Wildlife Services

Protecting People 

Protecting Agriculture 

Protecting Wildlife

National Wildlife Research Center

FY 2017

Management of Ungulate Disease and Damage

Contact Information:

Dr. Kurt C. VerCauteren 

Research Wildlife Biologist 

NWRC Headquarters 

4101 LaPorte Ave. 

Fort Collins, CO 80521 

Phone: (970) 266-6093 

FAX: (970) 266-6157 

Email:

kurt.c.vercauteren@aphis.usda.gov 

Web site: www.aphis.usda.gov/

wildlifedamage/nwrc/

Groups Affected:

Captive cervid industry

Consumers

Livestock producers and farmers

Meat processors

Rural communities

Sporting organizations

State and federal agriculture and

wildlife agencies

U.S. citizens

Wildlife and natural resource

managers

Major Cooperators:

Canadian Food Inspection Agency

Colorado Division of Wildlife

Colorado State University

Iowa State University

Michigan Department of Agriculture

and Rural Development

Michigan Department of Natural

Resources

Michigan State University

National Park Service

Private elk and deer farmers

State departments of public health

University of Nebraska

University of Wisconsin

University of Wyoming

USDA/APHIS/Wildlife Services

USDA/APHIS/Veterinary Services

USDA/Agricultural Research

Service

U.S. Geological Survey

Wisconsin Department of Natural

Resources

National Wildlife Research Center Scientists Study Chronic Wasting Disease, 

Bovine Tuberculosis and Other Diseases in Wild and Domestic Ungulates

Wildlife Services’ (WS) National Wildlife Research Center (NWRC) is the only Federal research

organization devoted exclusively to resolving conflicts between people and wildlife through the

development of effective, selective, and socially responsible methods, tools, and techniques. 

As increased urbanization leads to a loss of traditional wildlife habitat, the potential for conflicts

between people and wildlife increases. Such conflicts can take many forms, and recently potential for

transmission of diseases among wildlife, livestock, and humans has received greater attention. Two

diseases in particular—chronic wasting disease (CWD) and bovine tuberculosis (bTB)—can be found

in wild and captive ungulates. 

The spread of CWD is of nationwide concern and additional research is needed to learn more about

CWD transmission at the interface between wild and domestic cervids. CWD infects elk, white-tailed

deer, mule deer, and moose, but is not known to naturally infect other species of wildlife (including

predators and scavengers), livestock or humans. There is no treatment for CWD, and it is typically fatal

in cervids. Realized CWD threats have significant implications for Federal and State wildlife

management agencies, as the disease is beginning to necessitate reduced recreational hunting

opportunity in some areas. Thus CWD is a threat to domestic cervid farmers, hunters, and businesses

and economies reliant on deer and elk. In addition, these groups need additional and improved tools

and management techniques to reduce the transmission, prevalence, and persistence of CWD in wild

and captive cervids. 

Tuberculosis is a contagious, bacterial disease of both animals and humans. Bovine tuberculosis can

be transmitted from livestock to humans and to other animals. The significance of the disease is

reflected in APHIS' efforts to eradicate bTB from the United States. The bTB eradication program which

started in 1917 has made significant progress over the years. By the mid-1990s, only a few known

infected cattle herds remained, suggesting that the eradication of the disease in the United States was

forthcoming. However, wild cervids in Michigan, as well as a few other states, remain infected. Between

1975 and 1998, bTB was documented in Michigan’s white-tailed deer with increasing prevalence, and

scientific evidence revealed that infected deer transmitted the disease to cattle herds in Michigan. 

In 2000, the Secretary of Agriculture enacted a Declaration of Emergency for bTB, citing threats to

livestock and public health and safety. In 2001, NWRC initiated research that could assist in reducing

or eliminating the transmission of this disease to cattle and humans. This research has made great

progress and has led to improved management. It is especially critical in light of new bTB cases

recently documented in New Mexico, Minnesota, and California.

Applying Science and Expertise to Wildlife Challenges

Impacts of Dietary Minerals on Chronic Wasting Disease Progression. — Chronic wasting disease

(CWD) is a neurodegenerative disease in deer, elk and moose caused by misshaped proteins called

prions. To better understand the role of environmental and dietary minerals, such as copper (Cu) and

magnesium (Mg), on the progression of CWD in elk and deer, NWRC, Colorado State University, Case

Western Reserve University, and Canadian Food Inspection Agency researchers collected and

analyzed soil and water samples from CWD-negative and –positive captive cervid facilities and natural

areas. Results showed CWD-negative sites had higher concentrations of magnesium and a higher

Mg/Cu ratio in the water than CWD-positive sites. Researchers also fed cervidized transgenic mice a

diet lacking Mg and Cu then supplemented drinking water with varied Mg/Cu ratios. They observed that

mice fed water with higher Mg/Cu ratios had longer survival times after being inoculated with CWD.

These mice also expressed fewer neuroinflammatory gene expression changes, and had less

neuroinflammation present in the brain 60 days after inoculation. Copper appeared to be the most

significant factor in survival time. This work demonstrates that dietary factors may have the capacity to

alter CWD disease progression.

United States Department of Agriculture 

Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service
The U.S. Department of Agriculture is an equal opportunity employment provider and employer

Estimating Prion Infection in Elk. — It is estimated that CWD

prevalence in wild elk may be as high as 13 percent in Colorado.

Infected animals shed prions into the environment through saliva,

feces, urine, and antler velvet, but little is known about how long

animals live and shed prions once they become infected.

