Distribution of Late Pleistocene Ice-Rich Syngenetic 

Permafrost of the Yedoma Suite in East and Central Siberia, 

Russia

Open-File Report 2013-1078

U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey
Cover: Late Pleistocene ice-rich permafrost deposits of the Yedoma Suite at Oyagoss Yar, Dmitri Laptev Strait, North 

Siberia. (Photograph by Guido Grosse, University of Alaska, Fairbanks, September 2002.)
Distribution of Late Pleistocene Ice-Rich Syngenetic 

Permafrost of the Yedoma Suite in East and Central Siberia, 

Russia

By Guido Grosse, University of Alaska, Fairbanks; Joel E. Robinson, U.S. Geological Survey; Robin Bryant, Maxwell 

D. Taylor, William Harper, Amy DeMasi, Emily Kyker-Snowman, Los Altos Hills Foothill College, California; Alexandra 

Veremeeva, Institute of Physical Chemical and Biological Problems in Soil Science of the Russian Academy of 

Sciences, Pushkhino, Russia; Lutz Schirrmeister, Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research, Potsdam, 

Germany; and Jennifer Harden, U.S. Geological Survey

Open-File Report 2013-1078

U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey
U.S. Department of the Interior

SALLY JEWELL, Secretary

U.S. Geological Survey

Suzette M. Kimball, Acting Director

U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia: 2013

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Suggested citation:

Grosse, G., Robinson, J.E., Bryant, R., Taylor, M.D., Harper, W., DeMasi, A., Kyker-Snowman, E., Veremeeva, A., 

Schirrmeister, L., and Harden, J., 2013, Distribution of late Pleistocene ice-rich syngenetic permafrost of the Yedoma 

Suite in east and central Siberia, Russia: U.S. Geological Survey Open File Report 2013-1078, 37p.

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endorsement by the U.S. Government.

Although this report is in the public domain, permission must be secured from the individual 

copyright owners to reproduce any copyrighted material contained within this report.
iii

Contents

Abstract ......................................................................................................................................................................... 1

Introduction.................................................................................................................................................................... 2

Role of Yedoma for the Permafrost Soil Organic Carbon Pool .................................................................................. 2

Yedoma Research and Terminology.......................................................................................................................... 2

Studies in Siberia ................................................................................................................................................... 2

Studies in North America........................................................................................................................................ 5

Current Definitions of Yedoma ............................................................................................................................... 5

Previous Maps of Yedoma Distribution ...................................................................................................................... 6

Data and Methods ......................................................................................................................................................... 8

Quaternary Geological Maps ..................................................................................................................................... 8

Digitizing the Yedoma Polygons ...............................................................................................................................12

Preliminary Results.......................................................................................................................................................12

Product Limitations and Future Updates.......................................................................................................................14

Conclusions ..................................................................................................................................................................15

Disclaimer.....................................................................................................................................................................16

Acknowledgements.......................................................................................................................................................16

References Cited..........................................................................................................................................................16

Appendix A ...................................................................................................................................................................22

Appendix B ...................................................................................................................................................................22

Appendix C...................................................................................................................................................................23

Appendix D...................................................................................................................................................................24

Figures

Figure 1. Photographs showing typical Yedoma deposits with substantial ground-ice content................................. 3

Figure 2. Schematic map showing Yedoma extent in Siberia, Russia. ..................................................................... 7

Figure 3. Map showing Yedoma distribution, Siberia, Russia, by Konishchev.......................................................... 8

Figure 4. Map showing location of the 11 Quaternary geological maps at a scale of 1:1,000,000............................ 9

Figure 5. Example of geological unit in map R-(55)-57 that is interpreted as Yedoma ........................................... 11

Figure 6. Map showing updated Yedoma coverage, Siberia, Russia...................................................................... 14

Tables

Table 1. Various historical hypotheses on Yedoma origin in Siberia. ............................................................................ 4

Table 2. Key characteristics of Yedoma deposits in Siberia and NW North America .................................................... 6
iv

Table 3. Identified total Yedoma areas in each map tile in the database. ................................................................... 13
v

Conversion Factors

SI to Inch/Pound

Multiply By To obtain

Length

centimeter (cm = 10-3 m) 0.3937 inch (in.)

meter (m) 3.281 foot (ft) 

kilometer (km = 103 m) 0.6214 mile (mi)

meter (m) 1.094 yard (yd) 

Area

square kilometer (km2 = 106 m2) 0.3861 square mile (mi2)

Mass

petagram (Pg = 1015 g) 2.2046 x 1012 Pound (lb)
1

Distribution of Late Pleistocene Ice-Rich Syngenetic 

Permafrost of the Yedoma Suite in East and Central 

Siberia, Russia

By Guido Grosse1, Joel E. Robinson2, Robin Bryant3, Maxwell D. Taylor3, William Harper3, Amy DeMasi3, Emily 

Kyker-Snowman3, Alexandra Veremeeva4, Lutz Schirrmeister5, Jennifer Harden2

Abstract

This digital database is the product of collaboration between the U.S. Geological Survey, the Geophysical 

Institute at the University of Alaska, Fairbanks; the Los Altos Hills Foothill College GeoSpatial Technology 

Certificate Program; the Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research, Potsdam, Germany; and the 

Institute of Physical Chemical and Biological Problems in Soil Science of the Russian Academy of Sciences. The 

primary goal for creating this digital database is to enhance current estimates of soil organic carbon stored in deep 

permafrost, in particular the late Pleistocene syngenetic ice-rich permafrost deposits of the Yedoma Suite. Previous 

studies estimated that Yedoma deposits cover about 1 million square kilometers of a large region in central and 

eastern Siberia, but these estimates generally are based on maps with scales smaller than 1:10,000,000. Taking

into account this large area, it was estimated that Yedoma may store as much as 500 petagrams of soil organic 

carbon, a large part of which is vulnerable to thaw and mobilization from thermokarst and erosion.

To refine assessments of the spatial distribution of Yedoma deposits, we digitized 11 Russian Quaternary 

geologic maps. Our study focused on extracting geologic units interpreted by us as late Pleistocene ice-rich 

syngenetic Yedoma deposits based on lithology, ground ice conditions, stratigraphy, and geomorphological and 

spatial association. These Yedoma units then were merged into a single data layer across map tiles. The spatial 

database provides a useful update of the spatial distribution of this deposit for an approximately 2.32 million square 

kilometers land area in Siberia that will (1) serve as a core database for future refinements of Yedoma distribution 

in additional regions, and (2) provide a starting point to revise the size of deep but thaw-vulnerable permafrost 

carbon pools in the Arctic based on surface geology and the distribution of cryolithofacies types at high spatial 

resolution. However, we recognize that the extent of Yedoma deposits presented in this database is not complete 

for a global assessment, because Yedoma deposits also occur in the Taymyr lowlands and Chukotka, and in parts

of Alaska and northwestern Canada.

