Prepared for the General Services Administration

By the National Renewable Energy Laboratory

December 2018

Electrochemical Water 

Treatment for Cooling Towers

Gregg Tomberlin

Jesse Dean

Michael Deru
Alternative Water Technology System for Cooling Tower Applications Page i

Disclaimer

This document was prepared as an account of work sponsored by the United States Government. While this 

document is believed to contain correct information, neither the United States Government nor any agency 

thereof, nor the National Renewable Energy Laboratory, nor any of their employees, makes any warranty, express 

or implied, or assumes any legal responsibility for the accuracy, completeness or usefulness of any information, 

apparatus, product, or process disclosed, or represents that its use would not infringe privately owned rights. 

Reference herein to any specific commercial product, process or service by its trade name, trademark, 

manufacturer, or otherwise does not constitute or imply its endorsement, recommendation or favoring by the 

United States Government or any agency thereof, or the U.S. Department of Energy’s National Renewable Energy 

Laboratory. The views and opinions of authors expressed herein do not necessarily state or reflect those of the 

United States Government or any agency thereof or the National Renewable Energy Laboratory. Funding provided 

by the U.S. General Services Administration. 

The work described in this report was funded by the U.S. General Services Administration and the Federal Energy 

Management Program of the U.S. Department of Energy under Contract No. IAG-11-01815 and Task No. 10438-

01.01.02.

Acknowledgements

United States General Services Administration (GSA) Region 4: James Lackey, Joseph Swinson, Todd Kronlein, 

Cameron Kaminsky, Roger Blakley, Tim Sherrod and Douglas Baughman

GSA GPG Program: Jay Fine and Kevin Powell

National Renewable Energy Laboratory: Michael Deru, Alicen Kandt and Dylan Cutler

Tenfold Information Design Services: Andrea Silvestri

For more information contact:

Gregg Tomberlin

National Renewable Energy Laboratory

15013 Denver West Parkway

Golden, CO 80401

Phone: 303-416-0313

Email: gregg.tomberlin@nrel.gov
Alternative Water Technology System for Cooling Tower Applications Page ii

Executive Summary

Background 

Cooling towers are an integral component of many refrigeration systems, providing comfort or process cooling 

across a broad range of applications. They are the point in the system where heat is dissipated to the 

atmosphere through the evaporative cooling process. Cooling towers are commonly found in industrial 

applications and are also often applied to water-cooled chilled water plants in medium to large commercial 

buildings. Cooling towers used in medium to large commercial buildings are the focus of this paper.

Cooling towers consume a large amount of water. Cooling tower-related water consumption is one of largest 

potable water loads within buildings in the United States, with substantial building water use associated with 

heating and cooling. Reducing water consumption is a priority for the U.S. General Services Administration (GSA) 

and Executive Order 138341 and regional water shortage concerns. These factors have brought about the 

investigation of cost-effective opportunities to reduce water use, such as alternative water treatment (AWT) 

technologies for cooling towers.

Traditional water treatment approaches rely on chemicals to extend the ability of the water to hold scaling 

minerals in suspension, minimize corrosion and prevent biological growth. This treatment protects the chillers 

and cooling tower equipment; however, even when chemicals are used regularly, a certain percentage of 

condenser water must be drained and made up with fresh water to maintain system water quality parameters.

In addition, the use of chemicals sometimes creates a waste disposal issue and can cause building owners to 

incur additional fees, such as disposal or sewer charges. To manage cooling tower water treatment GSA typically 

contracts with a company for a fixed fee specializing in conventional chemical maintenance.

While there are many vendors of AWT systems, this project assesses the effectiveness of one technology 

provided by Dynamic Water Technologies. This project assesses the effectiveness of this technology at lowering 

GSA’s operating costs while maintaining proper water treatment. The application of the this AWT technology in 

place of traditional chemical water treatment has the potential benefits of:

• Saving water and water/sewer costs by reducing the amount of blowdown required, allowing the system 

to operate at higher cycles of concentration;

• Eliminating the need for water treatment chemicals for scale, corrosion and biological growth;

• Increasing chiller efficiency by preventing scaling and removing some of the existing scale, which 

improves heat transfer; and

• Maintaining very low corrosion rates.

The technology was installed at the Juliette Gordon Low Federal Building located in Savannah, Georgia. The 

building is approximately 242,000 square feet. The building has two cooling towers utilizing traditional chemical 

water treatment for the cooling water circulating through the two chiller condensers.

Measurement taken at the site included the flow of makeup water to the cooling towers and the blowdown flow 

rate from the cooling tower basins. Additionally, energy measurements include the electrical energy from the 

chillers, chiller water pumps, condenser water pumps, cooling tower fans, and the energy used by the AWT skid 

and slip stream pump.

 

1 https://www.fedcenter.gov/programs/eo13834/
Alternative Water Technology System for Cooling Tower Applications Page iii

The performance objectives for this evaluation are shown in Table 1 below.

Table 1. Performance Objectives

Quantitative 

Objectives

Metrics & Data Success Criteria M&V Results

Water/Sewer 

Savings

Metered water consumption

Metered blowdown

> 25% makeup water savings

> 75% blowdown/sewer 

Met – Water savings at 31.6%. 

Blowdown volume reduction 

was 99.8%.

Energy 

Savings

Metered chilled water system 

energy consumption

> 10% chiller energy savings Not Met - No energy savings

Maintenance 

Savings

Maintenance records for 

current cost of chemicals and 

labor

100% reduction in added chemicals and 

decrease in maintenance costs, including 

reduced costs for mechanical cleaning 

Met - Chemical usage 

eliminated. Mechanical 

cleaning costs were reduced

Equipment 

Life

Level of corrosion Decrease in corrosivity as documented in 

corrosion coupons 

Not determined – Coupons 

not installed

Water Quality Water quality monitoring Water quality meets site-specific 

standards (may include conductivity, pH, 

hardness, alkalinity, silica, chloride 

anions, salt anions, sulfate anions, 

phosphate, copper, iron, and biological 

th) 

Met - Chlorides increased.

Vendor claims not a corrosion 

issue. Verification 

recommended. Other factors 

in normal range

Cost 

Effectiveness

Savings-to-Investment Ratio 

(SIR)

> 1.0 SIR SIR Met - 1.72

Objective Success Criteria Metrics & Data M&V Results

Ease of 

Installation Positive feedback during 

interview with installer. Time 

required to install and configure

Labor associated with install

< 2 days to install and commission one 

cooling tower

Met

System set-up is a skid with a 

slipstream tie-in at two 

locations only

Operability Positive feedback during 

interview with operations and

maintenance staff

Usability opinion of facility 

operators

Facility operators have no issues with 

technology

Met

Cleaning was lessened

Site Safety Chemicals compared to reactor Elimination of hazardous chemicals, safety 

of titanium reactor anode

Met

Chemical use was eliminated
Alternative Water Technology System for Cooling Tower Applications Page iv

It was anticipated that the primary cost savings for this technology would be water, electric energy, chemicals 

and maintenance labor costs.

Testing consisted of a baseline period where data was collected prior to the installation of the AWT system. At 

the conclusion of the baseline period, the AWT technology was installed and data was collected with the new 

technology in service for comparison. The data acquired during the testing period was adjusted to account for 

differences in ambient temperature and cooling system duty during the two test periods.

Water savings exceeded the target goal by removing solids in the AWT system and reducing the amount of 

blowdown that would have been required to remove those solids. The baseline water consumption of the 

system was measured from June 8,2017 to July 16, 2017 and the AWT water treatment system was monitored 

from July 18,2017 to October 23rd,2017. The water consumption during the testing period was 639,280 gallons. 

