EPIDEMIOLOGY OF DISEASES

OF -££i_K

MILITARY IMPORTANCE

IN THE

NETHERLANDS INDIES

INCLUDING THE IDENTIFICATION

AND DISTRIBUTION OF ARTHROPODS OF MEDICAL IMPORTANCE

NAVMED I33

(This manual includes only the areas formerly under Dutch

administration. It does not take into account Portuguese

Timor, British New Guinea, and British Borneo)

UNITED STATES

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE

WASHINGTON 1944

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington 26, D. C. Price 40 cents

FOREWORD

The purpose of this manual is to present summary of

medical information concerning the Netherlands Indies as it pertains to epidemiology and other phases of preventive medicine. The bulk of the information has been

obtained from the medical journals and other publications

of the Netherlands Indies. The information recorded is

the result of perusal of about 5,000 pages of material

and more hasty study of several thousand additional

pages.

The principal general sources have been the two fine

Netherlands Indies medical journals, Geneeskundig Tijdschrift voor derlandsch-Indie and Mededeelingen van den

Dienst der Folksgezondheid in Nederlandsch-lndie, the

official organ of the Netherlands Indies Public Health

Service. Much of the material on malaria and its transmission was derived from the monograph of Swellengrebel

and Rodenwaldt, Die Anophelen von NiederlandischOstindien supplemented by numerous more recent papers.

Much of the entomological information comes from the

pages of Tijdschrift voor Entomologie Statistics In general come from the Indisch Ferslag, the official statistical

organ of the Netherlands Indies Government. The numerous other references to the literature which have been

employed are given in the bibliography.

It is necessary to bear in mind that this manual is of

necessity essentially non-critical compilation although

every effort has been made to check the accuracy and

authenticity of the source papers. Because most of the

information comes from the work of individuals who have

many years’ experience in the Netherlands Indies one

feels definitely inclined to regard it as fundamentally

sound and accurate.

Several publications and reports are available which

would be of value as supplement to this compilation.
IV

Mosquito Atlas, Part II by Ross and Roberts contains

many illustrations of medically important anophelines of

this area. Keys to the Anopheline Mosquitoes of the World,

by Russell, Rozeboom, and Stone contains keys for the

identification of Anopheles. The excellent report compiled by Dr. I. Snapper for the Surgeon General’s Office,

United States Army, contains much valuable information.

The text-book of de Langen and Lichtenstein contains

useful information, primarily clinical. translated edition by Dr. A. H. Hamilton is available.

The War Department’s Technical Manual, Emergency

Food Plants and Poisonous Plants of the Islands of the

Pacific, prepared by Dr. E. D. Merrill, is the best available

source of information on this subject.

Reference may be made also to Doris M. Cochran’s

Poisonous Reptiles of the World (Smithsonian Institution

War Background Studies, Number 10) and to Dr. Raymond Kennedy’s Islands and Peoples of the Indies (same

series, Number 14).

In allocating space to various subjects emphasis has

been placed on diseases of importance in operations and

primarily those which are not normally encountered in

temperate climates. As result the greater part of the

manual is devoted to malaria and other insect-borne

diseases. Many things, such as nutritional deficiencies

and diseases, of importance to the Indies have been purposely omitted because they are relatively unimportant

from the standpoint of naval personnel and operations.

Certain diseases such as leprosy, yaws, and the venereal

diseases are extremely prevalent. However the space

devoted to these has been much reduced because, as

problems to naval personnel, they are no different in the

Netherlands Indies than elsewhere.

Many individuals have rendered invaluable assistance

in preparing this manual. Dr. Alan Stone, Division of

Insect Identification, Bureau of Entomology and Plant
Quarantine, assisted in preparing the material on mosquitoes. Dr. Maurice T. James also of the Division of

Insect Identification supplied notes on the muscoid flies

of medical importance. Dr. E. A. Chapin, Curator of

Insects, National Museum, arranged for laboratory space

and other facilities. Dr. Paul Bartsch, Curator of

Mollusks and Cenozoic Invertebrates, National Museum,

prepared the notes on the molluscan intermediate hosts

of human trematodes. Miss Doris M. Cochran, Curator

of Herpetology, supplied information on the poisonous

snakes, and Dr. E. Schwartz supplied information on

rats. Dr. I. Snapper, Consultant, Division of Preventive

Medicine, United States Army, made available his notes

on skin diseases, leprosy, leptospirosis, as well as other

Information and bibliographic references. The bibliographic files of the Division of Zoology, Bureau ofAnimal

Husbandry, were an invaluable source of references on

parasites. Dr. H. Elishewitz, Naval Research Institute, has supplied information on ticks. Captain Paul W.

Wilson (MC) USN; Captain T. J. Carter (MC) USN;

Commander Omar J. Brown (MC) USN; Commander

V. C. Tipton (MC) USNR, Lieut. Commander E. H.

Hudson (MC) USNR; and Lieut, Commander E. M.

Bingham (MC) USNR have read the manuscript in part

or its entirety and have given valuable suggestions.

Lieut, Commander D. F. Smiley (MC) USNR has assisted

in the planning and compilation and has critically examined the entire manuscript. Mrs. E. K. Noice has

checked the bibliography and geographical locations and

has edited the entire manual. The statistical compilations have been made by Miss A. M. Danhakl.

D. S. Earner,

Ensign H-V{S), USNR.

Bureau of Medicine and Surgery,

Division of Preventive Medicine,

Section of Epidemiology.
CONTENTS Page

Chapter I. Introduction

II. Malaria 10

III. Filariasls.. 52 IV. Dengue 76 V. Other Insect-Borne Diseases 80

VI. Rickettsioses 82

VII. Plague and Leptospirosis 90

VIII. Enteric Diseases 100

IX. Respiratory Diseases 109

X. Miscellaneous Infectious Diseases, Skin Diseases,

Leprosy, Yaws, Venereal Diseases 115

XL Helminthiases (Other than Filariasis) 125 XII. Animals and Plants of Medical Importance 130

Bibliography 144

APPENDICES

Appendix A, Keys to the Identification of the Anopheline

Mosquitoes of the Netherlands Indies 161

B. Check List of the Anophelines of the Netherlands Indies 177 C. Distribution of Malaria Vectors in the Netherlands

Indies 181 D. Check List and Keys for the Identification of

Culicine Mosquitoes in the Netherlands Indies.. 204 E. Check List and Keys for Identification of Ticks of

the Netherlands Indies 213

F. Tables for Identification of Trombiculid Larvae of

the Netherlands Indies 223

G. Notes on the Climatology of the Netherlands Indies 239 H. IntermediateHosts of Trematode Parasites of Man

in the Southwest Pacific 246
Chapter

INTRODUCTION

The Netherlands Indies are sprawling chain of hundreds of volcanic islands extending for 3,000 miles from

the Malay Peninsula eastward to include the western half

of the island of New Guinea. The width of the archipelago is approximately 1,200 miles. The islands vary

in size from small uninhabited volcanic rocks to the giant

islands of Sumatra, Borneo, Java, and New Guinea. In

the cases of Borneo, Timor, and New Guinea only the

Dutch portions of these islands are to be considered in this

report.

The climate of the Netherlands Indies is tropical, warm

and oppressively humid. Because of the insular nature

of the area generalizations except in the broadest sense

are apt to be erroneous. Braak (1931) describes the

climate as the “rainiest in the world.” The entire archipelago is under the influence of the monsoon winds and

much of the seasonal climatological changes are dependent

on these winds. The transition between the monsoons

occurs ordinarily in April and November with variation

according to latitude. In the South the East Monsoon

usually has begun by April whereas in the North the south

and southeast winds are not prevalent until May. In the

Lesser Soendas (Sundas), Java, Sumatra, and New Guinea

the winds of the East Monsoon blow from the east and

southeast whereas in Borneo, Celebes, and the Molukkas

(Moluccas) the wind directions in the East Monsoon are

south or southeast. During the West Monsoon wind

directions are west-northwest and northwest on Java, East Sumatra, and the Lesser Soendas, and north, north-
FIG.

Principal

Islands

and

Cities

of

the

Netherlands

Indies
east and northwest on New Guinea, Molukkas, and

Celebes. The transition to the West Monsoon occurs in

November. However, there is considerable variation

due to latitudinal differences.

In Batavia the absolute maximum temperature is

38.8° C.; the absolute minimum is 18.3° C. In East

Java, Lesser Soenda, Celebes, southern Molukkas, Timor,

and Aroe there is dry season associated with the East

Monsoon in July and August which is somewhat cooler. In general it can be said that mean maximum temperatures

vary from 28.8° C. to 32.6° C., depending on the time of

year and the station. The mean minimum temperatures

vary from 20.5° C. to 23.6° C. Temperature decreases

about 2° C. per 1,000 feet increase in altitude.

Annual rainfall of 150 inches or more occurs in the

mountains of Java, on the north coasts of Banka (Bangka)

and Billiton, in the mountains of South and East Borneo,

and at Ambon (Amboina) and Saparoea in the Molukkas.

Jasaredja in Middle Java has the greatest annual rainfall,

about 275 inches. Because of the importance of climatological factors, particularly rainfall, in malaria and

filariasis control more detailed discussion is given In

Appendix G.

Geologic origin and history of the islands of the Netherlands Indies have resulted in peculiarity in faunal

geography. The eastern portion of the archipelago,

including New Guinea, the Molukkas, Soela Islands, Aroe

Islands, Tanimbar Islands, and Babar Islands, because of

its recent continuity with Australia and its long isolation

from Asia and the Asiatic islands possesses characteristically Australian fauna (fig. 2). On the other hand the

Greater Soenda Islands (Sumatra, Borneo, Celebes, and

Java) and adjacent islands, as well as the Lesser Soenda

Islands, because of their relatively recent continuity with

the Asiatic mainland and their long isolation from the
FIG.

Faunal

Regions

of

the

Netherlands

Indies

Approximate

area

of

overlap

of

Australian

and

Asiatic Faunae.
Australian Islands, are inhabited by typically Asiatic

species. The boundary of these two faunal groups is

usually regarded as coincident with line passing from

north to south between Halmahera Island and Celebes,

between Soela and Banggai, and between Leti and Babar.

This is known to zoogeographers as Wallace’s line. In

the case of many species it is more accurate to speak of

transition zone extending from 120° to 130° east longitude

in which there is an intermingling and gradual transition

between the two faunae. Also there are certain hardy

ubiquitous species whose distributions show no relationship to this concept and which cannot be assigned to any

particular faunal group. An excellent example of such

species is A'edes aegypti whose distribution is world-wide in the tropics and semitropics. Nevertheless the concept of

Wallace’s line is useful. It has ready application in the

distribution of malaria vectors. For instance, the most

important vector in New Guinea is Anopheles punctulatus

moluccensis an Australian species whose westward range

extends only to Wallace’s line, whereas in the western part

ofthe archipelago the most important vectoris the brackishwater breeder, Anopheles sundaicus, whose range extends

eastward to Wallace’s line. This characteristic distribution holds true for all of the important malaria vectors in

the Netherlands Indies, Hence the type of control and

precautionary measures to be employed must depend to

considerable degree on whether one is in the Australian or

Asiatic Zone. Further applications of this are found in the

distribution of Wuchereria malayi and its vectors as well as

in the distribution of poisonous snakes and plants.

The population of the Netherlands Indies according to

the 1930 census was 60,727,000. The population of Java and Madoera alone was about 42,000,000, The estimated

The line of division proposed by Wallace, and hence in reality the true Wallace’s Line,

passed between Celebes and Borneo. In recent years it has become obvious that the

more easterly line, as used here, is perhaps more accurate division.
population in 1937 for the entire archipelago was about

65,000,000. It is therefore obvious that the population

density varies tremendously from crowded agricultural

Java to Borneo and New Guinea with their vast expanses

of uninhabited jungles. These differences are amply

illustrated in tabulation of population by political

subdivisions.

Table 1.—Population and population density in the Netherlands Indies

The populations are predominately native Malayans

(Javanese, etc.) with Europeans, Chinese, Hindus, Arabs, and others as small minorities. This is illustrated by the following table prepared from the 1930 census.

Area in square

miles

Population 1930

Population

density

inhabitants (square

miles)

Java and Madoera 51,000 41,718,000 817.5

West Coast (Sumatra) 19,219 1,910,000 99.4

Tapanoeli (Sumatra) 15,000 1,042,000 69.1

East Coast (Sumatra) 36,500 1,693,000 46.4

Benkoelan (Sumatra) 10,100 323,000 31.9

Lampongs (Sumatra) 11,100 361,000 32.5

Palembang (Sumatra) 33,300 1,098,000 33.0

Djambi (Sumatra) 17,400 245,000 14.1

Atjeh (Sumatra) 21,300 1,003,000 46.9

Riouw-Lingga Archipelago 12,200 298,000 24.4

Bangka 4,610 205,000 44.5

Billiton 1,900 73,000 39.3

Borneo, West District 56,600 803,000 14.2 Borneo, East and South Districts 151,600 1,020,000 9.0 Menado (Celebes) 34,200 1,139,000 33.3

Dist. Celebes (Celebes) 38,800 3,093,000 79.7

Amboina (Molukkas and New Guinea) 75,800 401,000 5.3

Ternate (Molukkas and New Guinea).. 115,800 493,000 4.3

Timor Archipelago 24,449 1,657,000 67.8

Bali and Lombok 4,510 2,052,000 453.7
Table 2.—Population groups in the Netherlands Indies in 1930

The bulk of the population throughout the archipelago

is concentrated in small native villages, kompongs. In

Java, in spite of the tremendous population density, only

4.5 percent of the inhabitants live in cities of more than

50,000. In the other islands this percentage is still lower.

The largest cities, Batavia (438,000), Semarang (218,000),

Soerabaja (337,000), Bandoeng (163,000), and Djokjakarta

(137,000) are in Java. The largest cities in Sumatra are

Medan (75,000) and Padang (52,000). Makassar on

Celebes has population of 87,000. Borneo’s largest

cities are Pontianak (46,000) and Samarinda (11,000).

Up to the time of the invasion, the Netherlands Indies

maintained large and efficient Public Health Service,

Dienst der Folksgezondheid (DVG), which functioned in

cooperation with the Military Medical Service, MilitairGeneeskundig Dienst (MGD) as well as with missions and

local administrative bodies. According to Indisch Verslag (1939), statistical organ of the Netherlands Indies

Government, there were, in 1938, 472 physicians in the

Public Health Service (including part-time and semiofficial appointments and military physicians) and 765

cooperating with the Public Health Service in private

practice. These were distributed according to table 3.

These data include native as well as European physicians

Eu ropeans Natives Chinese Others

192,000

48,000

40,891,000 582.000

651.000 53.000 18,247,000 63.000

240,000 59,138,000 1,233,000 116,000
Table 3.—Physicians in the Netherlands Indies in 1938

In addition there were about 1,500 trained nurses, and

1,500 trained assistants of various types (malaria assistants, vaccinators, plague assistants, technicians, midwives, pharmacists, etc.), with proportionate geographic

distribution. There were 142 dentists.

There were at the time of the invasion two medical

schools with eight-year courses and dental school.

According to Indisch Verslag (1939) there were 625 hospitals, government, private with government subsidy, and

private, in operation in 1938. The geographical distribution of these is shown in table 4.

Table 4.—Hospitals in the Netherlands Indies in 1938

Government

physicians

Physicians

in private

practice

240 63

102 101

34 11

20

21

31

13

11

472 765

Number Number

of beds

228 29,271

183 22,143 57 2,648

1,304

2,007

1,738

757

921

32

40

43

24

18

625 60,789
Throughout 1937 and 1938 these hospitals were filled

within 98 percent of capacity.

In spite of the efforts of the Public Health Service,

health and sanitation among the natives is grossly unsatisfactory. De Langen and Lichtenstein (1936) refer to “the

terrible hygienic condition in the native villages” and

further “*that the truly terrible hygienic conditions in the native quarters of the towns and native

villages are danger not only to the natives themselves

but to the Europeans. The natives are averse

to cleanliness and fresh air.”

Because of the concentration of the general population

as well as of medical personnel and facilities on Java and

Madoera, an overwhelming majority of the available

medical information concerns these islands. Information

from the outer “provinces” (entire Netherlands Indies

except Java and Madoera) consists largely of fragmentary

from physicians, surveys, and special research

projects. Information from the interior of Borneo and

New Guinea and from the Molukkas and some of the

Lesser Soenda Islands is particularly meager. It is

necessary to bear this in mind in considering medical and

health problems in the Netherlands Indies. In many

instances misleading or even incorrect conclusions could

be reached by assuming conditions elsewhere in the archipelago to be the same as those in Java.
10

Chapter II

MALARIA

Malaria is unquestionably the most Important disease

in the Netherlands Indies. Although it is the cause of

more deaths than any other single disease it has its greatest reflection in the general health of the population rather

than as primary cause of death. Its incidence Is greatest among the natives but it is, nevertheless, constant

hazard to Europeans. Because of its prevalence and because most cases do not come to medical attention, reliable statistics on morbidity are not available. The data

in table are from the compilations of Indisch Verslag II

(1935-1940).

Table 5.—Hospitalized cases of malaria

Most of the hospitals from which data in table were

obtained are in Java. It must be re-emphasized that

only minute portion of the malaria cases are hospitalized.

Perhaps the importance of malaria is indicated more

clearly by the calculations of Overbeek and Stoker (1938).

These authors state that the crude mortality rate In rural

Java is about 20:1000. In areas of chronic endemic maYear Number of hospitals

Total

number

of admissions

Malaria

admissions

Percent

malaria

admissions

Case fatality,

percent

Percent

deaths

due to

malaria

1934 221 207,325 15,510 7.5 3.1

1935 185 201,597 15,898 7.8 3.6 4.4

1936 190 223,469 16,942 7.6 3.7 4.6

1937 176 239,163 22,771 9.5 3.6 5.7

1938 167 238,960 23,177 9.7 4.4 6.7

1939 176 255,552 23,933 9.3 4.3 6.2
11

larla the rate is 25-50:1000 per year and in regions with

epidemic malaria the crude mortality may become as

high as 400:1000 per year. Spleen indices in areas of

chronic endemic malaria usually vary from 80 to 90 percent. According to the statistics of the annual report

of the Medical Laboratory {Jaarverslag van het Geneeskundig Laboratorium over 1935 the malaria mortality

rate in the Tjilatjap (Java) area, where an epidemic prevailed in 1935, was about 50:1000 per year. This represents typical epidemic mortality rate.

The Importance of malaria is further emphasized by the

fact that the Netherlands Indies Public Health Service

has maintained separate malaria bureau with laboratories at Soerabaja and Batavia, The function of this

organization is confined exclusively to the indentification

of mosquito larvae and imagoes, examination of blood

smears, determination of natural infection of vectors, etc.

In 1937 more than 365,000 analyses and determinations

were performed in these laboratories. This bureau has

also conducted schools for malaria assistants (malaria

mantris). These assistants are carefully trained in the

collection and identification of anopheline mosquitoes,

adults and larvae, as well as in the preparation and examination of blood smears and other useful technics. In

1939 there were nearly 200 of these assistants engaged in

malaria control work in various parts of the archipelago.

Although infections by Plasmodium vivax P. falci- parum, and P. malariae occur, the majority of the

cases are either tertian or subtertian. As in many other

areas the distribution of P. malariae is very sporadic. It

is said to be common in Bali, at Poerwaradi (East Java),

Belawang, the port city of Medan (Sumatra), and in

some of the villages around Toba Lake in Sumatra. In

the Netherlands Indies Army, 0.4 gm. quinine per day is

the standard suppressive measure. Quinine tablets have

562282—44
12

been issued to the natives by the Public Health Service and by plantations for many years. In recent years the

therapeutic use of atabrin has become more and more

popular among Dutch and native physicians.

Malaria Vectors

More than 60 species and subspecies of the genus

Anopheles are known to occur in the Netherlands Indies. Of these about dozen are recognized as vectors of varying degrees of importance. The vectors are sharply divided

geographically between the Asiatic and Australian faunae. Vectors belonging to the Asiatic fauna (Indo-Malaysian)

are Anopheles sundaicus, A. aconitus A. minimus A.

maculatus, A. kochi, A. hyrcanus “group”, A. leucosphyrus, and A. umbrosus. Australian vectors are Anopheles

bancroftii, A. punctulatus punctulatus and A. punctulaius

moluccensis. The degree to which the Australian and

Asiatic species overlap on the Molukkas, eastern Lesser

Soendas, and other islands in this region is not well known

at the present time. It is important to bear in mind the

possibility of the spread of some species beyond their

present ranges due to war conditions and rapid wartime

transportation.

The principal sources of information on anophelines for

this area are the monographs of Swellengrebel and Rodenwaldt (1932), Christophers (1933), and Weyer (1939).

Important information also comes from the papers of

Overbeek, Stoker, Rodenwaldt, Brug, de Rook, Walch, Soesilo, Schiiffner, Mangkoewenoto, and others. In

general the Dutch adhere to the nomenclature of Swellengrebel and Rodenwaldt (1932) which differs considerably

from that in general use in English-speaking countries. The names used here are those of the accepted American

nomenclature which adheres closely to Christophers’

(1933). However, the Dutch synonyms are included
13

parenthetically to avoid confusion in consulting Dutch

literature and in any collaboration with Dutch entomologists and malariologists.

In general it can be said that there is good information

on the distribution of mosquitoes in Sumatra and adjacent

islands, Java and adjacent islands, and the western Lesser

Soenda Islands. Hundreds of collections have been made

on these islands. Information from Celebes and the

eastern Lesser Soendas is somewhat fragmentary as is

that of the Molukkas. Reliable information from Borneo,

particularly the interior, and New Guinea is extremely

meager. In reference to New Guinea and the Molukkas,

however, it can be assumed that the distribution of A.

punctulatus punctulatus and A. punctulatus moluccensis as

given in this compilation is essentially correct. Nevertheless it is necessary to bear in mind the variability in the

knowledge of mosquito distribution in the various parts

of the archipelago as outlined in this paragraph.

1. Anopheles sundaicus (=ludlowi var. sundaicus).

This Is the most important vector in the western part of

the archipelago. There are two morphologically indistinguishable forms with different breeding habits. The

fresh-water form has limited distribution in the mountains of Sumatra whereas the brackish-water form occurs

quite generally in coastal regions throughout the western

part of the archipelago. The brackish-water form breeds primarily in barrier

lagoons near the mouths of streams, salt-water fish ponds,

and other bodies of stagnating brackish water. The

optimum salt concentration according to Weyer (1939)

and Overbeek and Stoker (1938) is 12 to 18 gm. NaCl

per liter. The upward limit appears to be about 40 gm.

NaCl per liter. The breeding optimum according to

Weyer (1939) is mixture of about part of sea water to

20 parts of fresh water. The larvae thrive only in water

exposed to sunlight. According to some authors this
14

accounts for the fact that this species is not found on

coasts with virgin mangrove forests. According to others

its absence in these areas is due simply to the absence of

accumulations of salt water among the mangroves. The

larvae are further dependent upon the presence of filamentous green algae such as Enteromorpha Chaetomorpha,

Spirogyra, Oscillatoria, Oedogonium Lyngbya, etc., as

well as bottom aquatic plants. In general, ponds, lagoons,

etc., which do not have filamentous algae do not have

sundaicus larvae. However the water can be stagnant or

turbid without affecting the occurrence of the larvae.

The larvae of A. subpictus are frequently found with

sundaicus larvae although the subpictus larvae can

tolerate higher salt concentration and the absence of the

vegetation which is necessary for sundaicus. The sundaicus

larvae, according to Overbeek and Stoker (1938), are

never found in flowing water or in tidal water. Swellengrebel and Rodenwaldt (1932) are in agreement with this

and suggest that it is the tidal influence which accounts for

the absence of sundaicus in mangrove forests. In regions

where the lagoons are periodically connected with the

ocean the occurrence of larvae is in harmony with this

periodicity, i. e., lacking during periods of connection.

Swellengrebel and Rodenwaldt (1932) cite unpublished

data of de Nooy and Soesilo in speaking of the occurrence

of the brackish-water sundaicus in fresh water in the hill

country around Semarang, Java, in stagnating backwaters ofrivers in East Java, and in fresh-water fish ponds

in Bali. This agrees with some observations made in

British India and is not to be confused with the freshwater sundaicus of Sumatra. The fresh-water sundaicus breeds almost exclusively in

the fresh-water fish ponds in the long valleys of the

Barisan Mountains in Sumatra. It has been reported from

Greater and Lesser Mandailing (Rau, Panti, Padang
IS

Sidempoean) at altitudes of 1,500 to 3,200 feet. The

larvae also occur occasionally in the rice fields which are

allowed to lie flooded after the harvest.

In these regions about 50 percent of the fresh-water

fish ponds do not have sundaicus larvae. An explanation of this anomalous distribution does not exist. The

presence of aquatic vegetation and particularly rooted

aquatic plants seems to be an essential requirement for the

fresh-water sundaicus larvae.

The adult sundaicus is persistent house mosquito.

On the south coast of Java about 60 percent of all mosquitoes found in houses are A. sundaicus and A. aconitus.

Walch (1932) found that 86 percent to 96 percent of all

sundaicus adults captured in houses contained human

blood. In general the coastal sundaicus is numerous in

June, July, and August with the numbers decreasing

between September and November depending upon the

season. This is correlated with the beginning of the dry

season and the consequent increase in salinity in the ponds

and lagoons. The adults are capable of flights of to

kilometers (0.6 to 2.0 miles).

The rate of natural infection in adult mosquitoes varies

considerably depending among other factors on the amount

of human malaria present in the particular area. During

severe epidemics natural Infection of the mosquitoes may

be as high as 20 percent or even 30 percent whereas

normally it fluctuates from 1.0 to 10 percent in endemic

areas and during light and moderate epidemics. Kuipers

and Stoker (1934) found 46 percent in an epidemic on the

north coast of Java, The potential (experimental) index

of infection, i. e., percent infected under optimum experimental conditions, is high. Swellengrebel and Rodenwaldt (1932) state that it is 100 percent with Plasmodium

falciparum 80 percent for P. vivax, and 20 to 25 percent

for P. malarias. It is rule of thumb that wherever

sundaicus occurs so also does malaria.
16

Because of differences in nomenclature there is some

difficulty in ascertaining the exact status of the northern

limits of the range of Anopheles sundaicus. According to

Swellengrebel and Rodenwaldt (1932) it occurs on the

coasts of Java, Sumatra, and adjacent islands (except in

mangrove areas) as well as on the coasts of all of the Lesser

Soenda Islands. In recent years it has extended its range

northward to southern Celebes and adjacent islands where

in replacing suhpictus it has caused severe epidemics.

Overbeek (1940) reports severe epidemic in Celebes with

sundaicus 54 perent infected. The distribution in Borneo Is not well known. It is said not to occur wherever there

are mangroveforests. Nevertheless, because of the present

lack of adequate information, its possible occurrence on

this island must be constantly borne in mind. Walch

and Soesilo (1929) described form from the east coast of

Borneo around Balikpapan which they state is intermediate between A. sundaicus and A. ludlowi of the

Philippine Islands. A. ludlowi is known to occur on

Ceram In the Molukkas.

It is necessary to emphasize again that, although there

are numerous vectors in the western part of the archipelago, Anopheles sundaicus is without doubt the most

dangerous (fig. 1, Appendix C).

2. Anopheles suhpictus.—The breeding habits of this vector are somewhat similar to those of A. sundaicus although it is much more ubiquitous. Larvae can be found in habitats varying from rice fields to brackish-water bodies with salt concentrations as high as 85 gm. NaCl

per liter. Because of this toleration for wide variety of

habitats the larvae of this species are numerous.

The adults are also extremely numerous. Next to

sundaicus it is the most abundant species captured in

houses. However, it seems to prefer to bite livestock.

The status of suhpictus as vector is matter of contro-
17

versy. According to Soesilo (1928) the index of experimental infection is 40 percent. Natural infection appears

to vary from 0.2 to 1.2 percent (mean, about 0.3 percent).

Walch (1932) found only 15 percent of the females with

human blood. Christophers (1933) is inclined to believe

that it is not vector. However, his conclusions are based

largely on experience in British India. In the Netherlands

Indies it is difficult to obtain good evidence because

subpictus usually occurs simultaneously with other vectors.

Dutch malariologists are in agreement that because of its

large numbers it can at times be dangerous vector in spite

of its low natural infection. In southern Celebes in areas

where it has not been replaced by A. sundaicus it is regarded as an important vector.

Anopheles subpictus is known to occur generally on

Java, Sumatra, Riouw, etc., the Lesser Soendas, Molukkas, Celebes, New Guinea, and adjacent islands. Although there are only two records from the east coast of

Borneo it may be well to assume that its distribution on

this island is much more extensive (fig. 2, Appendix C).

3. Anopheles aconitus. —This species occurs in the

plains as well as in the mountains. Larvae are found in

such places as fallow flooded rice fields (after the harvest),

fresh-water fish ponds, poorly maintained irrigation

ditches, and to lesser extent in flowing water such as in

small brooks. Rice fields and fresh-water fish ponds are

the most common breeding habitats. The larvae are

seldom or never found in brackish, turbid, or dirty water.

Although this species is house mosquito and the

females bite humans there seems to be preference for

livestock. In regions with few livestock, 60 percent of

the mosquitoes were found by Walch (1932) to contain

human blood. The flight of adults seems to be limited to

less than 600 yards from the breeding places; aconitus is

nocturnal flier. There is definite periodicity in the
18

aconitus population. The aconitus season frequently coincides with the rice harvest if water is allowed to stand in

the fields where the rice straw is not removed. After the

harvest the aconitus season” seems to decline.

There is some disagreement concerning the role of

this species as vector. Nevertheless there can be no

doubt that at times in the Netherlands Indies it is

vector of importance and the cause of severe epidemics.

Experimental infections of 46 percent with P. falciparum

are reported by Swellengrebel and Rodenwaldt (1932)

who give its natural infection as to 7.3 percent (mean,

1.7 percent). Overbeek and Stoker (1938) reported an

epidemic natural infection of 17.8 percent. Although

aconitus is abundant in many areas in Sumatra it has

usually been found uninfected except on the east coast

of Tapanoeli and in Djihara in South Sumatra. The

Dutch are inclined to regard this species as potentially

dangerous vector capable of producing severe epidemics.

Because of the difficulty in distinguishing this species

from A. minimus the exact distribution is not known.

Perhaps it is best to accept the statement of Weyer (1939)

who says it occurs everywhere in the Netherlands Indies

between the altitudes of 1,200 and 2,500 feet, and some

places up to 3,000 feet. It may be best to assume that

this is also true for Borneo although there are no records

to support this assumption at present (fig. 3, Appendix C).

4. Anopheles minimus.—This species is very similar

to Anopheles aconitus. Actually certain differentiation

can be made only by examination of the larvae. (The

aconitus larvae have branched or frayed clypeal hairs; the

clypeal hairs of minimus are not branched or frayed.

The aconitus imagoes usually have fringe-spot at vein

whereas the minimus imagoes usually do not.) The exact

status of the Netherlands Indies minimus is uncertain.

Swellengrebel and Rodenwaldt (1932) merely refer to it
19

as A. minimus. Overbeek and Stoker (1938) regard it as

A. minimus flavirostris (=minimus var. flavirostris), the

Philippine form. Swellengrebel and Rodenwaldt (1932)

state that Anopheles varuna minimus var. varuna

occurs in Sumatra although Overbeek and Stoker (1938),

Weyer (1939), and Christophers (1933) do not agree.

For practical purposes it appears most advisable to speak

merely of Anopheles minimus until the taxonomic relationships are more apparent. According to Christophers

(1933) flavirostris is indistinguishable from minimus.

Actually, if necessary in malaria control, aconitus and the

minimus forms can be dealt with as single problem.

Anopheles minimus breeds primarily in flowing water

although there is certain degree of adaptability in its

breeding habits. Larvae are found in brooks, creeks, bays

in rivers, and springs—particularly where there is abundant aquatic vegetation. They also occur in irrigation

canals, ponds, and even in rice fields. The water In which

they occur is usually clear, clean, cool, standing or flowing, and slightly shaded or exposed to sunlight. Larvae

are never found in turbid or cloudy water, nor in water

with surface algae, with iron oxide, or abundant bacteria,

nor in brackish water. This species is restricted, to

certain extent, to the mountainous country. In irrigated

country minimus may persist in great numbers after the

rice fields have been drained and aconitus has all but disappeared. This is due to the fact that the water does not

disappear as quickly from the irrigation ditches.

A. minimus is house mosquito with distinct preference for human blood. Because of the confusion of this

species with A. aconitus there is not much reliable information on its role as malaria vector in the Netherlands

Indies. It has been found at Minahassa (Celebes) with

percent natural infection. In India, however, it is regarded as an extremely dangerous vector. Overbeek and
20

Stoker (1938) state that it was found infected in Celebes,

Tjipandani, and on Poeloe Laoet near Borneo. Because

of this confusion between A. minimus and A. aconitus both

should be considered provisionally as vectors of importance.

The distribution of minimus is not clear because of confusion in differentiation from aconitus. However it can

be said with considerable degree of assurance that

minimus occurs on all the islands west of Wallace’s line

although virtually nothing is known of its distribution on

Borneo (fig. 3, Appendix C).

5. Anopheles varuna (=minimus var, varuna).

This species is reported by Swellengrebel and Rodenwaldt (1932) from Sumatra although Weyer (1939), Overbeek and Stoker (1938), and Christophers (1933) do not

agree. Weyer (1939) and Christophers (1933) are in

agreement that its status as vector is doubtful although

obscured because of its similarity to A. minimus. If it

does occur in the Netherlands Indies it certainly is not

numerous and therefore not to be recognized as vector

of any consequence (fig. 3, Appendix C).

6. Anopheles maculatus.—This is species of the

hill and mountain country where it is found up to altitudes

of 3,200 feet. Normally it breeds in rapidly flowing

mountain brooks and streams in blind pockets, behind

stones, or wherever whirlpools occur. However larvae

are found sometimes in ponds, springs, open wells, marshes

where there is fresh water, and even inrice fields and water

tanks. The presence of macroscopic aquatic vegetation

is apparently unnecessary in the breeding habitats. Sunlight and clear water rich in oxygen appear to he the principal requirements of the larvae. In Java this species

breeds rather frequently in rice fields along with A. aconitus. This species rarely occurs in virgin forests unless

the natural cover on the banks of the streams is removed.
21

Removal of this cover exposes the water to sunlight making it ideal for maculatus larvae.

The maculatus imagoes are nocturnal fliers and usually

bite between 9:00 p. m. and 2:00 a. m. During this time

they will enter dwellings to bite humans. However they

do not remain in the dwellings and are rarely captured

there. Infected females can be taken along stream banks

during the day. There is considerable disagreement

among the various investigators as to whether this species

is primarily zoophilic or anthropophilic. In the Netherlands Indies however it appears to be zoophilic although

it will attack man vigorously in regions where there is

little livestock. Swellengrebel and Rodenwaldt (1933) report an artificial infection of 47 percent although Weyer (1939) cites

much lower indices. Natural Infection is about percent in the Netherlands Indies although in Malaya parasite indices as high as 11 percent have been recorded.

Most maculatus malaria is “man-made” by the removal

of the jungle shade from the banks of small streams.

This situation is particularly true in the tea plantations in

Java. It is also regarded as vector in the Riouw Archipelago, Banka (Bangka) Islands, Nias Island, and Sumatra. It is troublesome on many of the rubber plantations.

This species has been reported from Sumatra and many

of its adjacent islands, Java, many of the Lesser Soendas,

Celebes, Buton (Boetoeng), and East Borneo. Because

of its distribution in mountainous areas its exact range is

certainly not well known at the present time (fig. 4, Appendix C).

7. Anopheles hyrcanus.—Swellengrebel and Rodenwaldt (1932) include six forms in this species. They are A.

separatus {=hyrcanus separatus), A. hunteri {=hyrcanus

hunteri), A. hyrcanus nigerrimus hyrcanus typicus

var. niggerima ), A. hyrcanus pseudopictus {—hyrcanus
22

typicus var. pseudopicta), A. hyrcanus sinensis (=hyrcanus

typicus var. sinensis ), and form which these authors call

A. hyrcanus peditaeniatus. Its exact status is difficult to

ascertain from the literature. Gater (1934) regards

Walch’s identification as incorrect and believes the form

to be A. montanus albotaeniatus var. montanus of Swellengrebel and Rodenwaldt). The pseudopictus of Swellengrebel and Rodenwaldt is regarded by Weyer (1939) and

Gater (1934) as synonymous with hyrcanus nigerrimus.

The picture, however, is further confused by the reference

of Dutch authors to hyrcanus from Celebes, Java, and

Borneo supposedly distinct form.

Venhuis (1939) has studied the hyrcanus group extensively. He believes that most of the hyrcanus of Java and Celebes, at least, belong to hitherto undescribed

form which he refers to as hyrcanus X. It is described as

similar to A. hyrcanus williamsi of Malaya. Venhuis

(1939) gives the following key to the separation of hyrcanus from sinensis and nigerrimus:

key to separation of hyrcanus from sinensis and nigerrimus

Larva.

1. Sutural hairs with 2-12 branches, antenna slender, and evenly yellow

(like in A. barbirOsiris') A. hyrcanus sinensis or nigerrimus

2. Sutural hairs 13-23 branches; antenna swollen, clear and transparent

or In basal half dark brown A. hyrcanus

Pupa.

1. a. Outermost plumose hair on posterior margin of segment III 8-38 branches

b. Outermost plumose hair on posterior margin of segment III 48-80 branches A. hyrcanus

2. a. Spine on segment VIII 8-30 long branches. A. hyrcanus sinensis

b. Spine on segmentVIII 1-7 short sidehairs. A. hyrcanus nigerrimus

Adult.

1. a. Dark spot on stem of vein short, while tarsal bands on hind leg

narrow, tarsal segment basally dark A. hyrcanus sinensis b. Dark spot on stem of vein long
23

key to separation of hyrcanus from sinensis and nigerrimus

Continued

Adult—Continued.

2. a. Dark spot on middle of vein longer than apical one

A. hyrcanus nigerrimus

b. Dark spot on middle of vein shorter than apical one

A. hyrcanus

The importance of the differentiation of these groups

lies in the fact that Venhuis is quite certain that hyrcanus

is the important vector and that nigerrimus and sinensis

are uncommon. According to him previous identifications (such as those recorded on the maps in Appendix C)

are in error and that these are probably hyrcanus X.

All forms in the preceding paragraphs are dealt with

collectively in this paper as the hyrcanus group.” This

usage is employed not alone because of the confusion in

the taxonomic literature but also because of their similar

breeding habits and further because most of the Dutch

records do not distinguish the various members of this

group. In malaria control it has been common practice

in the Netherlands Indies to deal with this group as an

entity.

Mosquitoes of the hyrcanus group are typically swamp

and rice field breeders of open country. The larvae are

rarely found in stagnating water and there is but single

record of brackish-water breeding. Larvae are found in

large numbers only in the presence of an abundance of

aquatic vegetation. Breeding habitats are frequently

created in clearing operations in low land.

According to Swellengrebel and Rodenwaldt (1932) the

adults have strong preference for the blood of livestock

and hence there is less danger from this group in areas

where livestock is abundant. However Overbeek and

Stoker (1938) describe it as house mosquito with preference for human blood; Walch (1930) speaks of areas in
24

which 80 to 90 percent of the females contained human

blood. There is considerable disagreement as to the importance this group has in the transmission of malaria.

Swellengrebel and Rodenwaldt (1932) cite natural infections of to 11 percent (mean, 1.7 percent). The group

is regarded by some as an important vector in Java and

Sumatra although Soesilo (1935) regards it as unimportant

in Java. The heterogeneity of the hyrcanus group may

well account for the disagreement concerning its role in

malaria transmission. There are records of hyrcanus

mosquitoes from most of the islands west of Wallace’s line.

However, it is probably not numerous on the Lesser

Soendas (fig. 5, Appendix C).

8. Anopheles kochi.—In the Netherlands Indies the

larvae of this species are found breeding in places with

turbid water, In puddles on roads, buffalo hoof-prints,

puddles with decaying leaves, etc. Larvae have also been

reported from mountain brooks, springs, rice fields, and

fresh-water ponds. The females prefer the blood of livestock to that of man. Experimentally, according to

Swellengrebel and Rodenwaldt (1932) it can be infected

to 50 percent with P. falciparum and percent with P.

vivax. In the Netherlands Indies natural infection varies

from to percent (mean 0.85 percent). In general kochi

is an unimportant vector. During the rainy season when

its numbers increase tremendously it may be the cause of

small epidemics. It is distributed quite generally over the

entire archipelago west of Wallace’s line (fig. 6, Appendix

C).

9. Anopheles leucosphyrus. A. leucosphyrus leucosphyrus (=leucosphyrus and A. leucosphyrus hackeri

(=leucosphyrus var. hackeri are recognized. However, because these forms can be distinguished only by examination of the adult females the species will be treated as

whole. Larvae are found in shaded water. The amount
25

of vegetation and the temperature of the water does not

seem to be of consequence. Springs, puddles, and buffalo

hoof-prints are typical habitats of leucosphyrus larvae.

Natural infection is about percent. In general it is not

to be regarded as an important vector in the Netherlands

Indies. However Goelarso (1934) has shown it to be an

important vector in East Borneo. It may be of importance elsewhere in Borneo. Recent Investigations by

Venhuis (1942) indicate that its importance as vector in

Java may be greater than previously assumed. There are

records of this species from Riouw Archipelago, Sumatra,

Java, Borneo, Celebes, and Buton (Boetoeng) Island (fig.

7, Appendix C).

10. Anopheles umbrosus.—In the Netherlands Indies the larvae of this species are found in clear water with

or without aquatic vegetation in such places as springs,

old water tanks, puddles, ponds, and brooks. In brackish

water they are found in grassy puddles among nepah

palms, coconut palms, or mangrove trees. The brackishwater form may be separate subspecies. Usually umhrosus breeds in shaded habitats although the larvae are

frequently found in water exposed to sunlight. Adults

often occur in dwellings. Natural infection in the Netherlands Indies appears to be about percent. Walch (1932)

demonstrated that this species is strongly anthropophilic.

Goelarso (1934) reported umbrosus to be dangerous

vector on Banka (Bangka) Island. It may also be

vector of importance on Borneo. Elsewhere in the

Netherlands Indies it does not appear to be as important.

There are records of umbrosus from Borneo, Celebes,

Java, Sumatra and adjacent islands, and Boeroe Island (fig. 8, Appendix C).

11. Anopheles punctulatus moluccensis

Punctulatus typicus var. moluccensis). —The two

subspecies of Anopheles punctulatus punctulatus and
26

moluccensis, are the important malaria vectors in the

Australian part of the Netherlands Indies, i. e., New

Guinea, Molukkas, and adjacent islands. The important

characteristic of all breeding places of moluccensis is exposure to open sunlight. Actually this seems to be the only

common factor in the habitats of the larvae for they are to

be found almost without exception in water exposed to

sunlight. Consequently much of the moluccensis malaria

is “man-made” due to clearing operations and the resulting exposure of pools, puddles, etc., to sunlight. Repeatedly preliminary surveys of jungle areas have shown them

to be of low endemicity before the beginning of mining or

plantation developments only to have severe epidemics,

break out following the clearing operations. De Rook

(1938) describes epidemics at Tanah Merah caused by this

sudden appearance of moluccensis following the establishment of gold-mining camp. The moluccensis larvae are

found in all bodies of water exposed to sunlight including

brooks, drainage ditches, mud puddles, ponds, in brackishwater puddles in coastal regions, along the grassy banks of

the Digoel River (perhaps in other rivers), buffalo hoofprints, bilge water in boats, springs, etc. The presence

and type of vegetation appear to be of little Importance.

When larvae occur in the larger streams such as the

Digoel River they are to be found, according to de Rook

(1938), near the banks among aquatic plants as well as in

seepage pools and cut-off pools with no direct connection

with the stream.

According to Swcllengrebel and Rodenwaldt (1932)

moluccensis is second in importance as house mosquito

in New Guinea only to A. bancroftii. However Overbeek

and Stoker (1938) regard moluccensis as the most numerous

house mosquito. Walch (1930) has shown that it feeds

exclusively on human blood. Swcllengrebel and Rodenwaldt (1932) describe moluccensis as “decidedly” noc-
27

turnal flier. Natural infection in moluccensis has been

reported as high as 13 percent although the mean is

perhaps about percent.

