Evaluating a Potential Relict Arctic Invertebrate and

Algal Community on the West Side of Cook Inlet

Nora R. Foster

Principal Investigator

Additional Researchers:

Dennis Lees

Sandra C. Lindstrom

Sue Saupe

Final Report

OCS Study MMS 2010-005

November 2010
This study was funded in part by the U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Ocean Energy 

Management, Regulation and Enforcement (BOEMRE) through Cooperative Agreement No. 

1435-01-02-CA-85294, Task Order No. 37357, between BOEMRE, Alaska Outer Continental 

Shelf Region, and the University of Alaska Fairbanks. 

This report, OCS Study MMS 2010-005, is available from the Coastal Marine Institute (CMI), 

School of Fisheries and Ocean Sciences, University of Alaska, Fairbanks, AK 99775-7220. 

Electronic copies can be downloaded from the MMS website at 

www.mms.gov/alaska/ref/akpubs.htm. Hard copies are available free of charge, as long as the 

supply lasts, from the above address. Requests may be placed with Ms. Sharice Walker, CMI, by 

phone (907) 474-7208, by fax (907) 474-7204, or by email at skwalker@alask.edu. 

Once the limited supply is gone, copies will be available from the National Technical Information 

Service, Springfield, Virginia 22161, or may be inspected at selected Federal Depository 

Libraries. 

The views and conclusions contained in this document are those of the authors and should not be 

interpreted as representing the opinions or policies of the U.S. Government. Mention of trade 

names or commercial products does not constitute their endorsement by the U.S. Government. 
Evaluating a Potential Relict Arctic Invertebrate and

Algal Community on the West Side of Cook Inlet

Nora R. Foster

Principal Investigator

Additional Researchers:

Dennis Lees

Sandra C. Lindstrom

Sue Saupe

Final Report

OCS Study MMS 2010-005

November 2010
1 

Contact information 

 email: skwalker@alaska.edu 

 phone: 907.474.7208 

 fax: 907.474.7204 

 Coastal Marine Institute 

 School of Fisheries and Ocean Sciences 

 University of Alaska Fairbanks 

 P. O. Box 757220 

 Fairbanks, AK 99775-7220 
 

2 

Table of Contents 

List of Figures..................................................................................................................................3 

List of Tables...................................................................................................................................4 

Abstract............................................................................................................................................5 

Introduction......................................................................................................................................6 

 A. Purpose............................................................................................................................7 

 B. Geology...........................................................................................................................8 

 C. Physical Oceanography...................................................................................................9 

 D. Marine Invertebrate and Algal Biota............................................................................13 

Methods.........................................................................................................................................15 

 A. Sources of Information.................................................................................................15 

 B. Biogeographical Definitions.........................................................................................18 

Results ...........................................................................................................................................19 

 A. Invertebrates.................................................................................................................19 

 B. Algae.............................................................................................................................36 

Discussion.....................................................................................................................................41 

 A. Limitations of the Study..............................................................................................41 

B. Biogeography...............................................................................................................42 

 C. Implications for Management......................................................................................43 

 D. Recommendations for Continued Study......................................................................43 

Acknowledgments.........................................................................................................................45 

Study Products...............................................................................................................................45 

References......................................................................................................................................46

Appendix........................................................................................................................................52 
 

3 

List of Figures 

Figure 1. The study area.........................................................................................................7 

Figure 2. Location and extent of the Pleistocene proglacial lake...........................................9 

Figure 3. Ocean currents in the Gulf of Alaska....................................................................12 

Figure 4. Currents in Cook Inlet...........................................................................................12 

Figure 5. Comparison of regional similarity in dendrograms differing 

by type of weighting..............................................................................................29 

Figure 6. Comparison of regional similarity in 2-dimensional spaces 

that differ by type of weighting.............................................................................31 

Figure 7. Dendrogram depicting relationships among regions based 

solely on their Bryozoan assemblages..................................................................33 

Figure 8. Dendrogram showing Bryozoan species relationships based 

on their Distribution Among the Four Regions....................................................33 

Figure 9. Dendrogram depicting relationships among regions based 

solely on their Molluscan assemblages.................................................................36 

Figure 10. The Beringian landmass........................................................................................42 
 

4 

List of Tables 

Table 1. Abundance codes based on reported relative abundance in reports 

used to build regional faunal tables.......................................................................16 

Table 2. Trophic codes for various suspected trophic modes..............................................16 

Table 3. Taxon codes for major taxonomic designations....................................................17 

Table 4. Size codes for relative size categories...................................................................18 

Table 5. Summary by major taxonomic group of taxa used for regional 

comparison.............................................................................................................19 

Table 6. Number of major taxa recorded in regions considered in this study 

and taxon codes designated for taxa......................................................................21 

Table 7. Comparison of species that southern regions have in common with 

the Arctic species based on species that occur on the west side of 

Cook Inlet. ............................................................................................................22 

Table 8. Numbers of higher taxa with Arctic affinities identified from the 

west side of Cook Inlet..........................................................................................22 

Table 9. Species found both in Arctic and on the west side of Cook Inlet..........................23 

Table 10. Biogeographical affinities for Invertebrates with distributions 

including western Cook Inlet and the Arctic.........................................................25 

Table 11. Species with isolated occurrences on west side of Cook Inlet..............................26 

Table 12. Comparison of nodes linking the regions and weighting options.........................27 

Table 13. Differences in weighting due to taxonomic level, trophic structure, 

and size codes........................................................................................................27 

Table 14. Nodal analysis showing distribution of species and species groups 

among the four regions..........................................................................................34 

Table 15. Algae known from both the west side of Cook Inlet and the arctic 

coast of Alaska......................................................................................................38 

Table 16 Clade 1..................................................................................................................39 

Table 17. Clade 5..................................................................................................................40 
 

5 

Abstract 

This work describes anomalous occurrences of Arctic epifaunal invertebrates and algae along the 

western side of Cook Inlet. It also expands the basis for an earlier finding that the biota in upper 

Cook Inlet belongs to the subpolar Beringian biogeographical subprovince and extends that 

subprovince into lower Cook Inlet. To address questions of Arctic-affiliated algae and 

invertebrates, we reviewed previous biological assessments, examined specimens, and 

considered the geological history and other factors that may explain the disjunct occurrences of 

algae and invertebrates. We reviewed the distributions of 175 algae of Cook Inlet and 66 algal 

species from the Arctic and 723 species of marine invertebrates from Point Barrow, both sides of 

Cook Inlet, and Prince William Sound. Sixty-eight invertebrates (96 percent of the Pt. Barrow 

species that we considered from those listed by George MacGinitie) have distributions that 

include the west side of Cook Inlet and the Arctic. 

For the invertebrates, we employed multivariate analyses on the full spectrum of invertebrates 

found on the west side of Cook Inlet as well as just Bryozoa or Mollusca to view relationships 

among regions and taxa. The distribution of seaweeds in the Arctic, the northeast Pacific, and in 

Cook Inlet was compared to evaluate what relationship might exist between species occurring in 

the Cook Inlet and in the Arctic. This assessment used existing algae databases and as yet 

unpublished molecular data. 

We found a strong relationship between Arctic and west-side bryozoan fauna and weaker 

relationships for other invertebrate groups. Our results suggest that the disjunct distributions of 

many Arctic-affiliated species, both algae and invertebrates may be due to a contraction in their 

distributional ranges in the north Pacific from wider distributions occupied before the most 

recent glacial retreat. 
 

6 

I. Introduction 

As early as 1976, scientists noted that a large proportion of the subtidal fauna (mostly epifauna) 

on the west side of lower Cook Inlet bore a striking resemblance to the fauna reported by 

MacGinitie (1955) for Point Barrow (Lees 1976). Further studies provided evidence to support 

the hypothesis that the epifauna in this region are a relict Arctic fauna (Lees et al. 1980). 

Independently, staff at the University of Alaska Fairbanks (UAF) Museum developed a similar 

opinion based on archived collections of western Cook Inlet invertebrates (collected by Mr. Rae 

Baxter and Mr. George Mueller). (Figure 1) 

We define relict Arctic biota as individual species and communities of plants and animals that 

have persisted in habitats where conditions have remained relatively unaltered since the retreat of 

glaciers following the last ice age. According to Ekman (1953), glacial relicts “remained when 

the arctic region shifted to the north during late-glacial or post glacial periods” In a review of the 

theory, Holmquist (1962) emphasized that the relict concept is rather loosely defined. Examples 

of relict fauna include crustaceans in lakes in the Canadian archipelago (Johnson 1964); 

landlocked Arctic char in Europe (Igoe & Hammar 2004) and North America (Bernatchez et al. 

2002); and marine brackish water species in the Baltic Sea (Ekman 1953). 

While defining biogeographical regions in coastal Alaska, Kelleher et al. (1995) placed upper 

Cook Inlet in the subpolar Beringian Province rather than the Aleutian Province with the 

adjacent Gulf of Alaska. This classification was based on fish assemblages, the occurrence of an 

isolated population of beluga whales, and water column characteristics (i.e., water temperature 

and salinity). They noted that this unique region has not been catalogued as a marine protected 

area by the United States. Additionally, Piatt & Springer (2007) place the east and west sides of 

Cook Inlet into separate marine ecoregions. 

Given their potential isolation, these western Cook Inlet populations could be at risk from habitat 

perturbation and may prove to be sensitive indicators of climate change or other ecological 

shifts. In addition, industrial development could threaten these populations and baseline 

information is needed to fully evaluate that potential. Monitoring their distributions and 

abundance could provide insight into changes in marine fauna and flora that may occur with 

changing physical oceanographic conditions. The persistence of these species in spite of their 

restricted distributions, relative to the prevailing currents, raises some interesting questions about 

their reproductive mechanisms and strategies. 

An evaluation of the intertidal and shallow subtidal invertebrates and algae in lower and middle 

western Cook Inlet addresses the Coastal Marine Institute (CMI) framework need for “better 

understanding marine, coastal or human environments affected or potentially affected by 

offshore oil and gas or other mineral exploration and extraction on the outer continental shelf.” 
 

7 

 Figure 1. The study area. 

A. Purpose 

The principal purposes of this study are to: 

1. Conduct a survey of archived specimens from the west side of Cook Inlet, especially from 

Kamishak Bay, to develop a more complete comprehension of species composition of 

intertidal and subtidal benthic assemblages on the west side of Cook Inlet; 

2. Evaluate the degree of geographic isolation for each potential relict Arctic species by 

reviewing species lists from previous studies conducted on the east side of Cook Inlet, the 

Alaska Peninsula, Kodiak, and in Shelikof Strait and the Bering Sea; and 
 

8 

3. Determine the taxonomic status of the species observed in this region by conducting detailed 

taxonomic evaluations on a wide variety of algae and invertebrates. These include preserved 

and archived specimens collected during several surveys as early as 1976. 

B. Geology 

Cook Inlet is a northeast-southwest trending embayment off the Pacific Ocean in the 

northwestern Gulf of Alaska. This relatively narrow, elongate trough is composed of primarily 

Mesozoic and Tertiary sedimentary and volcanic rocks. The Bruin Bay Fault runs along the west 

shore of Cook Inlet and the Seldovia Fault runs along the east side of the inlet through Seldovia 

and Homer. The similarity of the Jurassic quartz diorite plutons observed on the Kenai 

Peninsula, the Barren Islands, and the Kodiak Archipelago to those in the Alaska-Aleutian Range 

suggests that Cook Inlet is part of the Alaska-Aleutian Range continental batholith and is 

buttressed on the east by the Seldovia Fault (Fisher & Magoon 1978). Thus, Cook Inlet has been 

a durable geological feature of the landscape since at least the early Mesozoic. However, it has 

not always been marine in character. 

Five Pleistocene glaciations are recognized in the Cook Inlet area. From oldest to youngest, 

these are: Mount Susitna, Caribou Hills, Eklutna, Knik, and Naptowne (Karlstrom 1964). These 

are recognized by the distribution of moraines and ice-scoured landforms, by discordant drainage 

patterns, and by stratigraphic evidence of drift material separated by major unconformities and 

weathering profiles. During the first three glaciations, Cook Inlet was completely filled with ice 

to a maximum depth of 1200 m. During the last two glaciations, glacial lobes extended into 

Cook Inlet but only coalesced across the southern part of the inlet, impounding water in a large 

proglacial lake (Figure 2, Thurston 1985). This lake persisted from approximately 46,000 - 

37,000 BC until its final drainage around 7,000 BC (Karlstrom 1964). 

Marine fossil localities from the Gulf of Alaska near Cook Inlet are few. Maelstrom (1964) lists 

the Bootlegger Cove locality of Eklutna, near present-day Anchorage (age 110,000 - 90,000 

years BC). Species identified are the gastropods Buccinum cf. B. physematum, Odostomia sp., 

and the bivalves Nuculana fossa, Clinocardium ciliatum, Macoma sp., Hiatella arctica, and Mya 

truncata. The modern distribution of these species includes Cook Inlet and boreal/Arctic waters. 

The surficial sediments of present-day lower Cook Inlet are sands and gravels with small 

amounts of silts and clays (Sharma & Burrell 1970). They are mostly reworked glacial 

sediments from the last ice age as well as silts and clays from present-day fluvial deposits. The 

strong tidal currents and occasional severe storms within the inlet proper preclude the deposition 

of significant amounts of fine-grained sediments (Hein et al. 1977). Existing deposits are 

characterized by good sorting by size and nature of the rock fragments. The majority of these 

sediments were initially deposited when the ocean was shallower than it is today, i.e., coastlines 

were farther offshore (Bouma and Hampton 1976). Along the west side of Cook Inlet, the 

intertidal zone mostly comprises muddy tidal flats (Sears & Zimmerman 1977), with several 

areas of bedrock outcrops and gravel beaches occurring at more exposed locations (Lees 1978; 

Hayes & Michel 1982). Mountains along the west side of Cook Inlet reach heights of up to 

3,000 m. Their glaciers feed short, high-gradient rivers that create fan-shaped deltas, often at the 
 

9 

base of steep bedrock walls (Michel et al. 1978; Hayes & Michel 1982). Aerial videos of the 

shoreline at low tide can be viewed through the CIRCAC website: http://www.circac.org/. 

 Figure 2. Location and extent of the Pleistocene proglacial lake. 

C. Physical Oceanography 

The geological history of the northeast Gulf of Alaska, the substrates of the intertidal and 

nearshore zones of Cook Inlet, and the ocean currents within the Gulf of Alaska and Cook Inlet 

undoubtedly influence the distribution of Cook Inlet biota but the manner in which these 

influences have, in the past, or presently operate remains relatively unclear. 

Cook Inlet’s marine environment varies from north to south and east to west, depending on 

geomorphology, winds, tides, ocean currents, erosional and depositional patterns, and other 

factors. Below we describe two of the major physical influences, water circulation and geology, 

that define biological habitat in Cook Inlet, and what causes their variability within Cook Inlet. 

Water circulation patterns are especially important for understanding nearshore systems as they 

describe the transport of food and larvae from areas upstream and to areas downstream of 

prevailing currents. Cook Inlet’s unique physical oceanography influences the distribution of 

nearshore habitats throughout the Inlet. 
 

10 

Cook Inlet is a roughly 290 km long estuarine embayment extending northward from the Gulf of 

Alaska from about 59° N at the mouth to about 61°20’N near Anchorage. Cook Inlet ranges 

from about 20 to 130 km in width – the narrowest part of Cook Inlet proper being the 

constriction between the East and West Forelands. Cook Inlet also includes several significant 

water bodies and embayments including Kamishak and Kachemak bays in the lower Inlet, the 

long and narrow Turnagain and Knik arms that extend east and north from the upper inlet, as 

well as many smaller bays and coves (Figure 1). 

Cook Inlet’s widely varied environment is often described as extreme. For example, tidal ranges 

can exceed 12 m; large freshwater discharges introduce suspended sediment loads that exceed 2 

mgl-1 in the upper Inlet (Sharma & Burrell 1970); the inlet has a freezing index of 1400° C days 

per year leading to extensive shorefast and broken sea ice in the winter (Nelson & Whitney 

1996); water currents interact with bathymetry creating semi-permanent shear zones or frontal 

zones called “tide rips”; and huge depositional areas form mud flats and reefs are often several 

kilometers from low to high tide. All of these factors, and more, influence Cook Inlet’s overall 

circulation patterns on different spatial and temporal scales. 

