Washington Department of

fish & WilDlife

Seasonal Distribution and Aerial Surveys of 

Mountain Goats in Mount Rainier, North Cascades, and 

Olympic National Parks, Washington

Prepared in cooperation with the U.S. National Park Service and 

Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife

U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey

Open-File Report 2011-1107
Cover: Photograph of mountain goat and Mount Olympus in Olympic National Park, 

Washington. Photograph by Roger Hoffman, National Park Service.
Seasonal Distribution and Aerial Surveys of 

Mountain Goats in Mount Rainier, North Cascades, 

and Olympic National Parks, Washington

By Kurt Jenkins, U.S. Geological Survey; Katherine Beirne, Patricia Happe, and Roger Hoffman, 

Olympic National Park; Cliff Rice, Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife; and Jim 

Schaberl, Mount Rainier National Park

Prepared in cooperation with the U.S. National Park Service and 

Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife

Open-File Report 2011–1107

U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey
U.S. Department of the Interior

KEN SALAZAR, Secretary

U.S. Geological Survey

Marcia K. McNutt, Director

U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia: 2011

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Suggested citation:

Jenkins, Kurt, Beirne, Katherine, Happe, Patricia, Hoffman, Roger, Rice, Cliff, and Schaberl, Jim, 2011, Seasonal 

distribution and aerial surveys of mountain goats in Mount Rainier, North Cascades, and Olympic National Parks, 

Washington: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2011-1107, 56 p.
iii

Contents

Abstract...........................................................................................................................................................1

Introduction.....................................................................................................................................................2

Study Area.......................................................................................................................................................3

Methods...........................................................................................................................................................3

Seasonal Distribution...........................................................................................................................3

Altitudinal Movements ...............................................................................................................5

Use of Mountain Goat Survey Areas During Summer .........................................................5

Home Range Utilization Distributions ......................................................................................6

Aerial Surveys .......................................................................................................................................6

Results ...........................................................................................................................................................10

Seasonal Distribution.........................................................................................................................10

Altitudinal Movements .............................................................................................................11

Use of Mountain Goat Survey Areas During Summer .......................................................15

Seasonal Home Range Utilization Distributions ...................................................................18

Aerial Surveys .....................................................................................................................................18

Discussion.....................................................................................................................................................22

Management Implications..........................................................................................................................23

Acknowledgments.......................................................................................................................................24

References Cited .........................................................................................................................................24

Appendix 1. Drug induction times, vital signs, and physical measurements of 20 mountain

goats captured in Mount Rainier, North Cascades, and Olympic National Parks,

Washington, 2005–07 .....................................................................................................................27

Appendix 2. Seasonal adaptive kernel home range (95-percent utilization distribution) and

core area (50-percent UD) estimates of individual GPS-collared mountain goats in

Mount Rainier, North Cascades, and Olympic National Parks, Washington, 2003–08 .......28

Appendix 3. Maps showing seasonal distributions of selected GPS-collared mountain

goats in Mount Rainier, North Cascades, and Olympic National Parks, Washington,

2003–07. 95-, 80-, and 50-percent adaptive kernel utilization distributions are shown

for individual mountain goats.......................................................................................................29

Appendix 4. Maps showing polygons surveyed to provide sightability trials in the

development of an aerial survey sightability model for mountain goats in Mount

Rainier, North Cascades, and Olympic National Parks, Washington, 2006–07....................47

Appendix 5. Aerial survey characteristics and counts of mountain goats observed during

aerial survey sightability trials in Mount Rainier, North Cascades, and Olympic

National Parks, Washington, 2005–07.........................................................................................53
iv

Figures

Figure 1. Map showing locations of Mount Rainier and North Cascades National Parks

in the Cascades Range and Olympic National Park on the Olympic Peninsula,

Washington ................................................................................. 4

Figure 2. Map showing aerial survey polygons comprising the sampling frame used for

aerial surveys of mountain goats in Olympic National Park, Washington ............ 7

Figure 3. Map showing aerial survey polygons comprising the sampling frame used for

aerial surveys of mountain goats in Mount Rainier National Park, Washington ... 8

Figure 4. Map showing aerial survey polygons comprising the sampling frame used for

aerial surveys of mountain goats in North Cascades National Park, 

Washington ................................................................................. 9

Figure 5. Graph showing individual and seasonal variation in the fix acquisition rates of

GPS collars on mountain goats in Olympic (OLYM), Mount Rainier (MORA), and

North Cascades (NOCA) National Parks, Washington, 2003–08 ..................... 12

Figure 6. Graphs showing weekly mean altitudes (+SE) of male and female GPS-collared

mountain goats in Mount Rainier, North Cascades, and Olympic National

Parks, Washington, 2003–08 ............................................................... 12

Figure 7. Boxplots showing distributions of dates that GPS-collared mountain goats

made transitions between summer and winter ranges and the duration of

winter range use (days) by male and female mountain goats in Mount Rainier,

North Cascades, and Olympic National Parks, Washington, 2003–08 ............... 13

Figure 8. Boxplots showing distribution of altitude records for individual GPS-collared

mountain goats in Olympic (OLYM), Mount Rainier (MORA), and North

Cascades (NOCA) National Parks, Washington, during summers and winters,

2003–08 ....................................................................................... 14

Figure 9. Graphs showing selected hourly mean altitudes (+SE) of male and female

GPS-collared mountain goats in Mount Rainier, North Cascades, and Olympic

National Parks, Washington, July 10–31, 2003–08....................................... 15

Figure 10. Graphs showing selected hourly mean percentage (+SE) of GPS-telemetry

locations of collared mountain goats within the mountain goat survey sampling

frames in Mount Rainier, North Cascades, and Olympic National Parks,

Washington, July 10–31, 2003–08 ......................................................... 15

Figure 11. Graph showing altitudinal distribution of GPS-collared mountain goats during

morning hours (0700–1100) in Olympic National Park, July 10–31, 2005–08 ......... 16

Figure 12. Graphs showing estimated probability (Phat) that GPS-collared mountain

goats were within aerial survey sampling areas defined at the lower altitude

by 1,525-m and 1,425-m altitude contours in Olympic National Park,

Washington, July and September, 2005–08 ............................................. 16

Figure 13. Boxplots showing distributions of summer and winter home range sizes

(95-percent adaptive kernel utilization distributions) of male and female

GPS-collared mountain goats in Mount Rainier, North Cascades, and Olympic

National Parks, Washington, 2003–08 ................................................... 19
v

Tables

Table 1. Mountain goats captured and GPS-collared within or adjacent to Mount

Rainier, North Cascades, and Olympic National Parks, Washington, 2003–07 ...... 10

Table 2. Location data collected from 25 GPS-collared mountain goats in Mount

Rainier, North Cascades, and Olympic National Parks, Washington, 2003–08 ...... 11

Table 3. Candidate logistic regression models and associated statistics for predicting

probabilities that GPS-collared mountain goats were present within the aerial

survey sampling area in Olympic National Park, Washington, July and

September, 2005–08 ........................................................................ 17

Table 4. Model-averaged logistic regression parameters (Bi) for estimating

probabilities that GPS-collared mountain goats were present within the aerial

survey sampling area in Olympic National Park, Washington, July and

September, 2005–08 ........................................................................ 17

Table 5. Candidate logistic regression models and associated statistics for predicting

probabilities that GPS-collared mountain goats were present within a

hypothetical survey area in Olympic National Park, Washington, July and

September, 2005–08 ........................................................................ 18

Table 6. Model-averaged logistic regression parameters (Bi) for estimating

probabilities that GPS-collared mountain goats were present within a

hypothetical survey area in Olympic National Park, Washington, July and

September, 2005–08 ........................................................................ 18

Table 7. Summary of aerial surveys conducted as sightability trials in Mount Rainier,

North Cascades, and Olympic National Parks, Washington, summer 2006–07 ...... 20

Table 8. Group size, counts, and composition of mountain goats observed from aerial

surveys conducted as sightability trials in Mount Rainier, North Cascades, and

Olympic National Parks, Washington, summer 2006–07 .............................. 21

Table 9. Number of groups counted, total mountain goats counted, and mean

sightability of groups and individual mountain goats in Mount Rainier, North

Cascades, and Olympic National Parks, Washington, summer 2006–07 ............ 21
vi

Conversion Factors

Inch/Pound to SI

Multiply By To obtain

foot (ft) 0.3048 meter (m)

SI to Inch/Pound

Multiply By To obtain

meter (m) 3.281 foot (ft) 

kilometer (km) 0.6214 mile (mi)

hectare (ha) 2.471 acre

square kilometer (km2

) 247.1 acre

milligram (g) 0.00003527 ounce, avoirdupois (oz)

Temperature in degrees Celsius (°C) may be converted to degrees Fahrenheit (°F) as follows:

°F=(1.8×°C)+32.
Seasonal Distribution and Aerial Surveys of 

Mountain Goats in Mount Rainier, North Cascades, 

and Olympic National Parks, Washington

By Kurt Jenkins1, Katherine Beirne2, Patricia Happe2, Roger Hoffman2, Cliff Rice3, and Jim Schaberl4,5

Abstract

We described the seasonal distribution of Geographic 

Positioning System (GPS)-collared mountain goats (Oreamnos 

americanus) in Mount Rainier, North Cascades, and Olympic 

National Parks to evaluate aerial survey sampling designs and 

provide general information for park managers. This work 

complemented a companion study published elsewhere of 

aerial detection biases of mountain goat surveys in western 

Washington. Specific objectives reported here were to 

determine seasonal and altitudinal movements, home range 

distributions, and temporal dynamics of mountain goat 

movements in and out of aerial survey sampling frames 

established within each park. We captured 25 mountain goats 

in Mount Rainier (9), North Cascades (5), and Olympic (11) 

National Parks, and fitted them with GPS-collars programmed 

to obtain 6–8 locations daily. We obtained location data on 

23 mountain goats for a range of 39–751 days from 2003 to 

2008. Altitudinal distributions of GPS-collared mountain goats 

varied individually and seasonally, but median altitudes used 

by individual goats during winter ranged from 817 to 1,541 

meters in Olympic and North Cascades National Parks, and 

1,215 to 1,787 meters in Mount Rainier National Park. Median 

altitudes used by GPS-collared goats during summer ranged 

from 1,312 to 1,819 meters in Olympic and North Cascades 

National Parks, and 1,780 to 2,061 meters in Mount Rainier 

National Park. GPS-collared mountain goats generally moved 

from low-altitude winter ranges to high-altitude summer 

ranges between June 11 and June 19 (range April 24–July 3) 

and from summer to winter ranges between October 26 and 

November 9 (range September 11–December 23). Seasonal 

home ranges (95 percent of adaptive kernel utilization 

distribution) of males and female mountain goats were highly 

variable, ranging from 1.6 to 37.0 kilometers during summers 

and 0.7 to 9.5 kilometers during winters. Locations of GPScollared mountain goats were almost 100 percent within the 

sampling frame used for mountain goat surveys in Mount 

Rainier National Park, whereas generally greater than 80 and 

greater than 60 percent of locations were within sampling 

units delineated in North Cascades and Olympic National 

Parks, respectively. Presence of GPS-collared mountain 

goats within the sampling frame of Olympic National Park 

varied by diurnal period (midday versus crepuscular), survey 

season (July versus September), and the interaction of 

diurnal period and survey season. Aerial surveys conducted 

in developing a sightability model for mountain goat aerial 

surveys indicated mean detection probabilities of 0.69, 0.76, 

and 0.87 in North Cascades, Olympic, and Mount Rainier 

National Parks, respectively. Higher detection probabilities 

in Mount Rainier likely reflected larger group sizes and more 

open habitat conditions than in North Cascades and Olympic 

National Parks. Use of sightability models will reduce biases 

of population estimates in each park, but resulting population 

estimates must still be considered minimum population 

estimates in Olympic and North Cascades National Parks 

because the current sampling frames do not encompass those 

populations completely. Because mountain goats were reliably 

present within the sampling frame in Mount Rainier National 

Park, we found no compelling need to adjust mountain goat 

survey boundaries in that park. Expanding survey coverage in 

North Cascades and Olympic National Parks to more reliably 

encompass the altitudinal distribution of mountain goats 

during summer would enhance population estimation accuracy 

in the future. Lowering the altitude boundary of mountain 

goat survey units by as little as 100 meters to 1,425 meters 

in Olympic National Park would increase mountain goat 

presence within the survey and reduce variation in counts 

related to movements of mountain goats outside the survey 

boundaries.

1

U.S. Geological Survey, Forest and Rangeland Ecosystem Science Center, 

600 E. Park Avenue, Port Angeles, WA 98362. 

2

Olympic National Park, 600 E. Park Avenue, Port Angeles, WA 98362

3

Wildlife Program, Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife, 600 

Capitol Way N., Olympia WA 98501

4

Mount Rainier National Park, 55210 238th Ave E., Ashford, WA 98304

5

Current Address: Shenandoah National Park, 3655 U.S. Highway 211 E., 

Luray, VA 22835
2 Mountain Goats in Mount Rainier, North Cascades, and Olympic National Parks, Washington

Introduction

Managing populations of mountain goats in Washington’s 

Cascades Range and Olympic Mountains requires reliable 

estimates of population size. Accurate population estimates 

are needed to establish harvest limits for mountain goats in 

the Cascades Range, where local populations have declined 

in recent decades (Rice and Gay, 2010), and to monitor their 

conservation status in Mount Rainier and North Cascades 

National Parks. In the Olympic Mountains, where mountain 

goats were introduced into Olympic National Park in the 

1920s and populations expanded over several decades, 

populations are monitored to identify risks of ecosystem 

degradation associated with population growth of this nonnative species in a national park (Houston and others, 1986, 

1991, 1994a). 

In 2005, the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) and 

National Park Service (NPS) joined efforts with Washington 

Department of Fish and Wildlife (WDFW) to estimate 

detection biases and improve accuracy of helicopter surveys 

of mountain goats in western Washington. The correction for 

detection bias is necessary because not all animals present 

are observed and counted during aerial surveys, resulting in 

the underestimation of actual numbers of animals present 

(Samuel and others, 1987; Gonzalez-Voyer and others, 2001; 

Udevitz and others, 2006). Other partners participating in the 

estimation of visibility biases of mountain goat aerial surveys 

included the U.S. Forest Service, Sauk-Suiattle Tribe, and 

Western Washington University. We completed that project 

in 2009 with the publication of a sightability model designed 

to improve the accuracy of aerial surveys of mountain goats 

throughout western Washington (Rice and others, 2009). 

USGS and NPS participation in this study was motivated 

by controversy surrounding a former NPS proposal to control 

non-native populations of mountain goats in Olympic National 

Park through culling (National Park Service, 1995). A 

Congressionally mandated review of the scientific information 

on mountain goats in Olympic National Park focused on 

estimation methods used to track population trends. Early 

studies in Olympic National Park indicated aerial surveys 

accounted for approximately 66 percent of the population 

(Houston and others, 1986), based on the index manipulation 

method first described by Caughley (1977). Consequently, 

raw counts obtained from aerial surveys of mountain goats in 

Olympic National Park were increased by a factor of 1.52 (that 

is, 1/0.66) in subsequent surveys to account for the unobserved 

population fraction (Houston and others, 1986, 1991, 1994a). 

The independent review team commended the overall design 

and execution of mountain goat surveys in Olympic National 

Park, but described the reliance of the 66 percent efficiency 

factor as the weak link in the estimation process (Noss and 

others, 2000) because observational biases are not static 

and may change as population abundance or environmental 

conditions vary over time (Noss and others, 2000).

Our previous work revealed that detection probabilities 

of mountain goats generally averaged from 75 to 91 percent in 

different populations throughout western Washington, but also 

varied among individual groups of mountain goats reflecting 

differences in group size and habitat characteristics (Rice 

and others, 2009). We also determined that 11 GPS-collared 

mountain goats were outside the established survey areas 

during surveys conducted in developing these sightability 

models, indicating that movements of GPS-collared mountain 

goats outside the survey areas may present an unmeasured 

source of bias in population estimates. Others have suggested 

that if a significant or varying segment of a surveyed 

population is ‘unavailable’ to the survey, then it may be useful 

to separate and estimate two components of bias—one related 

to the failure to see all animals present, and another related to 

the segment of population unavailable to the survey (Pollock 

and others, 2004). 

The purpose of this report is to describe seasonal 

distribution patterns of GPS-collared mountain goats within 

Mount Rainier, North Cascades, and Olympic National 

Parks. This work addresses the following questions regarding 

the current aerial surveys used to estimate population size 

and trends of mountain goats: Do mountain goats spend 

appreciable time outside the survey areas during summer? 

Do mountain goats move in and out of the survey areas 

seasonally or diurnally? Answers to such questions are 

needed to determine whether survey units should be redrawn 

to better represent habitats occupied by the populations of 

interest. Descriptive information provided on seasonal and 

diurnal movements of mountain goats will also be useful for 

interpreting mountain goat biology and natural history to park 

visitors and informing park planning decisions. 

