SECTION TWe

and Beneficial Functions-of Floodplains

large volumes of organic material (detritus) for the ocean and estuaries where it
supports extensive marine food chains. The chemical characteristics of estua-
rine waters, particularly the levels of nutrients, dissolved oxygen and biological
oxygen demand, are modified each time estuarine waters flush a salt marsh
area. Salt marshes act to reduce pollution of the coastal zone by removing ex-
cess nutrients and heavy metals delivered by surface runoff from upland areas.

Marshes also play an important role in storm damage prevention and ground-
water supply. Marsh vegetation and underlying peat are resistant to erosion and
dissipate wave energy, thus providing another coastal zone defense against wave
damage. The properties of marshes both slow water and spread it out during
periods of inundation until it gradually flows back to the sea or estuary,

2.3 Human Values of Floodplains

In addition to the natural functions, floodplains provide values to humans that
enable society to enjoy and interact with their natural surroundings. Floodplains
provide cultural, educational, recreational, and scenic values that extend be-
yond a specific floodplain to enrich communities along entire rivers and coasts.
Insome areas, floodplain lands constitute the only public land base available to
nearby residents for passive and active recreation.

Floodplains contain cultural resources important to the nation and to individual
localities. Native American settlements and early cities located along the coasts
and rivers for access to water supply, waste disposal, water transportation, and
trade. Due to their flat to-
pography, floodplains of-
ten were travel corridors
for human movement,
providing the easiest, if
not the only, access to
other areas, particularly in
and through mountainous
terrain. Consequently,
floodplains include many
of the nation’s earliest ar-
cheological and historical
sites. In addition to their
historical richness, flood-
plains contain invaluable
resources for scientific re-
search. Floodplains can
serve as nature study cen-
ters and laboratories for
outdoor learning experi-
ences,

“All Paths Lead to Light” by Natalie Hamill, age 17, Stuart
Country Day School, New Jersey. 2000 National Arl Finalist,
Due to their scenic value River of Words Contest®. Schoolchildren around the country
and recreation opportuni- are learning to explore and value the natural world through the
ties, floodplains are ideal annual River of Words Watershed Poetry and Art Contest, which
locations for parks and nu- _ is affiliated with the Library of Congress Center for the Book.

River ef Words


he Task Force surveyed many sources of information and data to pre

pare this report, and conducted a number of meetings and workshops.

It met in August 1996; February and May 1997; April, June, and July

1998; May, June, August, and September 1999; and May 2000. The
task force invited agencies outside its membership to participate in the investi-
gation.

References

Adamus, RR., E.J. Clairain, R.D. Smith and R.E. Young. 1987. Wetland Evalua-
tion Technique (WET); Vol. Il; Methodology. Operation Draft Technical Report
Y-87, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Waterways Experiment Station,
Vicksburg, MS.

Adamus, PR. and LT. Stockwell, 1983..A Method for Wetland Functional Assess-
ment, Volume J, Report No. FHWA-IP-82-23. U.S, Department of Transporta-
tion, Federal Highway Administration, Offices of Reseorch and Development.
Washington, D.C.

Association of State Floodplain Managers. 2000. National Flood programs in
Review-2000. Madison, Wisconsin,

Association of State Floodplain Managers. 1996. Using Multi-Objective Monage-
ment to Reduce Flood Losses in Your Watershed. Madison, WI. Prepared for
the U.S, Environmental Protection Agency.

Association of State Wetland Managers, Inc. 1990. Wetlands and River Corridor
Management. Proceedings of an international symposium held in Charleston,
South Carolina, July 5-9, 1989, Berne, NY.

Bovee, K.D. and R. Milhous, 1978. Hydraulic Simulation in Instream Flow Stud-
ies: Theory and Techniques. Cooperative Instream Flow Service Group. Fort
Collins, Colorado. Paper No. 5, FWS/OBS-78/33.

Campbell, Matthew J, & Vissering, Colin S. 2000. Sustainable Re-Develapment
after Flood Disasters. The case for restoration of apen space in floodplains
Proceedings of the National Association of Environmental Professionals
Annual Conference, Washington, D.C.

Clark, J.R. 1995. Coastal Zone Management Handbook. Lewis Publishers, Boco
Raton, FL.

Dahl, T. E. 2000. Stotus and Trends of wetlands in the coterminous United States
1986 fo 1997. U.S. Department of Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, Wash-
ington, D.C.

Executive Office of the President. June 1998. Federal Programs Offering Non-
Structural Flood Recovery and Floodplain Management Alternatives, Washing-
ton, D.C.

Federal Interagency Floodplain Management Tosk Force. 1996, Protecting
Floodplain Resources: A Guidebook for Communities, FEMA, Washington,
D.C.

Federal Interagency Floodplain Management Task Force, 1994 revision. A
Unified Nationa! Program for Floodplain Management. FEMA, Washington,
D.C,

Section Six

SELECTED
BIBLIOGRAPHY



al and Beneficial Functions of Floodplei

= Create and encourage community partnerships to develop compre-
hensive solutions that reduce damages and improve quality of life
that at the same time protect and restore of the natural and benefi-
cial functions of floodplains.

= Focus on watershed-based solutions that include the protection and
restoration of floodplains, and riparian and wetland ecosystems.

RECOMMENDATION 1:

Develop a national policy on the protection and restoration of the natural
and beneficial functions of floodplains as an integral part of all Federal,
State, tribal, and local government programs, actions, planning, policies,
regulations, and grants. Specifically:

= Consider the enactment of legislation for a National Floodplain Man-
agement Act that would declare national policy and goals for flood-
plain management, including the need to protect and enhance the
natural resources and functions of floodplains, and address the re-
spective roles and responsibilities of Federal, State, tribal and local
governments in achieving floodplain management goals.

= Consider the enactment of legislation that limits future Federal ex-
penditures and financial assistance in undeveloped floodplains. Such
legislation should be based on an assessment of existing incentives
and disincentives for individuals, business, and communities to use
floodplains wisely and would achieve the following: minimize flood
losses by discouraging development in high-risk areas, encourage wise
expenditures of Federal resources, and protect the natural and ben-
eficial functions of floodplains.

« Update and re-issue Executive Order 11988, Floodplain Management
to reaffirm Federal policy regarding the protection and enhancement
of the natural resources and functions of floodplains, and to reem-
phasize the need for Federal agencies to avoid activities that adversely
impact floodplains, Require all Federal agencies to review their pro-
grams, regulations, and policies for compliance with Executive Order
11988.

= Develop a unified national policy that addresses the protection of the
natural and beneficial values of coastal floodplains and their associ-
ated resources. This policy should focus on nonstructural measures
for reducing flood losses resulting from long-term erosion forces and
short-term, high impact storm events.

RECOMMENDATION 2:

Encourage a proactive and long-term approach to floodplain

. management, including the development of pre- and post-disaster plans
for flood damage reduction and preservation/restoration of natural and
beneficial functions.



Members of the Task Force Designated
by Congress

= Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
= Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA)

= National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
(NOAA)

= U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE)
= U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS)

Agencies That Were Asked to
Participate on the Task Force

= National Park Service (NPS)

= U.S, Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources
Conservation Service (NRCS)

Appendix E

TASK FORCE

AGENCIES

F.7


APPENDIX A Fi

and other public facilities, Additional funding is provided to mitigate future
damages to those facilities. Funding can also be used to build replacement facili-
ties outside of the floodplain in lieu of repairing the damaged facility,

Disaster Operations

For declared disasters, FEMA activates the Federal Response Plan with 27 signa-
tory agencies. The Federal Response Plan provides a framework for the coordi-
nation of the provision of assistance to states, communities, and individuals by
Federal agencies. Disasters are declared by the President at the request of the
Governor of the impacted state if the impacts of the disaster exceed the ability of
the state and the effected communities to respond. For each declared disaster, a
Federal Coordinating Officer is appointed to oversee the provision of Federal
assistance. The Governor appoints a State Coordinating Officer as his counter-
part. FEMA assistance for the repair of damaged public buildings and other
facilities is provided in partnership with the state through the state emergency
management agency:

Executive Order 11988

FEMA also promotes and coordinates governmental and non-governmental flood-
plain management activities and is a consulting agency to other Federal agen-
cies on issues relating to implementation of Executive Order 11988, Floodplain
Management. FEMA also chairs the Federal Interagency Floodplain Manage-
ment Task Force that develops and updates the Unified National Program for
Floodplain Management that provides a conceptual framework for managing
the nation’s floodplains.

HAZUS: Estimating Potential Losses

HAZUS is a Geographic Information Systems (GIS) based program that runs on
a personal computer, Developed by FEMA through a cooperative agreement
with the National Institute of Building Sciences (NIBS), HAZUS presently is
used to estimate potential losses from earthquake events. However, the system
currently is under further development to estimate flood and wind losses as
well. The flood module is scheduled to be completed in 2002. Once a commu-
nity understands its risks, it is better prepared to respond to future events and
mitigate damages,

Map Modernization Program

Watersheds and flood hazards change due to development and other factors,
and flood maps must be updated to remain accurate. FEMA's modernization
plan calls for updating flood data for all communities with no or inadequate
floodplain maps and converting all maps into a digital format. The digital maps
would support automated applications, such as mortgage determinations, and
allow for electronic distribution via the World Wide Web or CD-ROM.

Under the map modernization initiative, state, regional, and local governments
become directly involved in the flood mapping process. Under the Cooperating

f

ederal Programs Relating to the Notural and Beneficial

Fur

Floodplains



f Floodplains

Table 2-1. Natural Resources of Floodplains

Water Resources

Natural Flood and Erosion

Control

- Provides flood storage ond
conveyance

- Reduces fleod velocities

- Reduces peak floods

~ Reduces sedimentation

Water Quality Maintenance

~ Filters nutrients and impurities
from runoff

- Processes organic wastes

- Moderates temperature
fluctuations

Biologic Resources

Biological Productivity

- Supports high rate of plant
arowh

- Maintains biodiversity

- Maintains integrity of ecosys-
tem

Fish and Wildlife Habitats

- Provides breeding and feeding
grounds

- Provides and enhances
waterfowl habitat

- Protects habitats for rare,
threatened or endangered

Societal Resources

Harvest of Wild and

Cultivated Product

+ Enhancement of agricultural
lands

~ Provides sites for aquaculture

- Restores and enhonces forest
lands

Recreational Opportunities

- Provides areas of active and
passive use

~ Provides open spaces

~ Provides aesthetic pleasure

species
Groundwater Recharge e

- Promotes infiltration and aquifer
recharge

- Reduces frequency and duration
of low flows

Regardless of how the natural and beneficial func-
tions of floodplains are characterized, floodplains
in a natural or relatively undisturbed state func-
tion as they do because of their unique geomar-
phology. Their position in the landscape and their
association with water makes them among the
most geologically dynamic and biologically pro-
ductive areas in a watershed, resulting in func-
tions that are interrelated and inseparable. These
areas reduce flood losses as a result of their land-
scape position as well as the natural properties
they possess, constituting the “natural infrastruc-
ture” that performs a variety of functions in the
floodplain environment (Federal Interagency
Floodplain Management Task Force, 1996).

2.2.1 Water Resources Functions

Floodplains help protect and restore the physical,
chemical and biologic integrity of our nation’s wa:
ters. Flood conveyance and floodwater storage are
among the primary natural functions of flood-
plains. Hydrology is the dominant characteristic
of floodplains that drives the dynamics of the en-
tire system. Floodplains receive and store water
from 1) excess stream flow that exceeds the ca-

Areas for Scientific Study/

Education

- Cultural resources (historical/
archaeological)

- Opportunities for environmen-
tal, biological, or other studies

Table 2-2. The Characteristics
and Processes of Floodplains

Floodplains have the capacity to store
and convey floodwaters, thus
diminishing floodwater velocities and
resulting in the reduction of flood
damages and flood related erosion.

Soil fertility is increased as floodplains
naturally replenish the nutrients of the
surrounding soils during periodic
inundation.

Floodplains improve water quality and
quantity by providing areas of
groundwater recharge, while also
filtering impurities and nutrients.

Floodplains enhance biodiversity,
providing breeding and feeding
grounds for fish and a wide variety of
wildlife including endangered species.

Floodplains contain immense
agricultural and forestry resources.

Society benefits from the aesthetic
value and recreational uses that
floodplains can provide.

nN?


= Recognize the importance of floodplains as natural resources and
call for the preservation of floodplains essentially in their natural
state;

= Recognize the desirability of developing a comprehensive County-
wide Stormwater Management Program to integrate watershed plan-
ning and implementation;

= Recognize the need to strengthen interagency coordination in
stormwater management planning and implementation; and

= Advocate strengthening of the County’s capabilities in dealing with
existing developments within floodplains.