The average depth of the Inlet is 60 m, but ranges up to 100 m near the mouth but is typically 40 

m or less at the head of the estuary. Near the mouth of Cook Inlet, the shelf bathymetry shoals to 

less than 100 m, but a deeper channel extends along the axis of the inlet and into Kachemak Bay 

and west of Kalgin Island. The gradients in bottom depth associated with these channels are 

instrumental in forming the Cook Inlet “tide rips” as described below. 

Winds in Cook Inlet are seasonally channeled by the inlet due to the northeast-southwest 

elongation of Cook Inlet with mountain ranges along the perimeter of the Inlet. In the summer, 

the winds are predominately from the south and southwest, while in the winter the colder, denser 

air masses from the interior drive winds predominantly out of the north and northeast (Whitney 

1999). Given its proximity to the surrounding mountain ranges, Cook Inlet is prone to extreme 

localized and intense winds manifested as barrier jets, outflow winds, and gap winds (air being 

funneled through gaps between mountains). These complex interactions between terrain and 

dynamic weather systems can strongly influence local water circulation (Zingone & Hufford 

2006). 

The two major sources of water inputs to Cook Inlet are rivers discharging directly into the inlet 

and transport of the Alaska Coastal Current (ACC) into lower Cook Inlet. The four major river 

systems that discharge into upper Cook Inlet include the Beluga, Knik, Matanuska, and Susitna 

Rivers. As w336ell, many smaller freshwater systems also introduce freshwater throughout the 

inlet. The freshwater discharge rates from these systems vary significantly by season, with the 

highest flows typically associated with snowmelt in the spring and summer. The four main 

rivers listed above have peak flows that, combined, represent about 70% of the total freshwater 

input into the inlet (Nelson &Whitney 1996) and carry tons of suspended sediment into the inlet 

each year. 

Not surprisingly, the salinity of Cook Inlet varies significantly north to south due to the influx of 

freshwater in the upper inlet. Values as low as 10 ppt have been measured at the surface in upper 
 

11 

Cook Inlet (Smith 1993) and as high as 32 ppt near the mouth of the inlet (Smith 1993, Pegau et 

al. 2009). Recent hydrographic surveys showed that in the central inlet, mean salinities increase 

from surface to bottom, from north to south, and from west to east, indicating a mean southward 

baroclinic (density-driven) flow along the west side of Cook Inlet in the upper part of the water 

column (Pegau et al. 2009). Freshwater flowing into upper Cook Inlet can be seen transporting 

sediments southward along the west side of the inlet in satellite images 

(http://modis.gsfc.nasa.gov/). 

The semi-diurnal tidal cycle dominates the currents in Cook Inlet, with much of the flow 

following contours of bathymetry and the coastline. The principal velocity component is in the 

north-south direction (Johnson et al. 2000). The shape and bathymetry of Cook Inlet is such that 

the M2 (principal lunar semidiurnal tide) resonates and this leads to very large tidal amplitudes 

(Nelson & Whitney 1996, Pegau et al. 2009). The tides at the mouth and head of Cook Inlet are 

almost 180° out of phase, creating an almost standing wave. Local constrictions, such as 

between the West and East Forelands in upper Cook Inlet, cause the tidal amplitude and 

subsequent currents to increase, creating areas of greater current velocities. Local areas in Cook 

Inlet can have currents greater than 10 knots, and Cook Inlet as a whole has an average 

maximum surface current of 3 knots (Li et al. 2004). Tidal excursions, or the maximum distance 

that a parcel of water would transport over a full tidal cycle, are greatest in the upper inlet (up to 

37 km) and decrease in the southern inlet (to less than 18 km, Nelson & Whitney 1996). In the 

upper and central inlet, tidal excursions are slightly greater on ebb tides than on flood tides due 

to the addition of freshwater flowing south. 

Although the dominant currents in Cook Inlet are tidally driven at any time, the net currents in 

Cook Inlet are driven by the density differences due to the Alaska Coastal Current (ACC) and the 

freshwater inputs into the upper inlet flowing down the west side of the inlet. The ACC is a 

coastal jet extending over 1,000 km along the northern periphery of the Gulf of Alaska just 

inside of the Alaska Current and Alaska Stream, flows in a counter-clockwise direction. It is 

driven by the large flux of freshwater from runoff along the coast (e.g., the Copper River; Figure 

3, Royer 1982). When the ACC flows past the Kenai Peninsula, a portion of the current swings 

into Kennedy Entrance, at the eastern side of the mouth of Cook Inlet. In Cook Inlet, the bulk of 

the current follows the 100-m isobath and exits the inlet along the west side of the mouth at 

Stevenson Entrance so that the major mean circulation feature in the lower Cook Inlet region is 

the westerly flow (Muench et al. 1981). Several summary reports were produced in the 1970s 

and early 1980s that describe the circulation patterns in Cook Inlet, with the emphasis placed on 

lower Cook Inlet due to the proximity to potential offshore lease sale areas (Figure 4, Muench et 

al. 1978, 1981; Burbank 1977). 

A north-flowing portion of the ACC that enters Cook Inlet follows the eastern shore of the inlet 

until it joins the freshwater discharge from the upper end of the inlet. It then loops back south 

and enters Shelikof Strait (Figure 4). A recent study shows that the extent that the ACC enters 

and mixes in Cook Inlet is highly seasonal (Pegau et al. 2009). This study also showed that 

mixing of the fresher surface waters in Cook Inlet varies with the semidiurnal tidal cycle, as well 

as the spring neap cycle. Stronger tidal mixing energy can break stratification better during the 
 

12 

Figure 3. Ocean Currents in the Gulf of Alaska 

 Figure 4. Currents in Cook Inlet. 
 

13 

spring tides of the spring-neap cycles and stronger stratification during the spring season can 

block mixing. The authors also infer that tidal mixing may block the exchange of waters 

between areas, which can be important for the exchange of upwelled nutrients or the dispersal of 

larvae from one area to another. 

The interaction between the baroclinic currents (from the ACC and the freshwater current on the 

west side of the inlet), the barotropic (tidal currents), and bathymetry result in a unique local 

current regime that includes a series of three main fronts that roughly parallel the shoreline in 

central Cook Inlet (Burbanks 1977; Okkonen & Howell 2003). These fronts are called tide rips 

and they vary in form, force, and location. The major rips (frontal zones) are areas of 

convergence of surface currents and can act as a barrier to transport of surface debris across the 

front, act as collection zones for debris and seasonal broken ice, and can cause mixing of surface 

oil by sucking the oil down at the convergence zone until the oil can resurface when its buoyancy 

allows. Similarly, these features can influence transport of plankton, larvae, sediments, and 

pollutants within the inlet and seem to confine the lowest salinity and sediment-laden waters to 

the west side of the inlet. There is evidence, though, that surface currents can overcome the tide 

rips; drift cards released in the lower eastern inlet have been found on the western inlet shores 

(Okkonen & Howell 2003) and mixing and subsequent resurfacing of oil has transported spilled 

oil from the east side of the inlet to the western shores (Whitney 2002). 

 

Cook Inlet’s circulation patterns define differences in the physical, chemical, biological, and 

geological environment in Cook Inlet. As described above, differences in water temperatures 

and salinities associated with freshwater inputs and upwelling of colder oceanic waters are 

apparent throughout the inlet, with colder winter temperatures and lower salinities on the west 

side leading to the formation of more winter ice that can greatly affect survival of species. Tide 

rips can provide a barrier to transport of food and larvae from the east to the west side of the 

inlet. High suspended sediment loads that enter upper (northern) Cook Inlet via river discharges 

are mainly confined to the west side and can influence nearshore geomorphology and the habitats 

available for nearshore plants and animals. The ACC provides a mechanism for transporting 

nutrients, food, and larvae to Cook Inlet, but its influence to the western shores is minimized by 

the frontal zones. Seasonal upwelling of cold, nutrient-rich waters occurs at the mouth of the 

inlet. This water is transported north and mixes with waters in lower Cook Inlet, greatly 

influencing productivity in the lower inlet relative to the northern and central inlet. All of these 

differences can combine to produce differences in habitats and species assemblages from 

spatially separated areas of the inlet.

D. Marine Invertebrate and Algal Biota 

Environmental conditions on the east side of Cook Inlet, especially south of Deep Creek or 

Ninilchik, are substantially less rigorous than those observed on the west side of the inlet. The 

physical factors causing the increased rigor for the biota on the west side include: high 

concentrations of total suspended solids and elevated turbidity; greater deposition rates; more 

rigorous weather patterns; lower water and air temperatures; lower salinity; and larger quantities 

of ice and greater ice scour. The biological consequences of these conditions are: a thinner 

euphotic zone, resulting in far less primary productivity, especially for phytoplankton; low 
 

14 

concentrations of phytoplankton, zooplankton, and organics in the water column to support 

benthic suspension feeders; reduced survival of planktonic larvae due to paucity of 

phytoplanktonic food and the abrasive and gill-clogging effects of the suspended solids; and 

poorer conditions for recruiting larvae, especially on rocky substrata (Lees et al. 2002). The 

subtidal benthos in Cook Inlet is described in Feder and Jewett’s historical review of previous 

studies (1987 in Hood & Zimmerman). Assessments of infaunal and epifaunal species were 

undertaken in 1977 - 1996 to describe species composition, distribution patterns, and biomass in 

relationship to environmental parameters. The many studies by Feder and his associates of the 

offshore benthos complement the thorough descriptions of intertidal and subtidal biological 

assemblages and associated substrata presented by Lees et al. 

As part of the environmental assessments of the Alaska continental shelf (Outer Continental 

Shelf Environmental Assessment Program, i.e., OCSEAP), Lees et al. (1977) provided 

reconnaissance-level descriptions the intertidal habitats and intertidal communities on both the 

eastern and western sides of lower Cook Inlet (Figure 1). Lees et al. (1980) described three 

assemblages of subtidal epifauna and algae on rocky substrata of lower Cook Inlet based on 

structure and species composition of macrophytes and epifauna. Within outer Kachemak Bay, 

kelp beds with both dense canopy and understory layers extending to depths of 18 m were 

widespread and supported well-developed assemblages of sedentary invertebrates. North of 

Kachemak Bay as far as Anchor Point, on the east side of Cook Inlet, the moderately developed 

kelp beds extended to shallower depths and displayed a thinner canopy, a more moderate 

understory, but still well-developed assemblages of sedentary invertebrates. In contrast, in 

Kamishak Bay, on the west side of Cook Inlet, kelps beds, limited to understory kelps, were rare 

to absent and restricted to lower intertidal depths. A diverse sedentary invertebrate assemblage 

covered much of the available rock substrate. Especially below the kelps, the epifauna was 

dominated by barnacles, encrusting and foliose bryozoans, sponges, and ascidians. Cover by 

these suspension feeders was relatively high but biomass was only moderate. 

Unconsolidated sediments in deeper waters of lower Cook Inlet are characterized by a relatively 

smooth bottom and strong tidal currents (Feder & Jewett 1987). Benthic communities are 

represented by two major infaunal groups. Deposit feeders characterized muddy substrata but 

suspension feeders dominate on sandy substrata outside Kachemak Bay. 

The western side of Cook Inlet is “influenced by freshwater runoff and a high concentration of 

river-derived sediments carried from the upper inlet” (Feder & Jewett 1987). Moreover, the 

turbid waters restrict primary productivity especially in the early spring (Feder & Jewett 1987). 

This pattern of currents and turbidity appears to present a very effective barrier to transport 

and/or survival of planktonic larvae of marine invertebrates from the east side of the inlet to the 

west side but possibly, some types of larvae (e.g., razor clams) are able to move successfully 

across the inlet. 
 

15 

II Methods 

A. Sources of information 

To address questions of Arctic-affiliated algae and invertebrates, we reviewed previous 

biological assessments, examined specimens, and considered the geological history and other 

factors that may explain the disjunct occurrences of algae and invertebrates. 

Collections of invertebrates from the west side of Cook Inlet are rare, limited to Lees’ surveys 

done in the 1970s (UA Museum Aquatic Collection Accession 2003-1) and collecting done for 

the University of Alaska Museum in 1976. Other UA Museum specimens representing 

approximately fifty-six species from Point Barrow, the Bering/Chukchi Sea, and lower Cook 

Inlet were examined. 

We reviewed species lists from previous studies including the infauna of lower Cook Inlet: 

Feder, Paul, Hoberg, and Jewett (1981); Shallow subtidal assemblages for Kachemak Bay: 

Driskell and Lees (1977); Lees and Driskell, 1981. Foster’s (2000) list was used for Prince 

William Sound; MacGinitie (1955) for Point Barrrow. 

Additional other invertebrate literature was reviewed to determine distributions of various 

species. These included: Polyplacophoran Mollusca: Kaas and van Belle (1994); Bivalve 

Mollusca: Coan et al. (2000); Echinodermata: Lambert (1997, 2000); Ascidia: van Name (1945); 

Bryozoa: Osburn (1950, 1952, 1953); Kluge (1975); and Brachiopoda: Bernard (1971). From 

these sources we compiled a list of 724 species representing four areas: Point Barrow the east 

side of Cook Inlet, the east side of Cook Inlet, and Prince William Sound. 

We used the species list from the west side as the basis for comparison and included all species 

that occurred in at least one other region. This list includes all 232 west side taxa, 71 from the 

Arctic, 143 from Kachemak Bay, and 157 from Prince William Sound. 

Two types of multivariate analyses (1) cluster analysis with group averaging using the BrayCurtis similarity index; and 2) non-metric multidimensional scaling (MDS)) were used to 

compare relationships among regions and taxa using PRIMER software (Clarke & Warwick 

2001). 

Where available, we used abundance notes in the various reports to estimate relative abundance 

for each taxon. The relative abundance codes, adapted from semi-quantitative methods used to 

examine intertidal biota (see Feder and Kaiser 1980, for example), ranged from 1 through 5 

(Table 1). 
 

16 

Table 1. Abundance codes based on reported relative abundance in reports used to build 

 regional faunal tables. 

Estimated Relative 

Abundance Abundance Code 

Rare 1 

Sparse/Uncommon 2 

Common 3 

Abundant 4 

Very Abundant 5 

Based on impressions regarding possible differences in the proportion of major taxa, trophic 

structure, and the general size of the animals, we established codes for these factors to assess if 

potential differences in the faunal composition of the regions were influenced by these factors. 

These codes were used to weight the codes representing regional abundance for each taxon 

reported in Appendix A in terms of the three factors. The codes are demonstrated in Tables 2 

through 4. The weighting process entails multiplying the relative abundance codes by a specific 

factor weighting code. For example, the taxon weighted value of a rare (abundance code = 1) 

sipunculid species (taxon code = 5) would be 5 whereas a common bivalve would be 33.3 (3 X 

11.1) 

Table 2. Trophic codes for various suspected trophic modes. 

Suspected Trophic Mode Trophic Code 

Deposit Feeder 1 

Detritivore 2 

Suspension/Detritivore 3 

Suspension/Filter Feeder 4 

Microherbivore 5 

Macroherbivore 6 

Micropredator/Detritivore 7 

Micropredator 8 

Mesopredator 9 

Macropredator/Detritivore 10 

Macropredator 11 
 

17 

Table 3. Taxon codes for major taxonomic designations. 

Major Taxon Designation Taxon Code 

Porifera 1 

Cnidaria: Hydrozoa: Athecata 2.1 

Cnidaria: Hydrozoa: Thecata 2.2 

Cnidaria: Hydrozoa 2.3 

Cnidaria: Anthozoa 2.4 

Annelida: Polychaeta 3 

Priapulida 4 

Sipuncula 5 

Echiura 6 

Arthropoda: Crustacea: Cirripedia 7.1 

Arthropoda: Crustacea: Decapoda 7.2 

Arthropoda: Crustacea: Isopoda 7.3 

Brachiopoda 8 

Bryozoa: Cheilostomata: Anasca 9.1 

Bryozoa: Cheilostomata: Ascophora 9.2 

Bryozoa: Ctenostomata 9.3 

Entoprocta 10 

Mollusca: Bivalvia 11.1 

Mollusca: Polyplacophora 11.2 

Mollusca: Gastropoda: Opisthobranchia 11.3 

Mollusca: Gastropoda: Prosobranchia 11.4 

Mollusca: Cephalopoda 11.5 

Echinodermata: Asteroidea 12.1 

Echinodermata: Echinoidea 12.2 

Echinodermata: Holothuroidea 12.3 

Echinodermata: Ophiuroidea 12.4 

Urochordata: Ascidiacea 13 
 

18 

Table 4. Size codes for relative size categories. 

