1 

Report IEA-PVPS T12-09:2017

Photovoltaics and Firefighters’ Operations: 

Best Practices in Selected Countries
IEA-PVPS-TASK 12 Photovoltaics and Firefighters’ Operations: Best Practices in Selected Countries

INTERNATIONAL ENERGY AGENCY

PHOTOVOLTAIC POWER SYSTEMS PROGRAM

Photovoltaics and Firefighters’ Operations:

Best Practices in Selected Countries

IEA PVPS Task 12

Report IEA-PVPS T12-09:2017 

April 2017 

ISBN 978-3-906042-60-2

Authors:

Shohei Namikawa

Contributors: 

Geoffrey Kinsey, Garvin Heath, Andreas Wade, Parikhit Sinha, Keiichi Komoto

The compilation of this report is supported by

New Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organization (NEDO), Japan
1

CONTENTS

Executive Summary.......................................................................................................................2

Foreword.........................................................................................................................................5

1. Introduction .............................................................................................................................6

1.1. Objective...............................................................................................................................6

1.2. Cases of fires involving PV systems.................................................................................6

1.3. Potential hazards in PV systems.......................................................................................8

1.4. Categories to mitigate hazards and components of this report....................................9

2. Guidelines for firefighters....................................................................................................10

2.1. Japan...................................................................................................................................11

2.2. United States......................................................................................................................12

2.3. Germany..............................................................................................................................15

3. Guidelines for installation with respect to firefighters’ operations ................................18

3.1. Japan...................................................................................................................................19

3.2. United States......................................................................................................................21

3.3. Germany..............................................................................................................................22

4. Implementation of technologies and products for fire safety .........................................24

4.1. Ground-fault circuit interrupter........................................................................................24

4.2. Arc-fault circuit interrupter...............................................................................................24

4.3. De-energizing conductors (“firefighters’ switch” and “rapid shutdown”) .................25

4.4. Issues regarding fail-safe operation of novel equipment.............................................26

5. Conclusion.............................................................................................................................27

Appendix .......................................................................................................................................28

Tables of Contents from Guidelines for Firefighters...............................................................28

Tables of Contents from Guidelines for Installation................................................................31
IEA-PVPS-TASK 12 Photovoltaics and Firefighters’ Operations: Best Practices in Selected Countries

2

Executive Summary

Components of photovoltaic (PV) systems undergo rigorous safety and reliability testing protocols 

during manufacturing and fulfill the electrical safety requirements established by various codes and 

standards. These systems do not pose health, safety, or environmental risks under normal 

operating conditions if properly installed and maintained by trained personnel as required by 

electrical codes. However, with the ever-growing deployment of PV systems globally and the 

myriad of applications—from traditional rooftop and ground-mounted installations to more 

advanced building-integrated and façade systems—it is becoming increasingly important to 

develop practices and share knowledge on the safe management and risk mitigation of PV 

systems under non-routine circumstances. This focus includes conditions in which firefighters

encounter a PV system that may have been installed improperly or has become damaged. This 

report aims to facilitate the exchange of knowledge on the best practices and standards of 

firefighters’ operations in relation to selected countries with considerable deployment of PV 

systems.

Under non-routine circumstances, if a fire starts in the area of a PV system, firefighting operations 

may need to be adapted to account for the PV system’s presence and related potential hazards.

Such hazards for firefighters caused by a rooftop PV system include: electrical shock, slips and 

falls, electrical arcing roof collapse, and fire risks from the PV materials.

To protect firefighters and mitigate hazards, research and analyses are available to provide

information on how to deal with PV components during and after firefighting. This information has

been disseminated as guidelines to firefighters, PV system installers, operation and maintenance 

providers, and PV users in some regions of the world. This report overviews their content and 

approach and aims to highlight best practices.

At the same time, we also intend for this report to help people within the PV industry and other 

stakeholders to understand technical hazards from the viewpoint of firefighters and to promote 

further actions to avoid or minimize such hazards. Focus is given to rooftop PV systems, which

represent the most likely scenario for firefighter interaction with PV systems.

In this report, we review guidelines related to firefighter safety from Japan, the United States, and 

Germany. Table ES-1 summarizes best practices to reduce potential hazards for firefighters as 

analyzed from guidelines.

Guidelines address the following approaches to mitigate hazards to firefighters:

1) Identify structures with PV systems installed.
IEA-PVPS-TASK 12 Photovoltaics and Firefighters’ Operations: Best Practices in Selected Countries

3

2) Minimize potential hazards in firefighter operations (e.g., ensure sufficient working space 

and mitigate electrical shock hazards).

3) Prevent/contain fires originating from the PV system.

To implement the approaches above, the following methods have been developed (further 

elaborated in Table ES1):

1) Installation requirements that consider firefighter operations (PV installation)

2) Operational strategies for firefighters when PV is present (firefighter operations)

3) Implementing technologies to minimize potential hazards from PV systems (technology 

implementations).

The analysis in this report reveals the value in preparing guidelines in collaboration with those

involved in developing the PV industry (technologists, installers, electricians, and inspectors) and 

firefighter organizations and disseminating the guidelines through the respective channels.

To improve safety, future additional hazard reduction and mitigation technologies need to be 

demonstrated to be effective and to perform as designed. Creating standards that demonstrate

that the new hardware is reliable, fail-safe, and can function as designed over the life of the PV 

system is a challenge that requires ongoing testing. International cooperation between standards 

experts, firefighters, and technologists and other stakeholders will be crucial in successfully

deploying these technologies.
IEA-PVPS-TASK 12 Photovoltaics and Firefighters’ Operations: Best Practices in Selected Countries

4

Table ES–1. Summary of best practices to reduce potential hazards for firefighters

Approach Purpose Categories Best practices

Identify structures

with PV systems

installed

Alert firefighters

to the presence of

PV systems

PV installation

- Mark (label) on distribution boxes or other standard 

location

Minimize potential

hazards in

firefighter

operations

Ensure sufficient

access and

working space

PV installation

- Walkways with a certain width

- Setbacks from roof boundaries

Mitigate electrical

shock hazard from

PV systems PV installation

- Label on DC cables

- Map of DC cable layout affixed to distribution 

boards, etc.

- DC cable laying outside installation / DC cable 

with grounded metallic conduit

Firefighters’

operations

- PV system de-energizing procedure (outside the 

array boundary)

- Maintain “approach boundary” of PV systems 

when energized

- De-energize the array

Technology 

implementations

- Rapid shutdown (firefighters’ switch) outside the 

array boundary

Mitigate electrical

shock hazard from

hose water streams

Firefighters’ 

operations

- Maintain minimum distance with hose streams

Minimize exposure

to hazardous

chemicals from

PV modules that 

are on fire

- Personal protective equipment including Selfcontained breathing apparatus

Prevent fires

originating from

the PV system

Interrupt DC fault to

prevent sustained

arcs and ground

faults

Technology 

implementations

- Ground-fault circuit interrupter

- Arc-fault circuit interrupter
IEA-PVPS-TASK 12 Photovoltaics and Firefighters’ Operations: Best Practices in Selected Countries

5

Foreword

The IEA Photovoltaic Power Systems Programme (PVPS) is one of the collaborative research and 

development (R&D) agreements established within the International Energy Agency (IEA). Since 

1993, participants in the programme have been conducting a variety of joint projects regarding

applications of photovoltaic (PV) conversion of solar energy into electricity.

The mission of the PVPS is “...to enhance the international collaboration efforts which accelerate

the development and deployment of photovoltaic solar energy as a significant and sustainable

renewable energy option”. The underlying assumption is that the market for PV systems is 

gradually expanding from the niche‐markets of remote applications and consumer products to 

rapidly growing ones for building‐integrated and centralised PV generation systems.

A PVPS Executive Committee is composed of one representative from each participating

country; Stefan Nowak of Switzerland heads the overall programme. Operating Agents

assume responsibility for managing individual research projects (Tasks). By the end of 2007,

twelve Tasks were established within the programme.