Asa result of the Task Force Report, the County significantly revised the County
Floodplain Management Ordinance (CB-30-1975) regulating all activities within
the County floodplain areas.

The State Flood Management Act (Natural Resources Article 8-9A-01 et seq.,
1976) requires that watershed management studies be conducted to address
the magnitude of flood problems and alternative management techniques mini-
mizing flood damage. In response to the Act and the need to protect lives and
property, the County subsequently created an Interagency Technical Group in
December 1977 to study watersheds in the County, The Interagency Group con-
sisted of representatives from the area water and sewer utility, the Washington
Suburban Sanitary Commission, the Maryland-National Park and Planning Com-
mission, and the County’s Department of Environmental Resources.

Institutionally, a number of changes were made as a result of the Task Force and
Interagency Group recommendations. Watershed studies were conducted; a Flood
Management Watershed Protection Branch was established within the Water-
shed Protection Branch in 1987; and the County revised its Floodplain Ordi-
nance to continue participation in the National Flood Insurance Program, in

order to retain eligibility for Federal and State financial assistance and disaster
relief.

The County established five (5) goals against which it adopted various action
plans:

1, Reduce or eliminate existing flood hazards

2. Prevent future flood hazards from developing

3. Reduce the economic losses associated with flooding events
4. Restore, preserve, and enhance environmental quality

5. Improve the quality of life and provide for expanded recreational
opportunities

PROJECT ACCOMPLISHMENTS.

The information used to establish flood problem areas are citizen complaints
and watershed studies. The County's program can be broadly divided into two
categories: correcting existing problems and preventing future problems.

pendix 8 CASE STUDIES



APPENDIX A Federal Programs Relating to the

Congress appropriated $200 million each year for these grants. Funds
are used for NPS program implementation, including technical assis-
tance, financial assistance, education, training, technology transfer,
demonstration projects, and monitoring.

Section 320 of the Clean Water Act: The National Estuary
Program

The National Estuary Program (NEP), established pursuant to Section 320 of
the 1972 Clean Water Act, is a watershed-based approach to protecting nation-
ally significant estuaries. In the 28 estuaries that currently comprise the NEP the
program engages local communities and stakeholders to identify and character-
ize problems within coastal watersheds and to devise and implement compre-
hensive conservation management plans that address these problems. The
overarching goal is to protect and restore the estuary’s water quality and the
integrity of the entire system — its chemical, physical, and biological properties,
as well as its economic, recreational, and aesthetic values, The Coastal Manage-
ment Branch of EPAs Oceans and Coastal Protection Division administers the
NEP and provides guidance and support to state, tribal, and local entities to
protect their coastal watersheds.

Section 404 of the Clean Water Act

Section 404 of the Clean Water Act established a program to regulate the dis-
charge of dredge and/or fill material into the waters of the U.S., including wet-
lands. Regulated activities include fill for development, water resource projects,
infrastructure and conversion of wetlands to agricultural use. The program's
basic premise is that the discharge of dredged or fill material is not permitted if
the nation’s waters would be significantly degraded or if a practicable alterna-
tive exists that is less damaging to the aquatic environment. USACE and the EPA
jointly administer the program, although the USACE, actually grants or denies
the permit

U.S. Department of Interior

National Park Service (NPS)

The Rivers, Trails, and Conservation Program (Rivers & Trails):
Facilitating Community-Based Conservation Action

The RTCA Program was established to help citizens improve their quality of life
through the conservation of rivers and the establishment of trails on lands out-
side national parks and forests. This Federal program allows the NPS to cooper-
ate with state and local efforts. It aids citizen-led efforts to protect significant
natural resources and enhance recreational opportunities. The NPS becomes
involved at the community's request and serves as a catalyst for local action.

The NPS helps communities set goals, resolve difficult issues, and reach consen-
sus on future use and the protection of important land and water resources. The

odplains



APPENDIX A Federal Programs Relating to the Natural ond Beneficial Functions of Floodptains

protect wetlands. The landowner voluntarily limits future use of the land, yet
retains private ownership. The landowner and NRCS develop a plan for the
restoration and maintenance of the wetland. The program offers landowners
three options: permanent easements, 30-year easements, and restoration cost-
share agreements of a minimum 10- year duration.

Other agencies and private conservation organizations may provide additional
assistance for easement payment and wetland restoration costs as a way to
reduce the landowner's share of the costs. Such special partnership efforts are
encouraged.

Eligible land includes: wetlands farmed under natural conditions; farmed wet-
lands; prior converted cropland; farmed wetland pasture; farmland that has
become a wetland as a result of flooding; rangeland, pasture, or production
forestland where the hydrology has been significantly degraded and can be re-
stored; riparian areas which link protected wetlands: lands adjacent to pro-
tected wetlands that contribute significantly to wetland functions and values;
and previously restored wetlands that need long-term protection.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Wotershed Approach

The watershed approach is a coordinating framework for environmental man-
agement that focuses public and private sector efforts on addressing the highest
priority problems within hydrological defined geographic areas. Both ground
and surface water flow are taken into consideration.

The EPA supports watershed approaches with the goal of preventing pollution
and achieving and sustaining environmental improvements that also meet other
important community goals. Although watershed approaches vary in terms of
specific objectives, priorities, elements, timing, and resources, they are all based
on the following guiding principles:

= Geographic Focus: activities are directed within specific geographic
areas, typically the areas that drain to surface water bodies or re-
charge or overlay ground waters, or a combination of both

= Sound Management Techniques based on Strong Science and Data:
collectively, watershed stakeholders employ sound scientific data, tools,
and techniques in an iterative decision-making process

= Partnerships: those people most affected by management decisions
are involved throughout and shape key decisions

Since stakeholders work together, actions are based upon shared information
and a common understanding of the roles, priorities, and responsibilities of all
parties involved, Concerns about environmental justice are addressed and, when
possible, pollution prevention techniques are adopted. The iterative nature of
the watershed approach encourages partners to set specific goals and make
maximum progress while continuing analysis and verification in areas where
information is incomplete.



APPENDIX A Federal Pre

= Relating to the Notural and Beneficial Functions of Floo:

Environmental Quality Program

The Environmental Quality program directs efforts to identify and assess con-
taminant and invasive species effects on fish and wildlife in order to prevent,
reduce, and/or eliminate contamination and invasive species problems. The
program also documents the interrelationships between contaminants and fish
and wildlife impacts, It focuses on activities that prevent contamination and
invasive species problems coupled with investigation, mitigation and restora-
tion activities in partnership with Federal, State, non-governmental organiza-
tions and the private sector. Environmental Quality Program activities are inte-
grated into all USFWS activities.

USFWS addresses attenuation of the impacts of non-point and point source
pollution. Activities aimed at avoiding the adverse effects of contaminants and
invasive species to trust resources include consultation with Federal agencies on
Federal construction projects, Clean Water Act permit reviews, pesticide use
permits and integrated pest management, Endangered Species Act, Section 7
consultations, technical consultations, early planning and review activities, and
management recommendations. The Service also determines the effects of oil
spills and hazardous substance releases on fish and wildlife resources and en-
sures protection and restoration of those natural resources.

Endangered Species

Protecting endangered and threatened species and restoring them to a secure
status in the wild are the major primary objectives of the Endangered Species
Program. The Endangered Species Act provides a comprehensive program where
both the public and private sectors can work together to conserve endangered
plants and animals and restore them to a secure status in the wild. As of 1999,
more than 1,200 species of plants and animals were on the U.S. List of Endan-
gered and Threatened Species.

The USFWS is responsible for listing. reclassifying, and delisting species, over-
seeing recovery activities for listed species, providing for the protection of im-
portant habitat and providing grants to states to assist with their endangered
species conservation efforts. The USFWS, or National Marine Fisheries Service,
as appropriate, consults with Federal agencies and issues biological opinions on
their activities when the activity permitted, funded or conducted by that agency
may affect listed species or designated critical habitat, or is likely to jeopardize
proposed species or adversely modify proposed critical habitat.

North American Waterfowl Management Plan/
Wetlands Conservation Act

The Fish and Wildlife Service's Division of Bird Habitat Conservation is respon-
sible for implementing the North American Waterfowl Management Plan and
the North American Wetlands Conservation Act on an international basis. The
intent of the Act is to encourage partnerships to protect, enhance, restore and
manage wetland ecosystems and other habitats for migratory birds and other
fish and wildlife; maintain current and improved distributions of migratory bird
populations; and sustain an abundance of waterfowl and other migratory birds
consistent with the goals of the Plan and international obligations with other



Napa Valley, California
PROJECT NAME: Napa River Flood Protection Project
LOCATION: Napa Valley, California

HIGHLIGHTS: A balanced approach of structural and non-
structural flood-reduction techniques is implemented through
Federal, state, and local cooperation. This has been referred to
asa ‘living river strategy."

BACKGROUND

Napa City and County, California have a history of periodic flood-
ing from the Napa River and Napa Creek. At one time, the Napa
River supported a dense riparian forest, provided significant
wetland habitats alongside the River, and included productive
spawning areas for fish such as the salmon and steelhead. How-
ever, the pressures of urbanization, agriculture, and grazing have
degraded these habitats and the quality of the natural environ-
ment around the River.

Residents, businesses, local and State government, the Cham-
ber of Commerce, environmental groups, the wineries, and the
USACE joined to form a coalition and agreed to five goals:

= Achieve “100-year" flood protection
= Restore the living environment of the Napa River
= Enhance the opportunity for economic development

= Develop a local financing plan that the community could
support

= Develop a plan that addresses the entire watershed,
County-wide

PROJECT ACCOMPLISHMENTS

The Project, now officially called the Napa County Flood Pro-
tection and Watershed Improvement Project, will provide flood
protection by reconnecting the Napa River to its floodplain, cre-
ating wetlands throughout the area, maintaining fish and wild-
life habitats, and retaining the natural characteristics of the River,
The Project features will include the following:

= Lower or remove the dike south of Imola Avenue to allow
the Napa River to flow in a wider area, thereby increasing
conveyance capacity and reducing upstream water sur-
face elevations.

Appendix B

CASE STUDIES

San Pabio
Bay
Pacific ;
ecg Oakland
@ San Francisco

The existing natural drainage system
provided by the Napa River and Napa
Creek is not adequate to prevent
extensive flooding end associated
property damage. In the past 36 years,
the Nepa County residents have
sustained $542 million in property
damage alone, and the City of Napa
experienced 27 major floods from 1862
10 1997,

= sModify the channel to create flood terraces, which will create addi-
tional capacity along the River and lower water surface elevations,
contributing to the approximately 500 acres of created wetland and

upland habitat.



APPENDIX A Federal Programs Relating to the Natural ond Beneficial F

The program provides a vehicle for local people to build partnerships and re-
quires local and state funding contributions. The purposes of watershed projects
include watershed protection, flood prevention, water quality improvements,
soil erosion reduction, rural, municipal and industrial water supply, irrigation
water management, sedimentation control, fish and wildlife habitat enhance-
ment and create and restore wetlands and wetland functions.

Watershed plans involving an estimated Federal contribution in excess of
$5,000,000 for construction, or construction of any single structure having a
capacity in excess of 2,500 acre-feet, require congressional committee approval.
Other plans are approved administratively. After approval, technical and finan-
cial assistance can be provided for installation of works of improvement speci-
fied in the plans.

Project sponsors are provided assistance in installing planned Jand treatment
measures. Surveys and investigations are made and detailed designs, specifica-
tions, and engineering cost estimates are prepared for the creation of structural
measures. Areas where sponsors need to obtain land rights, easements, and
rights-of-way are delineated. Technical and financial assistance are available to
landowners and operators in planning and application of needed conservation
measures on their individual units. There are presently over 1651 projects that
have been approved.

Emergency Watershed Protection Program

The Emergency Watershed Protection Program (EWP) was set up by Congress
to respond to emergencies created by natural disasters. It is designed to relieve
imminent hazards to life and property caused by floods, fires, windstorms, and
other natural occurrences. The purpose of EWP is to help groups of people with
acommon problem. All projects undertaken, with the exception of floodplain
easements, must be sponsored by a political subdivision of the State, such as a
city, county, general improvement district, or conservation district. Public and
private landowners are eligible for assistance but must be represented by the
project sponsor.

NRCS may bear up to 75 percent of the construction cost of emergency mea-
sures, The remaining 25 percent must come from local sources and can be in the
form of cash or in-kind services. All EWP work must reduce threats to life and
property and be economically and environmentally defensible.