Our specific objectives were to determine the seasonal 

altitudinal movements of mountain goats in the three parks, 

and determine the seasonal and diurnal use of the aerial survey 

sampling areas established within each. We also provide 

descriptive information on the seasonal range shifts and home 

ranges used by GPS-collared mountain goats and report the 

raw data from aerial surveys associated with sightability 

model development in each park. Those descriptions and data 

are provided primarily for park management and archival 

purposes. 
Methods 3

Study Area

Our study area included seasonal ranges of mountain 

goats in and adjacent to three mountainous wilderness parks 

in western Washington: Mount Rainier and North Cascades 

National Parks in the Cascades Range and Olympic National 

Park in the Olympic Mountains, which form the mountainous 

core of the Olympic Peninsula (fig. 1). Mountain goats 

typically inhabited altitudes ranging from approximately 

800 to 2,000 m in the Cascades Range and 800 to 1,700 m 

in the Olympic Range, spanning a wide range of habitats 

that included montane forests, subalpine parklands, alpine 

tundra, rock and snow (Stevens, 1979; Rice, 2008). Montane 

forests primarily were representative of the Western Hemlock 

(Tsuga heterophylla), Pacific Silver Fir (Abies amabilis), 

and Mountain Hemlock (Tsuga mertensiana) forest zones 

of western Washington (Franklin and Dyrness, 1988). 

Timberline is highly variable among the three parks but 

generally averaged approximately 1,450 m in the central 

Olympic Mountains and North Cascades and approximately 

1,600 m in Mount Rainier and the eastern Olympic Range. 

In each park, a broad zone of subalpine parklands and 

subalpine meadows formed a dynamic ecotone between the 

upper edge of tree dominance and increasingly harsh alpine 

environments at higher altitudes (Franklin and Dyrness, 1988). 

Subalpine parklands comprised mosaics of subalpine fir (Abies 

lasiocarpa) and mountain hemlock forests, and a variety of 

heath-shrub, sedge (Carex spp.), grass, and forb-dominated 

meadow communities depending on local variations in soil 

development, moisture, winter snow depth, and growing 

season (Fonda and Bliss, 1969; Kuramoto and Bliss, 1970; 

Henderson, 1973). The alpine zone, generally at altitudes 

above 1,800 m, consists of very steep and rugged assortments 

of alpine tundra communities, bare rock, talus, scree, glaciers, 

and snowfields (Bliss, 1969; Hamann, 1972, both summarized 

in Franklin and Dyrness, 1988). 

Methods

We captured mountain goats using a variety of 

methods and personnel. From 2003 to 2007, WDFW and 

NPS personnel captured several goats in and around Mount 

Rainier and North Cascades National Parks, through either 

aerial or ground-based darting (Rice and others, 2009). 

During summers of 2005 and 2007, we captured three goats 

through leg-noosing and physical restraint (Stevens, 1979; 

Olson, 1994). Most mountain goats collared in the three 

parks were captured by an independent crew on contract 

with the Department of the Interior for animal capture 

operations (Leading Edge Aviation, Lewiston, Idaho). The 

contract team captured 17 mountain goats from September 

18–21, 2005, through aerial darting with 2.4 mg carfentanil 

citrate (appendix 1). Capture procedures were approved by 

the Animal Care and Use Committee at the Large Animal 

Research Center at Oregon State University.

Crews fitted each captured mountain goat with a GPS 

tracking collar (VectronicTM GPS Plus-4. Vectronic Aerospace, 

Berlin, Germany). All collars were color coded to facilitate 

individual recognition during aerial surveys. Each collar 

contained a 12-channel GPS receiver, very-high frequency 

(VHF) beacon, an ultra-high frequency beacon, data storage 

memory, and a radio-modem for remote transfer of data to and 

from the collar. We programmed each of the collars to attempt 

to obtain location fixes every 3–4 hours (varying between 

animals). Most animals captured by WDFW personnel 

were fitted with collars programmed for location fixes every 

3 hours, whereas animals captured by contracted crews from 

Olympic National Park and the USGS were fitted with collars 

programmed to obtain location fixes every 4 hours.

Seasonal Distribution

We remotely downloaded location data stored on board 

each GPS-collar at approximately 3-month intervals from 

September 2005 to September 2007. Additionally, Cliff Rice 

(Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife) made available 

the downloaded data files for mountain goats that were 

previously collared within or near Mount Rainier and North 

Cascades National Parks, and whose home ranges broadly 

overlapped those park lands. We collared one mountain goat 

late in the study in Olympic National Park and obtained data 

on its movements until late summer 2008. Hence, the analysis 

of mountain goat distribution was based on data collected 

from 2003 to 2007 in Mount Rainier and North Cascades 

National Parks and 2005 to 2008 in Olympic National Park. 

Typically, we downloaded location data remotely through 

UHF radio communications using a VectronicTM handheld 

terminal operated from a fixed-wing aircraft. Frequently, we 

also downloaded data from a helicopter immediately following 

an aerial survey. To guard against using faulty or erroneous 

location data in subsequent analyses, we removed data outliers 

by screening for invalid dates associated with faulty data. We 

also examined 55 data outliers that lay beyond the interquartile 

ranges measured from the median x and y coordinates of each 

mountain goat. We retained questionable outliers if there were 

other locations in the same general area that either preceded 

or followed the questionable locations chronologically. 

We deleted less than 10 questionable outliers that had no 

supportive locations nearby. We determined altitudes of all 

fixes from a 10-m digital elevation model using ArcGIS 9.1. 
4 Mountain Goats in Mount Rainier, North Cascades, and Olympic National Parks, Washington

Figure 1. Locations of Mount Rainier and North Cascades National Parks in the Cascades Range and Olympic National Park on the 

Olympic Peninsula, Washington. 

tac11-0605_fig01_NCCN_Network_Region

124°0'0"W 123°0'0"W 122°0'0"W 121°0'0"W

49°0'0"N 48°0'0"N 47°0'0"N 46°0'0"N

0 25 50 100 Miles

Mount Rainier 

National Park

North Cascades 

National Park

Olympic National Park

Vancouver Island, 

British Columbia

0 25 50 100 Kilometers
Methods 5

Location data obtained from GPS telemetry collars may 

be biased by variations in GPS reception in different habitats 

or from animals in different activities (for example, resting 

versus standing) (Sager-Fradkin and others, 2007; Schwartz 

and others, 2009). Modeling approaches used previously to 

adjust GPS location data for GPS bias have met only limited 

success (D’Eon, 2003; Sager-Fradkin and others, 2007). 

Hence, we did not adjust location data based on detection 

biases of GPS telemetry in different environments. We expect 

GPS telemetry, however, to under-represent use of lowaltitude forested habitats where GPS reception typically is 

most obstructed (Wells, 2006).

Altitudinal Movements 

We described seasonal altitudinal movements of collared 

goats by computing and graphically displaying the mean 

(±SE) altitudes used by collared goats during each week 

of each year. Because seasonal altitudinal movements of 

mountain goats were highly individualistic, we estimated 

calendar dates for individual mountain goats that best 

corresponded with seasonal transitions between summer and 

winter ranges. Based on methods described by Rice (2008), 

we used the non-parametric Van der Waerden test statistic 

(Conover, 1980) to contrast the magnitude of altitudinal 

separation for iteratively selected potential start and end dates 

of summer and winter seasons. We identified the starting dates 

of summer and winter range use as the date that produced the 

largest seasonal separation in altitudes used by each mountain 

goat based on the Van der Waerden test statistic. Because the 

statistic was used only as an index of separation to identify 

timing of distributional shifts, we did not evaluate statistical 

significance of the seasonal separations in altitude. 

Use of Mountain Goat Survey Areas 

During Summer 

We used a graphical approach to describe diurnal use 

of the aerial survey sampling areas by mountain goats. The 

sampling area is described further below, but consisted of 

the collective set of survey units that comprised the sampling 

frame developed for mountain goat surveys in each park. Each 

GPS telemetry location was labeled as occurring either within 

the survey sampling frame, indicating that the animal would 

be available to be seen in an aerial survey, or outside the 

sampling frame, indicating the animal was not available to the 

survey. We graphed the mean (±SE) altitudes used by collared 

goats during selected hours of the 24-hour cycle and the 

mean percentages of GPS locations that occurred within the 

mountain goat survey frame. To minimize seasonal influences 

and because aerial surveys generally are flown during the 

last 3 weeks of July, we limited those graphical summaries to 

include only data obtained between July 10 and July 31 each 

year. To guard against potential effects of aircraft responses, 

we did not use data corresponding to days that goats were 

surveyed from a helicopter. 

We used logistic regression to model the influence of 

diurnal period, ambient temperature, and survey season on 

the probability that mountain goats were present within the 

sampling frame in Olympic National Park (Hosmer and 

Lemeshow, 2000). We did not model goat presence within 

sampling frames of Mount Rainier National Park because 

the collared mountain goats were nearly always present, 

nor within North Cascades National Park because of small 

sample sizes. We hypothesized apriori that mountain goats 

in Olympic National Park may be less frequently present in 

the sampling frame during hot weather or during the midday 

based on previous speculation that mountain goats may 

descend in altitude during hot weather (Houston and others, 

1986, 1994b). We also speculated that mountain goat presence 

within the sampling frame may vary from summer to early 

autumn in response to changing forage phenology, food habits, 

or thermal regime. We modeled the presence of a collared 

goat in the sampling frame as a binary dependent variable 

(0 for animals not present versus 1 for animals present). We 

examined effects of the following predictors: a binary variable 

for crepuscular (5:00–9:00 and 17:00–21:00) versus midday 

(9:01–16:59) time periods, mean ambient temperature of 

the survey day (o

C), and a binary variable delineating two 

survey seasons corresponding with the last 3 weeks of July 

and September, respectively. We chose these two potential 

seasonal survey periods because mountain goats generally are 

surveyed in Olympic National Park during the last 3 weeks 

in July, but September also has been used and is a plausible 

alternative. August was not considered a feasible alternative 

for mountain goat surveys due to peak human visitation of 

the park’s backcountry and because hot weather in August 

typically poses logistical difficulties for conducting aerial 

surveys from helicopters at high altitudes. 

We used Akaike’s Information Criterion (AIC), Akaike 

differences (∆AIC), and Akaike weights (w) to identify the 

most parsimonious model of mountain goat presence within 

the sampling frame (Burnham and Anderson, 2002). We 

calculated the variance inflation factor, ĉ (Pearson’s x2

/df) to 

evaluate model fit and determine whether to apply a quasilikelihood variance expansion term for over dispersed data (if 

ĉ was substantially greater than 1; Burnham and Anderson, 

2002). We performed these statistical analyses using SAS 8.2 

software (SAS Institute, Cary, NC).
6 Mountain Goats in Mount Rainier, North Cascades, and Olympic National Parks, Washington

Home Range Utilization Distributions 

To provide descriptive information to park managers on 

the distributions of individual mountain goats, we described 

seasonal home ranges and core areas using the 95, 80, and 

50 percent adaptive kernel estimators, respectively (Worton, 

1989). We used likelihood cross-validation (LCV) computed 

in Program Animal Space Use 1.2 (available at http://www.

cnr.uidaho.edu/population_ecology/animal_space_use.htm) for 

choosing the optimal smoothing parameter (Horne and Garton, 

2006). We chose LCV over the more commonly used LeastSquares Cross Validation because it is more robust to clustered 

data, less prone to undersmoothing problems, and because we 

sought a conservative approach to potential autocorrelation 

among GPS-locations (Horne and Garton, 2006). We plugged 

the LCV smoothing parameter into Home Range Tools for 

ARCGIS to compute adaptive kernel home range and core 

area estimates (Rodgers and others, 2005), based on 95, 80, 

and 50 percent contours of the utilization distribution. All 

seasonal ranges are based on the delineations of summer and 

winter range use periods described above.

Aerial Surveys

We conducted sightability trials as the basis for 

developing aerial sightability models for mountain goats (Rice 

and others, 2009). Each attempt of an aerial survey crew to 

detect a known group of mountain goats was considered an 

independent sightability trial. Locations of known groups were 

determined primarily through GPS-telemetry of the collared 

mountain goats before the surveys, but occasionally we 

conducted sightability trials based on mountain goats whose 

locations were determined opportunistically by independent 

ground observers. Details of methods used to conduct 

sightability trials were provided by Rice and others (2009). 

Our priority was to obtain as many sightability trials as 

possible, so we focused surveys in areas known to contain 

GPS-collared mountain goats. Because we did not survey 

entire populations or sample populations probabilistically, we 

cannot estimate park-wide abundance of mountain goats from 

the sightability trials conducted. Here, we report survey results 

from selected survey units as a source for future reference in 

comparing counts within specific units. 

We divided each of the parks into approximately 500-ha 

aerial survey polygons or sampling units (median=472 ha, 

interquartile range=240–545 ha). Because each park had a 

different history in conducting surveys and used different 

methods to delineate aerial survey areas, we did not use a 

consistent definition of the sampling areas among parks. In 

Olympic National Park, we used survey polygons used since 

1983 for park-wide monitoring of mountain goats (Houston 

and others, 1984, 1991; fig. 2). In Olympic National Park, the 

sampling frame was limited to habitat above 1,520 m (about 

5,000 ft) excluding glaciers. In Mount Rainier National Park, 

the sampling frame was drawn to include all high-altitude 

habitats considered subjectively as suitable mountain goat 

habitat (that is, there was no fixed lower altitude limit to the 

sampling frame) (fig. 3). In North Cascades National Park, 

survey boundaries also included all likely mountain goat 

habitats (fig. 4). To improve efficiency of the sightability 

trial surveys in North Cascades National Park, we truncated 

surveys at a lower altitude limit of 1,220 m (about 4,000 ft) 

(fig. 4). 

In each park, we completed two aerial surveys of 

polygons known to have GPS-collared mountain goats present 

during summers 2006–07, once each during July 10–18 and 

July 24–August 2. In Olympic National Park, we completed 

an additional survey during September 2007 to make up for 

inclement weather that prevented us from completing the July 

surveys. Prior to each survey (generally 1–7 days), one of 

us that was not participating in the upcoming survey radiotracked each of the GPS-collared mountain goats from a 

fixed-wing airplane, downloaded all location data from each 

goat, plotted recent movements, and selected survey polygons 

that were likely to contain GPS-collared mountain goats. To 

create uncertainty in where survey crews might expect to find 

collared mountain goats, we selected 2–3 survey polygons 

for every collared animal. In addition, we sent ground survey 

crews opportunistically to selected units to locate additional 

groups of unmarked mountain goats and observe them during 

aerial surveys as a means to increase the sample of sightability 

trials. 

