Great Smoky Mountains National Park 

Geologic Resource Evaluation Report 

Natural Resource Report NPS/NRPC/GRD/NRR—2008/048 

National Park Service 

U.S. Department of the Interior 

Natural Resource Program Center 

Great Smoky Mountains National Park 

Geologic Resource Evaluation Report 

Natural Resource Report NPS/NRPC/GRD/NRR—2008/048 

Geologic Resources Division 

Natural Resource Program Center 

P.O. Box 25287 

Denver, Colorado 80225 

September 2008 

U.S. Department of the Interior 

Washington, D.C.

COVER: Cades Cove, Great Smoky Mountains NP 

INSIDE COVER: Snowy Stream, Great Smoky Mountains NP 

NPS Photos, cover photo by Kevin Noon 
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the back cover. 

Please cite this publication as: 

Thornberry-Ehrlich, T. 2008. Great Smoky Mountains National Park Geologic Resource 

Evaluation Report. Natural Resource Report NPS/NRPC/GRD/NRR—2008/048. National 

Park Service, Denver, Colorado. 

NPS D-626, September 2008 
 GRSM Geologic Resource Evaluation Report iii

Table of Contents 

List of Figures .............................................................................................................. iv

Executive Summary ...................................................................................................... 1

Introduction ................................................................................................................... 2

Purpose of the Geologic Resource Evaluation Program ............................................................................................2

Geologic Setting .........................................................................................................................................................2

Geologic Issues............................................................................................................. 5

Erosion and Slope Processes.....................................................................................................................................5

Abandoned Mine Lands..............................................................................................................................................5

Restoration .................................................................................................................................................................6

Biodiversity and Geology............................................................................................................................................6

Paleontological Issues................................................................................................................................................7

Air Quality...................................................................................................................................................................7

Water Issues...............................................................................................................................................................7

Recreational Demands ...............................................................................................................................................8

Historical Landscapes ................................................................................................................................................8

General Geology and Ecosystem Concerns...............................................................................................................9

Geologic Features and Processes............................................................................. 10

Clingmans Dome......................................................................................................................................................10

Newfound Gap and Chimney Tops...........................................................................................................................10

Foothills Parkway Views...........................................................................................................................................10

Ocoee Supergroup Rocks ........................................................................................................................................10

Tectonic Windows ....................................................................................................................................................11

Historical Landscape ................................................................................................................................................11

Major Faults and Timing of Deformation...................................................................................................................12

Alum Cave Bluffs......................................................................................................................................................12

Map Unit Properties .................................................................................................... 17

Map Unit Proparties Table........................................................................................................................................18

Geologic History.......................................................................................................... 23

Glossary....................................................................................................................... 29

References................................................................................................................... 33

Appendix A: Geologic Map Graphic .......................................................................... 36

Appendix B: Scoping Summary................................................................................. 39

Attachment 1: Geologic Resource Evaluation Products CD 
 NPS Geologic Resources Division iv 

List of Figures 

Figure 1. Great Smoky Mountains National Park Location Map.....................................................................................4 

Figure 2. Clingmans Dome ..........................................................................................................................................13

Figure 3. Newfound Gap. .............................................................................................................................................13

Figure 4. The Chimney Tops........................................................................................................................................14

Figure 5. Geologic window at Cades Cove. .................................................................................................................14

Figure 6. Gristmill in Cades Cove.................................................................................................................................15

Figure 7. Geologic map of the eastern Great Smoky Mountains..................................................................................16

Figure 8. Geologic time scale.......................................................................................................................................26

Figure 9. Cross-sectional view of the evolution of the Southern Appalachian Mountains. ...........................................27

Figure 10. Map showing the location of rocks older than 1.1 billion years ...................................................................28
 GRSM Geologic Resource Evaluation Report 1

Executive Summary 

This report accompanies the digital geologic map for Great Smoky Mountains National 

Park in North Carolina and Tennessee, which the Geologic Resources Division produced in 

collaboration with its partners. It contains information relevant to resource management 

and scientific research. 

The Great Smoky Mountains are among the oldest 

mountains in the world and the highest in the 

Appalachian Mountain chain. These peaks and ridges 

have been both a daunting obstacle and a source of 

inspiration since the earliest people set foot in the area. 

Long before humans arrived, geologic processes, climatic 

shifts, weather, and fire shaped this environment, 

producing a dynamic ecosystem. 

Great Smoky Mountains National Park reflects the 

interaction between humans and geology. The 

experience of the park begins with its geology—

processes that established the foundation from which 

today’s environments, history, and scenery arise. 

Knowledge of the geologic resources is necessary for 

effective decisions about ecosystem management; 

research, inventory, and monitoring programs; 

interpretive needs; and construction and maintenance 

activities. 

Geologic processes give rise to rock formations, 

mountains and valleys, waterfalls, and lakes. These 

processes develop a landscape that influences human use 

patterns. The geology attracted indigenous peoples and 

European settlers to the Great Smoky Mountains area 

for hunting, mining, settlement, agriculture, and 

industry. The geology of the park inspires wonder in 

visitors (over 9.3 million in 2007). Emphasis on geologic 

resources should be encouraged to enhance the visitor’s 

experience. 

Great Smoky Mountains National Park also serves to 

preserve a piece of Appalachian history. Buildings, 

bridges, churches, schools, farms, mills, and fields reflect 

the rich historical tradition of the area. Some of the 

principal geologic issues and concerns pertain to 

protecting these features. Humans have significantly 

modified the landscape surrounding Great Smoky 

Mountains, and consequently have modified its geologic 

system. This system is dynamic and capable of noticeable 

change within a human life span. Park resource managers 

face continuing challenges as human-induced change 

combines with the park’s dynamic natural geological 

processes. 

Air and water pollution and the introduction of nonnative species have also had a significant impact on the 

natural resources at Great Smoky Mountains National 

Park. Park visitors create further impacts that are only 

beginning to be measured and alleviated. Researchers are 

striving to better understand these impacts on the park’s 

ecosystem. 

The following issues were identified as significant for 

geologic resource management: 

• Erosion and Slope Processes 

A wet climate and steep slopes make the Great Smoky 

Mountains susceptible to slumping and landslide 

problems. This is especially true in areas where a lack 

of stabilizing plant growth combines with substantial 

seasonal runoff and intense rainstorms. Slope failures 

can dramatically alter the landscape, creating new 

hazard areas in the process. Road and trail 

construction also impacts slope stability. 

• Abandoned Mine Lands 

Two copper mines operating in the park produced 

more than 83 million pounds of copper from 1926 to 

1944. Although there is no active mining in the park 

today the abandoned mine workings pose an 

environmental and human safety threat. 

• Biodiversity and Geology 

The park is famous for its biodiversity, which is a 

direct result of the geology and climate of the area. 

During the cooler ice age periods, northern species 

migrated south; when the climate warmed, they found 

suitable habitat in the high elevations of the Great 

Smoky Mountains. Certain geologically influenced 

environments, such as rockfalls and cliff faces, provide 

habitats that support specialized micro-ecosystems 

that include rare and endemic species. Locating and 

managing these species, as well as understanding the 

relationships between geology and biology throughout 

the park, remain key resource management issues. 

• Historical Landscapes 

Great Smoky Mountains National Park works to 

preserve a context through which visitors may gain 

insight into the rich history of the southern 

Appalachians. Geology played a significant role in 

shaping that history. For example, at Cades Cove, the 

limestone valley floor created fertile soils for 

agriculture. 

Geologic activity can also compromise human made 

structures and the preserved historical context. 

Weathering and erosion are relentlessly changing the 

landscapes of all historic areas. 

Paleontological potential, water quality and quantity, air 

quality, recreational demands, and a variety of other 

geologic and ecosystem concerns, were also identified as 

critical management issues for Great Smoky Mountains 

National Park. These are described in the Geologic Issues

section of this report. 
 NPS Geologic Resources Division 2 

Introduction 

The following section briefly describes the National Park Service Geologic Resource 

Evaluation Program and the regional geologic setting of Great Smoky Mountains 

National Park. 

Purpose of the Geologic Resource Evaluation Program 

The Geologic Resource Evaluation (GRE) Program is 

one of 12 inventories funded under the NPS Natural 

Resource Challenge designed to enhance baseline 

information available to park managers. The program 

carries out the geologic component of the inventory 

effort from the development of digital geologic maps to 

providing park staff with a geologic report tailored to a 

park’s specific geologic resource issues. The Geologic 

Resources Division of the Natural Resource Program 

Center administers this program. The GRE team relies 

heavily on partnerships with the U.S. Geological Survey, 

Colorado State University, state surveys, and others in 

developing GRE products. 

The goal of the GRE Program is to increase 

understanding of the geologic processes at work in parks 

and provide sound geologic information for use in park 

decision making. Sound park stewardship relies on 

understanding natural resources and their role in the 

ecosystem. Geology is the foundation of park 

ecosystems. The compilation and use of natural resource 

information by park managers is called for in section 204 

of the National Parks Omnibus Management Act of 1998 

and in NPS-75, Natural Resources Inventory and 

Monitoring Guideline. 

To realize this goal, the GRE team is systematically 

working towards providing each of the identified 270 

natural area parks with a geologic scoping meeting, a 

digital geologic map, and a geologic report. These 

products support the stewardship of park resources and 

are designed for non-geoscientists. During scoping 

meetings the GRE team brings together park staff and 

geologic experts to review available geologic maps and 

discuss specific geologic issues, features, and processes. 

The GRE mapping team converts the geologic maps 

identified for park use at the scoping meeting into digital 

geologic data in accordance with their innovative 

Geographic Information Systems (GIS) Data Model. 

These digital data sets bring an exciting interactive 

dimension to traditional paper maps by providing 

geologic data for use in park GIS and facilitating the 

incorporation of geologic considerations into a wide 

range of resource management applications. The newest 

maps come complete with interactive help files. As a 

companion to the digital geologic maps, the GRE team 

prepares a park-specific geologic report that aids in use 

of the maps and provides park managers with an 

overview of park geology and geologic resource 

management issues. 

For additional information regarding the content of this 

report and up to date GRE contact information please 

refer to the Geologic Resource Evaluation Web site 

(http://www.nature.nps.gov/geology/inventory/). 

Geologic Setting 

Biological diversity is everywhere in Great Smoky 

Mountains National Park. The park was established on 

June 15, 1934, to protect and preserve a unique 

environment for future generations. More than 10,000 

species have been documented in the park and additional 

tens of thousands are thought to exist there. The geologic 

history of the area, including the interaction of its 

mountains, glaciers, and climate, is a primary reason for 

such biodiversity. 

In recognition of the unique natural resources at the 

park, the United Nations designated Great Smoky 

Mountains National Park as International Biosphere 

Reserve in 1976. The park was also named as a World 

Heritage Site on December 6, 1983. These designations 

complement the mission of the National Park Service to 

preserve and protect natural areas. 

At 521,495 acres, the park is the largest upland landmass 

under federal protection east of the Mississippi River. 

The crest of the Great Smoky Mountains forms the 

boundary between Tennessee and North Carolina. This 

boundary bisects the park from northeast to southwest in 

an unbroken mountain chain that rises more than 1,500 

m (5,000 ft) for more than 58 km (36 mi). 

The elevations in the park range from 267 m (875 ft) to 

2,025 m (6,643 ft) at Clingmans Dome. There are sixteen 

peaks rising more than 1,500 m (5,000 ft). Mount 

LeConte rises more than 1,615 m (5,300 ft) from its 

lowest to highest point, making it the tallest single 

mountain, but not the highest maximum elevation in the 

eastern United States. The diversity in microclimates and 

flora and fauna caused by this range in elevation is 

peculiar to the Smoky Mountains. The change in altitude 

mimics the latitudinal changes from south to north 

across the eastern United States. 

The Great Smoky Mountains formed approximately 

200–300 million years ago (Ma). The Great Smoky 

Mountains were not extensively glaciated during the last 

ice age, 10,000 years ago. However, the area of the 

present-day park became a refuge for many species of 

plants and animals that were displaced from their 

northern homes due to the glaciation north of the park. 

The Great Smoky Mountains are only a small portion of 

the southern reaches of the Appalachian Mountains. The 

Appalachian Mountains, a belt of folded and faulted 

rocks, extends more than 3,200 km (2,000 mi) from 

Maine to Georgia. These are among the oldest 
 GRSM Geologic Resource Evaluation Report 3

mountains in the world and once resembled the rugged 

peaks of the Rocky Mountains in the western United 

States. For millions of years the erosive forces of wind, 

rain, and freezing and thawing have whittled away the 

once craggy peaks. 

The Appalachians contain several physiographic 

provinces including (from east to west) the Piedmont, 

the Blue Ridge, Valley and Ridge, and the Allegheny 

Plateau. The Great Smoky Mountains occupy 

approximately 3,900 square kilometers (1,500 square mi) 

in the Blue Ridge physiographic province. Within the 

Blue Ridge, the Great Smoky Mountains are a 

geologically distinct subdivision that combines several 

aspects of the Blue Ridge, Piedmont, and Valley and 

Ridge Provinces described below. 

The shared geologic characteristics include exposure of 

Grenville age (~1.1 billion years old) gneisses such as are 

found in the Blue Ridge Province; younger sedimentary 

and metasedimentary rocks ranging up to highly 

metamorphosed rocks, like those in the Piedmont 

Province to the east; and folded and faulted rocks, as 

occur in the Valley and Ridge Province to the west. 

Thus, the deformational style of the Great Smoky 

Mountains is transitional between that of the crystalline 

Appalachian provinces (Piedmont and Blue Ridge), and 

the sedimentary Appalachian Valley and Ridge and 

Cumberland Plateau (far to the west as part of the 

Allegheny Plateau Province) (DeWindt 1975). 

Piedmont Province 

The “Fall Line” or “Fall Zone” marks a transitional zone 

where the softer, less consolidated sedimentary rocks of 

the Atlantic Coastal Plain to the east intersect the harder, 

more erosion resistant crystalline metamorphic rocks to 

the west, forming an area of ridges, waterfalls, and rapids 

on regional rivers. The Piedmont physiographic province 

encompasses the Fall Line, westward to the Blue Ridge 

Mountains (Harris et al. 1997). 

The eastward-sloping Piedmont was formed through a 

combination of folding, faulting, uplift, and erosion. 

These processes resulted in a landscape of gently rolling 

hills starting at 60 m ( 200 ft) in elevation that become 

gradually steeper toward the western edge of the 

province at 300 m (1,000 ft) above sea level. Soils in the 

Piedmont are highly weathered and generally well 

drained. 

Blue Ridge Province 

The Blue Ridge Province, located along the eastern edge 

of the Appalachian Mountains, includes the highest 

elevations in Great Smoky Mountains National Park. 

Precambrian and Paleozoic igneous and metamorphic 

rocks were uplifted during several mountain building 

events that formed the steep terrain. Resistant Cambrian 

age quartzites form ridges, whereas Precambrian 

metamorphic rocks underlie the valleys (Nickelsen 

1956). 

The Blue Ridge Province is generally characterized by 

steep terrain covered by thin, shallow soils, resulting in 

rapid runoff and low ground-water recharge rates. 

Valley and Ridge Province 

The landscape of the Valley and Ridge physiographic 

province is characterized by long, parallel ridges 

generally of resistant sandstone, separated by valleys 

underlain by more easily eroded shale and carbonate 

rocks. Areas dominated by carbonate rocks exhibit karst 

topography. Karst is a term used to describe landscapes 

dotted by sinkholes, caves, and caverns. 

 GRSM Geologic Resource Evaluation Report 5

Geologic Issues 

A Geologic Resource Evaluation scoping session was held for Great Smoky Mountains 

National Park on May 8–9, 2000, to discuss geologic resources, address the status of 

geologic mapping, and assess resource management issues and needs. This section 

synthesizes the scoping results, in particular those issues that may require attention from 

resource managers. 

Erosion and Slope Processes 

Geologic hazards are a concern at Great Smoky 

Mountains National Park, particularly for landslides and 

debris flows that could impact park visitors, staff, 

neighbors, roads, and other infrastructure in the wet, 

mountainous environment. 

Seismic activity in the region is infrequent. However, the 

area is considered relatively high-risk because of its 

location east of the New Madrid fault zone in Missouri. 