Sponsors are responsible for providing land rights and securing the necessary
permits. EWP work is not limited to any one set of prescribed measures. A case-
by-case investigation of the needed work is made by NRCS and can include:
removing debris from stream channels, road culverts, and bridges; reshaping
and protecting eroded banks; correcting damaged drainage facilities; repairing
levees and structures; reseeding damaged areas; and purchasing floodplain ease-
ments.

In 1996, the Congress authorized NCRS to purchase floodplain easements on
flood damaged land. Through floodplain easements, NCRS attempts to restore
the functions and values of the floodplain.



1989). In some instances improperly designed levees can in-
crease upstream or downstream flooding. In addition, levees
may create a false sense of security from flooding that leads to
increase development behind the levee.

However, if the natural channel is unaltered and some ripar-
ian habitat is preserved between the levees, then the adverse
effect on habitats can be minimized, and the impact associ-
ated with levees is reduced.

Dredging and Excavation

The dredging and excavation of streams is often implemented
tostraighten, enlarge, or increase the flow capacity or naviga-
bility of a channel. In addition, adjacent areas are often graded
and fill is placed to prepare sites for development. Improper dredging may de-
stroy habitat, effectively reducing the assimilative capacity of small order streams
and riparian areas. Drainage changes and the lowering of the water table asso-
ciated with dredge and fill activities in the Noodplain can have an adverse effect
on adjacent wetlands and other natural values of floodplains such as floodwater
storage, runoff prevention, water filtration and erosion control (USACE, 1994;
1989).

3.2 Impacts of Changes in Land Use

Urbanization and other changes in the use of Jand and how it is managed that
occur in and outside of the floodplain also have significant impacts on the natu-
ral floodplain and on natural and beneficial floodplain functions. Economic and
societal benefits from floodplain development must be balanced against the
impacts of the development on the environment and its susceptibility to flood
damages. By improving our understanding of natural and beneficial functions
of the floodplain we can learn to design or modify changes in land use to avoid
or minimize these adverse impacts.

Urbanization

Development within watersheds and floodplains can alter the
floodplain landscape and adversely affect the natural func-
tions of floodplains, Urbanization often replaces natural veg-
etation with impervious surfaces, such as buildings, streets and
parking lots. Impervious surfaces increase runoff, which re-
sults in reducing lag times and increasing velocities, and ulti-
mately can lead to more severe flooding downstream. Extensive
filling of the floodplain, which is often related to urbaniza-
tion, removes the flood storage capacity and blocks the natu-
ral conveyance properties of floodplains, and leads to increase

USACE

Levees and floodwalls
typically require the
removal of riparian
vegetation and cut the
river off from its historic
floodplain,

i i ters th
flooding. One way that urbanization al ers the
floodplain landscape and functions is that
Loss of vegetation and excessive runoff can increase erosion __ it presents a threat to water quality of

and sedimentation thar may fill channels, cover fish spawning — waterways through non-point source and
areas and bury food sources within streams, and increase flood _paint source pollution.



The Natural and Beneficial Functions of Floodplains

Federal Interagency Floedpiain Management Task Force. 1986, A Unified
National Program for Floodplain Management. Washington, D.C.

Federal Interagency Floodplain Management Task Force. 1992. Floodplain
Monagement in the United States: An Assessment Report, Volumes 1 & 2.
FEMA, Washington, D.C.

Federal Interagency Floodplain Management Tesk Force. Further Advice on
Executive Order 11988 Floodplain Management. FEMA, Washington, D.C.

Interagency Floodplain Management Review Committee. 1994. Sharing the
Challenge; Floodplain Management inte the 21" Century (Report to the
Administration, Floodplain Management Task Force, Executive Office of the
President, FEMA, Washington, D.C.

Federal Interagency Stream Restoration Working Group. Stream Corridor Resto-
ration: Principles, Processes, and Practices. 1998. Washington, D.C.

Greeson, PE., J.R. Clark, and J.E, Clark {eds.). 1979. Wetland Functions ond
Values: The State of Our Understanding. American Water Resources Associa-
tion, Minneapolis, MN.

Hammer, D.A, 1992, Creating Freshwater Wetlands. Lewis Publishers, Boca
Raton, FL.

American Planning Association. 1997. Subdivision Design in Flood Hazard
Areas, Planning Advisory Service Report Number 473. American Planning
Association and the Federal Emergency Management Agency, Chicago, IL.

Maurizi, S. and F. Poillon. 1992. Restoration of Aquatic Ecosystems: Science,
Technology, and Public Policy. National Academy Press. Washington, D.C.

McShane, John H. 1993. Managing Floodplains to Reduce Flood Losses and
Protect Natural Resources, Proceedings of the National Association of Envi-
ronmental Professionals Annual Conference. Washington, D.C.

National Park Service. 1992. Economic Impacts of Protecting Rovers, Trails, and
greenway Corridors: A Resource Book, Notional Park Service. Washington,
Bie

National Park Service. 1996. Floods, Floodplains and Folks, National Park
Service. Washington, D.C.

National Research Council. 1992. Restoration of Aquatic Ecosystems. National
Academy Press, Washington, D.C.

National Wildlife Federction, Higher Ground: A Report on Voluntary Property
Buyouts in the Nations Flaodplains. 1998. Washington, D.C.

Scott, R.C. (1989): Physical Geography. West Publishing Co., Si. Paul, MN.

Silverberg, S.M. and M.S. Dennison. 1993. Wetlands and Coastal Zone Regula-
tion and Compliance, Wiley Press, New York, NY.

Task Force on Federal Flood Control Policy. A Unified National Program for
Managing Flood Losses, House Document 465. 1966. 89° Congress, 2"
Session, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1994, Floodplain Management Assessment of the
Upper Mississippi River and Lower Missouri Rivers and Tributaries.

6-2



The Naturol and Beneficial Functions of Floodplains

in the field with private landowners, Soil and Water Conservation
District representatives, city and county officials, Native American
tribes, and state and Federal agencies such as the Oregon Depart-
ment of Agriculture and NRCS. Much of this work focused on re-
viewing landowner needs, project plans, potential impacts of various
alternatives, easement opportunities, and permitting and funding op-
tions. In 1997, for example, the NRCS received $2.2 million for pur-
chase of floodplain easements in Oregon.

Providing on-the-ground assistance in a reliable and productive manner resulted
in more invitations from landowners and agencies for early involvement in the
restoration projects. Examples include the Skokomish, Dungeness, and Skagit
watersheds in Washington, which were targeted to long-term solutions for pre-
venting repeated flooding and habitat destruction. Restoring watershed health
will reduce flooding and the expense of repeatedly repairing flood damaged
structures while also restoring important spawning and rearing habitat for de-
clining salmon stocks.

The Northwest U.S. River Systems program is noteworthy in that it is creating
partnerships among the stakeholders in the affected basins; restoring the natu-
ral floodplain and salmon habitat; developing plans for large areas; and com-
mitting significant funds and technical assistance to make the program a reality,

Prince George's County, Maryland

PROJECT NAME: Residential
Flood Response Planning

LOCATION: Prince George's
County, Maryland

HIGHLIGHTS: County driven
efforts to implement flood man-
agement and integrate water-
shed management, planning,
and effective mitigation tech-
niques.

BACKGROUND Relocating © Prince George's County home
Prince George’s County sus-

tained significant flooding in

1972 following Hurricane Agnes. More than $10 million in damages resulted
from the storm. As a result, the County enacted a bill in August, 1972 (CR 126-
1972) establishing a Task Force on Flooding to review available data on flood
control projects, recommend immediate and long-term actions for alleviating
flooding problems, and review the County’s flood emergency procedure. The
County's program is structured to include the principles of community involve-
ment, education, and media relations.

Following two years of much discussion and study, the Task Force recommended
the following:



The Natural and Beneficial Functions of Floodpleins

U.S. Department of Agriculture
U.S, Environmental Protection Agency
U.S. Department of Interior

Appendix B

CASE STUDIES
Napa Valley, California .
Darlington, Wisconsin ..
Baltimore County, Maryland
Oregon and Washington ......
Prince George's County, Maryland .
Santa Clara River, California .....
Staten Island Wetlands, New York
Westernport, Maryland ,

Appendix C
SECTION 562 OF THE NATIONAL FLOOD INSURANCE
REFORM-AGT: OF 1994 cic saissnicnnstenacsiscciccssetiasensiactentnentbecascnad tence saataasse C1

Appendix D
PRESIDENTIAL EXECUTIVE ORDERS svsccsi.seiivadsccicuatiascasicectinaie Dol

Appendix E
TASK FORCE AGENCIES is csiistc esti WA NRT



= Acquisition Process. Once a home is identified for acquisition,
County personnel meet with the homeowner, walk through the house
and mark flood elevations, explain the negative effects of repetitive
or long-term flooding, and present the County's voluntary acquisi-
tion process, A determination is made as to whether the structure can
be relocated to an acceptable nearby lot. Otherwise the structure is
demolished and the lot graded and stabilized. The lots accrue to the
County inventory, the park system, or to interested adjacent property
owners, Deed restrictions are placed on the property to prevent fu-
ture building on the property.

= Floodproofing. Floodproofing parallels the acquisition process in
the initial stages. The County designs, constructs, and pays for the
floodproofing. The improvements are designed to create an amenity
to the property and employ low walls, earth berms, grading, or stairs,

= Preventing Future Problems. Basically, no development is per-
mitted within the County floodplain. Filling or other encroachments
into a designated floodplain are generally prohibited, unless the project
can offset or mitigate impacts to the floodplain.

Santa Clara River Valley, California

PROJECT NAME: Santa Clara River Enhancement and Manage-
ment Plan

LOCATION: Santa Clara, California

HIGHLIGHTS: Stakeholder involvement provides a plan to man-
age an entire river corridor.

BACKGROUND

The Santa Clara River is the only large river left in southern Cali-
fornia that remains mostly in its natural state. As such, it repre-
sents a unique value to a wide variety of residents in a watershed
that lies north of the City of Los Angeles. In 1992, stakeholders

Stakeholders of the Santa Clore River
Valley have developed on enhancement
including the agricultural community, aggregate community, de- and monagement plen for the largely

velopment interests, local government, water and sanitation dis- _ristine floodplain to ensure thot the river
tricts, private landowners, recreation agencies, and State and Fed- remains a natural ond economi

resource
eral resource and regulatory agencies, held competing interests for the community.

on the use and protection of the River’s resources. There was con-

sensus however, that some orderly process and plan was neces-

sary. The goal was to develop a plan for the “500-year” floodplain that was

amenable to all parties that would be implemented to ensure that the Santa

Clara River remained a natural and economic resource of the River valley: The

following table of stakeholders and their concerns gives some idea of the chal-

lenges that developing a functional plan posed.

PROJECT ACCOMPLISHMENTS

Project Steering Committee — After much discussion, the stakeholders agreed
to develop a plan and form a Project Steering Committee to advance the pro-
cess. The charge of the 26 member Committee was to develop and seek support



The Natural and &

Correcting Existing Problems — The identification of problem areas within
the county was done through two mechanisms. The first is from the average
number of 350 storm-drainage complaints received each year, most of which
are flood related, ‘he second mechanism is through watershed studies, where
more than 2,000 flood-prone structures have been classified. One project, Silver
Valley Way, is an example of a plan initiated from a citizen complaint. Clinton
Acres, on the other hand, was implemented after the Piscataway Watershed
Study was completed. Both projects were funded by the State through the Flood
Management Grant Program.

« Silver Valley Way Project. Citizens had complained to the County
that they were experiencing flooding in their community. The study
indicated the problem to be inadequate capacity of an existing 54-
inch culvert under Interstate 95 that produced excessive water sur-
face conditions. Two homes were acquired and one home was
floodproofed. The acquisition of the homes restored an important
property back to its natural state as a floodplain and was a comple-
ment to the other improvements.

= Clinton Acres Subdivision. [In 1986, the County completed a
Comprehensive Stormwater Management Plan for the Piscataway
Creek Watershed. In the study, 38 houses in the Clinton Acres Subdi-
vision in Brandywine were identified as flood-prone structures. Un-
der the County Executive's request, a Citizen Advisory Committee
(CAC) was formed consisting of county officials, directly affected resi-
dents, and indirectly affected residents, to develop the best solutions
for solving the flooding problem. After a detailed evaluation and
numerous lengthy meetings, the CAC reached a consensus that ac-
quisition and floodproofing were the most desirable solutions. The
CAC then developed a policy for the acquisition and floodproofing of
flood-prone homes. With this policy, the County initiated the acquisi-
tion and floodproofing program within the subdivision.