Due to extremely irregular topography of mountain goat 

habitats, it was not possible to strictly standardize survey 

flight coverage of each of the sampled units. Adherence to 

standardized flight paths or flight speeds would not allow 

all suitable habitats to be searched effectively. Instead, 

we specified that each survey unit should be examined 

with multiple survey passes flown at an altitude of about 

150–200 m above terrain, on contours 100–300 m apart, and 

airspeeds averaging between 65 and 110 km/hr as needed to 

ensure safe and complete area coverage. All surveys reported 

here were conducted from a Bell Jet Ranger or Hughes 

500MD helicopter. Survey teams consisted of the pilot, a 

primary observer seated beside the pilot, a secondary observer 

in the back seat behind the primary observer and a navigator 

behind the pilot. During surveys, primary and secondary 

observers were nearly always on the side of the helicopter 

facing terrain. Additional description of aerial surveys is 

provided by Rice and others (2009).
Methods 7

Figure 2. Aerial survey polygons comprising the sampling frame used for aerial surveys of mountain goats in Olympic National Park, 

Washington.

tac11-0605_fig02_OLYM_Study_Area

Puget 

Sound

127

72

65

48

33

43

42

30

56

38

44

34

62

47

59

83

46

31

39

76

45

63

69

61

41

27

7

52

36

53

35

54 55

49

58

25

40

50

32

57

22

60

98

28

5

84

29

37

17

139

26

51

4

73

15

93

14

85

74

23

70

94

78

96

116

24

18

81

3

16

86

124

129

68

8

138

128

140

130

131

20

134

137

126

6

82

143

2

108

144

64

100

115

118

95

122

1

67

19

75

10

90

102

132

77

97

105

92

136

9

117

103

147

121

91

87

11

89

12

135

101

142

106

66

80

13

145

111

141

88

21

110

109

133

112

125

99

114

107

119

146

120

113

104

79

123

123°50'0"W 123°40'0"W 123°30'0"W 123°20'0"W 123°10'0"W

48°0'0"N 47°50'0"N 47°40'0"N 47°30'0"N

0 5 10 Miles

0 5 10 Kilometers

EXPLANATION

Olympic National Park

Olympic National Forest

10 Survey polygon

Olympic National Forest wilderness

Pacific 

Ocean

Strait of Juan de Fuca
8 Mountain Goats in Mount Rainier, North Cascades, and Olympic National Parks, Washington

Figure 3. Aerial survey polygons comprising the sampling frame used for aerial surveys of mountain goats in Mount Rainier 

National Park, Washington. 

tac11-0605_fig03_MORA_Study_Area

8

5

9

7

19

22

29

26

11

28

20

1

27

2

13

15

25

6

23

3

18

30

16

4

14

24

12

21

17

10

121°52'30"W 121°47'20"W 121°42'10"W 121°37'0"W 121°31'50"W 121°26'40"W

47°0'10"N 46°55'0"N 46°49'50"N 46°44'40"N 46°39'30"N

0 5 10 Kilometers

0 5 10 Miles

EXPLANATION

Mount Rainier National Park

Forest Service land

Glacier/Permanent snow

10 Survey polygon
Methods 9

Figure 4. Aerial survey polygons comprising the sampling frame used for aerial surveys of mountain goats in North Cascades National 

Park, Washington. Note that the polygons encompass predicted mountain goat habitat but survey polygons were flown only as low as 

the 1,220-m altitude contour.

tac11-0605_fig04_NOCA_Study_Area

4 6

2

9

42 43

1

7 8

5

32

16

36

54

3

41

33 31

35

45

38

51

12

34

25

17

28

30

44

40

11

15

46

13

29

52

37

48

49

23

39

18

10

53

27

21

47

14

26

19

50

22

20

24

121°21'30"W

121°21'30"W

121°26'40"W

121°26'40"W

121°31'50"W

121°31'50"W

121°37'0"W

121°37'0"W

121°42'10"W

121°42'10"W 48°53'50"N

48°53'50"N

48°48'40"N

48°48'40"N

48°43'30"N

48°43'30"N

48°38'20"N

48°38'20"N

0 2 4 Miles

0 2.5 5 Kilometers

36

EXPLANATION

North Cascades National Park

Forest Service land

National Recreation area

10 Survey polygon

Contour—topographic, altitude

is 1220 m (1400 ft)
10 Mountain Goats in Mount Rainier, North Cascades, and Olympic National Parks, Washington

Results

We captured and collared 9, 5, and 11 mountain goats 

within or adjacent to Mount Rainier, North Cascades, and 

Olympic National Parks, respectively (table 1). Specific 

information on capture and physical characteristics of 

20 mountain goats that were captured by NPS and USGS 

crews and contractors is contained in appendix 1. 

Seasonal Distribution

GPS-collared mountain goats provided movement 

data from the time each was captured until the collar 

malfunctioned (10), the mountain goat died of natural causes 

(5), the collar fell off (2) or the study ended (8) (table 2). 

Two GPS collars failed immediately following capture and 

produced negligible data. Of the remaining 23, we obtained 

Table 1. Mountain goats captured and GPS-collared within or adjacent to Mount Rainier, North Cascades, and Olympic National 

Parks, Washington, 2003–07.

[Color Code: Bk, Black; Bl, Blue; R, Red; W, White; G, Grey. Three-color combinations represent alternating colors on collar; all battery packs are black. 

Two-color combinations represent the color of collar and battery pack, respectively. AVID ID, American Veterinary Identification Device. Capture method: GD, 

ground darting; AD, aerial darting; LN, leg noosing]

Collar 

identification 

No. 

Sex VHF 

freq

UHF 

freq

Color 

code AVID ID Capture date

Capture 

method

Capture 

latitude

 Capture 

longitude General location

Mount Rainier National Park

00550 F 149.049 451.870 Bk-Bl-Y none 09-18-2003 GD 46.91534 -121.6708 Sunrise

00876 F 162.081 450.700 R-W 081 883 367 09-18-2005 AD 46.86508 -121.5691 Buck Lake

00881 F 162.005 450.100 Bk-W 107 773 365 09-18-2005 AD 46.50780 -121.3650 Goat Rocks

00911 F 149.500 451.020 Y-Bk-Y none 09-03-2004 GD 46.92563 -121.6686 Mt. Fremont

00917-2 M 149.850 451.090 Bl-Y-Y none 07-02-2007 GD 46.92975 -121.6635 Mt. Fremont

00936 M 151.753 451.080 R-Bl-Bl none 08-10-2004 AD 46.94850 -121.4296 Crystal Mountain

01894 M 162.131 450.950 Bl-G 107 352 294 09-18-2005 AD 46.95223 -121.7614 Mineral Mtn. 

01900 F 162.194 451.200 Bl-R 107 368 842 09-18-2005 AD 47.00770 -121.3202 Cowlitz Park

01903 F 162.232 451.350 Y-Bl 107 781 020 09-18-2005 AD 46.48950 -121.4036 Ohanapakosh Park

North Cascades National Park

00541 F 148.248 451.720 Bk-Y-Y none 08-09-2003 AD 48.80364 -121.5354 Nooksack

00889 M 162.095 450.800 Bl-Y 107 802 616 09-21-2005 AD 48.42150 -121.3090 Burdeen Lake 

01895 F 162.145 451.000 R-G 107 612 776 09-20-2005 AD 48.52230 -121.3186 Shuksan

01897 F 162.155 451.050 Y 107 594 535 09-20-2005 AD 48.47000 -121.7600 Shuksan

01901 F 162.205 451.250 Bl-R 082 580 362 09-20-2005 AD 48.38370 -121.2916 Shuksan

Olympic National Park

00877 F 162.072 450.600 Y-R 107 783 851 09-19-2005 AD unknown unknown Mt. Carrie

00882 F 162.014 450.300 R-G none 08-20-2005 LN 47.58948 -123.2931 Lake of the Angels

00883 M 162.044 450.400 Bl-W 107 563 338 09-19-2005 AD 47.48770 -123.4531 Mt. Olympus

00884 F 162.019 450.200 Y none 07-21-2005 LN 47.95982 -123.4771 Mt. Angeles

00885 F 162.057 450.500 Bl -G 107 570 092 09-19-2005 AD 47.83500 -123.5875 Mt. Ferry

01891 M 162.106 450.850 Bl-G 107 803 313 09-20-2005 AD 47.41070 -123.2444 Chimney Peak

01892 F 162.120 450.900 Bl-G 107 785 862 09-19-2005 AD 47.88861 -123.6237 Mt. Carrie

01898 M 162.169 451.100 Bl-Y 107 803 584 09-20-2005 AD 47.46180 -123.4120 Mt. Olympus

01899 F 162.182 451.150 Y-G 107 865 798 09-19-2005 AD 47.50800 -123.3116 Ludden Peak

01899-2 M 162.182 451.150 Bk none 07-03-2007 LN 47.98405 -123.4780 Sunrise Ridge

01902 F 162.217 451.300 R-Bl 107 865 631 09-20-2005 AD 47.46170 -123.4082 Mt. Olympus
Results 11

location data for a range of 39–751 days (median=616 days; 

interquartile range=250–722 days; table 2). We obtained a 

total of 43,473 locations of GPS-collared mountain goats, 

including 26 percent 2D locations derived from 3 satellites and 

74 percent 3D locations derived from ≥4 satellites (table 2). 

Fix acquisition rate of GPS collars on mountain goats 

averaged 61 percent but was highly variable among individual 

animals and seasons (fig. 5). Variability in fix acquisition rates 

is taken into consideration in the interpretation of results.

Altitudinal Movements 

GPS-collared goats exhibited predictable seasonal 

patterns of altitudinal movements between winter and summer 

ranges. Mountain goats used relatively low altitudes from 

late autumn through spring, and high altitude subalpine and 

alpine habitats during summer and early autumn (fig. 6). 

Generally, mountain goats in Mount Rainier National Park 

Table 2. Location data collected from 25 GPS-collared mountain goats in Mount Rainier, North Cascades, and Olympic National 

Parks, Washington, 2003–08.

Collar 

identification 

No. 

Sex Data 

starting date

Data 

ending date

Range

(days)

Number of locations Reason for ending 

2D 3D data collection

Mount Rainier National Park

00550 F 09-18-2003 05-25-2004 250 172 1,182 Collar failure

00876 F 09-18-2005 09-11-2007 723 587 2,813 End of study

00881 F 09-18-2005 04-22-2006 217 170 394 Mortality 

00911 F 09-03-2004 08-10-2005 342 575 1,287 Collar failure

00917-2 M 07-02-2007 08-10-2007 39 20 196 Dropped collar

00936 M 08-17-2004 06-26-2006 687 766 3,262 Collar failure

01894 M 09-18-2005 09-11-2007 723 578 619 End of study

01900 F 09-18-2005 11-16-2005 59 70 202 Collar failure

01903 F 09-18-2005 02-16-2007 515 580 689 Mortality

North Cascades National Park

00541 F 08-09-2003 08-24-2005 745 544 4,292 Collar failure

00889 M 09-21-2005 01-30-2007 496 561 751 Collar failure

01895 F 09-20-2005 09-12-2007 722 422 309 End of study

01897 F 09-20-2005 09-20-2005 0 0 0 Collar failure

01901 F 09-20-2005 09-12-2007 722 507 918 End of study

Olympic National Park

00877 F 09-19-2005 09-19-2005 0 0 0 Collar failure

00882 F 08-20-2005 09-11-2007 751 996 2,510 End of study

00883 M 09-19-2005 09-06-2007 717 690 1,527 End of study

00884 F 07-21-2005 06-30-2007 709 852 1,815 Collar failure

00885 F 09-19-2005 05-27-2007 616 838 1,233 Mortality

01891 M 09-20-2005 12-09-2005 80 86 211 Collar failure

01892 F 09-19-2005 09-07-2007 718 701 2,950 End of study

01898 M 09-20-2005 09-11-2007 721 776 1,683 End of study

01899 F 09-19-2005 08-30-2006 345 392 954 Mortality

01899-2 M 07-03-2007 08-27-2008 420 148 2,219 Dropped collar

01902 F 09-20-2005 03-09-2006 170 149 277 Mortality

Totals 11,180 32,293
12 Mountain Goats in Mount Rainier, North Cascades, and Olympic National Parks, Washington

Figure 5. Individual and seasonal variation in the fix acquisition rates of GPS collars on mountain goats in Olympic 

(OLYM), Mount Rainier (MORA), and North Cascades (NOCA) National Parks, Washington, 2003–08. Mountain goat 

identifications indicate females (F) and males (M) and the identification number on the GPS collar. Winter is defined as 

December 15–February 15 and summer is defined as July 15–September 15.

tac11-0605_fig05

0

20

40

60

80

100

F882

F884F885

F1992

F1899

F1902

M883

M1898

M1899

F550

F876

F881

F911

F1903

M917

M936

M1894

F541

F1895

F1901

M889

Summer 

Winter 

Fix aquisition rate, in percent

Mountain goat collar identification No.

OLYM MORA NOCA

0 

400 

800 

1,200 

1,600 

2,000 

Jan. 1 Mar. 1 Apr. 30 June 29 Aug. 28 Oct. 27 Dec. 26

Altitude, in meters above North American Vertical Datum of 1988 (NAVD88) 

Date 

Mount Rainier 

North Cascades

Olympic

Females (n=2-6) 

Males (n=2-3) 

0 

400 

800 

1,200 

1,600 

2,000 

Females (n=2-3) 

Males (n=1) 

0 

400 

800 

1,200 

1,600 

2,000 

Females (n=4-6) 

Males (n=3-4) Figure 6. Weekly mean altitudes (+SE) of male and female 

GPS-collared mountain goats in Mount Rainier, North Cascades, 

and Olympic National Parks, Washington, 2003–08.

during summer and winter used higher altitudes than 

mountain goats in North Cascades and Olympic National 

Parks. There were no clear differences in altitudinal 

distributions between male and female mountain goats, 

but differences could be obscured by low sample sizes, 

particularly for males (fig. 6). 

Timing of seasonal transitions between summer and 

winter ranges varied among individuals (fig. 7). Due to 

sample size constraints, we were unable to discriminate 

differences among parks in the seasonal timing of 

altitudinal movements of mountain goats. Data pooled 

among parks indicated that the median date of seasonal 

transition to summer range was June 11 for females and 

June 19 for males, although these transition dates ranged 

from April 24 to July 3 for both males and females. The 

median date of transition from summer to winter range 

was October 26 for females and November 9 for males, 

but these dates ranged from September 11 to December 16 

for females and from September 28 to December 23 for 

males. Although females typically moved to summer and 

winter ranges over a week earlier than males, both sexes 

were on winter ranges approximately equal durations, 

generally more than 200 days (fig. 7).
Results 13

Altitudinal distributions also varied among individuals 

within seasons (fig. 8). Median altitudes used by individual 

GPS-collared goats ranged from 817 to 1,541 m during winter 

in Olympic and North Cascades National Parks, and from 

1,215 to 1,787 m during winter in Mount Rainier. By contrast, 

tac11-0605_fig07

Summer Transition

Winter Transition

Winter Duration

Males

Females

Males

Females

Males

Females

Date

Date

Day

Apr. 19

Sept. 16 Oct. 6 Oct. 26 Nov. 15 Dec. 5 Dec. 25 

Apr. 29 May 19 June 8 June 28 July 18

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350

Figure 7. Distributions of dates that GPS-collared mountain goats made transitions 

between summer and winter ranges and the duration of winter range use (days) by 

male and female mountain goats in Mount Rainier, North Cascades, and Olympic 

National Parks, Washington, 2003–08. Each box shows the 25th–75th percentiles 

with the median in the middle. Whiskers extend from the 10th to 90th percentile and 

outlying records are shown as dots.

median altitudes used by GPS-collared goats during summer 

ranged from 1,312 to 1,819 m in Olympic and North Cascades 

National Parks and 1,780 to 2,061 m in Mount Rainier 

National Park (fig. 8). 
14 Mountain Goats in Mount Rainier, North Cascades, and Olympic National Parks, Washington

Figure 8. Distribution of altitude records for individual GPS-collared mountain goats in Olympic 

(OLYM), Mount Rainier (MORA), and North Cascades (NOCA) National Parks, Washington, during 

summers and winters, 2003–08. Mountain goat collar identifications indicate females (F) and 

males (M) and the identification number on the GPS collar. Each box shows the 25th and 75th 

percentile of altitudes with the median in the middle. Whiskers extend from the 10th to 90th 

percentile and outlying records are shown as dots.

tac11-0605_fig08

Altitude, in meters above North American Vertical Datum of 1988 (NAVD88)

2,500

2,000

1,500

1,000

500

0

2,500

2,000

1,500

1,000

500

0

Summer

Winter F882

F884F885

F1892F1899F1902

M883

M1891M1898M1899

F550F876F881F911

F1900F1903

M936

M1894

F541

F1895F1901

F882F884F885

F1892F1899F1902

M883

M1891M1898M1899

F550F876F881F911

F1900F1903

M917M936

M1894

F541

F1895F1901

M889

Mountain goat collar identification No.

OLYM MORA NOCA

OLYM MORA NOCA
Results 15

1,000 

1,200 

1,400 

1,600 

1,800 

2,000 

1,000 

1,200 

1,400 

1,600 

1,800 

2,000 

1,000 

1,200 

1,400 

1,600 

1,800 

2,000 

Females (n=3) 

Males (n=3) 

Females (n=3) 

Males (n=1) 

300 700 1100 1500 1900 2300 

Females (n=5) 

Males (n=3) 

Mount Rainier 

North Cascades

Olympic

Altitude, in meters above North American Vertical Datum of 1988 (NAVD88)

Hour

Use of Mountain Goat Survey Areas 

During Summer 

Altitudinal distributions of GPS-collared mountain goats 

did not differ appreciably across the 24-hour cycle during 

July 10–31, the primary survey season (fig. 9). Overlapping 

standard errors of the estimated hourly mean altitudes used 

by GPS-collared goats indicated that diurnal variations 

in altitudinal distribution were not statistically significant 

(P> 0.05). The proportions of GPS-collared mountain goats 

within the survey sampling frame varied among parks 

(fig. 10), reflecting differences in altitudinal distributions of 

GPS-collared mountain goats among parks (fig. 6) as well 

as differences in the methods used to define the sampling 

frames. Mountain goats in Mount Rainier National 

Park typically were present at altitudes greater than 

1,800 m and were within the sampling frame nearly 

100 percent of the time. Mountain goats in North 

Cascades National Park typically were present at 

altitudes greater than 1,500 m and were within the 

sampling frame more than 80 percent of the time 

(fig. 10). Mountain goats in Olympic National Park 

generally were present at altitudes greater than 

1,400 m and were within the sampling frame less 

frequently than in Mount Rainier and North Cascades 

National Parks (fig. 10). Figure 9. Selected hourly mean altitudes (+SE) of male 

and female GPS-collared mountain goats in Mount Rainier, 

North Cascades, and Olympic National Parks, Washington, 

July 10–31, 2003–08.