It was calculated that the amount of water that would have been consumed without the AWT system in place 

was 934,772 gallons. The water savings from the AWT system is therefore, 31.6%. Water and sewer savings 

were estimated to be $6,662 annually.

The quantity of blowdown during the baseline period was 77,817 gallons. It was calculated from this data that 

the amount of blowdown that would have been discharged during the testing period without the AWT system in 

place was 209,492 gallons. The actual blowdown during the testing period was 307 gallons, or a reduction of 

99.8%.

AWT systems can save energy usage by reducing scale build up on condenser tubes. The savings can be 

substantial as heat transfer is lessened exponentially as buildup on the surfaces occurs. In this case, the system 

did not have buildup during the baseline testing and does not normally see any substantial fouling of condenser 

water heat exchanger tubes. Consequently, the weather normalized energy usage from the baseline period to 

the testing period were found to be negligible. Although the potential for energy savings was not proven, the 

removal of a large amount of solids by the AWT reactor could potentially improve system cleanliness and create 

energy savings.

During the testing period when the AWT system was operating, onsite chemicals were no longer needed to treat 

the cooling tower water. After running the AWT system for over four months without injecting chemicals, the

system did not show any adverse effects. The normal buildup of biological growth in the cooling tower was 

diminished according to the maintenance staff. The chemical savings were estimated to be $4,080 per year and 

the reduced cleaning labor costs were estimated at $1,200 per year.

The total annual savings for the system is estimated to be $6,811 which includes costs for the vendor to service 

and clean its system. The cost of the AWT system equipment was $28,340 including shipping. The largest 

unknown remaining cost is the cost of installation. The total cost to GSA for this installation was $43,057. The 

vendor estimates that the installation cost without the cost burden of the GSA procurement process would be 

$15,000. While it is in the vendor’s best interest to quote a smaller installation cost, the simplicity of the system 

and the minimal interface with the existing equipment would likely entail a lower installation cost than what was 

realized. Procurement should be easier after multiple installations, as well. Per GSA’s request, NREL calculated 

the economics at both values and at an interim average value of $29,029 to install the system. This technology 

does not require further study and is ready for further commercial implementation. The payback periods for all 

three cases are outlined in Table 2.
Alternative Water Technology System for Cooling Tower Applications Page v

Table 2. Economic Summary

Description GSA Install Costs Vendor’s Install 

Estimate

Interim Install 

Cost Estimate

COSTS

UET 1x4 Reactor (dual anode) $28,340 $28,340 $28,340

Shipping $2,000 $2,000 $2,000

Installation/Startup $43,057 $15,000 $29,029

TOTAL INSTALLED COST $73,397 $45,340 $59,369

ANNUAL SAVINGS

Vendor’s O&M Contract Costs -$6,000 -$6,000 -$6,000

Cooling Tower Cleaning Savings $1,200 $1,200 $1,200

Water Savings $7,531 $7,531 $7,531

Chemical Savings $4,080 $4,080 $4,080

TOTAL ANNUAL SAVINGS $6,811 $6,811 $6,811

SIMPLE PAYBACK (Years) 10.8 6.7 8.7

SIR (Savings to Investment Ratio) 1.39 2.25 1.72
Alternative Water Technology System for Cooling Tower Applications Page vi

Table of Contents

Page

Executive Summary......................................................................................................................................ii

I. Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 7

A. What We Studied .......................................................................................................................................7

B. Why We Studied It .....................................................................................................................................9

II. Evaluation Plan................................................................................................................................. 10

A. Evaluation Design.....................................................................................................................................10

B. Instrumentation Plan ...............................................................................................................................13

C. Test Bed Site.............................................................................................................................................14

D. Methodology............................................................................................................................................16

III. Demonstration Results .................................................................................................................... 18

A. Quantitative Results.................................................................................................................................18

B. Qualitative Results ...................................................................................................................................23

C. Cost-Effectiveness....................................................................................................................................24

IV. Summary Findings and Conclusions ................................................................................................ 29

A. Overall Technology Assessment At Demonstration Facility ....................................................................29

B. Lessons Learned and Best Practices.........................................................................................................30

C. Deployment Recommendations ..............................................................................................................30

V. Appendices....................................................................................................................................... 34

A. Research Details.......................................................................................................................................34

B. Economic Analysis....................................................................................................................................34

C. Manufacturer Cut Sheet...........................................................................................................................36

D. Impact on Facility Operations..................................................................................................................38

E. IT Security and Continuity of Connectivity...............................................................................................38

F. Technology Market Readiness.................................................................................................................38

G. Technology Specifications........................................................................................................................38
Alternative Water Technology System for Cooling Tower Applications Page 7

I. Introduction

A. WHAT WE STUDIED

A cooling tower is a heat rejection device that rejects heat to the atmosphere from a water cooled chilled water 

plant. The heat is rejected to the atmosphere through the evaporative cooling process, and cooling towers are 

commonly applied to water cooled chilled water plants in medium and large commercial buildings. The 

continuous evaporation of condenser water leaves behind any mineral content it carried upon entry into the 

condenser water system. The make-up water has a natural amount of mineral impurities (e.g., silica, calcium and

magnesium), so the remaining condenser water will have an ever-increasing amount of impurities as 

progressively more water evaporates. These impurities eventually precipitate out (since water can hold only so 

much of these impurities in suspension), resulting in solid precipitate. This solid precipitate is commonly called 

scale and will collect on various surfaces it is in contact with. Scale has a detrimental effect on heat transfer 

surfaces; it lowers the efficiency of the heat transfer process, causing the chiller to use increasingly more energy 

over time to produce the same amount of cooling. Typical water treatment consists of injecting chemicals into 

the condenser water for the following three purposes:

• Chemicals called “scale inhibitors” alter the natural ability of water so that it can hold a higher 

concentration of minerals. 

• Chemicals called “corrosion inhibitors” decrease corrosion in piping systems.

• Chemicals called “biocides” and “algaecides” mitigate biological growth in the cooling tower where 

warm water is exposed to air.

In addition to the use of chemicals to treat the cooling tower water, a portion of the cooling tower water is typically 

dumped down the drain. This is commonly known as tower blowdown or bleed-off. When blowdown takes place, 

fresh makeup water is introduced, which increases cooling tower water usage.

Therefore, blowdown has the effect of lowering the chemical/mineral content of the remaining condenser water 

and lowers the cycles of concentration (CoC) of the cooling tower. 

The AWT reactor uses electrolysis to split water actively using 15 Amps of direct current to create an acidic 

solution at the anode (a titanium rod) and a basic solution at the cathode (reactor shell). The process promotes 

scaling of the hard minerals and silica to the reactor instead of on the tower and in the heat exchanger tubes. 

Additionally, this process strips hydrogen ions from the chloride naturally present in the water creating chlorine, 

which acts as a biocide and eliminates the need to add a chemical biocide. The figure below shows the piping 

diagram of the cooling tower system with the AWT reactor skid. As shown, there is a slipstream that is extracted 

from the main condenser water loop that flows to the AWT reactor skid and then fed back into the cooling 

tower. This slipstream requires a small circulation pump. 
Alternative Water Technology System for Cooling Tower Applications Page 8

A schematic of the vendor’ssystem is shown below in Figure 1. The schematic shows that the vendor’stechnology 

does not treat the entire cooling water stream, but only a slip stream that is a fraction of the total flow. 

Figure 1. Piping Diagram of Cooling Tower System with AWT Reactor Skid

The two components that need to be measured to account for water savings are (1) water consumption and (2) 

cooling demand of the building. Water consumption was measured via an onsite water meter and tracked on a 

monthly basis for the whole building. Make-up water and blowdown were also directly metered and water 

consumption was recorded on a daily basis for both the baseline and the testing period in this study. 

