in a network graph that assists knowledge formation. The data model to construct this graph is called Resource 

Description Framework (RDF) and is formed by triples 

consisting of two nodes and an edge. Triples are conceptually 

similar to the subject—predicate—object syntax of simple 

sentence structures (Beckett, 2004). Triples hold promise for 

geographic information science modeling for many reasons, 

including greater flexibility and efficient analysis (Egenhofer, 

2002). Logical axioms programmed as properties of the triples 

enable reasoning algorithms called ontologies to regulate 

the association between feature class types and their data 

instances. 

Spatial relation representation assumes variable forms, 

including cognitive, linguistic, topological, and geometric. 

Topological relations were researched broadly and formalized 

in the 1990s, largely based on the 9-intersection model 

of binary relations applying to the interior, boundary, and 

exteriors of point, line, and area type objects (Egenhofer and 

Franzosa, 1991; Egenhofer and Herring, 1991). In the field 

of cognition and linguistics, some important publications on 

spatial information theory reference spatial relations. These 

publications focused on figure-ground alignment to analyze 

location and motion (Talmy, 1983), prepositions (Herskovits, 

1986), and spatial reference systems (Levinson, 2003). Geographers cultivated these sources for ways to bridge formal 

models of spatial relations developed for geographic information systems (GIS) and natural language expressions to make 

these operations easier to understand and use in GIS (Shariff 

and others, 1998). Hirtle and Frank (1997) addressed spatial 

structure, boundaries, and change for similar reasons. A body 

of research emerged that established a basis for the semantics 

of geographic spatial relations. Although the work was developed for the user of the relational database model in GIS, this 

model is intuitively suited and being tested for representation 

in RDF triples. 

Research results based on the 9-intersection model of 

topological spatial relations resulted in the establishment of 

eight standard spatial relations by the Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC); equals, disjoint, intersects, touches, crosses, 

within, contains, and overlaps (International Organization for 

Standardization, 2001). This standard was adapted to SPARQL 

Protocol and RDF Query Language (SPARQL) queries of 

geospatial ontology triples (Perry and Herring, 2010; W3C, 

2008). Though this standard serves as an important foundation, the scope of the work is topologically specific, whereas 

topographic data and scientific modeling uses a broader range 

of spatial relation concepts. The subject of this report is the 

presentation of data used in the identification and on-going 

analysis of geospatial feature relations in topographic science 

as applied to semantic triples. Such terms are not quantitatively described, but operate based on cognitive and linguistic 

structures. For example, prepositions are terms that express a 

relation or location and typically govern another word or element in the clause. Prepositions are thus key terms for examining spatial relations between statement subjects and objects.

The approach used in this analysis also may prove useful 

to the development of text mining approaches for automated 

An Analysis of Spatial Relation Predicates in 

U.S. Geological Survey Feature Definitions

Holly K. Caro and Dalia E. Varanka
2 An Analysis of Spatial Relation Predicates in U.S. Geological Survey Feature Definitions

information extraction, or in comparing the ways that human 

interpretation of written definitions may differ from automated 

approaches. The discrepancies between the practical use of 

natural language and machine representation become evident 

when using this approach, and may present an outline as to 

how to resolve certain problems; for example, the further 

refinement of particular natural language phrasings to better ascertain the underlying semantics. This work should be 

viewed as a potential starting point for further investigation 

into the capabilities and intended functions of map ontologies 

and the ways that textual information may be used along with 

visual map displays, such as search functionality, or other 

semantic web technology applications.

Approach and Procedures

The approach to analyze spatial relations for topographic 

data triple predicates draws verb-predicate spatial relationships 

from textual definitions created and used by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) and its partners. These are the Spatial 

Data Transfer Standard (SDTS), Digital Line Graph Standards 

(DLG), and Geonames (U.S. Geological Survey, 2010; U.S. 

Board on Geographic Names, 2010). Similar approaches have 

been previously used by Mizen and others (2005) and Kokla 

and Kavouras (2005). The analysis was interpreted by native 

English language speakers, with the help of a dictionary. The 

data for this work are presented in appendixes.

The electronic tools used to locate, organize, and study 

the spatial relations within the text of this study primarily 

involved concordance and spreadsheet software. The concordance software was used to facilitate the easy sorting and 

display of a corpus of text by word (Watt, 2009a). The results 

allowed for textual analysis of trends in single word usage 

throughout text. 

Attempts at analyzing predicates uncovered major limitations in the concordance software and most of the work was 

subsequently completed manually. One such limitation was 

the mechanism used for sorting. The concordance sorts a text 

based on an exact word match, an instance of a word irrelevant 

of its variant forms, such as different tense or person. A lemmatizer was provided with the program, where lemmas function as the head word for a related set of words that vary grammatically, but the predefined list of words in the lemmatizer 

is limited. While customization is possible, each new word or 

set of words has to be manually entered into the system. Some 

additional limitations of the use of predefined sets in the lemmatizer are that its use requirs manually checking outputs created with each sort. Most of the limitations are understandably 

caused because the lemmatizer works on character matching 

in the words, and does not tag for parts of speech. Ambiguous noun/adjective forms occur within the predefined sets (for 

example, “know, known”, “do, done”), and there are no present participle forms currently included in the lemmatizer. Adding or correcting these features would have created an additional time commitment in using the lemmatizer for studies 

such as these. With limited datasets, such as those used in this 

analysis, entering the lemmas could take as long as manually 

identifying them, though for an analysis of larger datasets, 

customization and use of the lemmatizer would be beneficial. 

Additionally, some of the entries already programmed into the 

lemmatizer were related systematically, though not true lemmas (for example, “good, better, best”). Thus, the problem of 

exact word match would have still existed, even with its use. 

The set of “bear, bore, born, borne” is predefined, though most 

of the words carry multiple meanings and may not refer in any 

one use to the root verb “bear”—this would defeat the point of 

sorting them, because a human will still have to manually recheck and sort the results for accuracy. The online documentation discloses these aspects of the software in the section about 

the lemmatizer, concerning an example about the ambiguous 

word “lay.” “Since human language is not a wholly rational 

construct, there is no general remedy for this issue except vigilance” (Watt, 2009b). It is important to note that many systems 

devoted to processing natural language currently experience 

similar pitfalls, and these issues are more often than not the 

product of naturally occurring inconsistencies and idiosyncrasies in natural language.

Microsoft Excel was used to store and sort the resulting 

tables of information to view the use of recurrent predicate 

spatial relations for a final analysis. Information was stored in 

a four column format. The first column represents the defined 

term, and the second, third, and fourth columns resemble the 

subject-predicate-object of the triple, in which the third column stores the identified verb and preposition (predicate) pair 

under examination. The subjects/objects found in the second 

and fourth columns store the relative parts of the definition 

appearing before and after the predicate to lend context to the 

use of the spatial relation in the definition. While completing the spreadsheet, a fifth column was used to record notes 

concerning the data.

Because natural language is a social and communicative 

tool that has not been (or cannot be) reduced to a system fully 

understood and correctly processed by computer automation, 

the intuition and understanding of a linguist whose first and 

native language is English also were used, though the method 

would be valid in other languages as well. In the case of this 

piece of research, the linguist also was the primary analyst 

responsible for processing, recording, and reporting the data.

The DLG and National Hydrography Dataset (NHD) 

glossaries are based on the feature types compiled from 

years of repeated field survey validation by cartographers 

(E.L. Usery, oral commun., 2010; U.S. Geological Survey, 

1984). The SDTS feature list was developed by committees 

of representatives from partnering organizations and so has 

a wider scope of included features than those of topographic 

data. The Geographic Names Information System (GNIS) list 

originally was compiled from feature types shown on USGS 

topographical maps, but has added partner and volunteer 

contributions since 1987 (Orth and Payne, 1997). For each set 

of definitions, the entries were retrieved online and copied to a 
Abstract 3

plain text document that would be compatible for use with the 

concordance. 

The analysis involved reading each definition and 

interpreting any verb and preposition pairs within the definition. These pairs were then recorded on a spreadsheet. To find 

relevant spatial relations, both verbs and prepositions were 

examined independently and then analyzed for any relevant 

semantic relation with a counterpart. Then, the concordance 

was used to proceed through the definitions in the text document word by word to identify and analyze any verbs or 

prepositions that may have been missed in the initial reading. 

This step was critical in identifying secondary spatial relations 

that may have escaped initial analysis when overshadowed 

by a more prominent verb and preposition pair. Viewing 

verbs and prepositions with the concordance also allowed for 

analysis and understanding of word use trends throughout the 

text; for example, it became evident if a given verb seemed to 

favor usage with a particular preposition or set of prepositions, 

and thereby allowed for a supposition of an intended verb or 

preposition if a definition was written with either omitted. 

Findings

A total of 668 feature term definitions were examined. 

In several instances, it was discovered that definitions were 

not composed as complete grammatical sentences. Where this 

occurred, a verb or preposition was inferred for inclusion in 

the spreadsheet. All verb-preposition pairs presented in the 

spreadsheets maintain their original phrasing, except for noted 

exceptions, especially inferences. Wherever a word had to be 

inferred from the context of the definition, it has been indicated by parentheses in the spreadsheet. An effort was made 

to keep inferred verbs simple and unassuming in nature while 

still filling the function of the verb. For example, the verb “to 

go” implies a movement from one point to another without 

adding any further assumptions, such as speed or directionality—this can be seen in the SDTS definition for “Route”:

• Route: A designated path through a road network. 

• Predicate: (goes)THROUGH

• Other common verbs used in these instances include 

“to be” and “to use.”

The inferring of prepositions proved to be problematic, as 

all prepositions have particular meanings, and many can have 

multiple meanings. The preposition “on” can have several 

different meanings dependent upon the context, as shown in 

these examples from SDTS:

• Airport: A facility, either on land or water, where 

aircraft can takeoff and land; usually consists of hardsurfaced landing strips, a control tower, hangars, and 

accommodations for passengers and cargo.

• Crater: Circular-shaped depression at the summit of a 

volcano or on the surface of the land.

• Fault: A fracture in the Earth’s crust with displacement 

on one side of the fracture relative to the other.

In the above examples, “on” can, respectively, have the 

different semantic meanings “built in contact with and perhaps 

supported by”, “within and made of”, or “located at or relative 

to a center line.” 

Verbs and prepositions in the place of the predicate of the 

definition or implying relation to features can be of multiple 

types. A word can be used as an adverb, adjective, or preposition, or some other combination of types. For example, the 

word “beyond” can be a noun (the great beyond), preposition 

(beyond the lake), or an adverb (it’s beyond great). Words 

take various grammatical forms, such as tenses or participles. 

Verbs sometimes appeared in pairs, such as “* * * disappears underground at * * * and * * * reappears at the 

surface * * *.”

Several definitions contained multiple relations and 

associations. One difficulty with applying definitions in terms 

of spatial relations was that many of these were not defined 

spatially, but rather by material composition or an intended 

purpose. Some were even defined by temporal or qualitative constraints (examples from the Geonames and SDTS 

datasets):

• Canal: Manmade waterway used by watercraft or for

drainage, irrigation, mining, or water power (ditch).

• Overfalls: Short breaking waves occurring when a 

current passes over a shoal or other submarine obstruction or meets a contrary current or wind.

Recording examples and instances of fuzzy logic also 

was problematic. For example, where a peninsula is defined as 

being “nearly surrounded by” water, the tendency would be to 

record the spatial relation predicate as “nearly_surroundedBY” 

instead of “surroundedBY”, because the latter does not correctly convey the intended meaning. However, the effect that 

the fuzzy logic term “nearly” bears upon the semantic meaning can be interpreted to have an outside and separate meaning 

from “surroundedBY.” In the creation of a working ontology, 

the fuzzy logic aspect could be included from other aspects 

of the programming instead of coding the distinction in the 

Resource Description Framework (RDF) predicate—programming this in an alternate way would, in fact, be preferable to 

account for gradient levels. 

This small-scale analysis provides an introduction to 

some of the challenges to be expected in the development 

of a formal ontology from text to RDF definitions. Ambiguous expressions for deeper semantic meanings can benefit a 

system designed for spatial relations data mining by reducing 

the number of rules of all semantic variants. Nevertheless, the 

further refinement of the embedded semantic meanings behind 

the representative forms of the words used to express them 

would benefit any ontology designed to approximate natural 

language semantics.
4 An Analysis of Spatial Relation Predicates in U.S. Geological Survey Feature Definitions

Results 

Words were examined in topographical context to determine a general categorization. Terms were divided between 

two main groups: spatial relations among topographical 

features, as would be used with two or more such features, and 

feature attributes that characterize features alone. Within these, 

relations were grouped as active verbs, verbs of being, and 

prepositions. Attributes were grouped into terms indicating 

location, description, or generative processes. These categories 

also can include inverses of terms. For example, a feature can 

be assigned an attribute to represent the result it generates and 

the morphological forces to which it is subject. Relations and 

attributes can combine to form complex properties. 

The list of terms compiled from this study is neither conclusive nor final. No results regarding word syntax are offered. 

The list serves as a baseline vocabulary for development and 

refinement.

Spatial Relations

Most predicates extracted from the standards were verb/

preposition pairs (table 1). Active verbs (for example, words 

of motion) were most numerous. Prepositions often were 

determined to be used as spatial relations. Verb/preposition 

combinations can have multiple terms, such as “cast up upon.” 