Figure 10. Selected hourly mean percentage (+SE) of 

GPS-telemetry locations of collared mountain goats within 

the mountain goat survey sampling frames in Mount 

Rainier, North Cascades, and Olympic National Parks, 

Washington, July 10–31, 2003–08.

tac11-0605_fig10

0 

20 

40 

60 

80 

100 

0 

20 

40 

60 

80 

100 

0 

20 

40 

60 

80 

100 

Females (n=3) 

Males (n=3) 

Females (n=3) 

Males (n=1) 

300 700 1100 1500 1900 2300 

Females (n=5) 

Males (n=3) 

Location in sampling frame, in percent

Hour

Mount Rainier 

North Cascades

Olympic
16 Mountain Goats in Mount Rainier, North Cascades, and Olympic National Parks, Washington

High variation in the percentage of mountain goat 

locations within the survey frame in Olympic National 

Park warranted a closer evaluation of their altitudinal 

distribution. Because staff at Olympic National Park 

typically conduct surveys of mountain goats in the 

morning hours from 6:00 to 10:00, we focused attention 

on locations of mountain goats obtained at 7:00 and 11:00, 

the hours that most collars were scheduled to obtain 

GPS locations. Altitudinal locations of GPS-collared 

mountain goats during those morning hours within the 

primary survey season (July 10–31) ranged from 1,025 to 

2,010 m. The sampling frame, defined at the lower limit 

by the 1,520-m altitude contour, contained approximately 

70 percent of the locations of GPS-collared mountain 

goats in Olympic National Park, and thus excluded 

approximately 30 percent (fig. 11). Because the sampling 

frame boundary cut through the 30th percentile of the 

altitudinal distribution of mountain goats in Olympic 

National Park, relatively small variations in altitudinal 

distributions of mountain goats were magnified to larger 

variations in proportions of animals present within the 

survey sampling frames (figs. 9 and 10).

We fit a global model and several plausible candidate 

models to estimate the probability that GPS collared 

mountain goats were present within the aerial survey 

sampling frame in Olympic National Park (table 3). 

Global and candidate models included combinations 

of the variables diurnal period (crepuscular versus 

midday), daily mean temperature (o

C), and survey 

season (July versus September). The global model and 

most of the candidate models explained significant 

variation in the presence of GPS-collared mountain 

goats within the sampling frame (table 3). The 

estimated variance inflation factor was near 1 (ĉ=1.42) 

indicating acceptable model structure and a lack of 

overdispersion (Burnham and Anderson, 2002). Hence, 

we opted not to apply an overdispersion adjustment to 

expand variance estimates. 

Figure 12. Estimated probability (Phat) that GPS-collared 

mountain goats were within aerial survey sampling areas 

defined at the lower altitude by 1,525-m and 1,425-m 

altitude contours in Olympic National Park, Washington, 

July and September, 2005–08. Phat is estimated based on 

logistic regression models with parameters defined in 

tables 4 and 6. Note that lines denoting normal and warm 

temperatures are nearly indistinguishable (superimposed) 

for survey areas delineated at the lower altitude by the 

1,425-m altitude contour.

Figure 11. Altitudinal distribution of GPS-collared mountain goats 

during morning hours (0700–1100) in Olympic National Park, July 10–31, 

2005–08. Dashed line represents altitude boundary delineating locations 

of mountain goats that were inside versus outside of the sampling frame. 

0 

10 

20 

30 

40 

<1,225 1,225- 1,325- 1,425- 1,525- 1,625- 1,725- 1,825- >1,925 

Males (n=194) 

Females (n=222) 

GPS locations, in percent

Altitude class, in meters above North American Vertical Datum of 1988 (NAVD88)

Outside (30 percent) Inside (70 percent)

tac11-0605_fig12

0 

0.2 

0.4 

0.6 

0.8 

1 

0 

0.2 

0.4 

0.6 

0.8 

1 

300 700 1100 1500 1900 

July (normal) 

July (warm) 

September (normal) 

September (warm) 

1,525-m altitude contour

1,425-m altitude contour

Estimated probability (Phat)

Hour
Results 17

We identified four plausible models for predicting 

mountain goat presence within the survey sampling area, 

based on the convention that models with ∆AIC less than 

4 are considered plausible (Burnham and Anderson, 2002). 

We averaged parameters for each of the covariates based on 

model weights of the four top-ranked and plausible models 

(table 4; Burnham and Anderson, 2002). Model predictions 

for mountain goat presence within the sampling frame ranged 

from 0.62 during crepuscular periods in July to 0.79 in 

September (fig. 12). Predicted mountain goat presence within 

the sampling frame was greater during September than July, 

Table 3. Candidate logistic regression models and associated statistics for predicting probabilities that GPS-collared mountain goats 

were present within the aerial survey sampling area in Olympic National Park, Washington, July and September, 2005–08. 

[The sampling area was delineated at the lower altitude by the 1,525-meter altitude contour. Candidate models: Diurnal period (DP) is a dichotomous variable 

for dawn/dusk (0) or midday (1); dawn/dusk is defined as 0500–0900 and 1701–2100 hours; midday is defined as 0901–1700 hours; season (SEAS) is a 

dichotomous variable for July (0) or September (1); temperature (TEMP) is 24-hour average temperature (°C) measured at 1,525-meter altitude. K, number of 

parameters that can be estimated; AIC, Akaike’s information criterion; wi, Akaike’s weight; ∆, change]

Candidate models K AIC ∆AIC wi Likelihood ratio (X2) P

DP, SEAS, DP*SEAS 4 1801.40 0.00 0.37 46.60 <0.0001

DP, SEAS 3 1801.85 0.45 0.29 44.20 <0.0001

DP, SEAS, TEMP, DP*SEAS 5 1802.92 1.53 0.17 47.13 <0.0001

DP, SEAS, TEMP 4 1803.36 1.96 0.14 47.70 <0.0001

SEAS 2 1806.22 4.83 0.03 37.82 <0.0001

DP, TEMP 3 1824.20 22.81 <0.01 21.80 <0.0001

TEMP 2 1828.24 26.85 <0.01 15.80 <0.0001

DP 2 1837.90 36.51 <0.01 6.09 0.01

Table 4. Model-averaged logistic regression parameters (Bi) for 

estimating probabilities that GPS-collared mountain goats were 

present within the aerial survey sampling area in Olympic National 

Park, Washington, July and September, 2005–08. 

[The sampling area was delineated at the lower altitude by the 1,525-meter 

altitude contour. Bi, model-averaged logistic regression parameter i, SE, 

standard error; z, normal deviate; P, probability of z]

Parameter Bi SE z P

Intercept 0.607 0.143 4.24 <0.001

Diurnal period (DP) 0.386 0.164 2.35 0.019

Season (SEAS) 0.785 0.168 4.67 <0.001

Temperature -0.010 0.084 -0.119 0.904

DP*SEAS -0.366 0.234 -1.56 0.156

and diurnal variation in mountain goat presence was greater 

during July than September. During July, mountain goats 

were more likely to be present within the sampling frame 

during midday than during early morning or late evening. 

High temperatures had only a minor negative influence on 

the predicted mountain goat presence within the survey area 

during July (fig. 12). 

Because mountain goat presence within the defined 

sampling area was sensitive to relatively small altitudinal 

movements, we created a hypothetical sampling area by 

reducing the lower altitude boundary 100 m to the 1,425-m 

altitude contour to explore the potential influence of minor 

adjustments to the survey area boundaries on the likelihood 

of mountain goat presence. We examined the same set of 

candidate models as previously to determine the influence of 

diurnal period, season, and air temperature on the likelihood 

of mountain goat presence within the hypothetical survey 

area (table 5). In contrast to the previous analysis, none of the 

candidate models nor any of the model-averaged covariate 

parameter estimates was significant (P>0.05; tables 5 and 

6), indicating that mountain goat presence within the revised 

sampling frame was influenced negligibly by diurnal period, 

season, or air temperature. Predicted probabilities of mountain 

goat presence within the revised sampling area, based on 

model-averaged parameters from all eight models (table 6), 

ranged from 0.86 to 0.90 percent (fig. 12).
18 Mountain Goats in Mount Rainier, North Cascades, and Olympic National Parks, Washington

Seasonal Home Range Utilization Distributions

Seasonal home ranges of male and female GPS-collared 

mountain goats were highly variable (fig. 13). Adaptive kernel 

home ranges (95 percent UD) of eight GPS-collared males 

ranged from 1.6 to 37.0 km2

 during summers and 3.6–7.5 

km2 during winters, although that distribution is skewed 

during summer due to one dispersing male whose summer 

range expanded considerably during the study (fig. 13, see 

also M936, appendixes 2–3). Home range distributions of 15 

females ranged from 2.8 to 16.4 km2 during summer and 0.7 to 

9.5 km2 during winter. The interquartile range during summer, 

which defines the central tendency of 50 percent of the 

sample, ranged from about 2.7 to 11.6 km2 for males, and 6.2 

to 8.6 km2 for females. During winter, this central tendency 

in home range size ranged from 4.4 to 6.8 km2 for males and 

1.4 to 3.8 km2 for females. 

Aerial Surveys

We completed sightability trial surveys on 18 days 

between July 10 and September 6, 2006 and 2007, primarily 

between July 10 and July 31 each year (table 7). We surveyed 

nearly 184, 136, and 191 km2 of mountain goat habitat 

during sightability trials in Mount Rainier, North Cascades, 

and Olympic National Parks, respectively (table 7). Survey 

intensity averaged 3.7–3.8 minutes/km2 in Mount Rainier 

and North Cascades National Parks, and 6.2 minutes/km2

in Olympic National Park. Maps of surveyed and partially 

surveyed polygons are shown in appendix 4.

We detected 318 groups of mountain goats and 

878 individuals during sightability surveys (table 8). Average 

group sizes of mountain goats were larger in Mountain 

Rainier National Park (mean=5.6, range=1–39) than in North 

Cascades and Olympic National Parks (means=2.1–2.2, 

range=1–14), as determined from non-overlapping 95-percent 

confidence intervals (P<0.05; table 8). Because it is difficult 

to reliably distinguish male from female mountain goats 

from the air, we did not discern population compositions. 

The percentage of young of the year (that is, kids) among 

sighted mountain goats, however, averaged approximately 

18–20 percent of the population, and did not differ among 

parks (X2=0.59, 2 df, P=0.74; table 8).

Mean detection probabilities of mountain goat groups, 

computed from the aerial sightability model (Rice and others, 

2009), ranged from 0.64 to 0.73 in the three national parks and 

were lowest in North Cascades National Park (table 9). Mean 

detection probabilities estimated for individuals were higher 

than for groups because individual means were estimated 

as the mean detection probability of groups weighted by 

the number of individuals present within each group and a 

disproportionate number of individuals were present in the 

more easily sighted larger groups (Rice and others, 2009). 

The mean sightabilities of individual goats ranged from 0.69 

to 0.87 in the three parks and were highest in Mount Rainier 

National Park and lowest in North Cascades National Park.

Table 5. Candidate logistic regression models and associated statistics for predicting probabilities that GPS-collared mountain goats 

were present within a hypothetical survey area in Olympic National Park, Washington, July and September, 2005–08. 

[The hypothetical area was delineated at the lower altitude by the 1,425-meter altitude contour. Candidate models: Diurnal period (DP) is a dichotomous variable 

for dawn/dusk (0) or midday (1); dawn/dusk is defined as 0500–0900 and 1701–2100 hours; midday is defined as 0901–1700 hours; season (SEAS) is a 

dichotomous variable for July (0) or September (1); temperature (TEMP) is 24-hour average temperature (°C) measured at 1,525 meter altitude. K, number of 

parameters that can be estimated; AIC, Akaike’s information criterion; wi, Akaike’s weight; ∆, change]

Candidate models K AIC ∆AIC wi Likelihood ratio (X 2) P

SEAS 2 1205.70 0.00 0.33 2.56 0.11

DP, SEAS 3 1206.92 1.22 0.18 3.39 0.18

DP 2 1207.50 1.80 0.14 0.82 0.36

TEMP 2 1207.90 2.20 0.11 0.45 0.50

DP, SEAS, DP*SEAS 4 1208.57 2.87 0.08 3.73 0.29

DP, SEAS, TEMP 4 1208.85 3.15 0.07 3.46 0.33

DP, TEMP 3 1209.05 3.35 0.06 1.26 0.53

DP, SEAS, TEMP, DP*SEAS 5 1210.50 4.80 0.03 3.81 0.43

Table 6. Model-averaged logistic regression parameters (Bi) for 

estimating probabilities that GPS-collared mountain goats were 

present within a hypothetical survey area in Olympic National 

Park, Washington, July and September, 2005–08. 

[The hypothetical sampling area was delineated at the lower altitude by 

the 1,425-meter altitude contour. Bi, model-averaged logistic regression 

parameter i, SE, standard error; z, normal deviate; P, probability of z]

Parameter Bi SE z P

Intercept 1.873 0.164 11.42 <0.001

Diurnal Period (DP) 0.156 0.169 0.92 0.36

Survey Season (SEAS) 0.260 0.167 1.56 0.12

Temperature -0.005 0.018 -0.28 0.78

DP*SEAS -0.180 0.306 -0.59 0.56
Results 19

tac11-0605_fig13

Winter Range

Summer Range

Males

Females

Males

Females

K2

0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40

Figure 13. Distributions of summer and winter home range sizes (95-percent adaptive kernel utilization 

distributions) of male and female GPS-collared mountain goats in Mount Rainier, North Cascades, and 

Olympic National Parks, Washington, 2003–08. Each box shows the 25th–75th percentiles with the median 

home range size in the middle. Whiskers extend from the 10th to 90th percentile and outlying records are 

shown as dots (except for males during winter, when there were not sufficient home ranges to compute 10th 

and 90th percentile whiskers. Home range sizes of individual GPS-collared mountain goats are shown in 

appendix 2). 
20 Mountain Goats in Mount Rainier, North Cascades, and Olympic National Parks, Washington

Table 7. Summary of aerial surveys conducted as sightability trials in Mount Rainier, North Cascades, and Olympic National Parks, 

Washington, summer 2006–07.

[Results for individual polygons are provided in appendix 5. Survey duration: Time spent surveying designated polygons, excluding time spent commuting 

between polygons and time required after completing a survey to locate missed goats and obtain covariates for missed goats. Survey intensity: Survey duration 

divided by survey area. km2, square kilometers; min, minutes]

Survey 

date

Polygons surveyed Area 

(km2

)

Survey duration 

(min)

Survey intensity 

(min/km2)

Mount Rainier National Park

07-17-2006 1

12, 113, 18, 29, 30 24.5 98.7 4.0

07-31-2006 1–9, 11, 13, 18, 23, 26 68.0 245.0 3.6

08-01-2006 17, 29, 30 16.6 49.4 3.0

07-11-2007 16–18, 1

26, 28, 29 37.2 144.5 3.9

07-24-2007 17, 23, 26 16.7 66.9 4.0

07-25-2007 28, 29, 30 20.9 85.9 4.1

Subtotals 183.8 690.4 3.8

North Cascades National Park

07-18-2006 1

3, 4, 15, 6, 9, 33, 34, 52, 154 46.7 197.8 4.2

08-02-2006 6, 1

28, 154 20.4 36.8 1.8

07-12-2007 6, 1

9, 42, 54 30.6 98.1 3.2

07-26-2007 4, 6, 8, 9, 1

52, 54 37.9 168.8 4.5

Subtotals 135.6 501.6 3.7

Olympic National Park

07-10-2006 126, 128, 131, 132, 134, 135, 139, 1

5, 19, 110, 141, 142 31.6 197.4 6.2

07-11-2006 69, 78, 93, 123 20.7 203.7 9.8

07-24-2006 4–11, 123, 125, 126, 128, 137, 139, 142 39.5 130.7 3.3

07-26-2006 93, 94, 131, 132, 135, 136 20.3 121.4 6.0

07-09-2007 1

5, 19, 110, 90, 93, 127N, 1128 17.8 134.1 7.5

07-10-2007 69, 78, 1

123 15.5 79.6 5.1

07-16-2007 4–11, 93, 123, 126, 127N, 128 35.2 250.5 7.1

09-06-2007 1

5–7, 19–11, 1122E, 1123W 10.3 65.0 6.3

Subtotals 190.9 1,182.4 6.2

1

Incomplete polygon(s) surveyed. Areas are adjusted for computation of survey intensity.
Results 21

Table 8. Group size, counts, and composition of mountain goats observed from aerial surveys conducted as sightability trials in Mount 

Rainier, North Cascades, and Olympic National Parks, Washington, summer 2006–07.