 

1 Geophysical Institute, University of Alaska, Fairbanks.

2U.S. Geological Survey.

3Los Altos Hills Foothill College, California.

4

Institute of Physical Chemical and Biological Problems in Soil Science of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Pushchino, 

Russia.

5 Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research, Potsdam, Germany.
2

Introduction

Role of Yedoma in the Permafrost Soil Organic Carbon Pool

First estimates of Yedoma deposits as a substantial soil organic carbon pool in permafrost regions were 

provided by Zimov and others (2006a), with a total estimated organic carbon storage of about 500 petagrams (Pg)

of carbon (C). This estimate builds on a first-order assessment of the spatial extent of Yedoma deposits, derived 

from a small-scale map by Romanovskii (1993) from which a Yedoma area of about 1 million km2 was calculated. 

Subsequent slight revisions of the carbon pool (Zimov and others 2006b) and inclusion in a panarctic synthesis of 

soil organic carbon pools (Tarnocai and others 2009) provide an estimate for the total soil organic carbon pool in 

Yedoma of about 450 Pg C. This amount is about one-fourth of the entire 1,672-Pg C soil organic carbon pool 

estimated to be stored in permafrost regions (Tarnocai and others 2009). Various studies noted the importance of 

such a significant soil carbon pool in frozen soil and sediments for the global carbon cycle and its potential 

vulnerability to thaw, decomposition, and greenhouse-gas release in a warming Arctic where permafrost is

projected to thaw across large regions (Walter and others, 2006; Schuur and others, 2008; Kuhry and others, 2010; 

McGuire and others, 2010; Grosse and others, 2011; Harden and others, 2012). Tarnocai and others (2009) and 

Schirrmeister and others (2011a) also cautioned about large uncertainties in the carbon pool estimates for Yedoma 

deposits because of limited field data on organic carbon content, distribution, and character; ground ice content;

bulk density; and the spatial extent of these deposits. Enhancement of knowledge about the spatial distribution of 

the Yedoma deposits is a critical step in better assessing the total carbon pool in Yedoma deposits and its thaw 

vulnerability in different regions.

In this project, we focus on reducing uncertainty in the spatial extent of the Yedoma deposits by creating a 

digital geospatial database of Yedoma coverage in which we extract relevant information from Quaternary 

geological maps at the scale 1:1,000,000. This geodatabase will (1) serve as a core database for future 

refinements of Yedoma distribution in additional regions, and (2) provide a starting point to revise the size of deep 

but thaw-vulnerable permafrost carbon pools in the Arctic based on surface geology and the distribution of 

cryolithofacies types at high spatial resolution.

Yedoma Research and Terminology

Studies in Siberia

Yedoma deposits were first studied in Russia, where these deposits occur most extensively in the northern,

central, and eastern Siberian lowlands. Originally, the term “Ice Complex”, or in Russian “Ledovoy Komplex”, was 

used to describe these deposits in reference to their very high ground-ice content when compared to other 

permafrost deposits (fig. 1).The ground ice consists of very large syngenetic ice wedges and intrasedimentary ice, 

such as small centimeter-scale ice lenses and horizontal ice bands. The term “Yedoma” was originally used to 

describe the hill-like landforms where Ice Complex deposits occur. More recently, “Yedoma” has been widely used 

and accepted for the deposits themselves, although many researchers also continue to use the term “Ice Complex”

for these and similar ice-rich deposits in other stratigraphic positions, specifically in Siberia.
3

Figure 1. Photographs showing typical Yedoma deposits with substantial ground-ice content and very large 

syngenetic ice wedges, Siberia, Russia. A, Bol’shoy Lyakhovsky Island, New Siberian Islands (Photograph by 

G. Grosse, 1999); B, DuvannyYar, Kolyma River, Northeast Yakutia (Photograph by G. Grosse, 2007); C,

Cape Mamontov Klyk, Anabar-Olenek interfluve, Western Laptev Sea coastal lowland (Photograph by G. 

Grosse, 2003); D, Mamontovaya Gora, Aldan River, Central Yakutia (Photograph by L. Schirrmeister, 2001).

The first descriptions of Yedoma deposits range back as far as the late 19th century, when Russian 

explorers of the northeastern Siberian Arctic described these deposits as buried glacial ice remnants of extensive 

glaciations of the Arctic shelves, because of the large amounts of ice and small amounts of sediment that were

observed in exposures on coastal and river bluffs (von Toll, 1895). It was recognized later that the observed 

deposits were of periglacial rather than glacial origin and that the ice actually formed as ice wedges and segregated 

ice lenses synchronously with sediment accumulation, also referred to as syngenetic ice. Since the mid-20th 

century, a wide range of geological, geocryological, stratigraphical, geochronological, biogeochemical, and 

paleoenvironmental research on Siberian Yedoma has been done by Russian researchers (for example, Popov, 

1953; Vtyurin and others, 1957; Romanovskii, 1958, 1977; Ivanov, 1972; Katasonov, 1975; Tomirdiaro, 1980; 

Kaplina, 1981; Tomirdiaro and others, 1984; Konishchev, 1987; Tomirdiaro and Chernenky, 1987; Sher, 1997; Sher 

and others, 2005; Kunitsky, 2007; Streletskaya and others, 2007; Veremeeva and Gubin, 2009) and international 

research teams (for example, Péwé and others, 1977; Péwé and Journaux, 1983; Kienel and others, 1999; Siegert 

and others, 2000; Schirrmeister and others, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2008, 2011a, 2011b; Kunitsky and others, 2002;

Meyer and others, 2002a, 2002b; Hubberten and others, 2004; Zimov and others, 2006a, 2006b; Grosse and 

others, 2007; Walter and others, 2007; Andreev and others, 2009; Wetterich and others, 2008, 2011; Strauss and 

others, 2012). However, some controversies on the genesis of Yedoma deposits, occurring in extensive regions 

with a wide range of modern environmental and permafrost conditions, have remained until now. Hypotheses on 
4

Yedoma formation evolving from local or regional studies often were extrapolated to the entire Yedoma region and 

included deposition as eolian loess, flood plain or fluvial sediments, lacustrine and bog deposits, niveo-eolian

sediments, proluvial slope deposits, and swamp deposits of large lakes dammed by shelf ice glaciers (table 1).