Task 12 engages in fostering international collaboration in communicating and assessing the

environmental, health, and safety (EH&S) aspects of PV technology over the life cycle of the

PV systems. Task 12 also disseminates reliable and accurate information on the EH&S impacts

of PV technology to policymakers, industry participants, and the public with the goal of

improving consumer understanding and confidence, encouraging industry best practices, and 

helping policymakers to make informed decisions in the course of the energy transition. 

Furthermore, Task 12 brings its expertise in assessing methods and standards for evaluating the 

EH&S aspects of PV systems. The overall objectives of Task 12 are to:

- Quantify the environmental profile of PV electricity using a life-cycle approach to improve 

the sustainability of the supply chain and to compare it with the environmental profile of 

electricity produced with other energy technologies.

- Aim for a closed‐loop supply chain by and help improve PV waste management

through collection and recycling, including legislative developments as well as development

of technical standards.

- Distinguish and address actual and perceived issues related to the EH&S aspects of PV

technology that are important for market growth.

Further information on the activities and results of the Task can be found at www.iea-pvps.org.
IEA-PVPS-TASK 12 Photovoltaics and Firefighters’ Operations: Best Practices in Selected Countries

6

1. Introduction

If properly installed and maintained by trained personnel as required by electrical codes, 

photovoltaic (PV) systems do not pose health, safety, or environmental risks under normal 

operating conditions. However, with the ever-growing deployment of PV systems globally and the 

myriad of applications—from traditional rooftop and ground-mounted installations to more 

advanced building-integrated and façade systems—it is becoming increasingly important to 

develop practices and share knowledge on the safe management and risk mitigation of PV 

systems under non-routine circumstances. Under non-routine circumstances, if a fire starts in the 

area of a PV system, firefighting operations may need to be adapted to account for the PV 

system’s presence and related potential hazards.

To protect firefighters and mitigate hazards, research and analyses are available to provide 

information about how to deal with PV components during and after firefighting. This information

has been disseminated as guidelines to firefighters, PV system installers, operation and 

maintenance providers, and PV users in some regions of the world.

1.1. Objective

The purpose of this report is to inform firefighters, PV system installers, operation and 

maintenance providers, and PV users about current best practices regarding firefighters’ 

operations and PV systems. Such a review could help jurisdictions that have not yet adopted PVspecific firefighters’ safety guidelines. To that end, we have reviewed examples of firefighters’

safety guidelines from Japan, the United States, and Germany. Although guidelines in other 

countries exist, these three countries have been chosen as representatives of the breadth of 

available guideline provisions.

1.2. Cases of fires involving PV systems

Although rare, there have been fire incidents involving PV systems in countries such as the United

States, Germany, and Japan. In cases where a PV system was not the source of the fire, the PV 

system may still have had an impact by limiting firefighter access in operations. In (relatively rare) 

cases where the PV system was the source of the fire, initiators of the fire typically include arc

faults, undetected ground faults, and faults of the bypass diodes.

Table 1.1 provides examples of fires involving PV systems. PV may limit firefighting operations

because of the heightened potential for falls, electrical shock, and collapse of roof structures. In 

the past, the lack of availability of operating procedures for firefighting in buildings with PV systems 

led to cases of uncertainty regarding how firefighters should approach fighting the fire, potentially 

leading to controlled burn-down scenarios occasionally reported in public media.
IEA-PVPS-TASK 12 Photovoltaics and Firefighters’ Operations: Best Practices in Selected Countries

7

A 2013 survey analyzed fire incidents involving PV systems (including rooftop PV and groundmounted PV) in Germany from 1995 to 20121

, during which period the installed PV capacity had 

risen to more than 30 gigawatts. The survey found about 400 cases in which a PV system was 

present; in 180 of these cases, a PV component was determined to be the source of the fire.

Figure 1.1 shows components where fire started in 180 fires, with inverters and power electronics, 

connectors and terminals, and junction boxes being major causes of fire.

Table 1.1 Fire incidents involving a PV system referred to in related research reports and media release

Location Structural conditions Damage Obstacles to operations

Bakersfield, CA,

United States

Apr. 20092

Large retail store, 380 

kW array on roof

Fire did not penetrate 

metal roof decking

- Two separate fires were started by a

“blind spot” ground fault

- Absence of DC disconnect switches at 

combiner boxes necessitated dispatch of 

an electrical worker to pull 56 fuses.

Delanco, NJ,

United States

Sep. 20133

Warehouse,1.6 MW on 

roof

A 30,000 m2 structure 

was destroyed

- Firefighters decided not to operate on the 

roof because of the perceived possibility 

of electrical shock

La Farge, WI,

United States

May 20134

Office,70 kW on roof A wing of the 4,000-

m2 building was 

destroyed

- Substantial roof coverage by the PV 

modules on the roof prevented ventilation 

efforts and accelerated a partial roof 

collapse

Walldorf,

Germany

June 20145

Warehouse, PV on roof Damage of a few 

thousand euros

- Synthetic resin plate was used for 

mounting systems

- Firefighters could operate; fire stopped 

before extending to the building

Norderney, 

Germany

Aug. 20135

Factory, PV on roof Damage of a few 

million euros

- Fire extended for a while and roof 

structure collapsed with PV modules on it

Figure 1.1 Components where fire started in 180 fires in Germany between 1995 and 20121
IEA-PVPS-TASK 12 Photovoltaics and Firefighters’ Operations: Best Practices in Selected Countries

8

1.3. Potential hazards in PV systems

Table 1.2 lists potential hazards for firefighters related to a PV fire. The presence of a PV system 

near a fire may produce hazards such as heightened potential for falls, electrical shock, and 

collapse of roof structures. Due to these perceived hazards, there have been cases where 

firefighters limited their operations and the fire was allowed to expand.

In addition to the direct fire hazard from faulty PV equipment, the presence of a PV system on a 

structure may complicate firefighter operations in several other ways (e.g., next paragraph)6.

The additional weight of a PV system may lead to a more rapid collapse of a roof on a burning 

structure. On an inclined roof, the glass surface of a PV module presents a slip hazard that could 

lead to a fall. The roof area occupied by PV arrays limits the area where firefighters might walk and 

the area available for cutting ventilation holes (where ventilation techniques are indicated). While 

exposed to the sun, PV systems remain energized, even after a building’s connection to the grid 

has been disabled. Should energized conductors become exposed due to improper installation or 

damage, a shock hazard may result. Figure 1.2 shows the potential for cardiac arrest triggered by 

contact with 230 V. In the body position shown, a body impedance of 1,150 Ω might allow the 200 

mA shown to flow through the firefighter’s heart to the ground.

Though a firefighter’s personal protective equipment may provide some protection against shocks, 

even a “small” perceived shock may cause a “startle reaction” that contributes to a slip or fall. The 

direct current (DC) produced by PV systems is capable of producing a sustained arc that is more 

likely to trigger a fire than the alternating current (AC) that is obtained on the grid side of an inverter.

Table 1.2 Potential hazards for firefighters working near PV systems

Potential hazard Description

Electrical shock Electrical shock or burn injury by coming into contact with or spraying water on energized 

conductors (broken yet still energized modules or exposed wires).

Slips and falls Space limitations reduce access and may cause slips or falls.

Collapse PV adds to the “dead load” on a roof; the roof may collapse when support beams are 

weakened.

Arc or ground 

fault

Fire may be started by arcs, which may occur from exposed conductors in energized PV 

systems.

Combustion As with other building materials, materials in the PV system may burn and release noxious 

gases.
IEA-PVPS-TASK 12 Photovoltaics and Firefighters’ Operations: Best Practices in Selected Countries

9

Figure 1.2. Illustration of the potential for cardiac arrest triggered by contact with 230 V7

1.4. Categories to mitigate hazards and components of this report

To mitigate potential technical hazards of PV systems in cases of fire, some countries have 

published guidelines. These guidelines for firefighters, as well as for PV installers, are relevant to 

the firefighter case. Also, technologies and products have been implemented to mitigate firefighter

hazards.

Table 1.3 summarizes these approaches for PV fire safety. Guidelines for firefighters will be 

introduced in chapter 2, guidelines for installation in chapter 3, and implementation of technologies

and products for fire safety in chapter 4.