The heat rejected was measured via the onsite building automation system (BAS) by monitoring the condenser 

loop (cooling tower) supply temperature, return temperature and flow rates. The cooling load data was correlated 

to hourly outdoor air temperature and humidity values to establish the amount of heat rejected by the cooling 

tower as a function of outdoor air temperature. These values are established by trending the BAS output for the 

chiller plant in the building during the period from June to July of 2017. 

The water quality was analyzed through assessment of the water quality reports delivered monthly by the AWT 

vendor, as well as monthly water quality reports provided by the site’s water treatment contractor. These reports 

evaluated: conductivity, pH value, total hardness, alkalinity, silica, chlorides and cycles of concentration (CoC). 

The goal of the AWT system is to not only conserve water in cooling tower operations, but to also deliver cooling 

to each building as efficiently as possible. The impact of the improved chiller operation (due to reduced scale) or 

reduction in cooling tower operation was quantified. 

The AWT system evaluated in the report is a commercialized technology. Given its commercialized state, the 

system evaluated in this report is at a Technology Readiness Level 82 according to NASA definitions.

 

2 https://esto.nasa.gov/files/trl_definitions.pdf

TRL 6 Prototype System Verified (System/process prototype demonstration in an operational environment).

TRL 7 Integrated Pilot System Demonstrated (System/process prototype demonstration in an operational environment).

TRL 8 System Incorporated in Commercial Design (Actual system/process completed and qualified through test and demonstration). 

TRL 9 System Proven and Ready for Full Commercial Deployment (Actual system proven through successful operations in operating 

environment and ready for full commercial deployment). 

TRL 10 Program Management and Market Development/Support Activities

Vendor’s 

Reactor 
Alternative Water Technology System for Cooling Tower Applications Page 9

B. WHY WE STUDIED IT

Cooling tower-related water consumption is one of largest potable water loads within buildings in the United 

States. A breakdown of water consumption in office buildings is provided in Figure 2 and shows that about 28% 

of water use is associated with heating and cooling due to the evaporative cooling demands associated with all 

water-cooled air conditioning systems and evaporative based air conditioners.

Figure 2. Office water end uses3

Cooling towers can be found in all states throughout the country, and this AWT technology could save water in 

most if not all climate zones. Although the technology can save water in practically all climate zone, facilities 

located in hotter climates with a cooling season that lasts for more than five-six months per year will have higher

cooling tower utilization and consequently have greater potential for cooling tower water savings.

Although the number of cooling towers in each GSA region is unknown, it is expected that each region has 

numerous cooling towers that could assist in reducing water consumption for each GSA region.

 

3 https://www.epa.gov/watersense/types-facilities
Alternative Water Technology System for Cooling Tower Applications Page 10

II. Evaluation Plan

A. EVALUATION DESIGN

Study design and objectives

The technology evaluated in this report was assessed according to two main criteria set out by GSA in the 

original request for proposals (RFP).

1) Effectiveness of AWT in meeting a predetermined set of criteria that constitutes proper water quality. 

These criteria were developed by a consultant to GSA under a previous contract and were used in this 

study to determine whether the AWT systems assessed met the water quality criteria. 

2) Effectiveness of AWT system in reducing GSA operating costs (water costs, energy costs and operation 

and maintenance (O&M) costs)

Common make-up water quality and local weather conditions allowed for comparison of baseline vs. the AWT 

case (see section II.E for a detailed description of the technology). The principal variable that changed between 

the baseline and the AWT Case was the quantity of cooling required and, therefore, the amount of heat rejected 

(and water evaporated) by the cooling tower. The normalization of water savings to cooling demand allowed for 

effective comparison of the AWT technology to standard water treatment technologies. It also enables the 

estimation of savings for other buildings. With appropriate metering of the water consumption and cooling 

demand at other GSA sites it is possible to predict potential water savings that may be achievable with the AWT 

system assessed here. 

This report addresses water, energy and cost savings associated with the AWT system, and the water quality 

provided by the AWT system. To quantify the performance of the AWT system, metering equipment was 

installed to measure data for inputs, outputs and delivered results. This data were used to model the overall 

performance of the AWT system with respect to water use, energy use and water quality. This performance 

based modeling approach enabled the comparison of AWT system to the baseline water treatment system using 

the same framework. Using the data gathered from the baseline and the testing period, the performance 

objectives were analyzed for compliance. 
Alternative Water Technology System for Cooling Tower Applications Page 11

Table 3. Quantitative Objectives

Quantitative 

Objectives

Metrics & Data Success Criteria

Water/Sewer 

Savings

Metered water 

consumption

Metered blowdown

> 25% makeup water savings

> 75% blowdown/sewer savings 

Energy Savings Metered chilled water 

system energy 

consumption

> 10% chiller energy savings 

Maintenance 

Savings

Maintenance records 

for current cost of 

chemicals and labor

100% reduction in added chemicals and decrease in maintenance 

costs, including eliminated costs for mechanical cleaning is less 

than the annualized costs for cleaning and maintaining the new 

system

Equipment Life Level of corrosion Decrease in corrosivity, as documented in corrosion coupons 

Water Quality Water quality 

monitoring

Water quality meets site-specific standards (attributes of interest 

may include conductivity, pH, hardness, alkalinity, silica high 

range, chloride anions, salt anions, sulfate anions, phosphate, 

copper, iron, and biological growth) 

Cost 

Effectiveness

SIR > 1.0 SIR
Alternative Water Technology System for Cooling Tower Applications Page 12

Table 4. Qualitative Objectives

Objective Metrics & Data Success Criteria 

Ease of 

Installation

< 2 days to install and commission one 

cooling tower

Positive feedback during interview with 

installer

Time required to install & configure. 

Labor associated with install

Operability Facility operators have no issues with 

technology

Positive feedback during interview with 

O&M personnel. Usability opinion of 

facility operators

Site Safety Elimination of hazardous chemicals, 

safety of titanium reactor anode

Chemicals compared to reactor

The two components that need to be measured to account for water savings are (1) water consumption and (2) 

cooling demand of the building. Water consumption was measured via an onsite water meter and tracked on a 

monthly basis for the whole building. Make-up water and blow down were also directly metered and water 

consumption was recorded on a daily basis for both the baseline and the AWT case in this study. 

The chiller energy used from each monitoring period was measured via the onsite data acquisition system by 

monitoring the condenser loop (cooling tower) supply temperature and return temperature. The condenser loop 

flow rate was determined from pressure drop readings across the condenser pumps. The cooling load data were

correlated to hourly outdoor air temperature and humidity values to establish the amount of heat rejected by 

the cooling tower as a function of outdoor air temperature. 

The water quality was analyzed through assessment of the monthly water quality reports. These reports 

evaluated conductivity, pH value, total hardness and nitrites.