Some verb/preposition combinations could be replaced by single verbs, such as “carry out” to mean “execute.” Synonyms 

were noted; a tension was noted between a simpler term, 

which may be more widely used, but may be more ambiguous 

than a specific term, as in “underground” or “subterranean.” 

The verb/preposition pairs are context dependent and are 

nuanced in meaning within the syntax and semantics of sentences. The context of some verbs created criteria for inclusion 

or exclusion from the study. 

Active verbs also could imply locative or generative 

properties, such as “located,” “stored,” or “positioned.” 

“Built,” “caused,” “constructed,” or “formed” all indicate 

topographical processes of feature formation. Such attributes 

were categorized as “locator” or “generator”, and are discussed in the next section. 

Verbs of being include “is” and “are,” and passive verbs 

implying affordance, relevant properties of ontologies, such 

as, “affords” or “capable” were not considered spatial relations 

(Sen, 2008). Verb/preposition pairs that indicate purpose, such 

as “intended for” or “intended to be,” are nonspatial in nature, 

but could play a role as attributes. This possibility also applies 

to ownership, administration, or control. Passive verbs can 

imply part relations, such as “having,” “composed,” “consisting,” and others. Terms that are classified as “part” relations 

do not include independent features, as a structure is an independent feature though it may be part of a built-up area. Part 

relations are indicated by a verb, such as “consist,” or a term 

from a spatial reference system, such as “bottom.”

Several verbs were events involving features that would 

not be considered topographical, such as “ship.” In this example, verbs such as “anchored,” “berthed,” and “moored” were 

categorized as events or affordances relating to topographical 

features, to “port,” in this example, and not categorized as 

predicates or spatial relations between topographical features 

(Gibson, 1977). 

The remaining topological terms can be either verbs, 

such as “crosses” or adjectives, such as “adjacent to.” Only 

two of the eight standard Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC) 

spatial relation terms were used in the glossaries, “within” 

and “contains.” Many glossary terms were synonyms or close 

approximations to standard terms, or “fuzzy” matches. Besides 

serving as triple predicates, topological relations may be leveraged for the logical consistency of data and spatial analysis. 

Once they are tied to the topology of geospatial data involving 

geometric feature types, such as “area” or “point,” predicates 

matching geometry types to feature types may support rules 

controlling the consistency of relations between features. 

For example, logical consistency rules involving topological 

predicates would prevent an error such as “crosses” when two 

polygons actually “overlap.” 

Feature Attributes

Attributes are nonspatial terms or spatial terms lacking relative relations to other features that characterize 

triple resources. Most adjectives present in feature type 

definitions indicated attributes, such as “known,” “away,” 

“out,” and “parallel.” Three general types of attributes were 

Table 1. Verb/preposition pairs functioning as predicates in 

feature term glossaries.

Active verbs Spatial prepositions

access descend function above near

advance direct goes across of

approach disappear interrupt along on

attached distribute issue alongside out

backed divide move around over

borders ejected pass at through

buried enclose passage below to

change entry raise between toward

connect exit reappears beyond under

contact fall resist by where

control fill run from with

course float rush into within

cover flow strung

cross follow sunk

departure fronted transport
References Cited 5

identified from glossaries, called “Locator,” “Descriptor,” and 

“Generator.” 

Feature attributes categorized as Locator are words with 

express location descriptions. In this group included are, 

“underground” and “positioned.” Many prepositions, such as 

“where” or “at,” indicate location. 

Descriptors are attribute terms that are humanly-perceived. Descriptors usually take the form of adjectives, but are 

not abstract, such as “away” or “out.” Terms characterized as 

descriptors include: “curve,” “depression,” “slopes,” “broken,” 

or “visible.”

Terms of feature generation, called Generator attributes, 

include active verbs representing causes or processes that 

directly relate to the formation of the feature, not just having 

an affect on the feature. This set of terms applies to a wide 

range of human activities on the landscape, such as “cultivated” or “developed.” Other terms are more generic, such as 

“adapted,” “maintained,” “created,” or “determined.”

Conclusions

Natural language spatial relations used in topographic 

science are complex phrases involving a range of properties. 

In addition to Geographic Information Systems approaches 

involving topology and geometric values of distance and 

direction, linguistic terms easily can communicate meaning to 

a diverse public, but they are complex and difficult to systematize in geospatial semantic web applications. Some relations 

embedded in the glossary are common terms with the Open 

Geospatial Consortium Simple Feature model operators, but 

can be expanded from binary topology between features to 

include resource systems and region fields. For example, the 

transitive property applies to terms such as “within” so that if 

A is within B, and B is within C, then A is within C.

Though the analysis focused primarily on verb/preposition pairs, other types of relations found in the complex 

phrases include properties indicating state of being (such 

as, “composed of”), location (such as, “subterranean”) and 

feature parts (such as, “entrance”). Topographic terms indicating a part of a feature were sometimes defined in terms of the 

motion or event it allows. For example, an entrance “* * * 

affords entry to * * *” Other types of properties that were 

semantically related to spatial relations, especially in the 

physical or material world, included terms of description (such 

as, “high” or “near”), generation of physical processes (such 

as, “naturally formed”), and motion (such as, “approaches”). 

The identification of these properties aids the representation of 

the complexity of phrases, which can be expressed as graphs 

or as a list of triples using common identifiers for resources, 

identifiers, or values.

The set of verb/preposition pairs found in this study function as predicates, together with topographic feature attributes, 

and compose a corpus of work that offers promise for user/

technology interface facilitation. Such interfaces may involve 

geographic information extraction, topographic feature identification, science process modeling, and visualization. 

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Appendixes
8 An Analysis of Spatial Relation Predicates in U.S. Geological Survey Feature Definitions

Appendix 1. Predicate terms in Digital Line Graph (DLG) standard feature definitions.—Continued

[The data analyzed in this table is based on the DLG standard. The text from the original documents was changed as little as possible and only for research 

purposes. As a result, the glossary definitions may appear to be breaking rules of grammar, but were arranged to help clarify semantic meanings. Feature type 

terms are listed in alphabetical order. Verbs appear in lowercase and prepositions appear in uppercase fonts. Inferred terms are presented within parentheses.

--, no data]

Term Subject Predicate Object

Aircraft_Facility An area WHERE aircraft can take-off and land, usually equipped with 

associated buildings and facilities.

Aircraft_Facility An area where aircraft can take-off 

and land, usually

equippedWITH associated buildings and facilities.

Anchorage An area WHERE a vessel anchors or may anchor, either because of 

suitability or designation.

Aquaculture_Site A set of pools (consisting)OF water and related structures used for producing finfish, shellfish, or aquatic plants.

Aquaculture_Site A setOF pools of water and related structures used for producing finfish, shellfish, or aquatic plants.

Aquaculture_Site A set of pools of water and related 

structures 

usedFOR producing finfish, shellfish, or aquatic plants.

Arch A naturally occuring, freestanding 

curved structure

spans(OVER) an opening.

Archeological_Site/

Ruin

An area that CONTAINS the material remains of past human activities.

Archeological_Site/

Ruin

An area OF scientific interest that contains the material remains 

of past human activities.

Area_Of_Complex_ChannelsAn area WHERE a stream or river flows in an intricate network of 

interlacing channels.

Area_Of_Complex_ChannelsAn area where a stream or river flowsIN an intricate network of interlacing channels.

Area_Of_Complex_ChannelsAn area where a stream or river 

flows in an intricate 

networkOF interlacing channels.

Area_To_Be_SubmergedThe known extent of the intended 

lake that will be 

createdBEHIND a dam under construction.

Area_To_Be_SubmergedThe known_extentOF the intended lake that will be created behind a dam 

under construction.

Athletic_Field A defined, but often unbounded, 

open area 

constructedFOR, 

maintainedFOR

the purpose of holding sporting events and activities.

Bar A natural accumulationOF sand, gravel, or other material forming an underwater 

or exposed embankment.

Bar A natural accumulation of sand, 

gravel, or other 

materialFORMING an underwater or exposed embankment.

Barren_Land Places composedOF bare rock, sand, silt, gravel, or other earthen material 

with little or no vegetation and having limited ability 

to support life.

Basin A bowl-shaped depressionIN the surface of the land or ocean floor.

Basin A bowl-shaped depression in the surfaceOF the land or ocean floor.

Bay/Inlet A water area that is an openingINTO the land, or of an estuary, lake, or river into its shore.

Bay/Inlet A water area that is an openingINTO its shore.

Bay/Inlet A water area that is an openingOF the sea/ocean into the land, or of an estuary, lake, or 

river into its shore.

Beach The gently sloping shore that is 

washed by waves, usually 

composedOF sand and pebbles.
Appendixes 9

Appendix 1. Predicate terms in Digital Line Graph (DLG) standard feature definitions.—Continued

[The data analyzed in this table is based on the DLG standard. The text from the original documents was changed as little as possible and only for research 

purposes. As a result, the glossary definitions may appear to be breaking rules of grammar, but were arranged to help clarify semantic meanings. Feature type 

terms are listed in alphabetical order. Verbs appear in lowercase and prepositions appear in uppercase fonts. Inferred terms are presented within parentheses.

--, no data]

Term Subject Predicate Object

Beach The gently sloping shore that is 

washed by waves, usually 

is_washedBY waves, usually composed of sand and pebbles.

Bend A curve in the courseOF a stream or the land within the curve.

Bend A curveIN the course of a stream or the land within the curve.

Boardwalk A promenade, usually constructedOF planks.

Boundary_Line The limiting_lineOF jurisdictional authority for various levels of 

government.

Boundary_Line The limiting line of jurisdictional 

authority 

usedFOR various levels of government.

Boundary_Point An identified locationON, 

locationNEAR

a current boundary or former boundary.

Bridge A structure spanningOVER, providing_passageOVERa waterway, railroad, or other obstacle.

Building A permanent construction that isROOFED, 

isWALLED.

--

Built-Up_Area An area OF intensive use, with much of the land covered by 

structures.

Built-Up_Area An area of intensive use, with much 

of the land 

coveredBY structures.

Cable/Pipeline_Site An area where cables or pipelines are_locatedUNDER water.

Cable/Pipeline_Site An area WHERE cables or pipelines are located under water.

Cableway A conveyor system in which carrier 

units

are_suspendedFROM wire cables strung between supports.

Cableway A conveyor system in which carrier units are suspended from wire 

cables 

strungBETWEEN supports.

Campground A designated area ON which primitive structure(s) may be erected for temporary shelter and/or where recreational vehicles are 

temporarily parked.

Campground A designated area on which primitive structure(s) may beerectedFOR temporary shelter and/or where recreational vehicles 

are temporarily parked.

Canal/Ditch An artificial open waterway constructedTO transport water, to irrigate or drain land, to connect 

two or more bodies of water, or to serve as a waterway for watercraft.

Cape A projection of land extendingINTO a body of water that prominently marks a change in 

or interrupts the coastal trend of that water body.

Cape A projection of land extending into 

a body of water that prominently 

marks a change in or interrupts the 

coastal

trendOF that water body.

Cave_Entrance A passage that affords entryTO a naturally formed subterranean open area or 

chamber.

Cemetery A burial ground. -- --

Chimney A structure containing a passage or 

flue for

discharging(OF) combustion smoke and gases.
10 An Analysis of Spatial Relation Predicates in U.S. Geological Survey Feature Definitions

Appendix 1. Predicate terms in Digital Line Graph (DLG) standard feature definitions.—Continued

[The data analyzed in this table is based on the DLG standard. The text from the original documents was changed as little as possible and only for research 

purposes. As a result, the glossary definitions may appear to be breaking rules of grammar, but were arranged to help clarify semantic meanings. Feature type 

terms are listed in alphabetical order. Verbs appear in lowercase and prepositions appear in uppercase fonts. Inferred terms are presented within parentheses.

--, no data]

Term Subject Predicate Object

City An incorporated, populated place 

such as a village, city, town, or 

borough, 

including an independent city.

Cliff A high vertical, near-vertical, or over-hangingface.

Connector A known, but nonspecific, connectionBETWEEN two nonadjacent network segments.

Contour (Land) A line connectingWITH a reference to a vertical datum.

Conveyor Any permanent mechanism, such as 

continuous moving belt, that 

tranportsFROM one place to another.

County Second order divisionOF a nation such as parish, borough, municipio, judicial 

division, and independent cities in Maryland, Missouri, Nevada, and Virginia.

Crevasse Field An area of deep fissures IN the surface of an ice mass caused by breaking or 

parting.

Crevasse Field An area OF deep fissures in the surface of an ice mass caused by 

breaking or parting.

Crevasse Field An area of deep fissures in the surface of an ice mass causedBY breaking or parting.

Crevasse Field An area of deep fissures in the surfaceOF an ice mass caused by breaking or parting.

Cul-de-Sac The round or circular sectionOF the end of a dead-end street.

Cultivated_CroplandLand that has been plowedFOR, 

cultivatedFOR

crop production.

Dam/Weir A barrier constructedTO control the flow or raise the level of water.

Dam/Weir A barrier constructed to controlFLOW_OF, 

raiseLEVEL_OF

water. 

Depth_Curve A line connecting points of equal depth below the hydrographic datum.