Table 1. Various historical hypotheses on Yedoma origin in Siberia, Russia (adapted after Siegert and others, 

1999).

Origin Suggested stratigraphy Studied region Citation

Glacial and glacial-related

Buried remnants of glaciers Bol’shoy Lyakhovsky Island, North 

Siberian coastal lowland

von Toll (1895)

Proglacial deposits of basins dammed 

by a shelf glacier

Late Pleistocene Bykovsky Peninsula, North 

Siberian coastal lowland

Grosswald (1998)

Fluvial and fluvial-related

River floodplain sediments Middle Pleistocene Lower Yana River Popov (1953, 1969)

Giant icings with mud flow channels Late Pleistocene Bykovsky Peninsula, North 

Siberian coastal lowland

Gusev (1958)

Fluvial sediments of meandering rivers (Middle)-Late Pleistocene North Siberian coastal lowland, 

Lower Yana River, Bol’shoy

Lyakhovsky Island

Vtyurin and others (1957),

Romanovskii (1958), Katasonov 

(1975)

Sediments of a fluvio-lacustrine plain Kargin interglacial North Siberian coastal lowland Strelkov (1960)

Fluvial (shallow channel facies) Vorontsov Formation –

Middle Pleistocene

Lower Indigirka River Lavrushin (1962)

Alluvial-proluvial* / fluvial Kular Range Gravis (1997)

Lacustrine and swamp

Lacustrine-palustrine sediments Oyagoss Formation -

(Middle)-Late Pleistocene

North Siberian coastal lowland Kayalaynen and Kulakov (1966)

Fluvial and fluvio-lacustrine sediments Oyagoss Formation 

(Zyryan)

North Siberian coastal lowland Ivanov (1972)

Sediments of river deltas and swamps 

dammed by a shelf ice sheet

Kargin Interglacial Bykovsky Peninsula, Bol’shoy

Lyakhovsky Island, Oyagoss Yar

Nagaoka (1994)

Eolian

Cryogenic-eolian (“loess ice”) formation Late Pleistocene Bykovsky Peninsula, Oyagoss

Yar, Duvanny Yar

Tomirdiaro and others (1984), 

Velichko and others (1984), 

Zimov and others (2006a)

Loess and retransported loess Late Pleistocene Lena-Aldan region, central Yakutia Péwé and others (1977), Péwé 

and Journaux (1983)

Polygenetic

Polygenetic origin (fluvial, slope, eolian, 

and so on)

Yedoma Formation /

Superhorizon, subdivided 

into Oyagoss (=Zyryan), 

Molotkov (=Kargin), and 

Sartan Horizon

North Siberian coastal lowland Sher and others, 1987

Polygenetic origin, but closely related to 

nival weathering, transport, and 

accumulation processes

Late Pleistocene Laptev Sea region Schirrmeister and others 

(2011b)

Nival

Nival deposits (nival-eolian, nival-fluvial, 

nival-solifluction) (sediments delivered 

from seasonal melt of extensive snow 

patches)

Late Pleistocene Bykovsky Peninsula, Bol’shoy

Lyakhovsky Island

Kunitsky (1989), Kunitsky and 

others (2002), Kunitsky (2007), 

Galabala (1997)
5

Floodplains and slope

Floodplain sediments, proluvial1 slope 

sediments

Lower Ice Complex (MiddleLate Pleistocene) and 

Upper Ice Complex (Sartan)

Bykovsky Peninsula Slagoda (1991, 1993)

Slope deposits Late Pleistocene Kular Range Gravis (1969)

1Proluvial deposition, commonly used in Russian geologic literature, summarizes alluvial fan deposition in hillslope or mountainous setting.

Studies in North America

Yedoma also is known to occur in northwestern North America, where Yedoma-type deposits have been 

identified and described as frozen loess, windblown or re-transported ice-rich silt, or muck (for example, Péwé, 

1955, 1975; Taber, 1958; Carter, 1988; Hamilton and others, 1988; Kotler and Burn, 2000; Shur and others, 2004; 

Sanborn and others, 2006; Froese and others, 2009; Kanevskiy and others, 2011).If these specific deposits are of 

late-Pleistocene stratigraphy and have indicators of syngenetic permafrost growth, they can be considered

paleoenvironmentally and stratigraphically equivalent to the Siberian Yedoma (Kanevskiy and others, 2011; 

Schirrmeister and others, 2013). 

Current Definitions of Yedoma

Sher (1995) established the view that Yedoma deposits are of polygenetic origin including fluvial, 

lacustrine, eolian, and slope sedimentation, but clearly excluded sediments of glacial and marine genesis. More 

recently, Kunitsky and others (2002) and Kunitsky (2007) showed that nival-eolian processes were important for 

Yedoma formation in the periglacial lowlands of northern Siberia. A critical factor for determining whether these 

different sedimentary facies types are part of the Yedoma Suite is whether they experienced syngenetic ice wedge 

growth and substantial ground ice accumulation during the late Pleistocene. Substantial new knowledge on various 

sedimentological, cryological, paleoecological, and geochronological characteristics of Yedoma has resulted from

Russian-German research collaborations in the Laptev Sea Yedoma region (Hubberten and others, 2004; 

Schirrmeister and others, 2011b). Extensive radiocarbon dating of fossil plant and animal remains and

luminescence dating of sediments during the last two decades corroborate the geochronologic and stratigraphic 

position of Yedoma within the late Pleistocene glacial period. Some of the earliest Yedoma deposits were identified 

on the Bykovsky Peninsula with ages around 60,000–70,000 years before present (BP), and their accumulation 

ending with the onset of Lateglacial and Holocene warming (for example, Schirrmeister and others, 2001; Sher and 

others, 2005; Grosse and others, 2007).

Yedoma differs from other permafrost deposits by the presence of large syngenetic ice wedges 

(Romanovskii, 1993; Meyer and others, 2002a; Shur and others, 2004; Kanevskiy and others, 2011), its substantial 

excess ice content (Kanevskiy and others, 2011; Schirrmeister and others, 2011b), and cryogenic sediment 

textures and structures (Konishchev, 1981; Konishchev and Rogov, 1993) suggesting lowland or slope 

sedimentation and gradual freezing processes.