Water Quality

GSA has developed the water chemistry standards shown in table 5, as a guideline to determine the 

acceptability of cooling tower basin water quality for a given water treatment technology. Operations staff and 

water treatment technology vendors performed monthly monitoring of these parameters to characterize 

performance of the system. It should be noted that adherence to these ranges is not the only indicator of a 

technology’s success. The operation of a water treatment technology is unique and as the function of the 

materials used in its design may result in water quality that falls outside the ranges defined in the project 

specifications. These chemistry standards were established for guidance in this particular project location. In the 

application of these criteria, a site should consider site-specific water quality constraints, whether due to 

influent potable water or discharge permit limitations, and make selections accordingly.
Alternative Water Technology System for Cooling Tower Applications Page 13

Table 5. Water Quality Criteria (as defined by GSA)

Test Acceptable Ranges

T alkalinity (ppm) 100 - 1000

pH 7.3 – 9.0

Chloride (ppm) 10 - 500

Cycles of concentration >2

Total Hardness (ppm) 500 - 1500

Phosphate (ppm) 8 - 15

Conductivity (mmHos) <2400

Bacteria Count (cfu) <80,000

Water Appearance Clear

Iron (ppm) <4

Calcium Hardness (ppm) <500

Magnesium Hardness (ppm) <100

Chlorides (ppm) <250

Salt (ppm) <410

Sulfates (ppm) <250

Silica (ppm) <150

ORP (mV) >300

90-day Copper Coupon (mpy) <0.2

90-day Mild Steel Coupon (mpy) <3

90-day Galvanized Steel (mpy) <4

90-day Stainless Steel (mpy) <0.1

B. INSTRUMENTATION PLAN

The goal of the instrumentation plan for this technology demonstration focused on metering water and 

energy use of the building cooling towers and chillers. To develop this measurement, instrumentation was 

added for the following data points described in Table 6:
Alternative Water Technology System for Cooling Tower Applications Page 14

Table 6. Monitoring Points and Instrumentation

Monitoring Point Sensor/Monitor Notes

Condenser water flow rate Pump differential pressure readings Remote indication capability

Blowdown flow rate FTB4600 series totalizing flow meter 1/2 inline PVC line

Blowdown conductivity Existing Site Meter (Lakewood Model 140 controller) Mounted in line. Tie into 4-20 mA output

Makeup water flow rate FTB4600 series totalizing flow meter 3/4 inline, replace existing meter

Chiller power (x2) CTs and watt-hour meter 3-400 A CTs, WNC- 3Y-480 wattnode 

Cooling tower fan power (x2) CTs and watt-hour meter 3-50 A CTs, WNC- 3Y-480 wattnode

Chilled water pumps (x2) CTs and watt-hour meter 3-50 A CTs, WNC- 3Y-480 wattnode

Condenser water pumps (x2) CTs and watt-hour meter 3-50 A CTs, WNC- 3Y-480 wattnode

AWT reactor skid CTs and watt-hour meter

Slip-stream pump CTs and watt-hour meter

Condenser inlet water temperature (x2) Thermocouple Mounted in well

Condenser outlet water temperature (x2) Thermocouple Mounted in well

Chiller status Derived from electric metering

Ambient dry bulb temperature Vaisala HMP60 T&RH sensor with shield

Ambient relative humidity Included in T&RH sensor above

Data logging equipment 3 Campbell Scientific CR1000 data loggers with cell 

phone modem, required peripheries, and other 

supplies

C. TEST BED SITE

One GSA building in Savannah, Georgia was selected as the installation site for this study: Juliette Gordon Low 

Federal Building. There are two cooling towers at the building and traditional chemical water treatment was used

in the towers prior to the AWT installation.

The AWT reactor uses electrolysis to split water actively using 15 Amps of direct current to create an acidic solution 

at the anode (a titanium rod) and a basic solution at the cathode (reactor shell). The AWT system treats a

slipstream that is pulled off of the main condenser water loop that flows to the AWT reactor skid and then fed 

back into the cooling tower. This slipstream requires a small circulation pump. 

The system includes the reactor skid and the slipstream circulation pump, which are shown in Figure 3.
Alternative Water Technology System for Cooling Tower Applications Page 15

Figure 3. AWT System and Associated Piping and Pumping (Credit: Gregg Tomberlin, NREL)

Photos of cleaning the AWT reactor are shown below. The left photo shows pulling the reactor anode (titanium 

rod) from the reactor shell (cathode). The center photo shows the magnesium and calcium buildup on the anode 

and the right photo shows the anode after cleaning. Cleaning of the reactor is easily accomplished by scraping off 

buildup from the anode. No chemicals are used in the process.
Alternative Water Technology System for Cooling Tower Applications Page 16

Figure 4. Cleaning the AWT System (Credit: Gregg Tomberlin, NREL)

D. METHODOLOGY

The effectiveness of the technology was demonstrated by comparing test data during a baseline demonstration

period with test data after the AWT system was installed. Testing was performed during the peak cooling season 

when the chillers were operating on regular basis.

After all instrumentation was installed and tested, the data collection began for the baseline test period. The 

demonstration test period with the AWT system installed began after baseline data had been collected. A schedule

using the months of June to July for the baseline period and July to October for the demonstration test period is 

shown in Figure 5. 

Baseline Testing Period Demonstration Testing Period 

June 8, 2017 through July 16, 2017 July 18, 2017 through October 23, 2017

Figure 5. Baseline and Testing Schedules
Alternative Water Technology System for Cooling Tower Applications Page 17

The data obtained was used to evaluate if the AWT system represents an improvement in the system’s use of 

water and chemicals. The local water cost at this site averaged $6.64 per kgal which was used to calculate 

annual water cost savings. Additionally, the savings in water was calculated using the much higher GSA regional 

average water cost of $16.76 per kgal4

. Annual chemical savings and any savings in maintenance costs are added 

to the system’s overall savings. No energy savings were realized or included in the economics. The savings were 

compared to the costs, including capital costs and any additional maintenance costs required by the AWT 

system. The results yield both a simple payback in years and a savings-to-investment ratio (SIR). 

 

4 Average water costs of all 11 GSA regions for fiscal year 2017.
Alternative Water Technology System for Cooling Tower Applications Page 18

III. Demonstration Results

A. QUANTITATIVE RESULTS

Water Savings

To accurately assess the water savings from the AWT system, it was necessary to calculate pre-installation 

cooling tower water usage. Makeup water and blowdown was metered prior to the installation of the AWT 

system at the Juliette Gordon Low Federal Building from June 8 to July 16, 2017 in order to develop a baseline. 

The AWT increased the CoC by modifying the conductivity setpoint on the cooling tower controller. The initial 

setting was 680 microsiemens (μS). During the test period, the setting was raised to 1,400 μS and finally 2,500 

μS. The figure below shows the metered data for the makeup water and blowdown along with the startup 

time of the AWT system. As shown, there was a 99% reduction in blowdown after the installation of the AWT 

system. The baseline CoC averaged 3.9. Once the AWT system was engaged, very little water was blown down 

making the CoC increase into uncharted territory when using the water balance calculation. The high removal 

of solids internally make this type of CoC calculation a less valuable indicator for comparison with other types 

of technologies. 

Linear regression is used to model the relationship between two variables by fitting a linear equation to 

observed data. One variable is considered to be an explanatory variable, and the other is considered to be a 

dependent variable. The baseline regression model was used to predict how much water the baseline system 

would have used compared to the new system. A confidence interval of 95% was applied to the model to also 

predict the savings estimates upper and lower bounds.
Alternative Water Technology System for Cooling Tower Applications Page 19

Figure 6. Make-up Water and Blowdown Metering Pre-AWT and Post-AWT Installation

Data Analysis Using a Linear Regression Model

The first multi-variable linear regression model was created using the following input variables to correlate 

hourly cooling tower make-up water usage as a function of chiller plant condenser ton hours or chiller plant 

energy usage and outside air conditions.

• Outside Air Temperature (OAT) – hourly outside air temperature recorded from NREL’s onsite data 

loggers

• Outside Air Relative Humidity (OA_RH) – hourly outside air relative humidity recorded from NREL’s 

onsite data loggers

• Chiller Plant Electricity (Chiller_Elec) – hourly total chiller plant energy usage from a combination of 

chillers, pumps and cooling towers, calculated based on NREL’s onsite data logger readings

• Chiller Plant Ton Hours (Chiller_Ton.Hrs) – hourly total chiller plant condenser ton hours, calculated 

based on NREL’s onsite data logger readings

• Weekday/Weekend (Wkd_Wknd) – Each weekday was given a designation of 1 and each weekend day 

and federal holiday was given a designation of 0 to account for days when the facility is unoccupied and 

to account for its impacts on chiller energy usage and cooling tower make-up water usage.
Alternative Water Technology System for Cooling Tower Applications Page 20

All of the variables other than the Weekday / Weekend variables were converted into coded variables that had 

values ranging from -1 to 1 to give them all the same range of possible values and to help improve the fit of the 

model. A linear regression model that included all terms as explanatory variables was created, including both 

squared and interaction terms between explanatory variables to identify the variables with the highest statistical 

significance (P value less than 0.05). From this statistical significance analysis, a final linear regression model that 

had the highest R2 and lowest normalized root mean square error was created and is provided in Equation 1.