Desert A region rendered_barrenBY environmental extremes, especially low rainfall.

Dish A concave object usedFOR transmitting or receiving electromagnetic signals.

Disposal_Site An area WHERE refuse is dumped.

Distributed_Surface An area which is brokenINTO a chaotic pattern of elevations and depressions due to 

human intervention.

Distributed_Surface An area which is broken into a 

chaotic pattern of elevations and 

depressions 

dueTO human intervention.

Divide The line separating drainage basins.

Draw_Span The movablePORTION_OF a bridge deck.

Drive-In_Theater_

Screen

A picture is projectedUPON for viewing.

Drydock An artificial basin fitted with a gate 

or caisson into which a vessel may 

be floated and from which water 

may be pumped out to expose the 

bottomOF the vessel. 

Drydock An artificial basin fittedWITH a gate or caisson into which a vessel may be floated 

and from which water may be pumped out to expose 

the bottom of the vessel.
Appendixes 11

Appendix 1. Predicate terms in Digital Line Graph (DLG) standard feature definitions.—Continued

[The data analyzed in this table is based on the DLG standard. The text from the original documents was changed as little as possible and only for research 

purposes. As a result, the glossary definitions may appear to be breaking rules of grammar, but were arranged to help clarify semantic meanings. Feature type 

terms are listed in alphabetical order. Verbs appear in lowercase and prepositions appear in uppercase fonts. Inferred terms are presented within parentheses.

--, no data]

Term Subject Predicate Object

Drydock A vessel may be floatedINTO. --

Drydock Water may be pumped_outFROM to expose the bottom of the vessel.

Dunes Hills or ridges (composed)OF sand piled up by the wind.

Dunes Hills or ridges of sand piled_upBY the wind.

Embankment A raisedLINEAR_

MOUND_OF

earth, gravel, or similar material.

Estuary The lower end of a river, or a 

semienclosed coastal body of water 

with access to the open ocean, 

which is affected by the tides and 

(is)WHERE fresh and salt water mix.

Estuary The lower end of a river, or a 

semienclosed coastal body of water 

with 

accessTO the open ocean, which is affected by the tides and 

where fresh and salt water mix.

Estuary The lower end of a river, or a 

semienclosed coastal body 

composedOF water with access to the open ocean, which is 

affected by the tides and where fresh and salt water 

mix.

Estuary The lower endOF a river, or a semienclosed coastal body of water with 

access to the open ocean, which is affected by the 

tides and where fresh and salt water mix.

Estuary The lower end of a river, or a 

semienclosed coastal body of water 

with access to the open ocean, 

which 

is_affectedBY the tides and where fresh and salt water mix.

Exhibition_Ground A public area where outdoor fairs, 

circuses, and other events are held, 

which also contains permanent 

structures

(used)FOR the display of livestock, machinery, agricultural 

produce, etc.

Exhibition_Ground A public area where outdoor fairs, 

circuses, and other events are held, 

which also 

CONTAINS permanent structures for the display of livestock, 

machinery, agricultural produce, etc.

Exhibition_Ground A public area WHERE outdoor fairs, circuses, and other events are held, 

which also contains permanent structures for the 

display of livestock, machinery, agricultural produce, 

etc.

Fence_Line An identifiable fence or field line visibleON an aerial photograph.

Filtration_Plant A group composedOF structures functioning as a unit used for the purification and distribution of a water supply.

Filtration_Plant A group of structures functioningAS a unit used for the purification and distribution of a 

water supply.

Filtration_Plant A group of structures functioning as 

a unit used for the 

purificationOF, 

distributionOF

a water supply.

Filtration_Plant A group of structures functioning 

as a unit 

usedFoR the purification and distribution of a water supply.

Fish_Ladder A facility consisting of a series of 

small pools, each one slightly higher 

than the preceding, 

builtAROUND an obstruction to enable fish to make their way 

upstream.
12 An Analysis of Spatial Relation Predicates in U.S. Geological Survey Feature Definitions

Appendix 1. Predicate terms in Digital Line Graph (DLG) standard feature definitions.—Continued

[The data analyzed in this table is based on the DLG standard. The text from the original documents was changed as little as possible and only for research 

purposes. As a result, the glossary definitions may appear to be breaking rules of grammar, but were arranged to help clarify semantic meanings. Feature type 

terms are listed in alphabetical order. Verbs appear in lowercase and prepositions appear in uppercase fonts. Inferred terms are presented within parentheses.

--, no data]

Term Subject Predicate Object

Fish_Ladder A facility consistingOF a series of small pools, each one slightly higher than 

the preceding, built around an obstruction to enable 

fish to make their way upstream.

Fish_Ladder A facility consisting of a series of 

small pools, each one slightly higher 

than the preceding, built around an

obstructionTO enable fish to make their way upstream.

Fish_Ladder A facility consisting of a seriesOF small pools, each one slightly higher than the preceding, built around an obstruction to enable fish to 

make their way upstream.

Flume An open, inclined, artificial channel constructedOF wood, metal, or concrete; generally elevated.

Ford A location in a body composedOF water for a road or trail crossing where the physical characteristics of the bottom, water depth, and 

approaches permit passage without a bridge or ferry.

Ford A location in a body of water for a 

road or trail 

crossingWHERE the physical characteristics of the bottom, water 

depth, and approaches permit passage without a 

bridge or ferry.

Ford A locationIN a body of water for a road or trail crossing where the 

physical characteristics of the bottom, water depth, 

and approaches permit passage without a bridge or 

ferry.

Ford A location in a body of water usedFOR a road or trail crossing where the physical characteristics of the bottom, water depth, and approaches 

permit passage without a bridge or ferry.

Foreshore The part of a seashore (is)BETWEEN high-water and low-water marks.

Foreshore The part of a seashore between high-water and low-water marks.

Fracture A deformation in the Earth’s crust causedBY a loss of cohesion.

Fracture A deformationIN the Earth’s crust caused by a loss of cohesion.

Fumarole steam and gases are emmittedFROM a hole in the earth’s crust. 

Gaging_Station A structure usedTO measure the characteristics of a hydrographic feature.

Gap A low_pointBETWEEN, 

openingBETWEEN

mounts or in a ridge.

Gap A low_pointIN, 

openingIN

a ridge.

Gate A structure that may be swungTO, drawnTO, 

loweredTO

block an entrance or passageway.

Geyser A natural fountain that intermittently ejectsFROM a hole in the Earth’s crust.

Geyser A natural fountain that intermittently ejectsINTO the air from a hole in the Earth’s crust.

Hazard_Zone An area identifiedAS a danger to maritime navigation.

Helipad A structure usedFOR the landing and take-off of helicopters.

Historical_Monument

Holding_Pen Livestock are temporarily keptIN an enclosed area. 

Ice_Mass A field of ice, formedIN regions of perennial frost.
Appendixes 13

Appendix 1. Predicate terms in Digital Line Graph (DLG) standard feature definitions.—Continued

[The data analyzed in this table is based on the DLG standard. The text from the original documents was changed as little as possible and only for research 

purposes. As a result, the glossary definitions may appear to be breaking rules of grammar, but were arranged to help clarify semantic meanings. Feature type 

terms are listed in alphabetical order. Verbs appear in lowercase and prepositions appear in uppercase fonts. Inferred terms are presented within parentheses.

--, no data]

Term Subject Predicate Object

Iceberg Large mass of floating or stranded 

ice of greatly varying shape, more 

than 5 meters above sea level, which 

has

brokenAWAY from a glacier.

Iceberg_Tongue A major accumulation of icebergs 

projecting from the coast, 

held_in_placeBY by grounding and joined together by fast ice.

Iceberg_Tongue A major accumulation of icebergs 

projecting from the coast, held in 

place by grounding and 

joined_togetherBY fast ice.

Iceberg_Tongue A major accumulation of icebergs projectingFROM the coast, held in place by grounding and joined 

together by fast ice.

Incline/Flow A feature characterizedBY a sloping surface or a formation resulting from movement down a sloping surface.

Incline/Flow A feature characterized by a sloping 

surface or a formation 

resultingFROM movement down a sloping surface.

Institutional_Site A group of buildings or associated 

structures, 

functioningAS a unit, used predominantly for educational, correctional, governmental, medical, or religious purposes.

Interchange An area designatedTO provide traffic access between roadways of differing 

levels.

Interchange An area designated to provide_accessBETWEENroadways of differing levels.

Inundation_Area An area of land subjectTO flooding.

Island An area of dry or relatively dry land surroundedBY water or low wetland.

Isthmus A narrow strip of land, borderedBY water, connecting two larger land areas.

Isthmus A narrow strip of land, borderedON both sides by water, connecting two larger land areas.

Isthmus A narrow strip of land, bordered on 

both sides by water, 

connecting two larger land areas.

Junction An intersection or confluence of two 

or more adjacent network segments, 

or a terminus of a single network 

segment. Network segments 

areIN a roadway network or drainage network that have 

direction of flow or carry traffic.

Junction An intersection or confluence of two 

or more adjacent network segments, 

or a terminus of a single network 

segment. Network segments are 

those links in a roadway network or 

drainage network that 

have_directionOF flow or carry traffic.

Junction An intersectionOF, 

confluenceOF

two or more adjacent network segments, or a terminus of a single network segment. Network segments 

are those links in a roadway network or drainage 

network that have direction of flow or carry traffic.

Junction An intersection or confluence of two 

or more adjacent network segments, 

or a 

terminusOF a single network segment. Network segments are 

those links in a roadway network or drainage network 

that have direction of flow or carry traffic.

Kiln Any of various ovens (used)FOR hardening, burning, or drying substances.

Lake/Pond A standing body of water with a 

predominantly natural shoreline 

surroundedBY land.
14 An Analysis of Spatial Relation Predicates in U.S. Geological Survey Feature Definitions

Appendix 1. Predicate terms in Digital Line Graph (DLG) standard feature definitions.—Continued

[The data analyzed in this table is based on the DLG standard. The text from the original documents was changed as little as possible and only for research 

purposes. As a result, the glossary definitions may appear to be breaking rules of grammar, but were arranged to help clarify semantic meanings. Feature type 

terms are listed in alphabetical order. Verbs appear in lowercase and prepositions appear in uppercase fonts. Inferred terms are presented within parentheses.

--, no data]

Term Subject Predicate Object

Land_Grant An area of land to which title was 

conferred by a predecessor government and confirmed by the U.S. 

Government after the territory in 

which it is situated was 

acquiredBY the United States.

Land_Grant An area of land to which title was conferredBY a predecessor government and confirmed by the U.S. 

Government after the territory in which it is situated 

was acquired by the United States.

Land_Grant An area of land to which title was 

conferred by a predecessor government and 

confirmedBY the U.S. Government after the territory in which it is 

situated was acquired by the United States.

Lane A prescribed_courseFOR ships, boats, or seaplanes.

Launch_Facility An area (is)WHERE rockets or missiles may be housed and from which 

they are launched, usually equipped with associated 

buildings and facilities.

Launch_Facility An area where rockets or missiles 

may be housed and from which they 

are launched, usually 

equippedWITH associated buildings and facilities.

Launch_Facility An area where rockets or missiles 

may be housed and 

launchedFROM usually equipped with associated buildings and 

facilities.

Launch_Pad a rocket or missile is launchedFROM a structure.

Launching_Ramp A partially submerged hard surface (is)ON on a shoreline for launching or retrieving vessels or 

aircraft.

Launching_Ramp A partially submerged hard surface 

on a shoreline 

(used)FOR launching or retrieving vessels or aircraft.

Locale A named place not otherwise 

categorized.

-- --

Lock_Chamber An enclosure (is)ON a waterway used to raise and lower vessels as they 

pass from one level to another.

Lock_Chamber An enclosure on a waterway used to 

raise and lower vessels as they 

passFROM one level to another.

Lock_Chamber An enclosure on a waterway usedTO raise and lower vessels as they pass from one level to 

another.

Marina A harbor facility for recreational 

craft 

(is)WHERE supplies, repairs, and various services are available.

Marina A harbor facility (used)FOR recreational craft where supplies, repairs, and various 

services are available.

Mile_Marker A point (is)ON a feature indicating the distance, in miles, measured 

along the course or path of the feature, from an established origin point on the feature.

Mile_Marker A point on a feature indicating the 

distance, in miles, measured along 

the course or path of the feature, 

from an established origin point 

(is)ON the feature.

Mile_Marker A point on a feature indicating the 

distance, in miles, 

measuredALONG the course or path of the feature, from an established 

origin point on the feature.
Appendixes 15

Appendix 1. Predicate terms in Digital Line Graph (DLG) standard feature definitions.—Continued

[The data analyzed in this table is based on the DLG standard. The text from the original documents was changed as little as possible and only for research 

purposes. As a result, the glossary definitions may appear to be breaking rules of grammar, but were arranged to help clarify semantic meanings. Feature type 

terms are listed in alphabetical order. Verbs appear in lowercase and prepositions appear in uppercase fonts. Inferred terms are presented within parentheses.

--, no data]

Term Subject Predicate Object

Mile_Marker A point on a feature indicating the 

distance, in miles, 

measuredFROM an established origin point on the feature.

Mine An excavation in the earth (is)FOR_THE_PURPOSE_OFextracting earth materials.

Mine An excavation (is)IN the earth for the purpose of extracting earth materials.