All Dutch malariologists agree that A. punctulatus

moluccensis is vector of prime importance in New

Guinea, the Molukkas, and adjacent islands. However,

Swellengrebel and Rodenwaldt describe an anomalous

situation in the Molukkas where both punctulatus punctulatus and punctulatus moluccensis occur. Here in spite

of the presence of these vectors malaria is not correspondingly prevalent. Nevertheless, the importance of

moluccensis as vector cannot be overemphasized nor

can the ease of creating “man-made” malaria by providing

breeding habitats for this subspecies be considered too

seriously.

A. punctulatus moluccensis occurs throughout Dutch

New Guinea both on the coast and in the interior up to

altitudes of 3,500 feet wherever there are suitable breeding

habitats. Because of its occurrence on the Molukkas, Ceram, Soela Islands, Aroe, Japen Island, Batjan Island,

Misool, Saparoea (South of Ceram), Boeroe, etc., it is to

be assumed that this form occurs on all of the islands east

of Wallace’s line. There is single record west of Wallace’s line from the Banggai Islands off the east coast of

Celebes (fig. 9, Appendix C).

12. Anopheles punctulatus punctulatus. In

many ways this subspecies is similar to moluccensis so that

their control is reduced to single problem. The larvae of

punctulatus like those of moluccensis are to be found in all

types of accumulations of water exposed to sunlight.

Water-filled hoof-prints, gutters, ditches, water tanks, water barrels, bilge water in boats, tin cans, coconut shells, tc., are mentioned specifically. The type of water,

whether clear or turbid, and the presence or absence of

aquatic vegetation appear not to be factors. According to

562282—44
28

de Rook (1938) it differs from moluccensis in that it does

not breed in flowing water; it is possible that statements

concerning the occurrence of punctulatus larvae breeding

in brooks in the Molukkas are the result of confusion with

moluccensis larvae. The larvae are also found in water

accumulations in stands of Sago palm. Because this

subspecies requires sunlight in its breeding habitat it is

often, along with moluccensis the vector in “man-made”

malaria.

The imago is nocturnal. Very few appear before nine

o’clock in the evening. The female hums very little and its

bite is quite unnoticeable. Consequently personnel can

be attacked when unprotected by netting. This danger

is increased by the fact that punctulatus adults frequently

occur where there are very few mosquitoes of other species

present and therefore when adequate protection is not

being practiced. This is sufficiently obvious to have given

rise in New Guinea to proverb which in translation is:

“Where there are few mosquitoes there is much malaria.”

In Tanah Merah on the upper Digoel River in New

Guinea this subspecies occurs with moluccensis but it is not

as numerous. Here it is definitely seasonal, appearing in

small numbers in March and becoming numerous in June. It is not known whether or not this periodicity exists

elsewhere.

There can be no question of the importance of punctulatus punctulatus as vector even though the observed

natural infection 1.5 to percent is lower than that of

moluccensis. According to Walch (1930) it is exclusively

anthropophilic. However, there are places, according to

Swellengrebel and Rodenwaldt (1932) where this subspecies is very numerous without proportionate amount

of malaria in the population.

The geographical distribution of punctulatus punctulatus

is practically coincident with that of moluccensis (fig. 9,

Appendix C).
29

13. Anopheles bancroftii (=barbirostris bancrofti).—Elsbach (1938) first discovered the breeding

habitat of this species in New Guinea. The larvae were

found in partially shaded lakes with macroscopic aquatic

plants and clear water. Occasionally the larvae are found

in back waters ofrivers but this is not typical habitat.

The exact status of bancroftii as malaria vector is

matter of controversy. This is due to the fact that

bancroftii rarely occurs apart from punctulatus punctulatus

or punctulatus moluccensis, making its role difficult to

ascertain. Also there has been taxonomic confusion with

A. barbirostris {—barbirostris typuns') and A. pseudobarbirostris {—barbirostris bancrofti var. pseudobarbirostris)

Brug (1925) regarded bancroftii as an important vector

in New Guinea. However, de Rook (1938) regards it as

secondary in importance. He reports natural infection

of 4.3 percent at Tanah Merah. According to Walch

(1930) bancroftii is anthropophilic. It is nocturnal flier.

The exact distribution of this species is unknown.

Larvae have been found in the interior and on the south

coast of New Guinea, De Rook (1938) reports that it has

been found at Kloofbivak on the Lorentz River, in the

Merauke region, Etna Bay region, and at Prauwenbivak.

He states that it does not occur on the north coast of New

Guinea. Nevertheless it appears safest to expect to encounter this species throughout New Guinea, the Molukkas,

and adjacent islands (fig. 10, Appendix C).

Brug (193 7) has reported bancroftii from Celebes, where,

according to him, it is not anthropophilic. Later (1938)

he described the Celebes form as separate subspecies,

A. bancroftii barbiventris Since he records it only at

Karwari and the adjacent area and since it is apparently

not vector it has not been included on the maps in this

manual.
30

Doubtful vectors.—Swellengrebel and Rodenwaldt

(1932) cite natural infections of to 0.5 percent for A.

barbirostris which occurs commonly throughout the

archipelago (fig. 11, Appendix C). Because the indices

are very low it is doubtful that this species is of more

than occasional importance as vector. Machsoes

(1939) describes an epidemic at Tempe Lake in Celebes

in which barbirostris was the vector. In Malaya barbirostris is vector of some importance with natural infections of 1.0 to 7.5 percent. For this reason it must be

considered as potential vector in the Netherlands Indies.

A. pseudobarbirostris is regarded by some entomologists,

such as Weyer (1939), as possibly synonymous with A.

bancroftii. Swellengrebel and Rodenwaldt (1932) regard

it as subspecies of bancroftii whereas Christophers

(1933) regards it as good species in the Netherlands

Indies on Celebes. Its status as vector is uncertain.

A. punctulatus novaguinensis and A. amictus are possible

vectors although evidence is completely lacking at the

present time.

Weyer (1939) mentions A. aitkenii as possible vector,

especially on the Molukkas. A. karwari can be infected

experimentally with considerable ease. However, there

is no evidence that it has role as vector. A. tessellatus,

A. annularis and vagus have been found infected. A.

pallidus is vector in India but has been reported only

from single locality in Sumatra and is therefore not

considered vector in the Netherlands Indies.

32

SYNOPSIS OF MALARIA VECTORS

Vector Geographic distribution in Netherlands Indies Breeding habitat

A. sundaicus Java and adjacent islands,

Sumatra and adjacentislands,

Lesser Soenda Islands, southern Celebes.

Salt-water lagoons, salt water

fish ponds (in fresh-water fish

ponds in mountains of Sumatra).

A. subpictus Most islands west of Wallace’s

line.

Similar to sundaicus but more

ubiquitous.

A. aconitus Everywhere west of Wallace’s

line between altitudes of 1,200

and 2,500 feet.

Flooded fallowed rice fields,

fresh-water fish ponds,

ditches, etc.

A. minimus All islands west of Wallace’s

line.

Primarily in flowing water with

abundant aquatic vegetation.

A. maculatus Mountain and hill country of

islands west of Wallace’s line.

Primarily in mountain streams;

sometimes in rice fields.

Sunlight isnecessary.

A. hyrcanus group. Most of the islands west of

Wallace’s line.

Primarily in swamps and rice

fields.

A. kochi Generally distributed on islands

west of Wallace’s line.

Small collections of water such

as hoof-prints, puddles, etc.,

also brooks and rice fields.

A. Uucosphyrus...

Known to occur in Riouw,

Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Celebes, Boetoeng; doubtlesslyon

other islands.

Small bodies of water. Shade is

required.

A. umbrosus Known to occur on Borneo,

Celebes, Java, Borneo, Sumatra and adjacent islands.

Usually in shadealthough sometimes in water exposed to

sunlight. Ponds, puddles,

tanks, tc Brackish and

fresh water.

A. punctulatus New Guinea and other islands In all types of collections of

moluccensis. east of Wallace’s line. water, fresh or brackish,

standing or flowing. Sunlight is required.
33

IN THE NETHERLANDS INDIES

Habits of adults Natural infection Importance as

vector Remarks

Anthropophilic. Per- High (1-10%) Most important May be periodic

sistent house mos- vector in western where there are

quito. Netherlands Indies.dry and wet seasons.

More zoophilic than Low (usually less Occasionally of im- Adults are very

anthropophilic. than 1%). portanee. abundant.

Probably more zoo- Moderate (mean, dangerous epiphilic than anthropophilic.

1.7%). demic vector in

the interior.

An anthropophilic

house mosquito.

Generally low Uncertain Known to be

vector in epidemics in Borneo and

Celebes.

Enters houses tem- Generally about An important vector Vector In manporarily and bites 2%. on rubber and tea made” malaria

humans. plantations. caused by removing cover from

mountain streams.

Anthropophilic to Moderate (mean, Important in Java considerable de- 1.7%). and Sumatra.

gree at least.

Primarily zoophilic.. Low (mean,0.85%) Unimportant

Low (mean, 1%) Unimportant except

possibly in Borneo.

Adults occur in

dwellings—anAbout 2% Important in Borneo and Banka.

thropophilic.

Exclusively anthropophilic.High (mean, 7%).. Very important in

eastern part of

archipelago.
34

SYNOPSIS OF MALARIA VECTORS IN

Vector Geographic distribution in Netherlands Indies Breeding habitat

A. punctulatus Same as moluccensis Same as moluccensis except that

punctulatus. it is said not to breed in

flowing water.

A. bancroftii Probably the same as moluc- In small shady dear-water lakes

censis although less common

throughout its range.

with aquatic vegetation.
35

THE NETHERLANDS INDIES—Continued

Habits ofadults Natural infection Importance as

vector Remarks

Exclusively anthro- Not as high (mean, Very important in Adults frequently

pophilic. Has no 3.5%). eastern part of occur where there

“hum”; bite is

painless.

archipelago. are no other adult

mosquitoes.

Anthropophilic Probably lower

than A. p. punctulatus.

Exact status not

known. Mustbe

regarded as

vector.
36

Geomalariology of the Netherlands Indies

Malaria occurs on all of the inhabited islands from sea.

level to altitudes of 4,000 to 5,000 feet. The occasional

vague references to “malaria-free” islands seem to be

without exception unfounded. The notes on the geographical distribution of malaria are derived largely from

Overbeek and Stoker (1938), Rodenwaldt (1939), Swellengrebel and Rodenwaldt (1932), Walch and Soesilo (1929,

1938), reports of the Malaria Bureau in Mededeelingen van

den Dienst der Volksgezondheid in Nederlandsch-Indie,

and miscellaneous papers in recent volumes of Mededeelingen van den Dienst der Folksgezondheid in Nederlandsch-Indie and Geneeskundig Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch-Indie.

Endemic malaria is common in the Netherlands Indies. Where endemic malaria does not occur there are epidemics

at varying intervals. The Dutch have employed modern

and ingenious methods of control at tremendous financial

expenditure for many years. In spite of this endemic

malaria still exists in uncontrolled areas and epidemics

appear sporadically even in those areas with rigid control.

It is to be assumed that the control programs, many of

them expensive and intricate in manipulation, have

broken down following the Japanese invasion and occupation.

In spite of the universal occurrence of malaria in the

entire archipelago information on its geographical aspects

is of value, frequently necessity, because of the relatively large number of vectors, with vastly different habits,

requiring different types of control.

Information on the geographical distribution is contained in the discussions of the vectors and in more detail

in Appendix which contains maps and collecting

records.
37

Two approaches to geomalariology appear to be useful;

(1) The geographical situations which are conducive to

malaria i. e., rice fields, fish ponds, etc., and the conditions

and vectors involved; (2) the general island-by-island

picture in so far as information is available. It is im*

portant to emphasize that the following notes on the

geography of malaria (from both approaches) are fragmentary and incomplete. It should be re-emphasized

that malaria is widespread on all of the islands of the archipelago. By use of the maps in Appendix C, the description

of the vectors, as well as consultation of geologic and geographical information, malaria problems can be anticipated to certain extent.

Malaria in Relation to Certain Geographical

Features.

Brackish-water lagoons.—Lagoons are found on

the southern coasts of Java and the Lesser Soenda Islands

as far east as Roma due to the action of the surf caused

by the prevailing southerly winds. Dilution of sea water

in these lagoons by rains results in saline concentrations

optimum for subpictus and sundaicus larvae. The former

are adaptable to much higher concentration of salt

than the latter and also are able to live in water which is

virtually free of aquatic vegetation. Fortunately subpictus because of its lower index of natural infection, is

much less important as vector than sundaicus. Particularly dangerous are those lagoons which are fed by

streams because the salt concentration is almost certain

to be within optimum range for sundaicus larvae. Similar

lagoons with sundaicus larvae are found on the west coast

of Sumatra as well as certain sectors on the coast of

Celebes. There are brackish-water lagoons on the

Molukkas which are breeding places of punctulatus moluccensis whose larvae can tolerate considerable degree of

salinity.
38

All areas with brackish-water lagoons must be regarded

as areas of endemic malaria.

Mangrove forests and malaria.—Dutch malariologists, as well as Strickland (1936), seem to be in agreement

that the low muddy coastal areas which are covered with

primitive mangrove forests are generally free or partially

free of malaria. This is associated with the lack of breeding places suitable for sundaicus larvae. Because of the

nature of the tidal wash in the mangrove there are very

few accumulations of water and those which do exist have

salt concentrations too high for sundaicus larvae. However, umbrosus larvae may occur. The east coast of

Sumatra and most of the Borneo coast are muddy and

covered with mangrove and are therefore relatively free

of malaria. There are few such areas on the north coast

of Java. Palembang, city of more than 80,000 inhabitants in South Sumatra, Pontianak, and Bandjermasin in

Borneo although located in swamps and near rivers are

practically free of malaria because of the proximity of

mangrove and favorable tidal fluctuations which keep the

saline concentration of accumulations of water too high for

anopheline larvae. On the other hand Batavia and Soerabaja which do not enjoy favorable tidal action and the

proximity of mangrove forests are notorious centers of

endemic malaria.

In general mangrove forests are disagreeable because of

hordes of pestiferous culicines and other diptera, as well as

dense underbrush, high humidity and temperatures. Any

obstruction to the natural drainage of the mangrove forest

such as caused by the construction of roads, footpaths,

drainage ditches, or felling of trees allows the accumulation of brackish water and breeding by sundaicus or

subpictus or both. The eastern part of Semarang in

central Java and Tegal on the north coast of Java are

examples of endemic malaria areas caused in this manner.
39

Any type of operation in mangrove areas can therefore

result in “man-made” malaria unless proper precautions

are taken.

Salt-water fish ponds.—Pisciculture is extensive in

Java and Madoera. Many of the ponds have been constructed near the coast and contain brackish water. They

provide excellent breeding places for sundaicus not only

by obstructing the natural drainage but also because it is

believed by the natives that the surface of the ponds must

have floating filamentous green algae Enteromorpha,

Chaetomorpha Spirogyra, etc.) in order to secure the best

growth among the fish. It is among these algae that the

sundaicus larvae are found. The principal fish cultured

in the salt-waterfish ponds is thebandeng Chanos chanos).

Probolinggo and Banjoewangi on the east coast of Java were centers of “fish-pond” malaria until the ponds were

connected with the ocean. Occasionally rice fields near

the coast become brackish, creating problem similar to

the salt-water fish pond with sundaicus as the vector.

Fresh-water fish ponds.—Special mention should be

made of the chronic endemic malaria of the long valleys of

the Barisan Mountains (Mandating) In Sumatra. The

vector is the fresh-water form of sundaicus whose larvae

are found in fresh-water fish ponds and lakes. A. aconitus

is also vector of some importance in these regions.

Rao (Rau), Panti, and Padoeng Sidempoeam are located in

the region of “fresh-water sundaicus malaria.

Fresh-water fish ponds are used for culturing carp

(Cyprinus) and more frequently gorami Osphromenus

olfax). Here also the natives believe that growth of

green algae on the surface is essential for the growth of

the fish. Many of the fish ponds are temporary i. e,,

ponds made by flooding rice fields after the harvest and

without removing the straw. This results in an abundant

growth of green algae and an excellent habitat for an-
40

opheline larvae. In addition to the fresh-water sundaicus

which occurs only in the Barisan Mountains in Java other

anophelines breed in fresh-water fish ponds.

A. aconitus sometimes occurs in fish ponds in Java and

Sumatra, especially in those in rice fields. A. hyrcanus

breeds in fresh-water fish ponds especially on the plateau

in southern Sumatra.

Rice-field malaria.—Fortunately there are no vectors in the Netherlands Indies which breed extensively in

the rice fields during the time at which the rice is growing.

In general anopheline larvae do not appear in appreciable

numbers until after the rice harvest and then only in

flooded fields in which the straw has not been removed.

It is common practice among the natives to leave the straw

in the fields and to allow them to remain flooded after the

harvest. The Dutch have eliminated much malaria by

preventing this. The principal rice-field breeding vectors

are aconitus and hyrcanus the former being the most

dangerous. Occasionally maculatus, kochi, and minimus

larvae are also found in rice fields. A. aconitus and

maculatus may be found breeding in rice fields at altitudes

as high as 3,000 to 4,000 feet.

Malaria due to clearing operations.—The removal

of the virgin forest and underbrush frequently results in the exposure of water to sunlight thereby creating

breeding habitats for the anophelines whose larvae are

“sun-loving.” In the western part of the archipelago the

“sun-loving” species is maculatus which breeds in mountain streams and occasionally in springs and marshes.

Removal of the primitive cover from stream banks invariably leads to malaria transmitted by this species.

This has been special problem on the plantations.

Clearing operations in mangrove forests obstruct the

natural drainage and create sundaicus habitats. This is

an important control problem in the regions where virgin

mangrove still exists.
41

In New Guinea, the Molukkas, and adjacent islands the

“sun-loving” vectors are punctulatus punctulatus and

punctulatus moluccensis. Endemic malaria centers become

established in very short period if proper control measures

are not taken. The punctulatus hazard in operations

requiring clearing cannot be overestimated.

Irrigation ditch malaria.—Poorly maintained Irrigation ditches may harbor maculatus hyrcanus aconitus, minimus or fresh-water sundaicus (Sumatra only) larvae creating local malaria problems.

Occurrence of adult vectors along streams.

Recently Venhuis (1942) has studied the natural daytime

resting places of some anophelines. His results show that

adult maculatus, aconitus and minimus flavirostris are

more apt to be found in greater numbers during the day

hiding along stream banks than in dwellings and stables.

Furthermore it was found that the index of infection of the

mosquitoes captured from stream banks is invariably

greater than the indices of those taken in dwellings and

stables. In this way it was possible to account for epidemics in East Java in which the anophelines captured in

dwellings had unusually low indices of infection. This

investigator regards stream banks as the natural daytime

shelter for maculatus aconitus, minimus flavirostris kochi

leucosphyrus tesscllatus, and' vagus adults. On the other

hand barbirostris, hyrcanus annularis, and subpictus are

seldom collected from stream banks and are assumed to

have other natural daytime resting habits. Although these

experiments were made in Java it appears that the conclusions are applicable to other islands. Venhuis (1942)

emphasizes the importance in surveys of collecting from

stream banks as well as In dwellings and stables in order

to secure reliable information on maculatus, aconitus and

minimusflavirostris. Swamp malaria. A. hyrcanus and aconitus are the

species most likely to be found breeding in swamps in the
42

western part of the archipelago. The punctulatus subspecies, in the eastern part, breed in swamps when exposed

to sunlight.

“Salt-making” malaria.—Salt-making activities

east of Makassar (Celebes) and on Madoera obstruct the

natural drainage and result in the breeding of subpictus

and sundaicus and consequently severe epidemics.

Rodenwaldt (1939) lists some of the more fortunate

aspects of malaria In the Netherlands Indies. There is

no true “rice-field” vector i. e., one that breeds during

the rice growing season; none breeds in water collected in

palm leaves, plant axils, etc., or in coconut shells, small

vessels, crocks, or chinks in masonry. It is possible that

the punctulatus subspecies may occasionally constitute

exceptions but as yet there is no incriminating evidence.

Notes on Malaria in the Various Islands.

The notes in the ensuing paragraphs have been gleaned

from the above mentioned authors and reports and are

recorded according to islands. Although they do not

present complete picture of any of the islands they do

indicate the type of problems to be encountered.

Java and Madoera.—Because the population of Java and Madoera Is greater than the combined populations of

the other islands much more is known and much more has

been written about their malaria. The principal hazards

in Java are the brackish-water lagoons of the south coast

and the salt-water fish ponds both of which are breeding

places for sundaicus as well as subpictus. The latter

species is not very important as vector in Java. Because the optimum salt concentration for sundaicus

larvae is to 15 parts per thousand there is periodicity in

sundaicus populations dependent upon the periodicity in

rainfall. From January to March when there is much

rain in Java the salt concentration in the fish ponds de-
43

creases due to dilution by rainwater and becomes optimum

for sundacius larvae. There is then corresponding increase in the adult sundaicus population. In August,

because of the drier season, the salt concentration increases

because of evaporation, sundaicus larvae decrease in numbers and eventually disappear between August and September, whereas suhpictus may become sufficiently numerous to be vector of importance. Particularly severe

epidemics, with sundaicus as the vector, occur at Tandjong

Priok in West Java. The severity of these is reflected by

the fact that scarcely year passes without at least one

paper in the Dutch medical journals concerning the

Priok epidemics.

Most of the northern coast is endemic because the

removal of mangrove has resulted in the formation of

sundaicus breeding habitats. Kuipers and Stoker (1934)

described an epidemic on the north coast with sundaicus

with natural infection of 46 percent. Tjihea Plain, an

area of 140,000 acres in West Java, constituted serious

malaria problem until the regulation of the flooding of rice

fields and other control measures were begun in 1919.

The rigid control program resulted in reduction in spleen

index from 88 percent in 1919 to 12 percent in 1935, The

vector involved is aconitus whose larvae are found in

flooded rice fields after the harvest. Because the control

program is difficult and expensive to administer it is best

to assume that the control system has broken down under

Japanese occupation. Tjiandjoer Plain, 30,000 acres,

presents similar problem although complicated by freshwater fish ponds, both temporary and permanent, which

harbor aconitus larvae unless properly controlled. Here

also regulation of planting and flooding have been enforced

thereby reducing malaria appreciably. A. aconitus

because of the large numbers of rice fields in Java and

Madoera, is second in importance only to sundaicus.

562282—44-
44

very part of Java has recorded aconitus malaria epidemics.

A. maculatus is an important local vector in the mountains of Java especially on the plantations where the

cover has been removed along the mountain streams.

The role of hyrcanus in Java is difficult to ascertain.

Soesilo (1935) believes that hyrcanus sinensis is not important as vector although Overbeek (1940) reports

epidemics at Lamongan, Soerabaja, and Bodojonero in

which aconitus and hyrcanus were the vectors. Venhuis

(1942) believes hyrcanus to be the hyrcanus vector in

Java. A. minimus and kochi are at the most of local importance

in Java and Madoera. The recent work of Venhuis (1942)

indicates that leucosphyrus may be of some importance.

Sumatra and adjacent islands.—The most important vector here also is sundaicus. As previously mentioned, there is in Sumatra fresh-water form of sundaicus

in addition to the brackish-water form. However its

distribution is limited to the long parallel valleys of the

Barisan Mountains particularly around Rau, Panti, and

Padoeng Sidempoean where it breeds in lakes, ponds, and

fresh-water fish ponds. Malaria is endemic along the

southwestern coast of Sumatra where sundaicus breeds

in the brackish-water lagoons. Salt-water fish ponds are

not as numerous as in Java. Because of the muddy mangrove coasts on the northeast of Sumatra sundaicus is not

numerous and the coastal mangrove strip is relatively free

of malaria. The principal rice field vectors are aconitus

and hyrcanus. The latter occurs commonly on the alluvial plain on the southern part of the island where it is

an important vector. A. umbrosus is well distributed in

northern Sumatra. In spite of the fact that it is an

important vector in Malaya and Bangka no mention is

made of it as vector in Sumatra. In the mountains
45

maculatus is vector wherever suitable streams have

become exposed to sunlight. The Dutch literature contains little information on the relation of kochi minimus

and subpictus to malaria in Sumatra and it is therefore

assumed that they are of no more than local importance.

At Soendetar in West Sumatra leucosphyrus is periodic

with large numbers appearing in December and January

as the breeding places become dry. Here it is definitely

vector. It has also been found infected at Kisaran on

the east coast of Sumatra (1.7 percent) and at LoeboekLinggan, South Sumatra (15 percent).

Riouw Archipelago, Lingga Archipelago, and

adjacent islands.—There is little information on malaria

in these islands in the Dutch literature. According to

Boumiester (1934) sundaicus is the vector in the severe

endemic malaria of the coastal areas. This has been

controlled on some of the islands at least. The extent of

these endemic coastal areas is not discussed. A. hyrcanus

sinensis is fairly abundant and difficult to control; however, its status as vector is uncertain. A. maculatus

may be vector in the mountains. At Tanjong Pinang,

principal town in Riouw, it breeds in brooks, irrigation

ditches, and marshy fields and is vector of some importance. There are also records of the occurrence of

kochi subpictus umbrosus and leucosphyrus although

there is no information concerning their relation to malaria. It is well to bear in mind that umbrosus is an important vector in Bangka and in Malaya. Although there

are no records for aconitus and minimus this does not

necessarily preclude their occurrence.

Bangka, Billiton, and adjacent islands.—Information is very meager. Again sundaicus is the important

coastal vector. Most malariologists mention umbrosus as

an important vector on Bangka where there is natural

infection of percent. There are records of subpictus
46

kochi maculatus, and hyrcanus but no information is

available on their relation to malaria on these islands.

Borneo.—The sparse population, the mangrove-covered coast, and the extensive jungles make the malaria

situation in Borneo considerably different from that of

the other islands. There is also less information available

than for any other island with possible exception of New

Guinea. Malaria is not prevalent because there are so

few people. Pontionak and Bandjermasin are virtually

free of malaria because of their location in mangrove

areas. Tarakan Island (coast of West Borneo) has very

low incidence of malaria. A. sundaicus is uncommon

because the coast is covered with mangrove forests. It

must be assumed that this species may become numerous

and important as vector when mangrove is removed or

when the natural drainage is obstructed. A. leucosphyrus

has rather general distribution in Borneo and is regarded

by Stoker (1934) as vector of some importance. He

found natural Infections as high as percent at Boelongan

and Poeloe Laoet. A. umbrosus which will breed in the

drier parts of the mangrove forest in brackish water as

well as in shady fresh-water bodies Is regarded as vector

of possible and potential importance. It is widely distributed in the island. A. kochi has an extensive distribution in Borneo but there is no information on its relation

to malaria. There are few records ofaconitus, maculatus

and subpictus but no further information.

Lesser Soenda Islands (as far east as Roma). —The

coastal areas of these islands frequently have endemic

malaria due to sundaicus similar to that of Java, The

salt-water lagoons which are said to occur on most of these

islands particularly on the southern shores are the breed- ing habitats. These lagoons are said to be best developed

in those islands with an open exposure to the southerly

winds. Rodenwaldt (1939) states that there is endemic
47

malaria in the coastal areas of“many of the Lesser Soenda

Islands.” Further information does not appear in the

literature. Collecting records show that subpictus, kochi

minimus aconitus, and maculatus occur on many or most

of these islands. There is no information as to their

abundance or relation to malaria.

Celebes and adjacent islands.—Makassar in Celebes

is occasionally reported as relatively free of malaria.

Whether this is natural condition or due to control

measures cannot be ascertained. Certainly at times

malaria is prevalent there. Until recent years the principal coastal anopheline has been subpictus. However,

sundaicus has now become established in southern Celebes

and adjacent islands where it is the cause of severe epidemics. How rapidly this species is extending its range

northward is not known, A. minimusflavirostris has been

found infected at Minahassa although there is no further

information concerning its role as vector. Brug (1937)

has reported bancroftii from Celebes although he states

that here, in contrast to its habits In New Guinea, it is

not anthropophilic. In 1938 he described the Celebes

bancroftii as taxonomic entity, Anopheles bancroftii barbiventris. A. subpictus because of its large numbers is

frequently involved in epidemics. Its low potential infection prevents it from becoming as serious vector as

sundaicus. The roles of leucosphyrus umbrosus, kochi

and aconitus in malaria transmission in Celebes are not

discussed in the literature.

The Molukkas and adjacent islands (including

Soela and Ceram).—On all of these islands the important

vector is punctulatus (punctulatus and moluccensis) which

as described elsewhere in this report is an ubiquitous sunlight breeder. However these islands are in the transition

zone between Australia and Asiatic fauna hence some of

the Asiatic vectors also occur. A. umbrosus has been
48

reported from Boeroe; kochi from Boeroe, Halmahera, Ambon, and Soela; and suhpictus from Boeroe, Halmahera, Ambon, Soela, and other islands. The typical ludlowi of the Philippines has been reported from Ceram.

All of these species may be of some importance as vectors

although the principal problem is punctulatus.

New Guinea and adjacent islands.—Although information is somewhat meager it can be emphasized with

certainty thatthe important vectors, both on the coast and

in the interior, are punctulatus punctulatus and punctulatus

moluccensis. The role of bancroftii is uncertain. De

Rook (1938) has discussed extensively the prevalence of

malaria in New Guinea on the basis of available information. According to him the entire north coast of New

Guinea is an area of high endemicity; spleen indices vary

from 30 to 100 percent, with 60 to 80 percent in most

localities. The same is true for the entire coast, north and

south, of Vogelkop (“the Birdhead”). In general along

MacCluer Gulf and Argoeni Bay on the south shore of

New Guinea malaria is prevalent although not to the same

extent as on the north shore; spleen indices of 30 to 70

percent are recorded. At some places between Kaimana

and Atoeka on the southern coast the incidence is very low

The spleen indices at the mouth of the Atoeka River were

to percent in 1932. According to de Rook, “The small

amount or complete lack of malaria in some villages on the

southwest coast is probably associated with local conditions

such as the ebb and flow of the tide which do not allow

suitable breeding places.” Nevertheless the danger of

“man-made” punctulatus-borne malaria is always imminent in any kind of operations. Spleen indices for

Frederik-Henrick Island vary from to 14 percent.

Benign tertian malaria is prevalent in the Mamberamo

River Valley and in the Upper Digoel region. The immediate region 'of the Mamberamo River is highly en-
49

demlc. Little is known of malaria conditions in the mountains although malaria is known to be endemic as high as

3,500 to 4,000feet. Tenah Merah, formerly highly endemic,

has been improved by elimination of punctulatus breeding

places.

Malaria Control in the Netherlands Indies,

The Dutch have employed extensive and ingenious

methods of control in their antimalaria program. Whether

or not these controls are still in operation during the

Japanese occupation is matter of speculation. Although

most of the methods employed are not applicable to military operations nevertheless the possibility of their use

prompts the inclusion of brief discussion of them. They

are the products of many years’ experience in malaria

control in these areas. The principal problem has always

been the control of the breeding places of sundaicus i. e., salt-water fish ponds and brackish-water lagoons (also

fresh-water ponds in Sumatra).

Brackish-water lagoons.—Apparently the most successful control has been obtained by connecting these

lagoons with the ocean thereby raising the salt concentration and bringing the water under tidal influence both of

which are detrimental to sundaicus larvae. Oiling has

been unsuccessful because of wind action. Filling has

been practical only to limited degree because of the

expense involved.

Salt-water fish ponds.—These ponds normally have

surface flora of filamentous green algae which harbors

sundaicus larvae. Here again connecting to the ocean has

been practiced successfully on the same basis as in control

of brackish-water lagoons. further measure when

practicable is the monthly drainage system (“hygienic

control”). During the period of drainage the fish remain

in specially constructed circular moat around the edge
50

of the pond. During this time the algae die in the sun;

complete drainage is not necessary since sunlight is lethal

to the algae in shallow water. When the pond is refilled

there are no surface green algae and the sundaicus larvae

population is reduced. In the meantime bottom flora

of blue-green algae has developed which provides food for

the fish without harboring sundaicus larvae. Zon (1939)

states that 70 to 99 percent of the sundaicus larvae can be

eliminated by this method. Flooding and drainage is

accomplished by the use of tidal flood gates.

Rice fields.—The Dutch have enforced simultaneous

planting and harvesting and have required immediate

drainage of the fields after the harvest. In addition

there has been strict supervision of the irrigation and

drainage systems. This program has given good results

since it prevents the breeding of aconitus and hyrcanus.

Its application is difficult in localities where the fields

are used as temporary fish ponds after the harvest.

Periodic drying (nine days watering and two days draining) is also employed during the growing season in some

localities.

Fresh-water fish ponds.—If rice fields are used as

temporary fish ponds the best control has been found to

be the removal of all straw or at least the stacking of it

in large piles before flooding and the keeping of the banks

free of vegetation. Walch and Soesilo (1935) describe

the introduction of herbivorous fish which feed on the

filamentous green algae and the introduction of the

larvivorus species, Panchax panchax which feeds on the larvae when they are unable to take refuge among the

algae.

The punctulatus problem.—Control of the two

subspecies of punctulatus has been based on the habits

of the species and consists of the elimination or control

of all bodies of water exposed to sunlight.
51

Malaria control among the natives is difficult to practice because of their objection to the use of screens and

netting. Also the walls of the native dwellings frequently

are not mosquito-proof.

Blackwater Fever

Blackwater fever occurs sporadically throughout the

archipelago. It has been noticed particularly among

Japanese fishermen who have been in the area for relatively short period of time. There are reports of cases

from Celebes, Flores, Lombok, New Guinea, Sumatra,

and Java.
52

Chapter III

FILARIASIS

Two species of human filarial worms, Wuchereria bancrofti and Wuchereria malayi are known to occur in the

Netherlands Indies. The best sources of information on

filariasis in this area are the papers of Brug who originallydescribed the microfilariae of malayi and who has written

extensively on the geographical distribution of both

species. He has also discussed the clinical aspects of

filariasis in the Netherlands Indies.

According to Brug (1931) there is an interesting difference in the nocturnal periodicity of the two species. The

ratio of microfilaria in the peripheral blood during the day

as compared to night is about 1:15 for malayi as compared

to 1:100 in bancrofti. The relation of malayi and bancrofti to the clinical aspects of filariasis is not well understood.

Brug (1933, 1937) states that in general malayi infections

result in elephantiasis of the limbs whereas bancrofti infections are more apt to cause hydrocele and genital elephantiasis. There is also no consistent correlation between

microfilariae indices and the clinical manifestations of

filariasis. Some areas with high malayi indices have

high incidence of elephantiasis, whereas other areas with

similar indices may have low incidence of elephantiasis.

Some surveys show that the actual cases of elephantiasis

may have higher microfilaria index than the general

population although more frequently the opposite appears

to be true. In general filariasis appears to be primarily

disease of the plains although there are numerous

exceptions to this.
53

FIG.

Filariasis

Surveys

in

the

Netherlands

Indies

Microfilaria

Index

greater

than

10%

Microfilaria

Index

less

than

10%

Microfilaria

Index

negative

Isolated

records
54

Table 6.—Summary of filariasis surveys compiled from Brug {1931), Brug and de Rook {1933) and other sources

Locality Number

examined malayi

Index of

bancrofti

nfection

Not

determined Total

83 4% 5% 8% Leumpotong Rajoet (Atjeh, Sumatra)— 81 12% 3% 16% 26 8% 4% 12% 87 6% 13% 18% 1,300 1% 1% 23 43% 43% Tapa Toean (Atjeh, Sumatra) 42

21 29% 29% 101 18% 18% 62 32% 1% 32% Simaloer (Atjeh, Sumatra) 34

60 3% 3% Roedeng (Atjeh, Sumatra) 56 >12% <27% 27% 39% Lipat-Kandjang (Atjeh, Sumatra) 40 >10% <7% 7% 17% 32 1% 1% 50 14% 14% 88 40% 40%

11 36% 36% 271 18% 18% 64 6% 6% 146 8% 8% 13% Mentawei E. (West Coast Sumatra) 151

Padang (West Coast Sumatra) 100

Aer Proekan and Dermajoe (Benkolan,

131 54% 54% 84 37% 37% 780 8% 8% 37 8% 8% mestly bancr ofti 44.1% 519 18% 18% 70% 70% Goenoeng Pajoeng (Benkoelen, Su12 58% 58% so 6% 6% so 18% 18% 47 17% 17% Ketaun Plain (Benkoelen, Sumatra) 1,789 2% 2% 226 1% 1% 1,482 5% 5% 701 3% 3%

Java (no locality given).. 100

291 1% 1% Weltevreden (Java)
55

Table 6.—Summary of filariasis surveys compiled from Brug {1931), Brug and de Rook {1933) and other sources—Continued

Locality Number

examined malayi

Index of

bancrofti

nfection

Not

determined Total

145 3% 3% Soemenep (Madoera) 56 Sampang (Madoera) 30

21 33% 43% 52% 121 23% 23% 140 33% 33% 24 2% 2% 188 48% 48% 104 23% 23% 200 35% 35% 104 29% 29% 54 35% 35% 104 10% 10% Makassar (Celebes) 263 o'" Makassar (Celebes) .. 300

69 12% 12% Coast of Madjene (Celebes) 240

222 18% 5% 20% 808 27% 27% 35 17% 17% 42 42% 42% IS 40% 40% 68 15% 1% 16% Kawata Tampango (Malili, Celebes) 118 28% 28% Posso Parigi (Celebes) 130

Minahassa (Celebes) 117

21 57% 57% 123 60% 60% 10 20% 20% 668 62.1% 62.1% North Paloe Plain (Celebes) 266 12.7% 12.7% 97 14.4% 14.4% 160 11.8% 11.8% 62 58.0% 58.0% 545 *1.8% 8% 305 24.2% 24.2% 457 20.9% 20.9% Kamaroe (Boetoeng Island) cases barter ofti Ereke (Boetoeng Island) cases bancrofti Bave Bave (Boetoeng Island) 39

28 7% 7% Kesar, Leti, Sermata 223

This survey includes several villages with indices varying from to 32 percent.
56

Table 6.—Summary of filartasis surveys compiled from Brug (1931), Brug and de Rook (1933) and other sources—Continued

Locality Number

examined malayi

Index of

bancrofti

nfection

Not

determined Total

96 29% 29% ns 38% 38% 54 6% 6% 70 10% 10% 17% 582 20% 1% 20% 213 10% 3% 13% 359 7% 6% 13% S3 11% 2% 11% 107 20% 9% 22% 60 2% 35% 35% 55 7% 55% 55% 90 17% 21% 27% 28 11% 11% 72 25% 8% 28% 36 3% 31% 36% 32 3% 6% 9% Biting Ketjil (Coast, Flores) 32 6% 34% 37%

L. Badjo Ketjil (Coast, Flores) 46

26 villages (1,000-3,000 ft., Flores) 860 1% Limboer (Alor) IS cases, undifferentiated

25 20% 20% 832 51.8% 51.8% 95 8% 8% 56 2% 20% 22 73% 73% Warasiva (Ceram, Molukkas) so

44 14% 14% Ceram—North Coast from opposite

1394 fO-62% |0-62% \(12%) (12%)

91 16% 4% 20% 63 35% 35% 79 1% 1% 37 16% 16% 216 11% 11% 145 4% 4<7„

32 25% 25% 36 42% 42% 23 61% 61% 23 61% 61% 95 45% 45% 75 33% 33% Saosar 63 35% 35%
57

Table 6.—Summary of filariasis surveys compiled from Brug (1931), Brug and de Rook (1933) and other sources—Continued

It is apparently safe, and certainly most advisable, to

assume that all of the islands harbor vectors for malayi or

bancrofti or both. However, the incidence of filariasis and its geographical occurrence can by no means be explained

entirely by the geographical distribution of the vectors.

Compilation of survey data from Brug (1931, 1933, 1937)

and others (table 6, p. 54, and fig. 3) gives general

concept of the geography of filariasis although the picture is incomplete because of unsurveyed areas. The known

geographical occurrences of malayi and bancrofti are

approximated in figure 4. According to Brug (1931)

'malayi probably occurs throughout the archipelago except

on New Guinea and adjacent islands; bancrofti is prevalent

in the eastern part of the archipelago and sporadic elsewhere.

Although the data arc fragmentary it is possible to

designate certain areas as endemic. Atjeh in northwestern Sumatra is notoriously endemic area. Wucher- eria malayi is the more abundant species although some

bancrofti cases are reported. Benkoelan, Djambi, and

Indragiri in Sumatra are endemic areas from which malayi

only has been reported. Nias, off the west coast of SuLocality Number

examined

Index of infection

malayi bancrofti Not

determined Total

Seged 140

73

93

64

251

33

83%

4%

13%

6%

50%

58%

20%

48%

4%

13%

6%

50%

58%

20%
58

FIG.

Distribution of

Wuchererio boncrofti and

Wuchererio

moloyi

moloyi

known

to

occur

boncrofti

known

to

occur

bo+h

species

known

to

occur

neither

species

or

informotion

locking
59

matra, is highly endemic. Surveys on Simeuloee and

Siberoet have given negative results.

Filariasis is only sporadic in Java except on the Serajoe

Delta where it is endemic. Surveys on Madoera have been

negative. The literature contains no references to filariasis in Lombok, Bali, and Soembawa. Since these islands

are heavily populated and have been carefully studied it

seems logical to assume that if filariasis were present to any

degree it would be recorded in the literature.

In the eastern Lesser Soenda Islands filariasis is prevalent. There is transition from the mixed .bancrofti and

malayi indices of Flores and Soemba to the exclusively

bancrofti indices of Wetar and Roma. The Lesser Soenda

Islands from Flores eastward should be considered endemic

or potentially endemic areas. Filariasis is apparently

highly endemic in the eastern Lesser Soenda Islands.

Extensive surveys in South-East Borneo have revealed

filariasis to be very prevalent; malayi is widespread whereas

bancrofti is sporadic. There is no other information from

Borneo except records of elephantiasis (jnalayiT) from West

Borneo. Filariasis is very prevalent on most of Celebes; the vast

majority of the cases are malayi with very little bancrofti. Makassar and Menado (City) have been reported free of

filariasis. The prevalence in the Residency of Menado

(northern peninsula) is probably low. The island of

Kabaena south of Celebes is highly endemic bancrofti) and

filariasis is also prevalent on nearby Boetoeng where only

bancrofti has been reported.

In the Molukkas, Ceram, especially the northern coast,

is reported to be highly endemic; only malayi has been

found. The Wai-Apo Plain on Boeroe is also region of

high endemicity although only bancrofti has been reported

here. Elephantiasis has been reported as prevalent in

Ambon. There is no information from Halmahera and

562282—44
60

adjacent islands. Reports in the Mededeelingen van den

Dienst der Volksgezondheid in Nederlandsch Indie (1927)

indicate that filariasis occurs in the Soela Islands as well as

in the Tanimbar Islands.

All surveys on New Guinea and adjacent islands have

reported high indices of bancrofti; malayi has never been

reported. Although reports are fragmentary it appears

that all of New Guinea and its adjacent islands should be

regarded as highly endemic areas.

Filariae Vectors

The subject of filariae vectors in the Netherlands Indies

as in other areas is difficult. The literature is confused

because of the failure of some authors to detect whether or

not larval development was complete in designating

mosquito as vector. Furthermore, much of the information in the literature is based on experimental infections and it does not necessarily follow that species which

can be infected experimentally are actually natural vectors.

However careful correlation of microfilaria indices in the

population and larval indices in the mosquitoes have given

good results In some instances. The role of culicines in

filariasis is best summarized by Bonne-Wepster and Drug

(1937) and the anopheline vectors of filariae by Brug (1937,

1938). Nevertheless the filariae vector situation is sufficiently unclarified to prompt Brug (1937) to state that

until the vector is definitely incriminated in an area that

it may be best to control all species of mosquitoes which

are known to attack man. Furthermore, the information

on the geographic distribution of the filariae vectors is not

as extensive as that for the malaria vectors. In general

only references to islands are available with no data as to

the distribution or abundance on the island.

Above all it is necessary to remember that there is still

much to be learned about the transmission of filariae in
61

this area and that the information compiled here will with- out doubt ultimately prove to be fragmentary.

Wuchereria malayi Vectors.