[Results for individual polygons are provided as appendix 5. Counts: Proportions of kids and adults (for example, total-kids) do not differ among parks 

(X2=0.59, 2 d.f., P=0.74). Composition: SE, standard error of binomial distribution (Zar, 1984, p. 377). N, number; SE, standard error; Unk, unknown; %, 

percent]

Date Polygons surveyed Group size Counts Composition

N Mean SE Range Total Kids Unk Kids (%) SE

Mount Rainier National Park

07-17-2006 1

12, 113, 18, 29, 30 11 5.5 1.4 1–15 61 15 0 25 5.6

07-31-2006 1–9, 11, 13, 18, 23, 26 16 4.5 1.6 1–22 72 14 0 19 4.7

08-01-2006 17, 29, 30 4 12.3 9.0 1–39 49 10 0 20 5.8

07-11-2007 16–18, 1

26, 28, 29 11 4.4 2.0 1–23 48 6 0 13 4.8

07-24-2007 17, 23, 26 10 9.2 3.6 1–39 92 17 0 18 4.1

07-25-2007 28, 29, 30 7 1.4 0.3 1–3 10 0 0 0 0.0

Subtotals 59 5.6 1.1 1–39 332 62 0 19 2.1

North Cascades National Park

07-18-2006 1

3, 4, 15, 6, 9, 33, 34, 52, 154 17 1.8 0.3 1–5 30 5 3 17 6.9

08-02-2006 6, 1

28, 154 9 2.4 0.6 1–6 22 4 0 18 8.4

07-12-2007 6, 1

9, 42, 54 22 2.7 0.5 1–10 59 13 0 22 5.4

07-26-2007 4, 6, 8, 9, 1

52, 54 17 2.0 0.4 1–8 34 4 0 12 5.6

Subtotals 65 2.2 0.2 1–10 145 26 3 18 3.2

Olympic National Park

07-10-2006 126, 128, 131, 132, 134, 135, 139, 1

5, 19, 110, 141, 142 29 2.0 0.4 1–11 57 10 0 18 5.1

07-11-2006 69, 78, 93, 123 46 1.8 0.2 1–5 84 14 0 17 4.1

07-24-2006 4–11, 123, 125, 126, 128, 137, 139, 142 24 1.9 0.3 1–7 46 9 1 20 5.9

07-26-2006 93, 94, 131, 132, 135, 136 13 2.3 0.7 1–10 30 5 0 17 6.9

07-09-2007 1

5, 19, 110, 90, 93, 127N, 1128 19 2.5 0.7 1–14 47 12 0 26 6.4

07-10-2007 69, 78, 1

123 23 1.8 0.2 1–5 42 9 0 21 6.4

07-16-2007 4–11, 93, 123, 126, 127N, 128 32 2.7 0.5 1–10 86 23 0 27 4.8

09-06-2007 1

5–7, 19–11, 1122E, 1123W 8 1.1 0.1 1–2 9 0 0 0 0.0

Subtotals 194 2.1 0.1 1–14 401 82 1 20 2.0

1

Incomplete polygon(s) surveyed.

Table 9. Number of groups counted, total mountain goats 

counted, and mean sightability of groups and individual mountain 

goats in Mount Rainier, North Cascades, and Olympic National 

Parks, Washington, summer 2006–07.

[Mean sightability, groups: Mean probability of sighting groups of mountain 

goats. Mean sightability, individuals: Mean probability of sighting individuals 

computed as the mean probability of sighting groups weighted by number of 

individuals within each]

National Park unit Groups Total

Mean sightability

Groups Individuals

Mount Rainier 59 332 0.73 0.87

North Cascades 65 145 0.64 0.69

Olympic 194 401 0.72 0.76
22 Mountain Goats in Mount Rainier, North Cascades, and Olympic National Parks, Washington

Discussion

Seasonal patterns of altitudinal movement of mountain 

goats within the three parks were consistent with seasonal 

patterns reported previously for mountain goats throughout 

the Cascade Range in Washington (Rice, 2008). Our results 

corroborate high variability in altitudinal movements among 

individual goats, as well as within and between seasons (Rice, 

2008). We identified seasonal ranges of mountain goats on 

the basis of their seasonal altitudinal shifts in distribution, 

although there was considerable overlap in seasonal 

distributions that appeared to be influenced by short-term 

variations in snow pack and weather conditions. Mountain 

goats moved upward in altitude as snow conditions permitted 

during winter, but generally used lower altitudes during winter 

than during summer. Our results confirmed that although 

generally considered an alpine species, mountain goats use 

habitats at a wide variety of altitudes annually, including 

montane habitats at comparatively low altitudes during a long 

winter season (Rice, 2008). 

Our results are the first to describe seasonal altitudinal 

movements of GPS-collared mountain goats in the Olympic 

Mountains, Washington. The distribution of mountain goats in 

the Olympic Mountains was comparable to altitude profiles of 

mountain goats in North Cascades National Park but mountain 

goats used lower altitudes in the Olympic Mountains than in 

Mount Rainier National Park (fig. 6), which we interpret as 

reflecting the lower altitude of preferred subalpine habitats in 

the Olympic Mountains and North Cascades than in Mount 

Rainier National Park. There were no obvious differences in 

the seasonal patterns of altitude use among the three parks and 

the observed patterns were similar to those seen throughout 

the Cascade Range (Rice, 2008). 

A primary motivation for examining seasonal and 

diurnal variations in altitudinal distributions was to evaluate 

the adequacy of sampling designs used to survey mountain 

goats in each park. Movements of mountain goats beyond 

the boundaries of the sampling areas may bias population 

estimates, particularly in Olympic National Park where 

mountain goats were most frequently outside the survey areas, 

and to lesser extents in North Cascades and Mount Rainier 

National Parks. We do not feel that sample sizes of GPScollared mountain goats available for this study were sufficient 

to estimate the magnitude of such availability biases precisely 

(see fig. 10), but the greatest biases appeared evident in 

Olympic National Park where the census zone excluded lands 

at altitudes below 1,520 m (Houston and others, 1986). The 

lower altitude boundary was based on movements of goats 

previously studied primarily in the Klahhane Ridge area of 

Olympic National Park (Stevens, 1979; Houston and others, 

1986). Although we confirmed that GPS-collared mountain 

goats in the Klahhane Ridge area primarily used altitudes 

above 1,520 m (see F884, M1899-2, fig. 8), other GPScollared mountain goats used lower altitudes, suggesting that 

segments of the park-wide population are not reliably present 

within the sampled areas. The more generous delineations of 

survey zones in North Cascades National Park (habitats at 

altitudes above 1,400 m) and Mount Rainier National Park (no 

altitude constraint on habitats) more reliably sampled those 

entire populations. 

Historically, mountain goat surveys have been conducted 

in Olympic National Park during early mornings in midto late-July because previous studies indicated that was 

when mountain goats were most reliably found in open 

habitats above timberline, and because it was suspected that 

excessive temperatures may drive goats down to forests at 

lower altitudes outside the survey boundaries (Houston and 

others, 1986, 1994b). Although mountain goats in Olympic 

National Park frequently crossed in and out of the survey 

units diurnally, they were more commonly in the survey units 

during midday than during the early morning foraging periods, 

contrary to expectations (fig. 10). That pattern may reflect 

the tendency for mountain goats to bed down and rest during 

midday in rocky bluff habitats that typically occur higher in 

altitude than productive subalpine foraging areas (Stevens, 

1979). Mountain goats were more likely to descend below 

the survey unit boundaries during July than September, when 

there also might exist a more pronounced altitudinal gradient 

in early season forage production. We found little empirical 

evidence of seasonal or diurnal variations in altitudinal 

distributions of mountain goats that influenced their presence 

within the aerial survey boundaries of Mount Rainier and 

North Cascades National Parks (figs. 6, 9, and 10).

Diurnal distribution patterns of mountain goats do not 

explain the low counts of mountain goats reported previously 

during hot summer conditions in Olympic National Park 

(Houston and others, 1994b). This may reflect the relatively 

moderate ambient air temperatures that generally prevailed 

during our study, particularly in comparison to record air 

temperatures recorded in 1994. Alternatively, microhabitat 

selection for topographic features during hot weather also may 

have affected sightability (Rice and others, 2009). Following 

sightability trials, we occasionally radio tracked those 

mountain goats missed during a survey to very rugged terrain 

features, including ice or rock caves and crevices, where goats 

were very difficult to detect from the air. 

Fix acquisition rates of GPS collars were highly variable 

within all the parks, but within the range reported previously 

for mountain goats in the Cascades Range (Wells, 2006). Fix 

acquisition rates were lowest in North Cascades National Park, 

but that could be related to the small sample of GPS collared 

mountain goats there, and the influence of low GPS reception 

of F1895 in particular (fig. 5). GPS collars successfully 

acquired fixes less frequently during winter than during 

summer, consistent with previous findings that GPS reception 
Management Implications 23

is obstructed most frequently at lower altitudes and in habitats 

with more overstory vegetation (Wells, 2006). The apparent 

disparity of fix acquisition rates related to altitude and 

vegetation suggests that we consistently underestimated use 

of lower altitude forests by mountain goats. Hence, actual use 

of low altitude habitats by mountain goats may be greater than 

depicted and mountain goats may spend more time outside the 

aerial survey areas than estimated. 

In our companion paper, we reported that aerial 

detection probabilities of GPS-collared mountain goats varied 

as functions of group size, vegetation cover, and terrain 

obstruction (Rice and others, 2009). Sightability models 

applied in Mount Rainier, North Cascades, and Olympic 

National Parks predicted that detection probabilities of 

individual mountain goats averaged 0.87, 0.69, and 0.76, 

respectively (table 9). Higher sightability in Mount Rainier 

National Park likely reflected the larger groups of mountain 

goats found there (table 8), as well as more open vegetation 

conditions. 

Those estimates represent true detection biases within 

the sampled populations, but they may underestimate biases at 

the population level if not all the population is represented in 

the survey (Pollock and others, 2004; Rice and others, 2009). 

Our results indicate that both detection and availability biases 

related to altitudinal movements of mountain goats likely 

would affect population estimates in Olympic and to a lesser 

extent North Cascades National Parks. Detection efficiency 

measured in Olympic National Park (about 76 percent) 

combined with biases associated with movements of mountain 

goats outside the survey frame (about 60–80 percent) 

supports the previous assertion that the preliminary estimate 

of detection efficiency used in Olympic National Park 

(66 percent) was likely conservative at the population level 

(Houston and others, 1986).

Home ranges of GPS-collared mountain goats are 

minimum estimates of seasonal areas used by mountain 

goats. Kernel home range estimates are influenced by the 

choice of bandwidth used in the estimation (Gitzen and 

others, 2006; Horne and Garton, 2006; Laver and Kelly, 

2008). Undersmoothing, resulting from the use of a narrow 

kernel bandwidth, may have contributed to the discontinuous 

home ranges observed for several mountain goats and 

underestimated home range size (see appendix 3 for visual 

examples). Biases in the ability of GPS collars to determine 

positions in low-altitude coniferous forests may have increased 

fragmentation of the observed utilization distributions and 

further underestimated home range sizes. Hence, our graphical 

presentations of home ranges of the GPS-collared mountain 

goats and the resulting home range estimates are most useful 

for park managers in identifying key areas used by mountain 

goats, rather than comparing space-use patterns across studies.

Management Implications

Adjusting raw survey counts of mountain goats for 

detection biases will reduce but not eliminate biases of 

mountain goat population estimates derived from aerial 

surveys in Washington’s mountainous national parks. 

Movements of mountain goats outside the survey areas 

introduced additional biases in population estimates that 

cannot be accounted for through detection modeling. Even 

after applying the detection bias models (Rice and others, 

2009), the resulting population estimates must be considered 

conservative (that is, minimum estimates) because only the 

population segment that occurs within the defined survey 

frame is estimated. The potential for underestimating 

populations of mountain goats is greatest in Olympic National 

Park where goats move across survey area boundaries, and 

least in Mount Rainier National Park, where nearly all GPScollared mountain goats were present within the sampling 

areas. 

Biases in population estimates related to animal 

distribution or availability are most problematic for trend 

detection when the proportion of the population available 

to the survey fluctuates (Pollock and others, 2004). The 

percentage of mountain goats present within the survey frame 

fluctuated both diurnally and seasonally in Olympic National 

Park, suggesting that variations in seasonal and diurnal timing 

of surveys could affect trend analyses adversely unless survey 

boundaries are adjusted to more reliably contain the estimated 

population. Expanding the lower-altitude boundary as little as 

100 m in altitude (that is, lowering the altitude boundary to 

1,425 m) would likely reduce seasonal and temporal variation 

in the proportions of mountain goat locations present in the 

survey areas, as well as encompass a substantially greater 

segment of the total population (fig. 12). Defining survey 

boundaries on the basis of available mountain goat habitats, 

as in Mount Rainier and North Cascades National Park, rather 

than strictly on altitude, would further enhance accuracy of 

future counts.

Because the sample of GPS-collared mountain goats 

was most limited in North Cascades National Park, our 

understanding of altitudinal distributions of mountain goats 

and implications for survey design remains weakest for that 

park. Limited information, however, suggests population 

estimates may be biased low due to movements of mountain 

goats to lower altitudes beyond the altitude boundaries used 

to delimit the sampling frame for this study. Expanding the 

surveys to include all potential mountain goat habitats would 

improve the reliability of future surveys designed to estimate 

population abundance at the park-wide scale. 
24 Mountain Goats in Mount Rainier, North Cascades, and Olympic National Parks, Washington

Acknowledgments

This study was funded primarily by the USGS Natural 

Resources Preservation Program (NRPP), although each park 

contributed substantial personnel and logistical support, and 

Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife contributed 

data funded from several sources (Rice and others, 2009). We 

could not have conducted this research without the support 

of each of the national park staffs including superintendents, 

resource managers, biologists, compliance specialists, and 

aviation managers. We are particularly grateful for logistical 

and operational support provided by Roger Christophersen and 

Bob Kuntz at North Cascades National Park Service Complex. 

We thank aviation managers Larry Nickey (Olympic), Alison 

Robb (Mount Rainier), and Kelly Bush (North Cascades) for 

their assistance in developing aviation plans and contributing 

to safe aerial operations in each park. We thank Matt Albright, 

Bill Baccus, Mike Larrabee, Rich Lechleitner, Artie Olson, 

and Rich Olson for managing safe helicopter operations; 

Dave Manson, Ellen Myers, and Roger Christophersen for 

serving as aerial survey observers; Dave Manson, Kim Sager, 

Mike Danisiewicz, Eric Penn, and Clay Parker for help with 

ground capture operations in Olympic National Park; Natasha 

Antonova for help in mapping at North Cascades National 

Park; John Boetsch for assistance in data management; 

and dispatchers at each park for assisting with radio 

communications during all the surveys. We appreciate the 

expert and safe piloting provided by Jim Pope, Jr. during aerial 

capture operations, Rob Olmstead and Trevor Walker during 

aerial helicopter surveys, and Jeff Well and John May during 

radio tracking flights. We thank the crew at Leading Edge 

Aviation for their efficient and safe animal capture services 

(Jim Pope, Jr., Rocky Spencer, Coburn NoEar, and Jeannie 

Ross, DVM). We remain grateful to our research predecessors, 

primarily Douglas Houston, Bruce Moorhead, Rich Olson, 

and Victoria Stevens, whose earlier work on mountain goats in 

Olympic National Park provided a foundation for this study. 

We would like to thank Ruth Jacobs, Shirley Koetz, and Linda 

Rogers for help with producing this report, and Jacqueline 

Olson for preparing the maps within. Layne Adams, Paul 

Griffin, Douglas Houston, Bob Kuntz, Mason Reid, and 

Victoria Stevens provided numerous helpful comments on 

previous drafts of this manuscript.

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Hosmer, D.W., and Lemeshow, S., 2000, Applied Logistic 

Regression, Second Edition: New York, John Wiley and 

Sons.

Houston, D.B., Moorhead, B.B., and Olson, R.W., 1986, An 

aerial census of mountain goats in the Olympic Mountain 

Range, Washington: Northwest Science, v. 60, p. 131-136.

Houston, D.G., Moorhead B.B., and Olson, R.W., 1991, 

Mountain goat population trends in the Olympic Mountain 

Range, Washington: Northwest Science v. 65, p. 212-216.
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Houston, D.B., Olson, R.W., Hoffman, R.A., and Moorhead, 

B.B., 1994b, Mountain goat census in the Olympic 

Mountains Range, July 1994, Olympic National Park: 

Report to the Superintendent, Port Angeles, Washington, 

Olympic National Park.

Houston, D.B., Schreiner, E.G., and Moorhead, B.B., 1994a, 

Mountain goats in Olympic National Park: biology and 

management of an introduced species: Port Angeles, 

Washington, National Park Service, Scientific Monograph 

NPS/NROLYM/NRSM-94/25. 

Kuromoto, R.T., and Bliss, L.C., 1970, Ecology of subalpine 

meadows in the Olympic Mountains, Washington: 

Ecological Monographs, v. 40, p. 317-347.

Laver, P.N., and Kelly, M.J., 2008, A critical review of home 

range studies: Journal of Wildlife Management, v. 72, 

p. 290-298.