The USGS/NEIC Preliminary Determinations of 

Epicenters (PDE) catalog displays maps of seismic 

activity in the area. Since 1990, at least seven local 

earthquakes have been recorded. Despite the slight 

chance of a large earthquake, the effects of even a 

moderate seismic event on the steep slopes of the park 

could be significant. Seismic stations in the area are 

sparse, so one or more seismometers have been 

recommended for the park. The University of Kentucky 

has a website on earthquake activity in the region at: 

http://tanasi.gg.utk.edu/quakes.html (Accessed August 

2008). 

The topographic differences in the Great Smoky 

Mountains National Park can be quite large. The 

likelihood of landslides increases with precipitation and 

undercutting of slopes by roads, trails, and other 

development in addition to natural erosion. Many trails 

in the park lead visitors through spectacular river, 

wetland, mountain, and forest scenery. These trails are at 

risk for rockfall and landslides while less visited areas of 

the park are also impacted by natural slope processes. 

Topography, geology, and climate data can be used to 

model and map the relative potential (risk) for landslide 

occurrence in the park. 

The walls of many river and tributary valleys at the park 

form steep slopes, rendering them susceptible to rock 

falls, landslides, slumps, and slope creep. Although slope 

stability is a particular concern in the weaker rock units 

such as shales and mudstones, stronger rock units such 

as sandstones and metamorphic rocks, are often highly 

fractured in the park, making them a rockfall hazard. 

Wedge failures may occur because of the intersection of 

two planes of weakness in the bedrock, producing a 

wedge-shaped scar (Moore 1988). 

Similarly, slumps and other forms of slope failure are 

common for rock units that are not necessarily 

associated with cliffs. Unconsolidated alluvial deposits 

for instance, are especially vulnerable to failure when 

exposed on a slope. Heavy rainstorms, common in the 

park, can quickly saturate valley slopes. On slopes, which 

lack stabilizing vegetation, rock and soil may mobilize 

and slide downhill resulting in a massive slump or debris 

flow. 

Inventory, Monitoring, and Research Suggestions for 

Seismicity, Erosion, and Slope Processes 

• Work with the GRD Disturbed Lands Restoration 

team to develop an appropriate monitoring strategy 

for potential geologic hazard areas and to develop 

appropriate restoration plans where needed. 

• Monitor runoff in flood-susceptible areas; relate to 

climate and confluence areas. 

• Establish working relationships with the North 

Carolina, Tennessee, and U.S. Geological Surveys to 

study and monitor the park’s watershed, fracture 

systems, and the hydrology of the area for applications 

in hydrogeology, landsliding, and other geologic 

hazards. 

Abandoned Mine Lands 

The Eagle Creek and Sugar Fork Mines were active 

copper mines in the park from the 1920s through the 

1940s. These substantial mining operations, located in 

the remote southwestern section of Great Smoky 

Mountains National Park, produced more than 83 

million pounds of copper from 1926 to 1944. Although 

no active mining takes place in the park today, the 

abandoned mine workings pose considerable 

environmental and human safety issues (John Burghardt 

GRD, personal communication 2008). 

Sugar Fork is a first order stream that runs directly 

through the mine tailings of the Sugar Fork Mine along a 

100 meter stretch of the stream with more than 3,000 m2 

(0.74 acres) of mine waste visible along the stream. 

Toxicity effects from these mining operations were 

informally observed by mining reclamation specialists 

from GRD in 1992 and 2000. Both inspections noted that 

the stream displays areas devoid of vegetation and 

aquatic life close to one kilometer from the source 

material. The abandoned Eagle Creek Mine is located on 

an ephemeral feeder stream to Eagle Creek that flows 

past the mine adits. The Eagle Creek Mine ultimately 

receives drainage from mine associated seeps. Heavy 

metal contamination and acid mine drainage are both 

possible impacts to the local streams that may require 

remediation to protect vegetation, wildlife, and drinking 

water supplies (John Burghardt GRD, personal 

communication 2008). 

Both mines are partially fenced off; however, there are 

large adits and other access points that pose potential 
 NPS Geologic Resources Division 6 

health and safety risks to park staff and visitors. The 

Eagle Creek and Sugar Fork Mines receive considerable 

but unmeasured visitation as a result of their relative 

isolation and lack of well defined and maintained access. 

Park visitors and staff are at risk when visiting or working 

around the unprotected and inadequately protected 

mine openings. Safety is increasingly compromised as the 

rock and mine workings deteriorate through time. 

Rotten and collapsed timbers, which once supported 

mine roofs, along with several feet of boulders from roof 

collapses attest to the deteriorating conditions in the 

mines (John Burghardt GRD, personal communication 

2008). 

After inspecting the sites in September 2000, the NPS 

GRD produced a report with the concurrence of the 

park, FWS, and North Carolina Wildlife Resources 

Commission, recommending the instillation of new 

closures for these mines. The proposed closures include 

corrosion-resistant, stainless steel bat gates, and heavyduty, professionally installed fencing at several mine 

entrances and numerous subsidence areas. Blasting is the 

recommended closure method at several additional 

hazardous openings that do not provide bat habitat (John 

Burghardt GRD, personal communication 2008). 

Restoration 

Cades Cove 

WRD and GRD restoration specialists have identified 

two opportunities for improving the physical and 

biological of the Cades Cove valley. One is to reconnect 

Abrams Creek to the floodplain of the valley floor. This 

action would stabilize the stream banks and improve the 

vegetation and habitat structure along the floodplain. 

Another opportunity is to restore the natural spring-fed 

and precipitation-generated surface water flow patterns 

throughout the valley (Kevin Noon WRD and Deanna 

Greco GRD, personal communication 2008). 

Abrams Creek flows through the Cades Cove valley. This 

creek has a total change in elevation of 49 feet over a total 

stream length of 6 miles. The creek and its tributaries 

support an abundance of aquatic life, such as, 

macroinvertebrates and fish including several 

endangered species (e.g., the smoky madtom, yellowfin 

madtom, and spotfin chub). Historicly, settlers and 

farmers removed woody vegetation from the floodplain 

in order to maximize agricultural conditions and use. It 

appears that the stream has been artificially straightened 

in some reach areas and that it is incised throughout 

most of its length. There are numerous reaches where 

the banks are unstable and eroding during high 

flows(Kevin Noon WRD and Deanna Greco GRD, 

personal communication 2008). 

Restoring large woody debris to the channel, improving 

culverts, stabilizing banks with vegetation, and planting a 

wider scrub/shrub and forested buffer along the stream 

would raise the base- and high-flow water elevations. 

Such restoration activities would improve the fish and 

wildlife habitat, provide greater water cleansing 

opportunities, and reduce the sediment load to 

downstream areas (Kevin Noon WRD and Deanna 

Greco GRD, personal communication 2008). 

The porous limestone bedrock of Cades Cove supports 

numerous ground water springs that are scattered 

throughout the valley. Small intermittent tributaries 

transfer precipitation runoff from the surrounding 

hillsides into the valley. Farmers, who once worked this 

land, developed a network of shallow drainage channels 

throughout the valley. The ditches collect surface flows 

and divert them around large farm fields and into 

Abrams Creek, creating more arable land for agriculture. 

The diversion of surface flow has artificially changed the 

hydrology of the open field areas by creating uniform 

hydrologic conditions (Kevin Noon WRD and Deanna 

Greco GRD, personal communication 2008). 

Filling the network of drainage ditches would allow 

surface flows to continue down slope through the fields, 

restoring more natural hydrologic conditions and the 

associated plant and animal diversity. Additional 

moisture in natural depressions would encourage the 

growth of different plant species–the existing large fields 

of meadow grasses would be divided with plant species 

that adapt to wetter soils (Kevin Noon WRD and Deanna 

Greco GRD, personal communication 2008). 

Inventory, Monitoring, and Research Suggestions for 

Restoration 

• Identify and inventory disturbed lands throughout the 

park in coordination with restoration specialists. 

• Work with NRPC staff to evaluate potential 

restoration opportunities. 

• Engage multidisciplinary teams including botanists, 

fisheries biologists, landscape architects, hydrologists, 

and geomorphologists when initiating watershed scale 

restoration projects. 

Biodiversity and Geology 

Great Smoky Mountains National Park is renowned for 

its incredible biodiversity, which is directly related to its 

geology and geologic history. During the ice ages, 

northern species migrated south, along the ridges and 

valleys of the Appalachians, and have persisted in the 

high elevations of the Great Smoky Mountains ever 

since. The high elevations give this area a distinct climate 

to which these species have adapted. 

The All Taxa Biodiversity Inventory (ATBI) is an ongoing 

program with the goal of inventorying all living species 

present in Great Smoky Mountains National Park. With 

100,000 estimated species to inventory this program 

relies heavily on geology and its influences on soils and 

general geochemistry of the park to accomplish its 

mission. Geology plays a large role in ecosystem 

management and thus is a major component for 

understanding species distribution, soils, and general 

geochemistry as it pertains to the ATBI. 

Human activities have disrupted biologic processes in 

the park, specifically where Anakeesta Formation 

metasedimentary rocks have been used as road fill or 
 GRSM Geologic Resource Evaluation Report 7

have been exposed by blasting. The Anakeesta 

Formation (a predominantly shale unit) contains pyrite, 

which weathers to yield significant quantities of sulfuric 

acid (Flum and Nodvin 1995). The highly acidic nature 

of the Anakeesta Formation, where exposed to a water 

supply and weathered, has indirectly resulted in negative 

impacts on fish and salamander populations in the 

Newfound Gap area. Decreases in surface water pH are 

also attributable to acid rainfall within the park. This is a 

direct result of air pollution in the surrounding areas. 

Geology also controls the development of waterfalls, 

which can have a profound effect on the fish populations 

upstream and downstream of the waterfalls. If waterfalls 

act as boundaries, speciation can result from isolation. 

Waterfalls may additionally serve as a barrier to invasive 

species. Recent tectonic uplift and the subsequent effects 

on drainages are a major control on the development of 

waterfalls. Cosmogenic isotope dating may be able to 

shed more information on the history of waterfall 

formation by accurately defining the timing of unit 

formation, deformation and uplift, and exposure in 

relation to the formation of regional drainages. 

A variety of wetland types are found within the park and 

are profoundly influenced by the surrounding geology. 

These include southern Appalachian bog, high-elevation 

seeps, swamp-forest bog complex, and bottomland 

(floodplain) forest. Within the southeastern United 

States, these increasingly rare wetland types support 

more species of rare, threatened and endangered species 

than most other wetlands combined. Understanding the 

geologic controls on wetland development is key in 

preserving and protecting these fragile areas. 

Inventory, Monitoring, and Research Suggestions for 

Biodiversity-Geology Connection 

• Derive probability maps based on known geologicalbiological relationships to better predict biologic 

distributions. 

• Support U.S. Geological Survey efforts to conduct 

regional geologic mapping for a digital geologic 

database for use with the ATBI. 

• Investigate geologic controls related to the floralfaunal break between southern and northern brook 

trout in the park. 

Paleontological Issues 

Fossils within Great Smoky Mountains National Park are 

valuable in determining the ages of various rock units 

and the living conditions (depositional environment) 

present during their preservation. Many of the rock units 

exposed within the park are metamorphosed beyond 

fossil recognition. However, units of Cambrian age 

expose fossils such as stromatolites, corals, brachiopods, 

cephalopods, worm tubes, trilobites, and conodonts. 

Fossils have proven invaluable in determining the age of 

the Ocoee Supergroup rocks and by extension have 

yielded a timing sequence of deposition and mountain 

building in the area. 

Inventory, Monitoring, and Research Suggestions for 

Paleontological Issues 

• Develop resource management plans including 

inventory and monitoring to identify human and 

natural threats to paleontological resources. 

• Incorporate paleontological findings or suggestions 

into park general management plans (GMP). 

• Train park staff (including interpreters and law 

enforcement) to recognize and protect paleontological 

resources. 

Air Quality 

Air quality is a major resource management concern at 

Great Smoky Mountains National Park. The geology of 

the area focuses traffic along narrow mountain roads, 

trapping air pollution in valleys and on the leeside of 

higher peaks. Given the high visitation rate in and around 

the park, traffic contributes significantly to the air quality 

problem at the park. 

The park was named for its naturally occurring blue 

haze, but according to the National Parks Conservation 

Association, Great Smoky Mountain National Park rated 

worst in the nation for acidity of precipitation. The park 

was second worst nationally for smoggy days and general 

haze, with visibility on the worst days averaging about 15 

miles, much less than the estimate of natural visibility 

conditions (77 miles) 

(http://www.nps.gov/grsm/parkmgmt/upload/BriefAir%20Quality.pdf [Accessed August 2008]). 

Nearby industry such as coal-fired power plants, paper 

mills, and aluminum processing facilities, contribute to 

the air quality issues at the park. Air Resources Division 

(ARD) staff review and revise emissions and air quality 

data for the park and add relevant data on pollution 

produced by local auto traffic versus pollution from 

sources outside the park. 

Inventory, Monitoring, and Research Suggestions for Air 

Quality 

• Continue work with ARD to monitor air quality in the 

park. 

• Establish a working relationship with appropriate 

industries, state agencies, and conservation groups to 

decrease the level of air pollutants in the park. 

• Encourage and develop public transportation options 

to alleviate traffic and reduce air pollution. 

Water Issues 

At Great Smoky Mountains National Park, the average 

annual rainfall of approximately 140 cm (55 in) in the 

valley areas to more than 215 cm (85 in) on many ridges 

and peaks exceeds any other region of the continental 

United States outside the Pacific Northwest. During 

particularly wet years, more than 2 m (6.5 ft) of rain can 

fall in the high country. The relative humidity in the park 

during the growing season is very high—about twice that 

of the Rocky Mountain region in the western United 

States. 
 NPS Geologic Resources Division 8 

Housing and recreational developments threaten the 

water quality of the park. Acidic rainwater, created by air 

pollution, combined with the acidic bedrock in parts of 

the park threatens the water supply and by extension, the 

aquatic ecosystems dependent upon it. Borderline 

environments may deteriorate to inhospitable 

conditions. 

Where agricultural remnants or human waste are stored, 

nitrogen in the water can reach dangerous levels. 

Knowledge of the chemicals used in regional agriculture 

and an understanding of the hydrogeologic system, 

including ground-water flow patterns are essential to 

protecting park ecosystems. Runoff from roadways often 

has high levels of oil and other car emissions that flow to 

park waterways and seep into the soil. 

The movement of nutrients and contaminants through 

the ecosystem can be modeled by monitoring the 

composition of system inputs such as rainfall, and 

outputs such as streamflow. Other input sources include 

wind, surface runoff, ground-water transport, mine 

drainage, sewage outfalls, landfills, and fill dirt. Streams 

in effect integrate the surface runoff and ground-water 

flow of their watersheds. In doing so, they provide a 

measure of the status of the watershed’s hydrologic 

system. 

Urban development surrounding the park affects the 

watershed in a variety of ways in addition to water 

contamination. The hydrogeologic system changes in 

response to increased surface runoff from development 

of impervious surfaces such as parking lots, roads, and 

buildings. Sedimentation also increases due to landclearing activities for development. Water temperature 

increases because of the insulating nature of impervious 

surfaces. 

Inventory, Monitoring, and Research Suggestions for Water 

Issues 

• Work with WRD to establish appropriate water 

monitoring programs. 

• Monitor ground- and surface-water quality to 

determine their impacts on the wetlands of the park 

and the historic areas (for preservation purposes). 

• Map and quantify subterranean water-recharge zones. 

• Use sediment coring, tree-ring studies, and historical 

data to develop chronologies of any past floods and 

their impacts, and document future frequency and 

extent of flood impacts, including changes to shoreline 

morphology and position, nature of the substrate, 

post-flood changes, and ecosystem recovery. Where 

possible, data should also be collected during storm 

and flood events to monitor immediate effects. 

Recreational Demands 

Millions of visitors come to Great Smoky Mountains 

National Park every year to enjoy the bounty of 

recreational opportunities (over 9.3 million in 2007). 

These visitors are placing increasing demands on the 

natural resources of the park. Careful management is 

necessary to alleviate some of the problems overuse 

creates and to restore damaged areas. 

Many roads in the park have a gravel surface. Twowheel- drive vehicles can navigate these roads; 

consequently, they receive significant traffic. When the 

roads cross steep slopes, rockfalls, landslides, and 

erosion become more likely. Erosion on roadways can 

create hazardous ruts and gullies that require 

maintenance. The roads introduce increased traffic into 

isolated areas of the park, exposing them to exhaust and 

other emissions from cars. 