Mansonia (Mansonioides).—Several species of this

subgenus are known tobe vectors.The imagoes of this group

are easily recognized by the broad asymmetrical erect wing

scales. The wings, except in papuensis, are distinctly light

and dark mottled. All species are of medium size except

papuensis which is rather small. The abdomen of the

female is turned up at its distal end with only 6% segments

visible in the dorsal view. The apical segment of the male

proboscis is turned downward; the penultimate is turned

upward. The male has the 8th abdominal segment

entirely retracted and the hind margin of this segment

bears closely set strong teeth differing in the various species. The male hypopygia all have peculiarly modified basal lobe, simple mesosome and tenth sternites with

strong teeth at the apex.

The larvae and pupae live with their peculiarly modified breathing tubes attached to roots or sometimes to the

leaves of water plants. Formerly (Bonne-Wepster, 1930)

the Dutch believed the only host plant to be Pistia, principally striatioles. However English investigators also

indicate Lemna as host plant and more recently BonneWepster (1937) has added Eichhornia erassipes. The

breathing tubes penetrate into the tissue of the roots and

during larval and pupal life oxygen is obtained from the

tissues of the host plant. To find the larvae it is necessary

to collect large number of Pistia plants and shake each

one vigorously in clean water. In this way the larvae and

pupae can be detached and caught. Normally the pupae

become detached only just preceding the emergence of the imago.

The female deposits the eggs on the leaves of the host

plant in rosette-shaped figure.
62

From the standpoint of control it is important to bear

in mind that Mansonioides species are restricted in their

distribution to the distribution of the host plants, Pistia,

Eichhornia and possibly others, and that ordinary survey

methods will not detect the presence of the larvae and

pupae.

Pistia and Eichhornia are floating aquatic plants. They

are found in ponds, lakes, and slowly flowing streams.

They are abundant throughout the tropics.

1. M. (M.) annulata.—According to Bonne-Wepster

(1937) the females of this species have been found in

great numbers where there are no Pistia plants. Therefore it is possible that another host plant is involved.

The larvae have not been found. The adults enter

dwellings in tremendous numbers and attack man. On

rainy evenings particularly they are attracted to lights

where they are frequently killed in large numbers. According to Bonne-Wepster and Brug (1937) malayi larvae

develop completely and become infective in this species

and therefore it is to be regarded as an important vector.

In the Netherlands Indies it has been reported only from

restricted areas on Sumatra and Celebes (fig. 5). BonneWepster and Brug (1937) state that it is the most

numerous mosquito at Dermajoe (Benkoelen, Sumatra).

2. M. (M.) Indiana.—This species is known to breed

on Pistia only. It is strongly anthropophilic. BonneWepster and Brug (1937) describe it as good vector of

malayi. Rodenwaldt (1934) mentions indiana and annulifera as the filariae vectors on the Serajoe Delta in Java. This species has been recorded from Sumatra, Bangka,

Java, Flores, and New Guinea (fig. 5). Specimens from

Upper DIgoel have less white on fore and middle femora.

3. M. (M.) uniformis. Pistia and Eichhornia have

been reported as host plants for this species. BonneWepster and Brug (1937) describe the complete development of malayi larvae in this species and state that it is
63

FIG.

Distribution of

Mansonioides

mosquitoes

in

the

Netherlands East

Indies’

Islands

where

uniformis

is

known

to

occur

Islands where

indiono

is

known

to

occur

Islands

where

lonoiDalois

is

known

to

occur

Islands

where

annulifera

is

known

to

occur

M.(M.)onnulqto

Is

known only

from

limited

oreos Sumotro

and

Celebes.

M.(M.)oopuen«is.

New

Guinea,

ondbonneoe.Borneo.ore rare

tpeciee

and

not knownto

be

vectors

of

Wuchererio

moloyl
64

good vector. M. .) uniformis is the most common

of the Mansonioides species.

Kariadi (1938) reported uniformis numerous at Martapoera (Borneo) where malayi indices are high. It is

reported by Scheepe (1935) as one of the vectors in

Indragiri (Sumatra).

In the Netherlands Indies it has been found in Sumatra,

Simaloer, Nias, Riouw, Java, Borneo, Ceram, Boeroe, and

New Guinea (fig. 5).

4. M. (M.) longipalpis. —The breeding biology of

this species, so far as known, is the same as that of annulata. Bonne-Wepster and Brug (1937) describe longipalpis as an important vector of malayi. It has been

reported in Sumatra, Nias, Bangka, Verlaten Island,

Java, Borneo, Tarakan Island, Celebes, Boeroe, and

Halmahera (fig. 5).

5. M. (M.) annulifera.—This mosquito also has been

reported only from Pistia. It is strongly anthropophilic

and according to Bonne-Wepster and Brug (1937) good

vector of malayi. This species as well as uniformis was reported by Kariadi (1938) as abundant at Martapoera where filariasis is prevalent. It is also one of the

vectors in Indragiri (Sumatra) according to Scheepe

(1935).

M. (M.) papuensis and M. (M.) bonneae are rare

species and nothing is known of their relation to filariasis;

papuensis has been reported only from New Guinea and

bonneae only from Borneo and Malaya. The same is

true for M. (M.) negrochracea and M. (M.) memorans

also known only from New Guinea.

Myzorhynchus series.—At least three members of this

group of the subgenus Anopheles are vectors of malayi.

These are A. barbirostris, A. hyrcanus sinensis and A.

hyrcanus of Venhuis.

6. Anopheles barbirostris.—This is the most im-
65

portant anopheline vector of malayi. The larvae are

ubiquitous in fresh water but are seldom found in brackish

water. They are most commonly encountered in rice

fields but also are found in slowly flowing rivers and creeks

(near the banks), fish ponds, marshes, ditches, springs, and

buffalo wallows. They are found in clear as well as

stagnant and turbid water. Sunlight and shade do not

seem to be factors. The species occurs both in the mountains and near the coast.

In general the adults are not numerous around dwellings

and are said to be primarily zoophilic. However Brug

(1937) reports the harbirostris at Kalawara (Celebes) to

be very anthropophilic. Rodenwaldt and Swellengrebel

(1932) report it as house mosquito in village near

marsh on Soemba. It is also reported to be persistent

house mosquito on Wetar and at Tegal (Java). Walch

(1930) reported 12 percent to have human blood where

livestock is abundant and 31 percent elsewhere.

Brug (1937), Bonne-Wepster and Brug (1937), Machsoes

(1939), Jurgens (1932), and Kariadi (1941) all describe

harbirostris as good malayi vector. It is especially

important on Celebes where it is so persistently anthropophilic.

Anopheles harbirostris is known to occur on Java,

Sumatra, Borneo, Celebes, Mentawei, Siberoet, Bangka,

Riouw, Bali, Moena (Raha) Sangihe, Salajar, Wetar,

Kisar, Flores, Alor, Soembawa, and Soemba (fig. 6).

7. Anopheles hyrcanus sinensis.—The taxonomic

status of hyrcanus and closely related species is discussed

in the section dealing with malaria vectors (page 21).

The information on the larval habitats as well as the habits

of the imagoes as given in the discussion of the hyrcanus

group are in general applicable to hyrcanus sinensis. This

subspecies is essentially rice field and swamp breeder

although larvae have been recorded from variety of
66

other fresh-water habitats. This subspecies has been

reported as vector In China (Brug, 1937) and has been

reported once as naturally infected in the Netherlands

Indies. It can be experimentally infected with the filaria

larvae, with complete development of the larvae to the

infective stage. Because of the confusion in taxonomy of

the hyrcanus group in the Netherlands Indies the exact

distribution of sinensis is not known. The only accurate

records are from Java and Sumatra although it may be of

wdder distribution (fig. 6).

8. Anopheles hyrcanus X.—This form is mentioned

in the recent Dutch literature as occurring in Borneo in the

region around Martapoera. It has been described by

Venhuis (1939) who states that it occurs in Java and

Celebes as well as in Borneo. As yet it has not been

described as separate taxonomic entity. Kariadi (1941)

reported it to be malayi vector at Martapoera where

filariasis malayi is highly endemic. Whether or not this

form has wider distribution than the region around

Martapoera and in Java and Celebes is not recorded in

the literature (fig 6).

Other members of the series Myzorhynchus, subgenus

Anopheles, known to occur in the Netherlands Indies, are

A. hyrcanus nigerrimus, albotoeniatus, barhumbrosus, ba7icroftii, hunteri, montanus, novumbrosus separatus, and

umbrosus. None of these have been reported as vectors.

Wuchereria bancrofti Vectors.

1. Culex fatigans (=quinquefasciatus).— This species is universal in its distribution In the tropics and

subtropics and ubiquitous in its breeding habits. Larvae

are found in all sorts of artificial accumulations of water

such as tanks, wells, pits, water barrels, toilets, fountains, cisterns, ponds, springs, canals, and ditches. Generally

they breed near dwellings. The larvae can withstand salt
67

FIG.

Distribution of

Mvzorhvnchus (subgenus

Anopheles)

onophelines Known

to

be

vectors of

Wuchererio

molovi

in

the

Netherlands

Indies

Islands

where

barbirostris is

known

to

occur. Islands

where

hvrcanus

sinensis

is

known to

occur.

Region

where

hvrcanusX

has

been

reported.
68

concentration of one part per thousand. Stagnant water

is preferred. This species does not occur in the jungles

and uninhabited areas.

Although standard textbooks such as Stitt, Brumpt

and Manson regard Culex fatigans {—quinquefasciatus) as

foremost vector of filariae Bonne-Wepster and Brug

(1937) do not feel that that is true in the Netherlands

Indies. They support their conclusion with the well

established observation that filariasis is primarily disease of the plains and rural areas whereas fatigans occurs

most abundantly in villages and cities. Furthermore de

Rook (1930) has shown that Culexfatigans (=quinquefasciatus) does not occur in areas in New Guinea where

filariasis bancrojti is very prevalent. He believes that

A. punctulatus is the most important vector in New Guinea

and that the role of fatigans is relatively minor. BonneWepster and Brug (1937) strengthen their argument by

showing that there is no relation between the geographical

distribution of filariasis and the distribution of fatigans.

Brug (1938) has also shown that frequently the index of

infection of fatigans in endemic areas is not sufficiently

high to warrant designating it as the most important

vector. However in some endemic areas intheNetherlands

Indies it is the only vector known to Occur. It seems best

therefore to regard it as an important vector but not with

the degree of importance attributed to it elsewhere.

Culex fatigans (=quinquefas ciatus) has been found on

Sumatra, Simaloer, Nias, RIouw, Bangka, Java, Edam, Madoera, Karimar, Djawa Island, Borneo, Tarakan, Poeloeh Laoet, Celebes, Taland Island, Banggai Archi- pelago, Boetoeng, Bali, Soemba, Flores, Adonare, Alor, Timor, Ceram, Ambon, Saparoea, Vanda, Aroe, and New

Guinea (fig. 7).

2. Culex vishnui.—This species has been reported

once by Brug (1938) to be infected with bancrofti larvae.
69

F1G.7

Distribution of

Culex

fotiaons

and

Culex

vishnui

in

the

Netherlands

Indies

Islands

where

fotiaons

is

known

to

occur.

Islands

where

vishnui

is

known

to

occur.
70

This index of infection of 1.5 percent was found in Kabaena

Island near Celebes. Brug (1938) also was able to infect

the adults experimentally. It has been reported as

vector in India. Culex vishnui breeds in various types of

habitats but only those which are surrounded by earth

such as lakes, river backwater, small streams, drainage

ditches, flooded grass land, irrigation water on rice fields, lagoons, etc. It breeds infrequently in brackish water.

The adults are anthropophilic and begin biting as soon as

it is dark. Apparently this species is not to be regarded

as an important vector in the Netherlands Indies until

there is further evidence. There are reports of its occurrence on Sumatra, Riouw, Nias, Bawean, Borneo, Celebes,

Flores, Soemba, Alor, Timor, Ambon, Sangihe Islands,

and New Guinea (fig. 7).

Brug (1938) has been able to obtain experimental

infections and complete development of bancrofti larvae

in C. fuscocephalus, C. whitmorei and C. annulirostris.

His papers indicate that C. tritaeniorhynchus bitaeniorhynchus, and sitiens may possibly be experimental vectors.

None of these species has been found naturally infected.

3. Anopheles punctulatus moluccensis. —This subspecies is regarded by de Rook (1930, 1938) and Taylor

(1939) as good bancrofti vector. De Rook regards it as

the most important vector in New Guinea. Backhouse

(1934) reported good experimental infections with it.

Elsbach (1939) states that moluccensis is the important

vector in southern New Guinea.

The breeding habits and distribution of moluccensis are

described in the section concerning malaria vectors

(p. 25 and fig. 9, Appendix C).

4. Anopheles punctulatus punctulatus.—This subspecies is also reported as bancrofti vector by Taylor

(1938). Backhouse (1934) reported successful experimental infection with it. Elsbach (1939) regards punctulatus
71

punctulatus as “probably” vector in southern New

Guinea.

The breeding habits and distribution of punctulatus

punctulatus have been described in the discussion of its role as malaria vector (p. 27 and fig. 9, Appendix C.)

5. Anopheles Bancroft!!.—De Rook (1938) reported

this species as vector in New Guinea. Information on

its breeding habits and distribution are given elsewhere,

(p. 29 and fig. 10, Appendix C).

6. Anopheles leucosphyrus hackeri.—Brug (1938)

found out of 37 specimens of this subspecies infected in Kabaena Island. This is the only information on its

relation to filariasis. Its breeding habits and distribution are discussed in relation to its role as malaria

vector (p. 24 and fig. 7, Appendix C).

7. Anopheles aconitus.—Brug (1938) also found this

species naturally infected on Kabaena and obtained successful experimental infections. He does not express an

opinion on its role as vector. For information on its

habits and distribution the section on malaria vectors

should be consulted (p. 17 and fig, 3, Appendix C).

Soewadji Prawirohardjo (1939) has reported experimental infection in A. sundaicus, subpictus, annularis

barbirostris, vagus and tessellatus. There are no records

of natural infection in these species. Taylor (1938)

reports A. amictus which occurs in New Guinea as

possible vector. Heyden (1931) had previously reported

it as vector in Queensland. A. hyrcanus nigerrimus has

been reported as vector in Malaya, and hyrcanus sinensis

in India. A. philippinensis, pallidus, and varuna have

also been reported as vectors in India. Brug (1938)

obtained experimental infections in A. barbirostris and

“probably” maculatus.

A'edes scutellaris was regarded as vector in the Netherlands Indies by Flu (1921, cited by Brug, 1938). How-
72

ever Bonne-Wepster and Brug (1937) do not regard it as

such. It is bancrofti vector in the Fiji Islands where the

microfilariae appear in the peripheral blood during the day.

In the Netherlands Indies it has wide distribution and

breeds in all sorts of habitats including brackish water,

crab holes, puddles in coral reefs, depressions in old lava

flows, etc. It has been reported from New Guinea, Ceram,

Ambon, Boeroe, Saparoea, Sanana, Aroe Islands, Tanimbar

Islands, Alor, Adonare, Soemba, Celebes, Sangihi Islands, Boetoeng, Kleiner Paternoster Islands, and Sumatra.

Aedes vigilax has been reported as possible vector In

Australia. This species has general distribution in the

Netherlands Indies. It breeds in fresh water, brackish

water, and even undiluted sea water. The adults can

fly 10 to 20 miles and even 40 to 50 miles. Although it is

very anthropophillic in Australia Bonne-Wepster and

Brug (1937) state that this is not true in the Netherlands

Indies. In the Netherlands Indies it has been recorded

from Krakatau, Verlaten Island, Java, Edam, Madoera, Celebes, Flores, Aroe Islands, Tanimbar Island, and New

Guinea.

None of the Mansonioides mosquitoes Is bancrofti vector in the Netherlands Indies.
73

SYNOPSIS OF THE KNOWN NATURAL

FILARIASIS VECTORS OF THE NETHERLANDS INDIES

Vector Geographic distribution in Netherlands Indies Breeding habitat

Mansonia annulata Limited areas on Sumatra

and Celebes.

Probably associated with Pistia

as well as other aquatic plants.

Associated with Pistia.

Java, and New Guinea.

Widespread from Sumatra

to New Guinea.

Throughout the archipelago.

Associated with Pistia and Richhornia.

Associated with Pistia.

Widespread from Sumatra

to the Molukkas.

All islands westof Wallace’s

line.

Similar to annulata.

Anopheles barbirostris Ubiquitous fresh-water breeder.

A. hyrcanus sinensis Sumatra and Java; perhaps

elsewhere.

Known from S. E. Borneo,

Swamps, rice fields, and other

fresh-water habitats.

Primarily in swamps and rice

Java, and Celebes. fields.

Culex fatigans

quinquefasciatus).

Throughout the archipelago.

All kinds of artificial water near

dwellings.

Widespread from Sumatra

to New Guinea.

New Guinea, Molukkas,

and adjacent islands.

New Guinea,Molukkas, and

adjacent islands.

New Guinea; probably MoLakes, rivers, small streams.

A. punctulatus moluccensis.

Anopheles punctulatus

punctulatus.

drainage ditches, flooded

grassland, irrigation water,

lagoons, etc.

All types of habitats, fresh or

brackish, standing or flowing.

Sunlight is necessary.

Same as moluccensis except that

it is said not to breed in flowing water.

Small dear-water shady lakes

A, Uucosphyrus hackeri.

lukkas and adjacent islands.

Reported from Celebes,

Borneo, Sangihe Is. and

Kabaena Is.

Everywhere west of Wallace’s line from 1,200-

2,500 feet.

with aquatic vegetation.

Small bodies of water. Shade

is required.

Flooded rice fields, fresh-water

fish ponds, ditches, etc.
74

SYNOPSIS OF THE KNOWN NATURAL FILARIASIS VECTORS OF THE NETHERLANDS INDIES

Habits of adults Species of filaria Importance as vector Remarks

Stronglyanthropophilic. Phototropic at

night.

Very numerous at

Dermajoe (Benkoelen, Sumatra).

Stronglyanthropophilic.

Stronglyanthropophilic.

Strongly anthropophilic in Celebes; attacks man less frequently elsewhere.

An important vector

An important vector

very important vector.

(Reported only once

as natural vector.)

Most numerous of

the Mansonioides mosquitoes

vector in China.

malayi

Strictly house mos- bancrofti quito. Never found

far from dwellings.

Anthropophilic.

Anthropophilic, begins biting as soon

as dark.

only at Martepoera

(Borneo).

An important vector.

Probably not as important in Neth.

Indies as otherareas.

Probably unimportant.

Only one record of

natural infection.

vector in India.

Exclusively anthropophilic.

Important vector in

New Guinea.

Exclusively anthropophilic. No “hum”

as it attacks.

Probably vector in

nea.

Anthropophilic and

zoophilic.

(Reported only once

as natural vector.)

Probably more zoophilic than anthropophilic.(Reported only once

as natural vector.)

See following page for list of probable and doubtful vectors of filariae in the Netherlands Indies.
75

List of Probable and Doubtful Vectors of Filariae

in the Netherlands Indies

The following have been infected experimentally with

bancrofti (with development of infective larvae) in the

Netherlands Indies;

Anopheles sundaicus

A. subpictus

A. annularis

A. barbirostris

A. vagus

A. tessellatus

A. maculatus (?)

Culexfuscocephalus

C. whitmorei

C. annulirostris

C. bitaeniorhynchus (?)

C. tritaeniorhynchus (?)

C. sitiens (?)

The following which occur in the Netherlands Indies

have been reported as bancrofti vectors elsewhere:

Anopheles amicius (Australia)

A. hyrcanus nigerrimus (Malaya)

A. philippinensis (India)

pallidus (India)

A'edes scutellaris (Fiji Islands)

A. vigilax (Australia)
76

Chapter IV

DENGUE

Dengue is endemic throughout the Netherlands Indies

although it has not occurred in epidemic proportions since

1901. The dengue-like fever described by van der Scheer

from Batavia and now known as the five-day fever of van

der Scheer has the same symptomology as dengue and

differs from it only in the duration of the fever. It is also

known as endemic dengue. According to de Langen

(1936) it is widespread over the East Indies and should

not be differentiated from other dengue-like fevers of

different duration. In Batavia there are cases of denguelike fever varying in duration from to 10 days. Furthermore Snijders and Binger fed A'edes aegypti and A'edes albopictus on endemic cases of dengue in Medan (Sumatra)

and sent them to the Colonial Institute in Amsterdam

where they were refed on volunteers. All of the volunteers

developed dengue but it was shown that the same virus

produced different types of fevers in different individuals.

The typical endemic dengue of the Netherlands Indies

is characterized by de Langen (1936) as disease with

sudden onset of fever with chills and shivers. The face

is red and swollen and the conjunctivae infected. The

fever shows definitely remittent character. Often three

stages are recognized: (1) Original rise in temperature to

102° to 104° F. (2) Remission followed by intermittent

attacks of 99.3° to 101.3° F. (3) rise in fever on the

next to the last day in which the temperature may become

as high as in the original attack. Following this the tern-
77

perature returns to normal on the next day. Newcomers to the region are particularly susceptible.

According to Bonne-Wepster and Brug (1937) the vectors of dengue in the Netherlands Indies are Aedes aegypti

and albopictus. Mertens has shown that aegypti is

better vector than albopictus.

Aedes aegypti is world-wide in its distribution between

40° N. and 40° S. latitude. More is known of the habits of this species than of any other mosquito. Its habits

are no different in the Netherlands Indies than elsewhere.

Larvae can be found in all types of artificial accumulations

even in minute volumes. Typical breeding places are

rain barrels, tanks, cisterns, tin cans, urns, as well as water

accumulated on leaves and in plant axils. It is almost

exclusively house mosquito and is rarely found more

than 1,500 feet from dwellings. It is strongly anthropophilic. The younger adults are daytime fliers until

meal of blood is secured and thereafter nocturnal. It is

said to prefer the blood of white races to that of the dark

races.

In the Netherlands Indies there are definite records of

its occurrence on Sumatra, Poeloeh Weh, Billiton, Bangka,

Anambas Islands, Java, Edam, Karimendjowo (Kariman

Djawa), Borneo, Tarakan Island, Kleine Paternoster Islands, Poeloeh Laoet, Celebes, Buton (Boetoeng), Soembawa, Flores, Alor, Timor, Tanimbar Islands, Halmahera,

Ternate, Ceram, Ambon, Saparoea, Banda, and New

Guinea (fig. 8, p. 78). It doubtlessly occurs on other

islands also.

Aedes albopictus is common mosquito. It was

shown to be vector in the Netherlands Indies by Schiiffner and Snijder (1931). It breeds near dwellings in

habitats similar to those of aegypti. Larvae are found in

water tanks, tin cans, cisterns, plant axils, rain barrels,

etc,, but rarely in ponds, ditches, and mud puddles. It
78

FIG.

Distribution of

Dengue

Vectors

in

the

Netherlonds

Indies*

Islands

where

Aedes

ge.gyp.ti

is

known

to

occur. Islands

where

Aedes

olbopictus

is

known

to

occur.

These

species

are

also

potential

yellow

fever

vectors.
79

is strongly anthropophilic and its bite is more irritating

than that of aegypti. It Is widely distributed throughout

the Netherlands Indies with definite records from Sumatra,

Poeloeh Weh, Simaloer, Siboroet, Nias, Mentawei Islands, Doerian, Billiton, Java, Karimendjowo (Kariman Djawa),

Borneo, Tarakan Island, Kleine Paternoster Islands, Celebes, Buton, Kabaena, Bali, Lombok, Soemba, Flores, Alor, Timor, Ceram, Ambon, Saparoea, and New Guinea

(fig. 8).
80

Chapter

OTHER INSECT-BORNE DISEASES

Yellow Fever

Yellow fever has never been reported from the Netherlands Indies and is assumed to be nonexistent there.

However Aedes alhopictus and aegypti which are good

vectors of yellow fever in other parts of the world are

common mosquitoes throughout the archipelago. Brug

(1938) points out that the introduction of yellow fever into

the Netherlands Indies with these vectors so widespread

and numerous and with the nonimmune native population

might be extremely tragic. The Netherlands Indies

Public Health Service has been extremely vigilant in

preventing the importation of any yellow fever cases or

cases of suspected yellow fever. Furthermore statute,

with severe penalty, forbids the importation of yellow fever

virus even for scientific research.

De Langen and Lichtenstein (1936) point out the

interesting fact that the monkeys of the Netherlands

Indies possess fair degree of immunity to yellow fever

when compared with the immunity in the same species

elsewhere. Whether this is the immunity acquired from

infection by closely related virus is matter of sheer

speculation. There is no information on the resistence or

immunity of the Netherlands Indies population to yellow

fever. It is therefore only safe to assume that introduction of yellow fever would result in its becoming widespread. This should be considered as distinct possibility

in view of rapid wartime transportation which could result
81

in the introduction of either human cases or infected

mosquitoes. Furthermore, it must be assumed that the

rigid quarantine procedures of the Dutch have probably

broken down thereby increasing the hazard of importation.

There is also even the remote possibility of its use by the

enemy as combat weapon.

Arthropod-borne Diseases (Other Than Yellow

Fever) Which Do Not Occur in the Netherlands

Indies

Sleeping sickness has never been reported. This is

because the genus Glossina does not occur. Although

Triatoma rubrofasciata is common in the Netherlands

Indies it apparently is not host to any pathogenic

trypanosomes which probably accounts for the absence of

Chagas’ disease. Also there have been no autochthonous cases of kala-azar. Whether or not kala-azar

can become established in the archipelago is difficult to say

Until there is more definite information on its transmission.

All cases of dracontiasis prove to be imported in spite of

the fact that the Cyclops of the Netherlands Indies can be

easily infected with the larvae of Dracunculus. Brug (1938)

suggests that the absence of Loa loa and Onchocerca infections can be attributed to the relatively small numbers

°f Chrysops and Simulium. There are no authentic

records of any cases of tick-borne fevers. Relapsing

fever has been confined to few imported Chinese cases.

Brug (1938) believes that this is because of the absence of

the body louse due to the scanty clothing worn by the

natives. There are no authentic records of louse-borne typhus.
82

Chapter VI

RICKETTSIOSES

There has been much confusion in the literature concerning the rickettsial infections of the Netherlands Indies.

Recently Kouwenaar (1941), who has done much work on

rickettsioses in the Netherlands Indies, has presented

ample evidence to prove that in reality only two diseases

due to Rickettsia exist here. These are:

1. Sumatran mite fever and Malayan scrub

typhus, the same disease with different clinical manifestations; probably the same as Malayan tsutsugamushi

and kedani.

2. Shop typhus, doubtlessly identical with endemic

murine typhus.

These two rickettsioses can be differentiated with the

Weil-Felix agglutination reaction using B. proteus strains,

OX-19 and OX-K. Although these strains probably

have no relation to the diseases or to the Rickettsia which

cause them they are agglutinated characteristically by the

serum of infected individuals.

Table contains tabulation of some of the names used

in describing these diseases in the Netherlands Indies.

Shop typhus Sumatran mite fever, Malayan scrub typhus

OX-19

OX-K
83

Table 7. —Rickettsioses of the Netherlands Indies: Tabulation of some

synonymous terms

Mite fever-scrub typhus {OX-K) Murine Typhus {OX-19)

(a) With primary lesion

mijte koorts

mite fever

Sumatran mite fever

pseudotyphus of Sumatra

pseudotyphus of Deli

tsutsugamushi (of Malaya)

kedani (of Malaya)

shop typhus

urban typhus

tropical typhus

(b) Without primary lesion

scrub typhus

rural typhus

tropical typhus

It is suggested that the mite fever-scrub typhus of Sumatra and Java because of its lower case mortality is somewhat different than the Japanese tsutsugamushi. **

Because of the absence of the primary lesion scrub typhus and shop typhus were formerly grouped together (as tropical typhus).

“Pseudotyphus” as used by Schiiffner (1908) included cases with and without the Primary lesion and is therefore analogous with the modern concept of the identity of scrub typhus and mite fever<

Sumatran Mite Fever—Malayan Scrub Typhus

Mite fever and scrub typhus were formerly distinguished

from each other because of the development of primary

lesion and swelling of lymph glands in the former and the

absence of these symptoms in the latter. However it is

interesting that Schiiffner (1908) who first described the

disease in Sumatra as “pseudotyphus” did not make this

distinction but regarded all cases as “pseudotyphus”

regardless of presence or absence of primary lesion. The

identical Weil-Felix reaction to OX-K and the identical

epidemiology of the two have led Kouwenaar (1941) to

conclude that they represent merely different clinical manifestations of the same disease. The exact relation with

tsutsugamushi and kedani is not certain although they are

obviously similar if not identical. Kouwenaar (1941) feels

that mite fever-scrub typhus is the same as tsutsugamushi of Malaya but that it is milder disease than that of Japan

and Formosa. In support of this he cites the 20 percent
84

case mortality of Japanese tsutsugamushi as compared to

percent or less in Sumatra, Also he states that there is

less leukopenia in Sumatran cases than in Japanese

tsutsugamushi.

Kouwenaar (1940) described the pathology of scrub

typhus and mite fever. In an extensive review of the

rickettsioses of the Netherlands Indies (1941) he describes

his clinical observations on mite fever and scrub typhus as

follows (in translation):

In mite fever primary ulcer develops in the area of the mite bite.

The primary ulcer is most likely to appear where the skin is thin, such as

in the skin folds on the neck, in the axillary or genital regions. The ulcer

consists of skin necrosis, to 10 mm. in diameter around the bite; occasionally there may be two or more of these ulcers. The ulcer is red

at first but is seldom observed in this state. Its appearance is very

characteristic and once observed will always be remembered. The skin

then reddens and large red or red-brown macules or exanthematous

maculopapules develop which seldom unite before the end of the first

week. These macules or exanthematous maculopapules are most numerous and obvious on the extremities and on the trunk. The lymph

nodes in the region of the primary ulcer become swollen and sometimes

painful. Those further away are not affected. The pulse early In the course of the disease is somewhat retarded and full. In severe cases the

rate increases slightly and the beat becomes progressively weaker and

sometimes irregular. If the pulse rate becomes higher than 120 beats

minute, prognosis Is bad. Enlargement of the heart Is infrequent. Some

cases become cyanotic; sometimes there Is myocarditis; pericarditis is

rare. Infrequently gangrene develops in the extremities. Vomiting,

diarrhea, obstipation, meteorism, or occasional intestinal hemorrhages

may occur. Frequently there Is bronchitis and in all fatal cases, pneumonia. The spleen enlarges and the liver is usually swollen, smooth and

soft and not painful. There are headaches, insomnia and infrequently

coma and delirium. There may be infections of the conjunctiva. The

patient may become hard of hearing which accompanies encephalitis.

slight leukocytosis develops and infrequently (10 to 20 percent of the

cases) leukopenia. In the second or third week lymphocytosis develops.

Eosinophils decrease In number but usually do not disappear. The

urine gives strong positive diazo as well as urobilinreaction. Usually

there is febrile albuminuria with leukocytes and epithelial elements in the

sediment. Bacteriological investigations give positive results. Weil- Felix is positive to OX-K. weak agglutination occurs in many cases.
85

It is only when the titer reaches strength of 1/250 or higher that positive diagnosis can be made on this basis. In addition to the strength of the titer there should be gradual increase during the course of the

disease.

Case mortality in scrub typhus and mite fever is about percent

among Europeans and higher among the natives. Death is usually due

to circulatory inadequacy along with the development of pneumonia.

Death may come after the fever has subsided. Tachycardia, spasms,

and palpitations may persist for months after recovery. Recovery is

usually slow. The Immunity acquired from infection Is of short duration.

Differential Diagnosis.—Mite fever and scrub typhus as they are now

recognized differ from each other only In the fact that mite fever develops

primary ulcer. These can be differentiated from classical typhus by

the Weil-Felix reaction. As yet the therapy of scrub typhus and mite

fever is purely symptomatic. No specific drug is known. Prophylaxis

consists of avoiding mites and possibly ticks. Immunity Is brief. As

yet there is no good prophylactic vaccine.

The epidemiology of mite fever and scrub typhus

presents very interesting picture. Their identical epidemiology has been described by Kouwenaar and Wolff

(1936). Cases are confined exclusively to plantation

workers, soldiers, hunters and others who work in the

jungle grass or bush especially where the jungle reed,

Imperata cylindrical is abundant. Walch (1923) and

Walch and Keukenschrijver (1923) have concluded,

largely on epidemiological observations, that the vectors

are the hexapod larvae of trombiculid mites. Their infection experiments are not entirely conclusive. Previously Japanese workers had incriminated, also largely

on epidemiological data, the larva of Tromhicula akamushi

as the vector of tsutsugamushi. Heaslip (1941) believes

the T. deliensis larva to be the vector of tsutsugamushi in

Queensland. However he rightly points out the fact

that the evidence concerning the trombiculid larvae as

vectors is still largely circumstantial and that ticks have

not definitely been eliminated as possible vectors. Some

Dutch physicians have thought that perhaps the vector

in scrub typhus was tick whereas the vector in mite
86

fever was mite thereby accounting for the presence and

absence of the primary lesion. However there Is no

evidence In the literature to support this.

Walch and Keukenschrijver (1923) concluded that the

deliensis larva was the important vector and that the

schiijfneri larva was of secondary importance. The tendency now appears not to regard schuffneri as vector

(de Langen and Lichtenstein, 1936).

Epidemics are usually characterized by rather high

percentage of cases in exposed groups. Schiiffner and

Wachsmuth (1909) described epidemics In which there

were 158 cases in group of 7,700 and 53 in group of 900.

Walch and Keukenschrijver (1923) described 111 cases in

group of 250 coolies engaged in clearing operations in

East Sumatra. typical epidemic is that described by

van der Schweff (1941) in Atjeh (Sumatra) where clearing

was undertaken for new agricultural development.

Twenty-nine cases of mite fever (with primary lesion)

and 48 cases of scrub typhus (no primary lesion) were

recorded among those working in the jungle grass.

Plantation physicians in Sumatra recommend the use

of mixture of 0.8 parts of cajeput oil and 18 parts of

coconut oil as repellent against mites. It is stated that

it keeps down the Incidence of mite fever and scrub typhus.

Scrub typhus and mite fever have been most prevalent

in Sumatra, especially on the plantations in Atjeh and

East Sumatra in the region of Deli. very small number

of cases have been reported from Java by Wolff and de

Graaf (1939) and in the reports in the Mededeeling van den

Dienst der Volksgezondheid. Bessem (1935) reported

case from Borneo. Kouwenaar (1941) speaks of disease

in Celebes, without reference to its prevalence, which he

describes as intermediate between Japanese tsutsugamushi and the Sumatran disease. Mite fever has not

been reported from Dutch New Guinea. However
87

Heaslip (1941) describes tsutsugamushi from Queensland and it has also been reported from Australian New Guinea.

Hence the occurrence of mite fever in Dutch New Guinea

is probability.

Vectors of Mite Fever and Scrub Typhus

It is reasonably certain that vectors of mite fever and

scrub typhus are the hexapod larvae of certain jtrombiculid mites. As mentioned previously, Walch and

Keukenschrijver (1923) believed that the Tromhicula

deliensis larva was the important vector with T. schuffneri having secondary role. It now appears doubtful that

schuffneri has any role whatsoever in transmission.

Adult trombiculids are believed to feed on decaying

vegetable material in loose, moist surface soil, preferably

humus, where there is undisturbed wild vegetation. Eggs

are deposited on the ground during the summer and

autumn. The hexapod larvae soon emerge and attach

themselves to various mammalian and avian hosts. When

they become engorged with blood they drop off the host

and make their way into the soil where, following quiescent stage, they metamorphose into nymphs or adults.

It is believed that the larvae do not change hosts. If this

is true it means that the Rickettsia are probably carried

from generation to generation through the ova of the

mites.

The larvae of the trombiculid mites are very minute,

barely perceptible to the human eye. They are usually

bright yellow, orange, or red. Like all other acarid

larvae they have six legs and no antennae.

The taxonomy of the genus Tromhicula is muddled because many of the species are known only as larvae.

Several species are described from the Netherlands Indies.

The T. deliensis larva, which has been reported from Java,

Sumatra, and Malaya is orange-red to yellow. It is
88

common on rats of various species in Sumatra. Walch

and Keukenschrijver (1923) found it on two species of

cuckoo-like birds, Centropus javonicus and Rhinorthra

chlorophaea. It is possible that they are Important in its

dispersal. T. deliensis is probably the only vector of mite

fever and scrub typhus although this has not been definitely established.

The larva of T. schuffneri is red. It is common in

Sumatra. Regarded by Walch and Keukenschrijver

(1923) as vector this now seems to be doubtful (de

Langen and Lichtenstein, 1936), The T. pseudo-akamushi

larva is bright red. These larvae are ubiquitous in

Sumatra on many birds and mammals. The larva of T.

oudemansi is yellowish-white and is common on the rats

and mice of Java and Sumatra. The larvae of T. acuscutellaris and densipiliata have both been reported from Sumatra. Both are red. The former is said to occur commonly on rats. T. rara larvae have also been reported

from Sumatra. T. zvichmanni larvae are the “gonones” of

Celebes. They are primarily parasites of the Crown

Pigeon Goura sp.) but also attack man. On New Guinea

the larvae of T. vandersandei also parasitize man and are

known as “gonones.” complete tabulation of the

trombiculid larvae reported from the Netherlands Indies

is recorded in the section on Animals of Medical Importance. It is important to note that the deliensis larva,

the vector of mite fever, is the only orange-red to yellow

larva found thus far on man. table of morphological

details to aid in identification is given in Appendix F.

Shop Typhus

According to Kouwenaar (1941) it has never been conclusively proved that shop typhus is the same disease as

endemic murine typhus. Nevertheless he points out that

there can be little doubt of it because the Weil-Felix
89

reaction as well as the epidemiology of shop typhus and

endemic murinetyphus are identical. As yet no arthropod

vector has been definitely incriminated. However it is

assumed that the vector is the rat flea, Xenopsylla cheopis

although there is the possibility of other fleas being involved also.

Shop typhus is primarily disease of the larger cities

although there are, according to Kouwenaar (1941), few

cases recorded from plantations. It is not an important

disease in the Netherlands Indies.

Louse-borne typhus is not known to occur.
90

Chapter VII

PLAGUE AND LEPTOSPIROSIS

Plague

In recent years plague has occurred only in Java where

it was first recorded in 1911. The last record of an

epidemic in the Netherlands Indies outside of Java was

in Makassar in 1922. The last epidemic in Sumatra

was in 1920 at Palembang. The epidemics at Makassar

and Palembang were both of short duration. However

in Java the disease is enzootic in the rat population in

which it occasionally reaches epizootic proportions. In

the regions of Java where housing is of such nature that

the natives come into intimate contact with the rats,

the rat plague epizootics are reflected as epidemics of

human plague.

The papers of Otten who has developed live bacillus

plague vaccine, and of Rosier, who has been charged with

the plague control program, are the best sources of information on plague in the Netherlands Indies.

An idea of the importance of plague in Java may be

obtained from tabulation (table 8) of the recorded

cases as given by Rosier (1941).

Plague was originally most prevalent in East Java. However in recent years the great majority of the cases

have been reported from West Java. Rosier (1938) listed

the following as plague regions: Malang (East Java), Djokjakarta (Central Java), Prahoe (Central Java), Slamet

(Central Java), Pekalongan (northern Central Java),
91

large area in West Java including Priangan, Cheribon

Tjiremai, Tjikoerao, and Tangkoebanprahoe.

Table 8.—Reported cases of plague in the Netherlands Indies

Plague ip Java is now primarily disease of the highlands above 1,500 feet where the climate is humid and

subtropical. This Is probably due in part to the “better housing” program which has eliminated rats from dwellings in many parts of the island and in part to the fact

that Xenopsylla cheopis tends to be more prevalent at

higher altitudes.

562282—44

Year East Java Central

Java West Java Total

1911 2,155 2,157 1912 2,276 2,278 1913 11,384 11,387 1914 15,751 15,757 1915 4,831 1,406 6,238 1916 596 592 1,189 1917 202 219 422 1918 221 513 735 1919, .... 196 2,785 2,982 1920 248 8,891 13 9,152 1921 257 9,501 9,763 1922 137 10,819 10,957

1923 73 8,323 271 8,667 1924 157 12,547 349 13,053

1925. 260 12,969 1,275 14,504

1926. 71 6,829 871 7,771 1927 219 6,364 1,172 7,755 1928 35 3,741 824 4,600

1929 73 2,210 1,812 4,095 1930 3,282 1,695 4,512 1931.. .. .... .. 30 3,031 1,478 4,539 1932. .. 2,071 4,366 6,442 1933. 1,685 15,188 16,881 1934.. 2,668 20,569 23,239 1935 2,687 10,307 12,995

1936. 1,693 4,490 6,187 1937 44 1,156 2,614 3,814 1938. 20 616 1,447 2,083 1939 IS 403 1,123 1,541
92

All age groups and races are affected uniformly. There

are no sex differences. Generally the maximum number of

cases occurs at the beginning of the rainy season (December-January), whereas there is remission during the

dry monsoon (July-August). About to 10 percent of

the cases are pneumonic; these frequently occur in family

groups. The case fatality in the bubonic type is 60 to 70

percent; in septicaemic about 90 percent; and in pneumonic, about 100 percent.

The biology, distribution, and ecology of the rats of

Java as well as their role in plague has been thoroughly

studied and discussed by Kopstein (1931). The principal

rodent reservoir Is the Malayan gray-bellied house rat,

Rattus rattus diardii. In the mountains when this species

dies in sufficient numbers, it may be replaced in dwellings

by the lesser Malayan bush rat, R. r. ephippium normally

an outdoor species. The Norway rat, R. r. norvegicus,

and the lesser Malay house rat R. r. concolor, may also

enter dwellings in the absence of diardii particularly in

the lower country. The rice-field rat, R. r. argentiventer

may also enter houses when there is no diardii and then

can be important in transmitting plague. Infected

rats are transported from place to place in rice shipments.

Xenopsylla cheopis is the important flea vector. In general

it is thought that X. astia and Pygiopsylla ahalae (=Stivialis cognatus are of minor importance as vectors. The Dutch do not regard Pulex irritans as vector.

The control measures employed by the Dutch have been

(1) isolation of pneumonic cases, (2) ship quarantine, (3)

vaccination, and (4) housing improvement.

Housing improvement has been subsidized by the

government. Since 1911 more than million and half

dwellings have been improved or rebuilt. As result

the house rat population in many areas has been substantially reduced or eliminated.
93

Vaccination has been almost exclusively with the live

bacillus vaccine developed by Otten (1930-1940). He

has summarized his work in an extensive paper (1941)

which describes both the production and use of the live

vaccine.

The Jive plague vaccine was first shown by Otten to be

effective in controlled vaccination in which families were

partially vaccinated i. e., within each family some were

vaccinated and some were left as unvaccinated controls.

When this showed favorable results the vaccine was used

on large scale. Mass vaccinations were begun in 1935

in the midst of severe epidemic. In order to have

reliable information on its effectiveness tabulations were

made of the numbers of cases among vaccinated and nonvaccinated groups. From the number of cases in the

nonvaccinated group Otten calculated the number of

cases that would have occurred had no vaccinations been

made. In this way it was possible to show the effectiveness of the vaccination program. His calculations are as

follows:

Otten (1941) concludes on the basis of these data that

the live vaccine is effective in controlling plague. He

states that in years’ control more than 2,500,000 people

received total of more than 10,000,000 vaccinations

and revaccinations without any harmful effects.

Year

Percent

population vaccinated

Plague deaths Reduction

due to

vaccinaActual Calculated tion

1935 90 1,310 5,200 75% 1936 85 1,729 5,800 70% 1937 85 985 5,700 83% 1938. 80 454 4,000 89% 1939 .. ....

80 489 5,000 90% 1940 80 115 3,000 96%
94

It is difficult to speculate on the effect that the invasion

may have on the plague situation in Java. Previously

epidemics have occurred at approximately 10-year intervals (1913-14, 1922-26, and 1933-35). Whether or not

this is ample basis to assume the occurrence of another

in 1943-1945, cannot, of course, be ascertained. Furthermore there is no way of knowing whether or not the vaccination program of 1935-40 could prevent reoccurrence of human plague epidemic in 1943-45 assuming

that vaccination has been discontinued. It is possible

that it may break out in the nonvaccinated areas. Finally there Is the possibility of the reappearance of plague on

Sumatra and Celebes where it has been recorded in the

past; the likelihood of this is increased if the rigid Dutch

quarantine regulation has broken down.