Watershed Studies ~ The County's watershed studies delineated the 2, 10,
100 and “500-year” floodplain elevations, based upon both present and ulti-
mate development conditions within the watershed. The resulting plan identi-
fied floodplains, present and future flood hazards, and water quality require-
ments. Once an area has been identified as flood-prone, the County requires
thar all furure development not increase the 2, 10, or “100-year” water surface
elevations in flood prone zones. This is accomplished through individual. on-
site, or regional control measures. The County continues to be successful in
requiring developers to reduce post development discharge to a level equal to or
less than predevelopment conditions. The County has also developed a matrix
to assist planners in determining how each flood-prone structure should be treated
in developing long range floodproofing and acquisition plans. The decision ma-
trix takes into account the development density, flood depth, number of affected
homes, and if livable space is affected. As the density and home number in-
creases, acquisition is viewed as more viable. With the converse, floodproofing
is preferred. After the above information is tallied, a comprehensive flood haz-
ard mitigation plan is proposed.



when competing positions are not addressed, By its very nature, this approach
educates stakeholders on the interests of other stakeholders. For example, The
Ventura County Flood Control District was considering using the Plan as a ve-
hicle to convince the County not to permit development in flood prone areas,

in April 1999, the Project Steering Committee determined that the evaluation of
issues and development of recommendations was complete and began discuss-
ing preparation of the final Plan.

Plan Development — The Santa Clara Enhancement and Management Plan is
being developed in three phases:

PHASET Collection and review of all existing information, which
has been completed,

PHASE I Analysis of the information and development of alterna-
tive programs,

PHASE III Selection of a preferred alternative and performance of
required environmental analyses.

Financial Support — Support for the Plan is originating from a number of
Sources, and will be in the form of grants and in-kind services,

Grants are coming from local, State and Federal governments including the
State Coastal Conservancy, Wildlife Conservation Board of the State Depart-
ment of Fish and Game, Los Angeles and Ventura County Flood Control Dis-
tricts, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency,

The organizations that have offered in-kind services include the Newhall Land
and Farming Company for mapping, Ventura and Los Angeles Counties for GIS
and modeling, CalTrans (California Department of Transportation) for certain
topographic mapping, United Water Conservation District for water studies, U.S.
Fish and Wildlife Service for coordination, National Park Service for technical
assistance on recreation, and the State Coastal Conservancy for various services.

Staten Island Wetlands, New York

PROJECT NAME: Bluebelt Streams, Ponds, and Other Wetland Areas Used as
Ecologically Sound and Cost-Effective Storm Water Management

LOCATION: Staten Island, New York

HIGHLIGHTS: Effective community outreach and comprehensive approach to
protecting and enhancing wetlands provides for a natural alternative for
stormwater management.

BACKGROUND

South Richmond, Staten Island, the most southerly part of New York City and
State, is the last area within city boundaries to have a significant amount of
open space. It is separated from New Jersey on the west by a narrow body of
water, the Arthur Kill. On the south and east is an arm of the Atlantic Ocean

Appendix B CASE STUDIES

B-15


The Natural and Beneficial Functions of Floadplains

Finally, maps and databases need to synthesize and integrate information on all
of the components of floodplain management and resources in a format that
will benefit scientists, technicians and educators, as well as government agen-
cies on all levels.

Meeting These Challenges

Section five of this report, Recommendations, builds on the Current State of
Floodplain Management and Challenges to Policy Makers, and provides a com-
prehensive listing of actions to meet these challenges and improve efforts for the
restoration and preservation of natural and beneficial functions of floodplains
for the 21" Century.



The Natural and

Functions of Floodplain

merous outdoor activities, such as water-oriented sports, boating, swimming,
hiking and camping. Floodplain wildlife resources can be managed for observa-
tion as well as for recreational hunting and fishing. Finally, natural floodplains
can be valuable as constituents of the “wilderness experience,” an important
aspect of American culture,

‘To understand and appreciate floodplain functions and values, one must look
beyond a specific point in a floodplain to the overall ecosystem that encom-
passes numerous natural and human communities. As such, most of the natural
ecological, water, recreational, and cultural values of floodplains discussed above
do not benefit just one specific site, but rather an entire river system or coastal
landscape. Effective management of these resources can ensure that both hu-
man and natural communities receive the benefits of a balanced and vigorous
floodplain system.



The Notural ond Beneficial Functions of Floedplains

recreation areas that include indigenous vegetation and maintain flood storage
capacity can support the floodplain functions that protect water quality and
sustain habitats for diverse wildlife species. Conversely, some forms of intensive
recreation can have similar adverse impacts on natural and beneficial functions
of floodplains as other forms of urban development. Uncontrolled use of off-
road and all-terrain vehicles can cause significant compaction of soils and loss of
vegetation. The use of motorboats can disrupt bottom sediments, increase shore-
line erosion and create gas and noise pollution.

Human development and other activities have caused significant adverse effects
to the natural resources and functions of floodplains. The recommendations
provided in this report can limit
these impacts in the short-term,
and protect and restore valuable
floodplain resources and func-
tions in the long-term.

The important functions of the floodplain
have been recognized and preserved at
the Tidewater Trail in San Franciso Bay
Notional Wildlife Refuge.

3-6

‘bed lnc ea bees Vireeie .

On Ur m

fo}

]

MP MPPs pe ce


The Natural and Be

destruction of instream and floodplain habitat. This process can help preserve
floodplain functions that depend on the timing and quantity of water diverted
(e.g., waterfowl! habitat, fisheries, and water recreation).

Dams and Reservoirs

Dams create impoundments of water for use in the generation of hydroelectric
power, irrigation, water supply, and flood damage reduction. Well-sited and
properly managed dams can limit flood losses and some of the adverse impacts
on the functions of floodplains. Dams can store and release water in reservoirs
on a controlled basis, thus limiting the occurrence of downstream flooding and
minimizing erosion over that which may have occurred during high flows be-

fore the dam was constructed. Reservoirs can also provide ad-

Dams can adversely
impact floodplain natural
resources and functions
by innundating
floodplains and by
changing downstream
flow regimes.

ditional benefits, such as recreation and warm water fisheries.

However, dams can have dramatic impacts on river systems.
Stream and terrestrial habitat and associated resources are lost
due to inundation by the impoundment. Dams and reservoirs
can impede the flow of rivers, reduce or eliminate the benefi-
cial periodic inundation of natural floodplains, and block or
slow the passage and migration of aquatic organisms. Dams
can result in the long-term loss of diversity, and adversely i
pact stream habitat, aquatic resources and other functions.
This in turn affects food chains associated with floodplain func-
tions, and alters the size and diversity of wildlife populations.
Dams can also alter water quality by changing the normal tem-
perature of the body of water, consequently affecting the biological conditions
necessary for feeding or reproduction,

Dams can block sediment transport which affects the volume and water quality
in the reservoir and can cause scouring downstream until an equilibrium bed
load is reestablished (Interagency Stream Restoration Working Group, 1998).
This can also reduce the sand supply in coastal systems increasing coastal ero-
sion and resulting storm damages. Finally, dams can create a false sense of
security from flooding that leads to increased development below the dam.

Levees, Dikes and Floodwalls

Levees, dikes and floodwalls can provide flood protection from seasonal or spo-
radic flooding, and are often used in conjunction with other types of channel
modifications. Construction usually requires the clearing of vegetation to allow
earth-moving equipment access for excavation and placement of the embank-
ment, After construction, side slopes are often seeded or sodded, and vegetation
is maintained to avoid conditions that might endanger the levees structural
integrity during flood events,

Levees, dikes and floodwalls often have similar impacts on the floodplain as
channelization. Levee systems create drier conditions on the protected flood-
plain, which may have adverse impacts on the spawning success of many fish
species, and contributes to the loss of wetlands. Levees also typically raise the
water surface elevation on the riverward side during flood conditions, causing
further inundation that can lead to soil, vegetation and habitat loss (USACE,

29

Free tt Ne


Vision Statement

The Task Force concludes that protecting and restoring the natural and
beneficial functions of floodplains will not only reduce flood damages,
but also contribute to a community's economic and social wellbeing.
As we continue to live in close proximity to rivers and streams, naturally
functioning floodplains will become increasingly critical community as-
sets. Preservation and restoration of the natural and beneficial func-
tions of floodplains depends on preventative flood management policies,
Programs and initiatives. While much of this will occur as a result of
initiatives at the state and local levels, Federal programs and policies
must support and encourage these efforts.

he Task Force recognizes that socio-economic considerations (in par
ticular the need to allow for existing and future development in flood
plains) must be balanced with the need for protection of the natural
and beneficial functions of floodplains, This is especially true for heavily
developed floodplains where economic concerns have taken priority and alter-
native locations are limited. Nevertheless, opportunities do exist even in densely
developed areas to preserve or restore the natural and beneficial functions of

floodplains and to reduce flood losses through improved floodplain manage-
ment. Recommendations. must be framed by a multi-objective view of flood-
plain management using watershed-based approaches.

‘The Task Force recommendations are described below, including specific items
that are needed to implement them. ‘The goal of these recommendations is to
protect and restore the natural resources
and functions of floodplains and reduce
flood losses. The following guiding prin-
ciples were applied in developing the rec-
ommendations:

= Focus on natural, non-structural so-
lutions to reducing flood damages,
while maintaining the flexibility to
use more traditional structural ap-
proaches where appropriate.

= Create a framework for more effec-
tive Federal, State, tribal, and local co-
“ordination of floodplain management
programs that include the protection
and restoration of the natural and

Section Five

TASK FORCE
RECOMMENDATION

help protect property and reduce flood losses such as those coused
beneficial functions of floodplains. by Hurricane Georges in this subdivision



the wetlands in the lower 48 States were lost between the 1780's and the 1980's.
As of the 1997, only about 105.5 million acres remained in the lower 48 States,
representing about 5.5 percent of the landmass of the continental United States
(Dahl, 2000). ‘This loss of wetlands has increased flooding in many parts of the
country, In its report on the Midwest Flood of 1993, the Interagency Floodplain
Management Review Committee (1994) noted that upland watershed treat-
ment and restoration of upland and bottomland wetlands can reduce flood stages
in more frequent floods (25 years or less).

2.2.3 Functions of Coastal Floodplains

The most critical function of any coastal floodplain is the protection and mainte-
nance of the resources that exist along both the shores and inland. ‘These re-
sources include nearby mainland beaches, barrier islands, rocky intertidal shores,
salt marshes, and wetlands, and encompass a wide range of wildlife species.
Also included are humans and human elements such as housing, roads, etc.
Coastal floodplains are natural resources that must be properly managed in
order to protect the shorelines, low-lying inland areas and the species these
areas support. Coastal zones are extremely dynamic areas due to the abundance
of wind and wave energy and dependence on coastal sediments. Coastal envi-
ronments tend to change ata fairly constant rate over time, but in the short run
hurricanes, seasonal storms, excessive winds and tidal extremes can easily ac-
celerate these changes and result in severe storm damage and floods, Predicted
increases in the rate of sea level rise will only increase the susceptibility of coastal
areas to flood losses.

The coast’s primary defense against wave energy is shallow near shore ocean
bottoms, Waves are formed by the wind and refraction alters their form and
direction, These waves often break before striking the shore, thus diminishing
their stored energy. The coast’s secondary response to wave energy is provided
by coastal beaches, which under ordinary conditions absorb much of the incom-
ing wave energy,

Energy-intensive storm waves cause beach sediment to move offshore to subtidal
areas, resulting in a reduced coastal beach volume and a gentler slope. Coastal
dunes on barrier islands constitute the major portion of the total volume of a
barrier island thatis visible above high water. On retreating shorelines the coastal
dunes bordering the beach migrate landward, either over a gradual period of
time from tidal and wave influences, or very rapidly, as in the event of a major
storm. The erosion of coastal dunes by waves, usually during storms, supplies
sand to the adjacent coastal beaches or shallow waters. Without this supply of
sediment, beaches will gradually be depleted, either migrating or disappearing
from the onshore sediment system. The volume (height and width) and form of
coastal dunes provides a buffer that resists wave run-up during storms and re-
tards shoreline retreat. Vegetation contributes to the growth and stability of
coastal dunes by providing conditions favorable to sand deposition and stability.

What is often thought of as shore “protection” or “stabilization” can create ad-
verse effects upon the functionality of coastal zones. The implementation of
hard or soft structures (e.g., seawalls, jetties, sandbags, man-made beaches of
littoral fill) can either directly or indirectly alter the natural processes that serve

1eficial Functions-of Floodplains



APPENDIX D Presidential Executive Orders

for lease, easement, right-of-way or disposal to non-Federal public or private
parties, the Federal agency shall (a) reference in the conveyance those uses that
are restricted under identified Federal, State or local wetlands regulations; and
(b) attach other appropriate restrictions to the uses of properties by the grantee
or Purchaser and any successor, except where prohibited by law; or (¢) withhold
such properties from disposal.