Mine_Entrance Passage that affords_entryTO an underground mine.

Minor_Civil_DivisionThird order divisionOF a nation such as township, town, district, precinct, or 

barrio.

Mobile_Home_Park An area maintainedFOR the parking of inhabited mobile homes.

Mobile_Home_Park An area maintained for the parkingOF inhabited mobile homes.

Monorail A vehicle or train of cars travelsON a single rail. 

Moraine An accumulationOF earth and stones carried and deposited by a glacier.

Moraine An accumulation of earth and stones carriedBY, 

depositedBY

a glacier.

Mount A landmass that projectsABOVE its surroundings.

Mud_Pot gas or vapors issueFROM a pool of mud. 

Nation An area under_jurisdictionOF a sovereign government.

Nonearthen_Shore A structure built of stone, brick, 

concrete, or other building materials that 

borders a body of water.

Nonearthen_Shore A structure builtOF stone, brick, concrete, or other building materials that 

borders a body of water.

Offshore_Platform A raised structure located in a sea, equippedFOR the extraction, loading or unloading of petroleum 

products.

Offshore_Platform A raised structure located in a sea, 

equipped for the 

extractionOF, loadingOF, unloadingOFpetroleum products.

Offshore_Platform A raised structure locatedIN a sea, equipped for the extraction, loading or unloading of petroleum products.

Outdoor_Theater An outdoor area consisting of a 

stage or other focal point, and an 

area 

(is)WHERE the audience can be seated to view the performance 

or event.

Outdoor_Theater An outdoor area consistingOF a stage or other focal point, and an area where the 

audience can be seated to view the performance or 

event.

Park A place or area developedFOR public use or recreation.

Pier/Breakwater/

Jetty

Structure extendingFROM the shore or positioned offshore for protection, berthing vessels, or recreation.

Pier/Breakwater/

Jetty

Structure extendingIN the longest dimension from the shore or positioned offshore for protection, berthing vessels, or 

recreation.

Pier/Breakwater/

Jetty

Structure extending in the longest 

dimension from the shore or 

positionedFOR protection, berthing vessels, or recreation.

Pinnacle A vertical often 

spire-shaped

natural rock formation.
16 An Analysis of Spatial Relation Predicates in U.S. Geological Survey Feature Definitions

Appendix 1. Predicate terms in Digital Line Graph (DLG) standard feature definitions.—Continued

[The data analyzed in this table is based on the DLG standard. The text from the original documents was changed as little as possible and only for research 

purposes. As a result, the glossary definitions may appear to be breaking rules of grammar, but were arranged to help clarify semantic meanings. Feature type 

terms are listed in alphabetical order. Verbs appear in lowercase and prepositions appear in uppercase fonts. Inferred terms are presented within parentheses.

--, no data]

Term Subject Predicate Object

Pipeline A closed conduit, with pumps, 

valves and control devices,

(used)FOR conveying fluids, gases, or finely divided solids.

Pipeline_Regulation_StationAn ancillary facility that controls_the_flowALONGa pipeline route.

Pipeline_Regulation_StationAn ancillary facility that controls_the_flowOF fluids or gasses along a pipeline route.

Plateau An elevated and comparatively level 

expanse 

(composed)OF land.

Playa The flat area (is)AT the lowest part of an undrained desert basin, generally devoid of vegetation.

Playa The flat area at the lowest part of an 

undrained desert basin, generally

devoidOF vegetation.

Point_Monument A structure that marks the location 

of a point 

determinedBY surveying.

Point_Monument A structure that marks the locationOF a point determined by surveying.

Populated_Place A place or area (is)WITH clustered or scattered buildings and a permanent 

human population.

Post An upright piece of timber or other 

material, 

(is)IN, adjacentTO a body of water, used for mooring ships or supporting 

other structures.

Post An upright piece of timber or other 

material, in or adjacent to a body of 

water

usedFOR mooring ships or supporting other structures.

Power_Site A group of associated structures, functioningAS a unit, used for generating electricity.

Power_Site A group of associated structures, 

functioning as a unit, 

usedFOR generating electricity.

Principal_Meridian The line extendingFROM the initial point of a Rectangular Survey. Ranges are 

referenced east or west of the principal meridian.

Principal_Meridian The line extending north and south, 

intended to 

followALONG a true meridian, from the initial point of a Rectangular Survey. Ranges are referenced east or west of the 

principal meridian.

Principal_Meridian The line extending north and south, intendedTO follow along a true meridian, from the initial point of 

a Rectangular Survey. Ranges are referenced east or 

west of the principal meridian.

Principal_Meridian The line extending north and south, 

intended to follow along a true 

meridian, from the initial point of a 

Rectangular Survey. Ranges are 

referencedEAST_OF, 

referencedWEST_OF

the principal meridian.

Prospect A marked location (is)WHERE mineral exploration has occurred, but no mine has 

been developed.

Proving_Ground An area set_asideFOR performance testing.

Public_Land_Survey_System_AreaAn area of land which is subdivided 

by the Public Land Survey System 

(PLSS), and was originally

createdON public domain lands, and the rules for its use were 

defined by the authority of the U.S. Government. 

The PLSS has since been extended, following similar 

rules, into non-public domain areas.
Appendixes 17

Appendix 1. Predicate terms in Digital Line Graph (DLG) standard feature definitions.—Continued

[The data analyzed in this table is based on the DLG standard. The text from the original documents was changed as little as possible and only for research 

purposes. As a result, the glossary definitions may appear to be breaking rules of grammar, but were arranged to help clarify semantic meanings. Feature type 

terms are listed in alphabetical order. Verbs appear in lowercase and prepositions appear in uppercase fonts. Inferred terms are presented within parentheses.

--, no data]

Term Subject Predicate Object

Public_Land_Survey_System_AreaAn area of land which is subdivided 

by the Public Land Survey System 

(PLSS), and was originally created 

on public domain lands, and the 

rules for its use were 

definedBY the authority of the U.S. Government. The PLSS has 

since been extended, following similar rules, into 

non-public domain areas.

Public_Land_Survey_System_AreaAn area of land which is subdivided 

by the Public Land Survey System 

(PLSS), and was originally created 

on public domain lands, and the 

rules for its use were defined by the 

authority of the U.S. Government. 

The PLSS has since been 

extendedINTO non-public domain areas.

Public_Land_Survey_System_AreaAn area of land which is subdividedBY the Public Land Survey System (PLSS), and was 

originally created on public domain lands, and the 

rules for its use were defined by the authority of 

the U.S. Government. The PLSS has since been 

extended, following similar rules, into non-public 

domain areas.

Racetrack A course laid_outFOR racing.

Railway A train or trolley runsON a set of parallel rails. 

Railway_Yard An area provided with a system of 

tracks and associated structures,

(is)WHERE railway trains are assembled, and railway cars are 

switched, stored or serviced.

Railway_Yard An area providedWITH a system of tracks and associated structures, where 

railway trains are assembled, and railway cars are 

switched, stored or serviced.

Range A chain (composed)OF mounts and/or ridges.

Rapids An area of swift current (is)IN a stream or river, characterized by standing waves or 

by boulders and rocks.

Rapids An area of swift current in a stream 

or river, 

characterizedBY standing waves or by boulders and rocks.

Recreational_Slide An amusement structure consistingOF a smooth, usually inclined, surface or track for 

sliding.

Recreational_Slide An amusement structure consisting of a smooth, usually inclined, 

surface or track 

usedFOR sliding.

Reef A chain of rocks or coral (is)AT, (is)NEAR the surface of the water.

Reservation Bounded land set_asideFOR a particular purpose, generally having certain use 

restrictions.

Reservoir A constructed basin formedTO contain water or other liquids.

Rest_Site A roadside area usually having 

facilities 

(intended)FOR people and/or vehicles.

Ridge A long and narrow upland with steep sides.

Road An open way usedFOR the passage of vehicles.

Rock A concreted mass (composed)OF stony material.

Route A designated path (goes)THROUGH a road network.

Runway/Apron/

Taxiway

An area (is)ON land used by aircraft for takeoff, landing, parking or 

access to runways.
18 An Analysis of Spatial Relation Predicates in U.S. Geological Survey Feature Definitions

Appendix 1. Predicate terms in Digital Line Graph (DLG) standard feature definitions.—Continued

[The data analyzed in this table is based on the DLG standard. The text from the original documents was changed as little as possible and only for research 

purposes. As a result, the glossary definitions may appear to be breaking rules of grammar, but were arranged to help clarify semantic meanings. Feature type 

terms are listed in alphabetical order. Verbs appear in lowercase and prepositions appear in uppercase fonts. Inferred terms are presented within parentheses.

--, no data]

Term Subject Predicate Object

Runway/Apron/

Taxiway

An area on land usedBY aircraft for takeoff, landing, parking or access to 

runways.

Runway/Apron/

Taxiway

An area on land usedFOR takeoff, landing, parking or access to runways.

Sea/Ocean The great body of salt water that covers much of the earth.

Sewage_Disposal_

Plant

A group of structures functioningAS a unit used for the disposal of domestic water-born 

waste.

Sewage_Disposal_

Plant

A group of structures functioning 

as a unit 

usedFOR the disposal of domestic water-born waste.

Shopping_Center A group of structures usedFOR the sale of products and services.

Shoreline A naturally occurring line of contact (is)between a body of water and the land.

Shrubland Area coveredWITH plants that have persistent woody stems and a relatively low growth habit, and that generally produce 

several basal shoots instead of a single shoot.

Sink/Rise The place at which a stream disappears underground or reappears at 

the surface 

(is)IN a karst area.

Sink/Rise A stream disappears_undergroundAT, reappears_

at_the_surfaceAT, 

the place.

Ski_Jump An inclined structure consistingOF a track from which snow skiers vault.

Ski_Jump snow skiers vaultFROM an inclined structure consisting of a track. 

Snag/Stump A firmly attached stem or trunk of 

a tree 

(is)NEAR the surface of water.

Sounding The measured_depthOF, 

chartered_depthOF

water below the hydrographic datum.

Sounding_Datum_

Line

bathymetric contours are referencedTO a line representing the tidal datum. 

Special_Survey_

Area

An area of land (is)WITHIN the original holdings secured by the Federal Government (within Public Land states), subdivided by 

surveys that involve unusual applications of, or 

departures from, the rectangular system. The subdivided surveys often carry out the provisions of a 

special legislative act.

Special_Survey_

Area

An area of land within the original 

holdings secured by the Federal 

Government 

(is)WITHIN Public Land states, subdivided by surveys that 

involve unusual applications of, or departures from, 

the rectangular system. The subdivided surveys often 

carry out the provisions of a special legislative act.

Special_Survey_

Area

An area of land within the original 

holdings secured by the Federal 

Government (within Public Land 

states), subdivided by surveys that 

involve unusual

applicationsOF, 

departuresFROM

the rectangular system. The subdivided surveys often 

carry out the provisions of a special legislative act.
Appendixes 19

Appendix 1. Predicate terms in Digital Line Graph (DLG) standard feature definitions.—Continued

[The data analyzed in this table is based on the DLG standard. The text from the original documents was changed as little as possible and only for research 

purposes. As a result, the glossary definitions may appear to be breaking rules of grammar, but were arranged to help clarify semantic meanings. Feature type 

terms are listed in alphabetical order. Verbs appear in lowercase and prepositions appear in uppercase fonts. Inferred terms are presented within parentheses.

--, no data]

Term Subject Predicate Object

Special_Survey_

Area

An area of land within the original 

holdings secured by the Federal 

Government (within Public Land 

states), subdivided by surveys that 

involve unusual applications of, or 

departures from, the rectangular system. The subdivided surveys often 

carry_out_provisionsOFa special legislative act.

Special_Survey_

Area

An area of land within the original 

holdings 

securedBY the Federal Government (within Public Land states), 

subdivided by surveys that involve unusual applications of, or departures from, the rectangular system. 

The subdivided surveys often carry out the provisions 

of a special legislative act.

Special_Survey_

Area

An area of land within the original 

holdings secured by the Federal 

Government (within Public Land 

states), 

subdividedBY surveys that involve unusual applications of, or 

departures from, the rectangular system. The subdivided surveys often carry out the provisions of a 

special legislative act.

Special_Use_Zone An area WHERE distinctive types of maritime activities occur.

Special_Use_Zone Distinctive types of maritime 

activities 

occur(AT) an area.

Special_Use_

Zone_Limit

The limit of an area usedFOR distinctive types of maritime activities.

Spillway A * * * passage constructedFOR surplus water to run over or around a dam.

Spillway A constructed passage for surplus 

water to 

runOVER, 

runAROUND

a dam.

Sports_Site A collection of facilities (open areas, 

structures)

functioningAS a unit for the purpose of holding sporting events and 

activities.

Sports_Site Collection of facilities (open areas, 

structures) functioning as a unit

usedFOR the purpose of holding sporting events and activities.

Spot_Elevation A point with a measured vertical 

position of less than third order 

accuracy, 

measured_relativeTO a reference datum.

Spring/Seep A place where water issuesFROM the ground naturally.

State/Territory First order division (is)OF a nation.

Stream/River A body (composed)OF flowing water.

Submerged_Stream An old river course inundatedBY an impounded water body.

Substation An ancillary facility (is)ALONG a powerline route for transforming electrical current.