Rats in Relation to Plague.

Probably all rats are susceptible to plague. However

it is those species which enter dwellings that are important

from the standpoint of epidemiology. The important

species to consider in Java, the only island where plague

has occurred in recent years, are Raitus rattus diardii,

norvegicus (local in distribution), concolor argentiventer,

and ephippium. R. r. roquei is wild rat and may be

of importance as reservoir from which other rats become

infected. (See Synopsis, p. 96.)

There has been much confusion concerning the taxonomic relationships and nomenclature of the rats of Java. In order to avoid as much of this confusion as possible

compilation of synonyms has been made. The nomenclature is that employed in the Notes on Tropical and

Exotic Diseases of Naval Importance Naval Medical

School, 1943 (table 9).
95

Table 9. Synonyms. Rats of Java.

*Notes on Tropical and Exotic Diseases of Naval Importance. U. S. Nava! Medical

School, National Naval Medical Center, 1943.

R. r. diardii occurs on Java, Sumatra, and all of the

Lesser Soenda Islands. The house rat of Celebes is

mindanensis. R. r. frugivorus is established on Ceram,

Soemba, Babar, and Moa. R. r. argentiventer occurs

on Java, Sumatra, Borneo, Molukkas, and the Lesser

Soenda Islands; raveni is found in Celebes, wichmanni

on Flores, and vitiensis on New Guinea. Chinese junks

and other native vessels of this area have characteristic

rat fauna which may be oriental in origin. It is suggested

that the keys in Ernest Schwartz, Identification of Domestic

Rats of Medical Importance (Notes on Tropical and Exotic

Diseases of Naval Importance), Naval Medical School,

1943, be used for identification and general information

on rats of this area.

Accepted nomenclature* Nomenclature of Otten Other names

Rattus rattus diardii Mus rattus grisiventer

Rattus rattus argentiventer Mus rattus diardii Rattus rattus brevicaudatus

(of Kopstein).

Rattus rattus norvegicus Mus norvegicus Rattus rattus decumanus.

[Rattus norvegicus.

Rattus rattus roquet Mus rattus rufescens Rattus rattus concolor Mus concolor (“harbor R. concolor otteni (of Kopconcolor”) stein).

Rattus rattus ephippium Mus concolor (“mountain concolor")
96

SYNOPSIS

OF

THE

RATS

OF

JAVA

IN

RELATION TO

PLAGUE

Species

Body

length

Tail

Color

Foot

Mam- mae

Habits

Rattus

rattus

diardii

(Malayan

graybellied

house

rat).

140-190 mm.. Longer

than

body

and

head.

Cinnamon

above,

slaty

or

tawny beneath.

Mean

34

mm

2/3

The

important reservoir of

plague

because

of

intimate

contact with

man.

Rattus

rattusnorvegicus

(sewer rat

or

Norway

rat).

16O-2S0 mm.. Shorter

than

body

and

head.

Brownishgray

(rarely

black)

above,

whitish

gray benleath

always with

white underfur.

Mean

40-62 mm.

Max.

46

mm

3/3

port

rat.

Local

in

distribution.

Records

from

Batavia,

Ladjamajoe, Cheribon,

Pekalongan, Semarang,

Soerabaja,

Parsavean,

Vedin,

Tulangagoeng,

Probollingo,

Banjoewangi.

Rattus

rattus

argen

tiventer

(rice-field rat).

140-190 mm..

Slightly

shorter than

body

and

head.

Brownishgrey white

beneath.

Mean

34

mm

Max.

36

mm

3/3

rice-field rat.

Will

enter

homes

when

diardii

dies

off.

Rattus

rattus

concolor (Lesser

Malay

house

rat).

110-140 mm.. Longer

than

body

and

head.

Dark

brown

above

bluish

gray beneath.

Mean

21

mm

Max.

25

mm

2/2

It

may

invade

houses

when

the

other

species

die

off.

Occurs

only

in

North

Java.

Rattus

rattus

ephippium

(Lesser

Malay

bush

rat).

110-125 mm.. Slightly

longer

than

body

and

head.

Brown

above

buffy

below.

24—26

mm

2/2

small

rat.

Primarily

bush

frat

in

the

higher

country.

May

enter

dwellings.

Rattus

rattus

roquet

(common tree

rat).

140-150 mm.. Longer

than

body

and

head.

Cinnamon

above

white

or

buff

on

belly.

No

dark

underfur.

About

34

mm

2/3

The

wild

(rat.

Very

occasionally

enters

dwellings.

May

serve

as

reservoir for

plague.
97

Leptospirosis

Leptospirosis is more prevalent in the Netherlands

Indies than in other parts of the world. The best sources

of information are the papers of Esseveld, Collier, Mochtar and their co-workers (1937-41). In general, leptospiral infections in the Netherlands Indies are mild; fatal

cases are rare and jaundice is observed in only about 10

percent of the cases. The actual number of cases reported

is small. For instance Sardjito (1938) points out that only

cases were reported in Batavia in years and that only

cases were reported in Semarang in single year. However, because of the mild nature of the disease it can well

be assumed that the majority of the cases never come to

medical attention. Recent reports from hospitals in

Sumatra indicate that many cases formerly diagnosed as

influenza (colds with fever) are in reality leptospiroses.

The bulk of the cases of leptospirosis have been observed

in the Asahan area of the east coast of Sumatra where the

mortality is higher than elsewhere. Mochtar and Esseveld (1939) compiled information on the known Incidence

of leptospirosis for the entire archipelago. They record

epidemics and cases from the Deli Valley (1922); Bangkinang Central Sumatra (1928-30); Makassar; Tarakan

Island near Borneo; Singkawan, West Borneo; Banka;

Billiton; and Java. They state that leptospirosis occurs

throughout Sumatra and that “some cases,” including

Weil’s disease, have been observed on Java, special

focus of leptospirosis occurs on the Island of Noesakambangan opposite the city of Tjilatjap on the south coast of

Central Java. great deal of attention has been given to the isolation

of leptospirae. From 1932-38 Walch-Sorgdrager, Bolamder, Schiiffner, and Wolff (1940) state that 426 strains

of leptospirae were isolated. According to Mochtar and
98

Esseveld (1939) only four different strains have been

isolated from human cases. The Rachmat type which is

probably the same as the Japanese L. autumnalis (=akiyani) has been reported from human cases in Java and

Sumatra. The Salinem type is similar to L. icterohaemorrhagiae but serologically distinguishable from it. It

also has been found in human cases in Sumatra and Java. L. hataviae has the widest geographical distribution having

been reported from human cases in Java, Sumatra, Borneo,

Bangka, Billiton, Tarakan, and Celebes. L. icterohaemorrhagiae has been reported in humans from Java only.

In addition to these four types recorded by Mochtar and

Esseveld (1939), Sardjito (1910) has reported cases of

human leptospirosis in Central Java from which he isolated type 173, very few human cases due to L.

hehdomadis and several unknown strains djasiman L.

nadm, L. sarmin) have been found.

On Noesakambangan in 1940 there were 12 Rachmat

cases, 17 bataviae cases, and icterohaemorrhagiae cases.

This variety may be due to the fact that the island has

4,000 to 7,000 chain gang prisoners from all parts of the

archipelago.

Considerable attention has also been given to the reservoir hosts of leptospirosis. Sardjito, Mochtar, and

Wirasmo (1937) showed that R. r. argentiventer the ricefield rat, can harbor several strains pathogenic to guinea

pigs and possibly pathogenic to man. They regard R. r.

norvegicus as normal reservoir of icterohaemorrhagiae

In Makassar R. r. norvegicus was found with javanica.

R. r. argentiventer has also been found to harbor javanica

which is practically nonpathogenic. Most investigators

regard the Norway rat as the most dangerous reservoir in

Java. In Batavia about 50 percent are infected with

leptospirae, mostly with the hataviae type. L. hehdomadis

has been found in dogs in Sumatra. Cats have been found
99

infected with bataviae, javanica, and icterohaemorrhagiae.

Dogs in Batavia have been found with bataviae whereas

hogs were found to harbor pomona which is only slightly

virulent to guinea pigs and mice.

Synopsis of leptospirosis of the Netherlands Indies

Human cases Norway rats Field rats Dogs

Sumatra;Deli L, salinem No L. salinem —. L. javanica L. hebdomadis

Central and

South Java.

L. hebdomadis(wry

rare).

L. bataviae.

L. javanica

L. bataviae

(very rare).

L. javanica.

L. salinem

(very rare)

“L. 173”

(very rare).

L. javanica.

Middle Java: (a) Semarang..

{b) Mageland

(f) Noesakambangan.

L. rachmat (rare)..

L. hebdomadis(very

rare).

L. pomona (?).

L. icterohaemorrhagiae.

L. salinem

L. bataviae /rare

“L. 173”J L. bataviae.

L. icterohaemorrhagiae.

L. rachmat.

L. bataviae,

L. icterohaemorrhagiae.

L. hebdomadis.

L. javanica

L. iclerohemorrhagiae.

L. pomona.•

L. bataviae.

L. rachmat identical with L. autumnalis or L. akiyani.

L. hebdomadis, L. pomona never causes jaundice.

L. hebdomadis and L. pomona are non virulent for guinea pigs.

L. pomona has been found in hogs in West Java. L. bataviaehas been found in adult cats.

(Prepared by Dr. I. Snapper, Surgeon General’s Office, U. S. Army)
100

Chapter VIII

ENTERIC DISEASES

Because of improper disposal of sewage, unsanitary

water supplies, unhygienic handling of food, lack of control of flies, and the generally poor hygienic conditions in the

native villages, all communicable enteric diseases are

prevalent.

Bacillary Dysentery

Bacillary dystentery occurs on all of the inhabited

islands. There are no reliable morbidity figures because

most cases do not come to medical attention. The

disease is both endemic and epidemic. Table 10 summarizes the hospitalized cases of dysentery for 1935-39

(from Indisch Verslag 1936-40). These figures Include

all cases diagnosed as dysentery.

Table 10. Dysentery, hospital admissions

Year

Number of hospitals

reporting

Total admissions

Number

dysentery

admissions

Percent

dysentery

admissions

Dysentery

case fatality (percent)

1934 221 207,325 4,488 2.2 8.4

1935 185 201,597 4,355 2.2 10.4

1936 190 223,469 (*)

1937 176 239,163 ()

1938 167 238,960 5,826 2.6 10.3 1939 176 255,552 6,391 2.5 11.5

Dysentery cases not recorded separately.
101

The following reports of cases of bacillary dysentery

were made to the League of Nations by the Netherlands

Indies Public Health Service:

Since 1931 the Eijkman Institute Laboratory has

recorded data on types of dysentery bacillae from the

dysentery cases for which it has made laboratory diagnoses.

These records are summarized in table 11. About 70 percent of the cases were Flexner group (mostly Y); 13 percent were Sonne and 13 percent Shiga.

Table 11.—Summary of dysentery analyses at the Eijkman Institute Batavia*

All racial groups appear to be approximately equally

susceptible to the Flexner group. There is tendency

1936 1937 1938

Java and Madoera ..

623 190 354

Other Islands 2, 280 7,449 5,813

Year Totalexaminations

No agglutination

Flexner

group Sonne Schmitz Shiga Total

positive

Percent

positive

1931 813 40 160 16 114 292 36.5 1932 .. 1,547

1,215

1,308

2,459

3,579

4,576

4,616

3,563

120 260 36 79 384 25.6

1933 57 188 40 49 283 23.6

1934... 57 270 60 42 378 29.0

1935 141 422 100 30 556 22.2

1936 S3 501 90 49 643 17.9

1937 29 436 124 39 607 13.2

1938 45 537 88 45 676 14.7 1939.. 78 412 79 10 78 579 16.0

Total 23,676 620 3,186 573 54 525 4,398

73% 13% 1.2% 13%

Practically allof the cases were from Java.
102

towards greater incidence of Sonne among Europeans

and greater incidence of Shiga among the natives

(table 12).

Table 12.—Bacillary dysentery morbidity, 1931-39

Dinger et al. (1940) studied bacterial dysentery in

“city study unit” in Batavia. They concluded in this

city, which has sanitary water supply, that the majority

of the cases were due to direct contacts. Of 149 bacteriologically analyzed cases, 112 were Flexner, 30 were

Sonne, and were Schmitz. Wolff (1940) studied the

occurrence of Sonne dysentery on the East Coast of

Sumatra from 1925 to 1936, during which time 676 cases

were diagnosed bacteriologically. Only percent were

Sonne. The ratio of Sonne to Flexner varied from

5:100 to 13:100. Sonne infections were much more

prevalent In Europeans than among the natives.

The reports of the Public Health Service in the Mededeelingen van den Dienst der Volksgewndheid contain

some records of epidemics in recent years. There was

an epidemic in Makassar in 1936 in which 68 cases were

bacteriologically analyzed; 50 were Flexner, 13 were

Shiga, and ■were Sonne. There was also an epidemic

with 448 cases at Tandjong Priok in Java and another

in East Coast, Sumatra with 460 cases. Also in 1936, 473 cases were reported from the Molukkas, 346 from

KIsar Island, and 115 from Danar Island. In 1938,

Europeans Percent Chinese Percent Natives Percent Total Percent

418 69.8 577 73.9 1,323

239

69.5 2,318

467

70.3

136 22.7 92 11.6 12.5 14.2

1.0 17 2.3 26 1.2 49 1.5

39 6.5 96 12.4 322 16.8 457 13.9

599 100.0 782 100.2 1,910 100.0 3,291 99.9
103

366 cases were reported from Tanjong Priok in Java and

235 cases, with 78 deaths, from Madang, also in Java;

1,900 cases were reported from the Molukkas, 472 from

Menado (Celebes) and 325 from East Coast, Sumatra.

There was an epidemic in Makassar in January and February 1938; of 862 cases, 600 were Shiga, 231 were

Flexner, 25 were Sonne, and were Schmitz.

In 1938 there was also an epidemic in Bantam (West

Java) with 1,287 cases and 133 deaths. There were also,

in 1938, 285 cases in Menado (Celebes) and 361 cases in

Timor,

Amoebic Dysentery

According to de Langen and Lichtenstein (1936)

amoebic dysentery is endemic throughout the archipelago

and is transmitted by flies, direct contact, and water.

They cite survey figures which indicate that 10 to 17

percent of the natives have amoebiasis. The data compiled from stool examinations by the Eijkman Institute

show much lower percentages. However this may be due

in part to the selectivity in sampling since examinations

by the Eijkman Institute would be of Europeans in

considerable degree (table 13).

Table 13.—Intestinal protozoa, examinations at the Eijkman Institute

Percent

1936 1937 1938 1939

2.1 2.3 3.5 3.i

4.7 7.9 9.1 10.2

.4 .2 3.5

.6 .1 .2 3.9

1.4 1.6 3.0 1.2

1.1 .5 2.1 4.7

.1

.1

.1

853 751 430 250
104

Other Intestinal Protozoa

Table 13 shows in general the intestinal protozoa known

to occur in man in the Netherlands Indies. In addition

to those tabulated there have also been records of

Balantidium coli although it is uncommon in man. It

must again be pointed out that the data in table 13 are

from selected group in Java and are not typical for the

native population.

Typhoid Fever

Because of the unhygienic condition of the native villages and the unsanitary methods of fecal disposition

typhoid fever is prevalent. No reliable general morbidity figures are available. The number of hospital

admissions (1934-1939) for typhoid fever (and paratyphoid) are tabulated In table 14. These data are largely

from Java.

Table 14.—Typhoid fever, hospital admissions

The following reports of typhoid cases were made by the

Public Health Service to the League of Nations:

Year Numberof hospitals re- portingTotal ad- missions

Number

of admissions

Percent of total ad- missionsCase fa- tality, percent

1934 «„ 221 207,325 2,284 1.1 17.5

1935 185 201,597 2,959 1.5 18.4

1936 190 223,469 3,713 1.7 16.9

1937 176 239,163 3,904 1.6 18.0

1938 167 238,960 4,158 1.7 12.7

1939 176 255,552 3,727 1.5 18.1

Typhoid fever'only. Typhoid and paratyphoid.

1934 1935 1936 1937 1938

Java and Madoera 2,688

107

3,390

491

4,235 4884,468

549

4,625

672
105

Naturally these statistics are entirely fragmentary.

Surface waters in the more densely populated islands

invariably are severely contaminated with intestinal organisms. This is verified by the investigations of

Schaeffer (1940), Mom (1940), Dinger (1937), and Dinger

et al. (1939). In general the sewage of the Netherlands Indies cities, according to Mom (1940) and Schaeffer

(1941), has much higher concentration of bacteria than

the sewage of European cities. Dinger et al. (1939) found

0.2 percent of the population of Batavia to be typhoid

carriers. These authors feel that the natives of Java possess certain degree of immunity to typhoid perhaps

because of constant exposure through their water supplies.

This is not true of children. Dinger et al. (1939) regard

typhoid fever as “sporadic endemic disease with

considerably higher incidence in the younger age groups.”

These authors also feel that the heavy pollution of the

surface waters with intestinal organisms explains the

high degree of typhoid immunity which the natives appear

to possess. They consider food contamination, flies, and

direct contact as more important in the spread of the

disease among the natives. However, for nonimmune

white populations water supply in the Netherlands Indies

is always potential source of typhoid infection. In

general typhoid fever in Java is nonseasonal although

Dinger (1938) has shown that there is slight correlation

between rainfall and typhoid incidence which he states is

perhaps due to the abundance of flies.

Excerpts from the Reports of the Public Health Service

(Jaarsverslag Dienst der Volksgezondheid in NederlandschIndie) and of the Eijkman Institute give some idea of the

occurrence of typhoid fever in recent years. In 1936

Batavia reported 572 cases, Semarang (Java) 258, and

Soerabaja (Java) 379. Menado (Celebes) reported 148

cases and East Coast (Sumatra) 83. These were the
106

principal foci in 1936. In 1937 Batavia reported 653

cases, Semarang 450, and Soerabaja 622. Medan (Sumatra)

reported 73, Makassar (Celebes) 71, and Menado 79 cases.

The 1938 reports recorded 503 cases from Batavia, 329

from Semarang (Java), 646 from Soerabaja, 87 cases from

Medan (Sumatra), 15 from Makassar, and 71 from Menado.

Paratyphoid Fever

Paratyphoid is much more common than paratyphoid B. Indeed records of paratyphoid. are almost

nonexistent, consisting of only five cases in Java in 1938.

Recent reports by the Public Health Service give some

idea as to prevalence of paratyphoid compared with

records of typhoid cases. The following data are from

Java and Madoera only. Deaths are given in parenthesis.

One third of the 1937 paratyphoid cases were in Batavia

(314 cases with 10 deaths). In the same year Semarang

had 150 cases with seven deaths, and Soerabaja 56 with

two deaths. Batavia had 149 cases and 14 deaths in 1938; Semarang reported 75 cases with two deaths while Soerabaja reported 56 cases with two deaths. Reports on

paratyphoid cases from the other islands are meager.

There were 24 in 1937, and 44 in 1938.

Other Salmonelloses

The status of the knowledge regarding other members

of the Salmonella group in the Netherlands Indies does not

Typhoid Paratyphoid

1935 3,390 (575)

4,325 (729)

4,468 (752)

4,625 (747)

323 (3)

582 (29)

922 (29)

708 (37)

1936

1937

1938
107

allow any accurate estimate of their prevalence. Considerable research has been done in the Netherlands Indies.

This has been summarized by Erber (1940) who states

that, up to 1940, 18 species of Salmonella (including paratyphosus and paratyphosus B) have been isolated. These

(excluding paratyphoid A) have been isolated from 81

studied cases. Erber’s list is as follows:

Salmonella parat.

S'. parat. (Schottmiiller)

S. parat. var. Java. S. typhi murium

S. Stanley

S. heidelberg

S. hrandenburg

S. derby

S. parat. C. sub-type “East Africa”

S. cholerae suis

S. thompson

S. bareilly

S. newport

S. enteriditis

S. dublin

S. panama var.

S. anatum

S. senjtenberg

Cholera

There were more than 64,000 deaths from cholera in

Java and Madoera in 1910. Since then the disease has

decreased steadily. Prophylactic inoculation was started

in 1926. No autochthonous cases have been reported in

recent years. However there is always the hazard of

importation from Malaya and China.

In September and October 1937 an epidemic of disease

closely resembling cholera broke out in Southwest Celebes

in some of the native villages on the coast and on nearby

562282—44
108

islands about 36 miles north of Makassar. This epidemic

has been described in detail by de Moor (1939) as well as

by others. In January, February, and March 1938 it was

found also in some inland villages about miles south of

Makassar as well as in villages north and south of the

original area of infection. Two cases also occurred in the

city of Makassar.

The organism involved was probably the El Tor vibrio.

The epidemic was very similar to cholera and might easily

have passed as such. De Moor (1939) describes the

situation as follows (in translation):

Whereas clinically and epidemiologically the diagnosis of cholera

asiatica was unquestionable, some difficulties were met with in the

identification of the vibrios isolated. These vibrios appeared not to

differ from thereal vibrio cholerae in the common diagnostical-bacteriological examination. Even when they were inoculated on agar with

sheep’s blood the culture produced only digestion of the blood and

showed no trace of haemolysis, the same as the cholera vibrio. If

these vibrios however were inoculated in broth with sheep’s blood the

culture showed haemolysis as early as within 24 hours’ incubation,

the same as the vibrio El Tor. So this closer investigation after Kraus’

method showed immediate haemolysis, which would be absent in the

real cholera vibrio. Some investigators consider it matter of absolute

fact that the cholera vibrio is not haemolytic or will at most after 48

hours’ incubation show late haemylosis in bloodbroth. Other investigators doubt the absolute certainty of this fact. At first the diagnosis

of the vibrios isolated was therefore taken pending. Where however

in cases such as this an immediate and categorical statement is desired

(or Is at least hard to avoid) the scholastic conception of the incapability ofvibrio cholerae to give prompt haemolytic reaction was accepted

and, though reluctantly, the diagnosis of vibrio El Tor was reported.

Further investigation proved this diagnosis to be the correct one.

There were about 50 reported cases with case fatality

of 65 percent.

The Dutch have studied the El Tor vibrio extensively

since that time. Otten (1939) refers to the vibrio of the

Celebes epidemic as to V. Celebes and thinks that it may

be slightly different from the El Tor vibrio.
109

Chapter IX

RESPIRATORY DISEASES

As In the information on other diseases reliable morbidity data do not exist for respiratory diseases. The best

information comes from hospital reports, laboratory

reports, and special investigations.

Table 15 shows the proportion of hospital admissions

for respiratory infections (tuberculosis not included)

from selected group of hospitals as compared to total

admission in the same hospitals.

Table 15.—Respiratory diseases*, hospital admissions

Pneumonia

According to de Langen and Lichtenstein (1934)

pneumonia, especially lobar pneumonia, is prevalent throughout the archipelago. In table 16 statistics on

hospitalized cases of pneumonia have been compiled.

These, of course, are select group, largely from Java.

Year Number of hospitals

reporting

Total ad- missions

Number of respiratory

admissions

Percent

of total admissions

Case fa- tality,

percent

1934 221 207,325

201,597

223,469

239,163

238,960

255,552

9,691

11,056

7,021

7,743

7,822

4.7 18.5

1935 185 5.5 18.6

1936 190 3.1 25.2

1937 176 3.2 24.7

1938 167 3.3 24.6

1939 176 9,471 3.7 22.9

•Tuberculosis not included.
110

Table 16, Pneumonia, hospital admissions

Information on the types of pneumococci isolated from

cases of pneumonia has been assembled by the Netherlands

Indies Public Health Service in report to League of

Nations conference in 1937 National Rapport van Nederlandsch-Indie voor de Intergouvernementeele Conference van

landen in het verre oosten voor landelijke hygiene 3-13

Augustus 1937). The data from this report are tabulated

in table 17.

Table 17.—Pneumococcus types in pneumonia cases

Year

Number of hospitals

reporting

Total ad- missions

Number of pneumonia

admissions

Percent

of total admissions

Case fa- tality,

percent

1934. ..

221 207,325 4,776 2.3 32.2

1935 185 201,597 5,458 2.7 32.8

1936 190 223,469 4,739 2.1 33 .2

1937 176 239,163 5,300 2.2 32.9

1938 167 238,960 5,384

6,523

2.3 32.2

1939 176 255,552 2.6 30.2

Place Number

of cases Year

Percent of Groupor Type Number

of times examined II III IV

Java and Sumatra 100 1929-31 42.0 26.0 32.0

Java 83 1930-31 44.4 13.9 12.5 29.2

Java 341 1932-35 28.0 7.0 57.0

Java 113 1932-34 42.5 9.0 48.5

Java 64 1935 38.0 8.0 54.0

Java 62 1936 58.0 8.0 1.5 32.0

Netherlands Indies 807 1929-37 36.4 10.9 1.6 47.8

1,570 36.6 10.8 1.5 47.5

United States 5,779 28.4 12.2 11.9 52.5

United States 3,066 1928-35 23.6 8.3 9.7 58.4

Cecil. 1937.

Bullowa, 1928-3S.
Ill

Kirschner and Schijveschuurmder (1939) have compiled

the statistics on lobar pneumonia from the records of the

Netherlands Indies Army. These are given in table 18.

Tablk 18.—Pneumonia in the Netherlands Indies Army

These are the most reliable and usable data available.

Influenza

Influenza is said to be quite prevalent. The number

of hospital admissions per year for influenza is about

the same as that for pneumonia. Because of differences

in diagnostic nomenclature it is doubtful that any very

reliable comparisons can be made with statistics of other

countries. The data from Netherlands Indies hospitals

for period of years are recorded in table 19.

Table 19. Influenza, hospital admissions

Year

Morbidity per 1,000 soldiers Mortality per 1,000 soldiers Fatality per 100 cases

European Non-Euro- pean European Non-Euro- pean European Non-Euro- pean

1903-29 2.3 6.2 0.24 0.59 9.1 10.6

1930 2.0 9.5 .96 10

1931 1.7 4.6 .40 1932 1.7 4.3 .70 16

1933 1.5 4.7 .13 .92 19 1934 1.2 5.9 1.30 22 1935 .8 6.3 .13 1.13 17 18

1936 1.5 5.4 .13 1.40 26

1937 1.1 3.3 .20 .60 22 19 Mean 2.1 6.0 .20 .66 8.6 12.1

Year

Number of

hospitals

reporting

Total admissions

Number

of influ- enza ad- missions

Percent

of total admissions

Case fatality,

percent

1934 221 207,325 4,665 2.3 1.2

1935 185 201,597 6,502 3.2 0.8 1936 190 223,469 7,603 3.4 0.9

1937 176 239,163 8,608 3.6 1.0

1938 167 238,960 6,878 2.9 0.8

1939 176 255,552 7,344 2.9 0.9
112

De Rook (1938) states that influenza is fairly common

in New Guinea especially on the north coast.

Spirochaetosis Bronchialis

According to de Langen and Lichtenstein (1936) this

disease is fairly common. No morbidity statistics are

available. It is caused by Treponema bronchialis. These

authors state that two forms, acute and chronic, occur:

‘.‘In the acute form there is high fever, coughing of an

abundance of sputum which is often sanguinopurulent.”

The chronic form may start independently or arise from

the acute form. The chronic form is frequently confused with tuberculosis. Fever is exceptional although

frequently there is weakness and anemia. Prognosis in

both forms is favorable.

Tuberculosis

Again reliable statistics are not available. The largest

numbers of deaths due to tuberculosis are said to occur

among the Menadonese in northeastern Celebes, among

the Bataks around Toba Lake (Sumatra), and among

the Javanese of Central Java. For the period, 1932-

1936, the mortality rate due to tuberculosis in the army

was 0.6 per thousand as compared with 0.7 per thousand

for lobar pneumonia and 0.5 per thousand for all other

infectious diseases. The Netherlands Public Health

Service estimates that 10 percent of all deaths in the

archipelago are due to tuberculosis. Table 20 contains

statistics on hospital admissions with tuberculosis.

Recent Public Health Service Reports {Mededeelingen

van den Dienst der Volksgezondheid in NederlandschIndi'e) mention specifically as areas where tuberculosis is

prevalent, South Borneo, East Borneo, Ceiitral Java,

East Coast (Sumatra), Atjeh (Sumatra), Lombok, Bali, Nias, Riouw, Bangka, and Celebes. In the Molukkas
113

tuberculosis is described as sporadic except on Saparoea

where it is prevalent. According to de Rook (1938) the

extent and incidence of the disease in New Guinea is

unknown.

Table 20.- Tuberculosis, hospital admissions

In recent years the Public Health Service has taken

steps to combat tuberculosis. However there has not

been enough time to evaluate the results. Because it

has been only recently that real consciousness of the

tuberculosis problem has developed data from chest

examinations and Mantoux tests are too scanty to give

reliable picture.

Diphtheria

Diphtheria is fairly common disease throughout the

archipelago. Hospital admissions for diphtheria in recent

years have been recorded in table 21.

Table 21. Diphtheria, hospital admissions

Year

Number of hospitals

reporting

Total ad- missions

Number

of tuber- culosis ad- missions

Percent

of total

admissions

Case fatality,

percent

1934 221 207,325 7,547 3.6 20.4

1935 185 201,597 8,271 4.1 20.1

1936 190 223,469 8,669 3.9 19.1

1937 176 239,163 8,495 3.6 20.6

1938 167 238,960 9,409 3.9 18.8

1939 176 255,552 9,950 3.9 19.1

Year Number of hospitals

reporting

Total

admissions

Number of diphtheria

admissions

Percent of total admissions

Case fatality,

percent

1936 190 223,469 272 0.1 26.5

1937 176 239,163 316 .1 22.2

1938. 167 238,960 349 .1 23.8

1939 176 255,552 411 .2 21.4
114

Cases reported to the Public Health Service are recorded

in table 22. It is difficult to estimate the percentage of

cases which are actually reported. Probably it is smallest

in sparsely populated areas.

Table 22.—Cases of diphtheria reported to the Public Health Service

Batavia reported 66 cases in 1935, 67 in 1936, 103 in

1937, and 140 in 1938. Semarang reported 82 in 1935, 67 in 1936, 155 in 1939, and 148 in 1938. Soerabaja

reported 96 in 1935, 75 in 1936, 83 in 1937, and 120 in

1938.

Year

Java and Ma- doera Other islands Total Case fatality,

percent

Cases Deaths Cases Deaths Cases Deaths

1935 SSI 62 S9 610

1936... 477 59 129 IS 606 74 12.2

1937.... 676 81 315 38 991 119 12.0

1938 882 81 170 29 1,052 110 10.4
115

Chapter

MISCELLANEOUS INFECTIOUS

DISEASES

Smallpox.—Although complete morbidity statistics

are unavailable it appears that the disease Is well controlled

and that cases are rare. No epidemics have been reported in recent years. The following are the cases reported to

the League of Nations, 1934-1938:

De Rook (1938) states that therehave been no epidemics

in New Guinea since 1917 although the status of the

disease in the interior is unknown.

An extensive vaccination program has been maintained

since 1920. The statistics on the program are tabulated

(from Indisch Verslag) in table 23,

The population of Java is about 42,000,000 and that

of the other islands about 23,000,000. Hence it appears

that no serious epidemics of smallpox should occur for

the next few years assuming, of course, that the vaccination program continued up to the time of the invasion

and occupation by Japanese forces. However it must

be borne in mind that probably very small portion of

the natives of the interior of Borneo and New Guinea have

been vaccinated.

1934 193S 1936 1937 1938

Java and Madoera, 10

Other islands __ 33 79
116

Table

23.

—Summary

of

vaccination

program

Java

and

Madoera

Other

islands

Year

Number

of

vaccinations Controlled (observed)

Successful

Percent successful

Revac- cinations

Number

of

vaccina- tions

Controlled(observed) Successful Percent successful

Revac- cinations

1920

782,741 1,108,250 1,279,401 1,284,482 1,430,254 1,416,244 1,411,597 1,375,366 1,376,109 1,157,342 1,384,072

649,807 884,968 1,035,052 1,051,528 1,173,692 1,166,903 1,168,615 1,139,417 1,133,388935,078 1,113,871

637,288 828,641 1,019,947 1,038,786 1,161,435 1,154,420 1,146,102 1,125,763 1,112,140920,341 1,100,387

98.0

2,655,189

329,559

153,569

141,830

92.3

611,608

1925

93.6

1,843,712

378,634

134,601

122,110

90.7

775,317

1930

98.5

2,528,154

396,683

239,592

225,508

94.1

737,764

1931

98.7

2,490,779

428,484

262,685

247,409

94.2

817,563

1932

98.9

3,872,679

428,784

257,107

242,063

94.1

998,966

1933

98.9

4,675,937

420,195

254,781

241,267

94.6

1,077,703

1934

98.1

4,841,982 4,042,015

472,273

304,079

287,287

94.5

1,174,617

1935

98.8

474,173

314,117

298,489

95.0

1,118,649

1936

98.0

4,706,489

502,537

330,152

311,915

94.4

1,146,973

1937

98.4

4,103,502

513,188

335,286

318,079

94.8

1,297,067

1938

98.7

5,060,559

558,649

371,793

350,807

94.3

1,349,116

From

Indisch

Versing.
117

Measles, mumps, scarlet fever, and chickenpox.—

These diseases are not reported to the League of Nations

by the Netherlands Indies Public Health Service. Actually the Public Health Service compiles no records of

them except for hospitalized cases. There are about

200 to 500 recorded hospitalized cases of measles per

year with case fatality of about percent. Recorded

hospitalized whooping cough cases vary from 200 to 400

per year with to percent case fatality. There are

practically no hospitalized cases of scarlet fever and

chickenpox.

Poliomyelitis.—A few cases are reported each year.

In 1936 nine were reported from Java of which four

cases were at Soerakarta. Soerakarta reported one in

1937. Tarakan Island (near Borneo) reported five cases

in 1936 and two in 1937. Medan (Sumatra) had two in

1937 and two in 1938. Poerworedjo (Java) reported

one in 1937 and one in 1938. Bandoeng (Java) reported

one case in 1938. Later statistics are not available.

Cerebrospinal meningitis.—Nine cases were reported for 1936, four for 1937, and nine for 1938. These

were widely scattered throughout the archipelago.

Rabies. —Rabies Is fairly common although the Public

Health Service has not compiled statistics of its actual

prevalence. Pasteur treatment has been used since 1895.

Table 24 summarizes the number of treatments given at

the Rabies Division of the Pasteur Institute at Bandoeng.

It is probable that most, if not all, of these cases are from

Java. The rabies research program was for many years guided

by Mrs. Otten-van Stockum whose work has been summarized In posthumous publication (1941). The data

in table 24 which show higher mortality than the French

figures are, of course, actually not reflection on the
118

efficiency of the serum but rather of the difficulty of

bringing the cases to treatment in sufficient time.

Table 24.—Rabies treatment at Pasteur Institute in Bandoeng

Cases of rat-bite fever have been reported but the

disease is certainly uncommon.

There are occasional cases of undulant fever as

would be expected because contagious abortion is prevalent in cattle. Tetanus has prevalence similar to

other tropical areas. Anthrax probably occurs on all

of the islands. There are occasional epidemics preceded

by epizootics in the water buffalo. Melioidosis pseudomalleus (Whitmore’s disease) glanders-like disease, occurs as chronic pulmonary form or as skin

affection although recorded cases are rare. There are

no records of tularaemia.

Trachoma.—Trachoma is prevalent especially in

Java where examinations of school children in some

areas show as many as 70 percent infected. The polyclinic in Tegal treats 50,000 cases of trachoma each year

and the polyclinics in Brebes treat about 100,000 per

year. Much of the treatment is performed by specially

trained native nurses. Although the disease occurs

throughout the archipelago little statistical information

is available.

Year Total ad- missions Complete

treatments Deaths

1930

1931

874

813

790

741

1932 522 377

1933 607 516

1934 527 458

1935 778 726

1936... 768 706

1937 753 696

1938 90S 811 10
119

Skin Diseases

Skin diseases are very prevalent. Admissions for skin

diseases (in percentages of total hospital admissions) for

1936 through 1939 were 12.37 percent, 12.38 percent, 12.22

percent, and 11.66 percent. The percentage admissions

for malaria for the same years were 7.58 percent, 9.52 percent, 9.70 percent, and 11.66 percent. Ambulatory cases

at dispensaries and polyclinics are extremely numerous

and account for the majority of the cases which come to

medical attention.

The following notes are from de Langen and Lichtenstein (1936) and from the notes of Dr. I. Snapper, Surgeon

General’s Office, United States Army.

Secondary infections of all skin ailments and abrasions

are extremely numerous. Scabies is prevalent especially

where water is less available; secondary infections are

common. Furunculosis is common especially among

Europeans.

Tropical ulcer (Ulcus phagedenicum tropicum)

is common ailment. It occurs most frequently on the anterior surfaces of the legs. It is most prevalent in New

Guinea where it affects practically all Europeans.

Throughout the archipelago it is one of the most frequent

ailments treated at hospitals and polyclinics.

Fungus diseases of the skin are also prevalent. Tinea

imbricata also known as Dyak itch Dajaksche schurft and Dyak schurjt is found throughout the archipelago

although it is most prevalent in Borneo and on the

Molukkas. This infection is also known as Tokelau ringworm. Tinea albiginea is common among the natives

on all of the islands. It tends to be localized to the palms

and soles. Eczema marginatum, also known as epidermophytosis, Hongkong foot, and dhobi itch, is another

common skin disease. It occurs chiefly in the groins and
120

between the toes and occasionally in the axillae. few

cases of mycetoma (Madura foot) have been recorded.

Prickly heat (miliaria papulosa) occurs frequently

among Europeans in the coastal areas when the humidity

is high. Pemphigus contagiosus, also known as

monkey pox and impetigo bullosa tropica is also common

especially where it is warm and humid.

Piedra with black nodules surrounding the hair is

frequent among the Indonesians in Batavia where it is

much more common among men than among women, and

among theDyaks of North Borneo where it is also common

among women. Europeans are said to become infected

very easily. Piedra with white nodules is rare in Batavia.

Red-bug dermatitis caused by hexapod trombiculid

larvae is common, especially in New Guinea and Celebes.

De Rook (1936) discusses an acute dermatitis caused by

“some plant substance” which occurs in the Upper Digoel

country. He suggests that the plant involved is Glutea

hengha (L.) or Mangifera caesia (Jack). The swelling of

the face may be sufficient to prevent opening of the eyes.

Infections of foot wounds are frequent and must receive

special attention.

Leprosy

Leprosy occurs throughout the archipelago. In 1936

therewere 42 leper asylums. Since that time however there

has been change in policy on the part of the Public Health

Service as described by Theunissen (1936). The use of

leper asylums is relegated to secondary importance, with

emphasis on effective local isolation, reporting and registrations by physicians, and strict supervision of treatment.

On the basis of reported cases compilation of the Incidence of the disease has been made in table 25. This is in

part from the report of the Public Health Service (1937)

to the League of Nations Conference on Rural Hygiene

and in part from more recent data.
121

Table 25—Prevalence of leprosy in the Netherlands Indies

In Java leprosy is particularly prevalent at Lamongan

and Blora. Kapitan (1936) reports an incidence of per

thousand to 9.3 per thousand on the Kei Islands. De

Langen and Lichtenstein (1936) speak of North Sumatra

and the Molukkas as regions of high incidence.

Yaws

Yaws, known as patek in Java and poeroe among the

Malayans, is common disease in the Netherlands Indies.

It occurs to greater or less degree on all of the islands of

the archipelago.

Recent reports by the Public Health Service state that

it is very prevalent in Denak, Kediri, Tegal (19 percent of

natives infected) and other areas in Java; Bali, Lombok

and the other Lesser Soenda Islands, West Borneo, South

and East Borneo, Madoera (about 10 per cent of the

population infected) South Celebes, and the Molukkas.

De Rook (1938) describes it as prevalent contagious

disease in the lower parts of New Guinea except in those

areas occupied by the Marindanese.

Mass treatment with neosalvarsan was started in 1919.

In recent years about 1,250,000 Injections per year have

been administered. The Dutch have employed an interestIsland Lepers Lepers per

1,000

population

5,708

1,748

350

3,268

2,601

4,232

373

2,601

0.14

1.61

.50

.38

.70

1'.07

.20

1.10

.30
122

ing propaganda system in order to induce the natives to

submit to treatment. Infected individuals were selected

from families containing several cases and taken away for

treatment. Treatment would be staggered so that on

return to the village all stages from the first effects of

neosalvarsanto complete treatment could be demonstrated.

In this way it was possible to induce large portion of the

cases in village to submit to treatment which was then

conducted within the village. Mass therapeutic use of

neosalvarsan has had two difficulties. In the first place

there is tendency for natives to stop coming for treatment as soon as there is some improvement but before

complete cure has been effected. Also the Dutch physicians have found that some cases became refractory to

neosalvarsan after several injections. Nevertheless the

Public Health Service feels that mass treatment with

neosalvarsan has effectively reduced the Incidence of yaws.

Venereal Diseases

Venereal disease is prevalent especially in the cities.

Simons (1941) has summarized the situation on the basis

of the results of surveys. He concludes that 10 to 50

percent of the population between the ages of 18 and 50

in Java and Madoera are infected with venereal disease.

The frequency is higher in the cities. About 50 percent

of the cases never undergo treatment; 75 percent of the

cases submitting to the first treatment do not continue

it. Brothels flourish in the large cities. There are many

quacks and quack medicines are used extensively. There

is an old adage about curing native diseases with native

drugs which is exploited by quack practitioners.

The Netherlands Indies Public Health Service Reports

in Indisch Verslag for 1934-1940 show that about percent of all hospital admissions are for venereal diseases.

The case fatality averages about 1.5 percent. Naturally,
123

hospitalized cases represent minute portion of the total

numbers of cases. Annually about 18,000 cases, about

8,000 of which are syphilis, are treated by government

dispensaries and polyclinics.

The prevalence of venereal diseases apparently is not

as great in less densely populated areas. De Rook (1938)

states that syphilis and gonorrhea are very uncommon in

New Guinea except in the port cities.

Special mention should be made of venereum

granuloma which has been reported only in New

Guinea. The disease was described by de Rook (1938)

as uncommon in Netherlands New Guinea except in

the region of Merauke. It is more common in British

New Guinea. The occurrence of this disease in New

Guinea has been watched carefully by the Public Health

Service. The results of its surveys are given in its

Annual Report for 1937 Mededeelingen*van den Dienst der

Volksgezondheid in Nederlandsch-Indie, 1939) and are

tabulated in table 26.

Table 26.—Venereum granuloma in New Guinea

[Cases per 100 persons]

562282—44

Region

Percent

1929 1930 1931 1932 1933 1934 1935 1936 1937

Koembe River O.S 2.5 6.0 4.0 2.0 4.5 2.0 2.0 1.7

Boelaka River 7.5 2.0 1.0 2.0 2.5 1.5

Merauke River 3.5 1.5 3.5 1.0 .8 1.0 .8

Bian River

Coast, Merauke to

3.0 4.5 1.7 1.7 1.0 1.5 1.3 1.4

Bian

Coast, Merauke to

““

.1 .1 .3

Kondomiraf 2.0 5.0 .5 .5 1.0 .5 .6 .5

Janggandoerarea

Eastern Frederick

3.5 2.5 2.0

Hendrick Island..

Western Frederick

4.5 3.5 2.0

Hendrick Island.. ~~ ““8.0 14.0 2.5 3.0
124

Only on the South Coast is venereum granuloma prevalent In Dutch New Guinea. No cases have been

found in the Diogel region. Most of the cases are reported from Frederick Hendrick Island and along the

Kali Bian, Kali Edi, and Boelaka rivers.
125

Chapter XI

HELMINTHIASES (OTHER THAN

FILARIASIS)

Hookworm

Because of soil pollution by human feces and the barefoot habits of the natives, ankylostomiasis is extremely

prevalent in the Netherlands Indies. Actually there are

more people with ankylostomiasis than with any other

single disease. About 90 percent of the worms are

Necator americamis and 10 percent are Ancylostoma

duodenale. In recent years the Public Health Service

has conducted campaign for the construction and use of

latrines among the natives. This has resulted in the

reduction of ankylostomiasis in many areas. According

to de Langen and Lichtenstein (1936) it has been completely eliminated from the army and from many of the

plantations. However among the native villagers ankylostomiasis continues undiminished. In its report to the

League of Nations Conference on Rural Hygiene, the

Public Health Service states that the incidence of hookworm among the natives in villages is 80 to 90 percent.