Yedoma lithologies indicate intense periglacial weathering and transportation processes that often are 

associated with local low mountain ranges (Siegert and others, 2000; Schirrmeister and others, 2011b). An 

important process of sediment alteration in the Yedoma deposits is in-place cryogenic weathering, which is closely 

associated with harsh periglacial climates and seasonal nival processes (Konishchev, 1981). Yedoma deposits 

only occur in regions that were previously unglaciated during the late Quaternary (Sher, 1995; Hubberten and 

others, 2004), such as northeastern Siberian shelf lowlands, central Yakutian lowlands, and interior Alaska. 

Biogenic and abiogenic paleo-climate proxies in Yedoma indicate extreme continental climate conditions during its 

formation (low precipitation, very cold winters, and relatively warm summers), and the composition of biogenic 

proxies (remains of pollen, plant macrofossils, insects, as well as mammals of the mammoth fauna) indicate a 
6

dense mosaic of dry and wet habitats with polygonal-patterned ground in a generally tundra-steppe-like 

environment without modern analogue (for example, Sher and others, 2005).

Schirrmeister and others (2013) attempted to advance the definition of Yedoma by summarizing regional 

characteristics in northern, central, and eastern Siberia; Alaska; and northwestern Canada, and by uniting the 

previous scholarly views on Yedoma-type deposits across these regions (table 2).

Table 2. Key characteristics of Yedoma deposits in Siberia, Russia, and northwestern North America (adapted 

from Schirrmeister and others, 2013).

Northern, central, and eastern Siberia

(Western Beringia)

Alaska and Yukon

(Eastern Beringia)

Earlier terminology Ice Complex, Yedoma Suite “Muck” deposits or syngenetic late Pleistocene 

perennially-frozen ice-rich silts

Distribution East Siberian Arctic lowlands and large river 

valleys, foothills

Foothills and lowlands in northern and 

northwestern Alaska; unglaciated valleys in interior 

Yukon and Alaska

Sediment Poorly sorted, organic-rich silt and silty sand Organic-rich silt and silty sand

Genesis Syngenetic permafrost of multiple origins 

depending on region: nival, alluvial, proluvial,

colluvial, sheet-flow, soil-creep or eolian 

sedimentation

Largely eolian sedimentation (airfall loess) with 

syngenetic permafrost, locally redeposited and 

interbedded with other deposits

Formation age 80,000 to 12,000 years before present

Stratigraphy Marine Isotope Stages 4 to 2

Landscape Stable, poorly drained areas with low topographic gradient

Paleoclimate Highly continental, cold-arid

Ground ice Ice-saturated or supersaturated, syngenetic ice wedges, segregation ice

Paleoecology Tundra steppe-Mammoth steppe, cryoxeric vegetation, Mammoth fauna

Previous Maps of Yedoma Distribution

Various maps of Yedoma distribution exist in the literature; however, most of them are small-scale 

(1:10,000,000 or smaller) maps that tend to generalize the spatial extent of Yedoma. A Yedoma map most widely 

referred to is that of Romanovskii (1993) (fig.2). The area covered by Yedoma in this map is 1,141,390 km2. This 

map has been subsequently adapted by Siegert and Romanovskii (1996) and was then published in Schirrmeister 

and others (2002), showing Yedoma extent in central and northeastern Siberian lowlands and indicates Yedoma 

occurrences in formerly unglaciated valleys. Based on the Romanovskii (1993) map, Zimov and others (2006) 

estimated that the Yedoma area covers approximately 1 million km2of Siberia, an extent that was subsequently 

used to quantify soil organic carbon storage in Yedoma (Zimov and others, 2006) and the release of methane from 

thermokarst lakes during the Pleistocene-Holocene transition (Walter and others, 2007). 
7 

Figure 2. Schematic map showing Yedoma extent in Siberia, Russia (Romanovskii, 1993). 1, Region of wide 

distribution of “Ice Complex” (Yedoma); 2, Yedoma distribution in river valleys; 3, Active ice wedges; 4, Active 

sand-ice wedges (low-temperature); 5, Active sand-ice wedges (high-temperature); 6, Active ground wedges; 

7, Sorted polygons; 8, Small diameter polygonal ground (1.5–3.0 meters); 9, Boundaries of active ice wedge 

occurrence in peats, 10, in sandy silts and silty sands, and 11, in coarse grained sands, gravels, and pebbles; 

12, Southern boundaries of low-center polygons and 13, of permafrost. 

 In another recent adaptation of the small-scale map of Yedoma distribution, Konishchev (2011) separated 

the Yedoma deposits into three categories of spatial distribution, ranging from widely distributed to fragmented to 

sporadic (fig. 3). Several maps of regional Yedoma extent exist, scattered in the Russian scientific literature, for 

example, for the Yana-Indigirka-Kolyma lowlands (Tomirdiaro, 1980) or Yakutia (Grigoriev and Kunitsky, 2000). 

Field studies and high-resolution satellite imagery clearly indicate that Yedoma cover in the Yedoma region of 

northern Siberia is not uniform but can range from complete to fragmented remnants. For example, Grosse and 

others (2006) indicate that only about 22 percent of the Yedoma area in the Lena Anabar lowland near Cape 

Mamontov Klyk was not affected by permafrost degradation owing to thermokarst and thermo-erosion. This 

fragmentation in Yedoma extent is not represented in small-scale maps (figs. 2 and 3), but is captured in highresolution scales of 1:1,000,000 and better. 
8 

Figure 3. Map showing Yedoma distribution, Siberia, Russia, by Konishchev (2011) with three distinct types of 

Yedoma distribution: Dark blue, widely distributed; Medium blue, fragmented; Light blue, sporadic. Red dashed 

line is boundary of permafrost. White dotted areas are glaciers.