Substation An ancillary facility along a powerline route (used)FOR transforming electrical current.

Survey_Corner A survey location that was originally establishedFOR the purpose of referencing and/or defining the limits 

of a survey.

Survey_Corner A survey location that was originally established for the purpose of referencing_limitsOF, 

defining_limitsOF

a survey.

Survey_Line The limiting line (is)BETWEEN public-land and/or private subdivisions.

Swamp/Marsh A noncultivated, vegetated area 

that is inundated or saturated for 

a significant part of the year. The 

vegetation is

adaptedFOR life in saturated soil conditions.
20 An Analysis of Spatial Relation Predicates in U.S. Geological Survey Feature Definitions

Appendix 1. Predicate terms in Digital Line Graph (DLG) standard feature definitions.—Continued

[The data analyzed in this table is based on the DLG standard. The text from the original documents was changed as little as possible and only for research 

purposes. As a result, the glossary definitions may appear to be breaking rules of grammar, but were arranged to help clarify semantic meanings. Feature type 

terms are listed in alphabetical order. Verbs appear in lowercase and prepositions appear in uppercase fonts. Inferred terms are presented within parentheses.

--, no data]

Term Subject Predicate Object

Swamp/Marsh A noncultivated, vegetated area 

that is

inundatedFOR, 

saturdatedFOR

a significant part of the year. The vegetation is 

adapted for life in saturated soil conditions.

Tank A large container usedFOR storage.

Terrace A step-like surface (is)BETWEEN higher and lower ground.

Tower A tall framework or structure, the 

height of which is

requiredBY its function.

Traffic_Inspection_FacilityAn area having facilities (used)TO examine pedestrian and vehicular traffic and/or cargo.

Traffic_Inspection_FacilityAn area HAVING facilities to examine pedestrian and vehicular traffic 

and/or cargo.

Trail A cleared path, beaten track, or 

improved surface, as

(going)THROUGH woods or wilderness, not usually trafficked by 

vehicles because of width, seasonal conditions, or 

access restrictions.

Trail A cleared path, beaten track, or 

improved surface, as through woods 

or wilderness, not usually 

traffickedBY vehicles because of width, seasonal conditions, or 

access restrictions.

Transmission_Line A system of wires that transmitsOVER distance.

Trees An extensive area OF land covered with woody perennial plants having a 

self-supporting main stem or trunk, a definite crown 

and usually reaching a mature height of more than 6 

feet.

Trees An extensive area of land coveredWITH woody perennial plants having a self-supporting main 

stem or trunk, a definite crown and usually reaching a 

mature height of more than 6 feet.

Tunnel An underground or 

underwater

passage.

Tunnel_Entrance Opening that affords_entryTO an underground or underwater passage.

Turntable A rotating platform with railway 

tracks 

usedFOR turning locomotives or cars.

Underpass The grade separation where part or 

all of one feature instance

isABOVE part or all of another feature instance.

Valley An elongated depression (is)IN the earth’s surface which generally slopes from one 

end to the other.

Valley An elongated depression in the 

earth’s surface which generally 

slopesFROM one end.

Valley An elongated depression in the 

earth’s surface which generally 

slopes from one end 

slopesTO the other.

Wall An upright structure of masonry, 

wood, plaster, or other building 

material

servingTO enclose, divide, or protect an area.

Wash The usually dry portion of a stream 

bed that 

contains water only during or after a local rainstorm or heavy 

snowmelt.

Water_Intake/

Outflow

Water entersTHROUGH, 

exitsTHROUGH

a conduit structure.

Watercourse A named path (goes)THROUGH a drainage network.
Appendixes 21

Appendix 1. Predicate terms in Digital Line Graph (DLG) standard feature definitions.—Continued

[The data analyzed in this table is based on the DLG standard. The text from the original documents was changed as little as possible and only for research 

purposes. As a result, the glossary definitions may appear to be breaking rules of grammar, but were arranged to help clarify semantic meanings. Feature type 

terms are listed in alphabetical order. Verbs appear in lowercase and prepositions appear in uppercase fonts. Inferred terms are presented within parentheses.

--, no data]

Term Subject Predicate Object

Waterfall A vertical or near vertical descent 

of water 

(descends)OVER step or ledge in the bed of a river.

Waterfall A vertical or near vertical descent of 

water over a step or ledge 

(is)IN the bed of a river.

Well A pit or hole dug or bored into the 

earth 

(used)FOR the extraction of oil, water, other fluids, or gases.

Well A pit or hole dugINTO, boredINTO the earth for the extraction of oil, water, other fluids, 

or gases.

Well_Field An area WHERE petroleum and/or natural gas is or was removed from 

the earth.

Well_Field An area where petroleum and/or 

natural gas is or was 

removedFROM the earth.

Wharf Vessels may be berthedON the one side only.

Wharf Vessels may be berthedTO the shoreline. 

Wharf A structure with its longest axis builtPARALLEL_TO the shoreline to which vessels may be berthed on one 

side only.

Windmill A mill or other machine that runs on 

the energy 

generatedBY a wheel of adjustable blades or flats rotated by the 

wind.

Windmill A mill or other machine that runs on 

the energy generated by a wheel of 

adjustable blades or flats 

rotatedBY the wind.

Windmill A mill or other machine that runsON the energy generated by a wheel of adjustable blades 

or flats rotated by the wind.

Wreck The hulk or the ruins of a disabled 

vessel which is

attachedTO, foulOF the bottom or cast up on the shore.

Wreck hulk or the ruins of a disabled vessel 

which is attached to or foul of the 

bottom or 

castUP, castON the shore.
22 An Analysis of Spatial Relation Predicates in U.S. Geological Survey Feature Definitions

Appendix 2. Predicate terms in USGS Geonames standard feature definitions.—Continued

[The data analyzed in this table is based on the Geonames standard. The text from the original documents was changed as little as possible and only for 

research purposes. As a result, the glossary definitions may appear to be breaking rules of grammar, but were arranged to help clarify semantic meanings. 

Feature type terms are listed in alphabetical order. Verbs appear in lowercase and prepositions appear in uppercase fonts. Inferred terms are presented within 

parentheses. --, no data]

Term Subject Predicate Object

Airport Manmade facility maintainedFOR the use of aircraft (airfield, airstrip, landing field, landing strip). 

Arch Natural arch-like openingIN a rock mass (bridge, natural bridge, sea arch).

Area Any one of several areally extensive 

natural features

not_includedIN other categories (badlands, barren, delta, fan, garden). 

Arroyo Water may occasionally flowTHROUGH watercourse or channel.

Bar Natural accumulation of sand, gravel, or 

alluvium

formingEMBANKMENT (ledge, reef, sandbar, shoal, spit). 

Basin Natural depression or relatively low area enclosedBY higher land (amphitheater, cirque, pit, sink). 

Bay A part of a body of water; a body of 

water partly surrounded by land (arm, 

bight, cove, estuary, gulf, inlet, sound). 

enclosedBY indentation of a coastline or shoreline.

Beach The sloping shore (is)ALONG a body of water that is washed by waves or tides and 

is usually covered by sand or gravel (coast, shore, 

strand). 

Beach The sloping shore (is)ALONG a body of water.

Beach The sloping shore along a body of water 

that is washed by waves or tides and is 

usually

coveredBY sand or gravel (coast, shore, strand). 

Beach The sloping shore along a body of water 

that is

washedBY waves or tides and is usually covered by sand or 

gravel (coast, shore, strand). 

Bench Area of relatively level land (is)ON the flank of an elevation such as a hill, ridge, or mountain where the slope of the land rises on one side and 

descends on the opposite side (level). 

Bench Area of relatively level land on the flank 

of an elevation such as a hill, ridge, or 

mountain where the slope of the land 

rises on one side and 

descendsON the opposite side (level).

Bench Area of relatively level land on the flank 

of an elevation such as a hill, ridge, or 

mountain where the slope of the land

risesON one side and descends on the opposite side (level). 

Bend -- [curve]IN the course of a stream and (or) the land within the 

curve; a curve in a linear body of water (bottom, loop, 

meander). 

Bend A [curve]IN a linear body of water (bottom, loop, meander). 

Bridge Manmade structure carryingACROSS a body of water or depression (causeway, overpass, 

trestle). 

Building A manmade structure with walls and a 

roof

(is)FOR protection of people and (or) materials, but not including church, hospital, or school. 

Canal Manmade waterway usedBY watercraft.

Canal Manmade waterway usedFOR drainage, irrigation, mining, or water power (ditch, 

lateal).

Cape Projection of land extendingINTO a body of water (lea, neck, peninsula, point).

Cave Natural underground passageway or 

chamber, or a hollowed out 

[cavity]IN the side of a cliff (cavern, grotto).

Cemetery A place or area (used)FOR burying the dead (burial, burying ground, grave, 

memorial garden).
Appendixes 23

Appendix 2. Predicate terms in USGS Geonames standard feature definitions.—Continued

[The data analyzed in this table is based on the Geonames standard. The text from the original documents was changed as little as possible and only for 

research purposes. As a result, the glossary definitions may appear to be breaking rules of grammar, but were arranged to help clarify semantic meanings. 

Feature type terms are listed in alphabetical order. Verbs appear in lowercase and prepositions appear in uppercase fonts. Inferred terms are presented within 

parentheses. --, no data]

Term Subject Predicate Object

Census A statistical area delineated locally 

specifically for the tabulation of Census 

Bureau data (census designated place, 

census county division, unorganized territory, various types of American Indian/

Alaska Native statistical areas).

[distinct]FROM civil and populated place.

Census A statistical area delineatedFOR the tabulation of Census Bureau data (census designated place, census county division, unorganized territory, various types of American Indian/Alaska Native 

statistical areas).

Channel Water flowsTHROUGH linear deep part of a body of water.

Channel Linear deep part of a body of water 

through which the main volume of water 

flows and is frequently

usedAS a route for watercraft (passage, reach, strait, thoroughfare, throughfare). 

Church Building usedFOR religious worship (chapel, mosque, synagogue, tabernacle, temple). 

Civil A political division formed for administrative purposes (borough, county, 

incorporated place, municipio, parish, 

town, township). 

[distinct]FROM census and populated place.

Civil A political division formedFOR administrative purposes (borough, county, incorporated place, municipio, parish, town, township).

Cliff -- (is)[STEEP] slope (bluff, crag, head, headland, nose, palisades, 

precipice, promontory, rim, rimrock). 

Crater Circular-shaped depression (is)AT the summit of a volcanic cone or one on the surface 

of the land caused by the impact of a meteorite; a 

manmade depression caused by an explosion (caldera, 

lua). 

Crater Circular-shaped depression at the summit of a volcanic cone or one(is)ON the surface of the land caused by the impact of a meteorite; a manmade depression caused by an explosion 

(caldera, lua). 

Crater Circular-shaped depression at the summit of a volcanic cone or one on the 

surface of the land 

causedBY the impact of a meteorite; a manmade depression 

caused by an explosion (caldera, lua). 

Crater A manmade depression causedBY an explosion (caldera, lua).

Crossing A place where two or more routes of 

transportation

formINTERSECTION (overpass, underpass).

Dam Water barrier or embankment builtACROSS the course of a stream or into a body of water to control and (or) impound the flow of water (breakwater, 

dike, jetty). 

Dam Water barrier or embankment built 

across the course of a stream or into a 

body of water to 

controlFLOW of water (breakwater, dike, jetty).

Falls Perpendicular or very steep fallIN the course of a stream (cascade, cataract, waterfall).

Flat Relative level area (is)WITHIN a region of greater relief (clearing, glade, playa). 

Forest Bounded area of woods, forest, or 

grassland

(is)[UNDER_ADMINISTRATION_OF]a political agency (see “woods”) (national forest, 

national grasslands, State forest). 
24 An Analysis of Spatial Relation Predicates in U.S. Geological Survey Feature Definitions

Appendix 2. Predicate terms in USGS Geonames standard feature definitions.—Continued

[The data analyzed in this table is based on the Geonames standard. The text from the original documents was changed as little as possible and only for 

research purposes. As a result, the glossary definitions may appear to be breaking rules of grammar, but were arranged to help clarify semantic meanings. 

Feature type terms are listed in alphabetical order. Verbs appear in lowercase and prepositions appear in uppercase fonts. Inferred terms are presented within 

parentheses. --, no data]

Term Subject Predicate Object

Gap Low point or openingBEWTEEN hills or mountains or in a ridge or mountain range 

(col, notch, pass, saddle, water gap, wind gap). 

Gap Low point or openingIN a ridge or mountain range (col, notch, pass, saddle, 

water gap, wind gap). 

Glacier An area of relatively permanent snow 

or ice

(is)ON the top or side of a mountain or mountainous area 

(icefield, ice patch, snow patch). 

Glacier Body or stream of ice movingFROM an area of accumulation.

Gut Relatively small coastal waterway connecting(BETWEEN) larger bodies of water or other waterways (creek, inlet, 

slough).

Harbor Sheltered area of water (is)WHERE ships or other watercraft can anchor or dock (hono, 

port, roads, roadstead). 

Hospital Building (is)WHERE the sick or injured may receive medical or surgical 

attention (infirmary).

Island Area of dry or relatively dry land surroundedBY water or low wetland (archipelago, atoll, cay, hammock, hummock, isla, isle, key, moku, rock). 