One must bear in mind also that 90 percent of the population resides in villages. This report states that in 1924

it was found that the average number of worms per man

Was 81 and the average number per woman 62 and further

that an investigation some years later revealed counts

averaging 50 percent lower. Because of the small number

of worms harbored per person most of the natives do not

appear to be seriously affected.

The best summary of the geographical distribution of
126

hookworm is that of Amm (1933). He states that infections are particularly prevalent in Java and Sumatra

(80 to 90 percent). However the greatest incidence is in

Flores where the natives live under extremely unsanitary

conditions in large family groups of 20 to 100 all in large

single-room house. Infection here is 100 percent and the

number of worms per person is higher than elsewhere.

Amm (1933) states that at altitudes of 3,500 feet, where

there is no malaria, anemia is severe; hemoglobin readings

indicate an average about 60 percent of normal. Twofifths of the children die of ankylostomiasis on Flores.

Since the time of Amm’s investigation attempts have been

made to remedy the situation. De Rook states that there

are endemic centers of ankylostomiasis at Manokwari, Miei, Amberbaken, Sorong, FakFak, Merauke, and Tanah

Merah in New Guinea. Elsewhere in the archipelago

hookworm is prevalent although in general it is subclinical.

Ancylostoma brazilense, an intestinal parasite of

cats and dogs, is prevalent. Occasionally it causes cases

of creeping eruption in man.

Other Roundworms

Ascaris lumbricoides.—Ascans infections are very

numerous, according to some sources almost as numerous

as hookworm infections. This is again correlated with

improper disposal of feces and generally unsanitary conditions. Records of fecal examinations show to 20

percent infected. It is stated that careful survey would

reveal higher incidence at least in some areas. Ascariasis in the Netherlands Indies is usually subclinical.

Trichuris trichiura.—Apparently this worm is

common parasite in the Netherlands Indies. About 16

percent of the stool samples examined at the Eijkman

Institute have trichurid eggs. Doubtlessly the incidence

is greater than this in many areas.
127

Enterobius vermicularis and Strongyloides stercoralis also occur although there is no information on

their prevalence.

Trichinella spiralis is known to occur although information is meager. Trichinosis has been reported

among the Bataks in Sumatra and elsewhere in rats.

Cestodes

Bonne (1940) has summarized the information on the

cestodes of the Netherlands Indies. Taenia saginata is

the most common tapeworm. It Is most prevalent among

Europeans and less common among the Chinese; it is not

found among the natives. Taenia solium is very uncommon. Most of the Infections have been among the

Chinese. Dipylidium caninum is uncommon in humans. Hymenolepis nana is also described by Bonne

(1940) as uncommon in man. Bonne (1940) in another

paper has described single case of infection with Bertiella

studeri; Bonne and Mreyen (1940) also described an infection with Raillietina madagascariensis.

Sparganosis has also been discussed by Bonne

(1937). He states that considerable number of ricefield workers around Batavia have been found infected.

It is believed that the definitive host is the cat and perhaps some other mammals. Cyclops is the first intermediate host. The second intermediate host is frog or,

accidentally, man (producing sparganosis). Man is infected by drinking water containing Cyclops with procercoid larvae.

Trematodes

According to Bonne (1941) four Echinostomidae known

to parasitize man occur in the Netherlands Indies:

1. Echinostoma ilocanum is quite common especially in asylums in Java. Sandground (1939) has

studied this species in Java and reports that the first
128

intermediate host is planorbid snail, Anisus convexiusculus. The cerceriae are reported to leave this snail

and encyst as metacercariae on other species of snails,

chiefly Lymnea rubiginosa brevis Vivipara javanica, and

Pila conica. He was able to obtain laboratory infections

in white rats with the snails of these species bearing the

metacercariae. The rice-field rat, Rattus rattus argentiventer

is common host of Echinostoma ilocanum. Sandground

treated 11 cases with tetrachlorethylene; 13 to 270 worms

per person were passed.

2. Echinostoma lindoensis, formerly thought to be

E. ilocanum is abundant in the region around Lindoe Lake

in the Celebes. Bonne and Sandground (1939) report one

village in this region with 96 percent of the inhabitants

infected with Echinostoma lindoensis; two other villages

had infections of 44 and 24 percent respectively. It is

stated that the intermediate host is viviparous planorbid

snail whose identity is not known (probably Gyraulus and

Viviparus). Attempts to find reservoir hosts among wild

birds and mammals have been unsuccessful. Laboratory

rats and mice have been experimentally infected. This

fluke has been reported only from the Lindoe Lake region

of Celebes.

3. There has been single record of infection by

Echinostoma malayanum.

4. There is one record of Echinostoma recurvatum. It is rather common in the field rats.

There are no autochthonous records of Clonorchis

sinensis although there are some cases among imported

Chinese coolies. According to Brug (1936) several genera

of snails known to be intermediate hosts elsewhere occur

in the Netherlands Indies. He feels that the fact that the

natives seldom or never eat raw fish accounts for the

absence of autochthonous cases.

There also are no records of autochthonous cases of
129

Paragonimus westermani In the Netherlands Indies

except possibly in New Guinea (Brug, 1936), There is no

reliable information on the presence or absence of Intermediate hosts. Since the natives do not eat raw crayfish

it Is improbable that Paragonimus will become established.

Fasciolopsis buski occurs in hogs but no human cases

have been reported.

Schistosomiasis

Prior to 1937 no autochthonous cases of schistosomiasis

had been reported. In that year Muller and Tesch (1937)

reported an autochthonous Infection of Schistosoma

japonicum from Celebes. Subsequent investigations by

Bonne et al. (1942) revealed the disease to be endemic in

considerable area around Lindoe Lake. S. japonicum

adults occur not only in man but also in hogs and in deer.

The worms in the deer attain length of mm. Natives

infected in this area have enormously enlarged livers and

spleens. Chronic peritonitis resulting In many adhesions

is common. These authors were unable to reach any

conclusions concerning the Intermediate hosts. (See

Appendix H.)
130

Chapter XII

ANIMALS AND PLANTS OF MEDICAL

IMPORTANCE

Diptera

The role of mosquitoes (Family Culicidae) in the transmission of malaria, dengue, and filariasis has been discussed previously. Many mosquitoes, mostly culicines

are of importance primarily as pests. (See List in

Appendix D.)

Several genera of biting midges or punkies (Family

Heleidae) are known to occur in the Netherlands Indies.

Culicoides, Lashiohelea, Leptoconops, and Stylconops attack

man. Culicoides species are frequently particularly annoying in mangrove swamps. Several species of black

flies, Simulium spp., which attack man also occur.

Several species of sand flies, Flebotomus, are present and

may be potential vectors of kala-azar although Brug

(1938) states that they are not sufflciently numerous to

become vectors. The most important genera of Tabanidae from medical standpoint are Chrysops Tabanus,

and Chrysozone. Thus far their medical importance has

been only that of biting species although the Chrysops spp.

must be regarded as potential vectors of onchocerciasis.

At least five species of houseflies (Mused) are known to

occur in the Netherlands Indies. The domestic fly, Musca

domestica, probably occurs only in the sea port cities where

it has been introduced. It is unnecessary to discuss its

role as mechanical transmitter of disease. M. sorbens is

probably the common housefly. Its habits are similar to

domestica and it presents the same health hazards. M.

vicina and nebulo also occur in the Netherlands Indies;
131

their habits are similar to those of sorbens and domestica.

M. vetutissima is found throughout the archipelago and is

the only species of Musca of medical importance known

definitely to occur on New Guinea.

Stomoxys calcitrans the stable fly or biting housefly,

occurs throughout the archipelago. It can also be

mechanical transmitter of bacteria and protozoa.

Several species of the Family Caliphoridae of medical

Importance are recorded from the Netherlands Indies.

Chrysomyia megacephala breeds in carrion and feeds on

human feces. It is attracted to meats and sweets and can

be an important mechanical transmitter of disease. It is

also important in intestinal and wound myiasis. Chrysomyia bezziana attacks living tissue and is important in all

types of myiasis. Three species of Calliphora, C.fulviceps,

C. malayana, and C. paradoxa, have been reported from

the western part of the archipelago; C. augur and tesselata

are known from New Guinea. All five of these species

breed in carrion and feed on feces and are potential

mechanical transmitters of infection. They are rarely the

cause of myiasis. The bottle flies Lucilia papuensis and

porphyruni, have the habits of houseflies and may be of

medical importance.

In the family Sarcophagidae, Sarcophaga perigrina

(= fuscicaudd) has habits similar to the houseflies. S', dux

is cause of tissue myiasis and S. hisiipes may contaminate milk and food. S. ruficornis is very important in wound myiasis.

Siphuncula funicula is small nonbiting species. It is

frequently referred to as an important cause of conjunctivitis. It may also be transmitter of skin infections.

Siphonaptera {Fleas)

Information on fleas in the Netherlands Indies is somewhat scanty. The relation of fleas to typhus and the

plague has been discussed previously. Xenopsylla
132

cheopis the oriental rat flea, is common in the Netherlands Indies. It tends to be more numerous at altitudes

higher than 1,000 feet. It is the important plague vector

and doubtlessly the important typhus vector. X. astia

rarely bites man. Its distribution has tendency to be

the greatest in the low country. Information of its geographical distributionand relation to disease in the Netherlands Indies is meager. Pygiopsylla ahalae {=Stivalius cognatus, mistaken identification) probably plays minor role as vector from rat to man but may be of

importance as rat-to-rat vector. It can be safely assumed that wherever there are rats (on practically all

islands) rat fleas, cheopis at least, occur.

Ctenocephalides felis, the cat flea, which occasionally

bites man probably has general distribution wherever

cats are found. On the other hand, the dog flea, Cienocephalides cants, is thought not to be found in the Netherlands Indies. There are records of Pulex irritans although

no indication as to its distribution and abundance. It is

probably uncommon.

Anoplura (Lice)

Information on lice is likewise not abundant. According to Brug (1938) the body louse, Pediculus humanus

corporis, is rare. This is said to account for the fact that

there are no records of louse-borne typhus and relapsing fever. Brug (1938) explains the absence of body lice as

due to the small amount of clothing worn by the natives.

On the other hand head lice, Pediculus humanus capitis, is apparently common. The pubic louse, Phthirus

pubis, is said to be uncommon among the natives because

of the sparsity of pubic hair.

Bedbugs

No precise information has been found on the distribution and prevalence of bedbugs. However in the Nether-
133

lands Indies as in other tropical areas, the native bedbug is Cimex hemipterus (—rotundus although Cimex

lectularis has been introduced with the white population

and occurs principally in the ports.

Mites

Information on the trombiculid mites (harvest mites) is

very fragmentary. The taxonomy is confusing because

most species are known only as larvae. The complete

life history is not known for any of the Netherlands Indies

species. The papers of Walch (1922, 1923, 1927) as well

as the excellent account of Oudemans (1903) are the

principal sources of information.

Adult trombiculids are believed to feed on decaying

vegetable material in loose, moist surface soil, preferably

humus where there is undisturbed wild vegetation. Eggs

are deposited on the ground during the summer and

autumn. The hexapod larvae soon emerge and attach

themselves to various mammalian and avian hosts. It

is believed that the larvae do not change hosts.

complete meal of blood is obtained from the first and only

host after which the larva drops to the ground and metamorphoses into the octopod adult. The species which

have thus far been described are tabulated in table 27.

These data are from Walch’s observation in Deli, Sumatra, (1922, 1923), in the Lampong Districts, in Sumatra

(1927), and in Celebes (1927). No trombiculids were

described by Walch as parasitizing humans in Celebes

although others have shown that T. wichmanni, primarily

parasite of the Crown Pigeon, will attack man. Only

T. deliensis is believed with certainty to be vector of

mite fever although schiijfneri may possibly be vector

also. Several of the species are important in red-hug itch.
134

Table

27.

—Trombiculid

larvae

known to

occur in

Netherlands

Indies

Species

Known

hosts

Color

Islands

where

known to

occur

Remarks

Referen

Man,

rats, some birds..

Walch

(1922,

1921

1927).

T.

pseudo-akamushi ...

Man,

rats,

many

other

Bright

red

Sumatra,

Celebes....

Very

common in

SumaWalch

(1922,

1923,

mammals,

birds.

tra.

1927).

Red

Very

common

on

rats..

Walch

(1922,

1923,

1927).

Red

Only

single

record

Walch

(1927).

Sumatra. Sumatra,

Celebes

Walch

(1922,

1927).

muris ).

Walch

(1927).

Walch

(1922,

1923,

white.

1927). Walch

(1927).

Walch

(1922,

1923),

T.

densipiliata

Rats

Red
135

One

record

only

Walch

(1927)

Red

“Gonone”

Walch

(1927).

Man,

Crown

Pigeon

Red

Celebes,

New

Guinea

“Gonone”.

Walch

(1922.

1923).

T.schufneri (=Neoschongasa ti

schufneri).

Red

Very

common at

Deli

Walch'(1922,l923).

(See

Appendix

for

table

of

morphological

details useful

in

identification.)
136

The itch mite, Sarcoptes scabiei, is common. Its

presence and the occurrence of scabies can be correlated

directly with the scarcity of water and bathing facilities.

No information could be found concerning the occurrence of the follicle mite, Demodex folliculorum although

it appears safe to assume that it does occur.

Ticks

Krijgsman and Ponto (1932) conducted an extensive

survey of the Netherlands Indies tick fauna. These

authors recorded several species known to attack men.

These are listed in table 28. It is very likely that many

of these species have wider distribution than that indicated in the table. At the present time no tick-borne

diseases of man are known to occur.

Table 28.—Ticks reported to attack man in the Netherlands Indies

In addition Krijgsman and Ponto (1932) list species

of the genus Haemaphysalis which are parasites on mammals although none have been known to bite man. At

Species Hosts Known geographical distribution

Avgas persicus Birds, some mammals including dogs and man.

Java, Soemba.

Boophilus annulatus

australis

Man and various other

large mammals.

Western New Guinea, Tanimbar

Island, Halmahera, Kariman

Djawa.

Rhipicephalus sanguin

eus

Many species of mammals

including man.

Soemba, Java, Madoera, Timor,

Alor Island, Saparoea, Ambon,

Sumatra.

Rhipicephalus haemaphysiloidesMany species of mammals

including man.

Sumatra, Java, Madoera, Soembawa, Soemba, Timor, Aroe

Island, Celebes.

Amblyomma Ustudina

rium

Cattle, buffalo, man, wild

hog.

Sumatra, Bali, Lombok, Borneo.
137

least seven species of Amhlyomma other than testudinarium which is known to attack man, occur on various

mammalian and reptilian hosts. Hyalomma aegyptus

has been reported only from cattle in Java, The two

species of Aponomma occur only on reptiles. Dermacentor

auratus has been recorded only from wild hogs and bears.

D. atrosignatus which is known elsewhere to attack man

has been found in British New Guinea. In general

Ixodes is uncommon. I. eichhorni has been reported

from British New Guinea as parasite of man. There

is also single record of I. holocyclus from the Kei Islands

near New Guinea. Nothing is known of its habits there.

However in Australia it attacks man as well as many other

mammals and birds and is known to be vector of tick

paralysis and fever.

Minning (1934) has rearranged the ticks of Boophilus

annulatus australis into three species: B. Uroboophilis

rotundiscutatus, longiscutatus and krijgsmani. For practical purposes, however, the classification according to

Krijgsman can still be used. Schultze (1937) recorded

an undescribed Boophilus sp. from Soemba. Appendix

contains the keys of Krijgsman and Ponto (1932,

translation) as well as list of ticks known to occur in

the Netherlands Indies.

Other Arthropods

Several species of blister beetles of the genera Epicauta

and Mylabris are poisonous when eaten. These beetles

are well known to the natives who refer to them variously

as “wengwong,” “areng-areng,” “ireng-ireng,” “endolendol,” “sopi,” “wereng,” and “sepihi,”

According to Kopstein (1932) at least 10 species of

scorpions are known to occur in Java; none are poisonous.

Brug (1938) states that there are no truly poisonous
138

scorpions in the entire archipelago. The same is true for

spiders, millepedes, and centipedes. Bites of these

animals usually cause nothing more than local inflammation and swelling.

Leeches

Terrestrial bloodsucking leeches are found in the humid

jungles and are not only pests but on occasion definite

hazards. They are able to work their way through

clothing in order to attach themselves and suck blood.

Enormous numbers of them may become attached to

the legs and feet. Because of the anticoagulent in the

saliva of these leeches the wounds heal slowly and are

easily Infected. According to Engelen (1935) the common

leech in such attacks is Haemadepsa javonica although

doubtlessly other species are involved. Abu Hanifah

(1935) reports that not only is cutaneous hirudiniasis

common but that cases of rectal, nasal, and vaginal

hirudiniases are by no means uncommon.

Other Invertebrates of Medical Importance

According to Kopstein (1932) some species of the

molluscan genus Conus occur in the Netherlands Indies

and are poisonous. Clench and Yoshio Kondo (1943)

describe the bite of Conus as painful and occasionally

fatal. It is caused by teeth on the radula which detach

on penetration or withdrawal. Poison is produced by

gland in the mouth.

Kopstein (1932) states that the medusae (jelly fish) of

Physalia utriculus and Dactylomeira quinquecirrha are

dangerous to swimmers and fishermen. Contact with the

tentacles of these species results in the discharge of their

poisonous nematocysts. Chiropsalmus quadrigatus has

not yet been reported from the Netherlands Indies although it is common in the Philippines.
139

Poisonous Snakes

Numerous species of poisonous snakes are known to

occur in the Netherlands East Indies. However none of

these species is abundant. Scientists who have traveled

through these islands on expeditions are almost unanimous

in reporting that poisonous snakes are difficult to find even

when one is looking for them. Kopstein (1932) points

out that in 1924, 171 hospitals reported only 132 snake

bite cases and only of these were fatal. He cites the

statement of Mohnike who spent 25 years in travel and

research which kept him in the jungles most of the time.

During this period he observed only fatal cases of snake

bite. Nevertheless the danger does exist and it therefore

seems advisable to mention the poisonous species most

likely to be involved.

The taxonomy of snakes is complex and difficult. There

is no simple key to the identification of the species. Frequently there are no common names. Whenever possible

in this report both the common English and native names

are included. There is no rule of thumb (size, color,

markings, etc.) for distinguishing harmless from poisonous

species. For practical first aid purposes, unless there is

definite evidence to the contrary, all snake bites should

be considered as poisonous. The rule that all poisonous

bites have two fang penetration marks does not always

hold in these regions.

In general the snakes of New Guinea and the adjacent

islands are Australian species whereas those of the other

islands (west of Wallace’s Line) are Asiatic species.

Several species of pit vipers (Family Crotalidae) are

found on the islands west of New Guinea (Java, Sumatra,

Celebes, Borneo, etc.). All are poisonous. The bamboo

viper (Trimeresurus gramineus) is arboreal with green

coloration and prehensile tail. It is mildly poisonous.

Several species of this genus are found in the Netherlands

562282—44 10
140

Indies. Another pit viper, known among the natives as

“ular biludak,” “ular tanah,” “ular gebuk,” “ular bandotan bedor,” and “oraj lemah” {Agkistrodon rhodostoma),

occurs in Sumatra and Java. This species is gray or

reddish brown dorsally with large dark brown pairs of

dorso-lateral spots; it is very poisonous.

The most dangerous snakes are the cobras and kraits

(Family Elapidae). The Indian or spectacled cobra

{Naja naja) and its closely allied species also known as

“ular sendoq,” “ular bedul,” “oraj sinduk,” “oraj bobi,” “ular biludah,” “hantipeh pura,” and “tedong naga” is

the most deadly of the snakes of the archipelago. It is

nervous and irritable snake and strikes with forward

sweep of its body with an accompanying hiss. The king

cobra Naja hannah) is the largest of thepoisonous snakes;

it has an average length of 10 to 12 feet and maximum

length of about 18 feet. The native names are “ular

tendong selar,” “ular anang,” and “oraj totok.” It is

found in the deep jungles of Borneo, Java, Sumatra, and

Celebes. It is an aggressive species and will attack man.

It is yellowish or olive-green apparently with black rings

on the body. Three species of kraits also occur in Borneo, Celebes, Java, Sumatra, the Lesser Soenda Islands, and

other islands west of Wallace’s Hue. All are distinguished

by transversely enlarged scales along the vertebral column.

The poison is very virulent. Kraits are not aggressive

although they have habit of lying In the dust near paths

where they may be stepped on. The common krait

{Bungarus candidus) known by the natives as “ular weling”

and “oraj weling,” is lustrous black above with narrow

whitebands across the back. It is pearly white ventrally. This species is commonly found near human habitations

because of its fondness for rats as food. The banded

krait Bungarus fasciatus) prefers jungle environments

and is more sluggish. It is yellow above with broad
141

black rings. The yellow-headed krait Bungarusflaviceps)

is black with red or yellow head. Pseudelaps mulleri and

Micropechis ikaheka are members of the Australian fauna

and are found in New Guinea. These species are potentially harmful. The death adder Acanthophis antarcticus), short clumsy snake, occurs in New Guinea and

on the Molukkas. It varies in color always resembling

the ground on which it lives.

Several pythons (Family Boidae) are found in the

Netherlands Indies. Although these snakes are sometimes harmful as constrictors and biters they are nevertheless nonpoisonous.

Several species of sea snakes (Family Hydridae) live in

the tropical waters of the Pacific and Indian Oceans.

Usually they are found near the coast although sometimes

they are observed far from land. They do not bite unless

forcibly restrained.

An interesting fact to be noted is that the flesh of all

snakes is edible regardless of whether they are poisonous

or harmless.

The following is list of Crotalidae and Elapidae known

to occur in the Netherlands Indies:

Crotalidae. Occur only in Greater and Lesser Soenda Islands (Asiatic Region).

Trimeresurus gramineus

Trimeresurus puniceus

Trimeresurus monticola

Trimeresurus purpureomaculatus

Trimeresurus wagleri

Agkistrodonrhodostoma

Elapidae.

(a) Greater and Lesser Soenda Islands (Asiatic Region).

Bungarusfasciatus Bungarus candidus

Bungarusflaviceps

Bungarus javanicus
142

Naja naja

Naja hannah

Malicor hivirgata

Maticora intestinalis

Callophis gracilis

(b) New Guinea and adjacent islands (Australian Region).

Acanthophis antarctic us

Micropechis ikaheka

Pseudechis scutellatus

Pseudechis papuanus

Pseudechis australis

Aspidomorphus Pseudelaps mulleri Pseudapistocalamus nymani

Apistocalamus loriae

Apistocalamus pratti

Apistocalamus grandis

Apistocalamus lonnbergi

Ultrocalamus preussi

Toxicocalamus Stanleyanus

Glyphodon tristis

Demansia =Diemania) psammophis

Demansia Diemania olivacea

Poisonous Fish

Fish may be poisonous in two ways: By having toxic

substances in their flesh thereby causing poisoning when

eaten, or by producing poisonous substances which can

be introduced by means of barbs or spines.

Various species of puff toads or swell fishes (Tetraodontidae), known to the natives as “ikan boental”, are

poisonous when eaten. There have been many cases of

fish poisoning on Nias Island (near Sumatra) due to

Clupea {=Harangula) perferata or Clupea fimbricata,

species closely related to the herring, Clupea venosa

common salt water species in the waters of the Netherlands Indies, is also poisonous when eaten.

Synaeia verrucosa known among the natives as “ikan

neve” or “ikan laper” has special poison glands in con-
143

nection with its dorsal fin rays. It lies concealed in the

sands where it may easily be stepped on thereby administering foot wound. Local pain, swelling, lymphangitis,

gangrene, fainting, and vomiting usually result. The

The spines may also be contaminated with tetanus bacillus.

Inland in lakes and streams the best known poisonous

fishes are the “catfish”, Clarius and Plotosus which may

cause with their barbules, wounds which develop gangrene

and necrosis. These species are known to the native as

“ikan leleh” and “ikan semailang,” They are common

in rice fields.

Poisonous Plants

For information on poisonous plants in the Netherlands

Indies reference should be made to the manual prepared

by Dr. E. D. Merrill, “Emergency Food Plants and Poisonous Plants of the Islands of the South Pacific”, War

Department Technical Manual TM 10-420. Special

attention is called to the physic nut (Jatropha curcas ),

castor oil plant (Ricinus communis), tree nettles (Laportea spp.), cowhage (Mucuna spp.), and Semecarpus.
144

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Buitelaar, L.:

1936. Lepraverslag over de onderafdeeling Makale-Rante Pao

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1936. Lepraverslag over de onderafdeeling Makale-Rante Pao

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Loewoe).) M. D.V.N.L, 25 (1): 64-72.

Clench, W. J., and Yoshio Kondo, 1943. The poison cone shell.

American Journal of Tropical Medicine, 23 (1); 105-120. Christophers, S. R., 1933. The Fauna of British India, Diptera.

Vol. IV. Culicidae. Tribe Anophelini. Taylor Francis, London,

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de Langen, C. D., and A. Lichtenstein:

1928. Leerboek der Tropische Geneeskunde. Koeff Co., Welle

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148

1934. Leerboek der Tropische Geneeskunde. (A clinical text-book of tropical medicine.) (Third Edition.) G. Koeff, Batavia,

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1938. Gezondheidstoestand (Health Conditions). Nieuw Guinea,

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Dinger, J. E.; 1937. De besmetting der oppervlakte wateren van

Batavia met Typhus—en Paratyphus Bacillen. (The contamination

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G.T.N.I., 77 (18): 1090-1118.

193 8. Samenhang tusschen seizoen en typhus te Batavia. (Seasonal

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1106-1126.

1938. Nieuwere Inzichten omtrent de epidemiologic en bestrijding

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78 (22) 1292-1310. 1940. Antwoord aan Professor Mom. (Answer toProfessor Mom.)

G.T.N.I., 80 (14): 910-912.

Dinger, J. E., A. Marseille, and J. W. Tesch, 1939. Onderzoek naar

de epidemiologic derfehris typhoidea in de Studiewijk voor Hygiene te

Batavia. (An investigation on the epidemiology of typhoid fever In

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2690-2760. Dinger, J. E., J. W. Tesch, A. Marseille, and R. Gipsen, 1940. De

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Edwards, F. W., 1924. synopsis of the adult mosquitoes of the

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149

Schistosomiasis japonicum te Semarang. (A case of Schistosomiasis japonicum in Semarang.) G.T.N.I., 77 (38): 2305-2309.

Elsbach, E. M.: 1937. A. barbirostris bancrofti also overbrenger van

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Digoel. (Breeding places of A. barbirostris bancroftii in Upper

Digoel.) G.T.N.I., 78 (10): 506-519.

1939. Orienteerend Malaria—en filariaonderzoeken Nieuw Guinea. (Preliminary malaria and filaria Investigations in New Guinea.)

G.T.N.I., 77 (17): 1036-1054. Engelen, J. C., 1935. Hirudiniasis. G.T.N.I., 75 (12): 989-998. Erber, M., 1940. Salmonella-Aanteekeningen. (Salmonella notes.)

M.D.V.N.I., 29 (1/2): 49-56.

Essed, W. E. R., 1935. Dracontiasis. G.T.N.I., 75 (15:) 1250—1251.

Esseveld, H., W. A. Collier, and A. Mochtar, 1940. Leptospirosis in

the Netherlands Indies with special reference to virus reservoirs.

M.D.V.N.I., 29 (1/2): 1-9.

Everse, J. W. R., 1937. Over infection met Strongyloides stercoralis.

(Infection with Strongyloides stercoralis.) G.T.N.I., 77 (41): 2478-2490.

Fucher, I. A.. 1936. Leperverslag “Karolanden.” (Karolanden Leper

Report.) M.D.V.N.I., 25 (1): 53-64. Gardjito, M. 1936. De frequentie van de Framboesia in het onderdistrict Adweina, Regentschap Tegal. (The frequency of yaws in

onderdistrict Adweina, Regentschap Tegal.) M. D.V.N. L, 25 (3);

298-301.

1941. Systematische trachoombestrijding in de Kampong. (Systematic control of trachoma In villages.) G.T.N.I., 81 (39):

2062-2071.

Gater, B. A. R., 1934. Aids to the Identificationof Anopheline Larvae

in Malaya. Government of the Straits Settlements and the Malaria

Advisory Board, Federated Malay States, Singapore. 160 pp.

Gispen, R., 1941. Het kweeken van rickettsiae in endeneieren. (The

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Goelarso, 1934. Larven enmuskieten In de onderafdeeling Boeloengan

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G.T.N.I., 74 (15): 1345-1352.

Hadibroto, S., 1941. Enkele suggesties in verband met de trachoombestrijding. (Some suggestions in connection with trachoma control.)

G. t. N. L, 81 (39): 2072-2076.

Haga, J. (Dr.), 1929. Over filariasis in Nederlandsch-Indie, met name op

de Westkust van Sumatra en de Zuidern Ooster-afdeeling van Borneo
150

(in der afdeeling Zuid-Hoela Soengai). (Filariasis in Netherlands

Indies especially on the West Coast of Sumatra and in the Southeast

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I., 77 (50): 3202-3206.

Hall, Maurice, 1929. Arthropods as intermediate hosts of helminths.

Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, 81 (15).

Heaslip, W. G., 1941. Tsutsugamushi fever in North Queensland,

Australia. Medical Journal of Australia, (13): 380-392.

Heyden, G. M., 1931. Some common Queensland mosquitoes as intermediate hosts of Wuchereria bancrofti. Parasitology, 23 (4): 415-427.

Hilfman, M. M., 1939. Nog eenige nitkomsten met Mantoux-reactie

de Bataklanden. (Results of Mantoux Tests on Bataks.) G. T. N. I.,

79 (44): 2808-2809. Hodgkin, E. P., 1938. (Vectors of filariasis.) Division of entomology.

Annualreport of the Institute of Medical Research. Federated Malay

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Jurgens, A. L., 1932. De overbrenging vanFilaria malayi in de onderafdeeling Mamoedjoe). (Transmission of Wuchereria malayi in

Mamoedjoe.) G. T. N. I., 72 (15): 953-959. Kapitan, J. C., 1936. Een onderzoek naar het voorkomen dan Lepra

op die Kei-Eilanden. (An investigation concerning the presence of

leprosy on the Kei Islands.) M. D. V. N. L, 25 (1): 72-79.

Kariadi:

1938. Orienteerend filariaonderzoek te Martapoera (Borneo).

(Preliminary survey of filariasis at Martapoera.) G. T. N. I.,

78 (19): 1127-1137. 1941. A. hydranus in filariasis at Martapoera. G. T. N. I.,

81 (3): 107-118.

Kirschner, L., and W. Schijveschuurder, 1939, De croupeuze

pneumonic in Nederlandsch-Indie. (Lobar pneumonia in Netherlands

Indies.) G. T. N. I., 79 (14): 834-852. Knap, C. Reeling, 1930. Filariasis op Kabaena. (Filariasis at Kabaena.) G. T. N. I., 70 (4): 305-311.

Kodijat, R., 1941. Systematische trachoombestrijding in desa.

(Systematic control of trachoma in villages.) G. T. N. I., 81 (39):

2057-2062. Kopstein, Felix von:

1931. Die Okologie der javanschen Ratten. (Ecology of the rats

of Java.) Zeitschrift fuer morphologic und okologie der TIere,

22 (4): 774-807.

1932. Die Gifttiere Javas und ihre bedeutung fur den menschen.

(The poisonous animals of Java and their relation to man.)

M. D. V. N. I., 21 (4); 222-256.
151

Kouwenaar, W.: 1940. Onderzoekingen over het Sumatraansche Rickettsiosen, XI.

De pathologische anatomic van de mijtekoorts bij den mensch.

(Investigation concerning Sumatran Rickettsioses, XL Pathological anatomy in man.) G. T. N. I., 80 (18): 1119-1139. 1941. De Nederlandsch-Indische Rickettsiosen. (The

ses of the Netherlands Indies.) G. T. N. L, 81 (1): 41-51.

Kouwenaar, W., E. P. Snijders, and J. W. Wolff, 1932. Onderzoekingen

over Mijtekoorts. (Investigation of Mite-fever.) Nederlandsch

Tjidschrift voor Geneeskunde, 76 (40): 4640-4647.

Kouwenaar, W., and J, W. Wolff, 1942. Rickettsia in Sumatra.

Proc. VI Cong. Pac. Sci. Assoc. (1939), 5: 633-637.

Krijgsman, B. J., and S. A. S. Ponto, 1932. De teken van den OostIndischen Archipel. (Ticks of the Netherlands Indies.) Veeartsenijkundige Mededeelingen, 79: 62 pp.

Kuipers, J., and W. J. Stoker, 1934. Een A. ludlowi Epidemic in

Oost-Java. A. ludlowi epidemic In East Java.) G. T. N. I., 74 (2): 74-90. Kuipers, J., 1939. Methoden van onderzoek bij de malaria bestrijding.

(Methods of investigation in combatting malaria.) G. T. N. I.,

79 (1): 24-39.

Kumm, Henry, 1931. The geographical distribution of the yellow fever

vectors. Am. J. Hyg., Monographic series No. 12. 170 pp.

Lewthwaite,R., and Savoor, S. R., 1940. Rickettsia diseases ofMalaya:

identity of tsutsugamushi and rural typhus. Lancet (1), 255-305.

Machsoes, M., 1939. Anopheles barbirostris als malaria-overbrenger

in de Residentie Celebes. (A. barbirostris as malaria vector in the

Celebes Residence.) G. T. N. I., 79 (40): 2500-2514.

Marjitno, M., and W. E. R. Essed, 1938. De Ontwikkeling van

Dracunuclus Medinensis in Cyclops van Java. (The development of Dracunculus medinensis in Cyclops In Java.) M. D. V. N. I., 27 (1/2); 141-146.

Marruits, E. L., 1939. De Malaria te Priok. (Malaria at Priok.)

G. T. N. I., 79 (17): 1026-1030.

Mertens, W.K., 1939. Jaarverslag over 1938 van het Eijkman Institut.

(Annual report, 1938, Eijkman Institute.) M. D. V. N. I., 28 (2/3):

137-207.

Mesnard, J., and C. Toumanoff, 1940. “Agent infectieux du genre

Rickettsia, mis en evidence chez une tique Haemaphysalis bispinosa

Newmann) du cerf de la Cochinchine.” (Infective agent of Genus

Rickettsia demonstrated in tick.) Comptes Rendus d’Academic de

Sciences (Paris), 210: 378-380.
152

Mochtar, A., and H. Esseveld, 1939. Over de frequence van Leptospirosis in Nederlandsch-Indie. (Frequency ofleptospirosis in Netherlands Indies.) G. T. N. I., 79 (9); 547-563.

Mochtar, A., Bahder Djohan, and Wahab, 1941. Verdere uitkomsten

van het onderzoek van leptospirosis gevallen te Batavia. (Further

results from the investigation of leptospirosis cases in Batavia.)

G. T. N. I., 81 (1): 11-22.

Mom, Dr. C. P., 1940. Naar aanleiding van “Onderzoek de epidemiologic der febris typhoidea in de Studiewijk voor Hygiene teBatavia,”

door Prof. J. E. Dinger, A. Marseille, and J. W. Tesch, Geneeskundig

Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch-Indie, afl. 43 Deel 79, 1939. (Comment on “Epidemiological Investigation on typhoid fever in City

Ward Hygiene Study Unit in Batavia”, by Prof. Dr. J. E. Dinger,

A. Marseille, and J. W. Tesch, Geneeskundig Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch-Indie, afl. 43, Deel 79, 1939.) G. T. N. I., 80 (40); 902-910.

Mom, C. P., C. O. Schaeffer, 1940. Typhusbacterien in afvalwater en

in slib. (Typhoid bacteria in sewage.) M. D. V. N. I., 29 (1/2) 27-48. Movij, W., 1940. Malaria-prophylaxis in het konenklijk Indische Leger.

(Anti-malarial measures in the Dutch East Indian Army.) G. T. N. I.,

80 (38): 2230-2241.

Mulder, J. G. A., 1936. De malaria bestrijding te Tjalang, Westkust

van Atjeh. (Controlling malaria at Tjalang, West coast of Atjeh.)

G. T. N. I., 76 (30): 1864-1889.

Muller, H., and J. W. Tesch, 1937. Autochthone infectie met Schis- tosoma japonicum op Celebes. (Autochtonous infection with Schistosomiasis japonicum at Celebes.) G. T. N. I., 77 (36): 2143-2150. Otten, L.:

1939. Het Cholera—El Tor—problem. G. T. N. I., 79 (11):

642-654. 1939. The Cholera—El Tor Problem. M. D. V. N. I., 27 (1):

13-21.

1940. Het levende pestvaccin en zijn resultatin (1935-1939).

(The live plague vaccine and its results.) G. T. N. I., 50 (10): 2878-2949.

Otten-van Stockum, Maria J., 1941. Rabies Researches. M. D.

V.N. I., 30 (3/4): 111-154.

OUDEMANS, A. C.5

1903. Acari in Nova Guinea. L’Expedition Scientifique. (Arthur

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1928. Acari. Fauna Buruana. Treubia VII. Supplement: No.

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Overbeek, J. G., and W. J. Stoker, 1938. Malaria in Nederlandsch-
153

Indie en hare bestrijding, (Malaria and its control in the Dutch East

Indies.) M. D. V. N. I., 27 (1/2): 183-205.

OvERBEEK, J. G.:

1939. De Malaria de Tandjong-Priok. (Malaria in TandjongPriok.) G. T. N. L, 79 (24); 1474-1478.

1939. Over de reorganisatie van de afdeeling Malaria bestrijding

van den Dienst der Volksgezondheid. (Reorganization of the

malaria section of Dienst der Volksgezondheid.) G. T. N. L, 79

(38): 2370-2373. 1940. Malaria onderzoek in de Kolonatsie Belitang, (Palembang)

in April, 1940. (Investigation on malaria in Belitang colony.)

G. T. N. I., 80 (37): 2166-2177.

Priester, W. F., 1939. Malaria in het Tanjong Priok. (Malaria at

Tanjong Priok.) G. T. N. I., 79 (17): 1031-1038.

Roberts, J. I., 1935. The ticks of rodents and their nests, and the

discovery that Rhipicephalus sanguineus Latr. is the vector of tropical

typhus in Kenya. Journal of Hygiene, 35: 1-22.

Rodenwaldt, Ernst;

1934. Filaria malayi und ihre Ubertrager. malayi and its vectors.) Die Medizinische Welt, (39): 1369-1371.

1934. Filaria malayi im Delta des Serajoe, II. Wuchereria malayi

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1934. Filaria malayi im Delta des Serajoe, III. Wuchereria malayi in Delta of the Serajoe, III.) M. D. V. N. I,, 23 (3):

194-205.

Rodenwaldt, E. R. K., 1938. Die Typischen geomorphologischen

SItuationen Niederlandish-Indiens in Bezug auf die Malaria. (Typical

geomorphological situations in the Netherlands East Indies in relation

to malaria.) M. D. V. N. I., 27 (1/2): 98-109.

Rosier, H. J.: 1936. De pestbestrijding op Java 1934. (Controlling plague in

Java 1934.) M. V. D. N. I., 25 (2): 109-209.

1938. Verslag betreffende de Pestbestrijding op Java over het Jaar 1936. (Annual report on plague prevention, 1936.) M. D. V.

N. I., 27 (Supplement): 1-84.

1938. Verslag betreffende de Pestbestrijding op Java over het

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1939. Verslag betreffende de Pestbestrijding op Java over het

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154

Ross, E. S., and H. R. Roberts, 1943. Mosquito Atlas. Part II.

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Russell, P. F., L. E. Rozeboom and A. Stone, 1943. Keys to the

Anopheline Mosquitoes of the World. Philadelphia Academy of

Natural Sciences. American Entomological Society. 152 pp.

Sandground, J. H.:

1939. Creeping eruption in Netherlands Indies caused by the invasion of the larvae Ancylostoma hraziliense. G. T. N. L, 79 (13):

805-810.

1939. On the occurrence of human echinostomiasis in Java. G. T.

N. I., 79 (26): 1722-1734.

Sandground, J. H., and Soewadji Prawerohardjo, 1939. On the

occurrence of human echinostomiasis in Java. Preliminary report.

G. T, N. L, 79 (24): 1497-1502.

Sardjito, M.;

1938. Overwegingen waarom in de Stad Semarang meer Leptospirosis voorkomt dan in de Stad Batavia. (Consideration concerning

the greater prevalence of leptospirosis in Semarang than in Batavia). M. D. V. N. I., 27 (1/2): 147-155.

1940. Leptospirosis in Midden-Java met de sero-reactie op verschillende typen van leptospirae. (Leptospirosis in Central Java with the sero-reaction of various types of leptospirae.) G. T.

N. L, 80 (5): 280-291.

Sardjito, M., A. Mochter, R. M. Wirasmo, 1937. Het voorkomen

van Lepospiren bij Veldratten Rattus rattus hrevicaudatus) in verband

met het eventueele besmettingsgevaar bij het baden de Rawa-Pening.

(The presence of Leptospira in the field rat Rattus rattus argentiventer)

in connection with the eventual danger of contagion at the baths

of Rawa-Pening.) M. D. V. N. L, 26 (1/2): 24-39.

Schaeffer, C. O.:

1940. Onderzoek naar het voorkomen van typhus-bacterien in het

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relation to the time of settling and biological purification.) M. D.

V. N. I., 29 (1/2) 49-56. 1941. Onderzoek over de herkomst van typhus-bacterien, voorkomen in het rioleeringssysteem van Bandoeng, (Investigation

on the occurrence of typhoid bacteria in the sewage system at

Bandoeng.) G. T. N. I., 81 (29): 1535-1546. Scheepe, F. L., 1935. De verspreiding der filariasis in Indragiri. (The

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155

Schuffner, W., and Margeretha Wachsmuth, 1909. Ueber eine

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71:182.

Schulze, P., 1933. “Die Artem der Zeckengattung Dermacentor s. I.

aus Europa, Asien und New-Guinea.” (The species of the genus

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van der Schweff, J. P., 1941. Een epidemic van mijtekoorts en

tropical typhus in Atjeh en Onderhoorigheden. (An epidemic of mite

fever and scrub typhus in Atjeh and vicinity.) G. T. N. L, 81 (20):

1103-1122. Sieburgh, G., 1936. De malaria te Oosthaven. (Malaria at Oosthaven.) G. T. N. L, 76 (10): 612-628.

Simons, R. D. G. Ph.: 1941. Apenpokken en roode bond. (Monkey pox and red dog.)

G. T. N. I., 81 (2): 59-86.

1941. Het onrustbarende aantal geslachsziekten en de noodzakelijkheid eener sociaal-hygiensche bestreijding hiervan in Nederlandsch-Indie. (The alarming number of cases of venereal diseases and the necessity for social-hygiene program in the Netherlands-Indies.) G. T. N. I., 81 (31): 1630-1658.

Smalt, F. H.:

1936. Kort verslag omtrent de Leprabestrij ding op Bali en Lombok.

(A short account of leprosy control in Bali and Lombok.) M. D.

V. N. L, 25 (1): 32-37.

1937. Periodike drooglegging van sawah’s ter bestrijding van

malaria. (Periodic drying ofrice fields in the control of malaria).

M. D. V. N. L, 26 (4): 285-299.

Soesilo, R., 1935. The Anopheles hyrcanus (sinensis problem in Java,

M. D. V. N. L, 24 (2): 68-71. Soetjahjo, M., 1936. Een geval van Paragonimiasis. (A case of Paragonimiasis.) G. T. N. L, 76 (42): 2670-2672.

Soetrisno, 1940. De bevolking der Wae Apo-Vlakte en de aldaat

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Soewadji Prawirhardjo, 1939. Infectieproeven met microfilaria

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experiments with bancrofti microfilaria with various species of mos*

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Stekhoven, J. H. Schurmans:

1923. De Teeken van de kleine Soenda-eilanden. (The ticks of

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562282—44 11
156

1926. Tabanidae. Treubia, Vol. VI (Supplement) 551 pages.

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Stoker, W. J., 1934. Over het malaria gevaarlijkheid van A. leucosphyrus. (The danger of malaria transmission by A. leucosphyrus.)