Relative Size (Length or 

Diameter) Size Code 

Very small (<1 cm) 1 

Small (1 cm to 5 cm) 2 

 >5 cm to 10 cm 3 

>10 cm to 20 cm 4 

>20 cm 5 

c. Expert Identifications 

We relied on several taxonomic specialists to provide identifications of taxa that are poorly 

studied. Twenty-five specimens of gastropods were examined by J. H. McLean, Emeritus 

Curator of Malacology at the Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County. Forty-six 

specimens of Bryozoa, as well as shells, pebbles, and algae were examined by Andrei 

Grischenko of the Perm State Museum from Russia. Thirteen lots of Ascidia from Cook Inlet and 

adjacent areas were examined by Gretchen Lambert. Igor S. Smirnov, Zoological Institute of 

Russian Academy of Sciences confirmed the identification of the brittle star Stegophiura nodosa. 

 

2. Algae 

Known occurrences of seaweed flora of the west side of Cook Inlet were compared with 

collecting records from the Arctic coast of Alaska developed by Sandra Lindstrom. 

http://herbarium.botany.ubc.ca/herbarium_database/algae_alaska/search.htm 

B. Biogeographical Definitions 

We use four biogeographical delineations for the species encountered in this study. 

The geographical range of Circumpolar Arctic–Boreal species extends down through the Arctic 

and southward into temperate waters of both the Pacific (Point Conception in California, and 

Inubo Strait in the West Pacific [35.7 N] and Atlantic Oceans to Cape Cod and France in the east 

Atlantic (Golikov et al. 1990; Grischenko et al. 2007). Arctic–Boreal Pacific species are 

distributed along the Eurasian and American sectors of the Arctic region and extending 

southward into temperate waters of the Pacific, but are absent in the Canadian Arctic and 

northern Atlantic. That is: Bering Strait and the Chukchi Sea to Inubo Strait and Point 

Conception (Grischenko et al. 2007). Amphiboreal species are primarily distributed in temperate 

waters in both the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans (Ekman 1953). High–Boreal Pacific species are 

distributed in cool temperate waters of the Pacific Ocean (Sea of Okhotsk, Kuril Islands, 

Kamchatka Peninsula, Bering Sea, Gulf of Alaska, British Columbia) and present in the Arctic as 

relict forms (Ekman 1953). 
 

19 

III. Results 

A. Invertebrates 

1. Major Taxa 

The original fauna compiled to compare regions in this study comprises twenty-eight major 

invertebrate taxa, ranging from Porifera to Urochordata: Ascidiacea, and 723 lower taxa (Table 

5). The largest number of lower level taxa observed in the list was for prosobranch gastropods 

(126 species); bivalves, anascan and ascophoran cheilostome bryozoans, thecate hydroids, 

ascidians, and opisthobranch gastropods were all represented by at least 40 species. 

Consequently, we decided to limit the analysis to species that had been reported from the west 

side of Cook Inlet in order to make the comparisons more relevant (Table 6). 

Table 5. Summary by Major Taxononomic Group of Taxa Used for Regional Comparison. 

Major Taxon No. of taxa 

Porifera 25 

Cnidaria: Hydrozoa: Athecata 12 

Cnidaria: Hydrozoa: Thecata 50 

Cnidaria: Hydrozoa 1 

Cnidaria: Anthozoa 19 

Annelida: Polychaeta 15 

Priapulida 2 

Sipuncula 4 

Echiura 2 

Arthropoda: Crustacea: Cirripedia 10 

Arthropoda: Crustacea: Decapoda 37 

Arthropoda: Crustacea: Isopoda 3 

Brachiopoda 7 

Bryozoa: Cheilostomata: Anasca 49 

Bryozoa: Cheilostomata: Ascophora 60 

Bryozoa: Ctenostomata & Cyclostomata 33 

Entoprocta 2 

Mollusca: Bivalvia 85 

Mollusca: Polyplacophora 25 

Mollusca: Gastropoda: Opisthobranchia 45 

Mollusca: Gastropoda: Prosobranchia 

&Pulmonata 

126 

Mollusca: Cephalopoda 2 

Echinodermata: Asteroidea 32 

Echinodermata: Echinoidea 3 

Echinodermata: Holothuroidea 13 

Echinodermata: Ophiuroidea 13 

Urochordata: Ascidiacea 48 

Total 723 
 

20 

The fauna examined based on the West-Side Only criterion also comprises twenty-eight major 

invertebrate taxa, ranging from Porifera to Urochordata: Ascidiacea. The largest number of 

lower level taxa observed in the list compiled to compare regions with the West-Side Only fauna 

was for prosobranch gastropods (43 species); bivalves and anascan cheilostome bryozoans were 

both represented by at least 20 species. 

The four regions differed substantially in terms of how many major taxa were reported. Based 

on the West-Side Only selection method, the largest number of lower level taxa was reported for 

the west side of Cook Inlet (232; Table 6; Appendix). 

The four regions differed somewhat in terms of which major taxa dominated but generally 

prosobranch gastropods, bivalves, and bryozoans were major components. The dominant major 

taxa on the west side of Cook Inlet, in decreasing order of abundance, were prosobranch 

gastropods, bivalves, ascophoran and anascan bryozoans, and decapod crustaceans (Table 7). At 

Point Barrow in the Arctic, dominant major taxa were ascophoran and anascan bryozoans, 

bivalves, and prosobranch gastropods. In Kachemak Bay on the east side of lower Cook Inlet 

and in Prince William Sound, prosobranch gastropods strongly dominated the fauna, followed by 

bivalves. Decapod crustacean were also well represented in both regions. 

Using the list from the west side of Cook Inlet as the guide, the smallest number (71) was 

reported for the Arctic (Table 6 and 7). This indicates a very strong influence of species from 

the northeastern Pacific on the faunae of these regions. However, Arctic forms contribute almost 

one-third of the taxa to the overall list on the west side of Cook Inlet (Table 7) and only slightly 

less, proportionately, to the faunae of Kachemak Bay and Prince William Sound when the 

species list from the west side of Cook Inlet is used as the criterion for inclusion on the species 

lists. This demonstrates an appreciable influence of Arctic species in all the southern regions. 

The 68 species found in common between the faunae of the west side of Cook Inlet and the 

Arctic are dominated by Bryozoa (26 species) and Mollusca (18 species) (Tables 8, 9, and 10). 

Echinodermata (7 species) and Crustacea (6 species) are represented less frequently. Within 

west-side species assemblages for these phyla, 59 percent of the bryozoans, 22 percent. 

Cook Inlet represents either the southern extent of their geographical ranges or represents 

disjunct occurrences (e.g., Saduria entomon, an estuarine isopod, the limpet Tectura testudinalis, 

and the solitary ascidian, Pelonaia corrugata) for 15 species (Table 11). 
 

21 

Table 6. Number of Major Taxa Recorded in Regions Considered in This Study and Taxon Codes Designated 

for Taxa. 

 

Number of Taxa (Regional %) 

Major Taxon 

Taxon 

Code 

Arctic 

 (Pt. Barrow) 

West Side 

Cook Inlet 

Kachemak 

Bay 

Prince 

William

Sound 

Porifera 1 1 (1.4) 7 (3.0) 5 (3.5) 6 (3.8) 

Cnidaria: Hydrozoa: Athecata 2.1 1 (1.4) 1 (0.4) 0 1 (0.6) 

Cnidaria: Hydrozoa: Thecata 2.2 0 15 (6.5) 3 (2.1) 8 (5.1) 

Cnidaria: Anthozoa 2.4 0 5 (2.2) 5 (3.5) 3 (1.9) 

Annelida: Polychaeta 3 1 (1.4) 3 (1.3) 3 (2.1) 1 (0.6) 

Priapulida 4 1 (1.4) 1 (0.4) 0 1 (0.6) 

Sipuncula 5 0 1 (0.4) 1 (0.7) 1 (0.6) 

Echiura 6 1 (1.4) 2 (0.9) 2 (1.4) 1 (0.6) 

Brachiopoda 8 3 (4.2) 4 (1.7) 3 (2.1) 2 (1.3) 

Bryozoa: Cheilostomata: Anasca 9.1 12 (16.9) 21 (9.1) 11 (7.7) 13 (8.3) 

Bryozoa: Cheilostomata: Ascophora 9.2 12 (16.9) 19 (8.2) 8 (5.6) 8 (5.1) 

Bryozoa: Ctenostomata 9.3 3 (4.2) 6 (2.6) 3 (2.1) 2 (1.3) 

Entoprocta 10 0 1 (0.4) 0 0 

Mollusca: Bivalvia 11.1 9 (12.7) 27 (11.6) 19 (13.3) 25 (15.9)

Mollusca: Polyplacophora 11.2 2 (2.8) 12 (5.2) 7 (4.9) 10 (6.4) 

Mollusca: Gastropoda: Opisthobranchia 11.3 0 7 (3.0) 4 (2.8) 6 (3.8) 

Mollusca: Gastropoda: Prosobranchia 11.4 8 (11.3) 43 (18.5) 30 (21.0) 34 (21.7)

Mollusca: Cephalopoda 11.5 0 1 (0.4) 1 (0.7) 1 (0.6) 

Arthropoda: Crustacea: Cirripedia 7.1 1 (1.4) 7 (3.0) 6 (4.2) 5 (3.2) 

Arthropoda: Crustacea: Decapoda 7.2 4 (5.6) 19 (8.2) 14 (9.8) 10 (6.4) 

Arthropoda: Crustacea: Isopoda 7.3 1 (1.4) 1 (0.4) 0 0 

Echinodermata: Asteroidea 12.1 4 (5.6) 12 (5.2) 9 (6.3) 7 (4.5) 

Echinodermata: Echinoidea 12.2 1 (1.4) 2 (0.9) 1 (0.7) 2 (1.3) 

Echinodermata: Holothuroidea 12.3 0 6 (2.6) 5 (3.5) 5 (3.2) 

Echinodermata: Ophiuroidea 12.4 2 (2.8) 2 (0.9) 1 (0.7) 1 (0.6) 

Urochordata: Ascidiacea 13 4 (5.6) 7 (3.0) 2 (1.4) 4 (2.5) 

Regional Totals for Species 71 232 143 157 
 

22 

Table 7. Comparison of Species that Southern Regions have in Common with the Arctic* Species Based on 

Species that Occur on the West Side of Cook Inlet. 

Regions Being 

Compared 

Number of Species 

in Southern Region 

Species in 

Common with 

Arctic Region 

Percent Species in 

Common 

West Side to Arctic 232 71 31 

Kachemak Bay to 

Arctic 143 42 29 

Prince William 

Sound to Arctic 157 43 27 

* Based on MacGinitie (1955) for Pt. Barrow. 

Table 8. Numbers of Higher Taxa With Arctic Affinities Identified from the West Side of Cook Inlet. 

Higher Taxon Total 

Porifera 1 

Cnidaria: Hydrozoa 1 

Annelida: Polychaeta 1 

Echiura 1 

Priapulida 1 

Brachiopoda 2 

Bryozoa: Cheilostoma 23 

Bryozoa: Ctenostomata and Cyclostoma 3 

Mollusca: Bivalvia 9 

Mollusca: Polyplacophora 2 

Mollusca: Gastropoda 7 

Arthropoda: Crustacea: Cirripedia 1 

Arthropoda: Crustacea: Decapoda 4 

Arthropoda: Crustacea: Isopoda 1 

Echinodermata: Asteroidea 4 

Echinodermata: Echinoidea 1 

Echinodermata: Ophiuroidea 2 

Urochordata: Ascidiacea 4 

Grand Total 68 
 

23 

Table 9. Species Found Both in Arctic and on the West Side of Cook Inlet. Sources for Arctic and Cook Inlet 

records are footnoted. 

Genus/Species Biogeographical Pattern 

PORIFERA 

Myxilla incrustans a, e Circumpolar Arctic-Boreal 

CNIDARIA: Hydrozoa – Hydroida 

Hybocodon prolifera a, b, f Circumpolar Arctic-Boreal 

ANNELIDA - Polychaeta 

Pectinaria brevicoma a, e Circumpolar Arctic-Boreal 

ECHIURA 

Echiurus echiurus alaskanus a, e, f Circumpolar Arctic-Boreal 

PRIAPULIDA 

Priapulus caudatus a, f Circumpolar Arctic-Boreal 

MOLLUSCA - Bivalvia 

Diplodonta aleutica High-Boreal Pacific 

Hiatella arctica Circumpolar Arctic-Boreal 

Liocyma fluctuosum Arctic-Boreal Pacific 

Macoma balthica Circumpolar Arctic-Boreal 

Musculus discors Circumpolar Arctic-Boreal 

Musculus niger Circumpolar Arctic-Boreal 

Mya pseudoarenaria Circumpolar Arctic-Boreal 

Mya truncata Circumpolar Arctic-Boreal 

Panomya ampla High-Boreal Pacific 

MOLLUSCA - Polyplacophora 

Amicula vestita a, e Amphiboreal 

Stenosemus albus a, e Circumpolar Arctic-Boreal 

MOLLUSCA - Gastropoda 

Aquilonaria turneri Arctic-Pacific-Boreal 

Boreoscala groenlandica Circumpolar Arctic-Boreal 

Boreotrophon clathratus Circumpolar Arctic-Boreal 

Cryptonatica affinis Circumpolar Arctic-Boreal 

Piliscus commodus a, c Circumpolar Arctic-Boreal 

Tectura testudinalis Circumpolar Arctic-Boreal 

Velutina velutina Circumpolar Arctic-Boreal 

CRUSTACEA: CIRREPEDIA 

Balanus crenatusa, e, f Circumpolar Arctic-Boreal 

CRUSTACEA: ISOPODA 

Saduria entomon a, e, f Circumpolar Arctic-Boreal 

CRUSTACEA: DECAPODA 
 

24 

Genus/Species Biogeographical Pattern 

Lebbeus polaris Circumpolar Arctic-Boreal 

Pandalus goniurus Circumpolar Arctic-Boreal 

Paralithodes camtschaticus Circumpolar Arctic-Boreal 

Sclerocrangon boreas Circumpolar Arctic-Boreal 

BRYOZOA - Cheilostomata 

Arctonula arctica Circumpolar Arctic-Boreal 

Bidenkapia spitzbergensis Circumpolar Arctic-Boreal 

Callopora lineata Circumpolar Arctic-Boreal 

Carbasea carbasea Circumpolar Arctic-Boreal 

Celleporella hyalina species complex Circumpolar Arctic-Boreal 

Celleporina aspera Circumpolar Arctic-Boreal 

Celleporina surcularis Circumpolar Arctic-Boreal 

Cystisella beringiana Arctic-Boreal Pacific 

Dendrobeania murrayana Circumpolar Arctic-Boreal 

Electra arctica Circumpolar Arctic-Boreal 

Eucratea loricata Circumpolar Arctic-Boreal 

Flustra foliacea Amphiboreal 

Flustrellidra corniculata Circumpolar Arctic-Boreal 

Flustrellidra gigantea Circumpolar Arctic-Boreal 

Myriozoella plana Circumpolar Arctic-Boreal 

Pachyegis princeps Circumpolar Arctic-Boreal 

Porella acutirostris species complex Circumpolar Arctic-Boreal 

Porella compressa Circumpolar Arctic-Boreal 

Raymondia rigida Circumpolar Arctic-Boreal 

Rhamphostomella costata Circumpolar Arctic-Boreal 

Rhamphostomella spinigera Circumpolar Arctic-Boreal 

Tegella arctica Circumpolar Arctic-Boreal 

Tegella armifera Circumpolar Arctic-Boreal 

BRYOZOA – Ctenostomata & 

Cyclostomata 

Alcyonidium mytili Circumpolar Arctic-Boreal 

Alcyonidium pedunculatum Circumpolar Arctic-Boreal 

Diplosolen arctica Circumpolar Arctic-Boreal 

BRACHIOPODA 

Hemithyrus psittacea a, e Circumpolar Arctic-Boreal 

Diestothyris ?frontalis a, e (?=D. 

spitsbergensis) Circumpolar Arctic-Boreal 

ECHINODERMATA - Asteroidea 

Crossaster papposus Circumpolar Arctic-Boreal 

Henricia sanguinolenta Circumpolar Arctic-Boreal 
 

25 

Genus/Species Biogeographical Pattern 

Leptasterias polaris acervata Arctic-Boreal Pacific 

Solaster endeca Amphiboreal 

ECHINODERMATA - Echinoidea 

Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis Circumpolar Arctic-Boreal 

ECHINODERMATA - Ophiuroidea 

Ophiopholis aculeata Amphiboreal 

Stegophiura nodosa a, f Circumpolar Arctic-Boreal 

TUNICATA 

Boltenia echinata Circumpolar Arctic-Boreal 

Dendrodoa pulchella a, e Circumpolar Arctic-Boreal 

Halocynthia aurantia Circumpolar Arctic-Boreal 

Pelonaia corrugata a, e Circumpolar Arctic-Boreal 

OVERALL TOTAL 68 

a

 MacGinitie (1955) 

b Naumov (1960) 

c University of Alaska Fairbanks Museum Aquatic Collection accessions 

d Dr. Andrei Gryshenko, Perm University, Russia 

e Lees et al. (1980) 

f Pebble Mine marine biological survey 

Table 10.Biogeographical Affinities for Invertebrates with Distributions Including Western Cook Inlet and 

the Arctic. 