Table 1.3 Categories to mitigate hazards for firefighters in PV fire

Category User Purpose

Guidelines for firefighters

operation with PV systems 

present

Firefighters - To inform on the hazards of fire in/near a PV 

system to firefighters

- To inform on the operational procedure in a fire

where PV is present

Guidelines for PV

installation

PV system installers, operation 

and maintenance providers, and 

PV users

- To help ensure firefighters’ safety through 

improved design, installation, and operation and 

maintenance of PV systems

Additional technologies

and products for fire safety

- To help ensure firefighters’ safety in their 

operations

- To mitigate the possibility of a PV fire
IEA-PVPS-TASK 12 Photovoltaics and Firefighters’ Operations: Best Practices in Selected Countries

10

2. Guidelines for firefighters

Guidelines for firefighters have been published in countries such as Japan, the United States, 

Germany, Australia, Austria, Canada, France, Italy, Spain, and the United Kingdom (Table 2.1).

In countries where PV has become commonplace, increasing attention has been placed on

mitigating firefighter hazards. As representative cases, we overviewed guidelines published in 

Japan, the United States, and Germany, which are leading countries in PV deployment. In the 

Appendix, a table of contents of each guideline is shown for reference.

Table 2.1 Guidelines for firefighters

Country Title Author Publication 

Date

Japan

Technical information about firefighting 

operations in PV fire8

National Institute of Advanced Industrial 

Science and Technology (AIST

)

Feb. 2014

United 

States

Fire Operations for Photovoltaic 

Emergencies 9

California Department of Forestry and 

Fire Protection (CAL FIRE) - Office of the 

State Fire Marshal

Nov. 2010

Firefighter Safety and Emergency Response 

for Solar Power Systems 10

The Fire Protection Research Foundation May 2010 

Firefighter Safety and Photovoltaic 

Installation Research Project11

UL Nov. 2011

Germany

Information about the use of photovoltaic 

systems for emergency responders, fire 

brigades and technical assistance services 12

Deutscher Feuerwehr Verband Oct. 2010 

Assessment of fire risk in photovoltaic 

systems and creation of security concepts to 

minimize the risk5

TÜV Rheinland Energie und Umwelt 

GmbH, Frauhhofer ISE

Mar. 2015

Australia

Safety Considerations for Photovoltaic 

Arrays 13

Australasian Fire and Emergency Service 

Authorities Council

Apr. 2013

Solar Electric Systems – Safety for 

Firefighters 14

Ted Spooner

(Chair of the Australian standards 

committee responsible for PV systems)

Sep. 2011

Austria

PV systems – Additional safety 

requirements 15

The Austrian Electrotechnical Association Mar. 2013

Canada Solar Electricity Safety Handbook for 

Firefighters 16

Ontario Association of Fire Chiefs Mar. 2015

France Controlling Risk Linked to Photovoltaic 

System Installations7

CEA, INES, Gimelec, ADEME Jun. 2013

Italy Fire Safety of Photovoltaic Systems 17 Province of Trento 2011

Spain Firefighter safety for PV plants 18 Firefighters of Barcelona Sep. 2013

United 

Kingdom

Photovoltaics and Fire: A guide from BPVA19 British PhotoVoltaic Association (BPVA) 2011
IEA-PVPS-TASK 12 Photovoltaics and Firefighters’ Operations: Best Practices in Selected Countries

11

2.1. Japan

Technical information about firefighting operations around PV systems was developed under a 

research project on PV fire safety funded by the Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry (METI)

between 2012 and 20148

. These guidelines provide firefighters with technical information on PV 

systems and hazards in firefighters’ operations in the case of a fire in a PV-equipped building. 

Included is general information about PV systems, potential hazards for firefighters, and suggested 

tactics on firefighter operations in houses that have solar PV systems.

Included potential hazards for firefighters in a PV fire are shown in Table 2.2. There are hazards of 

an electrical shock from coming into contact with broken modules, wires, and firefighting water, 

falling down, combustion gas, collapse, and fire outbreak.

Table 2.2 Potential hazards for firefighters in a PV fire referred to in the Japanese guidelines for firefighters8

Hazards PV systems features Overview

Electric shock

and burn

PV systems generate electricity

whenever sunlight hits the panels

Electric shock and burn due to contact with

broken modules, wires, and possibly conducted 

by water

Slips and falls

Panels on slanted rooftops are slippery Firefighters’ falling accidents due to operations 

on roofs (or “startle reaction” from minor electric 

shock)

Combustion gas

PV module materials may burn under the 

high heat from a structure fires

Combustion gas generation as in the case of

common building fires

Collapse Building is under the additional load of PV 

modules

Collapse, if building structure is weakened due to 

fires

Fire outbreak Arcing may occur if insulation is insufficient Fire propagation and burns due to arcing

Table 2.3 summarizes operations to reduce potential hazards when firefighters operate where PV 

systems are present. For electric shocks, it is important to be aware that a PV system is energized 

during daytime operation. Employing a fine spray of water (rather than a continuous stream) where 

energized conductors may be exposed is important in reducing the potential shock hazard to the 

hose operator. When cleaning up at a fire scene, attention must be paid to avoid potential electric 

shocks from damaged PV modules and any other exposed conductors.
IEA-PVPS-TASK 12 Photovoltaics and Firefighters’ Operations: Best Practices in Selected Countries

12

2.2. United States

In the United States, CAL FIRE published “Fire Operations for Photovoltaic Emergency” in 

November 2010 as a training manual for firefighters9

. These guidelines include fire operations and 

tactics for firefighters working around PV systems. Comments for operations are described for 

each firefighter operation type as Table 2.5.

Table 2.4 Recommended operation in a PV fire referred to in the U.S. CAL FIRE guidelines for firefighters9

Operation Comments

Roof 

Operation

- Determine if the PV system components themselves are on fire, or if the PV components are 

impinged by fire.

- Protect from potential hazardous chemicals coming from PV modules on fire with the use of

self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA).

Interior 

Operation

- Water has to be directed on or near a PV system in a 30-degree fog pattern at 100 psi (~0.69 

MPa) to prevent any electric current from traveling upstream toward firefighters

- Firefighters must be at least 33 feet (~10 m) away from the energized source.

- Firefighters must wear personal protective equipment (PPE) and SCBA when dealing with an

emergency involving potential toxic gas and explosion hazards that PV system battery banks 

may have.

Search 

Operation

- The location of the PV-system-related components must be immediately relayed to the Incident 

Commander and all personnel working at the scene, and disconnect switches must be turned to 

“OFF.”

Overhaul - Whenever possible, an overhaul of the fire ground should be delayed until there is competent 

confirmation that the PV system has been “de-energized.”

The Fire Protection Research Foundation, a research organization of the National Fire Protection 

Association (NFPA) released “Firefighter Safety and Emergency Response for Solar Power 

System” for firefighters and fire commanders in May 201010.

Approaches to ensure firefighters’ PV safety, fireground tactics, code development, and education 

and training are shown in Table 2.6. An example of fireground tactics is to identify the type and 

extent of a solar system. Code development is indicated to provide new capabilities for electrical 

system isolation and to create consistent placarding and labeling for the use of emergency 

responders such as firefighters.
IEA-PVPS-TASK 12 Photovoltaics and Firefighters’ Operations: Best Practices in Selected Countries

13
IEA-PVPS-TASK 12 Photovoltaics and Firefighters’ Operations: Best Practices in Selected Countries

14

Table 2.5 Approaches for firefighter safety referred to in the U.S. Fire Protection Research Foundation report10

Operation Contents

Fireground 

tactics

Components are always assumed to be “hot”: consider that PV systems and all their components are

electrically energized.

Operate normally, but do not deliberately touch PV hardware. Fire service personnel should follow their 

normal tactics and strategies at structure fires involving PV systems, but do so with awareness and 

understanding of possible exposure to energized electrical equipment.

Size up, identify, and validate any hazards. Identifying the type and extent of a PV system when sizing 

up the emergency event is critical to properly addressing the hazards they present.

Leave the scene in a non-hazardous condition. Emergency response personnel address and mitigate 

hazards, and hand the area back to the owners and/or occupants after the scene is stabilized.

Code 

development

Provide ability for electrical system isolation for emergency responders. A key task handled by 

emergency response personnel at a building fire is the isolation or shutdown of the building’s electrical 

power.