G.T.N.I., 74 (21): 1342-1344.

Strickland, C., 1936. Papers on malaria in Malaya. M. D. V. N. I.,

25 (3): 331-340.

Swellengrebel, N. H., and E. Rodenwaldt, 1932. Die Anophelen

von Niederlandisch-Ostindien. (Anophelines of Netherlands East

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Tang Ping Ie., 1935. Een geval van hirudiniasis van de neus. (A

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1927. The Anophelines of the Australian region, their bionomics and their distribution. Far Eastern Association of Tropical

Medicine. Transactions of the Seventh Congress. British India, 1927. Vol. Ill, 143-164.

1938. (Vectors of Wuchereria bancroftx) Health (Australia) 1938,

74-77. Tesch, J. W., 1937. Over Filariasis en elephantiasis bij geimporteerde

Javansche bevolking in Celebes. (Filariasis and elephantiasis in

imported Japanese population in Celebes.) G- T. N. I., 77 (24);

1434-1461. Theunissen, W. F., 1936. The Governmental care of Lepers In the

Netherlands Indies. M. D. V. N. I., 25 (1): 3-5.

Theunissen, W. F-, P. H. Olivier, W. K. Mertens:

1936. Jaarverslag van het Geneeskundig Laboratorium over 1935.

(Annual report of the Medical Laboratory, 1935.) M. D. VN. I., 25 (3): 211-273.

1936. Jaarverslag van den Dienst der Volksgezondheid over 1935. (Annual report of the Dienst der Volksgezondheid, 1935.) MD. V. N. I., 25 (4): 347-409.

Theunissen, W. F., W. K. Mertens, P. H. Olivier, and A. W. FBochardt:

1938. Jaarverslag Dienst der Volksgezondheid in NedcrlandschIndie over het Jaar 1936. (Annual report of Dienst der Volks- gezondheid in the Netherlands Indies for 1936.) M. D. V. N. !•»

27 (3): 309-388.

1938. Jaarverslag van het Eijkman Institut over 1937. (Annual

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157

1939. Jaarverslag van den Dienst der Volksgezondheid, 1937.

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(Annual report Dienst der Volksgezondheid, 1938.) M. D.

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van der Hyde, G. G., 1937. Samenvatting van een onderzoek naar

microfilariadragers onder Chineeschen arbeider bij de Bankatinwinning

op Banka. (Report on an investigation on microfilaria vectors.)

G. T. N. I., 77 (21): 1288-1297.

van Slee, W., 1930. Onderzoek naar hit voorkomen van Filaria te

Mamoedjoe. (Investigation on the presence of filaria in Mamoedjoe.)

G.T. N. I., 70 (5): 445-450.

Venhuis, W. G.:

1938. Het onderscheid tusschen de larven van anopheles ludlowi varietas sundaicus en de Zoutwatervorm van an subpictus Grass! in Nederlandsch-Indie. (The difference between the larva of the

Anopheles ludlowi var. sundaica and the salt-water form of A.

subpictus Grassi in the Netherlands Indies). M. D. V. N. I.,

27 (4): 498-505. 1939. The hyrcanus problem in the Netherlands East Indies with

description of wide spread malaria variety: A. hyrcanus X.

M. D. V. N. I., 28 (4): 37^390.

1942. Anopheles aconitus aan kaliwanden. Anopheles aconitus

on stream banks.) G. T. N. I., 82 (3): 99-112.

1942. Geinfectierde Anopheles minimus var. flavirostris aan kali- wanden. (Infected A. minimus flavirostris on stream banks.)

G. T. N. I., 82 (5): 190-195.

Walch, E. W.:

1922. Over Trombicula deliensis n. sp. vermoedelijke overbrengster

des Pseudotyphus en andere Trombicula van Deli. Trombicula

deliensis n. sp. probable vector of pseudotyphus, and other

trombiculids of Deli.) G. T. N. I., 62 (5): 531-588.

1923. On Pseudotyphus of Sumatra. Transactions of the Far

Eastern Association of Tropica! Medicine. Sth Biennial Congress,

583-627.

1927. Nederlandsch-Indie Trombiculae en verwante mijten.

(Trombiculae and related mites of the Netherlands Indies.)

G. T. N. I., 67 (6): 922-933. 1932. Het verband tusschen de voorkeur vanTNederlandsch Indische Anophelen voor menschen-of dierenbloed en haar

gevaarlijkheit. (Relation of the preference of Netherlands Indies
158

mosquitoes for human or animal blood and its dangerin malaria.)

G. T. N. L, 72 (7): 682-709.

Walch, E. W., and N. C. Keukenschrijver, 1923. On Pseudotyphus

of Sumatra. Transactions of the Far Eastern Association of Tropical

Medicine. Sth Biennial Congress, 627-643.

Walch, E. W., and Sardjito, 1928. Identification of the blood meal

of Netherlands Indian Anopheles by means of the blood test. M. D.

V. N. L, 17 (3): 234-250.

Walch, E. W.j and R. Soesilo;

1929. Annotations from everywhere about malaria in the Nether- lands Indian Archipelago. M. D. V. N. I., 18 (3): 199-207.

1935. Malaria Control in the Netherlands Indies. M. D. V. N. L,

24 (3): 86-94.

Walch-Sorgdrager, B. L. Bolander, W. A. P. Schuffner, and J. W.

Wolff, 1940. Serologische groepeering van leptospirastammen, afkomstig van gevallen van leptospirosis ter Oostkust van Sumatra.

(The serological classification of leptospira strains from the east coast

of Sumatra.) G. T. N. I., 80 (10): 578-597. Weyer, Fritz, 1939. Die Malariaiibertrager. (The Malaria Vectors.)

George Thieme, Leipzig. 141 pp.

Wilkie, David, 1938. Yaws. J. A. Churchill, Ltd., London. 169 pp.

Wolff, J. W., and W. Kouwenaar, 1936. Onderzoeken over Sumatransche Rickettsiosen, (Investigation on Rickettsia infections in

Sumatra.) G. T. N. L, 76 (5): 272-288.

Wolff, J. W., 1938. Dysenteric Sonne te Oostkust van Sumatra,

Bijdrage tot de epidemiologic des bacillaire dysenteric. (Sonne dysentery on the east coast of Sumatra. Contributions to the epidemiology

of bacillary dysentery.) G. T. N. L, 78 (14): 762-780.

Wolff, J. W., and W. de Graaf:

1939. Twee nieuwe gevallen van mijtekoorts of Java. (Two new

cases of mite fever in Java.) G. T. N. L, 79 (39): 2434-2441.

1939. Twee nieuwe gevallen van mijtekoorts op Java. (Two new

cases of mite fever in Java.) G. T. N. L, 79 (41): 2577-2587.

Zon, B. K., 1939. Zoutwatervischvijers en malaria. (Salt-water fish ponds and malaria.) G. T. N. L, 79 (9): 529-540.

REPORTS

“Endemic Diseases in the Netherlands Indies” (edited by the Netherlands Indies Medical and Sanitary Services). 77 pp. (Published at

Weltevreden, 1929.)

Verslag betreffender Pestbestrijding op Java over het jaar 1939. (Report on combating plague in Java in 1939.) M. D. V. N. I., 30 (3/4);

158-213.
159

Indisch Verslag 1936. II. Statistisch Jaarverzicht van Nederlandsch- Indie over het Jaar 1935. 66-80.

Indisch Verslag 1937. II. Statistisch Jaarverzicht van Nederlandsch- Indie over het Jaar 1936. 68-83.

Indisch Verslag 1938. II. Statistisch Jaarverzicht van NederlandschIndie over het Jaar 1937. 70-85. Indisch Verslag 1939. II. Statistisch Jaarverzicht van Nederlandsch- Indie over het Jaar 1938. 70-87. Societe des Nations. Organisation d’Hygiene. Rapport Epidemiologique

Annuel. Statistiques Corriges des Maladies Declaration Obligatoire

1936, 1937, 1938, 1939.

Reports of Dienst der Volksgezondheid and Eijkman Institut.

ABREVIATIONS USED

G. T. N. I., Geneeskundig Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch-Indie.

M. D. V. N. I., Mededeelingen van den Dienst der Volksgezondheid in

Nederlandsch-Indi'e.

T, v. E., Tijdschrift voor Entomologie.

161

Appendix

KEYS TO THE IDENTIFICATION OF THE

ANOPHELINE MOSQUITOES OF THE

NETHERLANDS INDIES

These keys are translations, with some revision, of those

of Swellengrebel and Rodenwaldt (1932), “Die Anophelen

von Niederlandisch-Ostindien.” They were chosen because they are the only keys available which have been

prepared from Netherlands Indies material by entomologists with extensive experience in this area. In translation

every effort has been made to use precise English equivalents. Terminology and nomenclature have been made to

conform with Russell, Rozeboom, and Stone (1943).

Whenever necessary diagrams, photographs, specimens,

descriptions and other keys were consulted. However

some disadvantages due to translation probably still exist.

Of possibly further disadvantage is the fact that the Dutch

use somewhat different characters in their keys than are

used by entomologists in this country. Practice should

eliminate this difficulty.

It is recommended that Russell, Rozeboom, and Stone

(1943), “Keys to the Anopheline Mosquitoes of the World”

be used as complement to the keys of Swellengrebel and

Rodenwaldt. In using the former, the keys for the

Australian region should be used for material from New

Guinea, the Molukkas, and adjacent islands whereas the

Malayan key should be used for the western part of the

archipelago, i. e., the Greater and Lesser Soenda Islands.

The disadvantages of the keys of Russell, Rozeboom, and

Stone are that they have been prepared primarily from

Australian, Malayan, and Indian sources, keys and descriptions and are not as readily adaptable to the Netherlands Indies,
162

Key to the Identification of Male Anophelines of

the Netherlands Indies

1. Wings not spotted

Wings spotted

2. Light yellow wings A. immaculatus

(This form is regarded by Christophers (1933) as synonymous

with A. vagus. Swellengrebel and Rodenwaldt (1932) regard it

as variety of A. sundaicus.)

Brownish wings

3. 2nd marginal cell very short (about }i of petiole) or lacking

2nd marginal cell of normal length

4. 2nd marginal cell very short Bironella gracilis

2nd marginal cell lacking; the 2nd branch of the 1st vein present

only at apical end papuae group. See Key A.

5. Palpus very short, about the length of the proboscis. Antennae

as in females (not plumose) B. travestitus Palpus slightly shorter or the same length as the proboscis

6. Large mosquito (about mm.) with bright forked scales on the

head and tufts of scales on the prothoracic lobes

Anopheles brevipalpis

Small mosquito (about 3.5 mm.) with narrow forked scales on the

head. Prothoracic scales lacking A. aitkenii. See Key B.

7. Six ventral tufts of black scales projecting from the abdomen.

Proboscis usually pale in its distal portion. (Some of the tufts of scales may be lacking.) One distinct tuft of scales Is actually

sufficient A. kochi

Ventral abdominal tuft of scales lacking or if such are present, the

proboscis, with the exception of the labella, is dark

8. Apical portion ofthe femur of the hind leg with broad tuft of very

long white scales which is fused with somewhat smaller black

subapical tuft A. annandelei No tuft of scales on the posterior femur

9. The distal end of the tibia which is often somewhat swollen and the

adjacent basal part of tarsal segment of the hind leg are pale and

appear as wide pale area on the otherwise dark colored leg

A. leucosphyrus and A. I. hackeri. See Key C,

The tibio-tarsal joint of the posterior leg either not apparent or

marked only by small pale ring. 10

10. Tarsal segment of the hind leg entirely white 11

Tarsal segment of hind leg in every case partly dark 17

11. Tarsal segments 3-5 of hind leg entirely white 12

Tarsal segment of hind leg partly dark 13
163

Key to the Identification of Male Anophelines of the Netherlands Indies—Continued

12. Femora and tibiae of all legs and hind tarsal segment spotted

A. ramsayi

Legs not spotted, at the most with scattered pale scales

fuliginosus group. See Key I.

13. Tarsal segments and of hind leg entirely white 14

Only tarsal segment of hind leg entirely white 15

14. Wing predominately pale. The costa shows from the base to the

apex of the 1st branch of vein at least distinct pale areas.

(Include the apical pale area at the 2nd vein.).. A. schufneri Wings, especially the costa, dark. The latter shows no more than

pale areas A. hyrcanus pseudopictus

(The apical tarsal segment at its joint is somewhat brownish; the

4th tarsal segment may have brownish band.)

15. Legs spotted A. maculatus

Legs not spotted 16

16. Palpus black with no more than indistinct small brown rings.

Costa to apex of the 1st branch of vein with only small pale

spots A. albotaeniatus and montanus

Palpus with distinct wide yellowish white areas; costa with at least pale areas A. karwari

17. The costa from its base to the apex of the 1st branch of vein with

at least pale areas 18

Costa with more than pale areas 21

18. The light areas at the tip of the wing only at the apex of vein or

lacking 19

In the same place pale area which extends at least across the

apices of the 2nd branch of vein and vein

hyrcanus group. See Key D.

19. Two wide pale areas near the base and at the middle of the costa

A. gigas sumatrana

Basal and median pale areas either lacking or small 20

20. pair of non-projecting groups of white scales on the II-VII

abdominal segments ventral median or lateral. Whenever these are lacking there should be found on the posterior thoracic

pleural sclerites at least 3-4 white hairs, usually there occur also

from 3-20 white scales barbirostris group. See Key H.

White scales on the ventral side of the abdomen and white scales as

well as hair on the posterior thoracic pleural sclerites completely

lacking A. umbrosus
164

Key to the Identification of Male Anophelines of the Netherlands Indies—Continued

21. Veins and with no more than spots 22

Vein and usually with at least small spots. Usually the number of spots on veins 2-6 larger and therefore each spot is smaller

than in other mosquitoes giving the wings speckled appearance

which is more apparent in female. The legs are distinctly spotted.

There is possibility of confusion in the differentiation between

A. sundaicus and A. parangensis on one hand with A. tessellalus

and A. longirostris on the other. For the other members of this

group leucosphyrus with white tibio-tarsalbands and A. punctulatus with white scales on the mesonotum) the danger of confusion does not exist punctulatus group. See Keys

and E.

22. Legs with small bands often imperceptible or almost lacking and

also on the fore tarsus Myzomyia group. See Key F.

Fore legs with obvious broad tarsal bands 23

23. Wing with 9-10 fringe spots not only at or near the apices of the

veins but also between the branches of vein and between veins

and A. parangensis

Wing with 7-8 fringe spots at or near the apices of the veins

Pseudomyzomyia group. See Key

Key to the Identification of Female Anophelines of the Netherlands Indies

1. Wings not spotted

Wings spotted

2. Pale yellow wings A. immaculatus

(This form is regarded by Christophers (1933) as synonymous

with A. vagus. Swellengrebel and Rodenwaldt (1932) regard it

as variety of A. sundaicus.)

Brownish wings

3. 2nd marginal cell very short (about }i the length of petiole) or

lacking

2nd marginal cell of normal length

4. 2nd marginal cell very short Bironella gracilis

2nd marginal cell not developed; posterior branch of second vein

present only at apical end papuae group. See Key A.

5. Palpus very short, about the length of the proboscis.

B. travestilus Palpus at least the length of the proboscis
165

Key to the Identification of Female Anophelines

of the Netherlands Indies—Continued

6. Palpus about the length of the proboscis. Large mosquitoes

(about mm.) with broad forked scales on the head. Tufts of

scales on the prothoracic lobe Anopheles brevipalpis

Palpus almost as long as proboscis. Small mosquitoes (about 3.5 mm.) with narrow forked scales on the head. Prot’horacic scales

lacking A. aitkenii. See Key B.

7. Abdomen when viewed dorsally with tufts of lateral scales projecting from each side A. errabundus These tufts of scales not present

8. From lateral view tufts of black scales extend ventrally from the

abdomen. When the basal half of the palpus is mostly yellow or

brown and only small blackring is apparent, and also the distal

end of the proboscis is pale, there may be fewer than tufts of

scales (possibly only 1) A. kochi

Black tufts of scales are lacking on the abdomen or only single

tuft is present near the posterior end. Then, however, the palpus

Is entirely black or with small pale ring and proboscis is dark

with the exceptilon ofthe labella (specifically in A. barbirostris and

A. hyrcanus).

9. The apical portion of the femur of the hind leg has broad tuft of

very long white scales which fuse with subapical tuft of black

scales which are somewhat less broad A. annandelei

No tufts of scales on the posterior femur 10

10. The distal end of the tibia which is frequently somewhat swollen

and the adjacent basal part of hind tarsal segment are pale

and stand out as broad light spot in contrast to the rest of

the dark colored leg. The wings are of the punctulatus type.

(See couplet 22). A. I. leucosphyrus and A. I. hackeri. See Key C.

The tibio-tarsal joint of the hind leg is entirely dark or with only

small pale ring 11

11. Hind tarsal segment is entirely white. (N. B. Particular

attention should be given as to whether or not the base of hind

tarsal segment is black for that occurs only in A. kochi which is characterized by the ventral tuft of scales) 12

The hind tarsal segment Is partly dark in every case 18

12. Tarsal segments 3-5 of hind leg entirely white 13

Tarsal segments or and of the hind leg entirely white 14

13. Femora and tibiae on all legs and hind tarsal segment with pale

spots on dark background. The pale area on the margin of the
166

Key to the Identification of Female Anophelines

of the Netherlands Indies—Continued

wing at the apex of the second branch of vein reaching to

vein A. ramsayi

Legs not spotted. At the most light scales are scattered among

the dark. No light area at apex of posterior branch of vein

fuliginosus group. See Key I.

14. Tarsal segments and of hind legs entirely white., 15

Only tarsal segment of hind leg entirely white 16

15. Wings predominately light colored. At least pale spots on costa

before apex of posterior branch of vein A. schiiffneri Wings, especially costa, dark; at most with distinct pale areas

A. hyrcanus pseudopictus (probably A. montanus

(N. B. The tarsal segment may have at its joint some brown

pigment and segment may have brownish band.)

16. Legs spotted (femora, tibiae and tarsal segments 1). Apical

quarter of the palpus light, with black band in the middle of

the light portion A. maculatus Legs not spotted, palpus not as described 17

17. Palpus black without apparent pale rings; costa up to the end of

vein with only small pale spots.. A. alhotaeniatus montanus

Apical of the palpus pale with two black rings within the

pale area. Costa with at least pale areas A. karwari 18. Palpus entirely black 19 Palpus with pale rings on dark background (the light tip of the

palpus is regarded as ring) 20

19. Palpus because of thickly set scales appear very thick and shaggy.

The ventral tufts of scales apparent on abdominal segment VII

from lateral view. Scales are apparent on the posterior thoracic pleural sclerites barbirostris group. See KeyH.

Ventral abdominal tuft of scales and scales on the posterior sclerites of the thoracic pleura lacking: palpus thinner and less shaggy.

A. umbrosus

20. Palpi with pale rings and with black tips. The costa with pale

areas of which the basal is the broadest extending from 1st to

4th vein forming wide basal pale area.. A. gigas sumatrana

Tip of palpus light 21

21. The costa to the apex of the 1st branch of vein with at the most

pale areas. Palpus with or pale rings. (The pale tips are

counted as rings.) However, only the apical and subapical are

readily noticeable hyrcanus group. See Key D.
167

Key to the Identification of Female Anophelines

of the Netherlands Indies—Continued

Costa to the apex of the 1stbranch of vein with at least distinct pale spots 22

22. Veins and with not more than spots. Palpus with pale

rings 23

Veins and with at least 4, usually or small spots. Palpus

with more than pale rings. Usually the number of spots

on veins 2-6 is greater and therefore the individual spots are

smaller than in other anophelines giving the wing speckled

appearance. The palpus with narrow black bands at bases of

segments and 5. Legs speckled punctulatus group.

See Keys and E.

23. The pale tip of the palpus is divided into two approximately equal

parts by dark band. The dark dividing band is either somewhat wider or usually narrower to much narrower than one of

the light parts; it may be reduced to few dark scales. The

proboscis frequently shows more or less apparent light apical

portion (labella, however, is always light). Legs entirely dark or

with very small light bands at the joints

Myzomyia group. See Key F.

Light tip of palpus divided with black band so that the light part

beyond the black band is 2-6 times as wide as the black band while the light part before the black band is significantly smaller

than the apical light part 24

24. Wing with 9-10 fringe spots not only at or near the apices of veins

but also between branches of vein and between veins and

A. parangensis

Wing with or fringe spots at or near the apices of the veins

Pseudomyzomyia group. See Key G.

Key to the Anopheline Larvae of the Netherlands

Indies

1. On all of the abdominal segments there are large anterior tergal

plates (i. e., the tergal plate encloses the disc-shaped sclerotized

plates which are found on the midline in the middle of each

segment and usually entirely separated from the anterior tergal

plates)

No anterior tergal plate of this size on the abdominal segments, at

the most one on segmentVIII (papuae group and B. gracilis) or the
168

Key to the Anopheline Larvae of the Netherlands

Indies—Continued

tergal plates appear on all segments only somewhat (slightly)

larger than normal (Birondla travestitus)

2. Small branched hair on the inner side of the antenna. The inner

clypeal hairs are close together. Prothoracic hair no. is palmate A. aitkenii palmatus

No branched hair on the inner side of the antenna. The inner

clypeal hairs are separated from each other. Prothoracic hair

no. is branched and with thick stem

3. Inner clypeal hair with side hairs, posterior clypeal hairs branched.

A. aconitus

Inner and posterior clypeal hairs bare and unbranched

A. minimus and varuna

4. Small or large branched hair on inner side of the antenna

This hair is lacking 15

5. The hair on the inner side of the antenna is small, bearing few

branches

This hair is large, bearing many side branches and arises from the

antenna half way or more from the base

6. One pair of thoracic palmate hairs A. aitkenii. See Key B.

Two pairs of thoracic palmate hairs papuae group. See Key A.

No palmate hairs on the thorax 6a

6a. No palmate hairs on the abdomen A. brevipalpis

Well developed palmate hairs on abdominal segments III-VII

A. gigas sumatrana

7. Two pairs of palmate hairs on the thorax

One pair or no palmate hairs on the thorax

8. Outer clypeal hairs with 4-6 branches. Prothoracic hairs nos.

and slightly branched B. gracilis

Outer clypeal hairs branched at the most near the tip, prothoracic

hairs and considerably branched B. travestitus

9. Bases of inner clypeal hairs apparently far apart. A. albotaeniatus Inner clypeal hairs very close together 10

10. No palmate hairs on thorax and abdomen 10a

Well-developed palmate hairs at least on abdominal segments IV

and 11

10a Outer clypeal hairs with many, branches 50-60

A. umbrosus similissima Outer clypeal hairs with few, 5-16 branches 10b

10b. Outer clypeal hairs with 11-16 branches A. separatus

Outer clypeal hairs with 5-8 branches.. A. umbrosus and A. hunteri
169

Key to the Anopheline Larvae of the Netherlands

Indies—Continued

11. Well developed palmate hairs only on abdominal segments IV and

V. They are lacking on abdominal segments VI and VII and on

thorax A. novumbrosus

Well developed palmate hairs on abdominal segments III-VII__ 12

12. Prothoracic hair no. unbranched or at the most branched once or

twice near the tip 12a

Prothoracic hair no. branched,. 13

12a. Outer clypeal hairs with 5-6 branches

A. peditaeniatus and A. alhotaeniatus Outer clypeal hairs with 50-60 branches. A. hyrcanus. See Key

13. Inner clypeal hair without side hairs 14

Inner clypeal hair with side hairs, often thick and long

A. bancroftii and pseudobarbirostris

14. Outer clypeal hairs strongly branched A. ba.'birostris

Outer clypeal hairs weakly branched A. barbumbrosus

15. Short but stout spines on the inner side of the antenna. Prothoracic hair no. bulbous in the stem with radiating palmate hairs

A. longirostris

No such stout spines on the inner side of the antenna. Prothoracic hair no. 1, if well developed never palmate 16

16. Posterior clypeal hairs are unusually long and extensively branched

A. longirostris annulata

Posterior clypeal hairs are not as long and therefore not as strongly

branched 17

17. The frontal hairs are unbranched; at the most the outerfrontal hairs are forked. The innerfrontal hairs are very short

-A. annandalei All frontal hairs of about equal length, plumose ... 18

18. Outer clypeal hairs definitely plumose or branched (Not to be

confused with A. hyrcanus or A. barbirostris which have an antennal hair and whose inner clypeal hairs are close together).. 19

Outer clypeal hairs not as extensively branched 21

19. Inner clypeal hair with strong lateral branches _• schuflneri Inner clypeal hair without lateral branches 20

20. Posterior clypeal hair almost as long as the inner clypeal hair A. incognitas

Posterior clypeal hair }i as long as Inner 20a

20a Posterior clypeal hair with three branches. Inner occipital hair

unbranched. Bases of the prothoracic hairs fused. The filament
170

Key to the Anopheline Larvae of the Netherlands

Indies—Continued

of the well-developed palmate leaflet almost as long as the body

of the leaflet A. fuliginosus. See Key

Posterior clypeal hair with 5-8 branches; inner occipital hairs with 2-4 branches; bases of prothoracic hairs not fused; the filaments of the well-developed palmate leaflets as long as the body of

the leaflet A. philippinensis

21. Prothoracic hairs nos. and with well-developed bases 22

Base of prothoracic hair no. small 25

22. Bases of the prothoracic hairs fused 23

Bases of the prothoracic hairs not fused 24

23. Inner and outer clypeal hairs with side haifs, the latter are at least

half the length of the former A. punctulatus moluccensis Inner clypeal at the most with fine side branches, outer clypeal hair

short and entirely bare.. A. leucosphyrus and hackeri. See Key

24. The palmate leaflets pointed A. maculatus The points appear as though cut off; the end of the leaflet is consequently blunt A. karwari

25. Palmate leaflets with pointed ends butnot drawn intofilaments. 26

Palmate leaflets with obvious filaments 28

26. Middle and inner frontal hairs strongly branched

A. punctulatus punctulatus

Middle and inner frontal hairs weakly branched 27

27. Slightly pigmented yellow larva, occipital hairs long, unbranched or

unforked. Prothoracic hair no. light, about half the length of

no. 2, with about nine branches. Antennae not pigmented

A. kochi

Dark larvae, occipital hair short, usually with three 6r four branches.

Prothoracic hair no. dark, about the length of no. 2, with

2-6 branches. Antenna mostly dark A. tessellatus

28. Outer clypeal hair with four long branches A. amictus Outer clypeal hair unbranched; at the most, forked 29

29. Posterior clypeal hairs short, nearer each other than the distance

between the inner clypeal hairs; situated near the inner clypeal

hairs (sometimes almost between them) A. vagus

Posterior clypeal hairs long, situated more posteriorly; distance between them about equal or greater than distance between inner clypeal hairs 30

Prothoracic hair no. 1, with obviously pigmented base and numer30. ous (15) lateral branches. One of the long mesopleural hairs is
171

Key to the Anopheline Larvae of the Netherlands

Indies—Continued

branched A. parangensis

Prothoracic hair no. with unpigmented small base and few

(about 11) branches. Both long mesopleural hairs unbranched A. sundaicus and subpictus

KEY

papuae group

1. Basal arm of the male hypopygium long

Basal arm very short and compact with 4-5 toothlike setae on the

end B. soesiloi

2. Lower half of the basal arm broad, apical half attenuated ending in

head not covered with hair B. derooki

Basal arm extended, cone shaped, covered with hair

3. Basal arm with four long lancet-like processes at the apex_ B.papuae

Basal arm without these processes B. papuae brugi

KEY

A. aitkenii etc.

1. On the abdominal segments of the larvae there are tergal

plates as in aconitus and minimus which cover about of the

segment A. aitkenii palmatus

No such dorsal abdominal plates on the larvae

2. Palmate leaflets notched so that the filament is separated sharply

from the body of the leaf. Inner clypeal hairs branched or with

side hairs or both

Palmate leaflets only superficially notched so that there is no sharp

division between filament and body. Inner clypeal hairs close

together, unbranched and without side hairs A. insulaeflorum 3. Inner clypeal hairs unbranched and with side hairsA. aitkenii Type

Inner clypeal hairs forked and with side hairs A. aitkenii Type II

Inner clypeal hairs bifurcated or trifurcated, without side hairs

A. aitkenii Type III

Inner and outer clypeal hairs forked five or six times

A. aitkenii Type IV (Jbengalensis)

562282—44 12
172

Key to the Anopheline Larvae of the Netherlands

Indies—Continued

key

A, leucosphyrus etc.

1. Tibio-tarsal joint of the posterior leg of the female and male

marked with white. Female palpus with small light rings

No “white heel” in the male and female. Female palpus with

or small black rings on Its distal half

2. Rings on the palpus of the female very distinct, apical segment light

for of Its length. In the female the proboscis is only slightly

longer than the palpus A. leucosphyrus leucosphyrus

Palpal rings not distinct in the female; apical segment light for less

than half of its length. The proboscis ofthe female is much longer

than the palpus A. leucosphyrus hackeri 3. Abdominal segments II-VIII apparently covered thickly with

scales dorsally and ventrally A. amictus

Abdominal scales at the most only on segments VI-VIII

A. punctulatus and other species of punctulatus group

KEY

hyrcanus group

1. Light apical fringe spot on the wing extending from point slightly

basal the apex of the 1st branch of vein to apex of vein 3. Two

small light rings nearly at the tip of the palpus of the female and

very close to each other. Ventral tufts of scales on the VII abdominal segment of the female. Larvae with palmate hairs..3

The above mentioned fringe spot extends only from the apex of the

second branch of vein to apex of vein 3. The above mentioned

apical and subapical palpal rings are fused together into one.

No ventral tufts of scales on VII abdominal segment of female.

Larva without palmate hairs

2. Wings with broad pale costal are as at the apex of the subcosta.

Phallosome with leaflets. Outer clypeal hairs of the larva with

11-16 branches; outer occipital hairs with 5-6 branches

A. separatus

Wings with small pale costal areas at the apex of the subcosta.

Phallosome without leaflets. Outer clypeal hairs of the larva with 1-2 branches hunteri
173

Key to the Anopheline Larvae of the Netherlands

Indies—Continued

KEY D—Continued

hyrcanus group—Continued

3. Outer clypeal hairs of the larva with few (about 6) branches

A. peditaeniatus

Outer clypeal hairs of the larva with 50-60 side branches

4. Hind tarsal segments and entirely or almost entirely white.

A. hyrcanus pseudopictus

(See note in female keys concerning this subspecies.)

None of the hind tarsal segments white or whitish

5. Wide white apical bands on the hind tarsal segments 2, 3, 4, and

basal white bands on hind tarsal segments and 5. Pale costal

area at apex of subcosta small and not reaching vein 1. Long spot

at base of stem of vein A. hyrcanus nlgerrimus

Hind tarsal segments 2-5 with small white bands, only apical.

Above mentioned pale costal area broader and reaching to vein 1.

Spot at the base of vein short A. hyrcanus sinensis

KEY

punctulatus group

1. Thoracic scales only on the anterior margin and lateral. Prothoracic lobe at the most with few scattered scales. Abdominal scales only on the VIII segment. The second palpal segment of the

female pale apically without black or yellow apical ring

Thoracic scales on theentire mesonotum and scutellum. Prothoracic

lobes with tufts of scales. Abdominal scales on segment VIVIII. The second palpal segment of the female apically pale but

in this apical pale part there is subapical or apical black or

yellow band

2. Proboscis of the female very long; about one-half again as long as

the palpus. In the male the posterior legs including tarsal segments spotted

Proboscis of the female of normal length. In the female the posterior legs only including tarsal segments spotted

3. Tarsal segments 1-4 of middle leg are brownish yellow. Hence the

apical yellow bands of these segments are not apparent. Posterior clypeal hairs of the larvae short and nonbranched

A. longirostris
174

Key to the Anopheline Larvae of the Netherlands

Indies—Continued

KEY —Continued

punctulatus group—Continued

Above mentioned tarsal segments black, the apical yellow bands

showing conspicuously. Posterior clypeal hair of the larvae long,

thick, and with 7-9 branches A. I. annulata

4. Palmate leaflets of the larvae serrate A. Ussellatus

Palmate leaflets of the larvae small with smooth edges

A. t. orientalis

5. Proboscis of female often (with exception of the labella) entirely

dark. Base of the no. and prothoracic hairs of the larva well developed and fused A. p. moluccensis

In the female the distal two-fifths of the proboscis is often pale colored. The prothoracic hair no. of the larva has slightly developed base which is not fused with no. A. p. punctulatus

KEY

Myzomyia group

1. All clypeal hairs of the larva unbranched and without side hairs.

Proboscis either entirely dark with exception of the labella or only

the apical third is pale on the ventral side. Vein with two

elongated spots. Vein with basal spot. Margin of wing

without pale area at the apex of vein

Inner and outer clypeal hairs of the larva with side hairs, posterior

clypeal hairs branched 3-S times. Apical half of the proboscis is

pale. Vein with three short spots. Vein without basal spot.

Fringe of the wing with pale area at apex of vein 6_ A. aconitus

2. Female palpus with two (apical and subapical) pale rings separated

by single smaller dark ring. Basal third of the costa black,

broken by pale areas. Three small spots on the stem and second

branch of vein (basal, tip, and bifurcation; the latter may be lacking). On the 1st branch of this vein there are small spots.

A. minimus minimus

Above mentioned white rings of the female palpus not broader than

the intervening ring. Basal third of the costa black without

intervening light areas. Spots on vein especially the one at the

apex of the 2nd branch are longer A. minimus varuna
175

Key to the Anopheline Larvae of the Netherlands

Indies—Continued

KEY

Pseudomyzomyia group

1. Wings unspotted, pale yellow A. immaculatus

(See note, couplet 1, female key.)

Wings spotted

2. Legs spotted

Legs unspotted

3. Spot on the 1st branch of vein covers at least half of the branch.

Beneath the second large costal spot (counting from the base of

the wing) lie two spots on vein 1, Tip of the palpus of the female

consists of pale yellow apical and black subapical part, both of about the same width A. sundaicus

Biological Form I. Fresh Water. Inland In Sumatra.

Biological Form II. Brackish Water. Throughout the range

of the species.

Spot on the 1stbranch of vein covers about third of this branch. Beneath the second large costal spot (counting from the base of the wing) there are spots on vein 1.. The apical pale part of the

female palpus is many times wider than the subapical black spot.

(Breeds widely in fresh water) A. ludlozvi

4. In the male the white ring at the joint between fore tarsal segments

and is very small. In the female there is very small pale

spot or ring on the proboscis basad the labella. The tip of the

palpus consists of wide pale apex and small subapical black

part the width of the pale part). Larvae with short outer

clypeal hairs (% the length of the inner clypeal hairs). The

posterior clypeal hairs are short, close together and placed quite

far anteriorly, almost between the inner clypeal hairs__ A. vagus

In the males there is broad pale band on the joint between

tarsal segments and of the anterior leg. In the female the proboscis with the exception of the labella is entirely dark. The

outer clypeal hairs of the larvae are about the length of the inner clypeal hairs. The posterior clypeal hairs are far apart

and situated well to the posterior

5. Tip of the palpus of the female with white and black parts of the

same width A. subpictus

The width of the white part is at least twice that of the dark subapical part A. subpictus malayensis
176

Key to the Anopheline Larvae of the Netherlands

Indies—Continued

KEY

barbirostris group

1. Outer clypeal hairs of the larva with few, 17 or less, branches. Adult cannotbe separated from Anopheles barbirostris

A. barbumbrosus

Outer clypeal hairs of the larvae with at least 40 branches usually

many more (about 60)

2. The usual pale area of A. barbirostris at the apex of vein is lacking.

On the other hand such areas occur at the apices of one or both

branches of vein 4. The femora and tibiae as well as all tarsal

segments of all the legs show spotting due to scattered white

scales. The inner clypeal hair of the larva with side hairs

Light area at the apex of vein but not at the apex of vein 4. Legs

not spotted. Inner clypeal hair bare A. barbirostris

3. Fringe spots at apices of veins 1, 1stbranch of 2, both branches of 4,

and vein A. bancroftii Fringe spots only at apices of vein 1, 1st branch of 2, and 1st branch

of A. pseudobarbirostris

KEY

fuliginosus group

1. In the male and female the bifurcation of vein black. Hind

tarsal segment with white apex, of the length of the segment.

The inner occipital hair of the larva usually unbranched

A. fuliginosus

In the male and female the bifurcation of vein is not black. Hind

tarsal segment with white apex almost half as long as the segment. Inner occipital hair of the larva with 3-7 branches

2. White scales scattered on the ventral side of the abdomen. Palmate

leaflets of the larvae with long filaments A. pallidus

No white scales on abdomen. Palmate leaflets of the larvae with

short filaments A. philippinensis
177

Appendix

CHECK LIST OF THE ANOPHELINES OF

THE NETHERLANDS INDIES

The following list of anopheline mosquitoes has been

compiled from Overbeek and Stoker (1938), Brug (1938),

and Swellengrebel and Rodenwaldt (1932). It represents

consensus of opinion of Dutch investigators and is probably as accurate check list as can be prepared from the

literature at the present time. The nomenclature is that

used by Russell, Rozeboom, and Stone (1943) which adheres closely to that of Christophers (1933). The

accepted Dutch names as given by Swellengrebel and

Rodenwaldt (1932) are included parenthetically when they

differ with those of Russell, Rozeboom, and Stone (1943).

Australian Species

Anopheles Myzomyia) meraukensis Venhuis, 1932.

A. {M.) amictus Edwards, 1921.

A. (M.) longirostris Brug, 1928 (— punctulatus longirostris).

A. (M.) punctulatus punctulatus Doenitz, 1901 (—punctulatus

typicus).

A. M.) p. moluccensis Swellengrebel and Swellengrebel de Graaf,

1920 (= punctulatus var. moluccensis).

A. .) p. novaguinensis Venhuis, 1933 (=punctulatus typicus var.

novaguinensis).

A. .) incognitus Brug, 1931.

A. {Anopheles) bancroftii hancroftii Giles, 1902 {—barbirostris bancrofti).

A. {A.) stigmaticus stigmaticus Skuse, 1888.

Bironella travestilus Brug, 1928 {—Anopheles travestilus).

B. papuae (Swellengrebel and Swellengrebel de Graaf), 1920 {—A.

papuae typicus).
178

B. soesiloi Strickland and Chowdhury, 1931 (=A. papuae soesiloi).

B. derooki Soesilo and van Slooten, 1931 (=A papuae de Rooki).

B. gracilis Theobald, 1905 (=A. bironelli ).

B. walchi (Soesilo) 1932 (=Brugella zvalchi).

B. papuae brugi (Soesilo and van Slooten) 1931 (=A papuae

typicus var. brugi) and A. (M.) longirostris annulata Brug, 1930 (= punctulatus longirostris var. annulata) are of uncertain taxonomic status.

Asiatic Species

Anopheles Anopheles hrevipalpis Roper, 1914.

A. A.) gigasformosus Ludlow, 1909 (= gigas var. formosus).

A. A.) gigas sumatrana Swellengrebel and Rodenwaldt, 1932.

{A.) aitkenii aitkenii James, 1903.

A. .) aitkenii palmatus Rodenwaldt, 1927.

A. A.) insulaeflorum (Swellengrebel and Swellengrebel de Graaf),

1920 (= aitkenii var. insulaeflorum).

A. A.) separatus (Leicester), 1908 {= hyrcanus separatus).

A. (A.) baezai Gater, 1933.

A. (A.) umbrosus Theobald, 1903. A. .) novumbrosus Strickland, 1916 (= umbrosus var. novumbrosa).

A. A.) hunteri Strickland, 1916 (=hyrcanus hunteri).

A. .) montanus Stanton Hacker, 1913 (= albotaeniatus var.

montana).

A. (A.) albotaeniatus Theobald, 1903.

A. {A.) barbumbrosus Strikland and Chowdhury, 1927 (== barbirostris

var. barbumbrosus)

A. {A.) bancroftii barbiventris Brug, 1938.

A. A.) barbirostris van der Wulp, 1884 (=barbirostris typicus).

A. A.) pseudobarbirostris Ludlow, 1902 (= bancrofti var. pseudobarbirostris).

A. A.) hyrcanus sinensis Wiedemann, 1828. A. {A.) h. nigerrimus Giles, 1900 (= hyrcanus typicus var. nigerrima).

*A. .) h. pseudopictus Grassi, 1899 (=hyracanus typicus var

pseudopicta).

A. {A.) annandalei Baini Prashad, 1918 (=annadalei ar. djajasanensis).

A. (Myzomyia karwari James, 1903. (Occurs in New Guinea also.)

A. M.) kochi Doenitz, 1901.

A. {M.) tessellatus Theobald, 1901 {—punctulatus tesselatus).

A. .) leucosphyrus leucosphyrus Doenitz, 1901.

'Probably A. montanus, mistaken determination.
179

A. (Af.) I. hackeri Edwards, 1921 leucosphyrus var. hackeri).

A. (Af.) minimus minimus Theobald, 1901.

A. (Af.) m. flavirostris Ludlow, 1914.

A. (Af.) aconitus Doenitz, 1902. A. (Af.) schufneri Stanton, 1915.

A. (A/.) annularis van der Wulp, 1884 {—fuliginosus typicus).

A. (Af.) pallidus Theobald, 1901 (—fuliginosus pallidus).

A. (A/.) philippinensis Ludlow, 1902 [=fuliginosus philippinensis).

A. (A/.) vagus Doenitz, 1902.

A. (A/.) subpictus Grassi, 1899.

A. (Af.) sundaicus Rodenwaldt, 1926 \=ludlowi var. sundaicd).

A. (Af.) ludlozvi Theobald, 1901. (Ceram only.)

A. (Af.) parangensis Ludlow, 1914.

A. (A/.) maculatus maculatus Theobald, 1901.

A. (A/.) errabunidus Swellengrebel, 1925. A. (Af.) ramsayi Coveil, 1927.

A. (Af.) flavescens Swellengrebd and Rodenwaldt, 1921 is form of

uncertain taxonomic status described by Swellengrebel and Rodenwaldt

(1932) as similar to sundaicus and by Christophers (1933) as possible

synonym of sundaicus.

A. (Af.) immaculatus James, 1902 is also of undetermined taxonomic

status. Swellengrebel and Rodenwaldt (1932) consider it as close to

sundaicus whereas Christophers (1933) considers it synonymous with

vagus.

Swellengrebel and Rodenwaldt (1932) record A. {M.) tessellatus

orientalis Swellengrebel and Swellengrebel de Graaf, 1920 (= punctulatus

tesselatus var. orientalis) from Celebes, Ceram, and Boeroe. This

was originally described as variety of punctulatus.

181

Appendix

DISTRIBUTION OF MALARIA VECTORS

IN THE NETHERLANDS INDIES

The maps and data in this appendix have been compiled

largely from the monograph of Swellengrebel and Rodenwaldt (1932). note of caution must be injected concernng possible extension of some species since the writing of

this monograph, such as the expansion of sundaicus into

Celebes. Further it must be emphasized that the maps

and lists include only the positive collecting records of the

species i. e. collecting localities where given species was

not found have not been recorded on the maps as such.

Nevertheless, with the exception of Borneo, these maps

do give fairly reliable picture of the distribution of the

important vectors.

Localities listed and given on the maps are those stations

where the given species has been collected and is known to

occur. Naturally they do not represent the only places

where the species will be found. Areas where the various

species have been recorded as definitely infected are shown

with hatching. These data are compiled from various

sources and are incomplete. It is only safe to assume that

any one of these species is at least potentially vector

throughout its range in the Netherlands Indies.
182

1.

(Appendix

C.)

—Anopheles

sundaicus.

Localities where

specimens

hare

been

collected. Areas

where

Infected

specimens

have

been

collected.
183

Anopheles sundaicus

ISLAND OF JAVA: West Java: West Bantam, South Bantam,

North Bantam, Batavia, Tandjong Priok, Serang, Wijnkoops Bay,

Sindangbarang, Genteng, Kepetakan, Cheribon. Middle Java:

Tjilatjap, Babakan, Noesa kambangan, Gombong, Tegal, Semarang,

Demak, Solo, Margaredjo. East Java Toeban, Coast of Madioen

Residence, Kediri Coast, Soerabaja, Pasoreosan,Probolinggo, Kraksaan,

Besoeki, Panaroekan, Banjoewangi, Coast along Madoera Strait, South

coast of Loemadjang, South coast of Djember, Coast of Madoera Island.