Sec. 5. In carrying out the activities described in Section | of this Order, each
agency shall consider factors relevant to a proposal’s effect on the survival and
quality of the wetlands. Among these factors are:

(a) public health, safety, and welfare, including water supply, quality,
recharge and discharge; pollution; flood and storm hazards; and sedi-
ment and erosion;

(b) maintenance of natural systems, including conservation and long
term productivity of existing flora and fauna, species and habitat
diversity and stability, hydrologic utility, fish, wildlife, timber, and
food and fiber resources; and

(c) other uses of wetlands in the public interest, including recreational,
scientific, and cultural uses,

Sec. 6. As allowed by law, agencies shall issue or amend their existing proce-
dures in order to comply with this Order, To the extent possible, existing pro-
cesses, such as those of the Council on Environmental Quality and the Water
Resources Council, shall be utilized to fulfill the requirements of this Order.

Sec. 7. As used in this Order:

(a) The term “agency” shall have the same meaning as the term “Execu-
tive agency” in Section 105 of Tide 5 of the United States Code and
shall include the military departments; the directives contained in
this Order, however, are meant to apply only to those agencies which
perform the activities described in Section I which are located in or
affecting wetlands.

(b) The term “new construction” shall include draining, dredging,
channelizing, filling, diking, impounding, and related activities and
any structures or facilities begun or authorized after the effective
date of this Order.

(c) The term “wetlands” means those areas that am inundated by sur-
face or ground water with a frequency sufficient to support and un-
der normal circumstances does or would support a prevalence of
vegetative or aquatic life that requires saturated or seasonally satu-
rated soil conditions for growth and reproduction. Wetlands generally
include swamps, marshes, bogs, and similar areas such as sloughs,
potholes, wet meadows, river overflows, mud flats, and natural ponds,

Sec. 8. This Order does not apply to projects presently under construction, or
to projects for which all of the funds have been appropriated through Fiscal Year
1977, or to projects and programs for which a draft or final environmental
impact statement will be filed prior to October 1, 1977. The provisions of Sec-

D-7


for a dynamic, long-ranged Enhancement and Management Plan for the Santa
Clara River. Secondly, the study process will focus on improving coordination
and information exchanges among all Project Steering Committee members
and on resolving conflicting uses along the River. The study is designed to give
balanced consideration to protection of the natural and beneficial functions of
the floodplain, natural river processes, private property rights, economic inter-
ests, and community objectives. The vision statement of the Committee is to
achieve:

“A River corridor that is an asset to all those who work and live in the Santa
Clara River Valley; one that provides for a positive, coordinated interaction among
all stakeholders along the River.”

The development of the Santa Clara River Plan represents an innovative ap-
proach in that it gathers all involved parties and stakeholders together to de-
velop a plan not only for floodplain management, but also for management of
the entire River corridor for all purposes. Approaches such as this, if successful,
will establish objectives and priorities as well as avoid the gridlock that occurs

STAKEHOLDER

California Department of Fish ond Game —_Long term protection for Federally listed and rare species
US Fish and Wildlife Service and habitats on the River; maintenance of a natural and
dynamic river

CONCERN

Los Angeles Flood Control District Increased flood control to land at risk on the River
Ventura County Flood Control District

Newhall Land and Farming Company Construct a city of 70,000 people in Los Angeles County

United Water Conservation District Release more water from Piru reservoir for groundwater
recharge to combat salt water intrusion underneath Oxnard
Plain

Private Landowners Simplified process for getting local, State and Federal permits
for agricultural-related activities |

Sand and Gravel Interests Long-term availability of aggregate supplies from the River
and its floodplain

Beach Erosion Authority More sand supply for beach nourishment south of the River's
mouth

Five Cites and Two Counties Along the River Increased protection to infrastructure on and adjacent
to the River; increased recreational opportunities

Regional Water Quality Control Board Assure improvement and continued quality of water in the
River



APPENDIX A

arams Relating to th

Fish and Wildlife Management Assistance

In partnership with other Federal, State, tribal governments, and a variety of
private interests, the Service is addressing factors causing declines in native fish
populations; and helping restore, enhance, and protect nationally significant
fishery resources and aquatic ecosystems. The Service provides management
expertise on issues affecting the Great Lakes and inland (non-anadromous) fish-
eries and related wildlife management issues. In association with other Service
Programs, Fish and Wildlife Management Assistance is responsible for a fish
passage program that opens up miles of riverine habitats to interjurisdictional
and imperiled fish; and, accomplishes water quality and habitat improvement
for the benefit of living aquatic resources.

Fisheries habitat restoration efforts are directed to lakes, streams, estuaries, and
associated riparian and upland buffer habitats. Projects have concentrated on
small watersheds where restoration efforts can focus on producing measurable
project-positive outcomes. In-stream and riparian work include:

« The restoration of aquatic and riparian habitats through the construc-
tion of artificial habitats

= The planting of indigenous vegetation

= Erosion and pollution discharge control

= The control and/or elimination of invasive plant and animal species
= Evaluation of fish health (wild stock survey)

= Species evaluation in waters where fishery resources have been en-
hanced by stocking of cultured species

Federal Aid in Fish and Wildlife Restoration

The Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration Act (better known as the Pittman-
Robertson Act) provides funding for the selection, restoration, rehabilitation
and improvement of wildlife habitat, wildlife management research, and the
distribution of information, Federal funding pays for up to 75 percent of project
costs, with the States contributing at least 25 percent. More than 62 percent of
the funds are used to buy, develop, maintain and operate wildlife management
areas. Some 4 million acres have been purchased outright since the program
began and nearly 40 million acres are managed for wildlife under agreements
with other landowners. Various kinds of lands have been acquired including
winter rangelands for big game, and wetlands, an essential habitat to water-
fowl.

The Federal Aid to Sport Fish Restoration Act, commonly referred to as the
Dingell-Johnson Act, was modeled after the Pittman-Robertson Act to create a
parallel program for management of fishery resources, conservation and resto-
tation. Under the Wallop-Breaux Amendment, the Act was supplemented in
1984 by revenues on additional items of previously untaxed sporting equip-
ment. Funds are used for such things as reclaiming fishing and boating access
sites; purchase of fishing access areas, boat landings, piers and fish production

Natural and Beneficial Functions of Floodplain:



ant

THE NATURAL
loodplains are the low areas adjacent to rivers, lakes, and oceans that

are periodically flooded at intervals of varying frequency (Federal Inter AN D

agency Stream Restoration Working Group, 1998; Interagency Flood

plain Management Task Force, 1994). Floodplains are important com- BENEFICIAL

ponents of their respective watersheds. Watersheds are defined areas of land FUNCTIONS OF
that drain water, sediment and dissolved materials to a common outlet at some

point along a stream channel (Federal Interagency Stream Restoration Working FLOODPLAI NS
Group, 1998, citing Dunne and Leopold, 1978). Floodplains are hydrologically

important, environmentally sensitive and ecologically productive areas within a

watershed that perform many natural functions. They contain a wealth of cul-

tural and natural resources that are of enormous value to society,

2.1 What Are
Why Are

Flooding is a natural phenomenon of every river, and is extremely important to
the maintenance of floodplain ecosystems and channel stability. Floodplain en-
vironments are dynamic in nature and are highly productive biological commu-
nities given their proximity to water and the presence of fertile soils and nutrients.
Floodwaters carry nutrient-rich sediments and trigger chemical processes that
cause beneficial changes in the soil, which contribute to a fertile environment
for vegetation (Interagency Floodplain Management Review Committee, 1994,
citing PB. Bayley, 1991; Federal Interagency Floodplain Management Task Force,
1996). Floodplains preserve biodiversity by creating a variety of habitats, in-
cluding breeding and feeding areas for fish and wildlife. In addition, floodplains
are hydrologically important components of a watershed because of their flood
storage and conveyance, protection of water quality, and recharge of ground
water functions,

2.1.1 Riverine Floodp

Riverine systems vary in steepness,
width, stream flow, sediment deposi-
tion and erosive characteristics. This
becomes readily apparent as one
moves downstream from narrow head-
water streams to lower gradient
streams with wider floodplains. The
natural functions that are associated
with a particular floodplain depend in
part on its location within this con
tinuum.

The frequency, duration and extent of
flood events will vary among differ.
ent types of floodplains, dependent
upon their hydrology, geomorphology, The Yellowstone River in Yellowstone Notional Park is one
and amount of floodplain develop- —fivers in America that still has a +
ment. floodplain system,

he few

ctioning fiparion and



The Natur

a an

Benet

Partnerships

Effective multi-objective and multi-level partnerships are essential to protecting
and restoring the natural and beneficial functions of floodplains. Scientific and
regulatory standards alone are not enough; there must be a willingness among
floodplain stakeholders to work together to develop programs to achieve this
goal. Involvement of a wide variety of stakeholders and leveraging of limited
Federal funds and resources with those of state and local government and the
private sector can result in plans and projects in floodplains that more fully
account for natural and beneficial functions while at the same time reducing
flood losses.

Non-Structural Solutions : =]

In the past, limited consideration
was given to non-structural al-
ternatives in formulating flood
loss reduction plans. Evaluation
procedures, including those used
to determine benefit/cost ratios
were focused on structural flood
control measures and often do
not work as well for non-struc-
tural approaches. Today, non-
structural solutions are gaining
greater attention and through
their success, these methods are
proving their worth, Compre-
hensive non-structural ap-
proaches to flood damage reduction also preserve and promote the restoration
of the natural resources of floodplains as well as the benefits that they provide.

Non-structural solutions to reducing flood
losses, such as relocating buildings aut of
the floodplain, are gaining greater
cttention and proving their worth

Government Subsidies

Some government programs continue to subsidize or encourage public and pri-
vate development and reconstruction within floodplains regardless of the risk of
flooding. These programs are often the unintended consequences of other well-
meaning programs and do not consider the natural and beneficial functions of
floodplains. This has been particularly true for post-disaster recovery programs.
However, the focus today appears to be shifting from flood recovery to flood
damage prevention. Government subsidized programs must be limited in the
type of development and recovery or reconstruction assistance they provide
within floodplain environments so that they do not inadvertently encourage
actions that damage the natural and beneficial functions of floodplains or in-
crease flood damages.

Technical Expertise

Agencies involved in flood loss reduction and emergency management at all
levels of government must have staff with the scientific expertise necessary to
identify and protect the natural and beneficial functions of floodplains. ‘They



The Natural and Baneficial Functions of Floodplains

tion of steep and erodible slopes adjacent to watercourses, and the revised Regu-
lations became effective in January 1991, The County’s Regulations have been
cited by the State of Maryland and the Chesapeake Bay Program as a model for
local stream protection.

Several characteristics of the stream buffers established through the Regulations
are noteworthy:

1. The buffer requirements apply to all land “development” activity, in-
cluding grading, land subdivision, and construction.

2. Stream buffers are required for all perennial and intermittent streams
based on field-determined site conditions, including delineation of
stream channels, non-tidal wetlands and floodplains.

3. The stream buffer design standards account for water quality class
and stream hierarchy, with variable widths, including a minimum of
75 feet on each side of the stream for non-trout waters and 100 feet
for trout streams; or, 25 feet beyond the extent of “100-year” flood-
plains/ non-tidal wetlands; or steep/erodible slopes within 150 feet
of the stream, whichever is greatest.

4. Sueam buffers must be surveyed and recorded on Record Plats, and
restrictive covenants designed to prevent disturbance of vegetation
are required.

Other components of DEPRM’s Integrated Watershed Management Program

also address the protection and restoration of the natural functions and values
of floodplains.

= Restoration, In 1987, DEPRM established a capital improvement
program for watershed restoration, funded through County bond
funds and State cost-share programs. For severely degraded streams,
the county is undertaking restoration of channels using “natural chan-
nel design” concepts based on Rosgen methods. These projects in-
volve restoration of the dimension, pattern, and profile of streams,
often with re-creation of functional floodplains where channels were
previously deeply incised. Repianting of wetlands in the floodplain
and reforestation of the riparian zone are important components of
these projects.

Baltimore County also launched a new program in the spring of 1999
for community reforestation that is focusing on riparian areas. A col-
laborative effort of DEPRM and the Department of Recreation and
Parks, the program includes a contract with a non-profit AmeriCorps-
affiliated youth service organization for planting, monitoring, and
maintenance of community reforestation projects. The County's For-
estry Board is contributing grant funding for the purchase of trees
and is establishing seedling nurseries in County schools.

= Research and Planning. DEPRM is conducting significant re-
search to guide decision-making for watershed-based resource man-
agement. This effort includes the preparation of watershed

B-6



The Natural and Bene

nity-based water shed associations. The County’s commitment to protection and
restoration of its natural resources has been acknowledged through several awards
from the Local Government Advisory Committee of the Chesapeake Bay Pro-
gram.