Key roads in the park include: 

• Parsons Branch Road leads from Cades Cove 

southwest to U.S. Route 129 near Deals Gap. Virgin 

oak forest lines this historic route. Floods washed 

away stream crossings in the spring of 1994 causing 

closures until 1998. 

• Heintooga-Roundbottom Road is 24 km (15 mi) long. 

It leads from Balsam Mountain Road to Big Cove 

Road. The only access to the area is along the Blue 

Ridge Parkway. This road descends steeply through 

the Raven Fork drainage basin. 

• Rich Mountain Road heads north from Cades Cove 

over Rich Mountain to Tuckaleechee Cove and 

Townsend, Tennessee. The 13 km (8 mi) long road 

provides beautiful views of Cades Cove and its 

surrounding area. The road is situated on a dry ridge 

where an oak-dominated forest lines the roadside. 

Beyond the boundaries of the park, the road becomes 

steep and winding. 

Many trails, including the Appalachian Trail, wind 

through unique biological and geological environments 

in the park. Many of these are especially fragile and offtrail hiking promotes their degradation. Associated with 

hiking are camping and picnicking. The park attempts to 

concentrate the impacts of these forms of recreation 

within designated camp and picnic areas. Camping in 

nondesignated areas increases the area of impact and 

places delicate ecosystems at risk for contamination from 

fires and waste. 

Inventory, Monitoring, and Research Suggestions for 

Recreational Demands 

• Design wayside exhibits to encourage responsible use 

of park resources. 

• Restore degraded trails to prevent increased slope 

erosion. 

• Monitor human impacts at camping and climbing 

areas, official and social trails, and fishing sites. 

• Research impacts of paving gravel roads and/or 

restoring slopes along them. 

• Evaluate the impact of existing roads on park 

resources. 

Historical Landscapes 

An overarching goal of Great Smoky Mountains 

National Park is to preserve its historical context. 
 GRSM Geologic Resource Evaluation Report 9

Continuous natural processes of erosion and weathering 

and the demands of increasing local population and 

urban development put this goal under constant 

pressure. Conflicts may also arise from opposing needs 

of cultural and natural resource management. 

Several areas in the park such as Cades Cove, 

Cataloochee, Mingus Mill, and the Mountain Farm 

Museum contain historic structures that require 

protection from geologic processes and need to coexist 

harmoniously with the landscape. They must be available 

for visitation without compromising the natural 

resources or the historical context. 

Inventory, Monitoring, and Research Suggestions for 

Historical Landscapes 

• Map new development and changing land use, 

including construction, deforestation, and other landcover changes, and the paving of previously vegetated 

surfaces in the area. 

• Document impacts of land-use change on a variety of 

natural resource parameters such as runoff, stream 

morphology, sedimentation, and slope stability. 

General Geology and Ecosystem Concerns 

Because of the nature of the landscape, several potential 

geological issues may warrant consideration for land-use 

planning and visitor use in the park. Along with a 

detailed geologic map and a road or trail log, a guidebook 

linking Great Smoky Mountains National Park to the 

other parks in the southern Appalachian area would 

enhance visitor appreciation of the geologic history and 

dynamic processes that created the landscape and 

impacted the historical events showcased at the park. 

Strategically placed wayside exhibits can also help 

explain geology to the visitor. 

The geology at Great Smoky Mountain National Park 

has challenged geologists and nongeologists alike for 

many years. The heavy vegetation, erratic distribution of 

exposures, great thickness of lithologically monotonous 

strata, and a predominance of rocks lacking fossils make 

the interpretation of the geologic history at Great Smoky 

Mountains very difficult and intriguing. In addition to 

these problems, regional metamorphism of the rocks has 

altered many of the structural features necessary to 

measure tectonic shortening and determine the 

deformational history of the park. 

Inventory, Monitoring, and Research Suggestions for 

General Geology 

• Create interpretive exhibits that detail geologic 

features and processes for visitors, and explain the 

evolution of the landscape. Include geologic influences 

on human occupation of the area. 

• Encourage research that would determine whether the 

Web Mountain area is a tectonic window. 

• Encourage research deciphering area stratigraphy. 

• Study geomorphic bedrock-controlled features such as 

the perched, abandoned valley above the Foothills 

Parkway. 
 NPS Geologic Resources Division 10 

Geologic Features and Processes 

This section describes the most prominent and distinctive geologic features and processes 

in Great Smoky Mountains National Park as well as the historical landscape of the 

park. 

Clingmans Dome 

Clingmans Dome rises 2,025 m (6,643 ft) above the 

Atlantic coast (fig. 2). It is the highest point in Great 

Smoky Mountains National Park and Tennessee. 

Clingmans Dome is also the third highest point in the 

Appalachian Mountains. The Appalachian Trail reaches 

its highest elevation between Maine and Georgia where it 

crosses the dome. Views from the top extend more than 

160 km (100 mi) on clear days. 

The dome consists primarily of rocks from the Ocoee 

Supergroup of Precambrian age. Specifically, the 

resistant Thunderhead Sandstone grades upward into 

the Anakeesta Formation, which lines the slopes of the 

dome (Moore 1988). These rocks display bedding tilted 

at varying high degrees of dip indicative of the regional 

deformation. At the base of the dome is the Oconaluftee 

fault, near Indian Gap. This fault underlies the long, 

linear Oconaluftee Valley. 

Newfound Gap and Chimney Tops 

Newfound Gap is the lowest road pass through the Great 

Smoky Mountains National Park (fig. 3), at 1,539 m 

(5,048 ft) elevation. Because of its low altitude, it 

attracted historical interest in 1872 when Swiss 

geographer Arnold Henry surveyed the area. Upon 

construction, Newfound Gap road pass replaced Indian 

Gap as the lowest pass through the mountains. It also 

hosts the Appalachian Trail. 

The gap is through the shale-like, brown-to-gray slate 

and metasiltstone of the Anakeesta Formation. The 

characteristic rusty color of these rocks results from the 

oxidation of pyrite (an iron sulfide mineral) present 

throughout this formation. The rocks are thinly bedded, 

brittlely deformed and fractured with joints and cleavage 

(Moore 1988). 

Chimney Tops gets its name from the nearly vertical 

holes or shafts developed through a jutting rock 

exposure resembling chimneys. The strata composing 

the chimney walls dip about 50 degrees. These rocks are 

part of the Anakeesta Formation, jutting 15 m (50 ft) 

above the surrounding slopes. Erosion along vertical 

joints in the rock left a backbone ridge (fig. 4) (Moore 

1988). 

Foothills Parkway Views 

Skirting the north side of Great Smoky Mountain 

National Park is the Foothills Parkway. The parkway 

offers beautiful views of the landscape. The western 

section, running southwest from Walland to Chilhowee 

is 32 km (20 mi) long and provides vistas of Thunderhead 

Mountain, Happy Valley, and the Great Valley. The 

eastern section runs for 10 km (6 mi) from Cosby, 

Tennessee to Interstate Highway 40. This section was 

built on Green Mountain and provides views of Cosby 

Valley. 

Ocoee Supergroup Rocks 

Much of the Great Smoky Mountains are underlain by 

rocks of the Ocoee Supergroup, a body of terrigenous 

clastic sedimentary rocks about 9,000 m (30,000 ft) thick 

(King et al. 1958) The rocks include shale, slate, siltstone, 

fine- to coarse-grained sandstone, quartz conglomerate 

and some minor carbonate layers (Hamilton 1961). The 

Ocoee unconformably overlies Precambrian granitic and 

gneissic rocks in a series of complexly deformed thrust 

sheets (King et al. 1958; Knoll and Keller 1979). The 

Ocoee Supergroup is divisible lithologically, 

geographically, and in part, tectonically into three 

distinct groups. These are, in ascending order, the 

Snowbird, Great Smoky, and Walden Creek Groups 

(King et al. 1958; Hamilton 1961). 

The lowest group, the Snowbird, is more than 3,900 m 

(13,000 ft) thick. It mostly consists of sandstone, but is 

interbedded with finer-grained sandstone, siltstone and 

argillaceous rocks of increasing proportion westward 

(King et al. 1958). The Snowbird is divided, in ascending 

order, into the Wading Branch Formation, Longarm 

Quartzite, Roaring Fork Sandstone, and Pigeon Siltstone. 

Toward the west, the Metcalf Phyllite composes more of 

the Snowbird than the other formations (Hamilton 

1961). 

Sitting atop the Snowbird Group is the Great Smoky 

Group. This unit is more than 7,600 m (25,000 ft) thick. It 

is divided into three parts (in ascending order): Elkmont 

Sandstone, Thunderhead Sandstone, and Anakeesta 

Formation. The lowest two units consist of fine-grained 

sandstone, and poorly sorted, coarse feldspathic 

sandstone in graded beds, respectively. The Anakeesta 

Formation contains dark, silty and argillaceous rocks 

that have been metamorphosed to slates, phyllites, and 

schists (King et al. 1958). 

The Great Smoky Group forms much of the crest of the 

Great Smoky Mountains. In outcrop, the Anakeesta is 

burnished with a rust color that results from oxidation of 

pyrite and other iron sulfides in the rock. The slate layers 

of the Anakeesta, by their fissile nature, have created 

many of the steep-sided ridges of the mountains as well 

as unique outcroppings such as Chimney Tops and 

Charlies Bunion. 

The Walden Creek Group forms a varied assemblage of 

argillaceous and silty rocks mixed with quartz-pebble 

conglomerate. It is locally about 2,400m (8,000 ft) thick 
 GRSM Geologic Resource Evaluation Report 11

with prominent quartzite, limestone, and dolomite. The 

Walden Creek Group is divided into the Licklog 

Formation, Shields Formation, Wilhite Formation, and 

Sandsuck Formation, in ascending order (King et al.

1958). 

The Ocoee Supergroup has been cut and deformed by 

numerous faults, including the Greenbrier fault, resulting 

in repeated sections and obscured stratigraphic 

relationships. This obscurity has posed a challenge to 

researchers attempting to determine its depositional and 

deformational history (Costello and Hatcher 1991). The 

Great Smoky thrust fault separates Ocoee strata from the 

Paleozoic, unmetamorphosed strata of the Valley and 

Ridge province (Woodward 1989a). 

Determining the age of the Ocoee Supergroup has also 

proved difficult for researchers. It has largely been 

assigned a late Precambrian age because of its 

stratigraphic placement above 1.1 billion year old 

Grenville basement rocks and well below lowermost 

Cambrian rocks (Knoll and Keller 1979). Once 

considered fossil-free, fossils of an acritarch organism 

led many to believe the entire series was Precambrian in 

age. Then fossil assemblages of trilobites, ostracodes, 

bryozoans, agglutinated foraminifers, and microcrinoid 

fragments were found in the Wilhite Formation of the 

Walden Creek Group, indicating a Paleozoic age for the 

upper beds of the Ocoee (Unrug and Unrug 1990). 

Tectonic Windows 

Several geologic windows are found in Great Smoky 

Mountain National Park. A window is a term referring to 

an exposure of younger rocks revealed by localized 

erosion of overlying rocks. This typically happens when 

a thrust fault shoves older rock atop younger units and 

further deformation and deep erosion exposes the rock 

beneath the thrust sheet (fig. 5). 

In the park, the Great Smoky thrust fault system is a 

relatively continuous feature underlying Ocoee strata 

and basement rocks. It appears around a number of 

windows within the Blue Ridge. The famous Mountain 

City and Grandfather windows are the largest windows 

through the Blue Ridge thrust sheet. They record at least 

50 km (30 mi) of horizontal displacement along the fault. 

These features are not located within the park, but there 

are four small windows exposing Valley and Ridge 

Paleozoic strata (Middle Ordovician and Cambrian and 

Ordovician rocks) in the park (Woodward 1989a). 

Windows in the park where Paleozoic age limestones 

and shales have been exposed form coves such as Cades, 

Tuckaleechee, and Wears Coves (Woodward 1989a). 

These areas are surrounded by older and topographically 

higher rock strata. Cades Cove is described in detail 

below. In general, the limestone of the windows 

developed deep, fertile soils, attractive to farmers. 

Limestone also dissolves into karst features such as 

sinkholes (e.g., Whiteoak Sink) and caves. At least four 

caves are found in the park: Gregorys, Bull, Blowing, and 

Rainbow Caves (Moore 1988). 

Historical Landscape 

One of the major goals of the park is to preserve the 

historical context of the area, including preserving and 

restoring historic structures and the landscape around 

them. Maintaining this landscape often means resisting 

natural geologic changes, which presents several 

management challenges. Geologic slope processes such 

as landsliding, slumping, chemical weathering, block 

sliding, and slope creep are constantly changing the 

landscape at the park. Runoff erodes sediments from 

open areas and carries them down streams and gullies. 

Erosion naturally diminishes higher areas and fills in the 

lower areas distorting the historical context of the 

landscape. 

Mountain Farm Museum 

The Mountain Farm Museum is an assembled collection 

of farm buildings from locations throughout Great 

Smoky Mountains National Park. Farm features include 

a log farmhouse, barn, apple house, springhouse, and a 

working blacksmith shop, preserving and exhibiting a 

sense of family life 100 years ago. Most of the structures 

displayed were built in the late 19th century and were 

transported in the 1950s.The Davis House offers a rare 

chance to view a log house built from American Chestnut 

wood before the chestnut blight decimated the forests 

during the 1930s and early 1940s. 

Mingus Mill 

North of the Oconaluftee Visitor Center is Mingus Mill. 

This historic structure, built in 1886, uses a waterpowered working cast-iron turbine instead of a water 

wheel to power all of the machinery in the building. The 

water flows down a millrace to the mill. The mill is 

located at its original site, and its preservation remains of 

primary concern to park resource management. 

Cataloochee 

Isolated Cataloochee Valley is nestled in one of the most 

rugged mountain landscapes in the southeastern United 

States. Surrounded by 1,800 m (6,000 ft) peaks, this valley 

was the largest and most prosperous settlement in what 

is now Great Smoky Mountains National Park. 

Cataloochee is one of the most picturesque areas of the 

park and was once known for its orchards and 

farmsteads. For more information on Cataloochee, visit 

the following website: 

http://www.nps.gov/grsm/planyourvisit/cataloochee.htm 

Cades Cove 

The Cades Cove district of Great Smoky Mountains 

National Park is approximately 13 km (8 mi) from 

Townsend, Tennessee. People come for the abundance 

of wildlife along Abrams Creek and the collection of 

historic churches, a gristmill, and cabins in the cove (fig. 

6). This 6,800 acre area attracts more than two million 

visitors every year, causing traffic jams and other use 

problems. 

Cades Cove is profoundly influenced by its landforms 

and rocks (geomorphology and geology). The area is a 

window, a good example of older rocks surrounding the 

valley floor of younger rocks. This juxtaposition arises 
 NPS Geologic Resources Division 12 

from the thrusting of older rocks atop younger rocks 

during mountain building events and the subsequent 

erosion of the overlying rocks to reveal younger rocks 

below. At Cades Cove, following a series of faulting and 

uplift periods, the older Precambrian metamorphic rocks 

have eroded exposing the younger Ordovician 

limestones. The erosion created a sheltered valley that 

set the stage for years of history. 

Prior to 1819, Cades Cove was part of the Cherokee 

Nation. The Cherokee called the cove Tsiyahi, or “place 

of the river otter." The Cherokee attempted to integrate 

European technologies and culture with their own, 

including building log homes and frame houses, 

attending school, and owning slaves. The 1830 United 

States census indicated that more than 1,000 slaves were 

working on Cherokee plantations in the area. However, 

many white Americans wanted to move all native peoples 

west of the Mississippi River. Following the discovery of 

gold on Cherokee lands in Georgia, and Andrew 

Jackson's rise to the Presidency, an Indian removal plan 

led to the tragic "Trail of Tears." On this route to 

Oklahoma in 1838, more than 4,000 people perished. 

By 1850, the white American population of Cades Cove 

reached 685 men, women, and children. Settlers farmed 

the rich fertile limestone-based soils and built homes, 

schools, and churches. In 1900, the logging industry 

brought employment and added income to the people 

living in the mountains. However, the establishment of 

the Great Smoky Mountains National Park in 1934 

continued the outward migration from the Cove that 

ended in 1999 when the last resident of Cades Cove, 

Kermit Caughron, passed away. 