Equation 1. Baseline Hourly Cooling Tower Makeup Water Regression

CCCCCCCCCCCCCC TT TTTTTT MMMMMM MMMM WW WW

= cc0 + (cc1 ∙ CCCCh _EE ) + (cc2 ∙ WWWWWW_WW NN ) + (cc3 ∙ CCCCCC ∙ CCCCCC_RRRR)

+ (cc4 ∙ CCCCCC ∙ CCCCh _EE )

where: 

CChiller_Elec = coded hourly chiller energy usage [ -1=min to +1=max]

WKD_WKND = weekday or weekend/holiday [ 1 = Weekday or 0 = Weekend ]

COAT x COA_RH = coded outside air temperature times coded outside air relative humidity[ -1=min to 

+1=max]

COAT x CChiller_Elec = coded outside air temperature times coded chiller electricity usage [ -1=min to 

+1=max]

The linear regression model was selected to ensure that the explanatory variables used in the model have pvalues less than 0.05. The explanatory variables that had the highest statistical impact were coded chiller plant 

energy usage, Weekday/Weekend, coded outside air temperature and coded outside air relative humidity, 

which would all be expected to impact the hourly cooling tower make-up water usage. The adjusted R2 for the 

model is 90.35% and the normalized root mean square error for the model is 6.24%. The coefficients for each 

explanatory variable are provided in Table 7.

Table 7. Hourly Baseline Cooling Tower Make-up Water Linear Regression Model Coefficients 

Hourly Baseline Model Variables Coefficient Values

r squared 0.9035

Intercept 271.10

CChiller_Elec 228.55

WKD_WKND 16.26

COAT 72.67

COA_RH -59.52

COAT x COA_RH -68.88

CChiller_Elec x COAT -29.66
Alternative Water Technology System for Cooling Tower Applications Page 21

A final check of model prediction was performed that compared the actual cooling tower make-up water to the 

modeled cooling tower make-up water in Figure 7, and it shows that that there is a good correlation between 

the two.

Figure 7. Hourly Baseline Period Cooling Tower Make-up Water vs Predicted Cooling Tower

Make-up Water Usage (kgals)

In the regression analysis, since the data available for 6/8/2017, was a partial day, the baseline period for the 

regression analysis was 6/9/2017, to 7/16/2017, and the predicted hourly cooling tower make-up water usage 

was output and compared to the measured data. For the entire baseline period, the cooling tower make-up water 

usage was 301,438 gallons, and the predicted cooling tower make-up water usage was 301,535 gallons, with a

percent difference of the two of 0.032%, indicating a very good fit for the baseline model.

Using the prediction curves and applying the data, the make-up water usage for the post-installation reporting 

period was 639,280 gallons and the baseline system was estimated to use 934,772 gallons, with a savings of 

295,492 gallons for this period, or 31.6%. The estimated water usage for the baseline system using the lower 

bound was 913,403 gallons and the estimated make-up water usage for the baseline system using the upper 

bound was 956,142 gallons, representing a 30.0% and 33.1% savings respectively. Water savings averaged 31.6% 

from the baseline testing to the test period utilizing the AWT system. Make-up water flows and regression analysis 

parameters are shown below.
Alternative Water Technology System for Cooling Tower Applications Page 22

Table 8. Make-up Water Test Period versus Modeled Make-up Water for Baseline

(7/18/2017, to 10/23/2017)

Make Up Water Post Retrofit Make Up Water Usage (gallons)

Make-up – Test Period 639,280

Make-up - Baseline fit 934,772

Make-up - Baseline lower 913,403

Make-up - Baseline upper 956,142

Table 9. Quantitative Savings

Baseline Performance Technology Performance % Savings Compared to Baseline

934,772 gallons used 639,280 gallons used 31.6 %

The site water use reduction for a full 12 months is estimated to be 1,133,857 gallons.

Energy Savings

Energy savings claims for the AWT system are based on the technology’s ability to remove scale from a system 

that has existing fouling and to keep systems that normally foul from fouling between cleanings. Scale build-up on 

heat exchanger tubes can reduce heat transfer substantially with only a thin layer of scale. This loss in heat transfer 

results in higher energy use to achieve the desired performance. The ability to clean the cooling water enough 

that it will diminish scale build-ups has the potential to create significant energy savings. The energy used in the 

system was measured on all relevant components for both the baseline period and the testing period. There was 

little or no change in energy consumption between the two periods of operation. The plant operating staff stated 

that the condenser tubes do not show scaling under normal operations and there is only a small amount of 

“dusting” on the tubes where material settles during shut down. Because the tubes are not fouled, there was no 

opportunity to decrease fouling and save energy. Therefore, the results of the energy savings are deemed to be 

zero, but the potential for energy savings may still exist where substantial condenser tube fouling exists.

Chemical Savings

The manufacturer of the AWT system claims that chemicals are not required when its system is in operation. 

The baseline period utilized the normal chemical injection scheme that costs the site about $4,080 per year. 

When the AWT testing period began, the chemical dosing systems were taken out of service and no chemicals 

were used for the remainder of the testing. For this savings to be considered, the resulting water quality needs 

to be in line with system norms and GSA standards. Additionally, inspection of the system after testing should 

show no increase in algae build-up at the cooling tower fill and basin. The final inspection showed a reduction in 

this biological build-up, allowing for a reduction in cooling tower cleaning frequency. 
Alternative Water Technology System for Cooling Tower Applications Page 23

Water Quality

On a monthly basis, cooling towers are tested for effectiveness of water treatment, including pH, TDS, 

conductivity, biological dosage level, scale, and corrosion inhibitors. Chemicals and biological treatment dosage 

and water blowdown rate are adjusted, as required. Make-up water is tested to determine the appropriate 

levels for chemical dosing. GSA typically runs a cooling tower that uses standard chemical-based water 

treatment between 3 to 6 CoC. 

The AWT system increases the cycles of concentration for the cooling towers which decreases blowdown and 

saves water. The blowdown can be decreased because the elements that the blowdown is trying to eliminate 

are collected in the AWT reactor. In any case, changes in the setting of the conductivity controller will reduce 

blowdown and water costs. Water testing was required to verify that the AWT system’s approach did not 

negatively affect the water quality in ways that are unacceptable. Water quality while using the AWT system 

resulted in a water chemistry that is in line with GSA standards. 

The only constituent that changed substantially was chlorides (Cl-

). Chloride levels rose with the AWT system 

from 92 ppm in the tower basin up to 400 ppm four months later. As the concentration of Cl- increases, stainless 

steel corrosion can take place although levels below 1,000 ppm are generally not concerning. The AWT system 

does leave a high concentration of calcium ions (Ca++) in the water which will mitigate corrosion issues. In order 

to insure that this is not an issue, chloride levels should be monitored regularly and the use of corrosion coupons 

or a corrosion monitoring device that uses linear polarization resistance (LPR) should be used in all systems.