Immunohistochemistry (IHC) is considered the gold standard for

diagnosing CWD, but it may be unable to detect animals in the

early stages of infection. NWRC researchers and partners

compared and assessed the ability of IHC and serial protein

mis¬folding cyclic amplification (sPMCA) to detect CWD prior to

the onset of clinical signs. They analyzed brain and lymph tissue

samples from 85 wild elk to estimate the IHC and sPMCA tests’

sensitivity and specificity. Sensitivity estimates were higher for

sPMCA than IHC. Further analysis and modeling predicted that

the prevalence of prion infection in elk may be higher than

previously thought—18.9 percent versus prior estimates of 13

percent. Data also revealed a previously unidentified sub-clinical

prion-positive portion of the elk population that could represent

silent carriers capable of signifi¬cantly impacting CWD ecology.

These findings will aid in the management of CWD in captive and

wild deer.

Detecting Bovine Tuberculosis in Deer Feces. — White-tailed

deer serve as a reservoir for Mycobacterium bovis, a bacterium

that causes bovine tuberculosis, and can be a source of cattle

infection in the United States. Controlling tuberculosis in deer has

relied on restricting baiting and supplemental feeding of deer and

reducing deer populations through hunting. Experimentally

treating deer with the M. bovis Bacille Calmette-Guerin vaccine

has effectively protected deer from the disease and is being

considered as an additional management tool. Currently,

however, there is no simple method for monitoring tuberculosis in

deer. 

In a recent study, NWRC researchers evaluated whether fecal

volatile organic compounds (VOCs) could be used to distinguish

between vaccinated and non-vaccinated deer before and after M. 

bovis inoculation. VOCs are chemicals that emit unique odors and

release patterns. Because of these unique characteristics, VOCs

have been identified as potential disease surveillance tools. Using

gas chromatography and mass spectrometry, researchers were

able to identify 17 compounds to distinguish among vaccinated

and non-vaccinated deer fecal samples before and after

inoculation. Detecting disease-specific VOCs in feces could

provide a simple method for testing captive deer and has great

potential for use in remote disease surveillance efforts. This was

the first study to use fecal VOCs to identify deer with tuberculosis.

Preventing Deer Access to Stored Cattle Feed. — Disease and

damage from white-tailed deer threaten the livelihood of

agricultural producers in Michigan. When high-quality cattle feed

is stored for future use in areas adjacent to deer habitat, deer

often attempt to access it. This can result in feed loss and

contamination. However, recent efforts to keep cattle and deer

apart and reduce the deer population in Michigan have helped to

reduce the spread of bovine tuberculosis bTB) through

contaminated feed. 

Although fences used in disease management efforts are not

new, they are most effective when maintained and used

consistently. Results from an NWRC study tracking the movement

of global positioning system (GPS)-collared deer at several sites

with and without exclusionary fences showed that such fences

reduced cattle feed loss and potential contamination by more than

82 percent. They also caused deer to move away from developed

livestock-related areas, further decreasing deer and livestock

interaction. 

When combined with other management strategies like

decreasing deer populations, fencing may further reduce bTB

spread between free-ranging deer and livestock. Such strategies

are examples of direct management actions that producers can

take to help ensure farm biosecurity and create a broader,

healthier environment for neighboring wildlife populations.

Selected Publications:

Lavelle, M.J., C.I.I.I. Henry, K. LeDoux, P.J. Ryan, J.W. Fischer,

K.M. Pepin, C.R. Blass, M.P. Glow, S.E. Hygnstrom, and K.C.

VerCauteren. 2015. Deer response to exclusion from stored cattle

feed in Michigan, USA. Preventive Veterinary Medicine 121(1-

2):159-164. doi: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2015.06.015

Lavelle, M.J., S.L. Kay, K.M. Pepin, D.A. Grear, H. Campa III, and

K.C. VerCauteren. 2016. Evaluating wildlife-cattle contact rates to

improve the understanding of dynamics of bovine tuberculosis

transmission in Michigan, USA. Preventive Veterinary Medicine

135:28-36. doi: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2016.10.009.

Nichols, T.A., J.W. Fischer, T.R. Spraker, Q. Kong, and K.C.

VerCauteren. 2015. CWD prions remain infectious after passage

through the digestive system of coyotes (Canis latrans). Prion

9(5):367-375. doi: 10.1080/19336896.2015.1086061. 

Nichols, T.A., T.R. Spraker, T. Gidlewski, B. Cummings, D. Hill, Q.

Kong, A. Balachandran, K.C. VerCauteren, and M.D. Zabel. 2016.

Dietary magnesium and copper affect survival time and

neuroinflammation in chronic wasting disease. Prion 10(3):228-

250. doi: 10.1080/19336896.2016.1181249.

Stahl R.S., C.K. Ellis, P. Nol, W.R. Waters, M. Palmer, and K.C.

VerCauteren. 2015. Fecal volatile organic compound profiles from

white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) as indicators of

Mycobacterium bovis exposure or Mycobacterium bovis Bacille

Calmette-Guerin (BCG) vaccination. PLoS ONE online

10.1371/journal.pone.0129740. doi:

10.1371/journal.pone.0129740

Major Research Accomplishments:

WS research discovered that higher levels of magnesium and

copper in the diet of infected cervidized transgenic mice slowed

the progression of CWD.

WS research estimated that nearly 19 percent of wild elk may

be infected with CWD.

WS research identified 17 compounds in deer fecal samples

that could potentially be used to identify tuberculosis-infected

deer.

WS research with collared deer showed the use of

exclusionary fences reduced cattle feed loss and potential

disease contamination by deer by more than 82 percent.