Isthmus Narrow section of land (is)IN a body of water connecting two larger land areas.

Isthmus Narrow section of land in a body of 

water

connecting(BETWEEN) two larger land areas.

Lake Natural body of inland water (enclosedBY) land.

Lava Formations resulting from the consolidation of molten rock(is)ON the surface of the Earth (kepula, lava flow).

Lava Formations resultingFROM the consolidation of molten rock on the surface of the 

Earth (kepula, lava flow). 

Levee Natural or manmade embankment flanking(ALONGSIDE) a stream (bank, berm).

Locale Place at which there (used)(FOR) human activity; it does not include populated places, 

mines, and dams (battlefield, crossroad, camp, farm, 

ghost town, landing, railroad siding, ranch, ruins, site, 

station, windmill). 

Military Place or facility usedFOR various aspects of or relating to military activity.

Mine Commercial minerals are or were removedFROM place or area—the Earth; not including oilfield (pit, 

quarry, shaft). 

Oilfield Petroleum is or was removedFROM area—the Earth.

Park Place or area set_asideFOR recreation or preservation of a cultural or natural 

resource and under some form of government administration; not including National or State forests or 

Reserves (national historical landmark, national park, 

State park, wilderness area). 

Pillar A (is)[VERTICAL] natural rock formation (chimney, monument, pinnacle, 

pohaku, rock tower).

Populated 

Place

Usually isNOT_INCORPORATEDand has no legal boundaries. Distinct from census and 

civil classes.

Post Office An official facility of the U.S. Postal 

Service

usedFOR processing and distributing mail and other postal 

material. 

Rapids Fast-flowing sectionOF a stream , often shallow and with exposed rock or 

boulders (riffle, ripple).
Appendixes 25

Appendix 2. Predicate terms in USGS Geonames standard feature definitions.—Continued

[The data analyzed in this table is based on the Geonames standard. The text from the original documents was changed as little as possible and only for 

research purposes. As a result, the glossary definitions may appear to be breaking rules of grammar, but were arranged to help clarify semantic meanings. 

Feature type terms are listed in alphabetical order. Verbs appear in lowercase and prepositions appear in uppercase fonts. Inferred terms are presented within 

parentheses. --, no data]

Term Subject Predicate Object

Reserve A tract of land set_asideFOR a specific use (does not include forests, civil divisions, 

parks).

Ridge Elevation with a narrow, elongated crest 

which can be

partOF a hill or mountain (crest, cuesta, escarpment, hogback, 

lae, rim, spur). 

School Building or group of buildings usedAS an institution for study, teaching, and learning (academy, college, high school, university). 

Sea Large body (composed)OF salt water (gulf, ocean).

Slope A gently inclined partOF the Earth’s surface (grade, pitch).

Spring Place (is)WHERE underground water flows naturally to the surface of 

the Earth (seep).

Spring Place where underground water flowsTO the surface of the Earth (seep).

Stream Linear body of water flowingON the Earth’s surface (anabranch, awawa, bayou, branch, 

brook, creek, distributary, fork, kill, pup, rio, river, 

run, slough). 

Summit Prominent elevation risingABOVE the surrounding level of the Earth’s surface; does 

not include pillars, ridges, or ranges (ahu, berg, bald, 

butte, cerro, colina, cone, cumbre, dome, head, hill, 

horn, knob, knoll, mauna, mesa, mesita, mound, 

mount, mountain, peak, puu, rock, sugarloaf, table, 

volcano).

Summit Prominent elevation risingABOVE the surrounding level of the Earth’s surface; does 

not include pillars, ridges, or ranges (ahu, berg, bald, 

butte, cerro, colina, cone, cumbre, dome, head, hill, 

horn, knob, knoll, mauna, mesa, mesita, mound, 

mount, mountain, peak, puu, rock, sugarloaf, table, 

volcano). 

Swamp Poorly drained wetland, fresh or saltwater, wooded or grassy, possiblycoveredWITH open water (bog, cienega, marais, marsh, pocosin). 

Tower A manmade structure higherTHAN its diameter, generally used for observation, storage, 

or electronic transmission.

Tower A manmade structure, higher than its 

diameter, generally

usedFOR observation, storage, or electronic transmission.

Trail Route for passage (going)FROM one point to another; does not include roads or highways (jeep trail, path, ski trail).

Tunnel Linear underground passageway openAT both ends.

Valley Linear depression (is)IN the Earth’s surface that generally slopes from one end 

to the other (barranca, canyon, chasm, cove, draw, 

glen, gorge, gulch, gulf, hollow, ravine). 

Valley Linear depression in the Earth’s surface 

that generally 

slopesFROM one end to the other (barranca, canyon, chasm, cove, 

draw, glen, gorge, gulch, gulf, hollow, ravine). 

Well Manmade shaft or hole (is)IN the Earth’s surface used to obtain fluid or gaseous 

materials. 

Well Manmade shaft or hole in the Earth’s 

surface 

usedTO obtain fluid or gaseous materials. 

Woods Small area coveredWITH a dense growth of trees; does not include an area of 

trees under the administration of a political agency 

(see “forest”). 
26 An Analysis of Spatial Relation Predicates in U.S. Geological Survey Feature Definitions

Appendix 3. Predicate terms in Spatial Data Transfer Standard (SDTS) feature definitions.—Continued

[The data analyzed in this table is based on the SDTS standard. The text from the original documents was changed as little as possible and only for research 

purposes. As a result, the glossary definitions may appear to be breaking rules of grammar, but were arranged to help clarify semantic meanings. Feature type 

terms are listed in alphabetical order. Verbs appear in lowercase and prepositions appear in uppercase fonts. Inferred terms are presented within parentheses.

--, no data]

Term Subject Predicate Object

Airport A facility, either (is)ON land or water, where aircraft can take off and land; 

usually consists of hard-surfaced landing strips, a 

control tower, hangars, and accommodations for passengers and cargo.

Airport A facility, either on land or water, (is)WHERE aircraft can take off and land; usually consists of 

hard-surfaced landing strips, a control tower, hangars, and accommodations for passengers and cargo. 

Airport A facility, either on land or water, 

where aircraft can take off and 

land; usually 

consistsOF hard-surfaced landing strips, a control tower, hangars, and accomodations for passengers and cargo.

Alluvium All unconsolidated fragmental 

material

laid_downBY a stream.

Ammunition Dump A military installation usedFOR the storage of explosives and other warlike stores.

Antenna A metallic appartatus forSENDING, 

forRECEIVING

electro-magnetic waves.

Antenna_Array A groupOF directional antennas.

Approachway The airspace that aircraft approachTHROUGH, 

leaveTHROUGH

a landing area.

Arch A curved structure supportsOVER an open space.

Backwater an area of calm water unaffectedBY the current of a stream.

Bar A submerged or emerged mound, 

ridge, or succession of ridges of 

sand or other material 

extendingACROSS the bottom, and which may obstruct navigation.

Basin Any bowl-shaped depression (is)IN the surface of the land or ocean floor.

Beach The gently sloping shore which is 

washed by waves or tides, especially the parts 

coveredBY sand or pebbles.

Beach The gently sloping shore which isWASHED by waves or tides, especially the parts covered by 

sand or pebbles.

Beacon A fixed signal, mark, or light and 

associated facilities 

erectedFOR the guidance of mariners or airplane pilots.

Berth The placeWHERE a ship lies when at anchor secured to a pier or wharf.

Bottom The portion of the ground surface 

which 

liesBELOW water.

Boundary A nonphysical line indicatingLIMIT, 

indicatingEXTENT

of an area or territory.

Breakers A zone or region of waves breaking into foam as they advanceTOWARD the shore.

Breakers A zone or region of waves breakingINTO foam as they advance toward the shore.

Breakwater A structure builtTO break the force of waves so as to protect a beach, 

harbor, or other waterfront facility.

Bridge A structure erected to carryOVER a depression or obstacle to carry traffic or some 

facility such as a pipeline.

Bridge A structure erectedOVER a depression or obstacle to carry traffic or some 

facility such as a pipeline.
Appendixes 27

Appendix 3. Predicate terms in Spatial Data Transfer Standard (SDTS) feature definitions.—Continued

[The data analyzed in this table is based on the SDTS standard. The text from the original documents was changed as little as possible and only for research 

purposes. As a result, the glossary definitions may appear to be breaking rules of grammar, but were arranged to help clarify semantic meanings. Feature type 

terms are listed in alphabetical order. Verbs appear in lowercase and prepositions appear in uppercase fonts. Inferred terms are presented within parentheses.

--, no data]

Term Subject Predicate Object

Bridge_SuperstructureThose elements of the bridge 

structure which

areABOVE the uppermost deck.

Building A permanent (is)WALLED, (is) 

ROOFED

construction.

Building_Complex A group of buldings and associated facilitiesfunctioningTOGETHER as a unit.

Buoy A float mooredIN, anchoredIN water.

Cableway A conveyor system in which carries units run on wire cables[strung]BETWEEN supports.

Cableway A conveyor system in which carrier units runON wire cables [strung] between supports.

Campground The ground or area on which 

tents, huts, etc. are

erectedFOR temporary shelter.

Cape A relatively extensive land area 

jutting into a water body, which 

prominently marks a 

changeIN, 

interruptionIN

the coastal trend of that water body.

Cape A relatively extensive land area juttingINTO a water body, which prominently marks a change in 

or interrupts notably the coastal trend of that water 

body.

Catchment A natural drainage area which 

may coincide with a river basin, in 

which the divides 

directinto a river.

Catchment An area drainedBY an single watercourse.

Cave A (is)NATURALLY_

FORMED, (is)SUBTERRANEAN, (is)

OPEN

area or chamber.

Cemetary A placeFOR burying the dead.

Chimney A structure containingPASSAGE, 

containingFLUE

for discharging smoke and gases from combustion.

Chimney A structure containing a passage 

or flue

forDISCHARGING smoke and gases from combustion.

Cirque A deep natural hollow (is)NEAR the crest of a mountain.

Clearing An open area (is)IN a forest.

Cliff A (is)HIGH, (is)STEEP, 

(is)OVERHANGING

face of rock.

Coast The general region of indefinite 

width that

extendsFROM the sea inland to the first major change in terrain 

features.

Coast The general region of indefinite 

width that 

extendsTO the first major change in terrain features.

Continent Earth’s surface is dividedINTO one of the large, unbroken masses of land.

Control_Point A point of (is)KNOWN location.

Crater Circular-shaped depression atSUMMIT of a volcanic cone or on the surface of the land.

Crater Circular-shaped depression at the 

summit of a volcanic cone or

onSURFACE of the land.
28 An Analysis of Spatial Relation Predicates in U.S. Geological Survey Feature Definitions

Appendix 3. Predicate terms in Spatial Data Transfer Standard (SDTS) feature definitions.—Continued

[The data analyzed in this table is based on the SDTS standard. The text from the original documents was changed as little as possible and only for research 

purposes. As a result, the glossary definitions may appear to be breaking rules of grammar, but were arranged to help clarify semantic meanings. Feature type 

terms are listed in alphabetical order. Verbs appear in lowercase and prepositions appear in uppercase fonts. Inferred terms are presented within parentheses.

--, no data]

Term Subject Predicate Object

Crevasse A deep fissure (is)IN snow or ice.

Crib A crate-like construction of logs 

or beams, usually 

filledWITH stones, placed in water as a free standing mooring 

device or as the foundation of a pier or wharf.

Crib A crate-like construction of logs 

or beams, usually filled with 

stones, 

placedIN water as a free standing mooring device or as the 

foundation of a pier or wharf.

Cropland Land that (is)PLOWED, (is)

CULTIVATED.

--

Cut An excavation of the Earth’s 

surface to provide

passageFOR a road, railway, canal, etc.

Dam A barrier constructedACROSS a watercourse to control the flow or raise the level of 

water.

Dam A barrier constructed across a 

watercourse to

controlFLOW, 

raiseLEVEL

of water.

Delta A tract of alluvium formed at the 

mouth of a river where the deposition of some of its load exceeds its 

rate of removal, 

crossedBY the divergent channels (distributaries) of the river.

Delta A tract of alluvium formedAT the mouth of a river where the deposition of some of 

its load exceeds its rate of removal.

Demilitariazed_Zone An area (isWHERE) military activity is prohibited.

Desert A region rendered_barrenBY environmental extremes, especially by low rainfall.

Dry_Dock An artificial basin fittedWITH gate or caisson into which a vessel may be floated 

and from which the water may be pumped out to 

expose the bottom of the vessel. 

Dry_Dock A vessel may be floatedINTO and from which the water may be pumped out to 

expose the bottom of the vessel.

Dry_Dock Water may be pumpedFROM to expose the bottom of the vessel. 

Dumping_Ground Area designatedFOR dumping various types of materials.

Earth_Surface The outermost surfaceOF the land and waters of the planet.

Embankment A raised structure (composed)OF earth, ground, etc.

Exhibition_Ground A public area containing buildings, paddocks, etc.,(is)FOR the display of livestock, agricultural produce, 

machinery, etc. 

Farm A tract of crop or grazing land, 

as well as the group of buildings 

with and often

(is)SURROUNDING a farmhouse, including barns, sheds, and other outbuildings, used for agricultural production.