 Distribution Total 

Amphiboreal 4 

Arctic-Boreal Pacific 4 

Circumpolar Arctic-Boreal 56 

High-Boreal Pacific 4 

Grand Total 68 
 

26 

Table 11. Species with isolated occurrences on west side of Cook Inlet. 

Major Taxon Species 

Brachiopoda ?Diestothyris spitzbergensis 

Bryozoa: Cheilostomata: Anasca Bidenkapia spitzbergensis 

Bryozoa: Cheilostomata: Ascophora Porella compressa 

Bryozoa: Cheilostomata: Ascophora Raymondia rigida 

Bryozoa: Cheilostomata: Ascophora Rhamphostomella spinigera 

Bryozoa: Cyclostomata Entalophoroecia vancouverensis 

Arthropoda: Crustacea: Decapoda Lebbeus polaris 

Arthropoda: Crustacea: Isopoda Saduria entomon 

Mollusca: Gastropoda: Prosobranchia Aquilonaria turneri 

Mollusca: Gastropoda: Prosobranchia Piliscus commodus 

Mollusca: Gastropoda: Prosobranchia Tectura testudinalis 

Mollusca: Polyplacophora Amicula vestita 

Echinodermata: Ophiuroidea Stegophiura nodosa 

Urochordata: Ascidiacea Dendrodoa pulchella 

Urochordata: Ascidiacea Pelonaia corrugata 

2. Multivariate Analysis 

We conducted multivariate analyses to assess the resemblance in taxonomic composition among 

regions and in resemblance in regional distribution among taxa. While the resemblance patterns 

among regions were consistent, the patterns observed in groupings of the full suite of taxa were 

not meaningful and are not presented. The likely cause for this lack of meaning is that because 

we are dealing with only four regions, many of the taxa have very similar distribution patterns. 

In contrast, patterns were more obvious and interpretable when the species lists were restricted to 

just the Bryozoa or Mollusca and excluded Opisthobranchia and Cephalopoda. 

a. Overall West-Side Only Species List 

Regional relationships are very similar whether or not the relative abundance data are weighted 

(Figure 5 a-d). In all cases, the strongest linkage in both the dendrograms and the 2-dimensional 

non-metric multidimensional scaling (non-MDA) is between Kachemak Bay and Prince William 

Sound. This core grouping is closely linked to the west side of Cook Inlet; in all cases, the 

species assemblage on the west side of Cook Inlet is closely related to that in Kachemak Bay and 

Prince William Sound. The species assemblages for these regions exhibit significant similarity 

at the 10-percent level. Finally, the Arctic species assemblage joins the other three regions at a 

substantially lower level of similarity. 

Weighting by taxonomic, trophic, or size codes has only a very small effect on the linkages in 

the dendrograms (Table 12). Except for the effect of trophic structure at the weakest node, the 

nodes at each level (strongest, moderate, and weakest) are all within a percent of one another. 
 

27 

Table 12.Comparison of nodes linking the regions and weighting options. 

 Level of Similarity (%) 

Weighting 

Strongest 

Linkage 

Moderate 

Linkage 

Weakest 

Linkage 

Unweighted 76 73 35 

Taxon Code Weighted 76 74 36 

Trophic Code Weighted 77 74 29 

Size Code Weighted 76 74 35 

All of the 2-dimensional ordinations produced by MDA illustrate the strong degree of separation 

of the Arctic species assemblage from those in the southern regions as well as the close similarity 

of the assemblages in Kachemak Bay, Prince William Sound, and the west side of Cook Inlet 

(Figure 6 a - d). The clumping of the southern regions inside the higher similarity contours 

clearly demonstrates this pattern. The assemblages in these three regions average 75 percent 

similarity (Table 12). In contrast, the Arctic assemblage averages only 34 percent similarity with 

the southern group of regions. That stress levels in these ordinations are zero in all cases, 

indicates that the graphics are excellent representations of the regional relationships. 

In the cases of trophic structure and size (Figures 6c and 6d), the effect of weighting is the same, 

i.e., the trajectory for weighting values progressed (values increase) from the Arctic to the west 

side to Prince William Sound to Kachemak Bay (Table 13). This can be interpreted to mean that 

the Arctic fauna is skewed toward lower trophic levels and smaller animals than found in the 

southern regions, especially Kachemak Bay. However, the differences in magnitude of the codes 

are quite small and have no statistical significance. 

Table 13.Differences in weighting due to taxonomic level, trophic structure, and size codes. 

Region 

Taxon 

Groups* 

Trophic 

Structure* Sizea* 

Arctic (Pt. Barrow) 

Average 9.60 4.46 2.52 

Std Dev 2.42 2.82 0.91 

West Side of Cook Inlet 

Mean 9.12 5.54 2.56 

Std Dev 3.27 3.26 0.94 

Kachemak Bay 

Mean 9.29 5.93 2.68 

Std Dev 3.14 3.51 0.99 

Prince William Sound 

Mean 9.41 5.65 2.59 

Std Dev 3.28 3.29 0.95 

* Ranges for codes: Taxon: 1 – 11; Trophic: 1 - 11; Size: 1 - 5 
 

28 

In the case of taxon weighting (Figure 6b), the trajectory increases from the west-side species 

assemblage progressively to Kachemak Bay, Prince William Sound, and Arctic assemblages. 

This suggests that less advanced major taxa are better represented in the west-side assemblage 

than in the other regions and that the Arctic assemblage is skewed toward more advanced major 

taxa. However, again, the differences are quite small with all regions having an average value 

approximating the general code for Bryozoa (≈9; Table 13). 

b. Bryozoa-Only Species List 

Limiting the faunal assemblage examined to Bryozoa demonstrates that this group is quite 

important in establishing the strong relationship between Arctic and west-side faunal 

assemblages versus the Kachemak Bay or Prince William Sound assemblages (Figure 7). The 

analysis of only bryozoans (46 species, 27 [59%] of which are found in the Arctic) suggests that 

the strongest linkage is between the Kachemak Bay and Prince William Sound assemblages but 

the next strongest linkage is between the west side and Arctic assemblages. These two groupings 

are also linked at a much higher level that is seen for the full West-Side Only assemblage (Figure 

5). The similarity among these linkages is statistically significant at the 10-percent level. 

The clustering of bryozoan species among these regions splits the species into two major groups 

comprising five notable subgroups (Figure 8). The two major groups are linked at the 49 percent 

level of similarity. Ten species in one subgroup have 100 percent similarity, i.e. they are 

identically distributed among the four regions. This group and another group including nine 

species with more varied distribution and abundance patterns (Table 14) are statistically similar 

at the 10-percent significance level. Several smaller groups, especially species pairings, also 

demonstrate statistically significant similarity. 

To examine the distribution patterns behind these dendrograms, we constructed a nodal table 

where the regions are aligned along one axis in the order shown in Figure 7 and the species are 

aligned along the other axis in the order shown in Figure 8 The major and subordinate divisions 

shown in Figures 7 and 8 are indicated in Table 14 by triple and double lines, respectively. 

Underlined species within groupings have statistically similar distributions. 

As indicated, cluster analysis divides the species assemblages into two major groups (Figure 8 

and Table 14). It is clear from an inspection of Table 14 that this division is based on the 

occurrence of a species in Kachemak Bay; none of the species in Group A occurred in Kachemak 

Bay whereas all but one of the species in Group B occurred there. Group A includes 24 species, 

11 of which occurred in the Arctic region. Within this group, the largest subgroup, ten species 

with 100 percent similarity, occurred only in the west-side region. The next largest subgroup, 

with seven species, occurred in only the west-side and the Arctic regions. A third subgroup, also 

with seven species, splits into two minor subgroups; one subgroup includes species that occurred 

in the west-side and Prince William Sound regions and the other has species in those regions as 

well as in the Arctic region. All of the species with High Boreal and High Boreal Arctic 

biogeographical affinities occur in Group A (Table 14). 
 

29 

5a. Unweighted 

5b. Taxon Code Weighting 

Figure 5. Comparison of regional similarity in dendrograms differing by type of weighting. The red 

shading of branches indicates the linked regions are statistically similar at the 10-percent 

significance level based on permutation testing. 
 

30 

5c. Trophic Code Weighting 

5d. Size Code Weighting 

Figure 5 Cont. Comparison of regional similarity in dendrograms differing by type of weighting. The red 

shading of branches indicates the linked regions are statistically similar at the 10-percent 

significance level based on permutation testing. 
 

31 

6a. Unweighted 

6b. Taxon Code Weighting 

Figure 6. Comparison of regional similarity in 2-dimensional spaces that differ by type of weighting. 

Arrows connecting the regional symbols in Figures 5b-d indicate the trajectory for the 

specified weighting factor, from low to high. 
 

32 

6c. Trophic Code Weighting 

6d. Size Code Weighting 

Figure 6 Cont. Comparison of regional similarity in 2-dimensional spaces that differ by type of weighting. 

Arrows connecting the regional symbols in Figures 5b-d indicate the trajectory for the 

specified weighting factor, from low to high. 
 

33 

 Figure 7. Dendrogram depicting relationships among regions based solely on their bryozoan 

assemblages. The red shading of branches indicates the linked regions are statistically 

similar at the 10-percent significance level based on permutation testing. 

Figure 8. Dendrogram showing bryozoan species relationships based on their distribution among the four 

 regions. The red shading of branches indicates the linked species have statistically similar 

 distributions among the regions at the 10-percent significance level based on permutation testing. 
 

34 

Table 14. Nodal analysis showing distribution of species and species groups among the four regions. 

 Group A Group B 

SPECIES Arctic West 

Side 

Kachemak 

Bay 

Prince 

William 

Sound 

Biogeographical Distribution 

Tricellaria ternata 2 2 Boreal Arctic Circumpolar 

Tricellaria gracilis 2 2 Boreal Arctic Circumpolar 

Phidolopora pacifica 2 3 ? 

Rhamphostomella costata 2 2 2 High Boreal Arctic Pacific 

Celleporina surcularis 2 2 2 Boreal Arctic Circumpolar 

Porella acutirostris 1 2 2 Boreal Arctic Circumpolar 

Tegella aquilirostris 1 2 2 Pacific Boreal 

Tegella armiferoides 2 High Boreal Arctic Pacific 

Flustrellidra cervicornis 2 Pacific High Boreal 

Desmacystis sandalia 2 Boreal Arctic Circumpolar 

Caberia ellisi 2 High Boreal Arctic Pacific 

Entalophoroecia 

vancouverensis 

 2 East Pacific Boreal 

Alcyonidium gelatinosum 2 Boreal Arctic Circumpolar 

Alcyonidium mammillatum 2 Boreal Arctic Circumpolar 

Parasmittina avicularissima 2 Pacific Boreal 

Corynoporella tenuis 2 Boreal Arctic Circumpolar 

Tricellaria inermis 2 High Boreal Arctic 

Porella compressa 3 2 Boreal Arctic Circumpolar 

Bidenkapia spitzbergensis 3 3 Boreal Arctic Circumpolar 

Pachyegis princeps 3 1 High Boreal Arctic 

Raymondia rigida 5 2 Boreal Arctic Circumpolar 

Rhamphostomella spinigera 2 2 High Boreal Arctic Pacific 

Tegella arctica 2 2 Boreal Arctic Circumpolar 

Cystisella beringiana 1 2 High Boreal Arctic Pacific 

Diplosolen obelia arctica 1 2 2 Boreal Arctic Circumpolar 

Arctonula arctica 1 2 2 Boreal Arctic Circumpolar 

Celleporina aspera 2 2 2 East Pacific High Boreal 

Tegella armifera 2 2 2 Boreal Arctic Circumpolar 

Porella belli 2 2 Boreal Arctic Circumpolar 

Microporella californica 2 2 High Boreal Arctic Pacific 

Lagenicella neosocialis 2 2 High Boreal Arctic Pacific 
 

35 

 Group A Group B 

SPECIES Arctic West 

Side 

Kachemak 

Bay 

Prince 

William 

Sound 

Biogeographical Distribution 

Beania columbiana 2 2 Pacific Boreal 

Electra arctica 1 2 2 2 Boreal Arctic Circumpolar 

Callopora lineata 1 2 2 2 Boreal Arctic Circumpolar 

Myriozoella plana 1 2 2 2 Boreal Arctic Circumpolar 

Flustrellidra corniculata 2 2 2 2 Boreal Arctic 

Rhynchozoon ?bispinosum 2 2 2 ? 

Alcyonidium pedunculatum 3 4 3 3 High Boreal Arctic Pacific 

Alcyonidium mytili 2 4 3 3 Boreal Arctic Circumpolar 

Flustra foliacea 2 3 3 2 Boreal Arctic Circumpolar 

Celleporella hyalina 3 3 4 4 Boreal Arctic Circumpolar 

Flustrellidra gigantea 2 3 4 3 Pacific Boreal 

Bugula pacifica 3 3 3 Pacific Boreal 

Dendrobeania murrayana 5 3 3 3 Boreal Arctic Circumpolar 

Carbasea carbasea 5 4 3 2 Boreal Arctic Circumpolar 

Eucratea loricata 5 4 2 Boreal Arctic Circumpolar 

Group B includes 22 species, 16 of which occurred in the Arctic region and 21 16 of which 

occurred in Kachemak Bay. The largest subgroup comprises nine species that occurred in all 

four regions; these species were also among the more abundant in their regions. A closely 

related but smaller subgroup includes five less abundant species that also occurred in all regions. 

The third subgroup in Group B forms two minor subgroups, each with four species. One of these 

includes species that occurred only in the west-side and Kachemak Bay regions whereas the 

species in the other subgroup occurred in the Arctic, west-side, and Kachemak Bay regions 

(Table 14). Group B includes all species with East Pacific High Boreal biogeographical 

affinities. 

c. Mollusca-Only Species List 

Conducting a similar analysis using a Mollusca-only species list demonstrates that molluscan 

fauna is more strongly influenced by the northeastern Pacific rather than the Arctic faunae. The 

analysis of only mollusks (83 species, 19 [23%] of which are found in the Arctic) suggests that 

the strongest linkage is between the west-side and Prince William Sound assemblages but the 

next strongest links this group with Kachemak Bay assemblages. The similarity among these 

linkages is statistically significant at the 10-percent level. This grouping of southern regions 

links to the Arctic assemblage at a relatively low level (Figure 9). Except for the strong linkage 

between the west-side and Prince William Sound assemblages, this pattern is very similar to that 

observed for the full West-Side Only species analysis. 
 

36 

Figure 9. Dendrogram Depicting Relationships Among Regions Based Solely on their Molluscan 

Assemblages. The red shading of branches indicates the linked regions are statistically 

similar at the 10-percent significance level based on permutation testing. 

Clustering the molluscan species produces a substantially different and less instructive result 

than for the bryozoans (Figure 8). Rather than producing sharp contrasts in groups and 

subgroups, the molluscan species list produces small groups of species that are not strongly 

associated (i.e., only a few small groupings demonstrate statistically significant similarity in 

distribution). These patterns suggest the absence of strong organizing factors with regard to the 

regional distribution of mollusks found in these assemblages. Consequently, we chose not to 

construct the nodal analysis for mollusks. 

B. Algae 

a. Comparison of seaweed flora on the east and west sides of Cook Inlet 

In general, the seaweed flora of the west side of Cook Inlet appears to comprise a depauperate 

subset of the overall seaweed flora of Cook Inlet. Only five species of the approximately 175 

seaweed species currently known to occur in Cook Inlet are recognized to be restricted to the 

west side. This number may change as the Cook Inlet area is studied further. Distribution of 

these five species is described below. 