Data and Methods 

Quaternary Geological Maps 

We acquired 11 digital copies of Russian Quaternary geological maps at a scale of 1:1,000,000 for the 

core region of known Yedoma distribution in central and eastern Siberia (fig. 4).The original paper maps were 

issued by the Department of Natural Resources of the Russian Federation or its predecessor, the Department of 

Geology of the Soviet Union. All maps are part of the “New Series”, produced as an update to the “First Series”. 
9

Figure 4. Map showing location of the 11 Quaternary geological maps at a scale of 1:1,000,000 that were 

included in the Yedoma database, Siberia, Russia, as of 2013. Red polygons indicate the Yedoma core region 

after Romanovskii (1993) (fig. 2). References for each Quaternary map are provided in appendix A.
10

The maps are the product of decades of geological field and remote sensing work and mapping at scales 

of 1:50,000–1:500,000 by Russian geologists and cartographers in the respective regions. A complete list of map 

references is provided in appendix A. The 11 maps encompass a total area of 2,785,000 km2, of which 2,324,500 

km2are onshore land area. The maps generally contain information on lithofacies type, lithology, and stratigraphy

for each unit. Each polygon of a geological unit in the map has a Unit ID (for example, LIII2-4) and color assigned 

that indicate a certain lithofacies and stratigraphy (fig. 5). On each map, either a map legend or a table crosstabulating lithofacies type with stratigraphy provides a short description of the unit. An additional pattern signature 

in the polygon of a certain map unit usually represents lithology, and this information is provided in a separate 

legend. Each map also has one or several geological cross profiles that are to scale horizontally, but are 

exaggerated or not to scale vertically. Here, the same colors, signatures, and unit IDs are used as in the map (fig. 

5). Additionally, signatures here indicate the presence of large ice wedges in a unit. The stratigraphic schemes 

applied by the original map authors in these 11 maps varied by map tile, likely owing to regional differences, and 

the long time frame during which these maps were published (1981–2000, see publication dates in appendix A) 

and related changes in stratigraphic naming conventions. In particular, the use of different terms for the late 

Pleistocene stratigraphic horizons even in adjacent map tiles initially may be confusing. For guidance, we provide a 

table comparing the different stratigraphic schemes of the late Pleistocene used in these 11 maps and link them to 

schemes used in other regions as well as marine isotope stages (MIS) (appendix B).

Rectification of all maps was conducted in ArcGIS 9.3TM and ArcGIS 10.0TM desktop geographic 

information system (GIS) software from Environmental Systems Research Institute, Inc. (ESRI). All maps were 

georeferenced to a Gauss-Krueger projection, known in the U.S. as Transverse Mercator projection, with geodetic 

datum Pulkovo 1942 using the latitude-longitude grid provided in the maps. Appendix C provides details on number 

of control points used for the rectification, the Root Mean Square (RMS) error from a 3rd polynomial transformation, 

and the Gauss-Kruger zone of the target projection that differs for each map tile. RMS errors range from 130 to 300 

m, which is a reasonable range for this map scale.
11

Figure 5. Example of geological unit in map R-(55)-57 that is interpreted as Yedoma, Siberia, Russia. A, Map 

view: Orange-colored unit LIII2-4 (label circled in red) is described in the legend as loess (L) of Late Pleistocene 

stratigraphy (III), specifically covering the periods Zyryan, Kargin, and Sartan (2–4). The lithologic signatures 

(dash-dot-dash) identify this unit as deposits with mostly silty to fine-sandy grain size, and the dark blue dots 

indicate very high ground ice contents. Abundance of lakes (light blue) and lacustrine deposits (medium and 

dark blue, lbIV1 and lbIV2) within the unit indicate degradation of at least the upper part of the Yedoma unit by 

Holocene thermokarst. B, Cross-profile view: The same unit LIII2–4 (red circle) is shown to blanket terrace 

slopes. Animal skull symbol indicates presence of fossil bones of the mammoth fauna. White features with blue 

stripes indicate presence of very large syngenetic ice wedges typical for Yedoma.
12

Digitizing the Yedoma Polygons

The 11 georeferenced maps were loaded into ArcGIS software for digitizing the polygons containing 

Yedoma deposits. Each digital map was processed to extract geologic contacts (black-colored borders of geologic 

map units) from the rest of the map. The ArcScan tool in ArcGIS was used to automatically trace each raster 

contact into a vector line to allow snapping to the contact center line during digitization. These lines were edited on 

screen to remove text, map patterns, and the occasional contour lines that were automatically converted to lines.

Dangling lines were removed and all lines were checked to ensure proper polygon topology. Once the lines were 

created, a point feature class was manually created to contain attribution for polygons. The line and point feature 

classes were used in the Feature to Polygon tool to create the geologic polygons. Polygons containing Yedoma 

deposits were extracted from the geologic map feature class into a polygon feature class containing only Yedoma 

deposits. Theses feature classes were projected into a North Pole Lambert Azimuthal Equal Area projection to 

maintain consistent area measurements across the entire region. The newly projected polygon feature classes then 

were merged into a single feature class. We maintained all attribute information for each individual polygon from its 

original Russian source map,geologic unit, and quadrangle map name. We also calculated area in square 

kilometers and perimeter in kilometers for each polygon.

We selected the Yedoma polygons based on their narrow stratigraphy (usually late Pleistocene QIII2–4), 

their loessic, loessic-cryogenic, or sometimes alluvial or lacustrine lithofacies type, and an additional pattern 

signature indicating very ice-rich ground (fig. 5). Additionally, the geologic cross sections indicate the presence of 

large syngenetic ice wedges with not-to-scale wedge-like shapes in these units. Furthermore, our first-hand field 

knowledge from various Siberian Yedoma sites and knowledge from scientific literature guided our decision on 

which units should be attributed to Yedoma based on spatial location and association. A complete list of units 

included in the Yedoma polygons in each map tile is provided in appendix D. We also were careful to remove 

inconsistencies between the different maps caused by the Yedoma deposits being mapped as different geologic 

units by different map authors and some naming inconsistencies between maps resulting in identical units being 

named differently.

Preliminary Results

A total area of 290,101 km2 of Yedoma is identified for the 11 maps contained in our database (table 3). A

preliminary analysis of this refined map of Yedoma distribution in the core regions of its occurrence suggests that 

the total panarctic extent of Yedoma may be substantially smaller than previously assumed based on estimates 

derived from small-scale maps (compare fig. 6 with fig. 4). For the same map tiles, we estimated a Yedoma cover 

of 1,028,264 km2 based on the Romanovskii (1993) small-scale map. Therefore, our updated coverage represents 

a total decrease of 71.8 percent from the original estimate for these areas. Yedoma is most extensive in the YanaIndigirka-Kolyma lowlands, the New Siberian Islands, and the central Yakutian lowlands east of the Lena River. 