Farm A tract of crop or grazing land, 

as well as the group of buildings 

with and often surrounding a 

farmhouse, including barns, sheds, 

and other outbuildings, 

usedFOR agricultural production.

Fault A fracture (is)IN the Earth’s crust with displacement on one side of 

the fracture relative to the other.

Fence An enclosure or barrier madeOF wire, rails, slats or other relatively light material, as 

opposed to a wall which is of stone or other heavy 

material. 
Appendixes 29

Appendix 3. Predicate terms in Spatial Data Transfer Standard (SDTS) feature definitions.—Continued

[The data analyzed in this table is based on the SDTS standard. The text from the original documents was changed as little as possible and only for research 

purposes. As a result, the glossary definitions may appear to be breaking rules of grammar, but were arranged to help clarify semantic meanings. Feature type 

terms are listed in alphabetical order. Verbs appear in lowercase and prepositions appear in uppercase fonts. Inferred terms are presented within parentheses.

--, no data]

Term Subject Predicate Object

Filtration_Beds An area (is)CONTAINING layers of material used to filter or aerate water. 

Filtration_Beds An area containing layers of 

material

usedTO filter or aerate water.

Fish_Hatchery A facility usedFOR the spawning of fish which are subsequently used to 

stock lakes and streams.

Fish_Ladder A facility consisting of a series 

of small pools each one slightly 

higher than the preceding, 

builtAROUND a dam to enable fish to make their way upstream. 

Fish_Ladder A facility consistingOF a series of small pools each one slightly higher than 

the preceding, built around a dam to enable fish to 

make their way upstream. 

Fish_Trap A device usedTO catch fish.

Fishing_Ground A water area (usedFOR) fishing.

Flat A level tract lyingBELOW the surface of water, or alternately covered and left 

bare by the tide.

Flood_Plain An area which is subjectTO periodic flooding.

Ford The shallow partOF a river which can be easily crossed.

Fort Place or position (is)FORTIFIED --

Fumarole A hole (is)IN the Earth’s crust from which steam and gases are 

emitted. 

Fumarole Steam and gases emittedFROM a hole in the Earth’s crust. 

Gantry A frame structure raisedON side supports so as to span over or around 

something.

Gantry A frame structure raised on side 

supports so as to

spanOVER, 

spanAROUND

something.

Gap Low point or opening (is)BETWEEN hills or mountains or in a ridge or mountain range.

Gap Low point or opening between 

hills or mountains or

(is)IN a ridge or mountain range.

Gate A structure that mayBLOCK an entrance or passageway.

Geyser An intermittent fountain of hot 

water ejected with force from a 

hole

(is)IN the Earth’s crust.

Geyser An intermittent fountain of hot 

water

ejectedFROM a hole in the Earth’s crust.

Golf_Course An area (is)FOR the playing of golf.

Grandstand A usually roofed structure (is)FOR viewing events and having tiers of seats for 

spectators. 

Grassland An uncultivated areaOF grass or grass-like vegetation.

Grave A place (is)WITHIN a graveyard used for burial.

Grave A place within a graveyard usedFOR burial.

Ground The solid portionOF the Earth up to and including the ground surface.

Ground_Surface The land surfaceOF the Earth, both exposed and underwater.

Guard_Rail A strong fence or barrier to 

prevent vehicles from leaving the 

roadway, or

(used)FOR people’s safety.
30 An Analysis of Spatial Relation Predicates in U.S. Geological Survey Feature Definitions

Appendix 3. Predicate terms in Spatial Data Transfer Standard (SDTS) feature definitions.—Continued

[The data analyzed in this table is based on the SDTS standard. The text from the original documents was changed as little as possible and only for research 

purposes. As a result, the glossary definitions may appear to be breaking rules of grammar, but were arranged to help clarify semantic meanings. Feature type 

terms are listed in alphabetical order. Verbs appear in lowercase and prepositions appear in uppercase fonts. Inferred terms are presented within parentheses.

--, no data]

Term Subject Predicate Object

Guard_Rail A strong fence or barrier (used)TO prevent vehicles from leaving the roadway, or for 

people’s safety.

Harbor An area of water (is)WHERE ships, planes or other watercraft can anchor or dock.

Headwaters The upper_partOF a river system, denoting the upper basin and source 

streams of a river.

Hedge A dense growth of shrubbery plantedAS a fence or boundary.

Helipad A transportation structure usedFOR the landing of helicopters.

Hopper A top loading funnel-shaped 

structure

(used)FOR temporary storage of loose materials which will be 

dispensed from its bottom.

Hopper A top loading funnel-shaped structure for temporary storage of loose 

materials which will be

dispensedFROM its bottom.

Ice_Field Large area (composed)OF permanent sea or land ice.

Ice_Rink A surface (composed)OF ice. 

Ice_Rink A surface of ice (used)FOR ice skating.

Iceberg A large mass of detached land ice (is)IN the sea or stranded in shallow water.

Indian_Reservation An area set_asideFOR the use of an indian tribe or tribes.

Inlet The sea opensINTO the land.

Inlet A lake opensINTO its shore.

Inshore_Traffic_ZoneA designated area (is)BETWEEN the landward boundary of a traffic separation scheme 

and the adjacent coast, intended for local traffic.

Inshore_Traffic_ZoneA designated area between the 

landward boundary of a traffic 

separation scheme and the adjacent coast,

intendedFOR local traffic.

Intersection The junctionOF roads or tracks.

Irrigation_System A system designedTO supply land with water.

Island Area (composed)OF dry or relatively dry land surrounded by water or low 

wetland.

Island Area of dry or relatively dry land surroundedBY water or low wetland.

Island_Cluster A group (composed)OF islands.

Isthmus Narrow section of land in a body 

of water 

(is)CONNECTING two larger land areas.

Isthmus Narrow section of land (is)IN a body of water connecting two larger land areas.

Lagoon The sheet of water (is)BETWEEN an offshore reef, especially of coral and mainland.

Lagoon The sheet of water (is)WITHIN a ring or horseshoe shaped atoll.

Lagoon Sand or shingle banks (isBETWEEN) a sheet of salt water separated from the open sea.

Lagoon A sheet of salt water separatedFROM the open sea by sand or shingle banks. The sheet of 

water between an offshore reef, esp. of coral and 

mainland. The sheet of water within a ring or horseshoe shaped atoll.

Lake Any standard body (composed)OF inland water.

Landing_Place A place (used)FOR loading and unloading passengers or cargo to and 

from water vessels.
Appendixes 31

Appendix 3. Predicate terms in Spatial Data Transfer Standard (SDTS) feature definitions.—Continued

[The data analyzed in this table is based on the SDTS standard. The text from the original documents was changed as little as possible and only for research 

purposes. As a result, the glossary definitions may appear to be breaking rules of grammar, but were arranged to help clarify semantic meanings. Feature type 

terms are listed in alphabetical order. Verbs appear in lowercase and prepositions appear in uppercase fonts. Inferred terms are presented within parentheses.

--, no data]

Term Subject Predicate Object

Lane A prescribed course (used)FOR ships or aircraft, or a strip delineated on a road to 

accommodate a single line of automobiles; not to be 

confused with the road itself. 

Lane A prescribed course for ships or 

aircraft, or a strip delineated on 

a road 

(used)TO accommodate a single line of automobiles; not to be 

confused with the road itself.

Lane A prescribed course for ships or 

aircraft, or a strip 

delineatedON a road to accommodate a single line of automobiles; 

not to be confused with the road itself. 

Launching_Ramp A transportation structure usedFOR launching boats.

Lock An enclosure (is)IN a water body with gates at each end to raise or lower 

vessels as they pass from one level to another.

Lock An enclosure in a water body with 

gates at each end

(used)TO raise or lower vessels as they pass from one level to 

another. 

Lock An enclosure in a water body with 

gates at each end to raise or lower 

vessels as they 

passFROM one level to another.

Marina A harbor facility for recreational 

craft

(is)WHERE supplies, repairs, and various services are available. 

Marina A harbor facility (used)FOR recreational craft where supplies, repairs, and various services are available.

Military_Base An area owned and operated by 

the government

inWHICH (isWHERE) various military activities take place.

Military_Base An area ownedBY, operatedBY the government in which various military activities 

take place. 

Military_Bunker A military strong point, usually partOF an extensive fortification.

Mine An excavation (is)IN the Earth for the purpose of extracting earth 

materials. 

Mine An excavation in the Earth forEXTRACTING earth materials. 

Mine_Field An area where explosive mines 

have been

anchoredIN, sunkIN water or buried on land. 

Mine_Field An areaWHERE explosive mines have been anchored or sunk in 

water or buried on land. 

Mine_Field An area where explosive mines 

have been anchored or sunk in 

water or

buriedON land.

Missile_Site An areaFOR housing and launching guided missiles.

Mobile_Home A trailer that isDWELLING, 

isDESIGNED

without a permanent foundation.

Mobile_Home_Park An areaFOR the parking of inhabited mobile homes.

Monument A structure erectedAS a memorial.

Mooring The placeWHERE a craft may be secured to the ground, wharf, pier, 

post, or buoy.

Mooring The place where a craft may be securedTO the ground, wharf, pier, post, or buoy.

Moraine An accumulationOF boulders, stones, or other debris carried and deposited by a glacier.
32 An Analysis of Spatial Relation Predicates in U.S. Geological Survey Feature Definitions

Appendix 3. Predicate terms in Spatial Data Transfer Standard (SDTS) feature definitions.—Continued

[The data analyzed in this table is based on the SDTS standard. The text from the original documents was changed as little as possible and only for research 

purposes. As a result, the glossary definitions may appear to be breaking rules of grammar, but were arranged to help clarify semantic meanings. Feature type 

terms are listed in alphabetical order. Verbs appear in lowercase and prepositions appear in uppercase fonts. Inferred terms are presented within parentheses.

--, no data]

Term Subject Predicate Object

Morained An accumulation of boulders, 

stones, or other debris

carriedBY, depositedBY a glacier.

Mount (is) a mountain or hill.

Mount_Range A series of (is)CONNECTED, (is)

ALIGNED

mountains or mountain ridges.

Mount_Range A seriesOF connected and aligned mountains or mountain 

ridges.

Mouth stream exitINTO, 

dischargeINTO

another stream, lake, or sea.

Mouth The exitOF, 

point_of_dischargeOF

a stream into another stream, lake, or sea.

Oasis A small, isolated, fertile or green areaIN a desert region, usually having a spring well.

Off_Road_Vehicular_AreaAn areaFOR the testing of, or use by, vehicles that are designed to 

travel across the terrain. 

Off_Road_Vehicular_AreaAn area for the testingOF, useBY vehicles that are designed to travel across the terrain. 

Offshore_Platform A raised surface locatedIN a sea.

Oil_Field An areaWHERE petroleum is or was removed from the Earth.

Oil_Field An area where petroleum is or was removedFROM the Earth.

Outdoor_Theater An outdoor area consisting of a 

stage or other focal point, and an 

areaWHERE the audience can be seated.

Outdoor_Theater An outdoor area consistingOF a stage or other focal point, and an area where the 

audience can be seated. 

Overfalls Short breaking waves occurring 

when a current passes over a shoal 

or other submarine obstruction or 

MEETS a contrary wind or current.

Overfalls Short breaking waves occuringWHEN a current passes over a shoal or other submarine 

obstruction or meets a contrary current or wind. 

Overfalls Short breaking waves occurring 

when a current 

passesOVER a shoal or other submarine obstruction or meets a 

contrary current or wind.

Overrun/Stopway An area beyond the take-off 

runway 

able_toSUPPORT an airplane during an aborted take-off. 

Overrun/Stopway An areaBEYOND the take-off runway able to support an airplane during an aborted take-off.

Park A place or area set_asideFOR recreation or preservation of a cultural or natural 

resource. 

Parking_Area An area set_asideFOR the parking of motor vehicles.

Peak The summitOF a mountain.

Peninsula A bodyOF land jutting out into and nearly surrounded by water. 

Peninsula A body of land jutting_outINTO, 

nearly_surroundedBY

water.

Pier A structure built out into the 

water, usually with its greatest 

dimension 

at_right_anglesTO the shore, forming a landing place or a place alongside which vessels can lie.
Appendixes 33

Appendix 3. Predicate terms in Spatial Data Transfer Standard (SDTS) feature definitions.—Continued

[The data analyzed in this table is based on the SDTS standard. The text from the original documents was changed as little as possible and only for research 

purposes. As a result, the glossary definitions may appear to be breaking rules of grammar, but were arranged to help clarify semantic meanings. Feature type 

terms are listed in alphabetical order. Verbs appear in lowercase and prepositions appear in uppercase fonts. Inferred terms are presented within parentheses.

--, no data]

Term Subject Predicate Object

Pier A structure built_outINTO the water, usually with its greatest dimension at right 

angles to the shore, forming a landing place or a 

place alongside which vessels can lie. 

Pier A structure built out into the 

water, usually with its greatest 

dimension at right angles to the 

shore, 

placeALONGSIDE which vessels can lie. 

Piling A set of posts forcedINTO the earth to serve as a support, as for a pier, or to 

resist lateral pressure. 

Piling A setOF posts forced into the earth to serve as a support, as 

for a pier, or to resist lateral pressure. 