ISLAND OF SUMATRA: Atjeh: Kotaradja, Meulaboh, Smgkel,

Tapatoean, Lho Soekon, Olehleh, Sigli, Lho Seumawe, Tjalang, Bireuen,

Kroengradja. East Sumatra: Coast of Deli, North coast of Lake

Toba, Lao Balang, Belawan (Deli) Samosir. West Sumatra: Sibolga,

Padang Sidempoean, Greater Mandailing, Lesser Mandailing, Pangoeroeran, Pahahi Plain, Rao, Angkola djoeloe, Fort v. d. Capellen,

Lake Manindjau, Naras, Emmahaven. South Sumatra: Benkoelen,

Lampongs.

ISLAND OF BORNEO: Local variety In Koeala Sambodja near

Balikpapan.

ISLAND OF CELEBES: Bonthain. (Appareatly the range in

Celebes is expanding.)

OTHER ISLANDS; Poelau We, Simaloer, Nias, Siberoet, Enggano,

Banjak Island, Anambas Island, Riouw Archipelago, Banka, Billiton,

Edam, Bali, Lombok, Soembawa, Salajar, Flores, Alor, Pantar, Timor:

(towns of Koepang, Wini, Atapoepoe) Wetar, Roma, Leti, Laboehan

marege (Djampea group), Boetoeng.

*Anopheles ludlowi immaculata

ISLAND OF JAVA: Soerabaja.

ISLAND OF SUMATRA: Greater Mandailing, Deli.

OTHER ISLAND: Soembawa.

Anopheles ludlowi

ISLAND OF CERAM: Piroe (Molukkas).

(Reported by Swellengrebel Rodenwaldt (1932). Taxonomic status uncertain.)
184

2.

(Appendix

C.)

Anopheles

subpictus.

Localities where

specimens

have

been

collected. Areas

where

infected

specimens

have

been

collected.
185

Anopheles subpictus

ISLAND OF JAVA: West Java: West Bantam, East Bantam,

North Bantam, SouthBantam, Tegal wangi, Tjikadoe, Serang, Batavia,

Tandjong Priok, Soekaboemi, Tjiheha Plain, Djampang Region, BandoengPlain, Soemedang, Cheribon, Kepetakan, Bandjar. Middle Java:

Tjilatjap, Noesa kambangan, Babakan, Gombong, Tegal, Semarang,

Margaredjo, Coast of Rembang Residence, Solo, Magelang. East Java:

Coast of Madioen Residence, Coast ofKediri Residence. Modjowarno,

Soerabaja, Coast along Madoera Strait, Pasoeroean, Probolinggo,

Kraksaan, Besoeki, Panaroekan, South Loemadjang, South Djember,

Banjoewangi, Madoera Island.

ISLAND OF SUMATRA: Atjeh: Kotaradja, Lho Seumawe, Lokop, Bireuen, Olehleh, Kroengradja. East Sumatra: North coast of

Toba Lake. West Sumatra: Sidikalang. South Sumatra: Lampongs: (Uncertain) Kroe, Singkarak, Solok, Pahahi Plain, Mentawei

Island. ISLAND OF BORNEO: Balikpapan.

ISLAND OF CELEBES: Boekoekoemba, Balang Nipa, Kolaka,

Bonthain, Makassar, Barroe, Parepare, 'Polewali, Madjene, Mamoedjoe,

Boeol, Tolitoli, Leok, Kotamobagoe, Kendari. OTHER ISLANDS: Nias, Siberoet, Poelau We, Banka, Billiton,

Bali, Lombok, Soembawa, Timor (Koepang), Alor, Panta, Wetar, Roma,

Poelau Laoet, Djampea, Boeton, Moena, Bonerate, Salajar, Boeroe,

Ambon, Haroekoe, Ceram, Gesar, Soela Islands, Halmahera, Ternate,

Batjan, Misool, Goram Island.
186

3.

(Appendix

C.)

Anopheles

aconitus

and

A.

minimus.

T.—

A.

aconitus

M.

A.

minimus

Vr.

A.

varuna

Localities where

specimens

have

been

collected. Areas

where

Infected

specimens

have

been

collected.
187

Anopheles aconitus and A. minimus

T. A. aconitus M. A. minimus Vr. A. varuna*

ISLAND OF JAVA: West Java: West Bantam, South Bantam,

East Bantam, Tegal wangi, Tjikadoe, Serang, Batavia, Tandjong Priok,

Buitenzorg, Soekaboemi, Wijnkoops Bay (T. M.), Djampang (T. M.),

Tjiheha Plain (T. M.), Bandoeng, Soemedang, North Soemedang (T. M.),

Bandjar. Middle Java; Tjilatjap, Noesa kambangan, Gombong,

Tegal, Batoer, Semarang (T. M.), Oengaran, Kedong Kebo, Willem I,

Magelang, Solo, Babakan. East Java: Inland and Coast of Madioen

Residence, Modjowarno, Modjokerto, Kediri, Djatirogo, Soerabaja,

Malang, Tambaksari, North Coast of Java along the Madoera Straits,

entire South coast of East Java, South Loemadjang, Sitoebondo, Banjoewangi, Island of Madoera.

ISLAND OF SUMATRA: Atjeh: Kotaradja (T. M.), Lokop,

Belang kedjeren, Bireuen, Seulimeum, Tapatoean, Kroengradja (M.),

Takengon, Kotatjane, Seroewai. East Sumatra: Coast of Deli, Deli

Plain, Kisaran (M. T.), Lao Balang (M. T.). West Sumatra; Angkola djoeloe (T. M.), Padang Sidempoean (M. T.), Greater Mandailing

(M. T.), Moeara laboeh (T. M.), Batang toroe (Vr.), Loeboek Sikaping

(T. M. Vr.), Angoli (T. M.), Rao, Soendatar (T. M. Vr.), Pahahi Plain,

Kajoetanam, Sidikalang, Fort de Kock, Padang Pandjang, Fort v. d.

Capellen (T, M.). South Sumatra: Benkoelen, Ketahoen-Plain,

Moeara aman, Tjoeroep, Lampongs.

ISLAND OF BORNEO: Balikpapan.

ISLAND OF CELEBES: Makassar, Rapang, Madjene, Toradja

Region, Mandar, Paloe (M.), Boeol (M.), Paleleh (M.), Menado, Posso

(M.), Palopo and Toma Plain, Kotamobagoe, Kolaka, Moeara Bay,

Kendari. OTHER ISLANDS: Sabang (M.), Simaloer, Nias (M.), Bali,

Lombok, Soembawa, Flores (M.), Soemba (M. T.), Alor (M.), Wetar

(M.), Pantar, Timor (Koepang) (M.), Roma, Babar, Kisar, Sangihe

(M.), Talisai (M.), Boeton, Moena.

Reported only by Swellengrebel and Rodenwaldt (1932), Weyer (1939), Christophers (1933), and Overbeek and Stoker (1938) donot agree. Probably erroneous identification.

562282—44 13
188

4.

(Appendix

C.)

Anopheles

maculatus.

Localities vhsre

specimens

have

been

collected. Areas

where

Infected

specimens

have

been

collected.
189

Anopheles maculatus

ISLAND OF JAVA: West Java: East Bantam, Tjikadoe, Soekaboemi, Djampang Region, Buitenzorg, Poentjak, Tasikmalaja, North

Soemedang, South Soemedang, Bandjar. Middle Java: Batoer,

Wonosobo, Bandjarnegara, Noesa kambangan, Semarang, Banjoe biroe.

East Java: Madioen Residence, Soerabaja, Malang, South Malang,

Kali Rawaan, South Banjoewangi, Madoera Island.

ISLAND OF SUMATRA: Atjeh: Takengon, Belang kedjeren.

East Sumatra: Kisaran, Karoo Plain. West Sumatra: Sidikalang,

Sibolga, Pandang Sidempoean, Greater Mandailing, Soendatar, Angkola

djoeloe, Limau manis, Loeboek soelasih, Fort de Kock, Padangpandjang,

Kajoetanam, Naras, Emmahaven, Angoli, Sawah Loento, Sandaran

agoeng, Moeara laboeh. South Sumatra: Moera aman, Ketahoen Plain, Pager alam, Doerian.

ISLAND OF BORNEO: Upper Mahakam.

ISLAND OF CELEBES: Toradja-Lander, Watampone, Balangnipa.

OTHER ISLANDS: Nias, Enggano, Riouw, Banka, Natoena,

Anambas, Boeton, Flores, Timor: (Koepang, Atamboea), Alor, (Aroe).
190

Pd.

A.

peditaeniatus H.

A.

hunteri

5.

(Appendix

C.)

Anopheles

hyrcanus

group.

P.—

A.

hyrcanus

pseudopictus

Sp.—

A.

separatus

Localities where

specimens

have

teen

collected. Areas

where

infected

specimens

have

been

collected.

S.—

A.

hyrcanus

sinensis

V.—

A.

hyrcanus

nigerrimus
191

Anopheles hyrcanus group

S. A. hyrcanus sinensis

V. A. hyrcanus nigerrimus

P. *A. hyrcanus pseudopictus

Sp.~~.iL separatus

Pd. A. peditaeniatus**

H. A. hunteri

Probably hyrcanus nigerrimus.

Probably A. montanus.

ISLAND OF JAVA: West Java: West Bantam, East Bantam,

South Bantam, Batavia (S. V. P.), Tandjong Priok (P.), Buitenzorg,

Tjitjoeroeg, Soekaboemi, Tjiheha Plain, Bandoeng Plain, North Soemedang, Tjikadoe, Tegal wangi, Bandjar, Kepetakan (V. P.), Cheribon (V. P.). Middle Java: Tjilatjap (V.), Babakan, Gombong, Poerworedjo, Tegal (V.), Pekalongan, Semarang, Magelang, Ambarawa (P.),

Banjoe biroe, Solo. East Java: Madioen Residence, Lamongan, Mod- jowarno, Soerabaja, Probolinggo, South Loemadjang, Madoera Island.

ISLAND OF SUMATRA; Atjeh: Kotaradja (S. V.), Lho Soekon

(P.), Lho Seumawe, Belang PIdie, Belang kedjeren, Talang akar,

Takengon, Langsa, Meulaboh, Tapatoean, Kota Tjane, Lokop, Bireuen,

Singkel (Sp.). East Sumatra: Deli Plain, Deli Coast, Kisaran,

Karoo Plain, Tandjong Morawa, Bagan Siapiapi (Sp.), Rengat, Moeara

Tebo, Laobalang. West Sumatra: Sidikalang, Toba Plain, Sibolga,

Padang Sidempoean, Angkola djoeloe, Silindoeng Plain, Pahahi Plain,

Greater and Lesser Mandailing (S. V.), Soendatar, Rao (P.), Fort de

Kock (Sp. Pd.), Fort v. d. Capellen, Singkarak, Solok, Sawah Loento,

Naras, Angoli, Moeara laboeh, Padang (Pd.), Pangoeroeran. South

Sumatra: Ketahoen Plain, Kepahiang, Tjoeroep, Moeara amanj

Aerprioekan (Sp.), Lampongs (P.), Kota agoeng.

ISLAND OF BORNEO: Amoentai (Sp.), Sanggau, Singkawang,

Barabay, Kendangan, Bandjermasin, Tajan, Tenggarong, Tandjong

Redeb, Sankoelirang, Balikpapan, Tarakan, Boven Mahakam, Nan- gatajap.

ISLAND OF CELEBES: Makassar (V.), Mamoedjoe, Palopo,

Pampanoea, Parepare, Barroe, Paloe, Kotamobagoe, Sender.

OTHER ISLANDS: Nias, Enggano, Riouw (H.), Natoena (Sp.),

Banka (Pd.), Billiton, Krakatau, Karimoendjawa, Salajar, Timor (P.),

Alor (P.), Ternate (P.).

Unless indicated by the above key specimens were identified only as

“hyrcanus group.”
192

6.

(Appendix

C.)

Anopheles kochi.

Localities where

specimens

have

been

collected. Areas

where

Infected

specimens

have

been

collected.
193

Anopheles kochi

ISLAND OF JAVA: West Java: West Bantam, South Bantam,

Serang, Batavia, Tandjong Prlok, Buitenzorg, Soekaboemi, Poentjak,

Tjimahi, Bandoeng, Bandjar, Tjiheha Plain, Tjikadoe, Tegal wangi,

Kepetakan, Cheribon, North Soemedang. Middle Java: Tegal,

Semarang, Magelang, Ambarawa, Tjilatjap, Noesa kambangan, Gombong, Solo. East Java: Madioen Residence, Modojowarjo, South Loemadjang, Bondowoso, Madoera Island.

ISLAND OF SUMATRA: Atjeh: Lho Seumawe, Lho Soekon,

Meulaboh, Tapatoean, Lokop, Takengon, Kotatjane, Langsa. East

Sumatra: Deli-Plain, Deli Coast, Kisaran, Laobalang, Moeara Tebo. West Sumatra: Sidikalang, Sibolga, Silindoeng Plain, Pahahi Plain,

Padang Sidempoean, Greater Mandailing, Lesser Mandailing, Rao,

Soendatar, Fort de Kock, Pajakombo, Padangpandjang, Fon v.d. Capellen, Angoli, Kajoetanam, Naras, Emmahaven, Angkola djoeloe, Moeara

laboeh. South Sumatra: Doerian, Martapoera, Moeara aman, Ketahoen Plain, Tjoeroep, Aerprioekan, Kepahiang, Lampongs.

ISLAND OF BORNEO: Singkawang, Sanggau, Sintang, Kendangen, Balikpapan, Moeara Tewe, Samarinda, Tenggarong, Tarakan,

Tandjong Redeb. ISLAND OF CELEBES: Paloe, Toli-Toli, Boeol, Menado, Posso,

Kotamobagoe, Palopo, Watampone.

OTHER ISLANDS: Nias, Poelau telo, Enggano, Simaloer, Riouw,

Billiton, Banka, Batoe Island, Bali, Lombok, Soembawa, Soemba, Flores,

Poelau Laoet, Soela Islands, Boeroe, Ambon, Ceram, Halmahera, Ternate, Aroe Islands.
194

7.

(Appendix C.)

Anopheles

leucosphyrus

leucosphyrus

and

Anopheles

leucosphyrus

hackeri.

H.

—Anopheles

leucophyrus

hackeri

Localitieswhere

specimens

have

teen

collected. Areas

where

infected

specimens

have

heai

collected.
195

Anopheles leucosphyrus leucosphyrus and Anopheles leuco- sphyrus hackeri

H.-Anopheles leucosphyrus hackeri

ISLAND OF JAVA: West Java: West Bantam. South Java:

Tambaksari. East Java: South Malang.

ISLAND OF SUMATRA; Atjeh: Langsa, Takengon. East

Sumatra: Deli Plain, Deli Coast, Tandjong Balai, Kisaran, Moeara

Tebo (H.). West Sumatra: Greater Mandailing, Soendatar, Kajoetanam, Sawah loento, Moeara laboeh, Angoli, Limau manis. South

Sumatra:Benkoelen, Moeara aman, Aerprioekan, Doerian, Lampongs.

ISLAND OF BORNEO: Sanggau, Balikpapan, Samarinda (H.),

Tenggarong (H.), Tandjong Redeb, Tandjong Selor, Tandjong Palas,

Tandjong Djoetar, Moeara Tewe, Upper Mahakam, Sekajam, Tajans

Meliau, Tarakan, Sekadau, Nangatajap.

ISLAND OF CELEBES: Madjene (H.), Mamoedjoe (H.), Toradjagebiet (H.), Tolitoli (H.), Paleleh, Posso (H.).

OTHER ISLANDS: Nias, Poelau Laoet, Boeton, Sangihe (H.),

Talaud.
196

8.

(Appendix

C.)

Anopheles

umlrosus.

Localities v&ere

specimens

have

teen

collected. Areas

where

infected

specimens

have

been

collected.
197

Anopheles umbrosus

ISLAND OF JAVA: West Java: West Bantam, Batavia, Tandjong Priok, Sindangbarang, Bandjar. Middle Java: Noesa kambangan, Tegal, Semarang. East Java: Soerabaja, Pasoeroean, Tambaksari. ISLAND OF SUMATRA: Atjeh: Takengon, Singkel, Meulaboh,

Lho Seumawe, Lho Soekon, Kroengradja, Olehleh. East Sumatra:

Kisaran, Deli Coast, Deli Plain, Kateman, Rengat, Tandjong balai,

Moeara Tebo. West Sumatra: Sibolga, Padang Sidempoean, Moeara laboeh, Greater Mandailing, Aerprioekan.

ISLAND OF BORNEO: Sanggau, Simpang, Nangatajap, Balikpapan, Koeala Sambodja, Sekadau, Tandjong Redeb, Tenggarong,

Tarakan, Upper Mahakam, Tini, Tandjong Selor, Sekajam.

ISLAND OF CELEBES: Madjene, Posso.

OTHER ISLANDS: Nias, Riouw, Banka, Billiton, Natoena,

Boeroe.
198

9.

(Appendix

C.)

Anopheles

punctulatus

punctulatus

and

Anopheles

punctulatus

moluccensis.

P.—

A.

punctulatus

punctulatus

M.

A.

punctulatus

moluccensis n.

d.-subspecies

not

determined

Localities where

specimens

have

been

collected. Areas

where

Infected

specimens

have

been

collected.
199

Anopheles punctulatus punctulatus and Anopheles punctulatus moluccensis

P. A. punctulatus punctulatus M. A. punctulatus moluccensis

n. d.—subspecies not determined.

NEW GUINEA: Kokas (M.), Kaimana (M.), Fakfak (P. M.),

Albatrosbiwak (P. M.), Meer Plain (P. M.), Batavia Biwak (P. M.),

Pionier BIwak (P.), Prauw Biwak (M.)> Manokwari (n. d.), Merauke

(n. d.), Tanah Merah (Digoel) (P. M.), Idora (P.), Schouten Island

(P. M.), Sorong (M.), Hollandia (P. M.), Inland from Geelvink Bay

(n. d.), Motor Biwak (P. M.).

OTHER ISLANDS: Halmahera: towns of Sidangoli (P.), Tobelo

(P. M.), Weda (P. M.), Maidi (P.), Gita (P.); Batjan Archipelago

(P. M.), Poelau Salawati (M.), Misool (M.), Poelau Larat (P. M.),

Japen Group (P. M.), Ceram (Piroe) (P. M.), Ambon (P. M.), Boeroe

(P. M.), Ternate (P. M.), Aroe (P. M.), Soela Island (P. M.), Banggai

Island (M.), Banda (P. M.), Saparoea (P.), Damar (P.).
200

10.

(Appendix

C.)

Anopheles

bancroftii

and

Anopheles

pseudobarbirostris.

B,—

A.

bancroftii

Ps.

A.

pseudobarbirostris

Localitieswhere

specimens

have

been

collected.
201

Anopheles bancroftii and Anopheles pseudobarhirostris

B. A. bancroftii Ps. A. pseudobarhirostris

NEW GUINEA: Pionierbiwouak (B.), Tanah Merah (B.).

ISLAND OF CELEBES: Makassar (Ps.), Mamoedjoe (Ps.), Madjene (Ps.), Mandar (Ps.), Boeol (Ps.), Kotamobagoe (Ps.), Motoling

(Minahassa) (Ps.), Menado (Ps.), Paloe (Ps.).
202

11.

(Appendix

C.)

Anopheles

barbirostris and

Anopheles barbumbrosus.

Bu.

A.

barbumbrosus

Localities where

specimens

have

teen

collected. Areas

where

infected

specimens

have

heen

collected.
203

Anopheles barbirostris and Anopheles barbumbrosus Bu A. barbumbrosus

ISLAND OF JAVA: West Java: West Bantam, South Bantam,

North Bantam, Hinterland Bantam, Batavia, Buitenzorg, Tandjong

Priok, Tjibodas, Poentjak, Tjiteureup, Djampang, Sindangbarang,

Soekaboemi, Bandoeng, Tjiheha Plain, North Soemedang, Kepetaken,

Cheribon, Tegal wangi, Tjikadoe, Bandjar. Middle Java: Tjilatjap,

Noesa kambangan, Gombong (Bu.), Babakan, Maos, Banjoemas,

Poerworedjo, Margaredjo, Tegal, Semarang, Rembang, Magelang,

Djogja, Solo, Ambarawa. East Java: Toeban, Soerabaja, Lamongan,

Djatirogo, Modjowarno, Wonosari, Madioen, Pasoeroean, Problinggo,

South-Loemadjang, Malang, Banjoewangi, Madoera Island.

ISLAND OF SUMATRA: Atjeh: Kotaradja, Takengon, Belang

kedjeren, kotatjane, Sigli, Tapatoean, Lho Soekon, Bireuen, Lokop,

Langsa, Meulaboh, Lho Seumawe, Singkel, Talang akar. East

Sumatra: Deli-Plain, Deli-Coast, Kisaran, Moeara Tebo. West

Sumatra: Sidikalang (Bu.), Sibolga, Silindoeng-Plain, Pahahi Plain,

Padang Sidempoean, Greater Mandailing (Bu.), Lesser Mandailing

(Bu.), Rao, Soendatar, Fort de Kock, Fort v.d. Capellen, Singkarak,

Solok, Sawah loento, Padangpandjang, Naras, Kajoetanam, Moeara

laboeh, Angoli, Angkola djoeloe. South Sumatra: Benkoelen,

Kepahiang, Tjoeroep, Ketahoen Plain, Moeara aman, Kroe (Bu.),

Lampongs.

ISLAND OF BORNEO: Tandjong Redeb, Sanggau, Meliau,

Samarinda, Tenggarong, Boeloengan, Bandjermasin, Rantau pandjang.

ISLAND OF CELEBES: Makassar, Mamoedjoe, Toradja-Lander,

Pampanoea, Parepare, Paloe, Pinrang, Madjene (Bu.), Rapang, Leok,

Paleleh (Bu.), Tolitoli, Boeol, Kotamobagoe, Menado (Bu.), Sender,

Motoling, Werot, Likoepang, Palopo, Posso (Bu.).

NEW GUINEA: Kloof Biwouak, Fakfak, Sorong (Bu.), Noeseroe.

OTHER ISLANDS: Nias, Mentawei, Siberoet, Banka, Riouw, Bali,

Lombok (Bu.), Moena (Raha), Sanana (Bu.), Boeroe (Bu.), Sangihe,

Talaud (Bu.), Salajar, Halmahera (Bu.), Ambon (Bu.), Soela Island

(Bu.), Ceram (Bu.), Saparoea (Bu.), Haroekoe (Bu.), Timor (Bu.),

Wetar, Kisar, Flores, Pantar (Bu.), Alor, Soembawa. Soemba.

562282—44 14
204

Appendix

CHECK LIST AND KEYS FOR THE IDENTIFICATION OF CULICINE MOSQUITOES OF MEDICAL IMPORTANCE.

List of Culicines of Medical Importance in the

Netherlands Indies

[Compiled with some revision from J. Bonne-Wepster and S. L. Brug,

Nederlandsch-Indische Culicinen, Geneeskundig Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch-Indii, 77 {9/10), 1937.]

In 1937, 238 species of culicine mosquitoes were known to occur in

the Netherlands Indies. Since that time at least twelve additional species, none of which are of medical importance, have been recorded.

The following list contains all species known in 1937 which commonly

attack man in addition to some more common species which do not

attack man.

Armigeres {Armigeres ohturbans (Walker), 1860

Armigeres {Armigeres) confusus Edwards, 1915 Armigeres Armigeres) denbesteni Brug, 1925

Armigeres {Armigeres lacuum Edwards, 1922

Armigeres (Armigeres) malayi (Theobald), 1910

Armigeres {Armigeres moultoni Edwards, 1914

Aides Stegomyia albolineatus (Theobald), 1904

Aides Stegomyia albopictus (Skuse), 1894

Aides Stegomyia annandalei Theobald, 1910

Aides Stegomyia aegypti (Linnaeus), 1762

Aides Stegomyia scutellaris (Walker), 1859 =variegatus

Aides {Ochlerotatus vigilax (Skuse), 1901

Aides (Aidimorphus vexans (Meigen), 1830

Aides Aidimorphus alboscutellatus (Theobald), 1905

Aides Aidimorphus caecus (Theobald), 1901

Aides {Aidimorphus) imprimens (Walker), 1901

Aides (Banksinella lineatopennis (Ludlow), 1905

Aides {Aides) funereus ornatus (Theobald), 1905

Aides {Finlaya) niveus (Ludlow), 1903

Aides {Finlaya) albolateralis (Theobald), 1908
205

Aides {Finlaya) poicilius (Theobald), 1903

Aedeomyia venustipes (Skuse), 1889

Mansonia {Mansonioides annulata (Leicester), 1908

Mansonia {Mansonioides) annulifera (Theobald), 1901

Mansonia Mansonioides) longipalpis (van der Wulp), 1892

Mansonia {Mansonioides) indiana Edwards, 1930

Mansonia {Mansonioides) papuensis (Taylor), 1914

Mansonia {Mansonioides) uniformis (Theobald), 1921

Culex {Lutzia fuscana Wiedemann, 1820

Culex Lutzia) halifaxii Theobald, 1903

Culex {Culex) fatigans quinquefasciatus) Wiedemann, 1828

Culex {Culex) mimulus Edwards, 1915

Culex {Culex) sitiens Wiedemann, 1828

Culex {Culex) annulirostris (Theobald), 1905 Culex {Culex) vishnui (Theobald), 1901

Culex {Culex) tritaeniorhynchus siamensis Barraud and Christophers,

1931

Culex {Culex) hitaeniorhynchus Giles, 1901

Culex {Culex) gelidus Theobald, 1901

Culex {Culex) whitmorei (Giles), 1904

Culex {Culex) sinensis Theobald, 1903

Culex {Culex) fuscocephalus Theobald, 1907

Key to the Determination of the Genera of Netherlands Indies Culicine Mosquitoes

1. (a) Proboscis strongly decurved; V-shaped thickening at the fork of

vein Megarhinus

(b) Proboscis straight or slightly curved; no thickening as described

in (a)

2. (a) Tip of proboscis enlarged with very long hairs Harpagomyia

(b) Proboscis normal

3. (a) Erect wing scales long and narrow, enlarged at the tip and end- ing in two points; small mosquities Hodgesia

(b) Wing scales other than in (a)

4. (a) Erect scales atvarious places giving the mosquito moldy apappearance._ Aides Mucidus (Part of the Pardomyia group)

(b) No erect scales or only few limited to the abdomen and

legs

5. (a) Dark clouds on wing membrane over cross veins; large orange

colored mosquitoes Aides {Mucidus Pardomyia group)

(b) No dark clouds as described in (a)
206

Key to the Determination of the Genera of Netherlands Indies Culicine Mosquitoes—Continued

6. (a) Occiput with shining, metallic, sky-blue scales; moderately large

mosquitoes Tripteroides (In part)

(b) Such scales not present on the occiput or when they are present,

very small mosquitoes

7. (a) Occiput with metallic area of silver scales; median broad

silver stripe of broad scales on the mesonotum Topomyia

(b) Mesonotum without median stripe, or if present formed of

narrow scales

8. (a) Abdomen of the female upturned; wing scales very broad

Mansonia {Mansonioides)

(b) Abdomen or wing scales not as described in (a)

9. (a) Microtrichia on the wings visible as dark points with magnification of80 diameters 10

(b) No microtrichia visible with magnification of 100 diameters;

small mosquitoes Uranotaenia

10. (a) Metallic scales on the mesonotum and abdomen; postnotum with

hair Heizmannia

(b) Not as described in 10 (a), Armigeres flavus frequently has

some hair on the postnotum but lacks the metallic colored

scales) 11

11. (a) Postspiracular hairs present. Aides or Armigeres {Armigeres).

{Armigeres {Armigeres): Large mosquitoes without markings

on the feet, proboscis or dorsal side of the abdomen; the

mesonotum has at the most pale border. Aides: Members

of this genus are usually smaller. Their markings vary considerably.) (b) No postpiracular hairs 12

12. (a) Antennae short, the apical segment obviously not elongate

Aedeomyia

(b) Antennae normal, the apical segment much longer than the basal

segment 13

13. (a) Very large mosquitoes with speckled femora and tibiae and unbanded tarsi; series of at least five hairs on the anterior

margin of the mesepimeron Culex {Lutzia)

(b) Obviously not large mosquitoes; not more than two hairs on the

anterior margin ofthe mesepimeron 14

14. (a) Few pleural hairs; the uppermost sterno-pleural hairs absent;

not more than two pro-epimeral hairs; but with spiracular

hairs present Tripteroides (In part)
207

Key to the Determination of the Genera of Netherlands Indies Culicine Mosquitoes—Continued

(b) Uppermost sterno-pleural hairs present or more than two proepimeral hairs present; spiracular hairs lacking IS

15. (a) Pulvilli present in the female, most distinct on the fore and

middle legs; small In the male Culex

(b) Pulvilli absent or rudimentary 16

16. (a) Fore tarsal segment longer than 2, 3, 4, and together; very

short; wings spotted as in the anophelines; female palpus

Yr-Vi as long as the proboscis Orthopodomyia

(b) Fore tarsal segments not as described in 16 (a). Wings not

spotted 17

17. (a) Postspiracular area mostly with black scales

Armigeres Leicesteria

(b) Postspiracular area without scales 18

18. (a) First forked cell about as long as the petiole

Ficalbia Mimomyia

(b) First forked cell about as long as the petiole 19

19. (a) Large or moderately large mosquitoes; yellowish brown in color;

proboscis normal Mansonia Coquillettidia

(b) Small mosquitoes; principal color neither yellow nor brown;

proboscis of male with thickening at apex; proboscis of female

with very slight thickening or none at all

Other subgenera ofFicalbia.

Key to the Determination of Culicine Mosquitoes

Primarily of Medical Importance

1. (a) Very large mosquitoes with metallic colors, strongly decurved

proboscis, almost angulate, which becomes thinner near the

tip; V-shaped thickeningat the margin of the wing between

the apices of the branches of vein Genus Megarhinus

(b) No metallic colors; proboscis straight or slightly curved; no “V” between the forks of vein

2. (a) Wings with light and dark scales

(b) Wing scales entirely dark, at the most with few light scales at

the base of the costa 14

3. (a) large part of vein 1, i. e. at least the basal half, with light

scales (in females large part of vein also). Mesonotum

with broad yellow marginal stripes

Aides Banksinella lineatopennis
208

Key to the Determination of Culicine Mosquitoes

Primarily of Medical Importance—Continued

(b) Light areas or specks on the wing veins alternating with dark. Mesonotum not as in (a)

4. (a) Two large pale areas on the costa and vein and smaller pale

area at the apex of the wing Culex {Culex) mimulus

(b) Wings with pale specks sometimes also with small pale areas.

5. (a) Wings with pale areas and specks; the pale wing scales are entirely

or partly white

(b) Wings with only pale specks consisting of, at the most, few

scales; the pale wing scales are all yellow or yellowish

6. (a) Pale areas and specks on the wing entirely white. Abdomen

dorsally with numerous small well-defined white spots on dark background. Scales on the mesonotum small, and mostly

dark Aedes {Finlaya) poicilius

(b) Pale areas and yellow specks on the wings. Abdomen indistinctly marked with white, yellow, or light brown scales.

Scales on the mesonotum broad, more light than dark

Aedeomyia venustipes

7. (a) Erect wing scales long and narrow. (The erect scales near the

apex of the wing may be broader than those near the base.)

(b) All or nearly all of these erect scales are broad. Abdomen of the

female short and turned upwards at the caudal end (Genus

Mansonia, subgenus Mansonioides) 10

8. (a) well-defined broad pale band at about the middle of the proboscis. Anterior —% of the mesonotum with paler scales than the rest Culex {Culex) bitaeniorhynchus

(b) Proboscis and mesonotum otherwise

9. (a) Proboscis when viewed from beneath is dark at the base and from

there cream-colored for about half Its length with the rest dark.

Anterior margin of the cream-colored portion Is well-defined.

Aedes Ochlerotatus) vigilax

(b) Proboscis when viewed from beneath otherwise. Whenever it is

partly cream-colored, this part Is not sharply defined anteriorly

and often extends almost to the tip

Aedes {Aedimorphus) vexans

10. (a) Mesonotum with two longitudinal stripes of greenish, pale scales.

Mansonia {Mansonioides) uniformis (b) Mesonotum otherwise 11
209

Key to the Determination of Culicine Mosquitoes

Primarily of Medical Importance—Continued

11. (a) Strikingly pale-colored mosquitoes, yellow to light brown. Four

silver-white areas on the mesonotum; scutellum with broad,

silver-white scales Mansonia Mansonioides annulifera (b) Dark mosquitoes, brown to brownish black. Mesonotum other

than in 11 (a) Scutellum with small scales 12

12. (a) Mesonotum with an approximate figure-8 of yellow scales.

Bands and areas on the legs

Mansonia Mansonioides) annulata

(b) Mesonotum without pattern or with areas of pale blue scales.

Bands and areas on the legs white 13

13. (a) Very dark mosquitoes. Tibia of foreleg with six well-defined

bands Mansonia Mansonioides longipalpis

(b) Lighter mosquito; more brownish. Tibia of the foreleg with

10-15 scattered white specks

Mansonia Mansonioides) indiana

14. (a) Erect wing scales broad. Femora with dirty yellow areas

Mansonia Mansonioides papuensis

(b) Erect wing scales narrow. Femora other than in 14 (a) 15

15. (a) Proboscis with well-defined light band at about half its length,

covering at least one-third of the proboscis 37

(b) Proboscis without such band. (Proboscis sometimes pale for more than half its length.) 16

16. (a) Hind tarsus with pale bands 17

(b) Hind tarsus without pale bands 24

17. (a) Scales of the mesonotum form no well-defined pattern 18

(b) Mesonotum with well-defined markings of white scales on

dark background. (Genus Aedes subgenus Stegomyia 20

18. (a) Femora not speckled 19

(b) Femora speckled

19. (a) Integument of the pleura dark brown to almost black. Light

bands on the hind tarsus conspicuous; the width of these

bands on the first three tarsal segments Is greater than the diameter of the segment at the location of the band Aedes Aedimorphus imprimens

(b) Integument of the pleura light brown. The pale bands on the

hind tarsus not visible to the naked eye; they are not as

wide as the diameter of the segment

Aedes {Aedimorphus) caecus
210

Key to the Determination of Culicine Mosquitoes

Primarily of Medical Importance—Continued

20. (a) Mesonotum with so-called lyre shaped figure

Aides (Stegomyia aegypti

(b) Mesonotum marked differently than in 20 (a) 21

21. (a) Mesonotum with broad silver-white area anteriorly

Aides Stegomyia) annandalei

(b) Mesonotum with median silver-white stripe forits entire length

or the greater part of its length 22

22. (a) Hind tarsus with three white bands

Aides (Stegomyia) albolineatus

(b) Hind tarsus with five white bands. (The fifth tarsal segment

which is entirely white is counted as white band.) 23

23. (a) Pleura with white spots Aides Stegomyia) albopictus

(b) Pleura with longitudinal stripes. Aides (Stegomyia scutellaris

24. (a) Somewhat more than the anterior half of the mesonotum thickly

covered with silver-white scales Aides Finlaya) niveus

(b) Similar to 24(a) but with median broad black stripe on the

mesonotum Aides (Finlaya) albolateralis (c) Mesonotum without the obvious silver-white markings 25

25. (a) Femora with pale specks. Large mosquitoes (Genus Culex,

subgenus Lutzia) 26

(b) Femora without spots. Large or smal mosquitoes 27

26. (a) Abdominal tergites entirely dark ol at the most few apical

pale scales on the posteriorabdr ominal segments

Culex (Lutzia) halifaxii (b) Posterior abdominal tergites with broad yellow apical bands;

in the female posterior abdominal tergites frequently entirely

yellow Culex (Lutzia) fuse ana

27. (a) Abdominal tergiteswith pale basalbands --Culex (Culex) fatigans

quinquefasciatus.)

(b) Abdominal tergites with pale bands transversely across the

middle of the segments so that these have dark apex and

base. (Mesonotum with pale margin anteriorly and laterally;

with dark spot surrounded by light in front of scutellum and

pair of submedian dark areas surrounded by light; narrow

median pale stripe faintly indicated.)

Aides (Aides)funereus ornatus

(c) Abdominal tergites without light bands 28
211

Key to the Determination of Culicine Mosquitoes

Primarily of Medical Importance—Continued

28. (a) Occiput with many forked scales and many small curved scales;

broad flat scales only on the sides 29

(b) Occiput mainly with broad flat scales at the most few forked

scales near the neck and few, usually Indistinct, narrow

curved scales 30

29. (a) Scutellum, sparsely covered with narrow, curved, cream-colored

scales. Pleura with two parallel, horizontal, unsealed dark

stripes, anteriorly the light Integument shows between the

parallel dark stripes; posteriorly the parallel dark stripes

are separated by stripe of flat white scales

Culex [Culex) fuscocephalus

(b) The entire scutellum covered thickly with broad, flat, silver- white scales (a very striking character). Integument of the

entire pleura darker with few areas of silver-white scales. Aides Aedimorphus alboscutellatus

30. (a) Scutellum with flat broad scales 31

(b) Scutellum with narrow curved scales (Genus Aides, subgenus

Aides 40

31. (a) Small mosquitoes. The ventral and lateral edges of the abdomen dark or faintly marked by the presence of dirty yellow

scales (Genus Aides subgenus Cancaides)

(b) Large mosquitoes. The ventral and lateral edges ofthe abdomen with conspicuous markings of white or cream-colored

scales (Genus Armigeres, subgenus Armigeres) 32

32. (a) Abdominal sternites II-VI entirely covered with white scales. 33

(b) Abdominal sternites II-VI with black and white bands 34

33. (a) Clypeus with white scales. Abdominal sternite VII entirely

white Armigeres Armigeres) malayi

(b) Clypeus without scales. Abdominal sternite VII black

Armigeres Armigeres) confusus 34. (a) The white stripe on the outer margin of the hind femur is continuous to the knee joint; abdominal sternites II-VII with

black band 35

(b) The white stripe on the outer margin of the hind femur does not

extend to the knee joint 36

35. (a) Abdominal sternite VII almost entirely black Armigeres Armigeres denbesteni

(b) Abdominal sterniteVII almost entirely white Armigeres Armigeres) obturbans
212

Key to the Determination of Culicine Mosquitoes

Primarily of Medical Importance—Continued

36. (a) Abdominal sternite VII entirely black

Armigeres {Armigeres) moultoni

(b) Abdominal sternite VII with few subapical or apical white scales Armigeres Armigeres) lacuum

37. (a) Abdominal tergites with apical bands. Anterior of the

mesonotum with cream-colored scales conspicuously contrasting with the darker posterior femora speckled

Culex (Culex) sinensis

(b) Abdominal tergites with basal bands or areas (at the most small

apical band on tergite VII) 38 38. (a) Anterior of the mesonotum covered with snow-white scales. 39 (b) Mesonotum without conspicuous marking although the scales are frequently not all of the same color 40

39. (a) The snow-white anterior portion of the mesonotum does not

have extensions reaching almost to the posterior margin and

is therefore separated entirely from the scutellum by dark

area. Basal T-shaped band on the abdominal tergites.

Femora not spotted Culex {Culex) gelidus

(b) The snow-white anterior part of the mesonotum sends white

extensions almost to the posterior margin of the mesonotum.

Three-pronged pale basal bands or median basal areas on the

abdominal tergites. Femora speckled

Culex {Culex) whitmorei

40. (a) Middle femur speckled 41

(b) Middle femur not speckled 42

41. (a) Bases of forked cells approximately equidistant from the base of

the wing Culex {Culex) annulirostris

(b) Base of the anterior forked cells at greater distance from the wing Culex {Culex) sitiens

42. (a) Mesonotum with many cream-colored scales. Base of forked

cells approximately equidistant from the base of the wing

Culex {Culex) vishnui

(b) Mesonotum, except the scutellum, with small, dark, narrow

scales, no cream-colored scales among them. In the female the

base of the anterior forked cell is farther from the wing base

than the posterior forked cell. This is sometimes true also

in the male although usually the base of the forked cells are

equidistant from the base of the wing

Culex {Culex) tritaeniorhynchus siamensis
213

Appendix

CHECK LIST AND KEYS FOR THE IDENTIFICATION OF TICKS OF THE NETHERLANDS INDIES

Check List of Ticks Known to Occur in the Netherlands Indies

This list is based largely on thatof Krijgsman and Ponto

(1932) with some new records. In general doubtful

records and synonyms due to mistaken identification have

been omitted. It must be remembered that the tick

fauna of the Netherlands Indies is still not well known and

that many more species may subsequently be found.

Genus Amhlyomma

1. A. babirussae Schulze, 1933

Distribution: Borneo, north Celebes, Minahassa

Hosts: wild hogs, Sus babirussa

2. A. caelaturum perfectum Schulze, 1932

Distribution; Sumatra

Hosts: reptiles

3. A. cordiferum Neumann, 1899

Distribution: Banda Is. (Molukkas), Krakatau Hosts: pythons and other reptiles

4. A. cyprium Neumann, 1899

Distribution: New Guinea

Hosts: reptiles, wild hogs, cattle, buffalo

5. A. dammermanni Warburton, 1927 Distribution: Java, Kei Islands

Hosts: unknown
214

6. A. follax Schulze, 1932

Distribution: Sumatra

Hosts: (?)

7. A. feuerborni Schulze, 1932

Distribution: East Java Hosts: reptiles

8. A. geomydae (Cantor), 1847

Distribution: Pinang Hills, Sumatra; British North Borneo

Hosts: tortoise {Geomyda spinosa)

9. A. helvolum Koch, 1844

Distribution: Java, Borneo (Sarawak), Sumatra, Nordwachter

(Java Sea)

Hosts: Far anus salvator, Mobuia multifasciaia, and other reptiles

10. A. infestum borneense Schulze, 1936

Distribution: Borneo

Hosts: wild hogs

11. A. papuana Hirst, 1914

Distribution: Southern Dutch New Guinea

Hosts: unknown

12. A, robinsoni Warburton, 1927

Distribution: Komodo Island

Hosts: giant lizard, Varanus komodoensis

13. A. sublaeve Neumann, 1899

Distribution: Sumatra, Java Hosts: Manis javanica

14. A. testudinarium Koch, 1844

Distribution: Sarawak, Borneo, Sumatra, Bali, Lombok,

Soemba

Hosts: man, cattle, water buffalo, pigs, wild boar, tiger

Genus Ixodes

1. I. acanthoglossi Lucas, 1878

Distribution: New Guinea

Hosts: anteater

2. I. cordifer Neumann, 1908

Distribution: New Guinea, Celebes, Ambon (7. cordifer bibex

Schulze, 1935), Waigeu Island

Hosts: probably various mammals

3. I. granulatus Supino, 1897

Distribution: Java, Sumatra

Hosts: various rodents
215

4. I. holocyclus Neumann, 1899

Distribution: Kei Islands Hosts: man (in Australia), dog, sheep, cattle, other mammals,

domestic fowl

5. I. Endopapiger luxuriosus Schulze, 1935

Distribution: North New Guinea

Hosts: rodents

6. 1. praematurus Schulze, 1935 Distribution: Timor

Hosts: small birds

7. I. priscicollaris Schulze, 1932

Distribution: New Guinea

Hosts: flying phalangers

8. I. spinicoxalis Neumann, 1899

Distribution; Sumatra, West Java Hosts: small carnivores, rodents, shrews

9. I. steini Schulze, 1933

Distribution: New Guinea Hosts: small marsupial mammals

10. I. trimaculatus Lucas, 1879

Distribution: New Guinea Hosts: lizard, Varanus chlorostigma

11. I. kopsteini Oudemans, 1925

Distribution: Ambon

Hosts:

Genus Dermacentor

1. D. atrosignatus Neumann, 1901

Distribution; New Guinea, Australia

Hosts: man, monkeys

2. D. auratus Supino, 1897

Distribution: Java, RIouw Archipelago, Soela Islands, Sumatra

Hosts: deer, wild boar, bears

Genus Aponomma

1, A. draconis Warburton, 1933

Distribution: Komodo Island

Hosts: Uranus komodoensis

2. A. gervaisi (Lucas), 1847

Distribution: Java, Sumatra, New Guinea

Hosts: reptiles
216

3. A. lucasi. Warburton, 1910

Distribution: Java Hosts: snakes Coluheride)

4. A. oudemansi Neuman, 1910

Distribution: New Guinea

Hosts: anteaters

5. A. traheatum Schulze, 1933

Distribution: North New Guinea

Hosts: lizards

6. A. trimaculatum Lucas, 1878

Distribution: Sumatra, New Guinea

Hosts: snakes, horses, cattle

Genus Haemaphysalis

1. H. bispinosa Neumann, 1897

Distribution: Borneo (Sarawak), North Sumatra, West Java,

East Soembawa, South and East Celebes, Kariman-Djawa Hosts: many large mammals, moles, domestic fowl

2. H. calvus Nuttall and Warburton, 1915

Distribution: British North Borneo

Hosts: water buffalo Bos huh alii)

3. H. cornigera Neumann, 1897

Distribution: British Borneo, Sumatra, Java, Borneo, East

Soembawa, Kariman-Djawa

Hosts: large mammals.