However, even here, Yedoma only covers as much as 35.7 percent of the land area based on the Quaternary 

geological maps (fig. 6). Because Yedoma is known to occur primarily in lowlands and foothills, we separately 

estimated the ratio of Yedoma cover for the total area of individual maps as well as for lowland and foothill areas 

within the 0–400 m elevation range for individual maps. For such lowlands and foothills, Yedoma cover in the 11

map tiles ranges from 1.1 to 35.8 percent and averages 16.9 percent for the studied region, according to our 

database. The distribution of Yedoma units shows an often substantial spatial discontinuity of these ice-rich 

deposits because of strong dissection by thermokarst and thermal and fluvial erosion, highlighting the important 

role of these processes for transforming the late Pleistocene accumulation plain through erosion and permafrost 

degradation during the Holocene. Previous estimates of the amount of soil organic carbon stored in Yedoma must

be revised downwards based on the lower total coverage we found in this study compared to the previously

assumed 1 million square kilometer Yedoma coverage. A full analysis should include spatial data from all Yedoma 
13

regions as well as substantial field data on ground ice distribution, soil organic carbon distribution and 

characteristics, bulk densities, and thickness of Yedoma deposits.

Table 3. Identified total Yedoma areas, Siberia, Russia, in each map tile in the database. Lowlands were defined 

as landareas with elevations of 0–400m above mean sea level as derived from a digital elevation model with 

90-m spatial resolution.

Map tile Total map 

area [km2]

Total land 

area [km2]

Total lowland 

area <400m 

[km2]

Yedoma cover [km2] Ratio of Yedoma 

vs. land area [%]

Reduction 

over old 

Yedoma area 

estimate [%]

Ratio of 

Yedoma 

vs. lowland 

area [%]

Old* New** Old* New** New**

P-50-51 280,238 280,238 248,832 37,442 2,734 13.4 1.0 -92.7 1.1

P-52-53 280,238 280,238 220,853 149,358 41,237 53.3 14.7 -72.4 18.7

Q-50-51 242,970 242,970 236,109 60,261 17,287 24.8 7.1 -71.3 7.3

Q-52-53 242,970 242,970 42,406 60,165 1,526 24.8 0.6 -97.5 3.6

Q-54-55 242,970 242,970 65,038 139,860 6,214 57.6 2.6 -95.6 9.6

Q-56-57 242,970 242,970 167,649 74,226 35,612 30.5 14.7 -52.0 21.2

R-53-(55) 255,555 240,349 197,379 164,171 52,541 68.3 21.9 -68.0 26.6

R-(55)- 57 255,555 196,235 195,706 190,552 70,016 97.1 35.7 -63.3 35.8

S-47-49 247,281 226,620 214,013 47,113 35,082 20.8 15.5 -25.5 16.4

S-50-52 247,281 74,626 74,601 50,748 13,464 68.0 18.0 -73.5 18.0

S-53-55 247,281 54,367 54,361 54,367 14,387 100.0 26.5 -73.5 26.5

Total 2,785,309 2,324,553 1,716,946 1,028,264 290,101 44.2 12.5 -71.8 16.9

* Based on Yedoma map from Romanovskii (1993), as used in Zimov and others (2006a, 2006b).

** This study
14

Figure 6. Map showing updated Yedoma coverage, Siberia, Russia, for each map tile in the database. In 

addition, lowlands and uplands are indicated, demonstrating that Yedoma is restricted mainly to elevations 

between 0-400 meters above mean sea level. 

Product Limitations and Future Updates 

The new Yedoma geospatial database (version 1.0) greatly reduces uncertainties in Yedoma distribution 

for the region covered by the 11 included map tiles. Previous Yedoma area estimates were based on maps at a 

scale of 1:10,000,000 or smaller, which generalized the distribution of Yedoma. Such small-scale maps actually 

show the potential Yedoma presence in a region rather than the spatially explicit distribution. However, the 

medium-scale maps (scale 1:1,000,000) used here also have some limitations. Although they can better capture 

the spatial heterogeneity and discontinuity of Yedoma extent, they still may misrepresent Yedoma absence or 

presence at a particular location owing to necessary map generalization (1 cm in the map = 10 km in reality). 

General accuracy of the Yedoma distribution shown in this database is tied to several potential error 

sources: (1) uncertainties in the original geologic and cryostratigraphic mapping, (2) uncertainties in converting and 
15

scaling the original field and remote sensing data to a paper map product, (3) uncertainties in the technical 

conversion from a paper map to a digital geodatabase, and (4) uncertainties in interpretation of Quaternary 

geological units across multiple map tiles as a Yedoma unit. We had no control over uncertainties in (1) and (2) 

because we used each map as-is and assumed that the quality control of the original Russian geologic, 

stratigraphic, and cartographic work was rigorous. In (3), mostly geometric uncertainties are included, such as the 

accuracy of georeferencing the maps (appendix B), and the line thickness of geologic boundaries and their 

digitization accuracy. Geologic boundaries drawn as black lines in these maps frequently have a real-world footprint 

of 100–200 m in width and, therefore, location accuracy of digitized lines are within the RMS error range of the map 

rectification. The accuracy of digital polygons of geologic units in each map (both location and geologic unit 

association) was cross-checked against the source map by several members of the project team, and, if necessary, 

was corrected. To limit errors in (4), we relied on existing scientific literature and our field knowledge of Siberian 

Yedoma. In most cases, the maps provide evidence that a certain unit is ice-rich, syngenetic, late Pleistocene 

Yedoma by that unit’s cryolithofacies and stratigraphic signatures in the plan map view and the geologic 

crossprofiles. In few cases, no signature for high ground-ice content or syngenetic ice wedges was included in the 

map. However, it was possible to trace such units by comparing them with neighboring polygons in directly 

adjacent map tiles and inferring that they are the same units if spatially connected. 

An additional need to carefully evaluate the Yedoma database arises from the fact that a two-dimensional 

surface geological map cannot properly represent the total spatial extent of geologic horizons that potentially 

overlap in three dimensions. The Yedoma units represented in the maps and the database are likely those that 

crop out close to the land surface and that probably have a certain minimum thickness. The geological crossprofile 

in figure 5B is an example of where Yedoma is overlain by Holocene lacustrine and alluvial deposits, suggesting 

the possibility that some Yedoma is covered by other, younger geological units. Although thermokarst lake deposits 

in many cases indicate that the entire underlying Yedoma has thawed out, shallow lakes may not have fully 

degraded Yedoma underneath. Similarly, younger eolian or alluvial deposits may cover late Pleistocene Yedoma 

units. Therefore, it is unclear whether any Yedoma remains beneath the lacustrine and alluvial sediments shown in 

figure 5A. Such geological situations would make the identified extent of Yedoma in the database a conservative 

low estimate that needs to be corroborated with additional evidence. 