National Park Service, 1995, Goats in Olympic National Park, 

Draft environmental impact statement for mountain goat 

management: Port Angeles, Washington, Olympic National 

Park. 

Noss, R.F., Graham, R., McCullough, D.R., Ramsey, F.L., 

Seavey, J., Whitlock, C., and Williams, M.P., 2000, Review 

of scientific material relevant to the occurrence, ecosystem 

role, and test management options for mountain goats in 

Olympic National Park: Conservation Biology Institute, 

Corvallis, Oregon, accessed April 9, 2011, at http://consbio.

org/what-we-do/review-of-scientific-material-relevant-tothe/download.

Olson, R.W., 1994, Appendix C. Mountain Goat Capture, 

in Houston, D.B., Schreiner, E.G., and Moorhead, B.B., 

eds., Mountain goats in Olympic National Park: biology 

and management of an introduced species, Scientific 

Monograph NPS/NROLYM/NRSM-94/25: Port Angeles, 

Washington, National Park Service, p. 294-295. 

Pollock, K.H., Marsh, H., Bailey, L.L., Farnsworth, G.L., 

Simons, T.R., and Alldredge, M.W., 2004, Separating 

components of detection probability in abundance 

estimations: an overview with diverse examples, in 

Thompson, W.L., ed., Sampling rare or elusive species: 

Washington D.C., Island Press, p. 43-58.

Rice, C.G., 2008, Seasonal altitudinal movements of mountain 

goats: Journal of Wildlife Management: v. 72, no. 8, p. 

1706-1716, doi:10.2193/2007-584, accessed March 17, 

2011, at http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/10.2193/2007-584.

Rice, C.G., and Gay, D., 2010, Effects of mountain goat 

harvest on historic and contemporary populations: 

Northwestern Naturalist, v. 91, p. 40-57.

Rice, C.G., Jenkins, K.J., and Chang, W.Y., 2009, A 

sightability model for mountain goats: Journal of Wildlife 

Management, v. 73, no. 3, p. 468-478, doi:10.2193/2008-

196, accessed March 17, 2011, at http://www.bioone.org/

doi/abs/10.2193/2008-196.

Rodgers, A.R., Carr, A.P., Smith, L., and Kie, J.G., 2005, HRT: 

Home Range Tools for ArcGIS: Thunder Bay, Ontario, 

Canada, Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources, Centre for 

Northern Forest Ecosystem Research. 

Sager-Fradkin, K.A., Jenkins, K.J., Hoffman, R.A., Happe, 

P.J., Beecham, J.J., and Wright, R.G., 2007, Fix success 

and accuracy of global positioning system collars in oldgrowth temperate coniferous forests: Journal of Wildlife 

Management, v. 71, no. 4, p. 1298-1308, doi: 10.2193/2006-

367, accessed March 17, 2011, at http://www.bioone.org/

doi/abs/10.2193/2006-367.

Samuel, M.D., Garton, E.O., Schlegel, M.W., and Carson, 

R.G., 1987, Visibility bias during aerial surveys of elk in 

north-central Idaho: Journal of Wildlife Management, v. 51, 

no. 3, p. 622-630, accessed March 17, 2011, at http://www.

jstor.org/stable/3801280.

Schwartz, C.C., Podruzny, S., Cain, S.L., and Cherry, S., 2009, 

Performance of spread spectrum global positioning system 

collars on grizzly and black bears: Journal of Wildlife 

Management, v. 73, no. 7, p. 1174-1183, doi:10.2193/2008-

514, accessed March 17, 2011, at http://www.bioone.org/

doi/full/10.2193/2008-514.

Stevens, V., 1979, Mountain goat (Oreamnos americanus) 

habitat utilization in Olympic National Park: University of 

Washington, Seattle, M.S. thesis, 106 p.

Udevitz, M.S., Shults, B.S., Adams, L.G., and Kleckner, C., 

2006, Evaluation of aerial survey methods for Dall’s Sheep: 

Wildlife Society Bulletin, v. 34, p. 732-740.

Wells, A., 2006, Global position system (GPS) bias correction 

and habitat analysis of mountain goats (Oreamnos 

americanus) in the Cascades of Washington State, USA: 

Bellingham, Washington, Western Washington University, 

M.S. Thesis. 

Worton, B.J., 1989, Kernel methods for estimating the 

utilization distribution in home-range studies: Ecology, 

v. 70, p. 164-168.

Zar, J.H., 1984, Biostatistical analysis: Second Edition, 

Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, Prentice-Hall Inc.
26 Mountain Goats in Mount Rainier, North Cascades, and Olympic National Parks, Washington

This page left intentionally blank
Appendix 1 27

Appendix 1. Drug induction times, vital signs, and physical measurements of 20 mountain goats captured in Mount Rainier, North 

Cascades, and Olympic National Parks, Washington, 2005–07.

[Data are provided only for goats captured by NPS and USGS crews and contractors. Data are not provided for five mountain goats captured by WDFW crews. 

Drug induction time: carfentanil, minutes elapsed between the time of injection with 2.4 mg carfentanil citrate and the time the animal was recorded down in 

a recumbent position; naltrexone, minutes elapsed between the time of injection with 400 mg naltrexone hydrochloride and the time the animal was recorded 

standing. min, minutes; Temp, temperature; Resp., respiration; °F, degrees Fahrenheit; cm, centimeter; circumf., circumference; F, female; M, male; NR, not 

recorded; NA, not applicable]

Collar ID Sex Lactating

Drug induction time (min) Vital signs Horth length (cm) Body measurements (cm)

Carfentanil Naltrexone Temp. 

(°F)

Resp. 

(min-1)

Pulse 

(min-1)

Left Right Chest 

circumf.

Total 

length

Neck 

circumf.

Mount Rainier National Park

876 F NR 4 2 101.4 16 96 20.0 20.5 107.0 135.0 45.0

881 F Yes 5 3 103.3 16 132 20.5 21.5 98.5 44.0

1894 M NA 6 3 102.6 22.5 23.0 55.0

1900 F NR 4 3 102.7 24 148 21.0 22.0 125.0 137.5 49.5

1903 F Yes 4 3 104.2 16 100 18.5 18.0 109.0 128.5 40.0

917-2 M NA 102.4 21.8 22.3

North Cascades National Park

889 M NA 3 2 101.7 20 150 20.0 21.0 135.0 180.0 54.0

1895 F Yes 3 4 102.7 21.0 21.5 114.5 152.5 43.5

1897 F No 4 3 103.1 22.0 21.5 97.0 139.5 41.5

1901 F Yes 4 4 103.0 22.0 21.0 99.0 138.5 39.0

Olympic National Park

877 F Yes 3 2 101.7 20 100 21.0 20.6 126.0 1

67.0 45.0

882 F Yes 23.0 121.0 40.0

883 M NA 3 102.7 20 23.0 21.5 151.0 175.0 57.0

884 F No 18.2 20.0 101.0 149.0 38.0

885 F Yes 6 103.5 20 84 21.5 21.5 114.0 144.0 45.0

1891 M NA 3 3 102.0 16 20.5 18.5 142.0 174.0 55.0

1892 F NR 2 103.0 16 120

1898 M NA 5 102.5 24 64 22.0 22.0 140.0 158.0 55.5

1899 F Yes 4 5 100.5 16 24.0 24.0 116.0 153.0 43.0

1902 F Yes 4 3 102.6 15 21.5 22.0 107.0 140.5 42.0

1

Suspected recording error in the field.
28 Mountain Goats in Mount Rainier, North Cascades, and Olympic National Parks, Washington

Appendix 2. Seasonal adaptive kernel home range (95-percent utilization distribution) and core area 

(50-percent UD) estimates of individual GPS-collared mountain goats in Mount Rainier, North Cascades, and 

Olympic National Parks, Washington, 2003–08.

[GPS, Global Positioning System; UD, utilization distribution; km2, square kilometers]

Collar 

identification 

No.

Summer ranges (km2

) Winter ranges (km2)

Number of 

GPS locations

95- 

percent UD

50- 

percent UD

Number of GPS 

locations

95- 

percent UD

50- 

percent UD

FEMALE

Mount Rainier National Park

550 543 8.62 0.92 811 1.25 0.12

876 941 7.10 0.85 2,459 6.96 0.47

881 59 6.70 0.82 505 1.45 0.25

911 828 8.24 0.73 1,034 9.46 0.83

1900 57 6.24 1.33 215 1.77 0.25

1903 672 6.04 0.63 597 5.32 0.58

North Cascades National Park

541 2,127 4.51 0.90 2,709 2.79 0.38

1895 386 9.96 1.13 345 3.53 0.45

1901 988 10.77 1.99 437 3.78 0.60

Olympic National Park

882 1,486 6.31 0.74 2,020 2.79 0.24

884 947 7.72 1.15 1,720 2.59 0.44

885 938 7.05 0.94 1,133 2.73 0.25

1892 1,803 16.41 1.22 1,848 0.87 0.07

1899 596 2.86 0.45 750 0.68 0.07

1902 174 6.63 0.51 261 1.71 0.17

MALE

Mount Rainer National Park

936 2,234 37.03 2.68 1,794 4.50 0.28

1894 347 2.79 0.54 850 7.51 0.57

917-2 346 2.61 0.20

North Cascades National Park

889 907 15.00 1.96 405 6.90 0.53

Olympic National Park

883 1,340 8.19 0.29 877 4.63 0.35

1891 199 1.63 0.16 98 3.58 0.56

1898 1,037 7.74 0.37 1,422 5.80 0.31

1899-2 1,107 3.64 0.62 1,260 5.21 0.50
Appendix 3 29

Appendix 3. Maps showing seasonal distributions of selected GPS-collared mountain goats in Mount Rainier, North Cascades, and 

Olympic National Parks, Washington, 2003–07. 95-, 80-, and 50-percent adaptive kernel utilization distributions are shown for individual 

mountain goats.

t110605A303MORAHRCll00881

Fryingpan Creek

Ohanapecosh River

Boulder

Needle Creek

Kotsuck Creek

Wright Creek

Shaw

Creek

121°42'0"W 121°40'0"W 121°38'0"W 121°36'0"W

46°52'0"N 46°50'0"N

Fryingpan Creek

Ohanapecosh River

Boulder

Needle Creek

Wright Creek

Kotsuck Creek

Shaw

Creek

Basalt Creek

46°52'0"N 46°50'0"N

Mountain Goat F881

EXPLANATION

Percent of utilization distribution

80

95

Mount Rainier National Park

Forest Service land

Glacier/Permanent snow

50

0 10.5 Kilometers

Winter Home Range

Summer Home Range

0 10.5 Miles
30 Mountain Goats in Mount Rainier, North Cascades, and Olympic National Parks, Washington

Appendix 3. Maps showing seasonal distributions of selected GPS-collared mountain goats in Mount Rainier, North Cascades, and 

Olympic National Parks, Washington, 2003–07.—Continued. 95-, 80-, and 50-percent adaptive kernel utilization distributions are shown 

for individual mountain goats.

tac11-0605_App3-05_HomeRange_Collar00917-2

Inter

Lodi Creek

West Fork White River

Granite Creek

DickCreek

Van Horn Creek

Fryingpan Creek

Moraine Creek

Winthrop Creek

Spukwush Creek

121°46'0"W 121°44'0"W 121°42'0"W 121°40'0"W

46°58'0"N 46°56'0"N 46°54'0"N 46°52'0"N

Mountain Goat M917-2

Summer Home Range

0 10.5 Miles

0 10.5 Kilometers

EXPLANATION

Percent of utilization distribution

80

95

Mount Rainier National Park

Forest Service land

Glacier/Permanent snow

50
Appendix 3 31

47°0'0"N 46°50'0"N

121°50'0"W 121°40'0"W 121°30'0"W 121°20'0"W

47°0'0"N 46°50'0"N

0 52.5 Kilometers

Winter Home Range

Summer Home Range

EXPLANATION

Percent of utilization distribution

80

95

Mount Rainier National Park

Forest Service land

Glacier/Permanent snow

50

0 52.5 Miles

Mountain Goat M936

Appendix 3. Maps showing seasonal distributions of selected GPS-collared mountain goats in Mount Rainier, North Cascades, and 

Olympic National Parks, Washington, 2003–07.—Continued. 95-, 80-, and 50-percent adaptive kernel utilization distributions are shown 

for individual mountain goats.
32 Mountain Goats in Mount Rainier, North Cascades, and Olympic National Parks, Washington

Appendix 3. Maps showing seasonal distributions of selected GPS-collared mountain goats in Mount Rainier, North Cascades, and 

Olympic National Parks, Washington, 2003–07.—Continued. 95-, 80-, and 50-percent adaptive kernel utilization distributions are shown 

for individual mountain goats.

Carbon River

Chenuis Creek

West Fork White

River

Ipsut Creek

Falls

Ranger

Creek

Pigeon Creek

Cataract Creek

Dick Creek

Lodi Creek

Van Horn Creek

Doe Creek

Spukwush Creek

Carbon River

Chenuis Creek

West Fork White

River

Ipsut Creek

Ranger

Creek

Falls

Pigeon Creek

Cataract Creek

Dick Creek

Van Horn Creek

Lodi Creek

Doe Creek

Cayada Creek

Spukwush Creek

121°52'0"W 121°50'0"W 121°48'0"W 121°46'0"W 121°44'0"W 121°42'0"W

47°0'0"N 46°58'0"N 46°56'0"N 47°0'0"N 46°58'0"N 46°56'0"N

0 10.5 Kilometers

Winter Home Range

Summer Home Range

0 10.5 Miles

EXPLANATION

Percent of utilization distribution

80

95

Mount Rainier National Park

Forest Service land

Glacier/Permanent snow

50

Mountain Goat M1894
Appendix 3 33

Appendix 3. Maps showing seasonal distributions of selected GPS-collared mountain goats in Mount Rainier, North Cascades, and 

Olympic National Parks, Washington, 2003–07.—Continued. 95-, 80-, and 50-percent adaptive kernel utilization distributions are shown 

for individual mountain goats.

Stevens Creek

Nickel Creek

Paradise River

Nisqually River

Muddy

Fork

Cowlitz River

Williwakas Creek

Van Trump

Creek

Pearl

Ohanapecosh River

Pebble

Creek

Basalt Creek

Unicorn

Tatoosh Creek

Dead Horse

Stevens Creek

Nickel Creek

Paradise River

Nisqually River

Muddy

Fork

Cowlitz River

Williwakas Creek

Van Trump

Creek

Pebble

Creek

Ohanapecosh River

Maple Creek

Basalt Creek

Unicorn

Cree

Tat

k

oosh Creek

Dead Horse

Mountain Goat F1900

121°48'0"W 121°46'0"W 121°44'0"W 121°42'0"W 121°40'0"W 121°38'0"W

46°50'0"N 46°48'0"N 46°46'0"N 46°50'0"N 46°48'0"N 46°46'0"N

0 10.5 Kilometers

Winter Home Range

Summer Home Range

EXPLANATION

Percent of utilization distribution

80

95

Mount Rainier National Park

Forest Service land

Glacier/Permanent snow

50

0 10.5 Miles
34 Mountain Goats in Mount Rainier, North Cascades, and Olympic National Parks, Washington

Appendix 3. Maps showing seasonal distributions of selected GPS-collared mountain goats in Mount Rainier, North Cascades, and 

Olympic National Parks, Washington, 2003–07.—Continued. 95-, 80-, and 50-percent adaptive kernel utilization distributions are shown 

for individual mountain goats.

Stevens Creek

Nickel Creek

Ohanapecosh River

Paradise River

Muddy

Fork

Cowlitz River

Nisqually River

Olallie Creek

Williwakas Creek

Van

Trump Creek

Boulder Creek

Pebble

Creek

Fall Creek

Basalt Creek

Unicorn Creek

Needle Creek

Stevens Creek

Nickel Creek

Ohanapecosh River

Paradise River

Muddy

Fork

Cowlitz River

Nisqually River

Olallie Creek

Williwakas

Van

Trump Creek

Boulder Creek

Pebble

Creek

Fall Creek

Basalt Creek

Unicorn

Creek

Needle Creek

Mountain Goat F1903

46°51'0"N 46°48'0"N 46°45'0"N

121°45'0"W 121°42'0"W 121°39'0"W 121°36'0"W

46°51'0"N 46°48'0"N 46°45'0"N

Winter Home Range

Summer Home Range

EXPLANATION

Percent of utilization distribution

80

95

Mount Rainier National Park

Forest Service land

Glacier/Permanent snow

50

0 10.5 Kilometers

0 10.5 Miles
Appendix 3 35

Appendix 3. Maps showing seasonal distributions of selected GPS-collared mountain goats in Mount Rainier, North Cascades, and 

Olympic National Parks, Washington, 2003–07.—Continued. 95-, 80-, and 50-percent adaptive kernel utilization distributions are shown 

for individual mountain goats.