Create consistent placarding and labeling. Standardized approaches to provide consistent identification 

of solar power systems and their components will assist emergency responders in safely completing 

their tasks.

Ongoing operation and maintenance concerns for solar power systems must be addressed.

Require system contact information for emergencies. Establish points of contact for emergency 

responders.

Education 

and training

PV systems are energized electrical equipment like other equipment, but with an inability to power 

down when illuminated.
IEA-PVPS-TASK 12 Photovoltaics and Firefighters’ Operations: Best Practices in Selected Countries

15

2.3. Germany

In October 2010, Deutscher Feuerwehr Verband, the German Firefighters Association, released 

guidelines which refer to information for firefighter operations in PV buildings12. Included hazards 

for firefighters in fire operations and comments are shown in Table 2.7.

Table 2.6 Potential hazards for firefighters referred to in the German Firefighters Association guidelines12

Hazard Description

Toxic gas

- Flammable toxic gases may be released from fire where PV is present.

- Wear protective masks regardless of ventilation conditions in building.

- Turn off ventilation systems.

Collapse

or falling

objects

- Rooftop PV systems may fall inward after the roof under the systems is damaged.

- Steer around dangerous areas due to falling objects and mark off the hazardous areas.

- Pay attention to increased roof load when entering the building and during firefighting.

Electricity

- Electric hazard exists at contact voltages of >50 VAC or > 120 VDC.

- Follow DIN VDE 013220 for firefighting.

- Follow GUV- I 867721 “On-site electrical hazards” for firefighting near electric systems.

- Be sure to keep at least 1 m away from components that may be live (energized).

- Follow DIN VDE 0132 and note the rules about applying fire extinguisher agents to live 

components.

- Handling of defective switches and isolation of PV modules may be done only by electricians.

- Pay attention to the hazards of firefighting water pouring onto electric systems.

Fire

propagation

- Arcing and resistive heating may cause fires. Protect the areas against arcing, and let electricians

shut down the system.

- Rooftop systems and façade structures can have a chimney effect, increasing the flame 

propagation hazard depending on the conditions.

- Monitor possible flame propagation using devices such as infrared cameras.

As main activities to improve firefighters’ safety, the German guidelines explain the importance of 

recognizing PV systems, installation methods of DC wires to lower electric shock risks for 

firefighters, and a specific firefighting operation flow for fires involving PV systems.

In Germany, PV system operators have to install layout diagrams showing the building premises, 

conductors, and other PV system components to provide information for firefighters. These 

diagrams have to be affixed to the connection points of the electric system such as the junction 

boxes and distribution boards (Figure 2.1).

Because DC conductors in a sunlit PV array remain energized after main circuits have been turned 

off, DC wiring requirements are prescribed more strictly. For example, DC wiring has to be within a 

fire control area if installed inside the building, protected by flame-retardant materials, and labeled 
IEA-PVPS-TASK 12 Photovoltaics and Firefighters’ Operations: Best Practices in Selected Countries

16

as fire-resistant wiring. These provisions are defined in VDE-AR-E2100-71222 (May 2013). The 

guidelines provide a flowchart for fire response in the presence of PV systems (Figure 2.2).

Figure 2.1 Maps for DC wire in PV system referred to in the German Firefighters Association guidelines12(translated)

Residence

Garage

Stall

Project:

Project number

Customer:

Name and cellular number

Date:

Date of creation

Garage

DC disconnect switch

Residence

Photovoltaic panel

View A

Stall

DC disconnect switch

Location of 

PV system:

Address

Red lines represent wires with voltage!

Wires with voltage

Emergency contact:

Name and cellular number

Legend

Wires with voltage

(fire-resistant wires)

Position of DC 

disconnection switch

Contents: PV system

An overview for firefighters

Created by:

Address and 

telephone 

number of PV 

system installer

Overview:

Aerial view of the 
IEA-PVPS-TASK 12 Photovoltaics and Firefighters’ Operations: Best Practices in Selected Countries

17

Figure 2.2 Firefighters operation flow on PV fire referred to in the German Firefighters Association guidelines12(translated)

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

No

No

No

No hazard arises 

from PV system

Caution: High voltage is 

always applied to 

components and wires of 

PV system

Is PV system present?

Are components of PV 

system intact?

Switch off AC fuse

Voltage is generated in

components and wires 

including DC disconnection site when the PV 

system is exposed to light.

Special caution required: 

keep at least 1 meter from 

electric systems and 

components when 

spraying water.

Voltage is generated in

components and wires 

including inverters, 

wires, and components 

when the PV system is 

exposed to light.

Flooded area: keep 

your distance.

Special caution required: 

keep at least 1 meter from 

electric systems and 

components when spraying 

water.

Is DC connection off?

Is DC disconnection

switch accessible?

Is DC disconnect 

switch present?

Irrespective of the recommended 

actions shown here, general 

dispatch rules and hazard matrixes 

shall be the standard for firefighting.

Flooded area: keep your 

distance and switch off 

the power of PV system.
IEA-PVPS-TASK 12 Photovoltaics and Firefighters’ Operations: Best Practices in Selected Countries

18

3. Guidelines for installation with respect to firefighters’ operations

PV installation guidelines have been published in countries such as Japan, the United States, 

Germany, France, Italy, Spain, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom (Table 3.1).

In some countries, guidelines have become codes with which installers must comply. As 

representative cases, we have reviewed guidelines below from Japan, the United States, and 

Germany. In the Appendix, a table of contents of each guideline is shown for reference.

Table 3.1 Guidelines for installation

Country Title Author Date

Japan

Guidelines and technical information on electrical 

safety of photovoltaic systems 23

AIST Mar. 2015

Directive standards for fire safety measurement 

regarding PV systems 24

Tokyo Fire Department July 2014

United 

States

Solar Photovoltaic Installation Guidelines 25 CAL FIRE - Office of the State 

Fire Marshal

Apr. 2008

Germany

Fire-protection-oriented planning, construction, and 

maintenance of photovoltaic systems 26

BSW, BFSB, DGS, ZVEH, etc. Feb. 2011

France

Relative technical specifications for the protection of 

people and property in photovoltaic facilities 

connected in the BT or HTA network27

Syndicat des Energies 

Renouvelables, ADEME

Jan. 2012

Italy

Guidelines for PV plant Installation, 2012 Edition28 Dipartimento dei vigili del fuoco,

Dipartimento del soccorso 

pubblico della difesa civile

Feb. 2012

Spain

Preventive measures for installers to install solar 

photovoltaic and thermo panels 29

CEPYME, Aragón Dec. 2013

Prevention and action against fire in buildings with 

photovoltaic systems 30

MAPFRE 2014

Switzerland

Fire Safety Data Sheet — solar systems 31 VKF AEAI Aug. 2012

Technology paper for VKF fire safety leaflet — Solar 

systems 32

SWISSOLAR Sep. 2012

United 

Kingdom

Guide to the installation of PV systems 2nd Edition33 BRE,

EA Technology, Halcrow Group

SunDog Energy

2006

Photovoltaics in Buildings — Safety and the CDM 

regulations 34

The Building Services Research 

and Information Association, DTI

Feb. 2000

Guide to the Installation of Photovoltaic Systems 35 Electrical Contractors 

Association

2012
IEA-PVPS-TASK 12 Photovoltaics and Firefighters’ Operations: Best Practices in Selected Countries

19

3.1. Japan

The “Guidelines and technical information on electrical safety of photovoltaic systems” were

developed between 2012 and 2014 under a research project on PV fire safety by METI23.

To improve the electrical safety of PV systems, guidance is given for system design, selection of 

system components, and an outline of operation and maintenance procedures on a site.

The Tokyo Fire Department released “Directive standards for fire safety measurement regarding 

PV systems” to ensure the safety of firefighters in July 201424. The scope includes buildings 

requiring fire prevention such as commercial buildings and public buildings in Tokyo. It went into 

force on October 1, 2014. This standard is referenced by the Japan Photovoltaic Energy 

Association and disseminated to the PV industry in Japan. The standards include installation 

restrictions of PV systems on a roof, and specific labeling for PV signage to enable firefighters to 

recognize the presence of a PV system.