Yedoma occurs in other regions not yet covered by our database, such as in the lowlands south of the 

Taymyr Peninsula and various regions in Chukotka (figs. 2 and 3). The ultimate goal would be to create a 

circumarctic database that, in addition to including a complete Siberian Yedoma extent, also includes data from 

maps of similar or finer scale for Yedoma deposits in Alaska and northwestern Canada. The Yedoma spatial 

database would be linked to the Northern Circumpolar Soil Carbon Database (NCSCD) (Hugelius and others, 

2013). In addition to expanding the Yedoma database, a next step should include the full digitization of all geologic 

map units, which would provide useful information for a range of analyses including the quantification of soil organic 

carbon pools in a variety of near-surface permafrost deposits. Schirrmeister and others (2011) have shown for the 

Laptev Sea region in northern Siberia that different stratigraphic horizons naturally have different soil carbon stocks 

and characteristics. This has implications for overall deep soil carbon storage as well as the vulnerability, pathways, 

and impacts of carbon mobilization in permafrost regions. Similarly, Harden and others (2012) have shown that the 

vertical distribution of deep soil organic carbon in various permafrost soil orders differs and has implications for 

potential mobilization. 

Conclusions 

Yedoma deposits quantified for a 2,324,500 square kilometers land area in central and eastern Siberia 

cover about 290,101 square kilometers, representing about 12.5 percent of the land area and 16.9 percent of the 

lowlands below 400 meters in elevation. These findings suggest a substantial reduction of previous estimates of 

Yedoma coverage (1,000,000 square kilometers). Yedoma areas are highly fragmented in northern Siberia at map 
16

scales of 1:1,000,000. Spatial fragmentation of this late Pleistocene cover deposit is mainly a result of Holocene 

thermokarst processes and fluvial erosion. Therefore, when quantifying the deep soil carbon pools in the Yedoma 

permafrost region of Siberia, it is of critical importance to exclude thermokarst and fluvial deposits from the Yedoma 

class and to address carbon pools separately for a more complete assessment. Deep and frozen soil carbon pools 

in the vast Siberian Yedoma region remain understudied, and not much is known about their vulnerability and 

feedback in a changing climate. 

Disclaimer

All data in the Yedoma geospatial database (v.1.0) is provided as is and should not be used at map scales 

finer than 1:1,000,000. Original Russian map data were not altered except for the purpose of selecting geological 

units that are interpreted as Yedoma and merging these units across map tiles into a single data layer for analysis.

Acknowledgments

We thank the U.S. Geological Survey and the Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research,

Potsdam, Germany, for support of this digital data compilation. We are very thankful for valuable support from the 

Los Altos Hills Foothill College GeoSpatial Technology Certificate Program in Geographic Information Sciences,

and, specifically, from K. Allison Lenkeit Meexan for recruiting well-trained volunteers. Funding was provided 

through USGS, NSF OPP 0732735, and NASA NNX08AJ37G. We thank G. Hugelius and D. Swanson for their 

helpful reviews and the editors of the USGS for their helpful technical review.

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22

Appendix A

List of Russian maps used for creating the digital database.

P-50-51 (Olekminsk)

Rudenko, T.A., Matyushkov, A.D., Shurygin, A.G., Sai, T.S., and Feofanova, N.D., 1987, Map of Quaternary Deposits, P-50-51 

(Olekminsk): ROSGEOLKOM, All-Russian Geological Research Institute VSEGEI, St. Petersburg, New Series, scale 1:1,000,000. (In 

Russian).

P-52-53 (Yakutsk)

Kolpakov, V.V., 1992,Map of Quaternary Formations, P-52-53 (Yakutsk): Department of Natural Resources of the Russian 

Federation, Cartographic Company VSEGEI, St. Petersburg, New Series, scale 1:1,000,000. (In Russian).

Q-50-51 (Zhigansk)

Kolpakov, V.V., 1986, Map of Quaternary Deposits, Q-50-51 (Zhigansk): Department of Geology of the U.S.S.R., All-Union 

Geological Research Institute VSEGEI, Leningrad, New Series, scale 1:1,000,000. (In Russian).

Q-52-53 (Verkhoyansk)

Kolpakov, V.V., 1982, Map of Quaternary Deposits, Q-52-53 (Verkhoyansk): Department of Geology of the U.S.S.R., All-Union 

Geological Research Institute VSEGEI, Leningrad, New Series, scale 1:1,000,000. (In Russian).

Q-54-55 (Khonuu)

Kolpakov, V.V., 1985, Map of Quaternary Deposits, Q-54-55 (Khonuu): Department of Geology of the U.S.S.R., All-Union Geological 

Research Institute VSEGEI, Leningrad, New Series, scale 1:1,000,000. (In Russian).

Q-56-57 (Srednekolymsk)

Morozova, L.M., 1986, Map of Quaternary Deposits, Q-56-57 (Srednekolymsk), Department of Geology of the U.S.S.R., All-Union 

Geological Research Institute VSEGEI, Leningrad, New Series, scale 1:1,000,000. (In Russian).

R-53-(55) (Deputatsky)

Kolpakov, V.V., 1990, Map of Quaternary Deposits, R-53-(55) (Deputatsky): Committee for Geology and Applied Mineral Resources 

of the Russian Federation, Cartographic Company VSEGEI, St. Petersburg, scale 1:1,000,000. (In Russian).

R-(55)-57 (Nizhnekolymsk)

Ivanenko, G.V., 1998, Map of Quaternary Formations, R-(55)-57 (Nizhnekolymsk): Department of Natural Resources of the Russian 

Federation, Cartographic Company VSEGEI, St. Petersburg, New Series, scale 1:1,000,000. (In Russian).

S-47-49 (Ozero Taymyr)

Bashlavin, D.K., and Borisova, T.P., 1988, Map of Quaternary Deposit, S-47-49 (Ozero Taymyr): Department of Natural Resources of 

the Russian Federation, Cartographic Company VSEGEI, St. Petersburg, New Series, scale 1:1,000,000. (In Russian).

S-50-52 (Bykovsky)

Vanin, A.L., 2000, Map of Quaternary Formations, S-50-52 (Bykovsky): Department of Natural Resources of the Russian Federation, 

Cartographic Company VSEGEI, St. Petersburg New Series, scale 1:1,000,000. (In Russian).