ANOCAHRCll

Crystal Creek

Sulphide Creek

Crystal Creek

Sulphide Creek

121°36'0"W 121°35'0"W 121°34'0"W 121°33'0"W 121°32'0"W 121°31'0"W

48°49'0"N 48°48'0"N 48°49'0"N 48°48'0"N

0 10.5 Kilometers Winter Home Range

Summer Home Range

EXPLANATION

Percent of utilization distribution

80

95

North Cascades National Park

Forest Service land

Glacier/Permanent snow

50

National Recreation area

0 0.5 1 Miles

Mountain Goat F541
36 Mountain Goats in Mount Rainier, North Cascades, and Olympic National Parks, Washington

Appendix 3. Maps showing seasonal distributions of selected GPS-collared mountain goats in Mount Rainier, North Cascades, and 

Olympic National Parks, Washington, 2003–07.—Continued. 95-, 80-, and 50-percent adaptive kernel utilization distributions are shown 

for individual mountain goats.

110605A311NOCAHRCll00889

Baker

Goodell Creek

Bald Eagle

Creek

Hidden Creek

Sulphide Creek

Noisy Creek

Lonesome Creek

East Fork Bacon

Creek

Blum Creek

Bacon Creek

Shannon Creek

Crystal Creek

Lake Creek

Baker River

Goodell Creek

Bald Eagle

Creek

Hidden Creek

Sulphide Creek

Noisy Creek

Lonesome Creek

East Fork Bacon

Creek

Bacon Cre ek

Crystal Creek

Blum Creek

Shannon Creek

Lake Creek

Triumph Creek

48°48'0"N 48°45'0"N 48°42'0"N

121°36'0"W 121°33'0"W 121°30'0"W 121°27'0"W 121°24'0"W 121°21'0"W

48°48'0"N 48°45'0"N 48°42'0"N

Winter Home Range

Summer Home Range

0 21 Kilometers

0 21 Miles

Mountain Goat M889

EXPLANATION

Percent of utilization distribution

80

95

North Cascades National Park

Forest Service land

Glacier/Permanent snow

50

National Recreation area
Appendix 3 37

Appendix 3. Maps showing seasonal distributions of selected GPS-collared mountain goats in Mount Rainier, North Cascades, and 

Olympic National Parks, Washington, 2003–07.—Continued. 95-, 80-, and 50-percent adaptive kernel utilization distributions are shown 

for individual mountain goats.

Six Stream

O'Neil Creek

Seven Stream

N

Boulder Creek

orth Fork Skokomish River

Hamma Hamma River

Slate Creek

Jefferson Creek

Whitehorse Creek

Madeline Creek

Five Stream

Donahue Creek

Hammer Creek

Six Stream

O'Neil Creek

Seven Stream

N

Boulder Creek

orth Fork Skokomish River

Slate Creek

Hamma Hamma River

Five

Stream

Jefferson Creek

Nine Stream

Whitehorse Creek

Madeline Creek

Donahue Creek

Hammer Creek

Strait of Juan de Fuca

Puget 

Sound

Sequim Port Angeles

123°27'0"W 123°24'0"W 123°21'0"W 123°18'0"W 123°15'0"W

47°36'0"N 47°33'0"N 47°36'0"N 47°33'0"N

0 21 Kilometers

Winter Home Range

Summer Home Range

EXPLANATION

Percent of utilization distribution

80

95

Olympic National Park

Forest Service land

50

0 21 Miles

Mountain Goat F882
38 Mountain Goats in Mount Rainier, North Cascades, and Olympic National Parks, Washington

Appendix 3. Maps showing seasonal distributions of selected GPS-collared mountain goats in Mount Rainier, North Cascades, and 

Olympic National Parks, Washington, 2003–07.—Continued. 95-, 80-, and 50-percent adaptive kernel utilization distributions are shown 

for individual mountain goats.

Glacier Creek

Ice River

Jemrod Creek

Martin Creek

Glacier Creek

Ice River

Jemrod Creek

Strait of Juan de Fuca

Puget 

Sound

Sequim Port Angeles

123°48'0"W 123°46'0"W 123°44'0"W 123°42'0"W 123°40'0"W

47°50'0"N 47°48'0"N 47°50'0"N 47°48'0"N

0 10.5 Kilometers

Winter Home Range

Summer Home Range

EXPLANATION

Percent of utilization distribution

80

95

Olympic National Park

Forest Service land

Glacier/Permanent snow

50

0 10.5 Miles

Mountain Goat M883
Appendix 3 39

Appendix 3. Maps showing seasonal distributions of selected GPS-collared mountain goats in Mount Rainier, North Cascades, and 

Olympic National Parks, Washington, 2003–07.—Continued. 95-, 80-, and 50-percent adaptive kernel utilization distributions are shown 

for individual mountain goats.

t110605A316OLYMHRCll00884

Morse Creek

Rocky Creek

South Branch Little River

Lake Creek

Ennis Creek

Morse Creek

Rocky Creek

Lake Creek

South Branch Little River

Ennis Creek

Strait of Juan de Fuca

Puget 

Sound

Sequim Port Angeles

123°30'0"W 123°28'0"W 123°26'0"W 123°24'0"W

48°0'0"N 47°58'0"N 48°0'0"N 47°58'0"N

0 10.5 Kilometers

Winter Home Range

Summer Home Range

EXPLANATION

Percent of utilization distribution

80

95

Olympic National Park

Forest Service land

50

0 10.5 Miles

Mountain Goat F884
40 Mountain Goats in Mount Rainier, North Cascades, and Olympic National Parks, Washington

Appendix 3. Maps showing seasonal distributions of selected GPS-collared mountain goats in Mount Rainier, North Cascades, and 

Olympic National Parks, Washington, 2003–07.—Continued. 95-, 80-, and 50-percent adaptive kernel utilization distributions are shown 

for individual mountain goats.

Hoh River

Goldie River

Long

Creek

Elkhorn Creek

Hoh River

Goldie River

Long

Creek

Elkhorn

Strait of Juan de Fuca

Puget 

Sound

Sequim Port Angeles

123°38'0"W 123°36'0"W 123°34'0"W 123°32'0"W 123°30'0"W

47°52'0"N 47°50'0"N 47°52'0"N 47°50'0"N

0 10.5 Kilometers

Winter Home Range

Summer Home Range

EXPLANATION

Percent of utilization distribution

80

95

Olympic National Park

Forest Service land

Glacier/Permanent snow

50

0 10.5 Miles

Mountain Goat F885
Appendix 3 41

Appendix 3. Maps showing seasonal distributions of selected GPS-collared mountain goats in Mount Rainier, North Cascades, and 

Olympic National Parks, Washington, 2003–07.—Continued. 95-, 80-, and 50-percent adaptive kernel utilization distributions are shown 

for individual mountain goats.

tac11-0605_App3-18_OLYM_HomeRange_Collar01891

Quinault River

Godkin

Creek

Rustler Creek

Pyrites Creek

Buckinghorse Creek

Anderson

White Creek

Delabarre Creek

Duckabush River

White Creek

Quinault River

Godkin

Creek

Rustler Creek

Pyrites Creek

Buckinghorse Creek

Anderson

Delabarre Creek

Duckabush River

Strait of Juan de Fuca

Puget 

Sound

Sequim Port Angeles

47°42'0"N 47°40'0"N

123°30'0"W 123°28'0"W 123°26'0"W 123°24'0"W 123°22'0"W 123°20'0"W

47°42'0"N 47°40'0"N

0 10.5 Kilometers

Winter Home Range

Summer Home Range

EXPLANATION

Percent of utilization distribution

80

95

Olympic National Park

Forest Service land

Glacier/Permanent snow

50

0 10.5 Miles

Mountain Goat M1891
42 Mountain Goats in Mount Rainier, North Cascades, and Olympic National Parks, Washington

Appendix 3. Maps showing seasonal distributions of selected GPS-collared mountain goats in Mount Rainier, North Cascades, and 

Olympic National Parks, Washington, 2003–07.—Continued. 95-, 80-, and 50-percent adaptive kernel utilization distributions are shown 

for individual mountain goats.

tac11-0605_App3-19_OLYM_HomeRange_Collar01892

Hoh River

Glacier

Martin Creek

Ice River

Strait of Juan de Fuca

Puget 

Sound

Sequim Port Angeles

123°51'0"W 123°48'0"W 123°45'0"W 123°42'0"W 123°39'0"W 123°36'0"W 123°33'0"W

47°54'0"N 47°51'0"N

123°42'0"W 123°41'0"W 123°40'0"W 123°39'0"W 123°38'0"W 123°37'0"W

47°53'0"N 47°52'0"N

0 10.5 Kilometers

Winter Home Range

Summer Home Range 0 21 Miles

0 21 Kilometers

EXPLANATION

Percent of utilization distribution

80

95

Olympic National Park

Forest Service land

Glacier/Permanent snow

50

0 0.5 Miles 1

Mountain Goat F1892

Winter home range extent
Appendix 3 43

Appendix 3. Maps showing seasonal distributions of selected GPS-collared mountain goats in Mount Rainier, North Cascades, and 

Olympic National Parks, Washington, 2003–07.—Continued. 95-, 80-, and 50-percent adaptive kernel utilization distributions are shown 

for individual mountain goats.

tac11-0605_App3-20_OLYM_HomeRange_Collar01898

Queets River

South Fork Hoh

Paull Creek

Saghalie Creek

Kilkelly

Creek

Hee Haw

BobCreek

Queets Riv er

South Fork Hoh

Paull Creek

Hee Haw

Saghalie Creek

Kilkelly

Creek

BobCreek

"

Strait of Juan de Fuca

Puget 

Sound

Sequim Port Angeles

47°48'0"N 47°46'0"N 47°44'0"N

123°50'0"W 123°48'0"W 123°46'0"W 123°44'0"W 123°42'0"W 123°40'0"W

47°46'0"N 47°44'0"N

0 10.5 Kilometers

Winter Home Range

Summer Home Range

EXPLANATION

Percent of utilization distribution

80

95

Olympic National Park

Forest Service land

Glacier/Permanent snow

50

0 10.5 Miles

Mountain Goat M1898
44 Mountain Goats in Mount Rainier, North Cascades, and Olympic National Parks, Washington

Appendix 3. Maps showing seasonal distributions of selected GPS-collared mountain goats in Mount Rainier, North Cascades, and 

Olympic National Parks, Washington, 2003–07.—Continued. 95-, 80-, and 50-percent adaptive kernel utilization distributions are shown 

for individual mountain goats.

tac11-0605_App3-21_OLYM_HomeRange_Collar01899-2

Lake Creek

Morse Creek

Rocky Creek

Ennis Creek

South Branch Little

Cowen Creek

Griff Creek

Morse Creek

Lake Creek

Ennis Creek

Rocky Creek

South Branch Little

Cowen Creek

Griff Creek

Little

River

Strait of Juan de Fuca

Puget 

Sound

Sequim Port Angeles

123°32'0"W 123°30'0"W 123°28'0"W 123°26'0"W 123°24'0"W

48°2'0"N 48°0'0"N 48°2'0"N 48°0'0"N

0 10.5 Kilometers

Winter Home Range

Summer Home Range

EXPLANATION

Percent of utilization distribution

80

95

Olympic National Park

Forest Service land

50

0 10.5 Miles

Mountain Goat M1899-2
Appendix 3 45

Appendix 3. Maps showing seasonal distributions of selected GPS-collared mountain goats in Mount Rainier, North Cascades, and 

Olympic National Parks, Washington, 2003–07.—Continued. 95-, 80-, and 50-percent adaptive kernel utilization distributions are shown 

for individual mountain goats.

t110605A322OLYMHRCll01899

Elwha River

Goldie

River

Long

Creek

Lost River

Stony Creek

Elwha River

Goldie

Long

Creek

Lost River

Stony Creek

Strait of Juan de Fuca

Puget 

Sound

Sequim Port Angeles

123°34'0"W 123°32'0"W 123°30'0"W 123°28'0"W

47°52'0"N 47°50'0"N 47°52'0"N 47°50'0"N

0 10.5 Kilometers

Winter Home Range

Summer Home Range

0 10.5 Miles

Mountain Goat F1899

EXPLANATION

Percent of utilization distribution

80

95

Olympic National Park

Forest Service land

Glacier/Permanent snow

50
46 Mountain Goats in Mount Rainier, North Cascades, and Olympic National Parks, Washington

Appendix 3. Maps showing seasonal distributions of selected GPS-collared mountain goats in Mount Rainier, North Cascades, and 

Olympic National Parks, Washington, 2003–07.—Continued. 95-, 80-, and 50-percent adaptive kernel utilization distributions are shown 

for individual mountain goats.

Queets River

Paull Creek

Elwha River

Hoh

South Fork Hoh River

Kilkelly

Creek

Saghalie Creek

Queets River

Paull Creek

Elwha River

Hoh

South Fork Hoh River

Kilkelly Creek

Saghalie Creek

Strait of Juan de Fuca Mountain Goat F1902

Puget 

Sound

Sequim Port Angeles

47°48'0"N 47°46'0"N

123°44'0"W 123°42'0"W 123°40'0"W 123°38'0"W 123°36'0"W

47°48'0"N 47°46'0"N

0 10.5 Kilometers

Winter Home Range

Summer Home Range

EXPLANATION

Percent of utilization distribution

80

95

Olympic National Park

Forest Service land

Glacier/Permanent snow

50

0 10.5 Miles
Appendix 4 47

tac11-0605App4-01MORASurveyedPolys

8

5

9

7

19

22

29

26

28

11

20

1

27

2

13

15

25

6

23

3

18

30

16

4

14

24

21

17

10

121°47'20"W 121°42'10"W 121°37'0"W 121°31'50"W

46°55'0"N 46°49'50"N 46°44'40"N

0 2.5 5 Miles

0 2.5 5 Kilometers

EXPLANATION

Mount Rainier National Park

Forest Service land

Glacier/Permanent snow

10 Survey polygon

Surveyed polygon 2006 2nd round

Surveyed polygon 2006 1st round

12

12

Appendix 4. Maps showing polygons surveyed to provide sightability trials in the development of an aerial survey sightability model for 

mountain goats in Mount Rainier, North Cascades, and Olympic National Parks, Washington, 2006–07. 
48 Mountain Goats in Mount Rainier, North Cascades, and Olympic National Parks, Washington

Appendix 4. Maps showing polygons surveyed to provide sightability trials in the development of an aerial survey sightability model for 

mountain goats in Mount Rainier, North Cascades, and Olympic National Parks, Washington, 2006–07.—Continued

tac11-0605_App4-02_MORA_Surveyed_Polys_2007

8

5

9

7

19

22

29

26

28

11

20

1

27

2

13 15

25

6

23

3

18

30

16

4

14

24

12

21

17

10

121°47'20"W 121°42'10"W 121°37'0"W 121°31'50"W

46°55'0"N 46°49'50"N 46°44'40"N

0 2.5 5 Miles

0 2.5 5 Kilometers

EXPLANATION

Mount Rainier National Park

Forest Service land

Glacier/Permanent snow

10 Survey polygon

Surveyed polygon 2007 2nd round

12 Surveyed polygon 2007 1st round
Appendix 4 49

Appendix 4. Maps showing polygons surveyed to provide sightability trials in the development of an aerial survey sightability model for 

mountain goats in Mount Rainier, North Cascades, and Olympic National Parks, Washington, 2006–07.—Continued

tac11-0605App4-03NOCASurveyed Polys2006

EXPLANATION

North Cascades National Park

Forest Service land

8 Survey polygon

34

Surveyed polygon 2006 2nd round

Surveyed polygon 2006 1st round

National Recreation Area

4

6

2

9

42 43

1

7 8

5

32

16

36

54

3

41

33 31

35

45

38

51

12

34

25

17

28

30

44

40

11

15

46

13

29

52

37

48

49

23

39

18

10

53

27

21

47

14

26

19

50

22 20

24

121°42'10"W 121°37'0"W 121°31'50"W 121°26'40"W 121°21'30"W 48°53'50"N 48°48'40"N 48°43'30"N 48°38'20"N

0 2.5 5 Kilometers

0 2.5 5 Miles
50 Mountain Goats in Mount Rainier, North Cascades, and Olympic National Parks, Washington