This directive states the setbacks necessary for a PV module on the roof, to make space for the 

passage of firefighters in large-scale PV installations (over 300 m2), and limits the distance 

between any passage and the center of a PV array to within 24 m, so that water being directed 

from the passageway can reach the fire (Figure 3.1). PV installation locations, including the DC 

wiring conduits, are restricted to being no more than 50 cm outside boundaries around the building 

areas used by firefighters. These areas include outdoor stairs, rescue entrances, and alternative 

openings (Figure 3.2). The standard also includes some easing of regulations, such as 

“Permission of installation of PV module in area limited by existing fire laws”. To mitigate the 

hazard of an electrical shock to firefighters, the directive standards require markings (signage) for 

the PV system, junction box, power conditioner, and DC wiring (Figure 3.3).

Figure 3.1 Setback rule of PV module referred to in Tokyo Fire Department directive standards24(translated)

PV module

Passage for firefighters operation 

24m 
IEA-PVPS-TASK 12 Photovoltaics and Firefighters’ Operations: Best Practices in Selected Countries

20

Figure 3.2 Installation restriction of PV module referred to in Tokyo Fire Department directive standards24(translated)

Figure 3.3 Signage rule on a PV system referred to in Tokyo Fire Department directive standards24(Translated)

Rescue entrance

Installation 

restricted area

Outdoor 

stairs

Alternative 

openings

12

Junction box

Power 

conditioner

AC DC

To AC in building

Sign

Sign 

image

PV module
IEA-PVPS-TASK 12 Photovoltaics and Firefighters’ Operations: Best Practices in Selected Countries

21

3.2. United States

In the United States, CAL FIRE published “Solar Photovoltaic Installation Guide” in April 2008 as 

guidelines for PV installers25. These guidelines were developed in collaboration with 

representatives of the PV industry, considering hazards for firefighters operating near PV systems 

and providing hazard mitigation measures. The guidelines show markings for PV systems, access 

pathways for firefighters, and locations of DC conductors relevant for firefighters.

The International Fire Code36, in which the rules for installers to reduce hazards to firefighters are 

stated, has also been updated based on these guidelines. Rules include methods for recognition 

of PV systems and setback of PV installation. To help firefighters recognize PV systems, markings 

for a DC conduit and the main service disconnect are required. The location of DC conductors is 

designated, because DC conductors may remain energized, even if power is shut down at the 

disconnect breaker.

Setbacks for PV installations are required to ensure space for firefighters’ access and operation on 

the roof. In the United States, smoke ventilation is sometimes still implemented in firefighter 

operations. Ventilation is usually performed at the peak of the roof, so PV module installation is 

prohibited within 3 feet (~0.9 m) from the ridge on each roof slope.

The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) produces the National Electric Code (NEC), with 

updates published every three years. The NEC is used by various Authorities Having Jurisdiction 

(AHJs) as a benchmark for minimizing electrical hazards through proper design, installation, and 

inspection. Several sections within the NEC describe proper installation of PV systems and 

signage to decrease fire hazards. For a given AHJ, each new version of the NEC is evaluated and 

may be rejected, adopted as a whole, or adopted and modified only in parts. Compliance with 

respect to the NEC therefore varies across the United States.
IEA-PVPS-TASK 12 Photovoltaics and Firefighters’ Operations: Best Practices in Selected Countries

22

3.3. Germany

In Germany, design and construction guidelines related to fire protection for PV installers are given 

in “Fire protection oriented planning, construction and maintenance of photovoltaic systems” by the 

German Solar Industry Association (Table 3.2). German guidelines are a set of recommendations 

that include certain provisions that are included in code, and therefore, are required.

Table 3.2 Fire protection outline referred to in the German Solar Industry Association guidelines26

Item Contents

Markings 

(signage)

- Sign indicating a PV system is affixed to the main power box and main distribution panels of the 

building

- Schematic diagram for firefighters

- Supplement to existing diagrams for firefighters

Architectural fire 

prevention

- Installation of fireproof DC wiring outside the buildings

- AC wiring only is allowed inside the building; the inverter is installed outside 

Technical fire 

prevention

- Installation of a remote DC switch for firefighters in the main fuse box of the building that 

isolates the DC wiring

When firefighters start operations, it is important that they are able to recognize PV systems 

because the operational approach may change as a result of the presence of the PV system. 

Recognition of a PV system may be a straightforward matter of visual observation, but any delay 

to emergency operations must be minimized. Low visibility due to darkness or smoke may obscure 

the PV arrays, and a building-integrated PV array may be almost indistinguishable from other 

common roofing materials. Therefore, PV signage is needed. In Germany, PV signage (Figure 3.4) 

is required at the connection points of a PV system (e.g., connection box, main distribution board). 

This is stated in VDE-AR-E2100-712, released in May 2013. PV system operators must install 

layout diagrams showing the locations of PV system components with respect to the structural 

layout (Figure 2.1). These diagrams have to be affixed to the connection points of the electric 

system such as the junction boxes and distribution panels.

Figure 3.4 Example markings (signs) in Germany to identify the presence of PV systems 26
IEA-PVPS-TASK 12 Photovoltaics and Firefighters’ Operations: Best Practices in Selected Countries

23

To ensure a safe space for firefighters’ operations, PV installation methods are given for each roof 

type shown in Table 3.3.

DC cable management is required per VDE-AR-E2100-712. DC wiring has to be within a fire control 

area if installed inside the building, protected by flame-retardant materials, and labeled as fireresistant wiring. If conductors cannot be sufficiently protected from fire damage, additional 

technologies are required, such as disconnecting devices for strings or shutdown devices for PV 

modules.

Table 3.3 Rules for PV system installation setback referred to in the German Solar Industry Association guidelines26

Roof type Installation example Contents

Inclined roof without

any special access

route

Personnel can access the ridge via open setback routes.

Flat roof without any

ingress route such as

windows or skylights

For a small flat roof without any other ingress route, 

personnel can access the roof via the open routes of the 

long side of the building.

Large flat roof

The roof has to be equipped with access routes for each 

fire compartment (40 m × 40 m in general) around the PV 

systems. The route width must be at least 1 m.
IEA-PVPS-TASK 12 Photovoltaics and Firefighters’ Operations: Best Practices in Selected Countries

24

4. Implementation of technologies and products for fire safety

Technologies (hardware and software) can provide firefighters with better control over the hazards 

associated with PV arrays. Ground-fault circuit interrupters (GFCIs) and arc-fault circuit 

interrupters (AFCIs) may reduce the incidence of fires and shocks, respectively, from energized 

conductors. Disconnect switches can reduce the number of conductors that remain energized with 

an illuminated PV system. These technologies are summarized in sub-sections below. 

4.1. Ground-fault circuit interrupter

Ground faults, in which current flows (and power is dissipated) in the grounded conductors, create 

both fire and shock hazards. Continuous flow of current causes resistive heating (and possible 

arcing), leading to fires near the grounded components. Because grounded components can 

include uninsulated conductors (such as the module frames), contact with these conductors in a 

ground-fault condition can cause an electric shock. As a result, ground-fault protections for PV 

systems have been in widespread use since the 1990s. For example, in the United States, the 

1993 version of the NEC (article 690.5) stipulated that grounded, roof-mounted arrays would 

require a “ground-fault protection circuit” capable of detecting the fault, interrupting the current 

flow, and disabling the affected solar array. More recently, a requirement for a ground-fault 

indicator (such as a red indicator light) has been added. When excessive current flow to the 

ground is detected, a GFCI puts the conductor into an open circuit and prevents continuation of 

the ground faults.

As with any technology, the addition of GFCIs can have unintended consequences: the 

“Bakersfield Fire,” a notable entry in Table 1.1, is thought to have started when a PV system 

developed two ground faults. The first ground fault went undetected; when the second ground fault 

occurred, it triggered a GFCI that, in turn, increased the current flowing through the initial ground 

fault, which eventually resulted in an arc fire.