Chordaria chordaeformis. This species was recognized as distinct from C. flagelliformis by 

Kim and Kawai (2002) based on its usually simple thallus (unbranched or with few branches), 

limited distribution in colder-water regions of the northern hemisphere, and distinctive DNA 
 

37 

sequences. Specimens fitting the morphology of C. chordaeformis were collected at South Head, 

Iliamna Bay, in 2002 (voucher herbarium specimen SCL 10001) and the offshore platform reefs, 

western side of mouth of Douglas River, Kamishak Bay, in 2003 (SCL 10518); whether these are 

actually C. chordaeformis or just a sparsely branched form of C. flagelliformis has yet to be 

determined (no molecular sequence data are available). The only other records of this species in 

Alaska are from St. Lawrence Island (Kim & Kawai 2002). 

Hollenbergia subulata. This represents a new northwesterly distribution record for this species. 

It was previously known to occur from the south side of the Kenai Peninsula to Monterey, 

California (Scagel et al. 1989). 

Neohypophyllum middendorfii. This species is disjunct between Southeast Alaska, its 

southeastern limit of distribution, and Cook Inlet. Westward of Cook Inlet, it has been recorded 

from the Kodiak Archipelago, the Alaska Peninsula, the eastern Aleutian Islands and the Bering 

Sea, including the Pribilof Islands. The species was originally described from the Okhotsk Sea 

coast of Russia by Ruprecht and has been recorded from as far west as Hokkaido, Japan 

(Yoshida 1998). 

Mastocarpus sp. This putatively undescribed species of Mastocarpus is known to occur from 

Iliamna Bay, west side of Cook Inlet, Alaska, to Kuruma Ishi, Hokkaido, Japan. It has also been 

collected at Cape Douglas and Kukak Bay (Katmai National Park), possibly several sites on 

Kodiak Island (these require confirmation) and at Spray Cape (Unalaska Island), Alaska 

(Lindstrom, 2008). 

Odonthalia dentata. This North Atlantic species has been identified as occurring in the Arctic 

Ocean and in colder parts of coastal Alaska based on vegetative and reproductive similarities. 

Identity of the North Pacific and Alaskan Arctic specimens with the North Atlantic species needs 

to be verified using modern molecular tools. 

b. Comparison of West Side of Cook Inlet and Arctic Ocean 

There is no clear relationship between the species of seaweeds occurring on the west side of 

Cook Inlet and those occurring in the Arctic Ocean. Both regions are relatively species poor, as 

is characteristic of depositional environments (see Geology section). 

One way to compare the seaweed flora of the west side of Cook Inlet is to look at the species it 

shares with the seaweed flora of the Arctic coast of Alaska. Based on our current knowledge, 22 

of the approximately 66 species (or 33%) of seaweeds known to occur on the Arctic coast of 

Alaska have also been recorded as occurring on the west side of Cook Inlet (Table 15) All of 

these species are widely distributed along the coast of Alaska, and many are distributed beyond, 

to the south, to the west and/or into the North Atlantic Ocean. Among these, Devaleraea 

ramentacea and Dilsea socialis were identified by Lüning (1990) as Arctic “endemics” along 

with Laminaria solidungula, Turnerella pennyi, and Pantoneura baerii. Of the last three 

species, only Laminaria solidungula has been found in Alaska, and then only in the Arctic 

Ocean. 
 

38 

Although Alaria taeniata has been reported to occur in both Cook Inlet and the Arctic Ocean, a 

molecular analysis of specimens from both areas indicates they are not related at the species 

level (Lane et al. 2007). 

Table 15. Algae known from both the west side of Cook Inlet and the arctic coast of Alaska 

Taxon Known Distribution Biogeographic 

Region 

Green seaweeds (Chlorophyta) 

Acrosiphonia arcta North Atlantic, Arctic, North Pacific 

(Kamchatka to Oregon) 

Circumpolar 

Arctic-Boreal 

Blidingia minima North Atlantic, Arctic, North Pacific, Indian Ocean, 

Antarctic and subantarctic islands, Australia, New Zealand. 

Blidingia subsalsa North Atlantic, Arctic, North Pacific 

(Cook Inlet to California 

Circumpolar 

Arctic-Boreal 

Ulva intestinalis cosmopolitan 

Ulva prolifera cosmopolitan 

Ulothrix flacca nearly 

cosmopolitan 

Urospora neglecta North Atlantic, Arctic, North Pacific (Washington to 

Aleutian Islands, Alaska, and perhaps even further west), 

possibly also Antarctic and subantarctic islands and New 

Zealand. See Hanic 2005, Lindstrom & Hanic 2005. 

Brown seaweeds (Phaeophyceae) 

Chordaria flagelliformis North Atlantic, Arctic, North Pacific 

(Korea to Southeast Alaska) 

Circumpolar 

Arctic-Boreal 

Desmarestia viridis North Atlantic, Arctic, North Pacific 

(Korea to Baja California, Mexico) 

Circumpolar 

Arctic-Boreal 

Dictyosiphon 

foeniculaceus 

North Atlantic, Arctic, North Pacific 

(Japan to British Columbia) 

Circumpolar 

Arctic-Boreal 

Elachista fucicola North Atlantic, Arctic, North Pacific 

(Kamchatka to California) 

Circumpolar 

Arctic-Boreal 

Fucus distichus subsp. 

evanescen 

Arctic? North Pacific (Japan to 

California) 

Arctic-Boreal 

Pacific 

Petalonia fascia North Atlantic, Arctic, North Pacific 

(Korea to Baja California) 

Circumpolar 

Arctic-Boreal 

Saccharina latissima North Atlantic, Arctic, North Pacific 

(Japan, Aleutian Islands to California) 

Circumpolar 

Arctic-Boreal 

Red seaweeds (Rhodophyta) 

Bangia spp. North Atlantic, Arctic, North Pacific (Korea to Costa 

Rica), Chile, Australia, New Zealand 

Devaleraea ramentacea North Atlantic, Arctic, North Pacific 

(Japan to Prince William Sound) 

Circumpolar 

Arctic-Boreal 

Dilsea socialis. North Atlantic, Arctic, North Pacific 

(Kamchatka to Cook Inlet) 

Circumpolar 

Arctic-Boreal 
 

39 

Taxon Known Distribution Biogeographic 

Region 

Halosaccion glandiforme Arctic, North Pacific (Kamchatka to 

California) 

Arctic–Boreal 

Pacific 

Odonthalia dentata North Atlantic, Arctic, North Pacific 

(Kamchatka to Southeast Alaska 

Circumpolar 

Arctic-Boreal. 

Phycodrys riggii North Atlantic, Arctic, North Pacific 

(Japan to northern British Columbia) 

Circumpolar 

Arctic-Boreal. 

Pterosiphonia bipinnata. Arctic, North Pacific (Japan to 

California) 

Arctic–Boreal 

Pacific 

Rhodomela tenuissima. North Atlantic, Arctic, North Pacific 

(Japan to Southeast Alaska 

Circumpolar 

Arctic-Boreal 

c. Other evidence of a “relictual” flora 

Recent, unpublished molecular data from specimens of seaweeds from the Northeast Gulf of 

Alaska do not support the Arctic relictual nature of the flora of the west side of Cook Inlet. 

However, these data do indicate diversification among seaweed populations in the northwest 

Gulf of Alaska beyond what might be expected in a glaciated area that was colonized only after 

the last Ice Age (Tables 16 and 17). 

Table 16. Clade 1. Specimens of this species from the Northwest Gulf of Alaska fall into three groups based 

 on sequences from the ITS region of the nuclear ribosomal cistron. 

Group 

Kenai 

Peninsula Cook Inlet 

Kodiak 

Archipelago 

Katmai 

National Park 

1 East of 

McArthur 

Pass Jakolof Bay 

Monashka Bay; 

Alitak Bay; Cape 

Sitkinak 

Amalik Bay; 

Katmai Bay 

2 

No data No data 

Near Island. 

(Kodiak harbor); 

Spruce Island 

lagoon; northwest 

Afognak Island Amalik Bay 

3 

West of 

McArthur 

Pass (Port 

Dick) 

Nanwallek Reef; 

Tutka Bay; 

Hesketh I.; Cohen 

I.; Peterson Pt.; 

Scott I. (west 

side)

Izhut Bay (east side 

Afognak Island) 

Amalik Bay; 

Katmai Bay 
 

40 

Table 17. Clade 5. Specimens of this species also fall into three groups (specimens from Akhiok Island in 

 Alitak Bay, Kodiak I., and from Amalik Bay and Kiukpalik Island in Katmai National Park 

 overlap Groups 1 and 2) based on sequences from the ITS region of the nuclear ribosomal cistron. 

Group Kenai Peninsula Cook Inlet 

Kodiak 

Archipelago 

Katmai 

National Park

1 

No data 

Outside Beach; 

Iniskin Bay, 

Knoll Head 

(west side) No data 

Entrance to 

Kukak Bay 

2 

No data No data No data 

Kukak Bay; 

Hallo Bay; 

Shakun Islets 

3 West of 

McArthur Pass 

(Chugach Bay) 

Tutka Bay; 

Passage Island 

Three Saints Bay; 

Cape Sitkinak Katmai Bay 

The single specimen of Mastocarpus papillatus species complex from the west side of Cook 

Inlet (from Scott Island) was part of Group 3. It should be noted that Scott Island was the only 

site in the Iliamna-Iniskin Bay area where this species, which occurs in the mid to upper 

intertidal, was found. 

In addition to these three groups, three specimens (Chance Cove, east of McArthur Pass, Kenai 

Peninsula; Outside Beach, Cook Inlet; Perevalnie Passage, Shuyak Island) showed an additional 

nucleotide substitution that differentiated them from Group 3. It may be of interest that the 

specimens from Group 1, which includes all of the specimens sequenced from the IliamnaIniskin Bay area on the west side of Cook Inlet, shared identical sequences with specimens from 

northern California whereas Group 3 shared identical sequences with specimens from Southeast 

Alaska and Unalaska Island. As noted above, additional work is required with these data. 

Phycodrys riggii. Specimens from the outer Kenai Peninsula (Port Dick, Leg M. R. Lindeberg) 

and from Katmai National Park (Kukak Bay) had identical rbcL gene sequences, as did those 

from southern Kodiak Island (Rodman's Reach, Leg. S. M. Saupe) and the west side of Cook 

Inlet (Knoll Head, Leg. S. C. Lindstrom). The latter were more closely related to specimens 

from St. Lawrence Island and from Newfoundland, eastern Canada, than they were to the Kenai 

and Katmai specimens (Lin, Hommersand & Lindstrom, unpublished research). 

All isolates from Katmai and Kodiak have identical rbcL gene sequences, which are the same as 

those from two sites on Unalaska Island. They differ by two nucleotide substitutions from 

isolates from sites in northern British Columbia, Cook Inlet, Akutan Harbor, and four sites on 

Unalaska Island. 

Porphyra pseudolinearis. 

The single isolate from Kodiak had an identical rbcL gene sequence to one from Southeast 

Alaska. These two isolates differed from an isolate from Cook Inlet and one from Katmai by six 
 

41 

nucleotide substitutions. The Cook Inlet and Katmai isolates were identical in sequence to 

another isolate from Southeast Alaska and to two isolates from Unalaska Island. Other isolates 

from Unalaska Island diverged even further. 

Porphyra schizophylla. 

Specimens from Kenai (Morning Cove and the headland at east entrance to McArthur Pass), 

Kodiak (Big Bay, Shuyak I.; Shark Pt.; Alitak Bay), and Katmai (Amalik Bay) shared one 

nucleotide substitution unique to them in their rbcL gene sequences. The Shark Pt. and Alitak 

Bay specimens also shared a unique nucleotide substitution with a specimen from the Sitka area 

in Southeast Alaska. The other specimens sequenced (from Port Dick, Kenai Peninsula, and 

Yugnat Rocks, between Kukak Point and Cape Nukshak, Katmai National Park) were identical 

to those from other Southeast Alaska and eastern Aleutian Islands collections. 

d. Further Notes on Seaweed Biogeography in the Northwestern Gulf of Alaska 

In addition to the species already mentioned, the northwestern Gulf of Alaska also appears to be 

the eastern limit for at least six species, the western limit for 14 others, and the only known 

habitat for at least four undescribed species of seaweeds (Table 15). 

Cook Inlet was identified as the region of Alaska with a seaweed flora most similar to that of 

Juneau, Alaska, in a review of the seaweed biogeography of Southeast Alaska (Lindstrom, 

2009). Earlier, Lindstrom et al. (1986) characterized the seaweed flora of the Juneau area as 

showing a “cryophilic enrichment.” In the more recent analysis (Lindstrom, 2009), the seaweed 

flora of Juneau also showed a higher similarity to the seaweed flora of the Aleutian Islands 

westward to Japan and including the Bering Sea and Arctic coast of Alaska, compared to the 

floras of either Sitka or Ketchikan, which showed higher similarities than Juneau to the seaweed 

floras of British Columbia and California. 

III. Discussion 

A. Limitations of the Study 

This study is based on existing literature and collections, rather than on field work planned 

specifically to address the question. Our material represents the difficulty of working in the area 

and with poorly-known taxa. Accurate identifications for many species in the invertebrate fauna 

of the northeast Pacific and Arctic are difficult to impossible because of a lack of recent detailed 

descriptive literature. This is especially true for the sponges, Cnidaria, Bryozoa, and Ascidia, 

which make up much of the epifauna in the study area. 

Selecting an appropriate suite of invertebrate species for comparisons between regions posed a 

considerable problem. For example, Foster’s (2000) species list for Prince William Sound 

contained more than 450 taxa. However, the species included in this list were based on a variety 

of sampling methods and included depths far below those examined in area of interest, i.e., the 

west side of Cook Inlet, especially the northwestern corner of Kamishak Bay, in the vicinity of 

Iliamna and Iniskin Bays. The same problem existed with the species lists that we compiled from 

MacGinitie (1955). The initial species list (Appendix) with which we compared species from 
 

42 

these four regions comprised 724 taxa, 241 of them from the Arctic, 233 from the west side of 

Cook Inlet, 239 from the east side, and 467 from Prince William Sound. This list worked 

reasonably well when comparing among regions but was unwieldy when trying to compare 

species groupings. 

B. Biogeography

The Cook Inlet fauna that we have considered is not an Arctic relict in the sense of a fauna 

unchanged since the most recent glaciation, living in unglaciated habitats. During the most 

recent glaciation, ice dams produced a proglacial lake in the southern part of Cook Inlet. We 

then infer that marine communities in Cook Inlet were established only after this lake drained, 

approximately 9,000 years ago. Like the Beluga whales, and two fish species (saffron cod and 

Bering cisco), the less conspicuous invertebrate species are part of a fauna that was probably 

more widespread throughout the shallow subtidal areas when the Beringian landmass was 

emergent (Figure 10). Cook Inlet was not ice-free, but there were probably areas in the 

northwestern Gulf of Alaska, the Bering Sea shelf break, parts of the Alaska Peninsula, and 

extending to Chukotka and Kamchatka in Asia that were not substantially ice-scoured. 

 Figure 10. The Beringian landmass (used with permission, Weller 

 Cartographic Services Ltd) 

Much paleontological evidence indicates that the Atlantic and Arctic were populated from the 

Pacific Ocean, dispersal taking place while the Bering Strait was open during the Miocene and 

Pliocene times. Bernard’s (1979: 6-7) discussion of the biogeography of mollusks in the 

Beaufort seems relevant: 

The Bering Strait opened and closed repeatedly in the late Miocene, Pliocene, and 

Pleistocene; Hopkins (1973) reviewed and interpreted the sequence of fluctuating 

sea levels of the Bering Sea. These changes in climatic and geographic features 
 

43 

were accompanied by periods of migration and local extinction of benthic 

invertebrates. 

The disjunct distributions observed in many of the species discussed here may be due to a 

contraction of their ranges in the north Pacific from a larger range occupied before the last ice 

age. This suggests that there may be other refugia, perhaps the Yakutat area or Icy Bay. It is 

plausible that the West side of Cook Inlet that the Arctic- affiliated species moved into Cook 

Inlet when the inlet became marine, but did not become established in other areas because those 

areas lost the physical oceanographic characteristics in which the populations became 

established. 

The distribution and the genetic diversification of the algae, also indicate a genetic 

diversification greater than what would be expected if colonization had occurred since the last 

ice age. This suggests a refugium or refugia in the Northeastern Gulf of Alaska. Similar data on 

genetic diversity are not available for marine invertebrates. 