B. QUALITATIVE RESULTS

Building staff were interviewed after the testing was completed to understand any qualitative changes in 

operational or maintenance issues. Comments for relevant areas are shown below:

Ease of Installation

The AWT system consists of a skid with a small footprint. Setting the skid, wiring and plumbing are 

straightforward. The system does require compressed air and the manufacturer of the AWT system initially 

assumed that building air would be available for its use. It was communicated to the manufacturer of the AWT 

system that tying into GSA building air systems is not allowed practice. Consequently, the manufacturer of the 

AWT system purchased a compressor that was installed with the system. The installation is separate from the 

main cooling system only treating a portion of the flow. If the skid can be located close to the cooling water 

supply and return piping, the slip stream piping runs are short. The ties into the cooling water systems do not 

take much time or expense. Maybe the most challenging aspect is getting the skid to the upper levels of the 

building where the cooling towers are normally located. For the Juliette Gordon Low building, the skid was 

about four feet long and a little over a foot wide with a height of about five and half feet. The equipment weighs 

less than five hundred pounds dry. Most buildings are capable of handling equipment of this size without issue.

Operations and Staff Acceptance

Overall operation 

Care of the water system was overseen by a chemical company with a representative that visited the site weekly 

to test the water and make any necessary changes to the water treatment system. The site reported that the AWT 

equipment did not present any difficult operational issues, although water testing is still required for the system.

Since the chemical usage will be abandoned, the testing that was done by the chemical company must be done 
Alternative Water Technology System for Cooling Tower Applications Page 24

by another entity. This will be accomplished by contracting the manufacturer of the system for a maintenance 

contract that includes sampling. The costs for this contract are included in the economic analysis of the system.

Cooling Tower Condition (overall cleanliness) 

Prior to testing the AWT system, there was a concern that removing the biocide from the water would result in a 

build-up of algae in the cooling towers. Site personnel stated that the cooling towers were in better condition and 

required less cleaning after using the AWT system. The AWT reactor generates chlorine and it lessened the buildup 

of a dark slimy substance that was normally present. This results in reducing the annual cleanings from four times 

to two. This translates to a $1,200 annual savings.

Chiller Condensers Condition (overall cleanliness) 

No difference reported. The tubes typically have a slight “dusting” of loose particles that are brushed out during 

a cleaning. After utilizing the AWT system, the condition of the condenser tubes was the same. The manufacturer 

of the system claimed that their system would clean up existing condenser tube scale.

Input from the Facility Managers 

In general, the site staff liked the AWT system. The only concern expressed was the availability of assistance going 

forward. Having a “chemical guy” that visits the site once a week generated a close working relationship. If 

anything went wrong, someone could be on site quickly or could answer questions by phone. This is an issue of 

customer service. The manufacturer of the system has not had a chance to prove its customer service capabilities 

as of yet.

The technology was well received overall. The operations and maintenance agreement will be important to the 

staff going forward. A clear and specific maintenance agreement regarding what is being provided and what is 

expected of the staff on site could mitigate concerns and reduce risk 

Site Safety

Site safety can be affected by several factors. With regards to the AWT system, no new safety hazards were 

introduce by installing the skid and tie in points. Site safety is improved by the fact that chemicals will be removed 

from the site. Chemical usage is a common safety concern for transportation, changing chemical tanks, storage

and feed systems. The removal of all chemicals will increase site safety for these reasons and the will eliminate 

the potential for dangerous chemical spills.

C. COST-EFFECTIVENESS

The primary savings on the project were projected to be water, electric energy, chemicals and maintenance 

labor costs; energy and water were anticipated to contribute the most savings. Water savings exceeded the 

target goal by removing solids in the AWT reactor and reducing the amount of blowdown that would have been 

required to remove those solids. Water related cost savings were estimated to be $6,662 annually.

Savings in energy can be realized when build-up on heat exchanger surfaces is removed or if build-up that 

normally occurs does not occur due to the systems performance. The savings can be substantial, as heat transfer 

is lessened exponentially as build-up on the surfaces occurs. In this case, the system did not have build-up during 

the baseline testing and does not normally see any substantial fouling of heat exchanger tubes in the 

condensers. This is the reason that no energy savings were observed in this time limited evaluation. The claimed 

cleaning effect of the system was not given an opportunity to perform as the system normally runs clean. This is 

not the case in all facilities and keeping the condenser tubes clean can have a dramatic effect on heat transfer 
Alternative Water Technology System for Cooling Tower Applications Page 25

and energy savings. The AWT system’s ability to clean tubes or keep tubes clean remains unconfirmed, but could 

potentially increase savings by creating energy savings under different circumstances.

Chemical usage was eliminated during the AWT testing period. Lack of a biocide in the system might be a 

concern but the AWT system claims to generate biocide. After running the AWT system for over four months 

without injecting biocide, the system did not show any adverse effects. The normal build-up of biological growth 

in the cooling tower was actually diminished according to the maintenance staff. Not only does this create 

chemical savings, but the need to clean the cooling tower is estimated to be reduced by 50%. The savings 

realized from the elimination of chemical usage and the supply contract will be $4,080 per year. These savings 

are offset by the cost of the annual AWT maintenance contract estimated to be $6,000. This cost includes 

quarterly site visits for inspection and preventative maintenance, including AWT reactor cleaning. The cost also 

includes all consumables, water analyses and monthly water reports. Utilizing the manufacturer’s annual service 

contract increases the system warranty from 10 years to 20 years. 

The reduced cleaning labor costs will be about $1,200 per year. These figures account for the $6,000 annual cost 

for the manufacturer of the system to care for and maintain the system. The costs for AWT support include field 

trips to the site. The costs were calculated for site visits to Savannah, GA, but may vary for other locations due to 

increased travel costs.

The cost of the AWT system equipment was $30,340, including shipping. The largest unknown remaining is the 

cost of installation. The total costs to GSA for this installation was $43,057. The manufacturer of the AWT system

estimates that the installation cost without the cost burden of the GSA procurement process would be $15,000. 

The simplicity of the system and the minimal interface with the existing equipment suggest a lower cost than 

what was realized. Procurement could be easier after multiple installations as well. Per GSA’s request, NREL 

calculated the economics at both values and at an interim average value of $29,029 to install the system. The 

payback period for all three cases are outlined below.

The cost of water is a primary determinant in whether the economics are favorable. For this evaluation, an 

average water price was calculated using the last 12 months of data available. Table 10 below shows the data 

and the result of $6.64 per thousand gallons of water used. The costs shown include the price for sewer 

disposal.
Alternative Water Technology System for Cooling Tower Applications Page 26

Table 10. Historical Water Costs

Year Month Usage Cost Cost/kgal

2016 November 201,212 $1,319 $6.56

2016 December 201,212 $1,322 $6.57

2017 January 147,107 $983 $6.68

2017 February 147,107 $983 $6.68

2017 March 147,107 $983 $6.68

2017 April 330,242 $2,184 $6.61

2017 May 330,242 $2,184 $6.61

2017 June 434,089 $2,806 $6.46

2017 July 434,089 $2,806 $6.46

2017 August 434,089 $2,806 $6.46

2017 September 390,830 $2,720 $6.96

2017 October 390,830 $2,720 $6.96

Total Annual Usage 3,588,156 Average $6.64

The cost of water and the overall water savings were added to Table 11, below, along with the other relevant cost 

factors to develop a simple payback period in years. While the average cost of water at the site is $6.64 per kgal, 

the average water cost across GSA regions is $16.76 per kgal. Additionally, the average water costs for GSA regions 

has increased by 41% between 2014 and 2017. These higher costs and the propensity for escalation work to 

substantially reduce the payback periods for the technology. A simple payback period was calculated for both 

water rates as shown below.
Alternative Water Technology System for Cooling Tower Applications Page 27

Table 11. Economic Assessment Worksheet (Retrofit)

Description GSA Install Costs AWT Install 

Estimate

Estimated Install 

Cost Estimate

COSTS

UET 1x4 Reactor (dual anode) $28,340 $28,340 $28,340

Shipping $2,000 $2,000 $2,000

Installation/Startup $43,057 $15,000 $29,029

TOTAL INSTALLED COST $73,397 $45,340 $59,369

ANNUAL SAVINGS

AWT O & M Contract Costs -$6,000 -$6,000 -$6,000

Cooling Tower Cleaning Savings $1,200 $1,200 $1,200

Water Savings5 $7,531 $7,531 $7,531

Chemical Savings $4,080 $4,080 $4,080

TOTAL ANNUAL SAVINGS $6,811 $6,811 $6,811

Using Savannah Water Costs 

SIR (Savings-to-Investment Ratio) 1.39 2.25 1.72

SIMPLE PAYBACK (Years) 10.8 6.7 8.7

Using GSA Avg. Water Costs 

SIR (Savings-to-Investment Ratio) 3.74 6.05 4.62

SIMPLE PAYBACK (Years) 4.0 2.5 3.2

1Using current technology costs provided by vendor and installation costs. 2Equipment lifespan is 20 years.