4.2. Arc-fault circuit interrupter

Arcing happens when electrical energy flows through resistive media such as air. The high 

resistance of air leads to heating, which may trigger a fire. Whereas the oscillating nature of an AC 

current renders AC arcs self-extinguishing, DC circuitry is capable of generating sustained arcs 

that can ignite nearby fuels. The hardware to address this issue includes AFCIs, arc-fault 

detectors, and interrupting devices. Compared to ground-fault detection, arc-fault detection can be 

more challenging. The use of grounded conductors can make an arc fault more difficult to detect; 

the ungrounded PV systems that are more common in Europe and elsewhere are more robust 

against arc-fault hazards.
IEA-PVPS-TASK 12 Photovoltaics and Firefighters’ Operations: Best Practices in Selected Countries

25

Because grounded PV systems remain common in the United States, arc-fault detection and 

interruption has grown in importance there. The presence of an arc in a grounded circuit can be 

intermittent and particularly difficult to distinguish from normal operation. Various arc-fault 

detection devices monitor voltage, current, or emitted radiation. An arc-fault detector must be 

sensitive to small differences in the circuit condition and can be triggered by conditions other than 

arcing (“false” or “nuisance” tripping). Since 2011 (NFPA 70, article 690.11), AFCI, which detects 

and interrupts arc faults, is required to be included in PV systems in the United States. Certification 

and testing methods for AFCI are given in UL 1699B37.

4.3. De-energizing conductors (“firefighters’ switch” and “rapid shutdown”)

In several countries, including Australia, Germany, and the United States, the rise in the number of 

PV installations that remain energized (under sunlight) has led to calls for a “firefighters’ switch” 

that can reduce the shock hazard from any exposed, energized conductors in the PV system

(Figure 4.1).

Figure 4.1. Firefighters’ switch38

In the United States, this has taken the form of “rapid shutdown” equipment. The ability to carry out 

a “rapid shutdown” is now required for PV systems to be compliant with the 2014 NEC40 (“NEC”,

NFPA 70, article 690.12). The rapid shutdown switch makes it possible to disconnect circuits 

remotely for use in fire emergencies and maintenance.

The 2014 version of article 690.12 specifies that the controlled conductors (outside the array 

boundary) be brought below 30 V (and 240 V-A) within 10 seconds of the initiation of “rapid 

shutdown”. Hardware that might comply with the 2014 NEC article 690.12 includes disconnect 

switches, which effectively de-energize the controlled conductors outside the defined array 

boundary.
IEA-PVPS-TASK 12 Photovoltaics and Firefighters’ Operations: Best Practices in Selected Countries

26

A 2017 version of 690.12 (2)39 adds provisions within the array boundary, where conductors 

remain energized while the array is sunlit. These provisions go into effect in 2019. An 80 V limit 

was included as option 2 in article 690.12 (2) for a “rapid shutdown” within an array boundary. The 

80 V limit is not harmonized with respect to existing approach limits for energized equipment40.

Rather, it matches the system voltage (per article 690.11, 2011 NEC) below which no AFCI is 

required. Because conventional PV modules typically obtain over 40 V in open-circuit conditions, 

the new 80 V limit implicitly requires additional electronics for each module. For arrays consisting 

of more than two rows of modules, this may render inspection or replacement of the rapid 

shutdown equipment particularly challenging. The implicit requirement for “module-level shutdown” 

that results from the 80 V limit has proven to be contentious41. There are two other options for 

compliance: arrays with no conductive components; and “listed” equipment that, as of 2017, has 

not yet been defined. A concern with using the “rapid shutdown” designation for both the deenergized conductors outside the array and energized conductors within the boundary of an array 

has been how to avoid giving firefighters a false sense of security. For example, the marking 

shown in Figure 4.2 (b) should not be construed to suggest that the equipment is “off” inside the 

array boundary, because sunlit modules and their conductors will remain energized after 

“shutdown”.

(a) (b)

Figure 4.2. Proposed marking for PV systems equipped with rapid shutdown equipment (a) outside the array boundary 

and (b) within the array boundary42, per NFPA 70, the 2017 NEC, article 690.56(c)(1).

4.4. Issues regarding fail-safe operation of novel equipment

Properly installed and undamaged PV arrays are not hazardous. The relative simplicity of PV 

systems makes hazards easier to predict and avoid. New technologies need to be demonstrated 

to be effective under the conditions in which the PV system is improperly installed or damaged. 

The damage that makes a PV array potentially hazardous to a firefighter might also render any 

new technologies inoperative. To avoid giving firefighters a false sense of security, new 

technologies must be fail-safe, inspectable for failures, and replaceable in the event of failure.
IEA-PVPS-TASK 12 Photovoltaics and Firefighters’ Operations: Best Practices in Selected Countries

27

Generally speaking, listed electro-mechanical devices such as disconnect switches and circuit 

breakers can meet these criteria. With electronic hardware solutions, it can be more difficult to 

verify the performance under operating conditions. Under the UL174143 standard for inverters, 

converters, and controllers, it is up to the manufacturer to provide the “worst-case conditions” 

under which the equipment must be tested. Only future experience with deployed systems will 

show whether these tests are sufficient over the service lifetime. Demonstrating that the new 

hardware is reliable, will be fail-safe under the relevant conditions, and will function as safety 

equipment over the life of the PV system is a challenge that will require ongoing testing and 

development.

5. Conclusion

As PV deployments have become commonplace around the world, codes and standards bodies 

have worked with the fire services and the PV industry to develop guidelines to address the 

potential hazards to firefighters working near energized PV systems. As of 2016, a substantial 

body of best practices has been established for PV system design, installation, and firefighter 

operations.

Installation practices, firefighter procedures, and hardware that can reduce the fire and/or shock 

hazards of PV arrays are now deployed in multiple countries. The variation in implementations 

over time and around the world provides a means to determine best practices for minimizing the 

hazards in firefighter operations worldwide, which have been summarized here. International

cooperation between standards experts, firefighters, and technologists will be crucial to future 

success.
IEA-PVPS-TASK 12 Photovoltaics and Firefighters’ Operations: Best Practices in Selected Countries

28

Appendix

Related guideline tables of contents are shown for reference.

Tables of Contents from Guidelines for Firefighters

Table A.1 Table of contents: Japanese guidelines for firefighters8

Table of contents

I. Main chapter

1. General information about 

solar photovoltaic systems

1.1 What are solar photovoltaic systems?

1.2 Nature of solar photovoltaic power plants

1.3 Composition of solar photovoltaic systems

1.4 Examples of fire and electric shock injury due to solar photovoltaic systems

2. Hazards for firefighters in 

extinguishing fires in 

buildings with solar 

photovoltaic systems

2.1 Hazards intrinsic to solar photovoltaic systems

2.2 How to recognize solar photovoltaic systems

2.3 Electric shock and burn hazards

2.4 Fall hazards

2.5 Generation of combustion gas

2.6 Collapsing

2.7 Outbreak of fire

2.8 Others (batteries)

3. Consideration points for firefighter operation in houses which have solar photovoltaic systems

II. Appendix

1. Signs on electric poles and wires representing solar photovoltaic system installed in house

2. Isolating DC circuit 2.1 Isolating circuits at junction boxes

2.2 Isolating circuits at solar photovoltaic modules (insulating connecters)

III. References

Table A.2 Table of contents: United States CAL FIRE guidelines for firefighters9

Table of contents

Section 1:

Introduction

1.1 Introduction

1.2 What are photovoltaics?

1.3 State safety regulations

1.4 Number of photovoltaic systems in California

1.5 Incident summary

Section 2:

Photovoltaic cells and 

components

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Anatomy of a solar cell

2.3 Photovoltaic modules

2.4 Photovoltaic array

2.4 Photovoltaic tiles and shingles

2.5 Rack mounted photovoltaic modules

2.6 Inverters

2.7 Batteries
IEA-PVPS-TASK 12 Photovoltaics and Firefighters’ Operations: Best Practices in Selected Countries

29

Table A.2 Table of contents: United States CAL FIRE guidelines for firefighters9 (Continued)

Table of contents

Section 3:

Operations and tactics

for photovoltaic systems

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Recognizing photovoltaic systems