C. Implications for Management 

There are indications that this biota is vulnerable to changes, both climate change and impacts 

from development. One of us (DCL) had the opportunity to dive in Iliamna and Iniskin Bays in 

July 2008. While we were not fortunate enough to revisit the precise areas, nor able to examine 

any of the habitats in detail that had been examined in 1977-78, we did examine some similar 

habitats in both bays. The distinct impression was that several of the sedentary epifaunal species 

that dominated rocky habitats in the late 1970s, particularly the bryozoans and ascidians, no 

longer occurred in the region. Many of the species that appeared to be missing are large and 

conspicuous (e.g., the large head-forming bryozoan Bidenkapia spitsbergensis and the colonial 

ascidian Dendrodoa pulchella), we are reasonably confident those species did not occupy a 

significant amount of surface in the rocky habitats that we examined. 

Failure to find these species suggests the fauna observed in the late 1970s has suffered 

substantially in the intervening decades, probably from the elevated temperatures that have been 

observed. This suggests that the biota in this region is probably moderately susceptible to 

changes from global warming. It doesn’t provide insight into the susceptibility of the biota to 

changes resulting from port development. 

D. Recommendations for Continued Study 

Our samples have come from rather scattered locations within the western Cook Inlet side of 

Cook Inlet. Further delineation of species distribution within the area may help managers and 

scientists understand the exact extent of Arctic affiliated species. 

Few studies have been conducted in the Bering or Chukchi Seas or Norton Sound, especially of 

shallow subtidal rocky habitats, making it difficult to conduct a suitable comparison of species 

between Cook Inlet and the Arctic. We have documented the disjunct occurrence of several 

invertebrates and algae including some that do not occur nearer to the populations in western 

Cook Inlet than the Beaufort Sea, effectively isolating these species from similar species or 
 

44 

genera. Based on its duration, it is possible that geographic isolation has allowed some species 

to become genetically distinct, to the point of evolving into separate subspecies or species. 

Given their potential isolation, these western Cook Inlet populations could be at risk of 

significant habitat perturbation and may prove to be sensitive indicators of climate change or 

other ecological shifts and monitoring of their distributions and abundance could provide a base 

of information for future work. 

. 
 

45 

Acknowledgments 

We are grateful for funding from the Coastal Marine Institute and the Minerals Management 

Service which supported this study. Match support from the Cook Inlet Regional Citizens 

Advisory Council is also appreciated. Assistance with Dr. Grischenko’s travel arrangements 

came through the University of Alaska International Office. Karen Farrell, Fifth Avenue Design, 

prepared the graphics used in this report, figures 1-4. The University of Alaska Museum of the 

North provided laboratory space and access to specimens. Ken Severin, University of Alaska 

Scanning Electron Microscope Lab was generous with his time and access to the scanning 

electron microscope. 

Study Products 

Foster, N. R., D. C. Lees and S. Saupe 2005. Evaluating a Potential Relict Arctic Invertebrate 

and Algal Community on the West Side of Cook Inlet. P. In University of Alaska Coastal 

marine Institute Annual Report No.11 Study MMS University of Alaska and US DOI, MMS, 

Alaska OCS Region. 

Foster, N. R., D. C. Lees and S. Saupe 2007. Evaluating a Potential Relict Arctic Invertebrate 

and Algal Community on the West Side of Cook Inlet. P. In University of Alaska Coastal 

marine Institute Annual Report No. 14 Study MMS University of Alaska and US DOI, MMS, 

Alaska OCS Region. 

Foster, N. R., A. V., Grischenko, and D. C. Lees, 2007. Biodiversity and biogeography of 

Bryozoa in Cook Inlet, Alaska. Presentation to the AAAS Alaska Science Conference, 

Anchorage Alaska September 2007 

Foster, N. R., A. V., Grischenko, and D. C. Lees, 2007. Biodiversity and biogeography of 

Bryozoa in Cook Inlet, Alaska. Poster presentation at the ASLO Ocean Sciences Meeting 

Orlando Florida, March 2009. 
 

46 

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Kim, S-H., and H. Kawai. 2002. Taxonomic revision of Chordaria flagelliformis (Chordariales, 

Phaeophyceae) including novel use of the intragenic spacer region of rDNA for 

phylogenetic analysis. Phycologia 41: 328-339. 
 

48 

Kluge, G. A. 1975. Bryozoa of the Northern Seas of the U.S.S.R. Amerind Publishing Co., 

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Kozloff, E. N. 1996. Marine Invertebrates of the Pacific Northwest. Seattle, WA. University of 

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Lambert, P. 1997. Sea Cucumbers of British Columbia, Southeast Alaska, and Puget Sound. 

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Pacific Alaria species (Laminariales, Phaeophyceae) with reference to the utility of DNA 

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Li, C., X. Lit, and W. G. Pichel. 2005. Synthetic aperture radar image of axial convergence 

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49 

Lindstrom, S. C. 2008. Cryptic diversity and phylogenetic relationships within the Mastocarpus 

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52 

Appendix. Taxa data. 

PHYLUM/CLASS/ORDER GENUS/SPECIES 

Arctic 

West Side/ 

Kamishak 

Kachemak/ 

Anchor Point 

Prince 

William 

Sound 

Annelida: Polychaeta Chone infundibuliformis x 

Annelida: Polychaeta Crucigera zygophora x x 

Annelida: Polychaeta Myxicola infundibulum x x 

Annelida: Polychaeta Nephtys ciliata x 

Annelida: Polychaeta Owenia fusiformis/collaris x x 

Annelida: Polychaeta Pectinaria brevicoma x 

Annelida: Polychaeta Pectinaria granulata x x x 

Annelida: Polychaeta Pectinaria hyperborea x 

Annelida: Polychaeta Phyllochaetopterus sp. x 

Annelida: Polychaeta Pista flexuosa x 

Annelida: Polychaeta Pista maculata x 

Annelida: Polychaeta Potamilla neglecta x 

Annelida: Polychaeta Potamilla reniformis x x? 

Annelida: Polychaeta Pseudopotamilla sp. x 

Annelida: Polychaeta Sabella crassicornis x 

Annelida: Polychaeta Schizobranchia insignis x x 

Arthropoda: Cirripedia Balanus balanus x 

Arthropoda: Cirripedia Balanus crenatus x x x 

Arthropoda: Cirripedia Balanus glandula x x x 

Arthropoda: Cirripedia Balanus hesperius levidomus x 

Arthropoda: Cirripedia Balanus nubilus x x 

Arthropoda: Cirripedia Balanus rostratus alaskanus x x x 

Arthropoda: Cirripedia Balanus rostratus apertus x 

Arthropoda: Cirripedia Chthamalus dalli x x x 

Arthropoda: Cirripedia Semibalanus balanoides x x x 

Arthropoda: Cirripedia Semibalanus cariosus x x x 

Arthropoda: Crustacea Argus lar x 

Arthropoda: Crustacea Cancer oregonensis x x 

Arthropoda: Crustacea Caprella ?laeviuscula x 

Arthropoda: Crustacea Caprella borealis x 

Arthropoda: Crustacea Chionocetes bairdi x 

Arthropoda: Crustacea Chionocetes opilio x 

Arthropoda: Crustacea Crangon communis x 

Arthropoda: Crustacea Crangon sp. x x x 

Arthropoda: Crustacea Discorsopagurus schmitti x x 
 

53 

PHYLUM/CLASS/ORDER GENUS/SPECIES 

Arctic 

West Side/ 

Kamishak 

Kachemak/ 

Anchor Point 

Prince 

William 

Sound 

Arthropoda: Crustacea Elassochirus gilli x x x 

Arthropoda: Crustacea Elassochirus tenuimanus x x x 

Arthropoda: Crustacea Heptacarpus sp. x 

Arthropoda: Crustacea Hyas coarctatus alutaceus x 

Arthropoda: Crustacea Hyas lyratus x x 

Arthropoda: Crustacea Labidochirus splendescens x 

Arthropoda: Crustacea Lebbeus grandimanus x x 

Arthropoda: Crustacea Lebbeus polaris x x 

Arthropoda: Crustacea Metacaprella kennerlyi x 

Arthropoda: Crustacea Oregonia gracilis x x x 

Arthropoda: Crustacea Pagurus ?dalli x 

Arthropoda: Crustacea Pagurus aleuticus x 

Arthropoda: Crustacea Pagurus beringanus x x x 

Arthropoda: Crustacea Pagurus capillatus x 

Arthropoda: Crustacea Pagurus caurinus x 

Arthropoda: Crustacea Pagurus hirsutiusculus x x x 

Arthropoda: Crustacea Pagurus kennerleyi x x 

Arthropoda: Crustacea Pagurus ochotensis x x 

Arthropoda: Crustacea Pagurus splendescens x 

Arthropoda: Crustacea Pagurus trigonocheirus x x 

Arthropoda: Crustacea Pandalus borealis x 

Arthropoda: Crustacea Pandalus goniurus x 

Arthropoda: Crustacea Paralithodes camtschatica x x 

Arthropoda: Crustacea Phyllolithodes papillosus x x 

Arthropoda: Crustacea Placetron wosnesenskii x 

Arthropoda: Crustacea Pugettia gracilis x x 

Arthropoda: Crustacea Sclerocrangon boreas x 

Arthropoda: Crustacea Telmessus cheiragonus x x 

Arthropoda: Isopoda Pentidotea wosnesenskii x x 

Arthropoda: Isopoda Saduria entomon x x 

Arthropoda: Isopoda Saduria sabini x 

Brachiopoda Diestothyrus frontalis x x x 

Brachiopoda Diestothyrus spitzbergensis x x 

Brachiopoda: Articulata Hemithyris psittacea x x x x 

Brachiopoda: Articulata Laqueus californianus x 

Brachiopoda: Articulata Terebratalia transversa x x x 

Brachiopoda: Articulata Terebratulina crossei x 
 

54 

PHYLUM/CLASS/ORDER GENUS/SPECIES 

Arctic 

West Side/ 

Kamishak 

Kachemak/ 

Anchor Point 

Prince 

William 

Sound 

Brachiopoda: Articulata Terebratulina unguicula x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: Anasca Antropora commandorica x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: Anasca Beania columbiana x x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: Anasca Beania mirabilis x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: Anasca Bidenkapia spitzbergensis x x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: Anasca Bugula californica x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: Anasca Bugula pacifica x x x x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: Anasca Caberia ellisi x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: Anasca Callopora armata 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: Anasca Callopora horrida x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: Anasca Callopora lineata x x x x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: Anasca Callopora spitsbergensis x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: Anasca Calloporella craticula x x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: Anasca Carbasea carbasea x x x x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: Anasca Cauloramphus "variegata" x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: Anasca Cauloramphus cymbaeformis x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: Anasca Cauloramphus pseudospinifer x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: Anasca Cryptosula zavjalvensis x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: Anasca Cryptosula okadai x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: Anasca Dendrobeania curvirostrata x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: Anasca Dendrobeania lichenoides x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: Anasca Dendrobeania murrayana x x x x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: Anasca Desmacystis sandalia x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: Anasca Electra arctica x x x x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: Anasca Electra crustulenta x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: Anasca Eucratea loricata x x x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: Anasca Flustra foliacea x x x x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: Anasca Flustrellidra cervicornis x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: Anasca Flustrellidra corniculata x x x x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: Anasca Flustrellidra gigantea x x x x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: Anasca Harmeria scutulata x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: Anasca Hincksina gothica x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: Anasca Hincksina nigrans x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: Anasca Membranipora membranacea x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: Anasca Membranipora membranipora x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: Anasca Membranipora serrilamella x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: Anasca Microporina articulata x 
 

55 

PHYLUM/CLASS/ORDER GENUS/SPECIES 

Arctic 

West Side/ 

Kamishak 

Kachemak/ 

Anchor Point 

Prince 

William 

Sound 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: Anasca Microporina borealis x x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: Anasca Reginella spitzbergensis x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: Anasca Scrupocellaria scabra var paenulata x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: Anasca Scrupocellaria unidentified x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: Anasca Tegella aquilirostris x x x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: Anasca Tegella arctica x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: Anasca Tegella armifera x x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: Anasca Tegella armiferoides x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: Anasca Tegella magnipora x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: Anasca Tricellaria erecta x x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: Anasca Tricellaria gracilis x x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: Anasca Tricellaria inermis x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: Anasca Tricellaria occidentalis x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: Anasca Tricellaria peachi x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: Anasca Tricellaria ternata x x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: 

Ascophora Arctonula arctica x x x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: 

Ascophora Cellepora craticula x x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: 

Ascophora Cellepora procumbens x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: 

Ascophora Cellepora robertsonae x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: 

Ascophora Celleporella hyalina x x x x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: 

Ascophora Celleporella reflexa x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: 

Ascophora Celleporina aspera x x x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: 

Ascophora Celleporina surcularis x x x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: 

Ascophora Corynoporella tenuis x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: 

Ascophora Costazia nordenskjoldi x ? 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: 

Ascophora Cribrilina annulata x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: 

Ascophora Cribrilina corbicula x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: 

Ascophora Cystisella beringiana x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: 

Ascophora Cystisella bicornis x x x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: 

Ascophora Cystisella fragilis x 
 

56 

PHYLUM/CLASS/ORDER GENUS/SPECIES 

Arctic 

West Side/ 

Kamishak 

Kachemak/ 

Anchor Point 

Prince 

William 

Sound 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: 

Ascophora Cystisella saccata x x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: 

Ascophora Emballotheca stylifera x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: 

Ascophora Hippodiplosia cancellata x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: 

Ascophora Hippodiplosia insculpta x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: 

Ascophora Hippodiplosia reticulo-punctata x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: 

Ascophora Hippoporina vulgaris x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: 

Ascophora Hippothoa divaricata x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: 

Ascophora Hippothoa expansa x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: 

Ascophora Lagenicella neosocialis x x x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: 

Ascophora Microporella californica x x x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: 

Ascophora Microporella germana x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: 

Ascophora Mucronella abyssicola x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: 

Ascophora Mucronella emucronata x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: 

Ascophora Mucronella microstoma x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: 

Ascophora Mucronella ventricosa x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: 

Ascophora Myriozoella plana x x x x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: 

Ascophora Myriozoella subarctatum x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: 

Ascophora Parasmittina alaskensis 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: 

Ascophora Parasmittina avicularissima x x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: 

Ascophora Parasmittina sp. x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: 

Ascophora Parasmittina trispinosa x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: 

Ascophora Phidolopora pacifica x x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: 

Ascophora Porella acutirostris x x x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: 

Ascophora Porella belli x x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: Porella cocinna x x 
 

57 

PHYLUM/CLASS/ORDER GENUS/SPECIES 

Arctic 

West Side/ 

Kamishak 

Kachemak/ 

Anchor Point 

Prince 

William 

Sound 

Ascophora 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: 

Ascophora Porella compressa x x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: 

Ascophora Porella minuta x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: 

Ascophora Porella patens x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: 

Ascophora Porella tumida x x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: 

Ascophora Posterula sarsi x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: 

Ascophora Ragionula rosacea x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: 

Ascophora Raymondia rigida x x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: 

Ascophora Rhamphostomella bilaminata x x x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: 

Ascophora Rhamphostomella costata x x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: 

Ascophora Rhamphostomella fortissima x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: 

Ascophora Rhamphostomella gigantea x x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: 

Ascophora Rhamphostomella hincksi x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: 

Ascophora Rhamphostomella spinigera x x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: 

Ascophora Rhynchozoon ?bispinosum x x x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: 

Ascophora Schizomavella porifera x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: 

Ascophora Schizoporella "unicornis" x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: 

Ascophora Smittina bella x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: 

Ascophora Smittina jefferysi x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: 

Ascophora Smittina majuscula x x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: 

Ascophora Stomachetosella cruenta 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: 

Ascophora Stomachetosella distincta x 

Bryozoa:Cheilostomata: 