Oregon and Washington

PROJECT NAME: Managing
Northwest U.S. River Systems to
Reduce Flood Damage and Re-
store Watershed Health

LOCATION: Washington and
Oregon

HIGHLIGHTS: Partnerships,
planning, and technical assis-
tance ensure flood management
with highest fish and wildlife
habitat values Storm damage in Umatilla

BACKGROUND

Oregon and Washington experienced its worst flooding in 35 years during the
winters of 1995-1997, These floods devastated significant portions of these states,
resulting in disaster declarations for over half of Oregon and 30 counties in
Washington. On May 20, 1996, the White House approved $1.6 million for the
U.S, Fish and Wildlife Service to provide technical assistance in Oregon, Idaho,
Washington, and California to landowners and Federal agencies such as the
Natural Resource Conservation Service (NRCS) and Army Corps of Engineers
(USACE), This 1996 appropriation was supplemented after additional flooding
occurred in late 1996 and early 1997,

In Oregon, the 1997 floods were mostly concentrated in the southwestern and
northeastern parts of the state, while the February 1996 flood occurred on the
north Oregon coast and in the Willamette Valley. In Washington, several rivers
with chronic watershed damage experienced repeated flooding in 1997 during
relatively normal rain and snowmelt events. Much of the damage was from
flooding of urbanized areas, residential and commercial properties, and farms
and associated structures located within floodplains.

Floodplains have traditionally been used for farming, but recent growth pres-
sures have also led to increased development for industrial and residential pur-
poses. In addition to flooding, these storm events also caused landslides,
streambank erosion, and significant amounts of sediment transport.

PROJECT ACCOMPLISHMENTS.
‘The USFWS's flood response program focused on the following areas:

« Technical Assistance was provided to over 630 flood-related
projects in Oregon and Washington during 1996 and 1997. In Or-
egon, this assistance was delivered in all counties but one. In Wash-
ington, assistance was concentrated in the western portion of the



state where flooding was most severe. Much of this work occurred in
river systems with sensitive fish species, and special emphasis was
given to maintaining or restoring important habitat conditions for
these species. This approach maximized benefits to fish and wildlife
while minimizing cost and inconvenience to the landowner, and in
many cases actually resulted in a simplified permitting process be-
cause resource considerations were incorporated early in the pro-
cess.

A Flood Control Techniques Report is being prepared in con-
sultation with partner agencies to address a variety of stream bank
stabilization methods to determine which flood management tech-
niques provide the highest quality fish and wildlife habitat. Over 100
requests for this report have been received to date. There is also an
interagency effort to re-define how vegetation is managed on levees
to provide for both flood protection and

habitat. The results of these two projects

will be available to Federal, state, and lo- Service Provided in Oregon

ial > 10 projects

cal watershed managers. Using “fish
friendly” flood management techniques
are becoming increasingly critical as Wash-
ington and Oregon intensify their salmon
recovery programs.

The Tillamook Basin Flood Study
is developing an integrated river manage-
ment strategy for the entire basin. Over
the previous century, a traditional philoso-
phy of damming, diking and dredging
had prevailed. Unfortunately, these and
other flood engineering activities were
often at cross-purposes to salmon and
wetland restoration efforts.

President Clinton, in Challenge 21 of

=< 10 projects

Appendix B CASE STUDIES

his 1998 Clean Water Action Plan, au-

thorized the USACE “to work with local

communities to promote greater use of non-traditional, non-struc-
tural flood hazard mitigation strategies through increased fiscal and
policy incentives.” The Tillamook Basin Study supports this approach,
and the USACE has identified the basin as a Challenge 21 project.
The goal is to develop a management strategy that accommodates
appropriate human uses of floodplain areas while conserving and
restoring important aquatic resources. When completed, it is expected
that the Tillamook example will be used by watershed councils and
other planning bodies as a benchmark for similar floodplain man-
agement and restoration strategies throughout Oregon.

Partnerships. The third accomplishment of the flood Tesponse
program involves creating and strengthening partnerships. The U.S.
Fish and Wildlife biologists spent the majority of their time working

B-9


& Current State of Floodplain Menegement

tesources or biological systems of the planet. Public awareness of sustainability,
and “smart growth” has increased considerably in the past few years through
the efforts of many organizations, including the President’s Council on Sustain-
able Development. From this awareness, a number of approaches to controlled
growth and sustainable development were created, including floodplain man-
agement and other vital natural resource protection initiatives. These initiatives
incorporate resource sensitivity into community planning efforts and as such,
directly support the protection and restoration of floodplain functions. (See Case
Study — Sustainable Development in Del Rio, Texas.)

State and Local Efforts

Approximately one half of the states have adopted some form of floodplain
regulations. Some states establish minimum standards for the regulation of flood-
plains through their local governments, while other states provide only techni-
cal assistance and oversight, with no formal floodplain management mandates
in place, At the State and local level, a broad array of public planning and
regulatory programs governing water, floodplain management, shoreline man-
agement, coastal zone management, “critical areas,” and wedands have been
implemented, Resource protection efforts have also been implemented at the
local level, including floodplain zoning, wetland protection, preserving agricul-
tural land, stream buffers, greenways, conservation zones, and others. (See Case
Study — Santa Clara River Enhancement and Manage-
ment Plan.)

State governments generally have delegated most land
use planning and zoning authority to local governments.
Local planning and zoning allows for community-spe-
cific and realistic implementation of floodplain protec-
tion and restoration efforts, A locality can also use tools
such as land and water planning, zoning and other regu-
lations, public land management, infrastructure plan-
ning and tax incentives to implement a comprehensive
multi-objective approach to meeting their resource plan-
ning goals. More than 19,000 communities across the
United States have adopted floodplain regulations that
at least meet the minimum requirements of the National
Flood Insurance Program (NFIP). Many local govern-
ments have adopted comprehensive plans and broader
zoning regulations. (See Case Study — 1999 Property Ac-
quisition Project, City of Merriam/Johnson County).

Local governments are supplementing plans and regulations with non-regula-
tory measures. Many all mid-size and large cities have adopted greenway pro-
grams for a portion or all of their rivers and streams (e.g., Baltimore, Minneapolis,
Denver, St. Louis, Boston, Washington DC). These programs involve land acqui-
sition, construction of trails and parks, urban redevelopment, and wetland and
floodplain restoration, In addition, over 5,000 local governments have adopted
their own wetland regulations, Many of these regulations apply to wetland por-
tions of the floodplain as well as wetland areas elsewhere in the community,
Most local wetland regulations tightly control the fill and/or excavation of wet-

dC

Approximately 80% of the
nation’s wetlands are
located in fladdplains, so
protecting and restoring
these critical areas is
important for storing
floodwaters, as well as
providing habitats for
wildlife



Section 562 — Task Force on the Natural and
Beneficial Functions of the Floodplain

(a) Establishment - There is hereby established an interagency task force to
be known as the Task Force on Natural and Beneficial Functions of the Flood-
plain (in this section referred to as the “Task Force”).

(b) Membership — The Task Force shall be composed of 5 members, who
Shall be the designees of

(1) the Under Secretary of Commerce for Oceans and Atmosphere;

(2) the Director of the United States Fish and Wildlife Service;

(3) the Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency;

(4) the Secretary of the Army, acting through the Chief of Engineers;
and

(5) the Director of the Federal Emergency Management Agency.
(c) Duties — The Task Force shall
(1) conduct a study to

(A) identify the natural and beneficial functions of the floodplain
that reduce flood-related losses; and

(B) develop recommendations on how to reduce flood losses by pro-
tecting the natural and beneficial functions of the floodplain; and

(2) make the information and recommendations under sub-paragraphs
(A) and (B) publicly available.

(d) Noncompensation ~ Members of the Task Force shall receive no addi-
tional pay by reason of their service on the Task Force.

(e) Chairperson — The members of the Task Force shall elect one member as
chairperson of the Task Force.

(f) Meetings and Actions — The Task Force shall meet at the call of the
chairperson or a majority of the members of the Task Force and may take action
by a vote of the majority of the members. The Federal Insurance Administrator
shall coordinate and call the initial meeting of the Task Force.

(g) Officers — The chairperson of the Task Force may appoint any officers to
carry out the duties of the Task Force under subsection (c).

(h) Staff of Federal Agencies — Upon request of the chairperson of the Task
Force, the head of any of the Federal agencies and entities referred to under
subsection (b) may detail, on a nonreimbursable basis, any of the personnel of
such agency to the Task Force to assist the Task Force in carrying out its duties
under this section.

(i) Powers ~ In carrying out this section, the Task Force may hold hearings, sit
and act at times and places, take testimony, receive evidence and assistance,

Appendix C
SECTION 562
OF THE
NATIONAL
FLOOD
INSURANCE
REFORM ACT
OF 1994



eople have always been attracted to water. Historically, settlements have

arisen along waterways because floodplains contain natural features

beneficial to human societies. Floodplains provide fertile soil for agri-

culture, transportation and commerce links, water supply, hydropower,
and aesthetic beauty. Floodplains are also dynamic ecosystems that perform
many functions critical to the ecology of a river or stream, Floodplains provide
groundwater recharge, filter sediment and contaminants, transport nutrients,
and support habitats for some of our most sensitive living resources. Floodplains
also reduce flooding and limit flood-related damages through their floodwater
conveyance and storage functions.

Even though the natural functions of floodplains and the hazards associated
with their occupancy are widely known, natural floodplains and their functions
continue to be lost to encroaching development, mining, agriculture, and other
activities. These activities have altered the floodplain landscape, and have not
only impacted the ecological integrity of our nation's watercourses, but have
resulted in significant social and economic consequences. Floods in developed
floodplains devastate families, businesses, and communities, and cause more
damage to life and property than any other natural hazard.

The approach to dealing with floods has undergone a sig-
nificant change in the United States during the Twentieth
Century: Until the 1960's the Federal Government attempt-
ed to control floods solely through structural methods, such
as dams, levees, and stream channelization. However, flood
losses and disaster relief costs continued to rise.

Beginning in the mid-1960s, Federal policy broadened to
include considerations of using nonstructural means to
reduce the loss of life and property caused by floods (Nat-
ural Hazards Research and Applications Information Cen-
ter, 1992). Also during this time there began to be a
recognition of the importance of protecting and restoring
the natural and beneficial functions of floodplains. In 1966,
the Task Force on Federal Flood Control Policy completed
its report, A Unified National Program for Managing Flood
Losses, House Document 465. This report was prepared to
assess flood control policies and to provide recommenda-
tions to slow the mounting toll of flood losses.

In 1968, Congress passed the National Flood Insurance
Act, which established the National Flood Insurance Pro-
gram (NFIP). The NFIP made federally supported flood
insurance available to those communities that adopted and
enforced floodplain management regulations that met the
minimum standards set forth by the NFIP The NFIP marked
a significant shift from traditional swuctural methods of

Section One

INTRODUCTION

Providing habitats for a wide variety of species,
flood control toward non-structural floodplain manage- such as the endangered whooping crane, is just

ment. one of the many functions of floodplains.



Table ES-1.

The Natural and Beneficial Functions of Floodplain

In formulating its recommendations, the Task Force followed these guiding prin-

ciples:

# Focus on natural, non-structural solutions that reduce susceptibility to flood-
ing, while preserving the flexibility to use more traditional structural ap-

proaches where appropriate;

= Create a framework for more effective Federal, state, tribal, and local coor-

dination;

= Create and encourage community and private partnerships;

= Aim for watershed-based solutions.

The findings of the Task Force clearly support the need for long-term research,
planning and policy initiatives that use an integrated and unified approach from

Recommendations

Develop an updated and expanded national policy on the pro-
tection and restoration of the natural and beneficial functions
of floodplains as an integral part of all Federal, state, tribal,
‘and local government programs, actions, planning, policies,
regulations, and grants.

Encourage a proactive and long-term approach to floodplain
management, including the development of pre- and post-di-
saster plans for flood damage reduction and preservation/res-
toration of natural and beneficial functions.

Enhance the capabilities of state, tribal, and local programs
and planning processes that protect and restore natural and
beneficial floodplain functions.

Focus restoration and protection efforts on those floodplains
or portions of floodplains identified as having the greatest flood
risks and significant natural and beneficial functions.

Improve the analytical approaches to floodplain management
by providing scientific and technical assistance, including eco-
nomic guidance, to organizations with floodplain management
responsibilities.

Encourage natural, non-structural solutions to reducing flood
damages where practicable.

Improve coordination and partnerships among all levels of gov-
ernment and other parties to facilitate the protection and res-
toration of floodplains.