Fontana Dam 

At 146 m (480 ft), Fontana Dam is the tallest concrete 

dam east of the Rocky Mountains. The dam impounds 

the Little Tennessee River forming Fontana Lake and 

produces hydroelectric power. The reservoir is 

approximately 11,700 acres in size with a shoreline of 

about 390 km (240 mi). Fontana Dam is located near 

Fontana Village, North Carolina and was begun during 

World War II in 1942. 

Major Faults and Timing of Deformation 

Faulting accommodates the pile-up of rocks during 

mountain building orogenies. Four major thrust faults 

dominate the Great Smoky Mountains region. These are 

the Greenbrier, Dunn Creek, Miller Cove and Great 

Smoky thrust faults (fig. 7) (Connelly and Woodward 

1992). A later fault, the high-angle Gatlinburg fault, is 

also a major deformational system in the area 

(Woodward 1989b). Their spatial relationships reveal the 

timing of deformation in the Great Smoky Mountains. 

The Greenbrier and Dunn Creek thrust sheets were 

active during the Ordovician Taconic orogeny, prior to 

extensive metamorphism. Extensive regional 

metamorphism tends to erase earlier structures. 

However, in the Great Smoky Mountains foothills, the 

metamorphism (~460–420 Ma) was lower grade, and 

many preexisting features are preserved, making the area 

an ideal location to study Taconic deformation. By 

removing the overprint of later faults (described below), 

the Dunn Creek and Greenbrier faults reveal ramp-flat 

geometries including bedding-parallel faults, ramps, and 

angular ramp-related folds (Connelly and Woodward 

1992). 

The Greenbrier fault is a low-angle thrust that separates 

the Great Smoky Group from the underlying Snowbird 

Group of Ocoee Supergroup rocks (Woodward 1986; 

Costello and Hatcher 1986). The Greenbrier thrust is 

parallel or at low angle to bedding in the footwall along 

much of its trace. The other premetamorphic, Taconic 

age fault, the Dunn Creek thrust fault, separates 

Snowbird Group rocks in the hanging wall from Walden 

Creek Group rocks in the footwall. 

During the Allegheny orogeny, the emplacement of the 

Great Smoky and Miller Cove thrust faults and the 

Gatlinburg fault dissected all earlier structures. These 

faults also cut foliations, lineations, and other 

metamorphic features, indicating that they postdate 

regional metamorphism associated with earlier mountain 

building events. The Great Smoky fault is part of the Blue 

Ridge-Piedmont fault system with 350–500 km 

(220–300 mi) of northwestward displacement. The Great 

Smoky thrust sheet is less than 5–7 km (3–4 mi) thick. 

The Miller Cove fault separates metamorphosed Ocoee 

Supergroup rocks and unmetamorphosed upper Ocoee, 

Chilhowee Group, and younger strata. Locally, the 

Miller Cove fault is the frontal Blue Ridge fault, and it 

may have been active in both the Taconic and Allegheny 

orogenic events. The younger Gatlinburg fault is high 

angle with some 2,000 m (6,600 ft) of brittle 

displacement. It accommodated both strike-slip and dipslip motion (Connelly and Woodward 1992). 

Most of the major faults of the Great Smoky Mountains 

are part of a connected fault system (Woodward 1986). 

This system involves cross-cutting relationships, 

reactivations along preexisting faults, overprinting, and 

metamorphism. These faults continue to intrigue 

researchers attempting to decipher the history of the 

southern Appalachian Mountains. 

Alum Cave Bluffs 

The 30 m (100 ft) high Alum Cave Bluffs were reportedly 

a prized source of saltpeter for Civil War gunpowder. 

Saltpeter is a common name for the mineral potassium 

nitrate. The bluffs were also the site of a nineteenth 

century alum mine. Alum is a compound sulfate used in 

munitions manufacturing, medicines, and setting cloth 

dyes. The bluffs are on the slopes of Mt. LeConte. They 

are named for the mineral residues found in the bedrock, 

in this case, the Anakeesta Formation (Moore 1988). 
 GRSM Geologic Resource Evaluation Report 13

Figure 2. Clingmans Dome at sunset. Photograph courtesy of The Luminous Landscape (http://www.luminous-landscape.com/). 

Figure 3. Newfound Gap. Photograph courtesy of Techimo.com (http://www.techimo.com/). 
 NPS Geologic Resources Division 14 

Figure 4. The Chimney Tops, looking along the backbone ridge of the Anakeesta Formation. Photograph courtesy of Smoky Photos 

(http://smokyphotos.com/). 

Figure 5. Geologic window at Cades Cove. The cove was formed when erosion penetrated the Great Smoky thrust fault sheet and 

exposed the underlying Paleozoic limestones and shales. The Great Smoky thrust fault is nearly flat lying. Adapted from Moore (1988). 
 GRSM Geologic Resource Evaluation Report 15

Figure 6. Gristmill in Cades Cove during the winter months. Photograph courtesy of Jeaneane Payne, © 2004 by Dynamic Web 

Solutions (http://www.imagesbuilder.com/gsmnp/). 
 NPS Geologic Resources Division 16 

Figure 7. Geologic map of the eastern Great Smoky Mountains showing major faults and rock groups. Note parallel nature of largescale faults. Also note offset of early faults, i.e., the Greenbrier and Miller Cove faults and later faults. Adapted from Connelly and 

Woodward (1992). 
 GRSM Geologic Resource Evaluation Report 17

Map Unit Properties 

This section identifies characteristics of map units that appear on the Geologic Resource 

Evaluation digital geologic map of Great Smoky Mountains National Park. The 

accompanying table is highly generalized and is provided for background purposes only. 

Ground-disturbing activities should not be permitted or denied on the basis of 

information in this table. 

Geologic maps facilitate an understanding of Earth, its 

processes, and the geologic history responsible for its 

formation. Hence, the geologic map for Great Smoky 

Mountains National Park informed the “Geologic 

History,” “Geologic Features and Processes,” and 

“Geologic Issues” sections of this report. Geologic maps 

are essentially two-dimensional representations of 

complex three-dimensional relationships. The various 

colors on geologic maps represent rocks and 

unconsolidated deposits. Bold lines that cross and 

separate the color patterns mark structural features such 

as faults and folds. Point symbols indicate features such 

as dipping strata, sample localities, mine features, wells, 

and cave openings. 

Incorporation of geologic data into a geographic 

information system (GIS) increases the utility of geologic 

maps and clarifies spatial relationships to other natural 

resources and anthropogenic features. 

Geologic maps are indicators of water resources because 

they show which rock units are potential aquifers and are 

useful for finding seeps and springs. Geologic maps do 

not show soil types and are not soil maps, but they do 

show parent material, a key factor in soil formation. 

Furthermore, resource managers have used geologic 

maps to make correlations between geology and biology; 

for instance, geologic maps have served as tools for 

locating threatened and endangered plant species. 

Although geologic maps do not show where future 

earthquakes will occur, the presence of a fault indicates 

past movement and possible future seismic activity. 

Geologic maps will not show where the next landslide, 

rockfall, or volcanic eruption will occur, but mapped 

deposits show areas that have been susceptible to such 

geologic hazards. Geologic maps do not show 

archaeological or cultural resources, but past peoples 

may have inhabited or been influenced by various 

geomorphic features that are shown on geologic maps. 

For example, alluvial terraces may preserve artifacts, and 

inhabited alcoves may occur at the contact between two 

rock units. 

The features and properties of the geologic units in the 

following table correspond to the accompanying digital 

geologic data. Map units are listed from youngest to 

oldest. Please refer to the geologic time scale (fig. 8) for 

the age associated with each time period. This table 

highlights characteristics of map units such as 

susceptibility to hazards; the occurrence of fossils, 

cultural resources, mineral resources, and caves; and the 

suitability as habitat or for recreational use. The 

following are source data for the GRE digital geologic 

map: 

Southworth, S., A. Schultz, and D. Denenny, 2005. 

Geologic Map of the Great Smoky Mountains National 

Park Region, Tennessee and North Carolina. Scale 

1:100,000. Open-File Report OF-2005-1225. Reston, 

VA: U.S. Geological Survey. 

Using ESRI ArcGIS software, the Geologic Resource 

Evaluation team created a digital geologic map from this 

source. GRE digital geologic-GIS map products include 

data in ESRI personal geodatabase, shapefile, and 

coverage GIS formats, layer files with feature symbology, 

FGDC metadata, a Windows HelpFile that contains all of 

the ancillary map information and graphics, and an ESRI 

ArcMap map document file that easily displays the map. 

GRE digital geologic data are included on the attached 

CD and are available through the NPS Data Store 

(http://science.nature.nps.gov/nrdata/). 

The Southern Appalachian area contains rocks varying in 

age from Precambrian gneisses to Quaternary sediments. 

Because of the regional erosion by large rivers and 

tributaries, these rocks are on striking display. The rocks 

exposed at Great Smoky Mountains National Park are 

divisible into four major groups. 

The oldest rocks of the area are Precambrian (about 1.1 

billion years old). These are the metamorphosed 

remnants of volcaniclastic and plutonic rocks mobilized 

during mountain building. Atop and partially coeval with 

the crystalline basement are the rock units of the Ocoee 

Supergroup, of Precambrian to Cambrian age. The 

Ocoee Supergroup is subdivided into the Snowbird, 

Great Smoky, and Walden Creek Groups. Above the 

Ocoee Supergroup is the Lower Cambrian Chilhowee 

Group, which also contains shallow-shelf sedimentary 

rocks. The youngest bedrock outcrops at Great Smoky 

Mountains National Park are of Paleozoic age and are 

exposed in tectonic windows such as the carbonate 

Knox Group at Cades Cove. Lining the river valleys and 

other small basins throughout the park are the 

unconsolidated sands, silts, and other deposits of 

Quaternary age. Included in these unconsolidated 

sediments are vast boulder fields, remnants of frost 

wedging action during cooler climates. 

 GRSM Geologic Resource Evaluation Report 23

Geologic History 

This section describes the rocks and unconsolidated deposits that appear on the digital 

geologic map of Great Smoky Mountains National Park, the environment in which those 

units were deposited, and the timing of geologic events that created the present 

landscape. 

The recorded history of the Great Smoky Mountains 

National Park landscape, and by extension, the southern 

Appalachian Mountains, begins in the Proterozoic (figs. 

8-9). In the mid-Proterozoic, during the Grenville 

orogeny (~1.1 billion years ago), a supercontinent had 

formed that included most of the continental crust in 

existence at that time, including North America and 

Africa. The regional sedimentation, deformation, 

plutonism, and volcanism are manifested in the 

metamorphic gneisses in the core of the modern Blue 

Ridge Mountains (Harris et al. 1997). 

These rocks were deposited over a period of 100 million 

years and are more than a billion years old, placing them 

among the oldest rocks known from this region. They 

form a basement upon which all other rocks of the 

Appalachians were deposited (Southworth et al. 2001). 

Following their uplift, the basement rocks were exposed 

to erosion before deposition of later rock units (Moore 

1988). Fragments of the billion-year-old supercontinent 

are visible at Blowing Rock in northern North Carolina 

and Red Top Mountain in northern Georgia (fig. 10) 

(Clark 2001). 

The Late Proterozoic, approximately 1,000–542 Ma, 

brought a tensional, rifting tectonic setting to the area. 

The supercontinent broke up and a sea basin formed 

intermittently that eventually became the Iapetus Ocean 

(Carter et al. 1993). Locally, the Ocoee basin formed on 

the margin of the supercontinent in what are now the 

western Carolinas, eastern Tennessee and northern 

Georgia. This basin collected many of the mud, silt, and 

sand sediments worn from the Grenville highlands that 

would eventually form the rocks of the Appalachian 

Mountains (Moore 1988). Some of the sediments were 

deposited as large submarine landslides and turbidity 

flows, which today preserve the dramatic features of 

their emplacement. The basin subsided as sediments 

were deposited making room for further sedimentation 

in at least two prolonged pulses (Tull and Li 1998). The 

rocks of the Ocoee Supergroup today display vast 

thicknesses (~15 km [9 mi]), representative of this 

depositional setting (Clark 2001). Ocoee Supergroup 

rocks form the bedrock of the Great Smoky, Unicoi, and 

Plott Balsam Mountains. 

In addition, in this tensional environment at the end of 

the Proterozoic, flood basalts and other igneous rocks 

such as diabase and rhyolite added to the North 

American continent. These igneous rocks were intruded 

through cracks in the granitic gneisses of the Blue Ridge 

core and extruded onto the land surface during the 

break-up of the continental land mass (Southworth et al. 

2001). The volcanism was concentrated in areas of 

present-day Virginia, the Carolinas, and Georgia. This 

igneous activity is largely responsible for the economic 

deposits of copper, zinc, iron, and sulfur in the eastern 

United States formed when hot, metal-bearing fluids 

vented onto the floor of the Ocoee basin (Clark 2001). 

Associated with the shallow marine setting along the 

eastern continental margin of the Iapetus Ocean were 

large deposits of sands, silts, and muds in nearshore, 

deltaic, barrier–island, and tidal-flat areas. Some of these 

are present as the Antietam Formation in central 

Virginia, north of Great Smoky Mountains National Park 

(Schwab 1970; Kauffman and Frey 1979; Simpson 1991). 

The Chilhowee Group, composed of shale, siltstone, and 

sandstone is representative of the Cambrian System in 

the park area (Moore 1988). In addition, huge masses of 

carbonate rocks represent a grand platform, thickening 

to the east, that persisted during the Cambrian and 

Ordovician Periods (545–480 Ma). 

The Valley and Ridge Province rocks found just west of 

the park, formed in a vast, shallow, inland sea—an ideal 

setting for the accumulation of thick limestone deposits 

(Clark 2001). Somewhat later, ~540, 470, and 360 Ma, 

amphibolite, granodiorite and pegmatite, and 

lamprophyre, respectively, intruded the sedimentary 

rocks. 

Several episodes of mountain building and continental 

collision responsible for the Appalachian Mountains 

contributed to the heat and pressure that deformed and 

metamorphosed the collected sediments, intrusives, and 

basalts into schists, gneisses, marbles, slates, and 

migmatites (Southworth et al. 2000). Migmatites and 

gneisses are exposed in many places along the Blue Ridge 

Parkway. 

Many of the rocks of the Ocoee basin were subjected to 

relatively low grades of metamorphism and retain their 

original sedimentary features (Clark 2001). Rocks 

between the Chilhowee Group and Quaternary 

sediments are largely missing from the park, however 

examples from nearby locations are included to better 

understand the regional geologic history. 

Following mountain building, the rocks were extensively 

folded and faulted. This faulting may have happened 

during regional rifting that occurred about 200 Ma. 

Given the available fault conduits, hot fluids moved 

upward, depositing quartz veins containing small 

amounts of gold. This was the source of the mining 

interest in the mid-Appalachians area intermittently from 

1867 until 1941 (Reed et al. 1980). 
 NPS Geologic Resources Division 24 

Some of the larger faults can be identified throughout the 

southern Appalachian Mountains. Among these are the 

Dunn Creek, Greenbrier, and Miller Cove fault systems 

(Connelly and Woodward 1990). Near Linville Falls, 

North Carolina, huge masses of rocks moved along a 

fault for a distance of 100 km (60 mi) or more. The rocks 

that make up the mountains above Linville Falls are older 

than the resistant ledges that form them. The fault is 

traceable as a zone of intense deformation below the falls 

in Linville Gorge. In Cades Cove at Great Smoky 

Mountains National Park, the limestone floor of the cove 

is younger than the surrounding rocks, a testament to the 

effects of faulting in the area (Clark 2001). 

From Early Cambrian through Early Ordovician time, 

mountain building (orogenic) activity along the eastern 

margin of the continent began again. This involved the 

closing of the ocean, subduction of oceanic crust, the 

creation of volcanic arcs, and the uplift of continental 

crust. In response to the overriding plate thrusting 

westward onto the continental margin of North America, 

the crust bowed downward creating a deep basin that 

filled with mud and sand eroded from the highlands to 

the east (Harris et al. 1997). This so-called Appalachian 

basin was centered on what is now West Virginia. These 

infilling sediments covered the grand carbonate platform 

and are today represented by the shale of the Middle and 

Upper Ordovician (472–444 Ma) Martinsburg Formation 

(Southworth et al. 2001). 

During the Late Ordovician, the oceanic sediments of the 

shrinking Iapetus Ocean were thrust westward onto 

other deepwater sediments of the western Piedmont. 

This occurred along the Greenbrier fault and others like 

the Pleasant Grove fault, found further north. 