Table 12, below shows the payback period sensitivity to water costs using the costs above for the estimated

installation costs in the right hand column of Table 11.

 

5 Based on water cost of $6.64 per thousand gallons (kgal). 
Alternative Water Technology System for Cooling Tower Applications Page 28

Table 12. Payback Sensitivity to Water Costs6

PAYBACK using GSA avg. 

EUAS2017 water cost of 

$16.76 per kgal

Cost of Water 

($/kgal)

Simple 

Payback 

(years)

$6.00 9.8 

$8.00 7.1 

$10.00 5.6 

$12.00 4.6 

$14.00 3.9 

$16.00 3.4 

$18.00 3.0 

$20.00 2.7 

$22.00 2.4 

$24.00 2.2 

 

6 Using interim install cost estimate from Table 11.
Alternative Water Technology System for Cooling Tower Applications Page 29

IV. Summary Findings and Conclusions

A. OVERALL TECHNOLOGY ASSESSMENT AT DEMONSTRATION FACILITY

GSA installed the AWT system in the Juliette Gordon Low Federal Building in Savannah, Georgia, to test whether 

the technology could maintain adequate water quality while conserving water, saving energy, and reducing 

operating costs. (The determination of adequate water quality was made based on a previously developed set of 

benchmarks.)

The economics of the AWT system are shown in Table 11, above. The AWT system showed substantial water 

savings at 31.6%. The potential for energy savings was not yet proven, although the removal of a large amount of 

solids by the AWT reactor could potentially improve system cleanliness and create energy savings. 

Implementation decisions should not be made on the assumption of energy savings until further evidence is 

shown. 

Calculating the water reduction based on chiller load (gals/ton-hr) provides a metric for comparison to other 

facilities. The evaporation portion can be calculated with the equation:

EE = FF × QQ

∆ vvvvvv × 8.34 ll/

• EE is the gallons of water evaporated 

• FF is a factor expressing the ratio of latent to sensible cooling (usually a value between 0.75 and 1, 

with a value of one dictating total latent cooling)

• QQ is the cooling required by the tower (can be calculated using mṁCC ∆TT)

• ∆ vvvvvv is the latent heat of vaporization of water (approximately 1000 Btu/lb at sea level and 

closer to 976 at Denver’s altitude).

If QQ is set to be 12,000 Btu (or one ton), the lower limit for gallons per ton-hr can be calculated as between 1.10-

1.32 gal/ton-hr. (depending on FF, the portion of cooling that is latent vs. sensible). The equivalent ton on the 

cooling tower side rejects 15,000 Btu/hr due to the heat-equivalent of the energy needed to drive the chiller's 

compressor, in which case the lower limit for condenser side gallons per ton-hr is 1.375 to 1.65 gal/ton-hr.

Baseline gal/ton hr = 1.63 x (15,000/12,000) = 2.0375 gal/ton-hr

New gal/ton-hr = 1.12 x (15,000/12,000) = 1.4 gal/ton-hr

The key variable in the economic calculations is the installation cost. The costs for a GSA installation are higher on 

the first installation than subsequent installations due to unfamiliarity with the system and the nuances associated 

with the install. The costs for this installation totaled $73,397 for skid mounted equipment that only cost $28,340. 

This ratio of installation costs to capital cost is high by industry standards. It is assumed that the costs for 

installation could drop substantially for future installations. Further investigation into the cost breakdown for this 

installation could reveal areas where money could be saved.
Alternative Water Technology System for Cooling Tower Applications Page 30

As shown in the economic assessment, three separate cases were run with three different installation costs. An 

average of the actual cost on this project and the manufacturer’s cost estimate is shown in case cost reductions 

can be realized for future projects.

B. LESSONS LEARNED AND BEST PRACTICES

The installation of the AWT system only required a small footprint and a simple tie in process. Since the installation 

and the removal of the technology are not invasive to the balance of the system, risk is mitigated. For the AWT 

system, the slipstream water treatment can be valved out and chemicals re-introduced at any time. The risk is 

then limited to the capital outlay and some technologies can be installed on a trial basis and removed if 

performance is not per the guarantee. 

Corrosion is a concern in water cooling systems. Testing corrosion is difficult and the standard methodology is to 

use corrosion coupons. Coupons are measured and weighed pieces of metal. They are made of the metals of 

interest like copper, mild steel or stainless steel. Measuring corrosion using coupons is tricky as they require long 

periods of testing to see results. Additionally, short term upsets that are corrosive are not measured. Scale buildup on coupons can shield them from corrosive agents yielding mixed results. Newer technologies can measure 

corrosive environments on an instantaneous basis. Linear Polarization Resistance (LPR) is an electrochemical 

method for measuring the corrosion rate of a material in primarily aqueous environments. 

C. DEPLOYMENT RECOMMENDATIONS

Cooling tower performance depends on a variety of factors, many of which are location specific. Variables such as 

ambient air quality are specific to the site location and tower location on the site (e.g. airborne particulate matter), 

and seasonal changes have the potential to affect the observed operation of each technology evaluated. These 

factors can contribute to biological growth or mineral deposits that require additional chemicals.

Given that cooling tower performance is a function of wet bulb temperature, cooling tower performance and the 

amount of cooling delivered for each technology will also vary by site. Sites in dry climates with low wet bulb 

design temperatures are favorable for evaporative cooling systems. Variability in technology performance may 

also be a function of the type of cooling tower being used. The footprint of a given technology may vary with 

respect to the cooling tower size, and may impact the feasibility of its installation.

As important as the quantity of water used is the cost of water at the facility. Water cost savings is equal to the 

gallons saved times the cost per gallon. Areas with high water costs are of special interest. 

Potable water quality is highly variable across the United States. The performance of these technologies is a 

function of the quality of influent water that is treated. Locations with high hardness, pH or TDS values typically 

have higher water and chemical usages. These are the sites that also have the greatest opportunity for savings.

The AWT system is well suited for both retrofit and new construction applications.

Rebate opportunities may be available through local water utilities to implement water conserving technologies. 

The availability of these financial incentives can make the technology implementation even more cost effective.

Market Potential within the GSA Portfolio

The first step in evaluation of further deployment of these AWT systems is the identification of buildings in the

GSA portfolio that have water cooled chillers. These are typically larger buildings where the high cooling loads 

benefit from the improved efficiency of water cooled chiller plants (and where the higher initial cost of a chiller 

plant is warranted due to higher loads). 
Alternative Water Technology System for Cooling Tower Applications Page 31

The next step in site selection is identifying sites where the AWT system will perform well economically. To assist 

GSA in identifying sites that have high potential water and cost savings, or both, NREL modeled water savings 

potential using the whole-building modeling software EnergyPlus in a previous NREL/GSA GPG report entitled 

‘Alternative Water Treatment Technology System for Cooling Tower Applications’. The “Large Office” building 

model was selected from the Commercial Reference Buildings that are developed and maintained by DOE/NREL. 