Evaluate various Federal programs that impact floodplains and
ensure that Federal agency implementation of floodplain man-
agement objectives are complementary and that Federal pro-
grams are working to achieve the same goals.

Federal, state and local governments
and focus on natural flood-loss reduc:
tion solutions. Not only would these
efforts enhance the protection, resto-
ration, and management of natural
floodplains and their functions, but
they would also achieve environmen-
tal, social, and economic benefits by
reducing the severity and frequency of
flood losses, and the subsequent need
for disaster relief and recovery opera-
tions. The Task Force's recommenda-
tions are shown in Table ES-1.[mprove
the analytical approaches to floodplain
management by providing scientific
and technical assistance, including eco-
nomic guidance, to organizations with
floodplain management responsibili-
ties.

Encourage natural, non-structural so-
lutions to reducing flood damages
where practicable.

Improve coordination and partner-
ships among all levels of government
and other parties to facilitate the pro-
tection and restoration of floodplains.

Evaluate various Federal programs
that impact floodplains and ensure
that Federal agency implementation of
floodplain management objectives are
complementary and that Federal pro-
grams are working to achieve the same
goals.



The Natural and Beneficial Functions of Floodplai

Figure 2-4. Barrier Island and Barrier Beach Dynamics

Estuarine Sand Salt Barner
Vegetation | Flat’ | Marsh Flats Dune Beach or Shore Offshore
Forest |
Low | High| Backshore Foreshore HEAT
Marsh: Marsh| With a Berm iohiTiee

Grassland

Longshore Bar oe A

and Trough

as protection against flooding and
storm damage. Coastal sediments
tend to function on a budget sys-
tem, For example, when sediment
is removed from a given location it
often causes soils to begin accumu-
lating rather unpredictably in an-
other locale, The budget system also
works in a reverse manner. If sedi-
ments are accumulating in one lo-
cation, it means they are being
removed from elsewhere in the sys-
tem. In an attempt to regain equi-
librium the coastal sediments will

Barrier islands and coastal floodplains play an important role continue to shift, eroding from one
in reducing flood damages by absorbing and dissipating area only to be deposited in an-
wave energy and storm surges, other. When dredging or filling

within coastal floodplains or coastal
estuaries, inlets, or wetlands occurs, the natural processes that play an instru-
mental role in storm damage prevention and flood control may become com-
promised.

Barrier islands and coastal banks play an important role in storm damage pre-
vention and flood control. Barrier islands provide one of the strongest coastal
defenses against shoreline erosion through their natural processes of “roll” and
migration. Barrier islands hinder wave action and storm overwashes. Coastal
banks have the ability to adjust in response to wave action, which allows them
to supply sediment to coastal beaches, coastal dunes, barrier beaches and land
under the ocean, They also provide a natural resistance to erosion caused by
wind and rain runoff, acting as a vertical buffer to storm waters and waves.

Rocky intertidal shores act in much the same manner as coastal beaches. The
sloping shore and/or boulders dissipate wave energy and serve as natural buff-
ers from the sea for the land behind the rocky intertidal shore, Rocky intertidal
shores also play an important role in the protection of fish and shellfish.

Marshes are recognized for their importance as habitat for marine fish and shell-
fish. Salt marshes are extremely productive natural systems and a source of

se ur bade) asiae ele


consequences of the flood, and to evaluate the performance
of existing floodplain and related watershed management pro-
grams. The committee’s report, Sharing the Challenge; Flood-
plain Management into the 21" Century, recommended changes
in current policies, programs and activities of the Federal gov-
ernment with regard to risk reduction, economic efficiency,
and the environmental enhancement of floodplains and adja-
cent watersheds.

In 1994, the Interagency Floodplain Management Task Force
once again updated the document, A Unified National Pro-
gram for Floodplain Management. The 1994 report included
the preservation and restoration of natural functions of flood-
plains as one of four major strategies suggested for managing
floodplains and emphasized that the two, co-equal goals of
floodplain management are the reduction of flood losses and
the protection and restoration of the natural resources and

functions of floodplains. The Task Force also called for the M

restoration of degraded floodplains and the preservation and
protection of floodplain areas that are still relatively undis-
turbed. The concept of “wise-use” was expanded to include
the protection and the preservation of the natural functions of
floodplains. Further information for local officials, conserva-
tion groups and the general public was provided by the ‘Task Force in its 1996
publication, Protecting Floodplain Resources: A Guidebook for Communities.

In 1994, Congress passed the National Flood Insurance Reform Act and, in Sec-
tion 562, established the interagency “Task Force on Natural and Beneficial Func-
tions of the Floodplain.” The Task Force was directed to identify the natural and
beneficial functions of the floodplain that reduce flood-related losses, and to
develop recommendations on diminishing flood losses by protecting these natu-
ral functions. The information and recommendations were to be provided to
Congress and made available to the public.

This Report focuses on the natural and beneficial functions of floodplains and
how these natural functions can contribute in a significant manner toward re-
ducing flood losses. Additionally, this report discusses how protecting and re-
storing naturally functioning floodplains can provide society with numerous
economic and environmental benefits.

SECTION ONE Introduction

UNIFIED
NATIONAL PROGRAM

FOR

FLOODPLAIN

1994

The 1994 document “A
Unified National
Program for Floodplain
Management”
emphasized that the
two, co-equal goals of
floodplain
manegement are to
reduce flood losses
and to protect and
restore the natural
resources and
functions of
floodplains.



The Natural and Beneficial Functions of Floodplains

tion 2 of this Order shall be implemented by each agency not later than October
1, 1977.

Sec. 9. Nothing in this Order shall apply to assistance provided for emergency
work, essential to save lives and protect property and public health and safety,
performed pursuant to Section 305 and 306 of the Disaster Relief Act of 1974
(88 Stat. 148, 42 U.S.C. 5145 and 5146).

Sec. 10. To the extent the provisions of Sections 2 and 5 of this Order are
applicable to projects covered by Section 104 (h) of the Housing and Commu-
nity Development Act of 1974, as amended (88 Stat. 640, 42 U.S.C. 5304 (h)),
the responsibilities under those provisions may be assumed by the appropriate
applicant, if the applicant has also assumed, with respect to such projects, all of
the responsibilities for environmental review, decision making, and action pur-
suant to the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969, as amended.

The White House,
May 24,1977
JIMMY CARTER

D-8


Floodplain Management

Statement by the President Accompanying Executive Order 11988.
May 24, 1977

‘The floodplains that adjoin the Nation’s inland and coastal waters have long
been recognized as having special values to our citizens. They have provided us
with wildlife habitat, agricultural and forest products, stable ecosystems, and
park and recreation areas, However, unwise use and development of our river-
ine, coastal, and other floodplains not only destroy many of the special qualities
of these areas but also pose a severe threat to human life, health, and property,

Since the adoption of a national flood damage reduction policy in 1936, the
Federal Government has invested about $10 billion in flood protection works.
Despite substantial efforts by the Federal Government to reduce flood hazards
and protect floodplains, annual losses from floods and adverse alteration of
floodpiains continue to increase.

The problem arises mainly from unwise use practices. The Federal Government
can be responsible for or can influence these practices in the construction of
Projects, in the management of its own properties, in the provision of financial
or technical assistance including support of financial institutions, and in the
uses for which its agencies issue licenses or permits. In addition to minimizing
the danger to human and nonhuman communities living in floodplains, active
floodplain management represents sound business practice by reducing the risk
of flood damage to properties benefiting from Federal assistance.

Because unwise floodplain development can lead to the loss of human and other
natural resources, it is simply a bad Federal investment and should be avoided,
In order to avoid to the extent possible the long- and short-term adverse impacts
associated with the occupancy and modification of floodplains and to avoid
direct or indirect support of floodplain development wherever there is a practi-
cable alternative, I have issued an Executive Order on floodplain management.

Floodplain Management

Executive Order 11988. May 24, 1977

By virtue of the authority vested in me by the Constitution and
statutes of the United States of America, and as President of
the United States of America, in furtherance of the National
Environmental Policy Act of 1969, as amended (42 U.S.C. 4321
et seq.), the National Flood Insurance Act of 1968, as amended
(42. U.S.C. 4001 et seq.), and the Flood Disaster Protection Act
of 1973 (Public Law 93-234, 87 Stat. 975), in order to avoid to
the extent possible the long and short term adverse impacts
associated with the occupancy and modification of floodplains
and to avoid direct or indirect support of floodplain develop-
ment Wherever there is a practicable alternative, it is hereby
ordered as follows:

Appendix D
PRESIDENTIAL
EXECUTIVE
ORDERS



The Natural and Beneficial Functions of Floadplains

tion, agencies shall, wherever practicable, elevate structures above
the base flood level rather than filling in land.

(c) If property used by the general public has suffered flood damage or
is located in an identified flood hazard area, the responsible agency
shall provide on structures, and other places where appropriate, con-
spicuous delineation of past and probable water surface elevation in
order to enhance public awareness of and knowledge about flood
hazards.

(d) When property in floodplains is proposed for lease, casement,
right-of-way, or disposal to non-Federal public or private parties, the
Federal agency shall (1) reference in the conveyance those uses that
are restricted under identified Federal, State, or local floodplain regu-
lations; and (2) attach other appropriate restrictions to the uses of
properties by the grantee or purchaser and any successors, except
where prohibited by law; or (3) withhold such properties from con-
veyance.

Sec. 4. In addition to any responsibilities under this Order and Sections 202
and 205 of the Flood Disaster Protection Act of 1973, as amended (42 U.S.C.
4106 and 4128), agencies which guarantee, approve, regulate, or insure any
financial wansaction which is related to an area located in a floodplain shall,
prior to completing action on such transaction, inform any private parties par-
ticipating in the transaction of the hazards of locating structures in the flood-
plain.

Sec. 5. The head of each agency shall submit a report to the Council on Envi-
ronmental Quality and to the Water Resources Council on June 30, 1978, re-
garding the status of their procedures and the impact of this Order on the agency's
operations. Thereafter, the Water Resources Council shall periodically evaluate
agency procedures and their effectiveness.

Sec. 6. As used in this Order:

(a) The term “agency” shall have the same meaning as the term “Execu-
tive agency” in Section 105 of Title 5 of the United States Code and
shall include the military departments; the directives contained in
this Order, however, are meant to apply only to those agencies which
perform the activities described in Section I that are located in or
affecting floodplain

(b) The term “base flood” shall mean that flood which has a one per-
cent or greater chance of occurrence in any given year.

(c) The term “floodplain” shall mean the lowland and relatively flat
areas adjoining inland and coastal waters including floodprone areas
of offshore islands, including at a minimum, that area subject to a
one percent or greater chance of flooding in any given year.

Sec. 7. Executive Order No. 11296 of August 10, 1966, is hereby revoked. All
actions, procedures, and issuances taken under that Order and still in effect



Natural and Beneficial Fu

Placement of spoil from
mining operations may
reduce floodplain
conveyance and storage,
and impact water quelity
through the addition of
sediment and chemicals,

tio

magnitude and frequency. Vegetation loss also affects wildlife habitats by re-
moving cover, reducing the filtration of pollutants, and raising the surface water
temperature. Additionally, man-made structures present barriers to species mi-
gration and reproductive success.

Urbanization presents a threat to water quality of waterways through non-point
source and point-source pollution. Non-point source pollution includes agricul-
tural runoff, fertilizers, and failed septic systems, Point source pollution includes
sewage treatment plants, industrial disposal discharges, and leached materials
from waste disposal areas.

Mining

Many mining techniques utilized over the past century, such as sand and gravel
operations, strip mining, open-pit operations, and dredging have left streams
throughout the United States severely degraded, Placement of spoil from min-
ing operations or temporary storage of the mined materials may reduce flood-
plain conveyance and storage and adversely impact other natural and beneficial
floodplain functions. Mining in the stream channel may increase headcutting
and degrade water quality, Contamination from surface mining may change the
hydrologic, physical, chemical, and biological conditions of streams and rivers,
Toxicity loads may be increased to the point where the water chemistry is signifi-
cantly altered, in some cases creating sterile environments.

Agriculture & Forestry

The level terrain, fertile soils, and proximity to water make floodplains attrac-
tive land for agriculture and forestry. Properly managed agriculture and forestry
can provide environmental and economical uses while maintaining the natural
functions of floodplains. Agriculture and forestry can provide beneficial vegeta-
tive cover that maintains the flood conveyance and storage capacity of the flood-
plain, limits erosion and runoff, and provides habitats for wildlife species.
Conversely, if not properly managed, some forms of agriculture and forestry can
severely impact the floodplain environment.