Sandstones, shales, siltstones, quartzites, and limestones 

were then deposited in the shallow marine to deltaic 

environment of the Appalachian basin. These rocks, now 

metamorphosed, currently underlie the Valley and Ridge 

Province. The Piedmont metasedimentary rocks record 

the transition from nonorogenic, passive margin 

sedimentation to extensive, synorogenic clastic 

sedimentation from the southeast during Ordovician 

time (Fisher 1976). 

Shallow marine to fluvial sedimentation continued for 

about 200 million years during the Ordovician, Silurian, 

Devonian, Mississippian, Pennsylvanian, and Permian 

Periods, resulting in thick piles of sediments. These 

sediments came from highlands that were rising to the 

east during the Taconic orogeny (Ordovician), and the 

Acadian orogeny (Devonian). 

The Taconian orogeny involved a volcanic arc–continent 

convergence. Oceanic crust and the volcanic arc were 

thrust onto the eastern edge of the North American 

continent along large-scale thrust faults such as the 

Greenbrier (Moore 1988; Connelly and Woodward 

1990). The Acadian orogeny continued the mountain 

building of the Taconian orogeny as the African 

continent approached North America (Harris et al. 

1997). This orogeny was focused to the north of the 

Great Smoky Mountains. 

Following the Acadian orogenic event, the proto-Atlantic 

Iapetus Ocean was completely destroyed during the late 

Paleozoic as the North American and African continents 

collided. This mountain building episode, the Allegheny 

orogeny, is the last major orogeny of the Appalachian 

evolution. The rocks were deformed and folded by faults 

to produce the Sugarloaf Mountain anticlinorium and 

the Frederick Valley synclinorium in the western 

Piedmont, the Blue Ridge-South Mountain 

anticlinorium, and the numerous folds of the Valley and 

Ridge Province (Southworth et al. 2001). The 

deformation associated with the Allegheny orogeny 

overprints many previous structures in the southern 

Appalachians. Preexisting faults such as the Miller Cove 

and other Paleozoic faults were reactivated as planes of 

weakness by the Great Smoky thrust fault. Renewed 

faulting combined with extremely large strains and lack 

of strain markers makes restoration of any pre-Allegheny 

deformation difficult (Connelly 1990; Connelly and 

Woodward 1992). 

During the Allegheny orogeny, rocks of the Great Valley, 

Blue Ridge, and Piedmont Provinces were transported 

westward onto younger rocks of the Valley and Ridge 

Province along the North Mountain fault. Estimates 

range from 20–50 percent shortening or about 125–350 

km (75–125 mi) of translation (Harris et al. 1997). 

Deformed rocks in the eastern Piedmont were also 

folded and faulted and existing thrust faults were 

reactivated as both strike-slip and thrust faults during the 

Allegheny orogenic events (Southworth et al. 2001). The 

high angle Gatlinburg fault was emplaced near the end of 

Paleozoic time as the Allegheny orogeny was ending 

(Moore 1988). 

Following the Allegheny orogeny, during the Late 

Triassic, a period of rifting began as the deformed rocks 

of the joined continents began to break apart from about 

230–200 Ma. The supercontinent Pangaea was 

segmented into roughly the continents that persist today. 

This episode of rifting or crustal fracturing initiated the 

formation of the current Atlantic Ocean and caused 

many block-fault basins to develop with accompanying 

volcanism (Harris et al. 1997; Southworth et al. 2001). 

Large alluvial fans and streams carried debris shed from 

the uplifted Blue Ridge and Piedmont Provinces. These 

were deposited as nonmarine shales and sandstones in 

fault-created troughs such as the Culpeper Basin in the 

western Piedmont. Erosion removed most of the 

younger rocks during the Mesozoic, leaving only the 

older, core rocks exposed (Moore 1988). 

The large faults, which formed the western boundaries of 

the basins, provided an escarpment that was quickly 

covered with eroded debris. Igneous rocks were 

intruded into the new strata as plutons, subhorizontal 

sheets, or sills, and near-vertical dikes that extend 

beyond the basins into adjacent rocks. Plutons occur 

across the southern Appalachians and are now exposed 

in places such as Looking Glass Rock, North Carolina 

(Clark 2001). 
 GRSM Geologic Resource Evaluation Report 25

After these igneous rocks were emplaced at 

approximately 200 Ma, the region underwent a period of 

slow uplift and erosion. The uplift was in response to 

isostatic adjustments within the crust that forced the 

continental crust upward and exposed it to erosion. 

Thick deposits of unconsolidated gravel, sand, and silt 

were shed from the eroded mountains and were 

deposited at the base of the mountains as alluvial fans, 

which spread eastward to be part of the Atlantic Coastal 

Plain (Duffy and Whittecar 1991; Whittecar and Duffy 

2000; Southworth et al. 2001). 

The amount of eroded material inferred from the nowexposed metamorphic rocks is immense. Many of the 

rocks exposed at the surface must have been at least 20 

km (~10 mi) below the surface prior to regional uplift and 

erosion. 

The erosion continues today along regional drainage 

patterns developed during the early part of the Cenozoic 

Era. The large rivers and tributaries are stripping the 

Coastal Plain sediments, lowering the mountains, and 

depositing alluvial terraces—processes that are creating 

the present landscape (Moore 1988). 

Since the breakup of Pangaea and the uplift of the 

Appalachian Mountains, the North American plate has 

continued to drift toward the west. The isostatic 

adjustments that uplifted the continent after the 

Allegheny orogeny continued at a subdued rate 

throughout the Cenozoic Era (Harris et al. 1997). 

During the late Cenozoic, the primary geologic processes 

at work in the Appalachians were erosion and 

weathering. Rain, frost, rivers, rooted plants, streams, 

dissolution, mass wasting, and landslides wore down the 

once craggy peaks. Layers of resistant rocks such as 

sandstones, toped ridges and created ledges commonly 

associated with waterfalls at Great Smoky Mountains 

National Park and the Blue Ridge Parkway (Schultz and 

Seal 1997), and within limestone coves and windows, 

numerous solution caves were formed. 

Though glaciers never reached the southern 

Appalachians, the colder climates of the ice ages (~1.6 

Ma–11 thousand years ago) played a role in the 

mountains’ geomorphology. The landforms and deposits 

are probably late Tertiary to Quaternary in age when a 

wetter climate, sparse vegetation, and frozen ground 

caused increased precipitation to run into ancestral 

rivers enhancing downcutting and erosion (Schultz and 

Seal 1997; Zen 1997a and 1997b). Many of the 

concentrations of boulders, block fields, and finetextured colluvium on the forested mountainsides of the 

southern Appalachians record the process of frostwedging. 

The unique flora and fauna of Great Smoky Mountains 

National Park and the Blue Ridge Parkway are a result of 

ancient species migrating south ahead of the advancing 

glacial front (Clark 2001). Species such as the saw-whet 

owl, common to northern climates, are established in the 

southern Appalachians. 
 NPS Geologic Resources Division 26 

Figure 8. Geologic time scale; adapted from the U.S. Geological Survey. Red lines indicate major unconformities between eras. Included are 

major events in life history and tectonic events occurring on the North American continent. Absolute ages shown are in millions of years. 
 GRSM Geologic Resource Evaluation Report 27

Figure 9. Cross-sectional view of the evolution of the Southern Appalachian Mountains from the Precambrian to Pennsylvanian. Following 

Precambrian rifting and passive margin deposition, the Taconian orogeny created the Greenbrier allochthon and fault as well as regional 

metamorphism. The Acadian orogeny involved collision with an island arc that continued into the Allegheny orogeny with the collision of 

the African continental plate and the development of the Blue Ridge and Valley and Ridge deformation. Adapted from DeWindt (1975). 
 NPS Geologic Resources Division 28 

Figure 10. Map showing the location of rocks older than 1.1 billion years (red areas) in southeastern Canada and the eastern United States. 

The red areas indicate remnants of the ancient supercontinent. Adapted from Clark (2001). 
 GRSM Geologic Resource Evaluation Report 29

Glossary 

This glossary contains brief definitions of technical geologic terms used in this report. Not all 

geologic terms used are referenced. For more detailed definitions or to find terms not listed 

here please visit: http://wrgis.wr.usgs.gov/docs/parks/misc/glossarya.html. 

active margin. A continental margin where significant 

volcanic and earthquake activity occurs; commonly a 

convergent plate margin. 

acritarch. A unicellular, or apparently unicellular, 

resistant walled microscopic organic body of uncertain 

biologic relationship. 

alluvial fan. A fan-shaped deposit of sediment that 

accumulates where a high-gradient stream flows out of 

a mountain front into an area of lesser gradient, such 

as a valley. 

alluvium. Stream-deposited sediment that is generally 

rounded, sorted, and stratified. 

angular unconformity. An unconformity where the strata 

above and below are oriented differently; generally 

caused by structural deformation and erosion prior to 

deposition of the upper bed. 

anticlinorium. A composite anticlinal structure of 

regional extent composed of lesser folds. 

aquifer. Rock or sediment that are sufficiently porous, 

permeable, and saturated to be useful as a source of 

water. 

argillaceous. Pertaining to, composed of, or largely 

composed of clay minerals. 

ash (volcanic). Fine pyroclastic material ejected from a 

volcano (also see “tuff”). 

asthenosphere. Weak layer in the upper mantle below 

the lithosphere where seismic waves are attenuated. 

basement. The undifferentiated rocks, commonly 

igneous and metamorphic, that underlie the rocks of 

interest. 

basin (structural). A doubly-plunging syncline in which 

rocks dip inward from all sides (also see “dome”). 

basin (sedimentary). Any depression, from continental 

to local scales, into which sediments are deposited. 

bed. The smallest sedimentary strata unit, commonly 

ranging in thickness from one centimeter to a meter or 

two and distinguishable from beds above. 

bedding. Depositional layering or stratification of 

sediments. 

bedrock geology. The geology of underlying solid rock 

as it would appear with the sediment, soil, and 

vegetative cover stripped away. 

block (fault). A crustal unit bounded by faults, either 

completely or in part. 

braided stream. A stream, clogged with sediment that 

forms multiple channels that divide and rejoin. 

calcareous. A rock or sediment containing calcium 

carbonate. 

carbonaceous. A rock or sediment with considerable 

carbon, especially organics, hydrocarbons, or coal. 

cementation. Chemical precipitation of material into 

pores between grains that bind the grains into rock. 

chemical sediment. A sediment precipitated directly 

from solution (also called “nonclastic”). 

chemical weathering. The dissolution or chemical 

breakdown of minerals at Earth’s surface via reaction 

with water, air, or dissolved substances. 

clastic. Rock or sediment made of fragments or preexisting rocks. 

clay. Clay minerals or sedimentary fragments the size of 

clay minerals (>1/256 mm). 

cleavage (rock). The tendency of rock to break along 

parallel planes that correspond to the alignment of 

platy minerals. 

concordant. Strata with contacts parallel to the attitude 

of adjacent strata. 

conglomerate. A coarse-grained sedimentary rock with 

clasts larger than 2 mm in a fine-grained matrix. 

continental crust. The type of crustal rocks underlying 

the continents and continental shelves; having a 

thickness of 25−60 km (16−37 mi) and a density of 

approximately 2.7 grams per cubic centimeter. 

continental drift. The concept that continents have 

shifted in position over Earth (see and use “plate 

tectonics”). 

continental rise. Gently sloping region from the foot of 

the continental slope to the abyssal plain. 

continental shelf. The shallowly submerged part of a 

continental margin extending from the shoreline to the 

continental slope with water depths of less than 200 m 

(656 ft). 

continental shield. A continental block of Earth’s crust 

that has remained relatively stable over a long period 

of time and has undergone only gentle warping 

compared to the intense deformation of bordering 

crust 

continental slope. The relatively steep slope from the 

outer edge of the continental shelf down to the more 

gently sloping ocean depths of the continental rise or 

abyssal plain. 

convergent boundary. A plate boundary where two 

tectonic plates are moving together (i.e., a zone of 

subduction or obduction). 

craton. The relatively old and geologically stable interior 

of a continent (also see “continental shield”). 

cross-bedding. Uniform to highly varied sets of inclined 

sedimentary beds deposited by wind or water that 

indicate distinctive flow conditions. 

cross section. A graphical interpretation of geology, 

structure, and/or stratigraphy in the third (vertical) 

dimension based on mapped and measured geological 

extents and attitudes depicted in an oriented vertical 

plane. 

crust. The outermost compositional shell of Earth, 10−40 

km (6−25 mi) thick, consisting predominantly of 

relatively low-density silicate minerals (also see 

“oceanic crust” and “continental crust”). 
 NPS Geologic Resources Division 30 

crystalline. Describes the structure of a regular, orderly, 

repeating geometric arrangement of atoms 

debris flow. A rapid and often sudden flow or slide of 

rock and soil material involving a wide range of types 

and sizes. 

deformation. A general term for the process of faulting, 

folding, shearing, extension, or compression of rocks 

as a result of various Earth forces. 

delta. A sediment wedge deposited at a stream’s mouth 

where it flows into a lake or sea. 

dike. A tabular, discordant igneous intrusion. 

dip. The angle between a structural surface and a 

horizontal reference plane measured normal to their 

line of intersection. 

dip-slip fault. A fault with measurable offset where the 

relative movement is vertical. These include normal 

and reverse faults. 

disconformity. An unconformity at which the bedding of 

the strata above and below are parallel. 

discordant. Having contacts that cut across or are set an 

angle to the orientation of adjacent rocks. 

divergent boundary. A tectonic plate boundary where 

the plates are moving apart (e.g., a spreading ridge or 

continental rift zone). 

drainage basin. The total area from which a stream 

system receives or drains precipitation runoff. 

eustatic. Relates to simultaneous worldwide rise or fall 

of sea level in Earth’s oceans. 

evaporite. Chemically precipitated mineral(s) formed by 

the evaporation of solute-rich water under restricted 

conditions. 

exfoliation. The breakup, spalling, peeling, flaking, etc., 

of layers or concentric sheets from an exposed rock 

mass due to differential stresses resulting from thermal 

changes or pressure unloading. 

extrusion. The emission of relatively viscous lava onto 

the Earth’s surface; also, the rock so formed. 

extrusive. Of or pertaining to the eruption of igneous 

material onto the surface of Earth. 

facies (metamorphic). The pressure-temperature regime 

that results in a particular, distinctive metamorphic 

mineralogy (i.e., a suite of index minerals). 

facies (sedimentary). The depositional or environmental 

conditions reflected in the sedimentary structures, 

textures, mineralogy, fossils, etc. of a sedimentary 

rock. 

fault. A subplanar break in rock along which relative 

movement occurs between the two sides. 

foliation. A general term for a planar arrangement of 

textural or structural features in any type of rock. 

foot-wall. The underlying side of a fault. Where a fault 

plane slopes the foot-wall is below the hanging-wall. 

formation. Fundamental rock-stratigraphic unit that is 

mappable and lithologically distinct from adjoining 

strata and has definable upper and lower contacts. 

fracture. Irregular breakage of a mineral; also any break 

in a rock (e.g., crack, joint, fault) 

frost wedging. The breakup of rock due to the expansion 

of water freezing in fractures. 

geology. The study of Earth including its origin, history, 

physical processes, components, and morphology. 

gneiss. A foliated rock formed by regional 

metamorphisim. 

hanging-wall. The overlying side of a fault. Where a fault 

plane slopes the hanging wall is above the footwall. 

igneous. Refers to a rock or mineral that originated from 

molten material; one of the three main classes or 

rocks—igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary. 

intrusion. A body of igneous rock that invades older 

rock. The invading rock may be a plastic solid or 

magma that pushes its way into the older rock. 

island arc. A line or arc of volcanic islands formed over 

and parallel to a subduction zone. 

isostasy. The process by which the crust “floats” at an 

elevation compatible with the density and thickness of 

the crustal rocks relative to underlying mantle. 

isostatic adjustment. The shift of the lithosphere of the 

Earth to maintain equilibrium among units of varying 

mass and density; excess mass above is balanced by a 

deficit of density below, and vice versa. 

joint. A semi-planar break in rock without relative 

movement of rocks on either side of the fracture 

surface. 

karst topography. Topography characterized by 

abundant sinkholes and caverns formed by the 

dissolution of calcareous rocks. 

lacustrine. Pertaining to, produced by, or inhabiting a 

lake or lakes. 

lamination. The finest stratification or bedding as seen in 

shale and siltstone (syn: lamina or laminae) or the 

formation of laminae. 

landslide. Any process or landform resulting from rapid 

mass movement under relatively dry conditions. 

lava. Magma that has been extruded out onto Earth’s 

surface, both molten and solidified. 

levees. Raised ridges lining the banks of a stream; may be 

natural or artificial. 

limbs. The two sides of a structural fold on either side of 

its hingeline. 

lineament. Any relatively straight surface feature that can 

be identified via observation, mapping, or remote 

sensing, commonly representing tectonic features. 

lithification. The conversion of sediment into solid rock. 

lithology. The description of a rock or rock unit, 

especially the texture, composition, and structure of 

sedimentary rocks. 

lithosphere. The relatively rigid outmost shell of Earth’s 

structure, 50−100 km (31−62 mi) thick, that 

encompasses the crust and uppermost mantle. 

loess. Silt-sized sediment deposited by wind, generally of 

glacial origin. 

mafic. A rock, magma, or mineral rich in magnesium and 

iron. 

magma. Molten rock generated within the Earth that is 

the parent of igneous rocks. 

mantle. The zone of Earth’s interior between crust and 

core. 

matrix. The fine-grained interstitial material between 

coarse grains in porphyritic igneous rocks and poorly 

sorted clastic sediments or rocks. 

meanders. Sinuous lateral curves or bends in a stream 

channel. 

mechanical weathering. The physical breakup of rocks 

without change in composition (syn: physical 

weathering). 
 GRSM Geologic Resource Evaluation Report 31

member. A lithostratigraphic unit with definable contacts 

that subdivides a formation. 

metamorphic. Pertaining to the process of 

metamorphism or to its results. 

metamorphism. Literally, “change in form.” 