Ascophora Stomachetosella sinuosa x 

Bryozoa:Ctenostomata Alcyonidium disciforme x 

Bryozoa:Ctenostomata Alcyonidium enteromorpha x 

Bryozoa:Ctenostomata Alcyonidium gelatinosum x 
 

58 

PHYLUM/CLASS/ORDER GENUS/SPECIES 

Arctic 

West Side/ 

Kamishak 

Kachemak/ 

Anchor Point 

Prince 

William 

Sound 

Bryozoa:Ctenostomata Alcyonidium hirsutum x 

Bryozoa:Ctenostomata Alcyonidium mammilatum x 

Bryozoa:Ctenostomata Alcyonidium mytili x x x x 

Bryozoa:Ctenostomata Alcyonidium pedunculatum x x x x 

Bryozoa:Ctenostomata Bowerbankia gracilis aggregata x 

Bryozoa:Cyclostomata Bientalophora sp. x 

Bryozoa:Cyclostomata Borgiola pustulosa x 

Bryozoa:Cyclostomata Crisia crabraria x 

Bryozoa:Cyclostomata Crisia eburnea x 

Bryozoa:Cyclostomata Crisia occidentalis x 

Bryozoa:Cyclostomata Crisia serrulata x 

Bryozoa:Cyclostomata Diaperoecia intermedia x 

Bryozoa:Cyclostomata Diaperoecia johnstoni x 

Bryozoa:Cyclostomata Diaperoecia unidentified x 

Bryozoa:Cyclostomata Diplosen obelia arctica x x 

Bryozoa:Cyclostomata Disporella alaskensis x 

Bryozoa:Cyclostomata Entalophoroecia vancouverensis x x 

Bryozoa:Cyclostomata Filicrisia franciscana x 

Bryozoa:Cyclostomata Filicrisia geniculata x 

Bryozoa:Cyclostomata Filicrisia smitti x 

Bryozoa:Cyclostomata Heteropora alaskensis x 

Bryozoa:Cyclostomata Heteropora magna x 

Bryozoa:Cyclostomata Heteropora pacifica x 

Bryozoa:Cyclostomata Heteropora sp. x x 

Bryozoa:Cyclostomata Lichenopora canaliculata 

Bryozoa:Cyclostomata Lichenopora unidentified 0 x 

Bryozoa:Cyclostomata Lichenopora verrucaria x 

Bryozoa:Cyclostomata Myriapora coarctata x x x 

Bryozoa:Cyclostomata Plagioecia grimaldii x 

Bryozoa:Cyclostomata Tubulipora flabellaris x 

Bryozoa:Cyclostomata Tubulipora tuba x 

Cnidaria: Anthozoa Anthopleura artemisia x x x 

Cnidaria: Anthozoa Carophyllia alaskensis x 

Cnidaria: Anthozoa Cerianthus borealis x 

Cnidaria: Anthozoa Clavularia sp. x 

Cnidaria: Anthozoa Cribrinopsis fernaldi x x 

Cnidaria: Anthozoa Epizoanthus unidentified x 
 

59 

PHYLUM/CLASS/ORDER GENUS/SPECIES 

Arctic 

West Side/ 

Kamishak 

Kachemak/ 

Anchor Point 

Prince 

William 

Sound 

Cnidaria: Anthozoa Gersemia rubiformis x x x 

Cnidaria: Anthozoa Halcampa decemtentaculata x x 

Cnidaria: Anthozoa Halcampa duodecimcirrata x 

Cnidaria: Anthozoa Metridium farcimen (=senile) x x x 

Cnidaria: Anthozoa Pachycerianthus unidentified x 

Cnidaria: Anthozoa Peachia unidentified x 

Cnidaria: Anthozoa Pennatula unidentified x 

Cnidaria: Anthozoa Ptilosarcus gurneyi x x 

Cnidaria: Anthozoa Stomphia coccinea? x x 

Cnidaria: Anthozoa Stylatula elongata x 

Cnidaria: Anthozoa Urticina ?lofotensis x x 

Cnidaria: Anthozoa Urticina crassicornis x x x 

Cnidaria: Anthozoa Virgularia unidentified x 

Cnidaria: Hydrozoa Allopora californica x 

Cnidaria: Hydrozoa:Athecata Bougainvillia superciliaris x 

Cnidaria: Hydrozoa:Athecata Eudendrium sp. x x 

Cnidaria: Hydrozoa:Athecata Eudendrium vaginatum x 

Cnidaria: Hydrozoa:Athecata Garveia formosa x 

Cnidaria: Hydrozoa:Athecata Garveia franciscana x 

Cnidaria: Hydrozoa:Athecata Hybocodon prolifera x x 

Cnidaria: Hydrozoa:Athecata Hydractinia ?aggregata x 

Cnidaria: Hydrozoa:Athecata Hydractinia sp. x 

Cnidaria: Hydrozoa:Athecata Syncoryne sp. x 

Cnidaria: Hydrozoa:Athecata Tubularia prolifera x 

Cnidaria: Hydrozoa:Athecata Tubularia sp. x x x 

Cnidaria: Hydrozoa:Thecata ?Grammaria abietina x 

Cnidaria: Hydrozoa:Thecata Abietinaria ?amphora x 

Cnidaria: Hydrozoa:Thecata Abietinaria filicula x x 

Cnidaria: Hydrozoa:Thecata Abietinaria gigantea x x x 

Cnidaria: Hydrozoa:Thecata Abietinaria kincaidi x x 

Cnidaria: Hydrozoa:Thecata Abietinaria thujarioides x 

Cnidaria: Hydrozoa:Thecata Abietinaria turgida x x 

Cnidaria: Hydrozoa:Thecata Abietinaria unidentified x x x 

Cnidaria: Hydrozoa:Thecata Abietinaria variabilis x 

Cnidaria: Hydrozoa:Thecata Calycella syringa x x x 

Cnidaria: Hydrozoa:Thecata Campanularia speciosa x 

Cnidaria: Hydrozoa:Thecata Campanularia urceolata x 
 

60 

PHYLUM/CLASS/ORDER GENUS/SPECIES 

Arctic 

West Side/ 

Kamishak 

Kachemak/ 

Anchor Point 

Prince 

William 

Sound 

Cnidaria: Hydrozoa:Thecata Campanularia volubilis x 

Cnidaria: Hydrozoa:Thecata Campanulina rugosa x 

Cnidaria: Hydrozoa:Thecata Clytia gregaria x 

Cnidaria: Hydrozoa:Thecata Clytia hemisphaerica? x 

Cnidaria: Hydrozoa:Thecata Clytia kincaidi x 

Cnidaria: Hydrozoa:Thecata Cuspidella unidentified x 

Cnidaria: Hydrozoa:Thecata Eucopella compressa x 

Cnidaria: Hydrozoa:Thecata Gonothyraea clarki x 

Cnidaria: Hydrozoa:Thecata Grammaria immersa x 

Cnidaria: Hydrozoa:Thecata Halecium ?parvulum x 

Cnidaria: Hydrozoa:Thecata Halecium muricatum x 

Cnidaria: Hydrozoa:Thecata Hydrallmania distans x 

Cnidaria: Hydrozoa:Thecata Lafoea dumosa x x 

Cnidaria: Hydrozoa:Thecata Lafoea fruticosa x x x 

Cnidaria: Hydrozoa:Thecata Lafoeina maxima x 

Cnidaria: Hydrozoa:Thecata Obelia borealis x 

Cnidaria: Hydrozoa:Thecata Obelia longissima x x 

Cnidaria: Hydrozoa:Thecata Obelia sp. x x 

Cnidaria: Hydrozoa:Thecata Opercularella lacerata x 

Cnidaria: Hydrozoa:Thecata Sertularella albida x 

Cnidaria: Hydrozoa:Thecata Sertularella polyzonias var gigantea x 

Cnidaria: Hydrozoa:Thecata Sertularella reticulata x 

Cnidaria: Hydrozoa:Thecata Sertularella robusta x 

Cnidaria: Hydrozoa:Thecata Sertularella sp. x 

Cnidaria: Hydrozoa:Thecata Sertularella tenella x 

Cnidaria: Hydrozoa:Thecata Sertularella turgida x 

Cnidaria: Hydrozoa:Thecata Sertularia cupressoides x x 

Cnidaria: Hydrozoa:Thecata Sertularia robusta x 

Cnidaria: Hydrozoa:Thecata Sertularia rugosa x 

Cnidaria: Hydrozoa:Thecata Sertularia tolli x 

Cnidaria: Hydrozoa:Thecata Stegopoma plicatile x 

Cnidaria: Hydrozoa:Thecata Symplectoscyphus tricuspidatus x 

Cnidaria: Hydrozoa:Thecata Thuiaria articulata x 

Cnidaria: Hydrozoa:Thecata Thuiaria carica x 

Cnidaria: Hydrozoa:Thecata Thuiaria cylindrica x 

Cnidaria: Hydrozoa:Thecata Thuiaria distans x 

Cnidaria: Hydrozoa:Thecata Thuiaria elegans x 
 

61 

PHYLUM/CLASS/ORDER GENUS/SPECIES 

Arctic 

West Side/ 

Kamishak 

Kachemak/ 

Anchor Point 

Prince 

William 

Sound 

Cnidaria: Hydrozoa:Thecata Verticillina verticillata x x 

Echinodermata:Asteroidea Asterias amurensis ? x 

Echinodermata:Asteroidea Ceramaster arcticus x x 

Echinodermata:Asteroidea Ceramaster patagonicus x 

Echinodermata:Asteroidea Crossaster borealis x 

Echinodermata:Asteroidea Crossaster papposus x x x x 

Echinodermata:Asteroidea Dermasterias imbricata x x 

Echinodermata:Asteroidea Diplopteraster multipes x 

Echinodermata:Asteroidea Evasterias troschelii x x 

Echinodermata:Asteroidea Henricia aspera x 

Echinodermata:Asteroidea Henricia asthenactis x 

Echinodermata:Asteroidea Henricia leviuscula x x 

Echinodermata:Asteroidea Henricia longispina x 

Echinodermata:Asteroidea Henricia sanguinolenta x x x x 

Echinodermata:Asteroidea Henricia tumida x 

Echinodermata:Asteroidea Leptasterias ?hylodes x x 

Echinodermata:Asteroidea Leptasterias arctica forma arctica x 

Echinodermata:Asteroidea Leptasterias groenlandica x 

Echinodermata:Asteroidea Leptasterias hexactis x x x 

Echinodermata:Asteroidea Leptasterias polaris acervata x x x 

Echinodermata:Asteroidea Leptasterias polaris katherinae x 

Echinodermata:Asteroidea Lethasterias nanimensis x 

Echinodermata:Asteroidea Luidia foliolata x 

Echinodermata:Asteroidea Mediaster aequalis x 

Echinodermata:Asteroidea Orthasterias koehleri x x 

Echinodermata:Asteroidea Pisaster ochraceus x 

Echinodermata:Asteroidea Pteraster militaris x 

Echinodermata:Asteroidea Pteraster tesselatus x x x 

Echinodermata:Asteroidea Pycnopodia helianthoides x x 

Echinodermata:Asteroidea Solaster dawsoni x x 

Echinodermata:Asteroidea Solaster endeca x x x 

Echinodermata:Asteroidea Solaster paxillatus x 

Echinodermata:Asteroidea Solaster stimpsoni x x x 

Echinodermata:Echinoidea Echinarachnius parma x x 

Echinodermata:Echinoidea Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis x x x x 

Echinodermata:Echinoidea Strongylocentrotus franciscanus x x 

Echinodermata:Holothuroidea Chiridota sp. x x 
 

62 

PHYLUM/CLASS/ORDER GENUS/SPECIES 

Arctic 

West Side/ 

Kamishak 

Kachemak/ 

Anchor Point 

Prince 

William 

Sound 

Echinodermata:Holothuroidea Cucumaria frondosa japonica x x x 

Echinodermata:Holothuroidea Cucumaria miniata x x x 

Echinodermata:Holothuroidea Cucumaria sp. x 

Echinodermata:Holothuroidea Cucumaria vegae x x x 

Echinodermata:Holothuroidea Eupentacta pseudoquinquesemita x 

Echinodermata:Holothuroidea Eupentacta quinquesemita x x 

Echinodermata:Holothuroidea Leptosynapta clarki x 

Echinodermata:Holothuroidea Myriotrochus rinkii x 

Echinodermata:Holothuroidea Parastichopus californicus x 

Echinodermata:Holothuroidea Psolus chitonoides x x x 

Echinodermata:Holothuroidea Psolus fabricii x 

Echinodermata:Holothuroidea Psolus squamatus x 

Echinodermata:Ophiuroidea Amphioplus macraspis x 

Echinodermata:Ophiuroidea Amphioplus pugetana x 

Echinodermata:Ophiuroidea Amphioplus squamata x 

Echinodermata:Ophiuroidea Amphipholis sp. x 

Echinodermata:Ophiuroidea Amphiura sundevalli x 

Echinodermata:Ophiuroidea Diamphiodia craterodmeta x x 

Echinodermata:Ophiuroidea Gorgonocephalus stimpsoni x 

Echinodermata:Ophiuroidea Ophiocantha bidentata x 

Echinodermata:Ophiuroidea Ophiopholis aculeata x x x x 

Echinodermata:Ophiuroidea Ophiura quadrispina x 

Echinodermata:Ophiuroidea Ophiura robusta x 

Echinodermata:Ophiuroidea Ophiura sarsi x x 

Echinodermata:Ophiuroidea Stegophiura nodosa x x 

Echiura Bonelliopsis alaskana x x 

Echiura Echiurus echiurus alaskensis x x x x 

Entoprocta Barentsia gorbunovi x 

Entoprocta Barentsia ramosa x 

Mollusca:Bivalvia Astarte borealis x x 

Mollusca:Bivalvia Astarte compacta x 

Mollusca:Bivalvia Astarte elliptica x 

Mollusca:Bivalvia Astarte esquimaulti x 

Mollusca:Bivalvia Astarte montagui x 

Mollusca:Bivalvia Astarte sp. x 

Mollusca:Bivalvia Astarte vernicosa x 

Mollusca:Bivalvia Chlamys ?hastata x 
 

63 

PHYLUM/CLASS/ORDER GENUS/SPECIES 

Arctic 

West Side/ 

Kamishak 

Kachemak/ 

Anchor Point 

Prince 

William 

Sound 

Mollusca:Bivalvia Chlamys rubida x x 

Mollusca:Bivalvia Clinocardium blandum x x 

Mollusca:Bivalvia Clinocardium californiense x x 

Mollusca:Bivalvia Clinocardium ciliatum x x 

Mollusca:Bivalvia Clinocardium nuttallii x x x 

Mollusca:Bivalvia Crassdoma gigantea x 

Mollusca:Bivalvia Crassostrea gigas x 

Mollusca:Bivalvia Cyclocardia crassidens x 

Mollusca:Bivalvia Cyclocardia crebricosta x 

Mollusca:Bivalvia Cyclocardia ventricosa x x 

Mollusca:Bivalvia Diplodonta impolita x 

Mollusca:Bivalvia Diplodonta aleutica x ? ? 