The Commercial Reference Buildings are a set of EnergyPlus building models that represent typical building types 

and constructions, and include climate-specific models (per building type) for each of the 16 different ASHRAE 

climate zones. For the modeling analysis included in this report, the “post-1980” construction model was utilized. 

The large office building model is a 498,588 ft2 office building that is cooled by a water-cooled chiller. The standard 

cooling tower model in EnergyPlus defaults to blowdown operation that maintains a CoC of 3. To evaluate the 

potential impact of AWTs in the national GSA building portfolio, the large office building model was simulated in 

16 different U.S. cities, one representative city for each of the 16 ASHRAE climate zones. For each climate zone, 

the model was run three times; (1) with the cooling tower set to maintain 3 CoC, (2) with the cooling tower set to 

maintain 15 CoC and (3) with the cooling tower set to maintain 30 CoC. The EnergyPlus default of 3 CoC was 

established as the baseline, representative of a standard water treatment approach for water cooled chillers. The 

15 and 30 CoC simulations represent a range of concentrations that have been shown to be achievable by AWT 

systems in this report. Figure 26 shows the annual evaporation (in thousands of gallons water) and the annual 

water savings (over the baseline blowdown at 3 CoC) for 15 and 30 CoC. The cities with larger numbers of cooling 

degree days and more arid climates show the greatest water savings. It can be noted that the vast majority of the 

water savings are achieved by 15 CoC; across the 16 different cities, an average of 92% of the savings achieved at 

30 CoC were captured at 15 CoC. 

Figure 8. Modeled water evaporation and blowdown savings across ASHRAE climate zones

The water savings numbers were then translated into annual cost savings using site specific water rates. Combined 

water and sewer rates were obtained from an article published by American Water Intelligence based on a survey 

of water and wastewater rates in 50 U.S. cities in 2012. The annual water savings for each location were multiplied 

by the combined water rate for each city. The results from this analysis are presented in Figure 9. The wide 

variation in water costs between the different cities results in a significantly different picture in cost savings than 
Alternative Water Technology System for Cooling Tower Applications Page 32

is seen in water savings. Cities with high water rates (such as Atlanta, GA) generate the largest annual cost savings 

despite not having the largest total water savings.

Figure 9. Estimated yearly cost savings by climate zone

To gain an appreciation of the market potential for GSA, approximate system costs were utilized to calculate a 

simple payback for each city. The paybacks denoted here are a very rough estimate, considering the assumptions 

that the original system was operating at 3 CoC, the new system would achieve 15 CoC and that the annual 

operating costs remain the same pre- to post-install, yet they give a feeling for the critical variables driving 

economic viability of the system in various U.S. locations. The simple paybacks for a high installed cost assumption 

($60,000) and a low cost assumption ($40,000) are shown in Figure 10.

City
Alternative Water Technology System for Cooling Tower Applications Page 33

Figure 10. Simple payback period for same system in evaluated locations

The buildings that have a large number of cooling degree days, high evaporation rates and poor water quality can 

expect maximum water savings, whereas buildings in areas where typical wet bulb temperatures approach dry 

bulb design temperature (high humidity) will generally see less water use and, therefore, less water savings. The 

locations that have high water costs in addition to high water savings will result in the most economically favorable 

locations for GSA to pursue in its deployment of AWT systems. It is also important to consider the water quality 

of the locations under consideration.

City
Alternative Water Technology System for Cooling Tower Applications Page 34

V. Appendices

A. RESEARCH DETAILS

Water Savings

To accurately assess the water savings from the AWT system, it was necessary to obtain (or calculate) both preand post-retrofit water consumption. It is also necessary to have these consumption values for the same cooling 

demand so that the savings can be normalized for weather variation. The weather normalization ensures that a 

cooler or warmer than average month does not impact the calculated water savings. 

Due to the fact that the temperature differential (∆TT) was calculated on the condenser water loop (not the chilled 

water loop), it excludes any impacts of chiller efficiency. 

The heat rejected was calculated for each 15-minute time step and then summed over the course of the day. Daily 

values were also calculated for: average outdoor dry bulb, average relative humidity, minimum dry bulb, 

maximum dry bulb, and operating hours. Each of these variables (plus weekday/weekend status) was tested for 

correlation with the calculated cooling demand. The two significant variables identified were average outdoor air 

temperature and weekday/weekend (expressed as a -1 for weekend and 1 for weekday). These correlations were 

then able to be used to calculate make-up water for the building for historical periods where the BAS trend data 

was not available.

The data is shown in Figure 11. The regression equations shown on the graphs are the equations used to correlate 

cooling demand to operating conditions.

Figure 11. Correlation between air temperature and tower makeup

B. ECONOMIC ANALYSIS

The economic evaluation was based on the annual savings, the initial cost of the technology and the yearly 

operation and maintenance costs. Using these values, the simple payback period (in years) was calculated. 

(kgals)

(kgals)
Alternative Water Technology System for Cooling Tower Applications Page 35

The savings due to reduced water consumption were calculated using utility rates provided by GSA. It was 

assumed that each gallon of water saved reduced the amount discharged to the sewer and subsequent costs 

incurred by the site. This is due to the fact that the water saved due to improved water treatment technologies 

was associated with the blowdown component of cooling tower water use. The blowdown, therefore, was not 

required to be discharged to the sewer system, saving that portion of the water costs. 

Cooling tower water use is made up of three components: evaporation, blowdown and drift. The evaporation 

component provides the cooling to the chiller system and is not a function of the water treatment technology, 

but rather by the cooling required by the building. The drift component is determined by the physical 

characteristics of the cooling tower and the flow rate through the tower. Due to the fact that the cooling towers 

(and their associated pumps) were not altered during the water treatment technology installations, the drift 

component should not have changed from pre-to post-installation. Therefore, the water savings calculated in this 

report should be direct reduction in blowdown due to the ability to increase the CoC achieved in the condenser 

loop.
Alternative Water Technology System for Cooling Tower Applications Page 36

C. MANUFACTURER CUT SHEET
Alternative Water Technology System for Cooling Tower Applications Page 37
Alternative Water Technology System for Cooling Tower Applications Page 38

D. IMPACT ON FACILITY OPERATIONS

As noted in section III. B., Qualitative Results, the AWT system had a very low impact on facility operations. It 

did reduce cleaning tower frequency and removed the nuisance and safety issues associated with chemicals 

used on site. When installing an AWT system, or any water treatment system, care should be taken in 

negotiating an operations and maintenance agreement with the original manufacturer or its partner. 

Providing good cleaning and servicing of the systems, as well as good customer service, are key to the 

acceptance of the system by the site staff. The agreements should not require that site personnel take on 

additional duties like water sampling or cleaning. Additionally, AWT representatives need to be available by 

phone or for site visits, when necessary.

E. IT SECURITY AND CONTINUITY OF CONNECTIVITY

No issues with continuity of connectivity were encountered. The system can operate in a “stand alone” basis 

without external connectivity. The provision for a secure connection could allow the manufacturer to monitor 

its system for any anomalies and to modify system settings to provide better performance between 

maintenance visits. This is an issue for each GSA building to consider. 

F. TECHNOLOGY MARKET READINESS

The AWT system is commercially available and distribution and installation channels are in place. There are 

numerous installations of the AWT technology in the U.S. varying in size and application. Fabrication of these 

systems is relatively simple and the lead times for new installations is not expected to be lengthy.

G. TECHNOLOGY SPECIFICATIONS

If the technology evaluation has been successful and the technology has potential for deployment within GSA, 

GSA should support development of a technical specification that can use for procurement.