3.3 Hazards

 3.3.1 Electrical hazards – firefighter electrical safety!

 3.3.2 Electric shock and burn hazards

 3.3.3 Resistance to electricity

 3.3.4 Trip, slip or fall hazards

 3.3.5 Increased dead load roof loads

 3.3.6 Hazmat – firefighter inhalation hazards

 3.3.7 Battery hazards

3.4. Size-up

3.5 Strategy and tactics

 3.5.1 Strategy

 3.5.2 Tactics 

3.6 Communications

3.7 Fireground operations

 3.7.1 Roof operations

 3.7.2 Ventilation operations

 3.7.3 Interior operations

 3.7.4 Search operations

 3.7.5 Overhaul

Section 4: 

Residential/suburban

4.1 Introduction

Strategy and tactics

Section 5:

Commercial large and small

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Strategy and tactics

Section 6:

Ground mount and rural 

systems

6.1 Introduction

6.3. Hazards

6.4. Size-up

6.5. Strategy and tactics

 6.5.1 Strategy

 6.5.2 Tactics

Section 7: Off-grid systems 7.1 Introduction

Section 8:

Future solar technologies

8.1 Introduction

Appendix A: Review of solar thermal
IEA-PVPS-TASK 12 Photovoltaics and Firefighters’ Operations: Best Practices in Selected Countries

30

Table A.3 Table of contents: United States Fire Protection Foundation report10

Table of contents

1. Introduction and background

2. Overview of solar power 

systems

a. Evolution of technology for harnessing energy from the sun

b. Types of solar power systems

c. Marketplace trends

d. Loss history and data

e. Information resources

3. Photovoltaic solar power a. Photovoltaic basics

b. Solar cell technology and photovoltaic systems

c. Background on fireground electrical hazards

4. Overview of fire service operational materials

5. Assembly of best practice 

guidance for emergency 

response

a. Identification of common themes and principles

b. Target applications workshops

c. Final evaluation of best practice guidance

6. Summary observations

7. Bibliography

 Annex A: Solar power-related definitions

 Annex B: Example of fire service training program on solar power systems

 Annex C: Overview of fire service training and education

 Annex D: Attendees at fire service Workshop on solar power systems

Table A.4 Table of contents: German Firefighters Association guidelines12

Table of contents

Introduction

1. Solar energy: How it can be used

2. Ranges of application of photovoltaic system

3. Composition of photovoltaic system

4. Firefighting and technical help

5. Additional information

Appendix
IEA-PVPS-TASK 12 Photovoltaics and Firefighters’ Operations: Best Practices in Selected Countries

31

Tables of Contents from Guidelines for Installation

Table A.5 Table of contents: Japanese guidelines for installation21

Table of contents

Section 1: Introduction

Section 2: Guide for system 

designing

2.1 General instructions for designing a system

2.2 Documentation of systems (writing system descriptions)

2.3 Designing DC safety of a system

2.4 Basic strategies for isolation, earth fault protection and overcurrent protection

2.5 Designing lightning-resistant systems

2.6 Designing each element

 2.6.1 Installation site and installing electronic facilities

 2.6.2 Wiring method

 2.6.3 DC series/parallel arc-fault circuit protection equipment

2.7 Plans for protecting firefighters

Section 3: Selecting system 

components

3.1 General instructions for selecting components

3.2 Selecting solar photovoltaic modules

3.3 Selecting power conditioners

3.4 Selecting junction boxes (including cabinets and current breakers)

3.5 Selecting cables and wiring facilities

 3.5.1 Selecting connectors

 3.5.2 Selecting cables

Section 4: Outline of 

operation and maintenance 

procedure on a site

4.1 General instructions concerning O&M of solar photovoltaic systems

4.2 How to inspect solar photovoltaic modules

4.3 How to inspect power conditioners

Appendix

Table A.6 Table of contents: United States CAL FIRE guidelines for installation25

Table of contents

About the guidelines

General information about solar photovoltaic systems

Resources

Task force participants

Adopting the guidelines

General

Local ordinance required by city, county, city and county, fire protection district

Findings and filings

Wording

1. Marking 1.1 Main service disconnect

 1.1.1 Marking content and format

1.2 Marking for direct current (DC) conduit, raceways, enclosures, cable assemblies, and junction 

boxes

 1.2.1 Marking content and format

1.3 Inverters
IEA-PVPS-TASK 12 Photovoltaics and Firefighters’ Operations: Best Practices in Selected Countries

32

Table A.6 Table of contents: United States CAL FIRE guidelines for installation25 (Continued)

Table of contents

2. Access, 

pathways and 

smoke 

ventilation

2.1 Residential systems—single and two-unit residential dwellings

 2.1.1 Access/pathway

 2.1.2 Smoke ventilation

2.2 Commercial buildings and residential housing comprised of three (3) or more units

 2.2.1 Access

 2.2.2 Pathways

 2.2.3 Smoke ventilation

3. Location of direct current (DC) conductors

4. Non-habitable buildings

5. Ground mounted photovoltaic

 Example 1 – cross gable roof

 Example 2 – cross gable with valley

 Example 3 – full gable

 Example 4 – full hip roof

 Example 5 – large commercial 8’ walkways

 Example 6 – large commercial 4’ walkways

 Example 7 – small commercial 4’ walkways

 Example 8 – small commercial 8’ walkways

Table A.7 Table of contents: The German Solar Industry Association guidelines26

Table of contents

1. Introduction 

2. Principles for 

the designing, 

construction and 

maintenance

2.1 Construction and fastening to the substructure

2.3 Lightning protection

2.4 Commissioning test

2.5 Handing over, admission, identification and documentation of the system

2.6 Maintenance

2.7 Responsibilities of the operator

3. Principles of 

the planning 

appropriate for 

fire prevention 

and 

establishment

3.1 General tips and concepts

3.2 Architectural fire prevention

3.3 Personal protection of emergency personnel

3.4 Defense fire protection

4. Installing 

solar 

photovoltaic 

systems 

appropriate fire 

prevention 

facilities

4.1 Realization of the architectural fire prevention

4.2 Realization of the protection goal – personal protection for emergency personnel

4.3 Requirements for fire defense of solar photovoltaic systems

4.4 Additional defense fire protection for solar photovoltaic systems

4.5 Tips for special investment types
IEA-PVPS-TASK 12 Photovoltaics and Firefighters’ Operations: Best Practices in Selected Countries

33

Table A.7 Table of contents: The German Solar Industry Association guidelines26 (Continued)

5. Appendix 5.1 Additional information

5.2 General plans for emergency personnel

5.3 Building classes based on model building regulation (MBO)—abstract

5.4 References to product standards and requirement profiles

5.5 Building material classes

5.6 Maintenance and a maintenance check list

5.7 Glossary
IEA-PVPS-TASK 12 Photovoltaics and Firefighters’ Operations: Best Practices in Selected Countries

34

References

1 Laukamp et al., 2013 EU PVSEC:PV fire hazard – analysis and assessment of fire incidents (2013)

2 Pete Jackson, Target Roof PV fire of 4-5-09 9100 Rosedale HWY Bakersfield (2009)

3 Seth Augenstein, Amy Ellis-Nutt, NJ.com: Dietz & Watson warehouse blaze: Solar panels hampered 

firefighting, officials say (2013),

Accessed on (Sep 2016): 

http://www.nj.com/burlington/index.ssf/2013/09/dietz_and_watson_warehouse_fire_solar_panels_make_b

attling_blaze_much_harder_officials_say.html

4 Rovert Duval, NFPA Journal: Perfect Storm (2014),

Accessed on (Sep 2016): http://www.nfpa.org/news-and-research/publications/nfpa-journal/2014/januaryfebruary-2014/features/perfect-storm

5 Fraunhohfer ISE et al., Bewertung des Brandrisikos in Photovoltaik-Anlagen und Erstellung von

Sicherheitskonzepten zur Risikominimierung (2015), Available: http://www.pv-brandsicherheit.de/8/

6 DNV-GL, SEIA whitepaper: Rooftop PV Systems and Firefighter Safety (2015),

Available: www.seia.org/research-resources/rooftop-pv-systems-firefighter-safety

7 CEA et al., MaÎtriser Le Risque Lié aux Installations PhotovoltaÏques (2013),

Available: http://www.ademe.fr/sites/default/files/assets/documents/maitriser-risque-lie-installationsphotovoltaiques-2013.pdf