Mollusca:Bivalvia Diplodonta orbella x 

Mollusca:Bivalvia Entodesma navicula x x 

Mollusca:Bivalvia Gari californica x 

Mollusca:Bivalvia Glycymeris septentrionalis x x 

Mollusca:Bivalvia Hiatella arctica x x x x 

Mollusca:Bivalvia Humilaria kennerleyi x 

Mollusca:Bivalvia Kellia suborbicularis x 

Mollusca:Bivalvia Liocyma fluctuosum x x x x 

Mollusca:Bivalvia Liocyma norvegica 

Mollusca:Bivalvia Lyonsia arenosa x 

Mollusca:Bivalvia Macoma balthica x x x x 

Mollusca:Bivalvia Macoma brota x 

Mollusca:Bivalvia Macoma calcarea x x 

Mollusca:Bivalvia Macoma carlottensis x 

Mollusca:Bivalvia Macoma dexioptera x 

Mollusca:Bivalvia Macoma elimata x 

Mollusca:Bivalvia Macoma expansa x 

Mollusca:Bivalvia Macoma golikovi x x x 

Mollusca:Bivalvia Macoma inquinata x x 

Mollusca:Bivalvia Macoma lipara x 

Mollusca:Bivalvia Macoma moesta x x 

Mollusca:Bivalvia Macoma nasuta x 

Mollusca:Bivalvia Mactromeris polynyma x x x 

Mollusca:Bivalvia Modiolus modiolus x x x 

Mollusca:Bivalvia Musculus discors x x x x 
 

64 

PHYLUM/CLASS/ORDER GENUS/SPECIES 

Arctic 

West Side/ 

Kamishak 

Kachemak/ 

Anchor Point 

Prince 

William 

Sound 

Mollusca:Bivalvia Musculus glacialis x x 

Mollusca:Bivalvia Musculus niger x x x x 

Mollusca:Bivalvia Mya arenaria x x x 

Mollusca:Bivalvia Mya baxteri x 

Mollusca:Bivalvia Mya arenaria x 

Mollusca:Bivalvia Mya pseudoarenaria x x 

Mollusca:Bivalvia Mya truncata x x x x 

Mollusca:Bivalvia Mytilus trossulus x x x 

Mollusca:Bivalvia Neaeromya compressa x x 

Mollusca:Bivalvia Ennucula tenuis x 

Mollusca:Bivalvia Nuculana arctica x 

Mollusca:Bivalvia Nuculana minuta x 

Mollusca:Bivalvia Nuculana sp. x 

Mollusca:Bivalvia Nutricola lordi x x 

Mollusca:Bivalvia Pandora filosa x 

Mollusca:Bivalvia Panomya ampla x x x x 

Mollusca:Bivalvia Panomya norvegica x x 

Mollusca:Bivalvia Chlamys behringiana x 

Mollusca:Bivalvia Pododesmus macroschisma x x x 

Mollusca:Bivalvia Protothaca staminea x x x 

Mollusca:Bivalvia Saxidomus gigantea x x 

Mollusca:Bivalvia Serripes groenlandicus x x x 

Mollusca:Bivalvia Serripes laperousii x x 

Mollusca:Bivalvia Serripes notabilis x 

Mollusca:Bivalvia Siliqua alta x x 

Mollusca:Bivalvia Siliqua patula x x x 

Mollusca:Bivalvia Tellina lutea x x 

Mollusca:Bivalvia Tellina modesta x 

Mollusca:Bivalvia Tellina nuculoides x 

Mollusca:Bivalvia Thracia challisiana x 

Mollusca:Bivalvia Thracia condoni x 

Mollusca:Bivalvia Thracia myopsis x 

Mollusca:Bivalvia Thracia trapeziodes x 

Mollusca:Bivalvia Tresus capax x x 

Mollusca:Bivalvia Tresus nuttallii x 

Mollusca:Bivalvia Vilasina seminuda x 

Mollusca:Bivalvia Vilasina vernicosus x x 
 

65 

PHYLUM/CLASS/ORDER GENUS/SPECIES 

Arctic 

West Side/ 

Kamishak 

Kachemak/ 

Anchor Point 

Prince 

William 

Sound 

Mollusca:Bivalvia Yoldia hyperborea x 

Mollusca:Bivalvia Yoldia myalis x 

Mollusca:Bivalvia Yoldia scissurata x 

Mollusca:Bivalvia Yoldia sp. x 

Mollusca:Cephalopoda Benthoctopus hokkaidoensis x 

Mollusca:Cephalopoda Octopus dofleini x x x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Opisthobranchia Acanthodoris ?pillosa x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Opisthobranchia Acteocina culcitella x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Opisthobranchia Acteocina harpa x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Opisthobranchia Aeolidia papillosa x x x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Opisthobranchia Aglaja diomedea x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Opisthobranchia Aglaja ocelligera x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Opisthobranchia Aglaja sp. x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Opisthobranchia Alderia modesta x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Opisthobranchia Ancula pacifica x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Opisthobranchia Anisodoris lentigenosa x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Opisthobranchia Anisodoris nobilis x x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Opisthobranchia Archidoris montereyensis x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Opisthobranchia Archidoris odhneri x x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Opisthobranchia Armina californica x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Opisthobranchia Austrodoris sp. x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Opisthobranchia Cadlina luteomarginata x x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Opisthobranchia Coryphella salmonacea x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Opisthobranchia Coryphella sp. x x x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Opisthobranchia Cylichna occulta x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Opisthobranchia Cylichna sp. x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Opisthobranchia Dendronotus albus x x 
 

66 

PHYLUM/CLASS/ORDER GENUS/SPECIES 

Arctic 

West Side/ 

Kamishak 

Kachemak/ 

Anchor Point 

Prince 

William 

Sound 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Opisthobranchia Dendronotus dallli x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Opisthobranchia Dendronotus frondosus x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Opisthobranchia Dendronotus iris x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Opisthobranchia Dendronotus sp. x x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Opisthobranchia Dialula sandiegensis x x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Opisthobranchia Diaphana cf. minuta x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Opisthobranchia Dirona albolineata x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Opisthobranchia Dirona aurantia x x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Opisthobranchia Flabellina salmonacea x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Opisthobranchia Flabellina trophina x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Opisthobranchia Gastropteron pacificum x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Opisthobranchia Haminoea vesicula x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Opisthobranchia Haminoea virescens x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Opisthobranchia Hermissenda crassicornis x x x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Opisthobranchia Melibe leonina x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Opisthobranchia Onchidella borealis x x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Opisthobranchia Onchidiopsis glacialis x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Opisthobranchia Onchidoris bilamellata x x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Opisthobranchia Onchidoris muricata x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Opisthobranchia Siphonaria thersites x x x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Opisthobranchia Tochuina tetraquetra x x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Opisthobranchia Triopha carpenteri x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Opisthobranchia Triopha catalinae x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Opisthobranchia Tritonia diomedea x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: Tritonia festiva x 
 

67 

PHYLUM/CLASS/ORDER GENUS/SPECIES 

Arctic 

West Side/ 

Kamishak 

Kachemak/ 

Anchor Point 

Prince 

William 

Sound 

Opisthobranchia 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Opisthobranchia Trochuina tetraquetra x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Acmaea mitra x x x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Admete middendorffiana x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Admete regina x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Admete viridula x x x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Opisthobranchia Aldisa zetlandica x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Alia carinata x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Alvania compacta x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Amphissa columbiana x x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Amphissa reticulata x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Ancistrolepis eucosmuis x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Aquilonaria turneri x x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Lacuna crassior x x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Beringius cf. beringi x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Beringius kennicotti x x x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Beringius rotundatus x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Beringius stimpsoni x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Boreotrophon clathratus x x x x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Boreotrophon multicostata x x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Boreotrophon stuarti x x x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Boreotrophon truncatus x x x x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Buccinum angulosum x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Buccinum baeri x x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Buccinum ciliatum x 
 

68 

PHYLUM/CLASS/ORDER GENUS/SPECIES 

Arctic 

West Side/ 

Kamishak 

Kachemak/ 

Anchor Point 

Prince 

William 

Sound 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Buccinum fringillum x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Buccinum glaciale x x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Buccinum morchianum x x x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Buccinum plectrum x x x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Buccinum polare x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Buccinum tenue x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Calliostoma annulatum x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Calliostoma ligatum x x x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Calyptraea fastigiata x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Capulacmaea commodum x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Ceratostoma foliolata x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Cerithiopis autefilosa x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Cerithiopsis sp. x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Collisella spp. x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Colus aphelus x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Colus herendeeni x x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Colus halli x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Colus spitzbergensis x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Crepidula grandis x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Crepidula nummaria x x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Crepipatella lingulata x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Cryptobranchia alba x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Cryptobranchia concentrica x x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Diadora aspera x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: Boreoscala greenlandica x x x x 
 

69 

PHYLUM/CLASS/ORDER GENUS/SPECIES 

Arctic 

West Side/ 

Kamishak 

Kachemak/ 

Anchor Point 

Prince 

William 

Sound 

Prosobranchia 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Fusitriton oregonensis x x x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Lacuna carinata x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Lacuna marmorata x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Lacuna sp. x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Lacuna variegata x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Lacuna vincta x x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Lepeta caeca x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Lirabuccinum dira x x x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Littorina subrotundata 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Littorina scutulata x x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Littorina sitkana x x x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Lottia borealis x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Lottia digitalis x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Lottia instabilis x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Lottia ochracea x x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Lottia paradigitalis x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Lottia pelta x x x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Lottia triangularis x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Lussivolutopsius filosa x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Margarites beringensis x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Margarites baxteri x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Margarites costalis x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Margarites frigidus x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Margarites helicinus x x 
 

70 

PHYLUM/CLASS/ORDER GENUS/SPECIES 

Arctic 

West Side/ 

Kamishak 

Kachemak/ 

Anchor Point 

Prince 

William 

Sound 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Margarites pribiloffensis x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Margarites pupillus x x x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Margarites vahli x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Margarites vorticiferus x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Nassarius mendicus x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Cryptonatica affinis x x x x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Neadmete circumcincta x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Neadmete modesta x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Neptunea borealis x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Neptunea lyrata x x x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Neptunea pribiloffensis x x x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Neptunea ventricosa x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Tectura spp. x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Nucella canaliculata x x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Nucella emarginata x x x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Nucella lamellosa x x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Nucella lima x x x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Ocenebra interfossa x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Ocenibrina lurida x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Oenopota sp. x x x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Olivella baetica x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Piliscus commodus x x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Plicifusus kroyeri x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Plicifusus verkruzeni x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: Polinices monteronus x 
 

71 

PHYLUM/CLASS/ORDER GENUS/SPECIES 

Arctic 

West Side/ 

Kamishak 

Kachemak/ 

Anchor Point 

Prince 

William 

Sound 

Prosobranchia 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Euspira pallida x x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Ptychatractus occidentalis x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Puncturella cooperi x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Puncturella eyerdami x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Puncturella galeata x x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Puncturella multicostata x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Puncturella multistriata x x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Puncturella noachina x x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Puncturella unidentified x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Pyrulofusus deformis x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Pyrulofusus harpa x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Scabrotrophon maltzani x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Solariella obscura x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Tachyrhynchus reticulatus x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Tectura fenestrata x x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Tectura persona x x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Tectura scutum x x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Tectura testudinalis x x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Trichotropis bicarinata x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Trichotropis borealis x x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Trichotropis cancellata x x x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Trichotropis insignis x x x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Trichotropis kroyeri x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Trophonopsis lasius x x x 
 

72 

PHYLUM/CLASS/ORDER GENUS/SPECIES 

Arctic 

West Side/ 

Kamishak 

Kachemak/ 

Anchor Point 

Prince 

William 

Sound 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Velutina laevigata x x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Velutina plicatilis x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Velutina prolongata x x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Velutina rubra x x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Velutina undata x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Velutina velutina x x x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Volutharpa ampullacea x x x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Volutopsius behringi kobelti x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Volutopsius castaneus x x 

Mollusca:Gastropoda: 

Prosobranchia Volutopsius stefanssoni x 

Mollusca:Polyplacophora Amicula vestita x x 

Mollusca:Polyplacophora Cryptochiton stelleri x x x 

Mollusca:Polyplacophora Ischnochiton ?trifidus x x 

Mollusca:Polyplacophora Ischnochiton albus x x x x 

Mollusca:Polyplacophora Katharina tunicata x x 

Mollusca:Polyplacophora Lepidozona interstincta x 

Mollusca:Polyplacophora Lepidozona trifida x x x 

Mollusca:Polyplacophora Leptochiton rugatus x 

Mollusca:Polyplacophora Leptochiton sp. x 

Mollusca:Polyplacophora Mopalia ciliata x x x 

Mollusca:Polyplacophora Mopalia cirrata x 

Mollusca:Polyplacophora Mopalia ferreirai x 

Mollusca:Polyplacophora Mopalia hindsii x 

Mollusca:Polyplacophora Mopalia laevior x 

Mollusca:Polyplacophora Mopalia lignosa x x 

Mollusca:Polyplacophora Mopalia mucosa x x 

Mollusca:Polyplacophora Mopalia sinuata x 

Mollusca:Polyplacophora Mopalia sp. x x 

Mollusca:Polyplacophora Mopalia spectabilis x 

Mollusca:Polyplacophora Mopalia swanii x 

Mollusca:Polyplacophora Placiphorella rufa ? x 

Mollusca:Polyplacophora Schizoplax brandtii x x x 
 

73 

PHYLUM/CLASS/ORDER GENUS/SPECIES 

Arctic 

West Side/ 

Kamishak 

Kachemak/ 

Anchor Point 

Prince 

William 

Sound 

Mollusca:Polyplacophora Tonicella insignis x x x 

Mollusca:Polyplacophora Tonicella lineata x x x 

Mollusca:Polyplacophora Tonicella rubra x x 

Porifera ?Esperiopsis sp. x x x 

Porifera Choanites lutkeni x 

Porifera Choanites mineri x 

Porifera Choanites suberea x 

Porifera Cioxeamistia sp. x 

Porifera Cliona celata x x x 

Porifera Cliona thosina x 

Porifera Craniella cranalta x 

Porifera Echinoclathria beringius x 

Porifera Esperiopsis laxa x x x 

Porifera Esperiopsis quatsinoensis x 

Porifera Halichondria lambei x 

Porifera Halichondria panicea x x x 

Porifera Leuconia alaskensis x 

Porifera Leuconia ananas x 

Porifera Mycale lingua x x x 

Porifera Myxilla incrustans x x x 

Porifera Polymastia andrica x x 

Porifera Scypha ciliata x 

Porifera Scypha compacta x 

Porifera Scypha compressa x 

Porifera Suberites ficus x x x 

Porifera Tetilla spinosa x 

Porifera Tetilla villosa x 

Porifera Topsentia disparilis x 

Priapulida Halicryptus spinulosus x 

Priapulida Priapulus caudatus x x 

Sipuncula Golfingia margaritacea x x x 

Sipuncula Golfingia vulgaris x 

Sipuncula Phascolion strombi x 

Sipuncula Phascolosoma agassizii x 

Urochordata: Ascidiacea Amaroucium fragile x 

Urochordata: Ascidiacea Aplidiopsis pannosum x 

Urochordata: Ascidiacea Aplidium arenatum x 
 

74 

PHYLUM/CLASS/ORDER GENUS/SPECIES 

Arctic 

West Side/ 

Kamishak 

Kachemak/ 

Anchor Point 

Prince 

William 

Sound 

Urochordata: Ascidiacea Aplidium coei x 

Urochordata: Ascidiacea Aplidium ritteri x 

Urochordata: Ascidiacea Aplidium translucidum x 

Urochordata: Ascidiacea Archidistoma ritteri x 

Urochordata: Ascidiacea Ascidia callosa x x 

Urochordata: Ascidiacea Ascidia columbiana x 

Urochordata: Ascidiacea Boltenia echinata x x x 

Urochordata: Ascidiacea Boltenia ovifera x x 

Urochordata: Ascidiacea Botrylloides violaceus x 

Urochordata: Ascidiacea Chelyosoma columbiana x 

Urochordata: Ascidiacea Chelyosoma macleayanum x 

Urochordata: Ascidiacea Chelyosoma productum x 

Urochordata: Ascidiacea Cnemidocarpa finmarkiensis x x 

Urochordata: Ascidiacea Corella inflata x 

Urochordata: Ascidiacea Corella willmeriana x 

Urochordata: Ascidiacea Cystodytes lobatus x 

Urochordata: Ascidiacea Dendrodoa grossularia x 

Urochordata: Ascidiacea Dendrodoa pulchella x x 

Urochordata: Ascidiacea Didemnum albidum x x 

Urochordata: Ascidiacea Didemnum carnulentum x 

Urochordata: Ascidiacea Didemnum smithi x 

Urochordata: Ascidiacea Distaplia alaskensis x 

Urochordata: Ascidiacea Distaplia occidentalis x x 

Urochordata: Ascidiacea Distaplia smithi x 

Urochordata: Ascidiacea Eugyra glutinans x 

Urochordata: Ascidiacea Halocynthia aurantium x x x x 

Urochordata: Ascidiacea Halocynthia igaboja x 

Urochordata: Ascidiacea Metandrocarpa taylori x 

Urochordata: Ascidiacea Molgula griffithsi x 

Urochordata: Ascidiacea Molgula retortiformis x x 

Urochordata: Ascidiacea Pelonaia corrugata x x 

Urochordata: Ascidiacea Polyclinum sp. x 

Urochordata: Ascidiacea Pycnoclavella stanleyi x 

Urochordata: Ascidiacea Pyura haustor x 

Urochordata: Ascidiacea Rhizomolgula globularis x x 

Urochordata: Ascidiacea Ritterella pulchra x x 

Urochordata: Ascidiacea Styela ?montereyensis x x x 
 

75 

PHYLUM/CLASS/ORDER GENUS/SPECIES 

Arctic 

West Side/ 

Kamishak 

Kachemak/ 

Anchor Point 

Prince 

William 

Sound 

Urochordata: Ascidiacea Styela clavata x 

Urochordata: Ascidiacea Styela coriacea x 

Urochordata: Ascidiacea Styela rustica macrenteron x 

Urochordata: Ascidiacea Styela truncata x 

Urochordata: Ascidiacea Styela yakutatensis x 

Urochordata: Ascidiacea Synoicum jordani x 

Urochordata: Ascidiacea Synoicum kincaidi? x 

 

Listed number of taxa 241 233 239 467 
The Department of the Interior Mission

As the Nation’s principal conservation agency, the Department of the Interior has responsibility for 

most of our nationally owned public lands and natural resources. This includes fostering sound use 

of our land and water resources; protecting our fish, wildlife, and biological diversity; preserving 

the environmental and cultural values of our national parks and historical places; and providing for 

the enjoyment of life through outdoor recreation. The Department assesses our energy and mineral 

resources and works to ensure that their development is in the best interests of all our people by 

encouraging stewardship and citizen participation in their care. The Department also has a major 

responsibility for American Indian reservation communities and for people who live in island 

territories under U.S. administration.