Appendix 4. Maps showing polygons surveyed to provide sightability trials in the development of an aerial survey sightability model for 

mountain goats in Mount Rainier, North Cascades, and Olympic National Parks, Washington, 2006–07.—Continued

tac11-0605_App4-04_NOCA_Surveyed_Polys_2007

4

6

2

9

42 43

1

7 8

5

32

16

36

54

3

41

33 31

35

45

38

51

12

34

25

17

28

30

44

40

11

15

46

13

29

52

37

48

49

23

39

18

10

53

27

21

47

14

26

19

50

22 20

24

121°42'10"W 121°37'0"W 121°31'50"W 121°26'40"W 121°21'30"W 48°53'50"N 48°48'40"N 48°43'30"N 48°38'20"N

0 2.5 5 Kilometers

0 2.5 5 Miles

EXPLANATION

North Cascades National Park

Forest Service land

8 Survey polygon

42

Surveyed polygon 2007 2nd round

Surveyed polygon 2007 1st round

National Recreation Area
Appendix 4 51

Appendix 4. Maps showing polygons surveyed to provide sightability trials in the development of an aerial survey sightability model for 

mountain goats in Mount Rainier, North Cascades, and Olympic National Parks, Washington, 2006–07.—Continued

tac11-0605App4-05OLYMSurveyedPolys2006

127

72

65

123 48

73

43

33

42

30

56

38

34

44

62

47

59

15

39

83

46

31

76

45

93

41

27

61

63

69

14

52

85

36

35

54

53

7

70

23

74

49

55

78

25

96

58

50

40

32

57

22

60

116

98

28 24

5

3

18

84

81

29

37

16 17

139

86

26

51

68

4

8

138

140

20

126

94

124

129 128

130

131

134

137

6

82

2

143

108

144

64

100

115

118

95

1

67

122

19

75

10

102

90

132

77

97

105

92

136

9

117

103

147

91

121

87

11

89

12

135

101

142

106

66

13

80

145

111

141

88

110

21

109

133

112

99

114

107

125

146

119

79

113

120

104

Puget

Sound

123°11'10"W

123°11'10"W

123°21'20"W

123°21'20"W

123°31'30"W

123°31'30"W

123°41'40"W

123°41'40"W

48°2'0"N

48°2'0"N

47°51'50"N

47°51'50"N

47°41'40"N

47°41'40"N

47°31'30"N

47°31'30"N

EXPLANATION

Olympic National Park

Forest Service land

8 Survey polygon

10

Surveyed polygon 2006 2nd round

Surveyed polygon 2006 3rd round

Surveyed polygon 2006 1st round

Olympic National Forest wilderness

0 2.5 Miles 5

0 52.5 Kilometers
52 Mountain Goats in Mount Rainier, North Cascades, and Olympic National Parks, Washington

Appendix 4. Maps showing polygons surveyed to provide sightability trials in the development of an aerial survey sightability model for 

mountain goats in Mount Rainier, North Cascades, and Olympic National Parks, Washington, 2006–07.—Continued

tac11-0605App4-06OLYMSurveyedPolys2007

Puget

Sound

127

72

65

123 48

73

43

33

42

30

56

38

34

44

62

47

59

15

39

83

46

31

76

45

93

41

27

61

63

69

14

52

85

36

35

54

53

7

70

23

74

49

55

78

25

96

58

50

40

32

57

22

60

116

98

28 24

5

3

18

84

81

29

37

16 17

139

86

26

51

68

4

8

138

140

20

126

94

124

129 128

130

131

134

137

6

82

2

143

108

144

64

100

115

118

95

1

67

122

19

75

10

102

90

132

77

97

105

92

136

9

117

103

147

91

121

87

11

89

12

135

101

142

106

66

13

80

145

111

141

88

110

21

109

133

112

99

114

107

125

146

119

79

113

120

104

123°11'10"W

123°11'10"W

123°21'20"W

123°21'20"W

123°31'30"W

123°31'30"W

123°41'40"W

123°41'40"W

48°2'0"N

48°2'0"N

47°51'50"N

47°51'50"N

47°41'40"N

47°41'40"N

47°31'30"N

47°31'30"N

EXPLANATION

Olympic National Park

Forest Service land

8 Survey polygon

10

Surveyed polygon 2007 2nd round

Surveyed polygon 2007 3rd round

Surveyed polygon 2007 1st round

Olympic National Forest wilderness

0 2.5 Miles 5

0 52.5 Kilometers
Appendix 5 53

Appendix 5. Aerial survey characteristics and counts of mountain goats observed during aerial survey sightability trials in Mount 

Rainier, North Cascades, and Olympic National Parks, Washington, 2005–07. 

[Time and temperature were recorded when beginning to survey the polygon or group of polygons. Complete?: Was the polygon (or group of polygons) 

surveyed entirely? For logistic reasons, not all surveys were complete in all polygons. °C, degrees Celsius; Temp, temperature, min, minute;, km2, square 

kilometers; No., number; Unk, unknown]

Date Polygon

Survey characteristics

Polygon

Counts

Time Temp 

(°C) Complete? Duration (min)

Area 

(km2

)

Intensity 

(min/

km2

)

No. of 

groups

Total Kids Unk

Mount Rainer National Park

07-17-06 12,13 6:27:00 9 no 22.8 6.4 3.6 12,13 4 24 5 0

07-17-06 18 6:56:41 10 yes 26.1 5.1 5.2 18 4 31 10 0

07-17-06 29 8:52:29 10 yes 36.8 8.3 4.5 29 3 6 0 0

07-17-06 30 9:30:00 yes 13.0 4.8 2.7 30 0 0 0 0

07-31-06 1 6:48:00 1 yes 8.0 3.8 2.1 1 0 0 0 0

07-31-06 2 7:56:00 1 yes 16.0 3.2 5.0 2 0 0 0 0

07-31-06 3 6:56:00 1 yes 7.0 2.6 2.7 3 0 0 0 0

07-31-06 4 8:16:00 1 yes 7.0 2.3 3.0 4 0 0 0 0

07-31-06 5 7:03:00 1 yes 12.0 5.8 2.1 5 0 0 0 0

07-31-06 6 7:42:00 5 yes 7.0 2.7 2.6 6 0 0 0 0

07-31-06 7 7:16:00 5 yes 21.0 4.7 4.5 7 4 14 4 0

07-31-06 8 9:37:00 7 yes 33.0 5.9 5.6 8 1 2 0 0

07-31-06 9 10:15:42 3 yes 20.0 5.3 3.8 9 0 0 0 0

07-31-06 11 10:48:18 4 yes 29.9 7.4 4.0 11 5 8 0 0

07-31-06 13 11:21:01 2 yes 12.0 6.2 1.9 13 3 26 4 0

07-31-06 18 13:49:00 5 yes 22.0 5.1 4.4 18 0 0 0 0

07-31-06 23 13:21:00 4 yes 20.0 5.3 3.8 23 2 4 1 0

07-31-06 26 12:50:48 4 yes 30.2 7.9 3.8 26 1 18 5 0

08-01-06 17 6:09:47 -1 yes 9.2 3.5 2.6 17 4 49 10 0

08-01-06 29 6:28:43 0 yes 26.3 8.3 3.2 29 0 0 0 0

08-01-06 30 6:56:05 -2 yes 13.9 4.8 2.9 30 0 0 0 0

07-11-07 16 7:07:26 19 yes 25.0 4.7 5.4 16 3 10 0 0

07-11-07 17 7:37:08 19 yes 15.0 3.5 4.3 17 3 5 0 0

07-11-07 18 7:56:41 19 yes 30.3 5.1 6.0 18 3 25 4 2

07-11-07 26 10:30:05 19 no 12.0 7.9 1.5 26 2 8 2 1

07-11-07 28 10:00:06 19 yes 27.8 7.8 3.6 28 0 0 0 0

07-11-07 29 5:21:29 20 yes 34.3 8.3 4.2 29 0 0 0 0

07-24-07 17 15:32:23 10 yes 16.1 3.5 4.6 17 4 49 11 0

07-24-07 23 16:30:54 6 yes 21.7 5.3 4.1 23 2 16 4 0

07-24-07 26 16:00:17 5 yes 29.0 7.9 3.7 26 4 27 2 0

07-25-07 28 8:34:53 9 yes 39.9 7.8 5.1 28 3 5 0 0

07-25-07 29 5:54:26 6 yes 30.4 8.3 3.7 29 4 5 0 0

07-25-07 30 6:27:38 8 yes 15.6 4.8 3.3 30 0 0 0 0

North Cascade National Park

07-18-06 3 no 3 1 1 0 0

07-18-06 4 11:24:50 10 yes 31.2 8.4 3.7 4 2 3 0 0

07-18-06 5 no 5 1 3 1 0

07-18-06 6 11:01:00 10 yes 22.0 6.4 3.4 6 0 0 0 0

07-18-06 9 9:43:00 8 yes 17.0 5.5 3.1 9 1 1 0 0

07-18-06 33 9:12:00 7 yes 23.0 7.0 3.3 33 2 2 0 0

07-18-06 34 8:46:00 7 yes 44.0 6.2 7.1 34 0 0 0 0

07-18-06 52 7:14:00 7 yes 19.0 5.2 3.7 52 2 2 0 0

07-18-06 54 6:31:20 7 no 41.7 8.1 5.2 54 8 18 4 0

08-02-06 6 6:13:10 6 yes 23.8 6.4 3.7 6 5 18 4 0

08-02-06 28 6:50:00 3 no 8.0 5.9 1.4 28 1 1 0 0

08-02-06 54 7:56:00 5 no 5.0 8.1 0.6 54 3 3 0 0
54 Mountain Goats in Mount Rainier, North Cascades, and Olympic National Parks, Washington

Date Polygon

Survey characteristics

Polygon

Counts

Time Temp 

(°C) Complete? Duration (min)

Area 

(km2

)

Intensity 

(min/

km2

)

No. of 

groups

Total Kids Unk

North Cascade National Park—Continued

07-12-07 6 8:03:28 20 yes 31.0 6.4 4.8 6 5 9 1 0

07-12-07 9 8:36:15 21 no 5.8 5.5 1.1 9 1 7 3 0

07-12-07 42 6:09:55 21 yes 31.0 10.6 2.9 42 9 24 7 0

07-12-07 54 5:31:40 21 yes 30.3 8.1 3.7 54 7 19 2 0

07-26-07 4 13:03:30 16 yes 38.5 8.4 4.6 4 3 14 2 0

07-26-07 6 10:59:30 10 yes 24.7 6.4 3.8 6 1 1 0 0

07-26-07 8 11:46:00 18 yes 21.0 4.5 4.7 8 3 3 0 0

07-26-07 9 11:25:20 10 yes 20.0 5.5 3.7 9 4 5 1 0

07-26-07 52 16:07:30 12 no 11.5 5.2 2.2 52 0 0 0 0

07-26-07 54 15:12:50 12 yes 53.2 8.1 6.6 54 6 11 1 0

Olympic National Park

07-10-06 126 6:48:13 7 yes 26.9 2.8 9.5 126 16 25 3 0

07-10-06 128 6:13:11 7 yes 33.5 5.6 6.0 128 3 5 1 0

07-10-06 131 10:24:10 9 yes 29.7 4.6 6.4 131 1 3 1 0

07-10-06 132 10:53:53 9 yes 19.0 2.5 7.7 132 1 3 0 0

07-10-06 134 11:25:18 9 yes 18.1 5.1 3.6 134 0 0 0 0

07-10-06 135 11:13:45 9 yes 9.2 1.2 8.0 135 2 3 0 0

07-10-06 139 9:00:15 9 yes 28.5 5.5 5.2 139 4 14 4 0

07-10-06 141, 1

142 8:38:37 9 yes 19.7 1.8 10.8 141 0 0 0 0

142 0 0 0 0

07-10-06 5, 9, 1

10 8:15:50 8 no 12.8 2.6 5.0 5 1 1 0 0

9 1 3 1 0

10 0 0 0 0

07-11-06 93 8:12:38 9 yes 41.4 5.1 8.1 93 13 22 3 0

07-11-06 123 6:13:30 8 yes 43.8 5.2 8.3 123 5 6 0 0

07-11-06 69, 1

78 9:00:15 9 yes 44.9 10.3 4.4 69 1 1 0 0

78 27 55 11 1

07-24-06 123 7:31:23 18 yes 39.6 5.2 7.6 123 0 0 0 0

07-24-06 128 11:56:59 18 yes 23.5 5.6 4.2 128 3 5 1 0

07-24-06 142 9:27:40 18 yes 10.6 1.0 10.2 142 1 1 0 0

07-24-06 125, 1

126 11:20:09 18 yes 36.8 3.2 11.4 125 1 1 0 0

126 8 12 1 0

07-24-06 137, 1

139 9:40:03 18 yes 51.0 10.4 4.9 137 1 7 3 0

139 6 13 3 0

07-24-06 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 1

11 5:53:40 18 yes 42.8 14.0 3.1 4 0 0 0 0

5 1 1 0 0

6 1 4 1 0

7 2 2 0 0

8 0 0 0 0

9 0 0 0 0

10 0 0 0 0

11 0 0 0 0

07-26-06 131 9:17:23 18 yes 27.3 4.6 5.9 131 7 13 2 0

07-26-06 132 9:44:43 18 yes 15.3 2.5 6.2 132 1 1 0 0

07-26-06 135 10:00:00 18 yes 6.6 1.2 5.7 135 0 0 0 0

07-26-06 136 10:07:04 18 yes 6.8 2.0 3.4 136 0 0 0 0

Appendix 5. Aerial survey characteristics and counts of mountain goats observed during aerial survey sightability trials in Mount 

Rainier, North Cascades, and Olympic National Parks, Washington, 2005–07.—Continued

[Time and temperature were recorded when beginning to survey the polygon or group of polygons. Complete?: Was the polygon (or group of polygons) 

surveyed entirely? For logistic reasons not all surveys were complete in all polygons. °C, degrees Celsius; Temp, temperature, min, minute;, km2, square 

kilometers; No., number; Unk, unknown]
Appendix 5 55

Date Polygon

Survey characteristics

Polygon

Counts

Time Temp 

(°C) Complete? Duration (min)

Area 

(km2

)

Intensity 

(min/

km2

)

No. of 

groups

Total Kids Unk

Olympic National Park—Continued

07-26-06 93, 1

94 7:00:43 12 yes 65.5 10.1 6.5 93 3 12 2 0

94 2 4 1 0

07-09-07 90 8:43:46 13 yes 22.4 1.9 11.9 90 0 0 0 0

07-09-07 93 9:07:47 13 no 21.5 5.1 4.2 93 4 6 1 0

07-09-07 128 6:27:32 13 no 27.8 5.6 5.0 128 5 24 8 0

07-09-07 127N 5:41:53 13 yes 43.6 2.4 18.1 127N 8 14 3 0

07-09-07 5, 9, 1

10 7:43:24 12 no 18.8 2.8 6.7 5 1 2 0 0

9 1 1 0 0

10 0 0 0 0

07-10-07 123 5:48:38 12 no 1.8 5.2 0.3 123 0 0 0 0

07-10-07 69, 1

78 6:04:26 18 yes 77.8 10.3 7.6 69 5 7 1 0

78 18 35 8 0

07-16-07 93 13:09:05 11 yes 44.4 5.1 8.7 93 3 19 6 0

07-16-07 123 11:05:29 11 yes 48.5 5.2 9.3 123 4 5 0 0

07-16-07 126 6:33:00 7 yes 40.5 2.8 14.4 126 10 15 3 0

07-16-07 128 7:15:42 7 yes 42.8 5.6 7.6 128 8 31 11 0

07-16-07 127N 10:34:52 11 yes 25.1 2.4 10.5 127N 4 13 3 0

07-16-07 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 1

11 8:47:51 9 yes 49.1 14.0 3.5 4 0 0 0 0

5 0 0 0 0

6 1 1 0 0

7 1 1 0 0

8 0 0 0 0

9 1 1 0 0

10 0 0 0 0

11 0 0 0 0

09-06-07 122E, 1

123W 13:16:20 9 no 22.4 2.8 7.9 122E 3 3 0 0

123W 2 3 0 0

09-06-07 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 1

11 11:54:00 10 no 42.6 7.5 5.7 5 0 0 0 0

6 1 1 0 0

7 2 2 0 0

9 0 0 0 0

10 0 0 0 0

11 0 0 0 0

1

These polygons were flown as a unit. Survey characteristics of individual polygons were not recorded.

Appendix 5. Aerial survey characteristics and counts of mountain goats observed during aerial survey sightability trials in Mount 

Rainier, North Cascades, and Olympic National Parks, Washington, 2005–07.—Continued

[Time and temperature were recorded when beginning to survey the polygon or group of polygons. Complete?: Was the polygon (or group of polygons) 

surveyed entirely? For logistic reasons not all surveys were complete in all polygons. °C, degrees Celsius; Temp, temperature, min, minute;, km2, square 

kilometers; No., number; Unk, unknown]
56 Mountain Goats in Mount Rainier, North Cascades, and Olympic National Parks, Washington

This page left intentionally blank
Publishing support provided by the U.S. Geological Survey

Publishing Network, Tacoma Publishing Service Center

For more information concerning the research in this report, contact the 

Director, Forest and Rangeland Ecosystem Science Center,

U.S. Geological Survey, 777 NW 9th Street

Corvallis, Oregon 97330

http://fresc.usgs.gov 
Jenkins and others— Seasonal Distribution and Aerial Surveys of Mountain Goats in Mount Rainier, North Cascades, and Olympic National Parks, Washington—Open-File Report 2011-1107