8 AIST, Technical information about firefighting operation in PV fire (2014),

Available: 

https://unit.aist.go.jp/rcpv/ci/service/PV_Electrical_Safety(AIST2015)/Technical_Information_on_FireFighting_for_PV_Fire_Accident(AIST2015).pdf

9 CAL FIRE, Fire Operations for Photovoltaic Emergencies (2010),

Available: http://osfm.fire.ca.gov/training/pdf/Photovoltaics/Fire%20Ops%20PV%20lo%20resl.pdf

10 The Fire Protection Research Foundation, Firefighter Safety and Emergency Response for Solar Power 

Systems (2010),

Available: http://www.nfpa.org/~/media/files/research/research-foundation/research-foundation-reports/foremergency-responders/rffirefightertacticssolarpowerrevised.pdf?la=en

11 UL, Firefighter Safety and Photovoltaic Installation Research Project (2011),

Available: http://www.ul.com/global/documents/offerings/industries/buildingmaterials/fireservice/PVFF_SafetyFinalReport.pdf

12 Deutscher Feuerwehr Verband, Einsatz an Photovoltaikanlagen Informationen für einsatzkräfte von 

feuerwehren und technischen hilfsdiensten (2010),

Available: http://www.solarwirtschaft.de/fileadmin/media/pdf/bsw_feuerwehrbroschuere_2010.pdf

13 Australasian Fire and Emergency Service Authorities Council, Safety Considerations for Photovoltaic 

Arrays (2013), 

Available: http://www.afac.com.au/docs/guideline/safety-considerations-photovoltaic-arrays.pdf?sfvrsn=6

14 Australian PV Association, Solar Electric Systems – Safety for Firefighters (2011),

Available: http://apvi.org.au/sites/default/files/documents/APVA%20Reports/APVA%20Guidance%20-

%20Solar%20Electric%20Systems%20and%20Firefighter%20Safety%20-%20Grid%20Connect.pdf

15 The Austrian Electrotechnical Association, PV-Anlagen - Zusätzliche Sicherheitsanforderungen (2013),

Available: https://www.ove.at/webshop/artikel/b37720042d-ove-richtlinie-r-11-1-2013-02-01.html (Paid 

content)

16 Ontario Association of Fire Chiefs, Solar Electricity Safety Handbook for Firefighters (2015),

Available: http://cansia.ca/sites/default/files/solar_electricity_safety_handbook_for_firefighters_.pdf

17 Province of Trento, Sicurezza antincendio negli impianti fotovoltaici (2011),

Available: 

http://www.agrotecnici.it/prevenzione_incendi/dispensa_impianti_fv_versione_completa_CORRETA.pdf

18 Firefighters of Barcelona, GUIA TèCNICA - INSTAL•LACIONS FOTOVOLTAIQUES (2013),

Available: http://www.bcn.cat/bombers/pdf/ca/fitxa-1.12-Installacions-fotovoltaiques.pdf

19 British PhotoVoltaic Association, Photovoltaic’s and Fire: A guide from BPVA (2011),

Available: http://www.bpva.org.uk/media/38257/fire-pv_v4_20130821105943.pdf

20 Beuth Verlag,DIN VDE 0132:2008-08:Firefighting and technical assistance in or near electrical 

Installations (2008),

21 Deutsche Gesetzliche Unfallversic herung,GUV-I 8677: Elektrische Gefahren an der Einsatzstelle (2008)

22 VDE Verlag, VDE-AR-E 2100-712: Maßnahmen für den DC-Bereich einer Photovoltaikanlage zum 

Einhalten der elektrischen Sicherheit im Falle einer Brandbekämpfung oder einer technischen 

 
IEA-PVPS-TASK 12 Photovoltaics and Firefighters’ Operations: Best Practices in Selected Countries

35

 

Hilfeleistung (2013), 23 AIST, Guideline and technical information on electrical safety of Photovoltaic systems (2015),

Available: 

https://unit.aist.go.jp/rcpv/ci/service/PV_Electrical_Safety(AIST2015)/Technical_Information_on_PV_Elect

rical_Safety(AIST2015).pdf

24 Tokyo Fire Department, Directive standards for fire safety measurement regarding PV systems (2014),

Available: http://www.tfd.metro.tokyo.jp/hp-yobouka/sun/shidoukijun.html

25 CAL FIRE, Solar Photovoltaic Installation Guideline (2008),

Available: http://osfm.fire.ca.gov/pdf/reports/solarphotovoltaicguideline.pdf

26 BSW et al., Brandschutzgerechte Planung, Errichtung und Instandhaltung von PV-Anlagen (2011),

Available: http://www.dgs.de/fileadmin/bilder/Dokumente/PV-Brandschutz_DRUCK_24_02_2011.pdf

27 Syndicat des Energies Renouvelables et al., Spécifications techniques relatives à la protection des 

personnes et des biens dans les installations photovoltaïques raccordées au réseau BT ou HTA (2012),

Available: 

http://www.transenergie.eu/kcfinder/upload/files/telechargements/guideSERADEMEspecifPVR20120123.

pdf

28 Dipartimento dei vigili del fuoco et al., Guaida Per L'installazione Degli Impianti Fotovtanici Edizione Anno 

2012 (2012),

Available: http://www.ingenio-web.it/immagini/CKEditor/Nota_1324_2012.pdf

29 CEPYME et al., Medidas Prevenitivas a Adoptar por los Instaladores de Placas de Energia Solar 

Fotovoltaica y Fotovoltermica (2013),

Available: http://www.conectapyme.com/documentacion/Prevencion/2013-FPRL-02.pdf

30 MAPFRE, Prevención y actuación frente a incendios de edificios con instalaciones fotovoltaicas (2014),

Available: http://www.mapfre.com/fundacion/html/revistas/seguridad/n133/es/articulo4.html

31 VFK AEAI, BRANDSCHUTZMERKBLATT Solaranlagen (2012),

Available: http://www.praever.ch/de/bs/vs/MB/Seiten/20003-12.pdf

32 SWISSOLAR, Stand-der-Technik-Papier zu VKF Brandschutzmerkblatt Solaranlagen (2012),

Available: http://www.swissolar.ch/fileadmin/user_upload/Fachleute/Stand-der-Technik-Papier.pdf

33 BRE et al., Guide to the installation of PV systems 2nd Edition (2006),

Available: 

http://www.bre.co.uk/filelibrary/pdf/rpts/Guide_to_the_installation_of_PV_systems_2nd_Edition.pdf

34 The Building Services Research and Information Association et al., Photovoltaics in Buildings - Safety 

and the CDM regulations (2000),

Available: http://www.inbalanceenergy.co.uk/further_reading_books/pv_installers/Photovoltaics%20in%20Buildings%20-

%20Safety%20and%20the%20CDM%20Regulations.pdf

35 Electrical Contractors Association, Guide to the Installation of Photovoltaic Systems (2012),

Available: http://bpva.org.uk/media/38266/new-guide-to-installlation-of-pv-systemsmcs_20130530161524.pdf

36 International code council, 2015 International Fire Code

37 UL,UL1699B:Photovoltaic(PV) DC Arc-Fault Circuit Protection

38 H. Häberlin et al., PV and Fire Brigade Safety: No Panic, but Realistic Assessment of Danger and 

Possible Countermeasures (2011)

39 NFPA,NFPA 70:National Electrical Code 2017

40 NFPA,NFPA 70E:Standard for Electrical Safety in the Workplace, 

Available: www.depts.ttu.edu/opmanual/OP60.14D.pdf

41 SMA America, Evaluating the Case for Module-Level Shutdown An Increase in Safety or the Creation of 

Perceived Danger?,

Available: www.sma-america.com/fileadmin/content/www.smaamerica.com/Partners/Images/Knowledgebase/Evaluating-Case-Module-LevelShutdown/NEC2017_WhitePaper_FINAL.pdf

42 Solar Power World, New NEC 2017 brings clarity to solar PV labeling (2016),

Available: www.solarpowerworldonline.com/2016/03/new-nec-2017-brings-clarity-solar-pv-labeling/

43 UL,UL1741: Standard for Inverters, Converters, Controllers and Interconnection System Equipment for 

Use With Distributed Energy Resources