S-53-55 (Novosibirskiye Ostrova)

Ivanenko, G.V., 1995, Map of Quaternary Formations, S-53-55 (Novosibirskiye Ostrova): Department of Natural Resources of the 

Russian Federation, State scientific research enterprise Aerogeology. Cartographic Company VSEGEI, St. Petersburg, New Series, 

scale 1:1,000,000. (In Russian).

Appendix B

Table B1. Comparison of different Late Quaternary stratigraphies as used in the Quaternary Geology maps of Central and East Siberia 

with that of other regions and marine isotope stages (MIS). Comparisons are for approximate stratigraphical guidance. There may be local 

and regional differences for start and end of these periods.

Codea Central 

Siberiab

East 

Siberiac

East Siberian 

Mountainsd

North 

America

Northern 

Europe

Global MIS

Late 

Quaternary

HoloceneQIV Holocene Holocene Holocene Holocene Holocene Interglacial MIS-1

Late 

Pleistoce

ne

QIII4 Sartan Sartan Second 

glaciation

Wisconsi

n

Late

Weichseli

an

Late

Glacial

Stadial MIS-2

QIII3 Kargin Kargin Between 

glaciation

Middle Middle Interstadial MIS-3
23

QIII2 Muruktin Zyryan First 

glaciation

Early Early Stadial MIS-4, 5a-d

QIII1 Kazantsev Kazantsev --- Sangamon Eemian Interglacial MIS-5e

a – Stratigraphy in map tiles R-(55)-57, S-50-52, 

b – Stratigraphy in map tiles P-52-53, S-47-49, P-50-51, Q-50-51

c – Stratigraphy in map tiles Q-52-53

d – Stratigraphy in map tiles Q-54-55, Q-56-57, R-53-(55), S-53-55

Appendix C

Table C1. Ground control points, projections, and resulting Root Mean Square (RMS) error from georeferencing the maps.

Map tile Map name Ground Control Points RMS Error Projection

P-50-51 Olekminsk 21 302 m GK 20N, Pulkovo 1942

P-52-53 Yakutsk 33 236 m GK 22N, Pulkovo 1942

Q-50-51 Zhigansk 20 225 m GK 20N,Pulkovo 1942

Q-52-53 Verkhoyansk 41 142 m GK 22N, Pulkovo 1942

Q-54-55 Khonuu 21 205 m GK 24N, Pulkovo 1942

Q-56-57 Srednekolymsk 21 175 m GK 26N, Pulkovo 1942

R-53-(55) Deputatsky 58 189 m GK 24N, Pulkovo 1942

R-(55)-57 Nizhnekolymsk n.a.1 n.a.1 GK 26N, Pulkovo 1942

S-47-49 Ozero Taymyr 50 257 m GK 18N, Pulkovo 1942

S-50-52 Bykovsky 70 137 m GK 21N, Pulkovo 1942

S-53-55 Novosibirskiye Ostrova 71 127 m GK 24N, Pulkovo 1942

1 Rectification data was not available for this map but is assumed to be similar as for the other map tiles.
24

Appendix D

Table D1. Geologic units in each map tile interpreted as late Pleistocene syngenetic, ice-rich Yedoma deposits.

Map tile Geological unit according to map

Unit code Lithogenetic type Stratigraphy Ground ice signature

Map view Cross-profile view

P-50-51 LIIImr-sr Loess QIII2- QIII4Ice-rich Ice-rich

P-52-53 LIIIsr Loess (cryogenic-eolian deposits) QIII4Ice-rich Syngenetic ice wedges

P-52-53 LIIImr-sr Loess (cryogenic-eolian deposits) QIII2- QIII4Ice-richa-

P-52-53 l,LIIImr-sr Lacustrine and cryogenic-eolian genesis QIII2- QIII4Ice-rich Syngenetic ice wedges

Q-50-51 LIIImr,sr Loess, cryogenic-eolian genesis QIII2- QIII4Ice-rich Syngenetic ice wedges

Q-50-51 LIIIsr Loess, cryogenic-eolian genesis QIII4Ice-rich Syngenetic ice wedges

Q-52-53 kvIIIz-sr Cryogenic-eolian ice-rich deposits QIII2- QIII4- Syngenetic ice wedges

Q-54-55 LIII2-4 Loess QIII2- QIII4Ice-rich Syngenetic ice wedges

Q-54-55 LIII4 Loess QIII4Ice-rich Syngenetic ice wedges

Q-56-57 LIII2+4 Loess-like cryogenic-eolian, lacustrinebog, and lacustrine-alluvial depositsQIII2, QIII4Ice-rich Syngenetic ice wedges

R-53-(55) LIII2-4 Loess (cryogenic-eolian deposits) QIII2- QIII4Ice-rich Syngenetic ice wedges

R-53-(55) d,LIII2-4 Deluvial, loess (cryogenic-eolian deposits) QIII2- QIII4Ice-rich Syngenetic ice wedges

R-(55)-57 LIII2-4 Loess-like lacustrine-alluvial QIII2- QIII4Ice-rich Syngenetic ice wedges

R-(55)-57 LdsIII2-4 Loess-like deluvial-solifluction deposits QIII2- QIII4Ice-rich -

S-47-49 lIIIkr-sr Lacustrine QIII3- QIII4Ice-richa Syngenetic ice wedges

S-47-49 lIIIsr Lacustrine QIII4Ice-richa Syngenetic ice wedges

S-47-49 aIIIsr Alluvial QIII4Ice-richa Syngenetic ice wedges

S-47-49 laIIImr-sr Lacustrine-alluvial QIII2- QIII4Ice-rich Syngenetic ice wedges

S-47-49 laIIIkr-sr Lacustrine-alluvial QIII3- QIII4Ice-rich Syngenetic ice wedges

S-47-49 laIIIkr Lacustrine-alluvial QIII3Ice-richa Syngenetic ice wedges

S-47-49 laIIIsr Lacustrine-alluvial QIII4Ice-rich Syngenetic ice wedges

S-50-52 KIII2-4 Cryogenic complex origins QIII2- QIII4Ice-rich -

S-53-55 KIII2-4 Cryogenic lacustrine-alluvial QIII2- QIII4Ice-rich Syngenetic ice wedges

S-53-55 KII-III Cryogenic lacustrine-alluvial QII - QIII not 

differentiated Ice-rich Syngenetic ice wedges

a

In this unit some polygons lack ice-rich signatures in the map view, while other polygons of the same unit have an ice-rich signature. Our 

map includes all these polygons as Yedoma