Piling A set of posts forced into the earth 

to serve as a support, as for a pier, 

or

to_resist lateral pressure.

Piling A set of posts forced into the earth to_serveAS a support, as for a pier, or to resist lateral pressure. 

Pilot_Waters Areas IN_WHICH the services of a marine pilot are essential.

Pinnacle A tall, slender, spire-shaped rock projectingFROM a level or more gently sloping surface. 

Place An areaWITH definite or indefinite boundaries.

Plain A regionOF general uniform slope, comparatively level, and of 

considerable extent.

Plateau An elevated and comparatively 

level 

expanseOF land.

Plunge_Pool A hollow eroded by the force of 

the falling water 

atBASE_OF a waterfall, particularly by the eddying effect. 

Plunge_Pool A hollow erodedBY the force of the falling water at the base of a waterfall, particularly by the eddying effect. 

Polyna Any water area enclosedIN pack ice, other than a lead, not large enough to be 

called open water. When frozen over, a polyna 

becomes an ice skylight from the point of view 

of the submariner. Also called BIG CLEARING, 

CLEARING, GLADE, ICE CLEARING, POOL, 

REGIONAL CLEARING. 

Port A landing place provided with 

terminal and transfer facilities

(used)FOR loading and discharging cargo or passengers, usually 

located in a harbor. 

Port A landing place provided with 

terminal and transfer facilities for 

loading and discharging cargo or 

passengers, usually 

locatedIN a harbor.

Port A landing place providedWITH terminal and transfer facilities for loading and 

discharging cargo or passengers, usually located in 

a harbor. 

Post A long relatively slender, and 

generally round 

pieceOF wood or other material.

Pump_Out_Facility A holding_placeWHERE ship’s bilges and cargo are pumped.

Pyramid An ancient structure having a 

broad base with sides 

narrowingTOWARDS the top.

Pyramid An ancient structureHAVING a broad base with sides narrowing towards the top. 
34 An Analysis of Spatial Relation Predicates in U.S. Geological Survey Feature Definitions

Appendix 3. Predicate terms in Spatial Data Transfer Standard (SDTS) feature definitions.—Continued

[The data analyzed in this table is based on the SDTS standard. The text from the original documents was changed as little as possible and only for research 

purposes. As a result, the glossary definitions may appear to be breaking rules of grammar, but were arranged to help clarify semantic meanings. Feature type 

terms are listed in alphabetical order. Verbs appear in lowercase and prepositions appear in uppercase fonts. Inferred terms are presented within parentheses.

--, no data]

Term Subject Predicate Object

Quicksand A bed of loose sand mixed with 

water 

formingMASS that yields easily to pressure.

Quicksand A bed of loose sand mixedWITH water forming a soft, shifting mass that yields easily 

to pressure. 

Racetrack A course laid_outFOR racing.

Radar_Dome A dome shaped structure usedTO protect the antenna of a radar installation.

Radar_Reflector A device capableOF, 

intendedFOR

reflecting radar signals.

Railway A permanent way having one or 

more rails which provides a track

(used)FOR cars.

Railway_Yard An area provided with a system 

of tracks

(is)WHERE railroad trains are made up and cars are switched, 

stored, or serviced. 

Railway_Yard An area provided with a system of 

tracks where railroad trains

areMADE_UP --

Railway_Yard An area provided with a system 

of tracks where railroad trains are 

made up and cars 

areSWITCHED, 

areSTORED, 

areSERVICED

--

Railway_Yard An area providedWITH a system of tracks where railroad trains are made up 

and cars are switched, stored, or serviced. 

Rapids An area of broken, fast flowing 

water in a stream, 

(is)WHERE the slope of the bed increases (but without a prominent break of slope which might result in a waterfall), or where a gently dipping bar of harder rock 

outcrops. 

Rapids An areaOF broken, fast flowing water in a stream, where the 

slope of the bed increases (but without a prominent 

break of slope which might result in a waterfall), or 

where a gently dipping bar of harder rock outcrops. 

Reef A ridge of rocks, lying near the 

surface of the sea, which may be 

visible at low tide, but is usually 

coveredBY water.

Reef A ridge of rocks, lyingNEAR the surface of the sea, which may be visible at low 

tide, but is usually covered by water. 

Reef A ridge of rocks, lying near the 

surface of the sea, which may be 

visibleAT low tide, but is usually covered by water.

Refueling_Track Airspace designatedFOR conducting aerial refueling.

Reserve A tract of land set_asideFOR a specific use.

Restricted_Area An area of air, land, or water inWHICH (isWHERE) travel or other activities are subject to specified 

conditions or constraints.

Revetment A facing, other than a wall, of 

stone, concrete, wood, etc., 

builtTO sustain an embankment.

Ridge A long and narrow upland WITH steep sides.

Ridge_Line The line SEPARATING drainage basins.

Rig Vertical structure fittedFOR drilling or lifting operations.

Road An open way (used)FOR the passage of vehicles, persons, or animals on land.
Appendixes 35

Appendix 3. Predicate terms in Spatial Data Transfer Standard (SDTS) feature definitions.—Continued

[The data analyzed in this table is based on the SDTS standard. The text from the original documents was changed as little as possible and only for research 

purposes. As a result, the glossary definitions may appear to be breaking rules of grammar, but were arranged to help clarify semantic meanings. Feature type 

terms are listed in alphabetical order. Verbs appear in lowercase and prepositions appear in uppercase fonts. Inferred terms are presented within parentheses.

--, no data]

Term Subject Predicate Object

Rock An isolated rocky formation or 

a single large stone, usually one 

constituting a 

dangerTO navigation. It may be always submerged, always 

uncovered, or alternately covered and uncovered by 

the tide. 

Rock An isolated rocky formation or 

a single large stone, usually one 

constituting a danger to navigation. It may be always 

submergedBY, uncoveredBY, coveredBYthe tide.

Roundabout -- areaOF water subject to a routing measure restricting ship 

movement to a counter-clockwise direction. 

Roundabout Area of water subject to a routing 

measure

restrictingSHIP_MOVEMENTto a counter-clockwise direction. 

Runway A straight path usedFOR landing, taxiing, and take-off of aircraft. 

Salt_Pan An areaOF salt deposits.

Sea The great bodyOF salt water of the oceans.

Shaft A long narrow passage sunkIN the earth.

Shingle A collectionOF loose pebbles on the shore of the sea or a lake. 

Shingle A collection of loose pebbles onSHORE of the sea or a lake. 

Shipyard A yard or areaWHERE ships are built or repaired.

Shore That part of the land in immediate contact with a body of water 

including the 

areaBETWEEN high and low water lines. 

Shore That part of the land on immediate contactWITH a body of water including the area between high and 

low water lines. 

Shore That partOF the land in immediate contact with a body of water 

including the area between high and low water lines. 

Shoreline The line_of_contactBETWEENa body of water and the land. 

Sign A roadway associated feature 

which

providesINFORMATIONto people passing.

Ski_Area An area usedFOR skiing.

Ski_Jump A ramp usedFOR ski jumping.

Snag A stem or trunk of a tree aboveSURFACE, 

belowSURFACE

of the water.

Snag A stemOF, trunkOF a tree above or below the surface of the water. 

Snowfield A region of permanent snow IN mountainous areas or high latitudes. 

Snowfield A regionOF permanent snow in mountainous areas or high 

latitudes. 

Solar_Panel A unit of solar cells forCONVERTING sunlight into electrical energy or heat.

Sports_Field A field onWHICH sporting activities are carried out.

Spring The place (is)WHERE water issues from the ground naturally.

Spring The place where water issuesFROM the ground naturally.

Stadium Large often unroofed structure inWHICH (isWHERE) athletic events are held.

Stockyard An enclosed area inWHICH (isWHERE) livestock are temporarily kept.
36 An Analysis of Spatial Relation Predicates in U.S. Geological Survey Feature Definitions

Appendix 3. Predicate terms in Spatial Data Transfer Standard (SDTS) feature definitions.—Continued

[The data analyzed in this table is based on the SDTS standard. The text from the original documents was changed as little as possible and only for research 

purposes. As a result, the glossary definitions may appear to be breaking rules of grammar, but were arranged to help clarify semantic meanings. Feature type 

terms are listed in alphabetical order. Verbs appear in lowercase and prepositions appear in uppercase fonts. Inferred terms are presented within parentheses.

--, no data]

Term Subject Predicate Object

Swash The massOF broken foaming water which rushes bodily up a 

beach as a wave breaks. Synonymous with SEND.

Swash The mass of broken foaming 

water which

rushesUP a beach as a wave breaks. Synonymous with SEND. 

Talus Slopes of broken rock debris (is)ON a mountainside.

Tank A structure usedFOR the storage of fluids.

Tennis_Court A recreational area usedFOR playing tennis.

Terrace A step-like feature (is)BETWEEN higher and lower ground: a relatively flat or gently 

inclined shelf of earth, backed and fronted by steep 

slopes or man-made retaining walls. 

Terrace A step-like feature between higher 

and lower ground: a relatively flat 

or gently inclined shelf of earth, 

backedBY, frontedBY steep slopes or man-made retaining walls.

Tidal_Gauge An instrument (used)FOR measuring the height of the tide.

Time_Zone A geographic region withinWHICH the same standard time is used.

Tower A tall framework or structure, the 

elevation

ofWHICH is functional.

Traffic_Separation_

Scheme_Area

Area (composed)OF water with lanes designated to separate opposing 

streams of vessel traffic. 

Traffic_Separation_

Scheme_Area

Area of water with lanes designatedTOseparate separate opposing streams of vessel traffic. 

Tree A woody perennial plant, having 

a self-supporting main stem or 

trunk.

-- --

Trough A long depressionOF the sea floor.

Tundra A treeless area poleward or upward of the tree line of arctic or alpine regions, having a 

permanently frozen subsoil and supporting lowgrowing vegetation such as lichens, mosses, and 

stunted shrubs.

Tunnel An (is)UNDERGROUND, 

(is)UNDERWATER

passage.

Turning_Basin A water area usedFOR turning vessels.

Turntable A circular horizontal rotating 

platform 

equippedWITH a railway track, used for turning locomotives, as in a 

roundhouse. 

Turntable A circular horizontal rotating 

platform equipped with a railway 

track, 

usedFOR turning locamotives, as in a roundhouse.

Utility A linear distribution system consistingOF pipelines, high tension wires, cables, etc., providing 

a public service and usually subject to government 

regulations. 

Utility A linear distribution system consisting of pipelines, high tension 

wires, cables, etc., providing a 

public service and usually

subjectTO government regulations.

Valley A long, narrow depressionIN the Earth’s surface, usually with a fairly regular 

downslope.
Appendixes 37

Appendix 3. Predicate terms in Spatial Data Transfer Standard (SDTS) feature definitions.—Continued

[The data analyzed in this table is based on the SDTS standard. The text from the original documents was changed as little as possible and only for research 

purposes. As a result, the glossary definitions may appear to be breaking rules of grammar, but were arranged to help clarify semantic meanings. Feature type 

terms are listed in alphabetical order. Verbs appear in lowercase and prepositions appear in uppercase fonts. Inferred terms are presented within parentheses.

--, no data]

Term Subject Predicate Object

Wall An upright structure of masonry, 

wood, plaster, or other building 

material

servingTO enclose, divide, or protect an area. 

Water_Surface The water portion of the Earth’s 

surface,

includingSURFACE of sea and inland waters. 

Watercourse A way or course throughWHICH water may or does flow.

Waterfall A sudden descentOVER a step or ledge in the bed of a river.

Watering_Place A placeWHERE vessels and vehicles replenish their water supply. 

Well A pit or hole dug or bored into the 

earth,

(used)FOR the extraction of oil, water, other fluids or gases. 

Well A pit or hole dugINTO, boredINTO the earth, for the extraction of oil, water, other fluids 

or gases. 

Wetland A vegetated area that is inundated or saturated 

by 

surface or groundwater.

Wharf A structure extendingPARALLEL_TO the shoreline so that vessels may lie close alongside 

to receive and discharge cargo.

Wharf A structure extending parallel to 

the shoreline so that vessels may

lieALONGSIDE to receive and discharge cargo.

Wind_Indicator A visual device usedTO provide wind information.

Windbreak A shelter, either natural (e.g., a 

line of trees or a thick hedge) or 

artificial (a screen), which

breaksFORCE_OF, 

interruptsFORCE_OF

the wind.

Windmill A mill or other machine that runs 

on the energy

generatedBY a wheel of adjustable blades or flats rotated by the 

wind. 

Windmill A mill or other machine that runs 

on the energy generated by a 

wheel of adjustable blades or flats 

rotatedBY the wind.

Windmill A mill or other machine that runsON the energy generated by a wheel of adjustable blades 

or flats rotated by the wind. 

Woodland Land havingCOVER_OF trees, shrubs, or both.

Wreck A wrecked vessel, either submerged or visible, which is attachedTO, foulOF the bottom or cast up on the shore.

Wreck A wrecked vessel, either submerged or visible, which is 

attached to or foul of the bottom 

or 

cast_upON the shore.

Zone_Of_OccupationAn area, usually temporary, heldBY, controlledBY a foreign military force.
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Holly and Varanka—An Analysis of Spatial Relation Predicates in U.S. Geological Survey Feature Definitions—Open-File Report 2011–1235