4. H. leachi (Audouin), 1827 Distribution: Sumatra, West Java, Borneo (Sarawak)

Hosts: large mammals.

5. H. hystricis Supino, 1897

Distribution: Sumatra, Borneo (Sarawak), Celebes, Riouw Archipelago

Hosts: large mammals. 6. H. monospinosa Krijgsman and Ponto, 1932

Distribution: Riouw Archipelago —east of Sumatra

Hosts: dwarf deer, Tragulus kanchil.

7. H. novae-guineae Krijgsman and Ponto, 1932

Distribution: Merauke (Southern New Guinea)

Hosts: wild hog.

8. H. papuana Thorell, 1882

Distribution: Java, Borneo, Sumatra, New Guinea, Sanghii,

Ambon, Soembawa, Soela, Halmahera, Alor, Saparoea

Hosts; large mammals.
217

9. H. toxopei Warburton, 1927

Distribution: Boeroe (Molukkas)

Hosts: bats.

10. H. Wellington. Nuttall and Warburton, 1908

Distribution: Borneo (Sarawak), South Sumatra, Java, New

Guinea Hosts; water buffalo, dog.

Genus Rhipicelphalus

1. R. haemaphysaloides Supino, 1897

Distribution: Sumatra, Java, Roti, Madoera, Soembawa,

Celebes, Soemba, Sawoe, Timor, Alor, Southeast Borneo

Hosts; man, many other large mammals, rodents.

2. R. intermedius Neumann

Distribution: Sumatra Hosts; Tarsius spectrum.

3. R. sanguineus (Latreille), 1804

Distribution: world-wide distribution, everywhere where dogs

have penetrated. Java, Soemba, Sumatra, Madoera, Timor,

Alor, Ambon, Saparoea

Hosts: man, dog, cattle, buffalo, goats, and many other mammals.

Genus Boophilus

1. B. annulatus australis.

Distribution: widely distributed throughout the Netherlands

Indies: Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Celebes, Boetoeng, Soela, Lombok, Timor, Tanimbar Islands, New Guinea, west Ceram,

Ambon, Madoera and all of the innumerable little islands of

the archipelago where cattle are found.

Hosts: cattle, buffalo, horse, goat, deer, Bos sundaicus. Note: The Netherlands Indies specimens have been arranged

into the three species listed below. 2. B. Uroboophilus rotundiscutatus Minning, 1934

Distribution: Celebes, Borneo, Sumatra, Java, Soemba, Timor,

Ambon, Bali.

Hosts: cattle, buffalo.

3. B. {Uroboophilus) longiscutatus Minning, 1934

Distribution: New Guinea, Soela Island

Hosts: cattle.

4. B. Uroboophilus) krijgsmani Minning, 1934

Distribution: Sumatra, Soela, Bali, New Guinea, Soemba,

Celebes, Borneo

Hosts: cattle.
218

GenusHyalomma

1. H. aegyptium (Linnaeus), 1758 Distribution; West Java Hosts: cattle.

Note: Introduced into Java from British India with imported

cattle. Has not spread and may have died out.

Genus Argus

1. A. persicus Oken, 1812.

Distribution: West Java, Soemba—also world-wide, wherever chickens are raised.

Hosts: birds (domestic fowl), mammals, occasionally man.

Keys to the Identification of the Ticks of the

Netherlands Indies

These keys are translations, with some revision, of the

keys of Krijgsman and Ponto (1932) which are the only

ones available for this area. Since the time when these

keys were compiled several additional species have been

found (see check list), fact to be borne in mind when the

keys are used. However in view of the amount of time

devoted by Krijgsman and Ponto to the study of the

Netherlands Indies ticks it can be assumed that their keys

deal with all of the more common species.

Ixodoidea

a. Capitulum ventral, not visible dorsally. Peritremes at the level of the third intercoxal space Argasidae (A persicus)

b. Capitulum on the anterior margin of the body. Peritremes posterior

to the 4th pair of legs Ixodidae
219

Keys to the Identification of the Ticks of the

Netherlands Indies—Continued

Ixodidae

Anal groove lies anterior to the anus, its arms bend posteriorly.

Ixodes

Anal groove absent or lying posterior to the anus with arms bending

anteriorly

1. Anal groove and festoons present

Anal groove and festoons absent Boophilus (B. annulatus)

2. Basis capituli (from dorsal view) hexagonal Rhipicephalus

Basis capituli with 3, 4, or sides 3. Palpi long. (Second segment much longer than wide.)

Palpi short. (Second segment not as long or only slightly longer than

wide.)

4. Eyes present

Eyes absent Aponomma

5. 2nd palpal segment much longer than 3rd Amhlyomma

2nd palpal segment about as long as 3rd Hyalomma

6. Scutum ornate, eyes present Dermacentor D. auratus)

Scutum not ornate, eyes absent Haemaphysalis

Rhipicephalus

Males

a. Innermost pair of anal plates elongated, pear-shaped with only slightly

concave inner margins R. sanguineus

b. Innermost pair ofanal plates sickle-shaped with strongly concave inner

margins R. haemaphysaloides

Females

a. Scutum clearly longer than broad with fine punctuations, body moderately covered with hair R. sanguineus

b. Scutum about as long as broad and coveredwith coarser punctuations,

body densely covered with hair R. haemaphysaloides

Haemaphysalis

Males

Coxa IV with two long spurs H. cornigera

Coxa IV with one short spur

1. Scutum almost twice as long as wide

Scutum shorter

562282 —44 15
220

Keys to the Indentification of the Ticks of the

Netherlands Indies—Continued

Haemaphysalis —Continued

2. The dorsal posterior margin of the third palpal segment with spine

H. novae-guinea*

The dorsal posterior margin of the 3rd palpal segment without spine

H. leachi

3. Marginal grooves well developed, long

Marginal grooves poorly developed, visible only near the peritremes.

Marginal grooves absent

4. Cornua weakly developed. Small spur on ventral side of 3rd palpal

segment H. papuana

Cornua well developed, very large spur on ventral side of 3rd palpal

segment H. monospinosa

5. Cornua well developed, cervical groove poorly developed (short and

shallow) H. bispinosa

Cornua poorly developed, cervical groove well developed (long and

deep) H. Wellington

6. Festoons on dorsal side longer than wide. Scutum with dots mixed

with larger spots H. hystricis

Festoons on dorsal side wider than long. Scutum with many fine dots only H. toxopei

Females

The cervical groovereaches the posterior margin of the scutum

H. toxopei

The cervical groove does not reach the posterior margin of the

scutum

1. The thirdpalpal segment with spine on dorsal side

Third palpal segment without spine on dorsal side

2. Cornua absent H. Wellington

Cornua present

3. Second palpal segment bears dorsally on the lateral surface broad

3-sided protrusion which points posteriorly H. leachi

No such protrusion

4. Peritremes approximately round, cornua short and blunt, scutum oval

in shape. Cervical grooves converge first, then usually bend abruptly outwardly H. bispinosa

H. novae-guinea of Krijgsrnan and Ponto, 1932 is preoccupied by H. novaeguinae

of Hirst. 1914.
221

Keys to the Identification of the Ticks of the

Netherlands Indies—Continued

Haemaphysalis—Continued

Peritremes pear-shaped, cornua well-developed, scutum round.

Cervical grooves form deep grooves at distance from anterior margin

of the scutum and then become shallow and bend toward the

margin H. hysiricis

5. The second palpal segment with well-developed lateral protuberance; the scutum has feather-like margin H. cornigera

The second palpal segment without well developed lateral protuberance; margin of scutum not feather-like. H. papuana

Amhlyomma

Males

Festoons on dorsal side not visible _* H. papuana

Festoons on dorsal side easily visible

1. Basis capituli from dorsal view triangular. Legs with shiny green

flecks dorsally at the joints A. robinsoni

Basis capituli from dorsal view quadrangular

2. Scutum ornamented.

Scutum not ornamented..., A. sublaeve

3. Second palpal segment twice as long as third

Second palpal segment less than twice as long as third A. cyprium

4. Scutum no longer than mm,, ornate with seven clearly marked pale

flecks one of which lies in the middle A. helvolum

Scutum mm. long or longer, ornated differently

5. Scutum gold-yellow with dark brown ornaments. Legs light brown

with pale rings at the joints. Coxa with two spurs of unequal

length A. testudinarium

Scutum dark brown with pale ornaments. Legs dark brown and

dorsally with few pale flecks A. caelaturum

Females

Scutum with pale flecks

Scutum without pale flecks

1. Scutum with only three distinct pale flecks on each side

Scutum otherwise

2. Second palpal segment three times as long as third, basis capituli

forms an approximate trapezoid (with its base anterior). A. caelaturum

Second palpal segment is less than three times as long as the third,

basis capituli different than incaelaturum
222

Keys to the Identification of the Ticks of the

Netherlands Indies—Continued

mblyomma—Continued

3. Coxa II with two spurs, peritremes in shape of equilateral triangles

A. robinsoni

Coxa II with spur, peritremes comma-shaped A. helvolum

4. Basis capituli clearly triangular A. geomydae

Basis capituli otherwise

5. Marginal grooves developed A. testudinarium Marginal grooves undeveloped or absent

6. Scutum triangular, posterior angle acute, hair long A. cyprium

Scutum more heart-shaped, posterior angle blunt, hair short

A. dammermani 7. All coxae have two spurs each A. papuana

Not all coxae have two spurs each

8. Coxa and II each with two well developed spurs, innermost spur on

Coxa III reduced to small knoblet, marginal grooves absent

A. cordiferurn

Coxa with two broad flat blunt spurs, the other coxae each with one

broad flatblunt spur; marginal grooves present A. sublaeve

Ixodes

Males

Basis capituli quadrangular I. holocyclus

Basis capituli five sided 1. Posterior margin ofCoxa II with two spurs /.

cordifer Posterior margin of Coxa III with one spur I. granulatus

Females

Coxa with very long spine on the inside of the posterior margin

I. spinicoxalis

Coxa with weak spine on the inside of the posterior margin

1. Arms of anal groove converge considerably, legs yellow-red

I. holocyclus

Arms of anal groove diverge, legs dark brown I. granulatus
223

Appendix

TABLES FOR THE IDENTIFICATION OF

TROMBIGULID LARVAE OF THE

NETHERLANDS INDIES

Larvae of Trombiculid Mites

The tables in this appendix have been adapted without

modification from Walch (1922, 1927) and are the most

complete descriptions available in the literature. Actually because of lack of specimens in this country there is

no way of ascertaining their accuracy and usefulness. It

should be remembered that in so far as can be ascertained

in none of the species known to occur in the Netherlands

Indies have the adult mites been found. Furthermore it

is quite likely that hitherto undescribed species may be

encountered which will complicate the use of the tables.

Nevertheless it appears that the material compiled in

these tables should at least serve as starting point in

the identification of these larvae.
224

SPECIFIC DETERMINATION OF

TROMBICULAE OF

THE

INDIES

Points

for

differentiation

T.

muris

T.

oudemansi n.

sp.

T.

acuscutellaris

Color:

Deep

red.

Red.

Macroscopical

aspect

ellowish-white

Yellowish-white,

sometimes orange.

Scutum:

.1

/•

-i

36

SO

68.

54

72

77.

Relative

position

of

sensory hairs

Posterior lateral

hairs

10

micra

Posterior lateral

hairs

12

micra

Posterior lateral

hairs

micra

and

posterior

lateral

hairs.

behind

the

sensory hairs.

behind

the

sensory hairs.

behind

the

sensory hairs.

Length

of

anterior

lateral

hair

17

27

42.

(in

micra).

39

77.

Length

of

sensory hairs

(in

micra).

24..

Morphology

of

sensory hairs

Clubshaped;

with

distinct

hairs.

Clubshaped.

Oblong.

Hairs

Long

and

slender;

distal

part

(measurements in

micra).

Length

of

stem

7;

length

of

very

distinct;

length

of

stem

with

2-3

spines

and

8-9

hairs

body

17;

width

of

body

6.

8;

length

of

body

31;

width

nearly

all

on

external

side;

of

body

9.

ratio

about

2:3.

Eyes:

Anterior eye

much

bigger

than

Size:

Refractiveness

Probably

anterior

eye>posterior

Anterior

eye>

posterior eye. Aneye.

terior

eye

more refractive

the

posterior one.

than

posterior one.

Hairs

of

trunk: Number

of

hairs

(average):

24

38

on

posterior

border

of

19.

Dorsal

surface

32

or

34

body. 30

24.
225

Situation

of

dorsal

hairs

in

transverse rows. Length

of

dorsal

hair

(average)

(in

micra). Number

of

lateral

branches

of

dorsal

hairs

(first

and

second

row): Convex

side

(in

each

of

both

rows). Concave

side

(in

each

of

both

rows).

Number

of

hairs

on

coxae:

First

pair

10,

6,6,4,4,2(10, 6,6.

6,

4,2)...

20

8,8,

8,4,

(2,

6.

6,2,6,6,2)

22

8,6,

6,

4.

2.

60. 10-13. 6-7.

3-6

2-S

2-3

2-3

Second

pair

Third

pair

Palp: Number

and

kind

of

hairs;

Genu

feathered

hair,

plain

hairs.

plumose).

Tarsus

(appendiculum)

feathered

hairs

(3

with

only

feathered

(1

very

conspicuous).

feathered

hairs

(one

very

conbranch),

plain

hairs,

seta.

plain

hair,

seta.

spicuous),

seta.

3.

20

32

43.

micra).

Rat

(Deli).
226

SPECIFIC DETERMINATION OF

TROMBICULAE

OF

THE

NETHERLANDS

INDIES—

Continued

Points

for

differentiation

T.

schuffneri

T.

deliensis

T.

pseudo-akamushi

Color:

Red

Orange-red,

sometimes

yellowDeep

red.

Red.

ish-white.

Scutum:

55

37

anterior

lateral

hairs,

60.

84

74

99.

Relative

position

of

sensory hairs

and

posterior

lateral

hairs.

Length

of

anterior

lateral

hair

(in

micra). Length

of

sensory hairs

(in

micra). Morphology

of

sensory hairs

(measurements in

micra).

Eyes:

61

behind

the

sensory hairs.

39

behind

the

sensory hairs.

46.

29

61

60.

Clubshaped

with

very minute

hairs;

length

of

stem 7;

length

of

body

27;

width

of

body

IS.

Anterior

eye>

posterior eye

Long

and

slender;

distal

part

within

total

hairs;

ratio

of

proximal

(naked)

and

distal

part

about 1:1.

Anterior

eye>posterior eye.

Long

and

slender;

distal

part

with

6-9

hairs

on

the

external

side;

ratio

about 1:1.

Anterior

eye>posterior eye.

Hairs

of

trunk: Number

of

hairs

(average):

Sometimes

the

anterior eye

is

more refractive than

the

posterior one.
227

Dorsal surface

42

28

20. 12

(13). 8,

6,

4,

(8,

6,

2.

4).

Ventral surface

30

21

Situation

of

dorsal

hairs

in

trans10,

10,

8,

8,

(with

slight

varia10,

6,

6,

4,

verse

rows.

tion).

Length

of

dorsal

hair

(average)

(in

micra).

30

42

(large

individual

variation)...

44.

Number

of

lateral

branches

of

dorsal

hairs

(first

and

second

row): Convex

side

(in

each

of

both

6-8

9-12

7-8.

rows). Concave

side

(in

each

of

both

2-4

3-6

3-S.

rows).

Number

of

hairs

on

coxae:

First

pair

Second

pair

Third

pair

Palp: Number

and

kind

of

hairs:

Trochanlero-femur

feathered

hair.

plain

hair. feathered,

plain

hairs.

Genu....

feathered

hair,

plain

hairs

feathered,

plain

hairs

(1

of

the

latter on

ventral

surface).

feathered

hairs,

rod

shaped

seta.

feathered

(one

of

them

very

conspicuous),

plain

hair,

Number

of

prongs

of

claw

(3)

seta, 2.

Chelicerae:

Length

of

hook

(in

micra).

S3

23

42.

Galea:

Hair

Unfeathered. Swine;

man;

fowl

(Deli).

Host:

Kind

of

host
228

SPECIFIC DETERMINATION OF

OF

THE

NETHERLANDS

INDIES

—Continued

Points

for

differentiation

T.

pseudo-schuffneri

T.

glabrum

T.

globulare

Color:

34. 61.Posterior lateral

hairs

micra

in

front

of

sensory hairs.

43. 25. Clubshaped

with

very

minute

hairs.

Length

of

stem

6,

length

of

body

19,

width

of

body

IS.

Pseudostigmata very

close

to

each

other.

Anterior

eye>posterior

one

Anterior

eye

more refractive than

posterior one.

41-38+7 on

posterior.

Scutum:

Pentagonal with

anterior margin;

longer

than

lateral

margin.

49

The

halves

of

the

posterior

margin

meet

one another at

sharp

angle.

49

76

SO

Relative

position

of

sensory hairs

and

posterior

lateral

hairs.

Length

of

anterior

lateral

hairs

(in

micra). Length

of

sensory hairs

(in

micra).

Morphology

of

sensory hairs

(measurements in

micra).

Eyes;

Posterior lateral

hairs

micra

in

front

of

sensory hairs.

67

Posterior

lateral

hairs

17

micra

behind

the

sensory hairs.

28

36

29

Clubshaped

with

very minute

hairs;

length

of

stem

10;

length

of

body

26,

width

of

body

13.

Anterior

eye>posterior one. Anterior

eye

more refractive

than

posterior one.

Clubshaped,

with

distinct

hairs.

Length

of

stem 4;

length

of

body

25,

width

of

body

13.

Probably

only

eye

present,

perhaps

none.

Hairs

of

trunk: Number

of

hairs

(average):

Dorsal

surface.
229

Situation

of

dorsal

hairs

in

transverse rows. Length

of

dorsal

hair

(on

an

average)

(in

micra).

12,

6,

6,

4,

(with

slight

individual

variation).

4.D

...

6,

6,

With

individual

variation,

eg.

10,

6,

6,

8,

6,

2.

33.

Distinct

Very

distinct.

Number

of

lateral

branches

of

dorsal

hairs

(first

and

second

row: Convex

side

(in

each

of

both

rows). Concave

side

(in

each

of

both

rows).

Number

of

hairs

on

coxae:

6-8

9-12.

3-4

7-8. 1. 1. 2.

Palp: Number and

kind

of

hairs:

feathered

hair.

(long)

plain

hair

feathered

hair.

_L.

plain

hairs

feathered

hair.

feathered

(one

of

them

very

conspicuous),

plain

hairs.

5-6

feathered

hairs

(1

of

them

very

consplscuous),

plain

hair? 2.

.Number

ot

prongs

ol

cisw.......

Chelicerae:

Length

of

hook

(in

micra).

32

23-

30.

Unfeathered...

Slightly

feathered.

Man,

rat

(Lampong

districts,

South

Sumatra).

Rat

(Lampong

districts)..

Rat

(South

Celebes).
230

SPECIFIC DETERMINATION OF

TROMBICULAE

OF

THE

NETHERLANDS

INDIES—

Continued

Points

for

differentiation

T.

densipiliata

T.

vandersandei

T.

wichmanni

Color:

Red

Red.

Red.

Scutum:

Nearly

hexagonal.

The

anterior

margin

is

the

longest

one;

posterior

border

slightly

curved

inward.

Resembles that

of

T.

pseudo

akam.,

only

the

posterior

margin

is

curved

inward

in

middle.

51 81

Relative

position

of

sensory

hairs

and

posterior

lateral

hairs.

Length

of

anterior

lateral

hair

(in

micra). Length

of

sensory hairs

(in

micra).

Morphology

of

sensory hairs

(measurements in

micra).

Eyes:

behind

the

sensory hairs.

SI

sensory hairs.

45 Long

and

slender;

distal

part

with

spine

and

three

rows

of

hairs

(4,

5,

5),

ratio

about

4:3. Anterior eye

much

bigger

than

the

posterior one and

much

more refractive. 58

Clubshaped;

with

very minute

hairs.

Long

and

slender;

distal

pan

with

about

hairs.

Hairs

of

trunk: Number

of

hairs

(average):

Dorsal

surface

SO

24.
231

35

42

14. 6,

6,

6,

(newly

hatched

larvae).

Situation

of

dorsal

hairs

in

transverse rows. Length of

dorsal

hair

(on

an

average)

(in

micra).

Number

of

lateral

branches

of

dorsal

hairs

(first

and

second

row) Convex

side

(in

each

of

both

rows). Concave

side

(in

each

of

both

rows).

Number

of

hairs

on

coxae;

10,9,

12,

11,6,4, 4,2

12,

10,

10,

10,

SO 7-9 3-S...

Palp: Number

and

kind

of

hairs;

Tibia

hair

with

branch,

plain

feathered

hair,

plain

hair

feathered,

plain

hairs.

hairs. spicuous),

seta.

plain

hairs

(1

of

them

is

short). 2.

44

micra).

forest.

New

Guinea.
232

SPECIFIC DETERMINATION OF

TROMBICULAE

OF

THE

NETHERLANDS INDIES—

Continued

Points

for

differentiation

Leeuwenhoekia australiensis

SchGngastia

salmi

Color: Macrbscopical aspect

Scutum:

Form

In

the

middle

of

the

anterior

margin

there

is

Posterior part

slightly

corrugated.

Length

(in

micra)

forwardedly

directed,

elongated

process

(length

27

micra).

86

60. 10S.

Relative

position

of

sensory hairs

and

Posterior lateral

hairs

micra

in

front

of

Sensory

hairs

half

way

the

line

connecting the

posterior

lateral

hairs.

sensory hairs.

anterior

and

the

one

uniting

the

posterior

Length

of

anterior

lateral

hairs

(in

micra).

lateral

hairs.

Equal

to

the

distance between

the

two anterior

Length

of

sensory hairs

(in

micra)

Morphology

of

sensory hairs

(measure61 Long

and

slender

distal

part

with

or

sidelateral

hairs.

Clubshaped

(resembling those

of

T.

vanderments

in

micra).

hairs,

ratio

of

proximal

(naked)

and

distal

sandei

T.

schuffneri,

etc.)

with

very minute

part

about

2:3.

hairs.

Pseuodostigmata widely

apart,

hidden

in

body

falx.

Eyes:

Anterior

eye

much

larger

than

posterior one,

Anterior

eye>posterior one...

also

muchmore refractive.

Hairs

of

trunk: Number

of

hairs

(average):

Dorsal sur- 64+6

on border

116+12

on border.

face.
233

Situation

of

dorsal

hairs

in

transverse

rows. Length

of

dorsal

hair

(on

an

average)

(in

micra).

8,

14.

8,

10,8,

6,4

48

14,

12,

10,

10.

10.

10,

10,

10.

10.

10.

10.

Number

of

laterial

branches

of

dorsal

hairs

(first

and

second

row):

Convex

side

(in

each

of

both

rows)..

Concave

side

(in

each

of

both

rows)..

Number

of

hairs

on

coxae:

10-12 2-8

1. 1. 3.

Palp: Number

and

kind

of

hairs:

Tibia

feathered

hairs

and

plain

hair

or

feathered

hairs.

3.

Chelicerae:

Length

of

hook

(in

micra)

S3

Galea:

Hair

Unknown

(Java)i
234

NUMBER

AND

KINDS OF

HAIRS

ON

THE

LEGS

OF

TROxMBICULIDS

OF

THE

NETHERLANDS

INDIES Name

of

species

Kinds

of

hairs

T.

schufneri

T.

deliensis

T.

pseudoakamushi

T.

muris

Feathered hairs

Bristles

Rod-shaped setae

Spines

Feathered hairs

Bristles

Rod-shaped setae

Spines

Feathered

hairs

Bristles

Rod-shaped

setae

Spines

Feathered hairs

Bristles

Rod-shaped setae

Spines

First

leg:

|S

or 4+

20

21

21

21

Second

leg;

J6+

or 7+ 14

3?

segment

17

1S-17

15
235

562282—44 16

Third

leg: segment segment segment segment segment segment

14

(*)

IS

13

(•)

12 (,

or

14

One

very

long.
236

NUMBER AND KINDS OF HAIRS ON THE LEGS OF TROMBICULIDS OF THE NETHERLANDS INDIES—Continued

Kinds of hairs

Name of species

T. oudemansi T. acuscutellaris 7\ densipiliata

*c3

xs

T3

X3 J5

CO

*c

PQ

OS

*->

1)

T3

rt

-C

p2 'a

CO

*«s

Xi

1)

fi

*->

U*

CO

JJ

*s

PQ

T3

TJ

CO

.2

‘a

CO

JS

T31)

fa

U3

ci

ao

Tj

*C

PQ

rt

13

.2

*a

CO

First leg:

22

16

14

{1

21

{i

16

{i

14

22

15

14

0(1?)

segment

segment

segment---

Second leg:

segment

Third leg:

(*)

One very long.
237

NUMBER AND KINDS OF HAIRS ON THE LEGS OF TROMBICULIDS OF THE NETHERLANDS INDIES—Continued

Kinds of hairs

Name of species

T. vandersandei T. tvichmanni* T. pseudo-s chuffnerx

J-s

-o

JS

ft

U-i

jj

ft

*d

ft

-G

*d

‘a

CO

CO

-a

*d

-»

*c

CQ

ft

*•»

*d

e«

-d

*a

co

c3

'O

ja

ft C0

*c

05

*d

c*

-g

*d

09

*a

CO

First leg:

18-21

16

14

Second leg:

....

Third leg:

(•)

After A. C. Oudemans. suppose thatDr. Oudemanshad not theintention to give

list of all the plain hairs, but only of those he considered to be kind of sensory hairs;

so we cannot compare his account with ours without further explanation. have added

his figures though, in order to give as much informationas possible about the Trombidia,

that Dr. Oudemans has described already nearly 20 years ago.

One very long.
238

NUMBER AND KINDS OF HAIRS ON THE LEGS OF TROMBICULIDS OF THE NETHERLANDS INDIES—Continued

Name of species

T. glabrum T. globulare Leeuwenhoekia traliensis aus

Kind of hairs

Feathered hairs

Bristles Rod-shaped setae

Spines Feathered hairs

Bristles Rod-shaped setae

Spines Feathered hairs

Bristles Rod-shaped setae

Spines

First leg:

19 20 23

Second leg:

16 17 16

Third leg:

segment is

>6

16 IS 13

One of which is short, thin and possesses only one side hair.

Two of them very long, with only fewside hairs at the base, ending

One of them as described forthe long hairs of the fifth article.

as whip.
239

Appendix

NOTES ON THE CLIMATOLOGY OF THE

NETHERLANDS INDIES

The following notes have been extracted from the rather

extensive treatment by Braak (1931) on the climatology

of the Netherlands Indies.

Sumatra.—Sumatra has typical wet, humid, tropical

climate. On the west coast the annual rainfall is 110 to

155 inches, although this figure is exceeded in some localities. In general all of coastal Sumatra and its adjacent

islands have very similar climate characterized as very

rainy with but traces of the monsoon winds <md with

prevalence of local land and sea breezes. In spite of the

low wind velocities there is strong surf on the Indian

Ocean, especially outside the small fringing islands.

Further inland on the slopes of the Barisan Mountains,

which run the length of the island, the rainfall may be more

than 150 inches per year.

The east coast has much less rainfall than the west.

The annual figures here are about 75 inches, varying

with the locality. In the broad plains of middle and

south Sumatra rainfall is very evenly distributed and

ranges from 75 to 110 inches per year. In the interior

at Palembang the monsoons are well developed. Their

directions are southeast or northwest depending on the

season. The driest month has rainfall of less than

inches only in the extreme southwestern part of the plain.

Elsewhere rainfall of less than inches per month occurs

only at Atjeh on the north coast. In the region of Medan
240

the average of the longest rainless period per month is 18

days. The longest absolute dry period varies from 25 to

35 days depending on the station. On the east slope of the Barisan Mountains the annual

rainfall may be more than 150 inches but is usually much

less in the valleys.

The driest region in Sumatra is that around Toba Lake.

The high places in North Sumatra are fairly cool with

mean temperature of 17.4° C. at Seribadolok. Here

there are strong west winds from May to October.

Borneo.—Borneo has very uniform tropical climate.

In the southeast (Bandjermasin) and in one part of North

Borneo (Jesselton) there is sharp division between the

wet and dry seasons, although there is certain amount

of rain throughout the year. There is no marked difference between the lee and windward sides of this island

comparable to the conditions in Java and Sumatra, because in Borneo the mountainous country is proportionately much smaller and located in the center of the island.

Local land and sea breezes are not well developed along

the wooded shores. Yearly variations in temperature

are negligible. The humidity is constantly high and

cloudy weather is the rule. The location of the mountains allows the shore breezes to pass inland. Rainfall

increases in the mountains. Monsoons are most powerful

in extreme West Borneo, in the region around the city

of Sambas. In the costal region (Panangkat, Montrado,

Singkawang) the wind direction is from northwest to

southwest in the afternoon, and northeast to southeast

in the evening. In the interior valleys local mountain

winds are most important.

Java and Madoera.—West Java is transition between the tropical areas with homogeneous year around

rainfall, and East Java region with dry monsoon

season. In East Java the east monsoon brings weather
241

in which the sun shines throughout the day, humidity

decreases, and vegetation and rivers dry up.

West Java can be divided into three parts: (1) The hot

and relatively dry inland plain around Batavia, (2) the

high cool inland plain with moderate rainfall (Bandang,

Garut, and Malabar), and (3) the rainy slopes and mountain tops to the north of the coastal plain (table A).

Table A.—Rainfall in Java and Madoera

In general, June, July, August, and September are the

driest months especially in East Java. November, December, January, and February are in general the

wettest months. The difference between the dry and wet

seasons are not as distinct in West Java. The dry season

on the north coast of Java extends into November.

Celebes.—Rainfall of 150 inches or more per year

occurs only in the mountains on the northern peninsula. The Sangihe Islands as well as Una Una, areas in the

Station Annual

(inches) Minimum month (inches) Maximum month (inches)

Muaramuntai 61.8 2.2 Sepi. 8.0 Mar.

Kuching 1S9.0 4.1 July 26.6 Jan. Tawao 74.9 3.2 Apr. 8.6 July

8.7 Nov.

Malabar 102.2 2.4 Aug. 14.0 Feb.

Leinbang 57.5 2.7 July 13.0 Nov.

Sumadra 177.5 4.6 Aug. 23.2 Feb.

Pekalongan 87.0 2.7 Sept. 18.2 Jan. Gombong 131.0 2.9 Aug. 18.6 Dec.

Cheribon 87.8 0.9 Aug. 17.6 Jan. Kediri 69. 0.6 Aug. 12.6 Feb.

Taruna 156.0 8.1 Aug. 18.6 Dec.

Rantepao 154.1 5.2 Aug. 20.4 Apr.

Gorontalo. 47.5 1.8 Sept. 5.3 Dec.

Singkang 64.0 2.2 Sept. 6.1 Mar.

9.4 May

Bonthain 53.9 1.0 Sept. 8.2 June Paloe 21.4 1.3 Dec. 2.7 June Watapone 98.6 3.1 Sept. 15.0 June
242

mountains of central Celebes, and on the west side of the

southwest peninsula have 100 to 150 inches rainfall per

year. Most of the island has an annual rainfall of 75 to

120 inches although there are areas with 35 to 75 inches.

On Celebes there is considerable variation in the annual

distribution of rainfall. In the greater part of Central

Celebes where the monsoons exert little influence the

heaviest rain occurs from January to March (April

in Rantepao). On the north coast of Menado the heaviest

rainfall occurs in January (15 to 25 inches). On the west

coast at Makassar the month of the heaviest rainfall is

also January (20 to 25 inches). The northern part of the

west coast has rainfall maximum in November and

December. There are frequently maxima in May in

southwest Celebes (Sindjai) and, excepting the west coast,

in all South Celebes. In the northwest (Paloe) the maximum occurs in June. On the northern peninsula and also

in central Celebes the driest months are August and

September.

In northern and eastern parts of Central Celebes and

in the eastern part of southeast Celebes (Kendari), the

minimum is in October. It is very dry during the east

monsoon on the west coastal plain ofSouth Celebes. Palutal

is the driest place in the entire archipelago. The west

monsoon in January brings rain to the western part of

South Celebes. In general, temperatures are uniform

throughout the year.

Lesser Soenda and Timor.—The annual rainfall in these islands is much less than in the remainder of the

archipelago because of the dry season which occurs during

the east monsoon. Annual rainfall in excess of 75 inches

occurs only in the heights of Southern Bali and In the

mountains of Flores. Most stations have 35 to 75

inches. The east coast of Lombok, the north coast of

Soemba, and the north coast of Flores have less than
243

35 inches per year. In general the driest areas in theLesser

Soenda are the north coasts of the southern row of islands.

Some have as little at 0.2 inch rainfall during the driest

month. The south coast of Timor has 0.5 inch in August

and 0.5 inch in September. Soemba, Saroe, Roti, and

Timor have in their nonvolcanic areas typical savannah

flora, quite uncommon in the tropics. The highest

temperatures and the lowest amount of cloudiness occur in the months of October and November in the Lesser Soenda

Islands. The small plateau of Badjawa in Flores (3,750

feet) has mean annual temperature of 19° C.

Molukkas.—These islands lie east of the region of the

east monsoon dry seasons and are wetter than Celebes at

this time of the year. The average rainfall is 75 to 100

inches although south Saparoea and Ambon (140 inches)

are exceptions. The mountains as well as the monsoon

winds exert considerable influence on the rainfall. For

instance, in Ceram, Wahai on the north coast has three

times as much rain in January and February as does

Amahai on the south coast during the same period; in

September the relation is reversed.

There is no dry season. Temperatures are uniform

throughout the year (table B).

Table B.—Rainfall in Molukkas

Station Annual

(inches) Minimum month (inches) Maximum month (inches)

Aloe 79.5 0.5 Sept. 17.1 Jan.

Tondano 74.8 2.9 Aug. 8.3 Apr.

8.1 Nov.

Tabanan 105.1 4.0 Sept. 15.1 Jan. Ende.. 45.7 0.8 Aug. 6.7 Dec., Jan., Feb.

Wahai 85.6 3.2 Aug. 16.6 Feb.

Amahai 106.3 3.9 Nov.-Dee. 16.9 July

Banda 104.7 4.3 Aug. 15.4 May

Ternate.-. 86.2 4.0 Aug. 9.3 May

Serwaroe.. 48.4 0.4 Aug.-Sept. 8.7 Apr.

Saumlakki 66.5 0.3 Sept. 10.3 Jan.
244

Kei and Aroe Islands.—The general rule in this

group of islands is an increase in rainfall from west to

east. Serwaroe on Leti has 45 inches per year. Saumlakki on Jamdena has 65 inches per year while Tual and

Dobo have more than 80 inches. The dryness of the east

monsoon is much less at Tual and Dobo than at Saumlakki. The rainfall of the driest months is slightly greater

than during the driest months on Timor.

New Guinea.—Although the monsoon winds are well

developed over the water surrounding New Guinea, in

general they exert little effect on the climate of New

Guinea. An exception is the broad lowland between the

Digoel River and the south coast in southeast Dutch

New Guinea over which both the southeast and northwest

monsoons are well marked. Rainfall increases eastward

from line between Celebes and the Molukkas and east

of Timor. The west monsoon (northwest) brings rain

and high temperatures to southeast Dutch New Guinea,

whereas the east monsoon is drier and cooler. The rest

of southern Dutch New Guinea, excepting small coastal

area, has its maximum rainfall from May to September.

From June to August temperatures are relatively low

(23° to 24° C.). The mountains in the interior may have

an annual rainfall of 250 to 325 inches annually.

Table C.—Rainfall in New Guinea

Station Annual

(inches)

Minimum

month

(inches)

Maximum

month

(inches)

60.6 0.9 Aug.

|8.3 Aug. 112.1 jl3.1 May

164.0 16.8 Feb.

1.8.0 Dec.

9.5 July

7.1 July

4.0 July

2.7 Aug.

2.7 June 7.5 Feb.

117.0 14.2 Feb.

108.2 13.4 Apr.

16.3 Jan. 18.2 Aug.

27.5 June 12.2 Mar.

118.0

130.0

204.0

106.1

128.6 3.9 Aug. 19.1 Mar.
245

In western Dutch New Guinea the south coast is cooled

during the east monsoon; the wind is stronger than during

the west monsoons. The climate in general is warm and

rainy. Highest temperatures are recorded In October and

November with the lowest occurring in January and

February although there is only 0.8° C. difference between

the means of the warmest and coolest months. The difference between the mean relative humidity of the most

humid month (December, 90 percent) and the least

humid month (May, 85 percent) is percent. The minimum rainfall is in August.

The southeast monsoon is not completely stopped by

the mountains since its effects are observed in the Geelvink

Bay Region. With the beginning of the southeast monsoon, known as wam-braw there is an increase in temperature and the air becomes drier. Wam-braw usually blows

in periods of to days with slight decreases at night.

The strength of the wind is sufficient to prevent the use of

native boats. On Japen (off the northwest coast) the

greatest rainfall occurs in February; the least in July.

Along the northern cost of Dutch New Guinea the west

monsoon is strongest. There are no reliable rainfall data

for this area although the annual figure is probably 80 to

125 inches. The warmest months are October and November. In the level country of the upper Mamberamo

and Idenburg Rivers the annual rainfall is 125 to 175

inches.

The snow line in the mountains of New Guinea is

about 14,000 feet.
246

Appendix

INTERMEDIATE HOSTS OF TREMATODE PARASITES OF MAN IN THE

SOUTHWEST PACIFIC

Dr. Paul Bartsch

Curator of Mollusks and Cenozoic Invertebrates U. S. National Museum

Trematode worms, parasitic in man, constitute an

abundant menace to human health in the South Pacific

area. No less than 21 species are known from the region.

The Importance and abundance of some of these parasites

becomes at once apparent by Faust’s estimate that China

alone has 100,000,000 inhabitants suffering from schistosomiasis.

The adult worms of the different species seek different

parts of the human body for their activities, some choosing

blood vessels, others the lungs and still others the digestive

tract or liver.

The group as whole, as far as known, has one characteristic in common in its life history, namely, that the

early part of the life history of these parasites requires

molluscan (snail) intermediate host in which the young

after hatching may find suitable habitat and nourishment for their further, rather complicated development

through sporocyst and redia stages to cercaria in which

phase they leave the snail and become the infective agent

for man.

Some trematodes are not content with one intermediate

host, but have second, which may be fish or crustacean.
247

All the intermediate hosts here mentioned are freshwater mollusks, living in streams, ditches, pools, or lakes.

Practically all are shallow-water forms, frequenting the

margins of these bodies of water. Some even are amphibious, i. e., they may crawl out upon the wet land

margins of the water. In sun-exposed places they may

seek the shade of the aquatic vegetation.

Most of the species are small. To gather the smaller

forms it may become necessary to sift some of the mud on

the water’s edge; fly screen mesh will be fine enough.

Or, one may take burlap sack and sew it to hoop and

use this for scraping up mud and vegetable detritus, washing the finer silt through the sack and examining

the residue in the bag for mollusks.

The living mollusks can be placed in glass jars; fruit

jars will answer. These should not be placed in direct

sunlight, but should have ample light. If they prove

infected, the cercariae will, when they reach the proper

stage of development, escape from the mollusks and can

readily be seen as minute free-swimming animals when one

holds the jar up against the light.

In plate 1, have figured representations of most of the

genera of mollusks that are known to have served as intermediate hosts for various species of trematodes in the

Southwest Pacific. The list of explanations tells which.

have avoided figuring all the species since believe that

is not necessary.

Jt is very desirable, however, to have representatives of

the freshwater mollusks from as many places as possible

sent to the Division of Mollusks, U. S. National Museum, Washington, D. C., for positive determination, for comparatively little of the fauna of the South Sea Islands has

been exhaustively studied. Every sending, therefore, will

be decided contribution to our knowledge. It is desirable to have some specimens preserved with the animal
248

for anatomic study. This can be readily done by dropping them in 70 percent alcohol. The amount of alcohol

should be ten times the bulk of specimens.

Empty shells or shells with the animal dried in them

are also acceptable. Locality labels with the specimens are

absolutely necessary and if it has been observed that certain species are serving as intermediate hosts this fact

should be mentioned on the label.

determination of the pH of the water from which

mollusks have been obtained may help in suggesting control measures. Schistosome intermediate hosts appear to

need slightly acid habitat, which can be changed to an

alkaline condition by strewing crushed limestone along the

margin of bodies of water. This in turn produces an undesirable ecologic condition that will eliminate the mollusk. In some other conditions copper sulphate has been

found good control agent. Much desirable experimenting is needed in this direction.

Plate (Appendix H). Illustrating molluscan intermediate hosts of

trematodes (figures 6, 7, 8, 9, 28, 29, are 0.6 natural size; figures 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 1.5).
249

Explanation of Plate (Appendix H)

1. Digoniostoma robusta H. Adams.

2. Katayama nosophora Robson.

3. Oncomelania hupensis Gredler.

4. Schistosomophora quadrasi Mollendorff.

5. Alocinma longicornis Benson.

6. Tarebia obliquigranosa E. A. Smith.

7. Melanoides tuberculatus Muller.

8. Wanga nodiperda connectens Martens.

9. Semisulcospira libertina Gould. 10. Parafossarulus manchouricus Bourguignat

11. Wattebledia crosseana Wattebled.

12. Bulimus misellus Gredler.

13. Stenothyra divalis Gould. 14. Fairbankia parva Lea.

15. Lymnaea javanica Mousson.

16. Fossaria ollula Gould.

17. Myxas papyracea Tate.

18. Physastra Ameria) carinata H. Adams.

19. Physastra sumatrana Martens.

20-21. Gyraulus chinensis Bunker.

22-23. Segmentina hemisphaerula Benson.

24-25. Hippeutis cantori Benson.

26-27. Indoplanorbis exustus Deshayes.

28. Pila conica Gray.

29. Viviparus javanicus Busch.
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Genera of mollusks which have served as intermediate hosts for trematodes:

Katayama

Oncomelania

Schistosomophora

Fossaria

Intermediate hosts of Schistosoma japonicum.

Intermediate host of Fasciola hepatica

and F. gigantea.

Intermediate hosts of Fasciolopsis

buski.

Intermediate hosts of Echinostoma

ilocanum.

Intermediate hosts of Echinostoma

malayanum.

Intermediate hosts of Echinostoma

revolutum.

Segmentina

Gyraulus

Hippeutis

Gyraulus

Lymnaea

Fiviparus

Pila

Lymnaea

Indoplanorbis _.

Lymnaea

Physastra

Viviparus

Segmentina

Gyraulis

Viviparus

Parafossarulus.

Intermediate hosts of Echinostoma

lindoensis.

Intermediate host of Echinochasmus

perfoliatus.

Semisulcospira. Intermediate host of Metagonimus

yokogawai.

Bulimus Intermediate host of Opisihorchis

felineus. Parafossarulus

Bulimus

Alocinma

Semisulcospira.

Wanga

Tarebia

Melanoides

Intermediate hosts of Clonorchis sinensis.

Intermediate hosts of Paragonimus

estermani.