Metamorphism occurs in rocks through mineral 

alteration, genesis, and/or recrystallization from 

increased heat and pressure. 

mid-ocean ridge. The continuous, generally submarine, 

seismic, median mountain range that marks the 

divergent tectonic margin(s) in the world’s oceans. 

mineral. A naturally occurring, inorganic crystalline solid 

with a definite chemical composition or compositional 

range. 

mud cracks. Cracks formed in clay, silt, or mud by 

shrinkage during subaerial dehydration. 

nonconformity. An erosional surface preserved in strata 

in which crystalline igneous or metamorphic rocks 

underlie sedimentary rocks. 

normal fault. A dip-slip fault in which the hanging wall 

moves down relative to the footwall. 

obduction. The process by which the crust is thickened 

by thrust faulting at a convergent margin. 

oceanic crust. Earth’s crust formed at spreading ridges 

that underlies the ocean basins. Oceanic crust is 6−7 

km (3−mi) thick and generally of basaltic composition. 

orogeny. A mountain-building event, particularly a wellrecognized event in the geological past (e.g., the 

Laramide orogeny). 

outcrop. Any part of a rock mass or formation that is 

exposed or “crops out” at Earth’s surface. 

overbank deposits. Alluvium deposited outside a stream 

channel during flooding. 

paleogeography. The study, description, and 

reconstruction of the physical geography from past 

geologic periods. 

paleontology. The study of the life and chronology of 

Earth’s geologic past based on the phylogeny of fossil 

organisms. 

Pangaea. A theoretical, single supercontinent that 

existed during the Permian and Triassic Periods (also 

see “Laurasia” and “Gondwana”). 

parent (rock). The original rock from which a 

metamorphic rock or soil was formed. 

passive margin. A tectonically quiet continental margin 

indicated by little volcanic or seismic activity. 

pebble. Generally, small, rounded rock particles from 4 

to 64 mm in diameter. 

permeability. A measure of the ease or rate that fluids 

move through rocks or sediments. 

plateau. A broad, flat-topped topographic high of great 

extent and elevation above the surrounding plains, 

canyons, or valleys (both land and marine landforms). 

plate tectonics. The theory that the lithosphere is broken 

up into a series of rigid plates that move over Earth’s 

surface above a more fluid aesthenosphere. 

pluton. A body of intrusive igneous rock. 

plutonic. Describes igneous rock intruded and 

crystallized at some depth in the Earth. 

porosity. The proportion of void space (cracks, 

interstices) in a volume of a rock or sediment. 

progradation. The seaward building of land area due to 

sedimentary deposition. 

provenance. A place of origin. The area from which the 

constituent materials of a sedimentary rock were 

derived. 

radioactivity. The spontaneous decay or breakdown of 

unstable atomic nuclei. 

radiometric age. An age in years determined from 

radioisotopes and their decay products. 

recharge. Infiltration processes that replenish ground 

water. 

red beds. Sedimentary strata composed largely of 

sandstone, siltstone, and shale that are predominantly 

red due to the presence of ferric oxide (hematite) 

coating individual grains. 

regression. A long-term seaward retreat of the shoreline 

or relative fall of sea level. 

relative dating. Determining the chronological 

placement of rocks, events, fossils, etc. from geological 

evidence. 

reverse fault. A contractional, high-angle (>45o), dip-slip 

fault in which the hanging wall moves up relative to the 

footwall (also see “thrust fault”). 

rift valley. A depression formed by grabens along the 

crest of an oceanic spreading ridge or in a continental 

rift zone. 

ripple marks. The undulating, subparallel, usually smallscale ridge pattern formed on sediment by the flow of 

wind or water. 

rock. A solid, cohesive aggregate of one or more minerals 

or mineraloids. 

roundness. The relative amount of curvature of the 

“corners” of a sediment grain, especially with respect 

to the maximum radius of curvature of the particle. 

sandstone. Clastic sedimentary rock of predominantly 

sand-sized grains. 

scarp. A steep cliff or topographic step resulting from 

vertical displacement on a fault or by mass movement. 

seafloor spreading. The process by which tectonic plates 

diverge and new lithosphere is created at oceanic 

ridges. 

sediment. An eroded and deposited, unconsolidated 

accumulation of lithic and mineral fragments. 

sedimentary rock. A consolidated and lithified rock 

consisting of detrital and/or chemical sediment(s). 

sequence. A major informal rock-stratigraphic unit that 

is traceable over large areas and defined by a major sea 

level transgression-regression sediment package. 

shale. A clastic sedimentary rock made of clay-sized 

particles that exhibit parallel splitting properties. 

silt. Clastic sedimentary material intermediate in size 

between fine-grained sand and coarse clay (1/256−1/16 

mm). 

siltstone. A variably lithified sedimentary rock composed 

of silt-sized grains. 

slickenside. A smoothly polished and commonly striated 

surface representing deformation of a fault plane. 

slope. The inclined surface of any geomorphic feature or 

rational measurement thereof (syn: gradient). 

slump. A generally large, coherent mass movement with 

a concave-up failure surface and subsequent backward 

rotation relative to the slope. 

soil. Surface accumulation of weathered rock and 

organic matter capable of supporting plant growth and 

commonly overlying the parent rock from which it 

formed. 
 NPS Geologic Resources Division 32 

spring. A site where water flows out at the surface due to 

the water table intersecting the ground surface. 

strata. Tabular or sheetlike masses or distinct layers (e.g., 

of rock). 

stratigraphy. The geologic study of the origin, 

occurrence, distribution, classification, correlation, 

age, etc. of rock layers, especially sedimentary rocks. 

stream. Any body of water moving under gravity flow 

and confined within a channel. 

strike. The compass direction of the line of intersection 

that an inclined surface makes with a horizontal plane. 

strike-slip fault. A fault with measurable offset where the 

relative movement is parallel to the strike of the fault. 

subduction zone. A convergent plate boundary where 

oceanic lithosphere descends beneath a continental or 

oceanic plate and is carried down into the mantle. 

subsidence. The gradual sinking or depression of part of 

Earth’s surface. 

suture. The linear zone where two continental 

landmasses become joined due to obduction. 

syncline. A fold of which the core contains the 

stratigraphically younger rocks; it is generally concave 

upward. 

synclinorium. A composite synclinal structure of regional 

extent composed of lesser folds. 

tectonic. Relating to large-scale movement and 

deformation of Earth’s crust. 

tectonics. The geological study of the broad structural 

architecture and deformational processes of the 

lithosphere and aesthenosphere (also see “structural 

geology”). 

terraces (stream). Step-like benches surrounding the 

present floodplain of a stream due to dissection of 

previous flood plain(s), stream bed(s), and/or valley 

floor(s). 

terrane. A region or group of rocks with similar geology, 

age, or structural style. 

terrestrial. Relating to Earth or Earth’s dry land. 

theory. A hypothesis that has been rigorously tested 

against further observations or experiments to become 

a generally accepted tenet of science. 

thrust fault. A contractional, dip-slip fault with a 

shallowly dipping fault surface (<45o) where the 

hanging wall moves up and over relative to the 

footwall. 

topography. The general morphology of Earth’s surface 

including relief and location of natural and 

anthropogenic features. 

trace (fault). The exposed intersection of a fault with 

Earth’s surface. 

trace fossils. Sedimentary structures, such as tracks, 

trails, burrows, etc., that preserve evidence of 

organisms’ life activities, rather than the organisms 

themselves. 

transgression. Landward migration of the sea due to a 

relative rise in sea level. 

trend. The direction or azimuth of elongation of a linear 

geological feature. 

type locality. The geographic location where a 

stratigraphic unit is well displayed, is formally defined 

as a typical section, and derives its name. 

unconformity. A surface within sedimentary strata that 

marks a prolonged period of nondeposition or 

erosion. 

uplift. A structurally high area in the crust, produced by 

movement that raises the rocks. 

volcanic. Related to volcanoes; describes igneous rock 

crystallized at or near Earth’s surface (e.g., lava). 

water table. The upper surface of the saturated (phreatic) 

zone. 

weathering. The set of physical, chemical, and biological 

processes by which rock is broken down in place. 

.
 GRSM Geologic Resource Evaluation Report 33

References 

This section lists references cited in this report as well as a general bibliography that may 

be of use to resource managers. A more complete geologic bibliography is available from 

the National Park Service Geologic Resources Division. 

Allen, O., and S. Flack. 2001. Potomac Gorge Site 

Conservation Plan. National Park Service and The 

Nature Conservancy (internal use version). 

Burford, A. E., and S. L. Dean. 1968. Deep thrusting of the 

Blue Ridge near Harpers Ferry, West Virginia. 

Geological Society of America, Special Paper: 465-466. 

Carter, M. W., S. L. Martin, D. J. Geddes, R. D. Hatcher, 

Jr., C. E. Lombardi, and J. O. Costello. 1993. Western 

Blue Ridge tectonics of SE Tennessee, northern 

Georgia, and SW North Carolina; preliminary results, 

Part 1, Structure. Geological Society of America

Abstracts with Programs 25 (6): 484. 

Clark, S. H. B. 2001. Birth of the mountains; the geologic 

story of the Southern Appalachian Mountains. General 

Interest Publication, Report: GN. 

Connelly, J. B., and N. B. Woodward. 1990. Sequential 

restoration of early Paleozoic deformation; Great 

Smoky Mountain foothills, Tennessee. Geological 

Society of America Abstracts with Programs 22 (4): 8. 

Connelly, J. B., and N. B. Woodward. 1992. Taconian 

foreland-style thrust system in the Great Smoky 

Mountains, Tennessee. Geology 20 (2): 177-180. 

Connelly, J. B., N. B. Woodward, and R. R. Walters. 1989. 

Polyphase early Paleozoic tectonism preserved in the 

western Blue Ridge; example from the Great Smoky 

Mountains National Park Geological Society of America

Abstracts with Programs 21 (6): A65. 

Costello, J. O.; and R. D. Hatcher, Jr. 1986. Contact 

relationships between the Walden Creek Group and 

Great Smoky Group in Ocoee Gorge, Tennessee; 

implications on the regional extent of the Greenbrier 

Fault Geological Society of America Abstracts with 

Programs 18 (3): 216. 

Costello, J. O., and R. D. Hatcher, Jr. 1991. Problems of 

stratigraphic correlation between the Great Smoky, 

Snowbird, and Walden Creek groups between the 

Great Smoky Mountains National Park, central east 

Tennessee and Ocoee Gorge, southeastern Tennessee. 

In Studies of Precambrian and Paleozoic stratigraphy in 

the western Blue Ridge, ed. S. A. Kish: 13-25. Durham, 

NC: Carolina Geological Society. 

Davies, W. E. 1989. Environmental, engineering, and 

urban geology in the United States; Volume 1, New 

York and Washington, D.C.; In Highlights of the geology 

and engineering of the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal, ed. 

P. M. Hanshaw. Washington, DC: American 

Geophysical Union. 

Davies, W. E. 1971. Historical engineering geology of the 

Chesapeake and Ohio Canal. Washington, DC: 

Geological Society of Washington. 

Davies, W. E. 1977. Washington to Hancock along the 

Chesapeake and Ohio Canal. In Guidebook for field 

trips in Maryland and the National Capital area, ed. R. 

W. Ridky: 76-87. Eastern Section, United States: 

National Association of Geology Teachers. 

Dennison, J. M., K. G. Stewart, E. A. Roth, A. E. Alcott, A. 

L. Lowe, and G. Vlahovic. 1997. Post-orogenic linear 

fracture systems in the Great Smoky-Blue Ridge 

section of North Carolina, Tennessee, and Georgia. 

Geological Society of America Abstracts with Programs

29 (3): 13. 

DeWindt, J. T. 1975. Geology of the Great Smoky 

Mountains, Tennessee and North Carolina, with road 

log for field excursion, Knoxville-Clingmans DomeMaryville. Compass of Sigma Gamma Epsilon 1915-84

52 (4): 73-129. 

Duffy, D. F., and G. R. Whittecar. 1991. Geomorphic 

development of segmented alluvial fans in the 

Shenandoah Valley, Stuarts Draft, Virginia. Geological 

Society of America Abstracts with Programs 23 (1): 24. 

Fichter, L. S., and R. J. Diecchio. 1986. Stratigraphic 

model for timing the opening of the proto-Atlantic 

Ocean in northern Virginia. Geology 14 (4): 307-309. 

Fisher, G. W. 1974. Late Precambrian–early Paleozoic 

rocks of the central Appalachian Piedmont. Geological 

Association of Canada–Mineralogical Association of 

Canada annual meeting; program abstracts: 27-28. 

Fisher, G. W. 1976. The geologic evolution of the 

northeastern Piedmont of the Appalachians. Geological 

Society of America Abstracts with Programs 8 (2): 

172−173. 

Flum, T., and S. C. Nodvin. 1995. Factors affecting 

stream water chemistry in the Great Smoky 

Mountains, USA. Water, Air and Soil Pollution 85: 

1707-1712. 
 NPS Geologic Resources Division 34 

Hadley, J. B., and R. Goldsmith. 1973. Geology of the 

eastern Great Smoky Mountains, North Carolina and 

Tennessee. U.S. Geological Survey, Professional Paper: 

P 0349-B. 

Hamilton, W. R. 1961. Geology of the Richardson Cove 

and Jones Cove quadrangles, Tennessee. U. S. 

Geological Survey, Professional Paper: 349-C. 

Harris, A. G., E. Tuttle, and S. D. Tuttle. 1997. Geology of 

National Parks. Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt 

Publishing Company. 

Hatcher, R. D., Jr., K. W. Larson, and R. B. Newman. 

1989. Day 6; Western Great Smoky Mountains 

windows; the Foothills Duplex. In Metamorphism and 

tectonics of eastern and central North America; Volume 

3, Southern Appalachian windows; comparison of styles, 

scales, geometry and detachment levels of thrust faults in 

the foreland and internides of a thrust-dominated 

orogen, ed. P. M. Hanshaw, 49-60. Field trips for the 

28th international geological congress. 

Ingram, D., and D. Stover. 1998. Historic mines of 

Chesapeake and Ohio Canal National Historical Park. 

America's mining heritage. CRM (Washington, D.C.) 21 

(7): 17-18. 

Kauffman, M. E., and E. P. Frey. 1979. Antietam 

sandstone ridges; exhumed barrier islands or faultbounded blocks? Geological Society of America 

Abstracts with Programs 11 (1): 18. 

King, P. B. 1964. Geology of the central Great Smoky 

Mountains, Tennessee. U.S. Geological Survey, 

Professional Paper: P 0349-C. 

King, P. B., W. B. Hamilton, and R. B. Neuman. 1958. 

Stratigraphy of Ocoee series, Great Smoky Mountains, 

Tennessee and North Carolina. Geological Society of 

America Bulletin 69 (8): 947-966. 

King, P. B., R. B. Neuman, and J. B. Hadley. 1968. Geology 

of the Great Smoky Mountains National Park, Tennessee 

and North Carolina. U.S. Geological Survey, 

Professional Paper: P 0587. 

Kish, S. A., C. E. Merschat, D. W. Mohr, and L. S. 

Wiener. 1975. Guide to the geology of the Blue Ridge 

south of the Great Smoky Mountains, North Carolina. 

Durham, NC: Carolina Geological Society. 

Knoll, A. H., and F. B. Keller. 1979. Late Precambrian 

microfossils from the Walden Creek Group, Ocoee 

Supergroup, Tennessee. Geological Society of America

Abstracts with Programs 11 (4): 185. 

Kohn, M. J. 2001. Timing of arc accretion in the 

Southern Appalachians; perspectives from the 

Laurentian margin Geological Society of America

Abstracts with Programs 33 (6): 262. 

Leeper, M. S., S. D. Giorgis, and C. M. Bailey. 1997. 

Structural relations in the western Blue Ridge, Nelson 

& Rockbridge Counties, Virginia Geological Society of 

America Abstracts with Programs 29 (3): 31. 

Long, L. T., J. Liow, A. Tie, and L.-H. 1986. Seismicity 

and crustal structure in southeastern Tennessee. Eos, 

Transactions, American Geophysical Union 67 (16): 

314-322. 

Moore, H.L. 1988. A roadside guide to the geology of the 

Great Smoky Mountains National Park. Alexandria, 

VA: American Geological Institute. 

Neuman, R. B., and W. H. Nelson. 1965. Geology of the 

western Great Smoky Mountains, Tennessee. U.S. 

Geological Survey, Professional Paper: P 0349-D. 

Nickelsen, R. P. 1956. Geology of the Blue Ridge near 

Harpers Ferry, West Virginia. Geological Society of 

America Bulletin 67 (3): 239-269. 

Nutter, L. J. 1974. Hydrogeology of Antietam Creek 

basin. Journal of Research of the U.S. Geological Survey

2 (2): 249-252. 

Onasch, C. M., J. V. O'Connor, and B. Levinson. 1987. 

Structure and geomorphology of Harpers Ferry.

Geological Society of America Abstracts with Programs

19 (1): 49-50. 

Patchen, D. G., and K. L. Avary. 1986. Harpers Ferry 

water gap. In Southeastern section of the Geological 

Society of America, ed. T. L. Neathery: 201-206. 

Boulder, CO: Geological Society of America. 

Reed, J. C., Jr., R. S. Sigafoos, and G. W. Fisher. 1980. The 

river and the rocks–The Geologic story of Great Falls 

and the Potomac River Gorge. U.S. Geological Survey 

Bulletin: 1471. 

Reinhardt, J., 1973, Stratigraphy, sedimentology and 

Cambro-Ordovician paleogeography of the Frederick 

Valley, Maryland. Maryland Geological Survey, Report 

of investigation: 23. 

Repetski, J. E. 1997. Paleozoic fossils in Cades Cove, Great 

Smoky Mountains National Park, Tennessee and North 

Carolina. U.S. Geological survey, Open-File Report: 

OF 97-0747. 

Schultz, A., S. Southworth, P. G. Chirico, J. Rock, K. 

Langdon, and C. Parker. 1999. Geology and the all taxa 

biodiversity inventory; Great Smoky Mountains 

National Park. Geological Society of America Abstracts 

with Programs 31 (7): 484. 

Schultz, A. P., and R. R. Seal. 1997. Geology and geologic 

history of Great Smoky Mountains National Park; a 

simple guide for the interpretive program. U.S. 

Geological Survey, Open-File Report: OF 97-0510. 
 GRSM Geologic Resource Evaluation Report 35

Schwab, F. L. 1970. Origin of the Antietam Formation 

(late Precambrian?, lower Cambrian), central Virginia. 

Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 40 (1): 354−366. 

Sendak, J. 1995. Sapphires in the Great Smokies. Rock & 

Gem 25 (10): 58-62, 65. 

Simpson, E. L. 1991. An exhumed Lower Cambrian tidalflat; the Antietam Formation, central Virginia, U.S.A. 

In Clastic tidal sedimentology. eds. D. G. Smith, B. A. 

Zaitlin, G. E. Reinson, and R. A. Rahmani. Canadian 

Society of Petroleum Geologists Memoir 16:123−133. 

Southworth, C. S. 1995. Preliminary geologic map of the 

Great Smoky Mountains National Park within the 

Fontana Dam and Tuskeegee quadrangles, Swain 

County, North Carolina. U.S. Geological Survey, OpenFile Report: OF 95-0264. 

Southworth, S., and D. K. Brezinski. 1996. Geology of the 

Harpers Ferry Quadrangle, Virginia, Maryland, and 

West Virginia. U.S. Geological Survey, Bulletin: B 2123. 

Southworth, S., D. K. Brezinski, R. C. Orndorff, P. G. 

Chirico, and K. M Lagueux. 2001. Geology of the 

Chesapeake and Ohio Canal National Historical Park 

and Potomac River Corridor, District of Columbia, 

Maryland, West Virginia, and Virginia. CD-ROM (Disc 

1: A, geologic map and GIS files; Disc 2: B, geologic 

report and figures). U. S. Geological Survey, Open-File 

Report: OF 01-0188. 

Southworth, S.; D. K. Brezinski; R. C. Orndorff; K. M. 

Lagueux; and P. G. Chirico. 2000. Digital geologic map 

of the Harpers Ferry National Historical Park. U. S. 

Geological Survey, Open-File Report OF 00-0297, 1 

disc. 

Southworth, S., A. P. Schultz, C. W. Naeser, N. D. 

Naeser, P. Chirico, A. Matmon, P. R. Bierman, and M. 

Pavich. 2001. Using geology to understand flora, fauna, 

and the evolution of the Great Smoky Mountain region.

U.S. Geological Survey, Open-File Report: OF 01-

0406. 

Tull, J. F., and L. Li. 1998. Cover stratigraphy and 

structure of the southernmost external basement 

massifs in the Appalachian Blue Ridge; evidence for 

two-stage Neoproterozoic rifting. Geological Society of 

America Abstracts with Programs 30 (7): 124. 

U.S. Geological Survey. 1962. Geology of the Great Smoky 

Mountains, Tennessee and North Carolina. U.S. 

Geological Survey, Professional Paper: P 0349. 

Unrug, R., W. I. Ausich, J. Bednarczyk, R. J. Cuffey, B. L. 

Mamet, S. L. Palmes, and S. Unrug. 2000. Paleozoic age 

of the Walden Creek Group, Ocoee Supergroup, in the 

western Blue Ridge, southern Appalachians; 

implications for evolution of the Appalachian margin 

of Laurentia. Geological Society of America Bulletin 112 

(7): 982-996. 

Unrug, R., and S. Unrug. 1990. Paleontological evidence 

of Paleozoic age for the Walden Creek Group, Ocoee 

Supergroup, Tennessee. Geology 18 (11): 1041-1045. 

Walker, D., and N. Rast. 1991. The Walden Creek 

Group; is it part of the Ocoee Supergroup? In Studies 

of Precambrian and Paleozoic stratigraphy in the 

western Blue Ridge, ed. S. A. Kish: 45-56. Durham, NC: 

Carolina Geological Society. 

Whittecar, G. R., and D. F. Duffy. 2000. Geomorphology 

and stratigraphy of late Cenozoic alluvial fans, Augusta 

County, Virginia, U.S.A. In Regolith in the Central and 

Southern Appalachians, eds. G. M Clark, H. H. Mills, 

and J. S. Kite. Southeastern Geology 39 (3−4): 259−279. 

Woodward, N. B. 1985. Valley and Ridge thrust timing; 

critical evidence. Geological Society of America

Abstracts with Programs 17 (2): 143. 

Woodward, N. B. 1986. Fault geometries and tectonic 

reconstructions of the Tennessee Blue Ridge. 

Geological Society of America Abstracts with Programs

18 (3): 273. 

Woodward, N. B. 1989a. Day 7; Pulaski-Holston 

Mountain thrust zone in northeastern Tennessee. In 

Metamorphism and tectonics of eastern and central 

North America; Volume 3, Southern Appalachian 

windows; comparison of styles, scales, geometry and 

detachment levels of thrust faults in the foreland and 

internides of a thrust-dominated orogen, ed. P. M. 

Hanshaw, 61-72. Field trips for the 28th international 

geological congress. 

Woodward, N.B., 1989b, Day nine; Gatlinburg, TN; 

Great Smoky Mountains National Park. In 

Metamorphism and tectonics of eastern and central 

North America; Volume 2, Geometry and deformation 

fabrics in the central and southern Appalachian Valley 

and Ridge and Blue Ridge, ed. P. M. Hanshaw, 77-84. 

Field trips for the 28th international geological 

congress. 

Woodward, N. B., J. B. Connelly, R. R. Walters, and J. C. 

Lewis. 1991. Tectonic evolution of the Great Smoky 

Mountains. In Studies of Precambrian and Paleozoic 

stratigraphy in the western Blue Ridge, ed. S. A. Kish: 

57-68. Durham, NC: Carolina Geological Society. 

Zen, E-an 1997a. The Seven-Storey River: 

Geomorphology of the Potomac River Channel 

Between Blockhouse Point, Maryland, and 

Georgetown, District of Columbia, With emphasis on 

the Gorge Complex Below Great Falls. U.S. Geological 

Survey Open-File Report 97-60. 

Zen, E-an. 1997b. Channel Geometry and Strath Levels 

of the Potomac River Between Great Falls, Maryland 

and Hampshire, West Virginia. U.S. Geological Survey 

Open-File Report 97-480. 
 NPS Geologic Resources Division 36 

Appendix A: Geologic Map Graphic 

The following page is a snapshot of the geologic map for Great Smoky Mountains 

National Park. For a poster-size PDF of this map or for digital geologic map data, please 

see the included CD or visit the Geologic Resource Evaluation publications Web page 

(http://www.nature.nps.gov/geology/inventory/gre_publications). 
 GRSM Geologic Resource Evaluation Report 39

Appendix B: Scoping Summary 

The following excerpts are from the GRE scoping summary for Great Smoky Mountains 

National Park. The scoping meeting was held on May 8-9, 2000; therefore, the contact 

information and Web addresses referred to in this appendix may be outdated. Please 

contact the Geologic Resources Division for current information. 

Executive Summary 

An inventory workshop was held for Great Smoky 

Mountain National Park (GRSM) on May 8-9, 2000 to 

view and discuss the park’s geologic resources, to 

address the status of geologic mapping by the United 

States Geological Survey (USGS), various academics, the 

North Carolina Geological Survey (NCGS), and the 

Tennessee Geological Survey (TNGS) for compiling 

both paper and digital maps, and to assess resource 

management issues and needs. Cooperators from the 

NPS Geologic Resources Division (GRD), Natural 

Resources Information Division (NRID), NPS Great 

Smoky Mountain NP, USGS, NCGS, TNGS, University 

of Tennessee at Knoxville (UTK) and the Tennessee 

Department of Transportation (TDOT) were present for 

the two-day workshop. 

Day one involved a field trip throughout Great Smoky 

Mountain NP led by USGS Geologist Scott Southworth. 

Day two involved a daylong scoping session to present 

overviews of the NPS Inventory and Monitoring (I&M) 

program, the Geologic Resources Division, and the 

ongoing Geologic Resources Evaluation (GRE) for 

North Carolina. 

Round table discussions involving geologic issues for 

Great Smoky Mountain NP included interpretation, 

paleontologic resources, the status of cooperative 

geologic mapping efforts, sources of available data, 

geologic hazards, and action items generated from this 

meeting. Brief summaries follow. 

Geologic Mapping 

Existing Geologic Maps 

After the bibliographies were assembled, a separate 

search was made for any existing surficial and bedrock 

geologic maps for Great Smokies. The bounding 

coordinates for each map were noted and entered into a 

GIS to assemble an index geologic map. Separate 

coverages were developed based on scales (1:24,000, 

1:100,000, etc.) available for the specific park. 

Numerous geologic maps at varying scales and vintages 

cover the Great Smokies area. In addition, the USGS is 

currently involved in a comprehensive project to refine 

the mapping of GRSM, led by Scott Southworth. 

Developing Geologic Products 

GRSM Perspective 

Some of the main geologic issues that GRSM staff is 

interested in are: 

• Geologic hazards (landslides, debris flows, 

earthquakes); 

• Complete geologic map coverage for all of GRSM at 

1:24,000 scale; 

• Interpretation of geologic features and processes for 

the visiting public to explain how landscapes have 

changed and why people have come to this region over 

the years. 

• geology as it relates to the All Taxa Biodiversity 

Inventory (ATBI); and man’s effects on natural 

processes 

Geologic hazards are a common theme at GRSM because 

of landslides and debris flows that can affect the visiting 

public (estimated at 10 million per year) and destroy park 

roads. Earthquakes are also of interest to park staff. 

Seismic stations in the area are sparse. It was suggested to 

have one in the park, as this is one of the higher 

earthquake activity areas east of the New Madrid Fault 

zone. Unfortunately, earthquakes usually only receive 

attention after they have occurred. Bob Hatcher 

mentioned that UTK has a website on earthquake 

activity in the region at: 

http://tanasi.gg.utk.edu/quakes.html 

Keith Langdon (GRSM) gave the group some 

background on why the park thinks geology is important 

to understanding the other natural resources of GRSM. 

The ATBI currently underway relies heavily on geology 

and its influences on soils and general geochemistry of 

the park. 

GRSM does not have a staff geologist, so in 1992 they 

requested assistance from the USGS for help in geologic 

mapping, mining issues and general understanding of 

geomorphic/geologic features and processes. 

Geology plays a large role in ecosystem management and 

is thus a major component for understanding species 

distribution, soils and general geochemistry as it pertains 

to the ATBI. GRSM would like to derive “probability” 

maps based upon these associations to better predict 

biologic distributions, which should be possible with 

sufficient geologic data. 

Chuck Parker (USGS-Biologist stationed at GRSM) 

talked of how man’s activities have disrupted biologic 

processes in the park, specifically where Anakeesta 

metasediments have been used as road fill. The highly 

acidic nature of the Anakeesta Formation has indirectly 

affected fish and salamander populations in the 

Newfound Gap area negatively. 

Chuck is also interested in the timing for waterfall 

development in the park, especially at Black Creek Falls 
 NPS Geologic Resources Division 40 

(?). Fish populations above the waterfalls are important 

to the biologic story and he hopes that geologic data will 

give him some controls on when these features 

developed. Bob Hatcher talked of recent uplift and the 

subsequent effects on drainages being the major control 

on these features. The evolving science of cosmogenic 

isotope dating may be able to shed more information on 

this subject; dates of ~172,000-year exposure were 

mentioned for the area. 

Chuck would like to know if there are geologic controls 

related to the floral-faunal break between southern and 

northern brook trout. 

USGS Perspective 

Scott Southworth updated the group on the existing 

USGS project to conduct regional geologic mapping and 

produce digital geologic databases for GRSM to support 

the ATBI. 

Some of the more interesting things about GRSM 

geology for Scott are: 

• Sulfitic rocks, 

• Large areas with debris flows underlain by Anakeesta 

and Chilhowee rock types, 

• Karst areas, 

• Limestones in Foothills block of Walden Creek Group 

and Cosby, 

• Mapping the geology correctly and producing a usable 

geologic database, 

• Evidence east of Gatlinburg lending support to 

neotectonics in park (fission track data suggest post 

Cretaceous uplift along faults there), 

• fans in Cosby area where bedrock geology is 

Greenbrier, Dunn Creek and Great Smoky and all 

converge at one site in the foothills, 

• abandoned meanders of Little River, 

• White Oak Sink, 

• Big Spring Cove area has a window based on 

geomorphology, 

• Cades Cove, 

• well developed elevated colluvial terraces of 

Tuckasegee River near Bryson City, and 

• Foothills Parkway has geomorphic bedrock controlled 

features (perched, abandoned valley sitting up high). 

He distributed “USGS Project: Geology of the Great 

Smoky Mountains NP”, which summarized USGS 

activities at GRSM. The joint NPS-USGS project was 

initiated in October 1992 by the NPS Southeast Region 

and an interagency agreement was developed. 

Its initial goals were to: 

• produce geologic maps for unmapped 1:24,000 

quadrangles, 

• upgrade existing 1:62,500 scale mapping to 1:24,000 

scale, 

• conduct detailed surficial mapping of the entire park, 

and 

• develop digital geologic map coverage for use in a 

park-wide GIS. 

As a result, the following quadrangles have been mapped 

and published: 

• Fontana Dam and Tuskeegee (Southworth 1995; OF 

95-264) 

• Mount LeConte (Schultz 1998; OF 98-32) 

• Cades Cove (Southworth et al. 1999; OF 99-175; 

http://geology.er.usgs.gov/eespteam/smoky/cades_cov

e/Cades_Cove_WP/introduction.htm) 

• Mount Guyot, Luftee Knob and Cove Creek (Schultz 

1999; OF 99-536) 

Additionally, other miscellaneous products to date 

include: 

• Report on Sulfidic rocks of Lakeshore Drive “Road to 

Nowhere” (?? correct terminology) for Senator Helms 

inquiry, Interpretation workshop with Gene Cox, and 

report on secondary minerals from weathering of 

Anakeesta Formation at Alum Cave (Flohr et al. 1995; 

OF 95-477) 

• Report on water chemistry related to Fontana Mine 

and sulfidic rocks (Seal et al. 1998; OF 98-476 and Seal 

et al. 1999; OF 99-375) 

• Report on Paleozoic fossils (Repetski 1999; NPS-GRD 

Technical Report 98-1 

• Various abstracts on fission track analysis for uplift 

rates (Naesers) 

• Folio on Geologic map (which Scott considers as only 

preliminary at this time) and geologic history of Great 

Smoky Mountains NP; a visitors guide (Great Smoky 

Mountains Natural History Association in cooperation 

with USGS, 2000) 

Anticipated products in the near future are: 

• Digital Mount LeConte quadrangle (Schultz) (now 

completed as USGS Open-File Report 00-261) and 

website (Southworth) 

• 1:100,000 scale geologic compilation map for GRSM 

• geochemistry of black sulfidic shales (Foley) 

• lithogeochemistry of bedrock units (Robinson) 

• Remote sensing (Rowan) 

• Fission track for timing of uplift (Naesers) 

• Be10 dating of erosion surfaces and surficial deposits 

• [Also completed is the geologic map of Cades Cove 

and Calderwood quadrangles, USGS Open-File 

Report 99-175] 

More details on these projects can be found at: 

http://geology.er.usgs.gov/eespteam/smoky/smoky.html 

Scott hopes to work closely with Natural Resource 

Conservation Service (NRCS) personnel who are 

currently mapping the soils, to integrate with USGS work 
 GRSM Geologic Resource Evaluation Report 41

and make sure that it can all be incorporated into a 

master geologic database. 

Scott displayed a new plot of vegetation classes 

(1:125,000 scale) derived from LANDSAT data from 

spectral satellites, sometimes called HIMAP technology. 

This makes for a good mineralogical and vegetation 

mapping tool as it uses some 260 channels of spectral 

data at 0.01 micron wavelength and 2 meter resolution. 

This particular map covered only the western edge of the 

park, and it is hoped that the entire park will be flown in 

the near future. 

As of May 2000, the USGS project is only funded 

through December 2001 by the USGS. The NPS is very 

supportive of USGS efforts at GRSM and is willing to 

lend any support to ensuring the continuance of this 

project until completion. 

Scott has requested a letter from the acting GRSM 

superintendent as a show of support for continuing this 

project to give to his managers at the USGS. To date, it is 

unknown if such a letter has been sent by the park. GRE 

staff will follow up on this matter with GRSM staff. 

Scott also mentioned that the existing topographic base 

map coverage leaves much to be desired and often 

hinders the geologic mapping process. Currently, base 

cartographic data are only available as DRGs (digital 

raster graphics). Joe Gregson thought that DLGs (digital 

line graphs) would be produced later this year that would 

be more useful in geologic analysis. 

Scott is very interested in having a separate meeting with 

USGS, GRE and GRSM staff to further discuss the 

database he is developing, and how it can fulfill the 

desired GRE goals. GRE staff intends to work closely 

and cooperatively to meet this goal. 

USGS Professional Paper 349 is devoted to the geology 

of GRSM. 

TNGS Perspective 

Pete Lemiszki (TNGS) says that his group is not actively 

working in GRSM, but would like to have a better 

working relationship with the USGS, NCGS and NPS as 

it pertains to the geologic issues regarding GRSM. 

Specifically, Pete would be interested in further studying 

fracture systems and the hydrology for applications in 

hydrogeology, landslides, and geologic hazards. 

Pete located the original 1948 geologic mapping park 

plan by Philip B. King in their archives; these documents 

may be of historical significance and GRD would like to 

obtain copies if possible for our “History of Geologic 

Exploration” section for our report. 

Pete mentioned that TNGS has an agreement in place 

with USGS to digitize all existing quadrangles in 

Tennessee, and they are awaiting deliverables from the 

USGS. The format for the deliverables was unknown at 

the time of the meeting. 

NCGS Perspective 

Carl Merschat (NCGS) told the group that the NCGS 

was involved in a cooperative mapping project with the 

Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), but most of their 

efforts have been concentrated along the Blue Ridge 

Parkway. 

However, NCGS has published the Noland Creek 

quadrangle that was mapped as part of a graduate thesis. 

Also, the western half of the Asheville 1:100,000 sheet is 

slated for completion by 2006 and the eastern half by 

2003. This sheet consists of 32 1:24,000 quadrangles. 

Scott Southworth expressed interest in further discussing 

this mapping project with NCGS staff for stratigraphic 

correlations and identification of similar map units. 

Academic Perspective 

Bob Hatcher (UTK) has had numerous students 

mapping in and around GRSM for many years, including 

NCGS Geologist Mark Carter (now with the Virginia 

Division of Mineral Resources). Some of the mapping 

was done at 1:12,000 and compiled at 1:24,000 scale. The 

Dellwood and Bunches Bald quadrangles were 

specifically mentioned. 

Bob mentioned a few things of interest to him regarding 

GRSM geology: 

Is the Cades Sandstone actually the Thunderhead? 

The Web Mountain area appears to be a “window” 

Phil King (USGS mapper in 1940s) may have 

miscorrelated some units 

The NPS bibliography is missing numerous articles of 

relevance to GRSM that he knows of; he has since 

supplied those references to add to our bibliography 

He is very interested in seeing a geologic database for 

GRSM and hopes it will be an excellent resource for the 

geologic community for many years to come. 

He spoke of research to core in caves to determine the 

rates of earthquake occurrence in the region and use 

deformed flood plain sediments to deduce earthquake 

timing; use “teetering” rocks to know when earthquakes 

have occurred. 

Issues 

Interpretation 

One goal of GRD is to promote geologic resource 

interpretation within the National Park Service. GRD has 

staff and technology to assist in preparation of useful 

materials including developing site specific bulletins, 

websites, and resource management proposal (RMP) 

statements appropriate to promoting geology. Jim Wood 

(GRD) and others have worked with several other NPS 

units in developing web-based geology interpretation 

themes, and should be considered as a source of 

assistance should the park desire. GRD has also received 

much positive recognition for the “Park Geology Tour of 

National Parks” and subsequent “Geology Field Notes” 

at http://www2.nature.nps.gov/grd/tour/index.htm. 

GRD posted these sites based on available park 

brochures, but they are always in need of fresh material. 

Park staff may wish to review these and suggest 

improvements to GRD. 
 NPS Geologic Resources Division 42 

Paleontology 

GRD provides support on policy and Government 

Performance and Results Act (GPRA) goals related to 

paleontological resources in parks. 

At the present time, Paleontology is not one of the main 

baseline natural resource inventories, but it has been 

included within the GRE. 

GRD staff has led refresher-training courses for NPS 

rangers at multiple parks to raise awareness for the 

protection of paleontological resources. Often a first step 

is for parks to determine whether they have 

paleontological resources, and then to have a baseline 

inventory completed. 

Many parks have become interested in having 

Paleontological Surveys conducted. Surveys are already 

completed or in progress for Big Bend, Zion, 

Yellowstone and Death Valley. Vince Santucci 

(Vince_Santucci@nps.gov; NPS Paleontologist) is willing 

to discuss such matters with park staff, if they are 

interested. Often, these surveys have shed valuable new 

information on previously unrecognized resources. 

These surveys involve a literature review and subsequent 

bibliography, as well as recognition of type specimens, 

species lists, and maps (which are unpublished to protect 

locality information), and also make park specific 

recommendations for protecting and preserving the 

resources. 

Samples of existing paleontological surveys are available 

online at: 

http://www2.nature.nps.gov/grd/geology/paleo/surveys/

surveys.htm

If a paleontological survey were conducted and yielded 

significant findings, the following might be derivative 

steps: 

• Develop resource management plans including 

inventory and monitoring to identify human and 

natural threats to these resources; 

• Incorporate findings or suggestions into park general 

management plans (GMP); 

• train park staff (including interpreters and law 

enforcement) in resource protection; the fossil trade 

"black market" has become quite lucrative for sellers 

and often results in illegal collecting from federal 

lands; 

• Collections taken from the area residing in outside 

repositories could be tracked down for inventory 

purposes; 

Fossils offer many interpretive themes and combine a 

geology/biology link and should be utilized as much as 

possible in interpretive programs.

List of Scoping Meeting attendees with contact information 

NAME AFFILIATION PHONE E-MAIL 

Joe Gregson NPS, Inventory & 

Monitoring Program (970) 225-3559 Joe_Gregson@nps.gov 

Tim Connors NPS, Geologic 

Resources Division (303) 969-2093 Tim_Connors@nps.gov 

Scott Southworth USGS, Reston (703) 648-6385 Ssouthwo@usgs.gov 

Don Byerly Univ. of Tennessee (423) 974-6007 Dbyerly@utk.edu 

Bob Hatcher Univ. of Tennessee (423) 974-6565 Bobmap@utk.edu 

Carl Merschat North Carolina 

Geologic Survey (828) 251-6208 Carl.Merschat@ncmail.net 

Peter Lemiszki Tennessee Geologic 

Survey (865) 594-5596 plemiszki@mail.state.tn.us 

Keith Langdon NPS, GRSM (423) 436-1705 Keith_Langdon@nps.gov 

Mark Carter Virginia Division of 

Mineral Resources 828-251-6208 mark.carter@dmme.virginia.gov 

Chuck Parker USGS 865-436-1704 Chuck_Parker@usgs.gov 

Harry Moore TN DOT 865-594-9436 

865-594-9373 Hmoore@mail.state.tn.us 

Richard Schulz GRSM, GIS 865-430-4745 Richard_Schulz@nps.gov 

Lindsay 

McClelland 

NPS, Geologic 

Resources Division 202-513-7185 Lindsay_mcclelland@nps.gov 

Michael Kunze NPS, GRSM 865-436-1703 Michael_Kunze@nps.gov 
 GRSM Geologic Resource Evaluation Report 43

Existing Geologic Maps for GRSM 

Quadrangle Scale Author Year Digital Acceptable 

for database Pub # 

Blockhouse 1:24,000 R.B. Neuman & R.L. 

Wilson 1960 GQ 131 

Bryson City 

Bunches Bald 

Cades Cove 1:24,000 Scott Southworth et al. 2000 Yes OF 99-0175 

Calderwood 1:24,000 Scott Southworth et al. 2000 yes OF 99-0175 

Clingmans 

Dome 

Cove Creek Gap 1:24,000 Art Schultz 1999 OF 99-0536 

Dellwood 

Fontana Dam 1:24,000 Scott Southworth 1995 OF 95-0264 

Gatlinburg 1:24,000 P.B. King 1964 PP-349 C 

Hartford 

Jones Cove 1:24,000 Warren Hamilton 1961 PP-349 A 

Kinzel Springs 1:24,000 

R.B. Neuman 

& 

W.H. Nelson 

1965 PP-349 D1

Luftee Knob 1:24,000 Art Schultz 1999 OF 99-0536 

Mount Guyot 1:24,000 Art Schultz 1999 OF 99-0536 

Mount Le Conte 1:24,000 Art Schultz et al. 2000 yes OF 00-261 

Noland Creek 1:24,000 David Moh 1975 NCGS 

Pigeon Forge 1:24,000 P.B. King 1964 PP-349 C 

Richardson Cove 1:24,000 Warren Hamilton 1961 PP-349 A 

Silers Bald 1:24,000 P.B. King 1964 PP-349 C 

Smokemont 

Tapoco 

Thunderhead 

Mountain 1:24,000 P.B. King 1964 PP-349 C 

Tuskeegee 1:24,000 Scott Southworth 1995 OF 95-0264 

Walden Creek 1:24,000 P.B. King 1964 PP-349 C 

Waterville 

Wear Cove 1:24,000 P.B. King 1964 PP-349 C2

Whittier 

 

1

 Portions of the Wildwood, Kinzel Springs, Blockhouse, Tallassee, Calderwood, and Cades cove quadrangles are compiled at 

1;62,500 in USGS PP 349- D 

2

 portions of the Walden Creek, Pigeon Forge, Wear Cove, Gatlinburg, Thunderhead Mountain, and Silers Bald quadrangles 

are compiled at 1:62,500 scale in USGS PP 349- B 
 NPS Geologic Resources Division 44 

Maps associated with USGS Professional Paper 349 

Folio and Title Quadrangles covered Scale Author Year 

A 

Geology of the Richardson Cove and 

Jones Cove Quadrangles 

Richardson Cove 

Jones Cove 1:24,000 Warren Hamilton 1961 

B 

Geology of the eastern Great Smoky 

Mountains, North Carolina and 

Tennessee 

?? 1:62,500 Hadley, J.B.; 

Goldsmith, R., 1963 

Walden Creek 

Pigeon Forge 

Wear Cove 

Gatlinburg 

Thunderhead 

Mountain 

Silers Bald 

1:24,000 C 

Geology of the Central Great Smoky 

Mountains Tennessee 

All above compiled 

as “Central” map 1:62,500 

Philip B. King 1964 

Kinzel Springs 1:24,000 

D 

Geology of the Western Great Smoky 

Mountains Tennessee 

Portions of : 

Wildwood 

Kinzel Springs 

Blockhouse 

Tallassee 

Calderwood 

Cades Cove 

1:62,500 

Robert B. Neuman; 

Willis H. Nelson 1965 
The Department of the Interior protects and manages the nation’s natural resources and cultural heritage; provides scientific and other 

information about those resources; and honors its special responsibilities to American Indians, Alaska Natives, and affiliated Island 

Communities. 

Great Smoky Mountains National Park 

Geologic Resource Evaluation Report 

Natural Resource Report NPS/NRPC/GRD/NRR—2008/048 

NPS D-626, September 2008 

National Park Service 

Director • Mary A. Bomar 

Natural Resource Stewardship and Science 

Associate Director • Bert Frost 

Natural Resource Program Center 

The Natural Resource Program Center (NRPC) is the core of the NPS Natural Resource Stewardship and 

Science Directorate. The Center Director is located in Fort Collins, with staff located principally in 

Lakewood and Fort Collins, Colorado and in Washington, D.C. The NRPC has five divisions: Air 

Resources Division, Biological Resource Management Division, Environmental Quality Division, Geologic 

Resources Division, and Water Resources Division. NRPC also includes three offices: The Office of 

Education and Outreach, the Office of Inventory, Monitoring and Evaluation, and the Office of Natural 

Resource Information Systems. In addition, Natural Resource Web Management and Partnership 

Coordination are cross-cutting disciplines under the Center Director. The multidisciplinary staff of NRPC 

is dedicated to resolving park resource management challenges originating in and outside units of the 

national park system. 

Geologic Resources Division 

Chief • Dave Steensen 

Planning Evaluation and Permits Branch Chief • Carol McCoy 

Credits 

Author • Trista Thornberry-Ehrlich

Review • Lindsay McClelland and Carol McCoy 

Editing • Thomas Judkins and Melanie Ransmeier

Digital Map Production • Stephanie O'Meara and Trista Thornberry-Ehrlich 

Map Layout Design • Melanie Ransmeier
Geologic Resources Division 

Natural Resource Program Center 

P.O. Box 25287 

Denver, CO 80225 

http://www.nature.nps.gov/geology/inventory/ 

(303) 969-2090 

EXPERIENCE YOUR AMERICATM 

National Park Service 

U.S. Department of the Interior