Environmental damage can occur if agriculture is attempted in floodplains with
unsuitable conditions or if best management practices are not followed. Crops
that are unsuited to arid environments and poor soils can require large amounts
of water and application of harmful chemicals. These excessive watering prac-
tices can lead to increased erosion and runoff of fertilizers, Lack of crop rotation
or cultivation of crops on steep slopes at the edge of the floodplain can lead to
excess erosion.

One of the most significant impacts related to agriculture is the removal of na-
tive vegetation and vegetated buffer areas to increase available fertile land.
Removing the riparian buffer zones can increase erosion and sedimentation,
increase the transport of contaminants and nutrients, and impair or destroy
natural habitat. Conversely, preservation of these buffer areas can provide sig-
nificant protection to the natural and beneficial functions of the floodplain.

Agricultural tillage and soil compaction can increase surface runoff and de-
crease the soil’s capacity to hold water. Inigation and drainage practices can

FAN ae leeiom hy Geciesice casa =

2

8


()

The Natural <.
Beneficial Functions
“7 «(Of Floodplains

ae
Reducing Flood Losses By Protecting And
Restoring The Floodplain Environment ~

June 2002

A Report For Congress By The Task Force On The
Natural And Beneficial Functions Of The Floodplain



APPENDIX D Presidantial Executive Orders

shall remain in effect until modified by appropriate authority under the terms of
this Order.

See. 8. Nothing in this Order shall apply to assistance provided for emergency
work essential to save lives and protect property and public health and safety,
performed pursuant to Sections 305 and 306 of the Disaster Relief Act of 1974
(88 Stat. 148,42 U.S.C. 5145 and 5146).

Sec. 9. To the extent the provisions of Section 2(a) of this Order are applicable
to projects covered by Section JG4(h) of the Housing and Community Develop-
ment Act of 1974, as amended (88 Stat. 640, 42 U.S.C. 5304 (h)), the responsi-
bilities under those provisions may be assumed by the appropriate applicant, if
the applicant has also assumed, with respect to such projects, all of the respon-
sibilities for environmental review, decision-making, and action pursuant to the
National Environmental Policy Act of 1969, as amended.

The White House,
May 24,1977
JIMMY CARTER

Protection of Wetlands

Statement by the President Accompanying Executive Order 11990.
May 24, 1977

The Nation’s coastal and inland wetlands are vital natural resources of critical
importance to the people of this country. Wetlands are areas of great natural
production, and habitat for fish and wildlife resource. Wetlands contribute to
the production of agricultural products and timber, and provide recreational,
scientific, and aesthetic resources of national interest.

The unwise use and development of wetlands will destroy many of their special
qualities and important natural functions. Recent estimates indicate that the
United States has already lost over 40 percent of our 120 million acres of wet-
lands inventoried in the 1950's. This piecemeal alteration and destruction of
wetlands through draining, dredging, filling, and other means has had an ad-
verse cumulative impact on our natural resources and on the quality of human
life.

The problem of loss of wetlands arises mainly from unwise land use practices.
The Federal Government can be responsible for or can influence these practices
in the construction of projects, in the management of its own properties, and in
the provisions of financial or technical assistance.

In order to avoid to the extent possible the long and short term adverse impacts
associated with the destruction or modification of wetlands and to avoid direct
or indirect support of new construction in wetlands wherever there is a practi-
cable alternative, I have issued an Executive order on the protection of wet-
lands,

an


APPENDIX A Federal Programs Relating to the Notural and Beneficial Functions of Floodplains

= Creating a framework for more effective Federal coordination of flood
programs

= Creating a community partnership to develop a comprehensive solu-
tion to reducing damages and improving quality of life

= Focused on watershed-based solutions that can include the restora-
tion of riparian and wetland ecosystems

Challenge 21 will create restoration partnerships that include FEMA, USDA,
Department of Interior, and EPA. By focusing on non-structural alternatives to
flood protection, the Challenge 21 program will move families and businesses
out of harm’s way. Challenge 21 also works to return the floodplains of rivers
and streams to a condition in which they are able to naturally moderate floods
and provide other functions of benefit to communities and the environment. A
project might include the relocation of threatened homes and businesses, con-
servation or restoration of wetlands and natural floodwater storage areas, and
planning for responses and solutions to potential future floods. Watershed by
watershed, the Challenge 21 initiative would build on existing programs, and
initiate and expand partnerships with other federal agencies and non-Federal
national and local entities. Key Federal partners include FEMA, USDA, Depart-
ment of Interior, and EPA.

Other USACE programs that can protect and restore the natural and beneficial
functions of floodplains include the Section 1135 program, which authorizes
the Corps to modify water resources projects for the improvement of the envi-
tonment. (Section 1135 projects typically address water quality issues associ-
ated with the activities of the USACE.) The Section 204 program authorizes the
Corps to protect, restore and create aquatic and ecologically related habitats
such as wetlands that may have been affected by the dredging of Federal navi-
gation projects, However, Section 206 commissions the Corps to carry out aquatic
ecosystem restoration programs that will improve the overall quality of the envi-
tonment, are deemed to be cost-effective and to be in the best interest of the
public.

U.S. Department of Commerce

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)

National Ocean Service

The National Ocean Service (NOS) is working with state coastal resource and
emergency managers, and with Federal agencies in applying unique NOS capa-
bilities and assets to assist in disaster recovery and mitigation activities. Among
these unique capabilities, NOS is prepared, if tasked by FEMA, to collect data on
the extent of flooding for use in floodplain management activities. The Office of
Response and Restoration (OR&R) works directly with coastal state and local
communities to establish plans for identifying and addressing risks from hazard-
ous material spills associated with natural disasters, including flooding,



SECTION TWO The Notural and Beneficial Functions of Floodplains

that area of the watercourse and adjacent floodplain necessary to carry the base
flood without increasing the water surface elevation more than a designated
amount (generally one foot). The base flood is the flood that has a one percent
chance of being equaled or exceeded in a given year. Communities are required
to prohibit development within the floodway that would cause an increase in
flood heights. This requirement has the effect of limiting development in flood-
ways that in turn helps to maintain some of the floodplain’s most important
natural resources and functions (Federal Interagency Floodplain Management
Task Force, 1996).

2.1.2 Coastal Floodplains

Marshes, near shore ocean bottoms, beaches, salt ponds, tidal flats and estuaries
are components of a complex coastal system. These areas provide habitat for
marine and estuarine organisms, many of which are of significant ecological
and economic value. Coastal beaches, dunes, tidal flats, salt marshes, banks and
barrier islands play important roles in protecting landward areas from the de-
structive forces of storms. Apart from major storm events where waves may
overrun entire areas, inundation follows a largely predictable tidal cycle in coastal
systems. The specific characteristics of a coastal floodplain such as geographic
location, contributing sediments and whether or not the floodplain has been
modified or remains relatively pristine can greatly alter the way storms and
resulting floodwaters will impact the area.

The configuration of a coastal floodplain is largely determined by underlying
geology, sediment supply, and wind and wave energies. Sedimentary coastal
floodplains, such as cobble, sand, and silt beaches adjust to storm energies dur-
ing an extreme event and then rapidly readjust to normal patterns. Long term
more permanent shoreline changes can result from changes in sediment supply,
sea level rise, or changes in predominant wind and wave direction. The classic
example of this long term change is the “rolling over” of a barrier island which
migrates towards or away from the mainland over geologic time with changes
in sea level and sediment supply.

Coastal floodplains are widely recognized for their importance to estuarine and
marine fisheries. According to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 96
percent of the commercial catch and over 50 percent of the recreational harvest
in the southeastern United States are fish and shellfish that depend upon the
estuary-coastal wetlands system. Estuarine wetlands serve as breeding, nursery
and feeding grounds for estuarine and marine fisheries, while coastal flood-
plains are equally important to waterfowl, furbearers, and other wildlife spe-
cies.

Shallow water habitat in estuaries, tidal rivers, and near beaches are significant
areas for a variety of shellfish and finfish resources. The quality of water in areas
containing shellfish is affected by alterations in sediments, salinity, dissolved
oxygen, nutrients, turbidity, temperature and the addition of pollutants. Water
circulation patterns are crucial in maintaining proper water quality characteris-
ties necessary for productive shellfish beds. Water currents also supply nutrients
and disperse pollutants. Only those creeks, ponds, lakes, rivers and streams that
have an unimpeded connection to the sea may serve as a spawning area for

nN


The Natural and Beneficial Functions of Floodplains

Floodplains are formed and modified by the dynamics of stream and river mi-
gration and periodic flooding (Figure 2-1) (Federal Interagency Stream Resto-
ration Work Group, 1998), Although many riverine floodplains usually flood
during the spring, they can also experience multiple flood events within the
same year with duration varying from hours to days. Periodic flooding of river-
ine systems and the related processes of erosion and deposition determine, to a
considerable extent, the shape of the floodplain (e¢.g., often flat); the depth and
composition of soils (c.g., often alluvial organic soils); the type and density of
vegetation; presence and extent of wetlands; richness and diversity of wildlife
habitats; and depth to the groundwater.

The major flood conveyance component of the floodplain is the floodway (Fig-
ure 2-2). The National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP) defines the floodway as

Figure 2-1. River Dynamics

(Adapted from Stream Corridor Restoration:
Principles, Processes and Practices,
1998). Federal Interagency Stream
Restoration Working Group
(15 federal agencies)
{FISRWG)},

oxbow lake

backswamp.

Figure 2-2. The Floodway

100-Year Floodplain

Floodway | _Faod Fringe

Flood Elevation

when contined

within floodway
\

Encroachment Encroachment
P<— Base Fiood

Elevation

‘Stream Channel

Nm.

Nw


The Nat

ind Benet

cial Function:

countries, Protection strategies include habitat acquisition, conservation ease-
ments, leases, and management agreements with private landowners.

‘Transforming the goals of the Plan into on-the-ground actions relies on a coop-
erative approach to conservation. The work is accomplished through partmer-
ships called joint ventures comprised of individuals, corporations, conservation
organizations, and local, state, provincial, and Federal agencies. There are cur-
rently 12 habitat joint ventures in the United States and 3 in Canada. One of the
habitat joint ventures has international status (Canada/United States). Partners
from Canada and the United States also support three species joint ventures,
including a new venture for sea ducks. In Mexico, several regional partmerships
have been organized whose goal is to conserve priority wetland areas identified
by the Plan, During the next 5 years, several additional joint ventures are ex-
pected to be organized in the United States and Mexico. As of 2000, over 5
million acres have been protected, restored or enhanced in the United States
and Canada,

National Wildlife Refuge System

The National Wildlife Refuge System (NWRS) is
the only diverse national network of public lands
and waters set aside for the conservation and man-
agement of fish, wildlife and plant resources, The
93 million-acre System contains at least 31 mil-
lion acres of wetlands, and provides important
habitat for many species of birds, mammals, rep-
tiles and amphibians; including threatened and
endangered species. In floodplain areas, refuges
may benefit other functions in addition to pro-
tecting and improving habitat for fish and wild-
life. Some floodplain areas are acquired by the
USFWS in the establishment of National Wildlife
Refuges, thereby protecting the natural resources
and functions of these areas and preventing flood
losses by maintaining such areas in their natural
state.

Control of water levels is.

vital to ensure prime
vegetation growth for

wildlife: Notional Wildlife
In flood-prone areas, Federal acquisition and ease- ibtex' ihatiomot Wildiit

ment programs share capabilities to restore habi-
tats for native species of fish and wildlife and gy. tices and moke
address the needs of landowners subject to flood adjustments as required, as
losses. The Service's National Wildlife Refuge seen here at Bayou

System can act to preserve floodplains where they — Seuvege National Wildlife
possess resources that fall under the Federal trust — Refuge in Louisiana
responsibilities and meet the environmental cri-

teria for refuge lands. For example, the 1993

floods in the Midwest along the Iowa, Mississippi and Missouri Rivers resulted
in the acquisition of substantial areas of affected floodplains. Altogether, 11
tracts along these rivers totaling 22,452 acres were acquired. Most of these ar-
eas were ultimately incorporated as additions to existing refuge complexes.

Refuge employees
periodically check control



n recent years, the interest in reducing the impact of human activities on

the natural and beneficial functions of floodplains has grown. In the fol

lowing section, the Task Force describes several major programs and initia

tives in place that can be used to protect and restore floodplain natural
resources and functions. These programs often involve partnerships between
the various levels of government and private interests, This is by no means a
complete list of programs, but it does provide an overview of some of the more
significant efforts in the area of floodplain management, flood loss reduction
and floodplain restoration.

Federal Emergency Management Agency

FEMAS responsibilities include coordinating the Federal response to floods and
other disasters, providing disaster assistance to states, communities and indi-
viduals, administering the National Flood Insurance Program, and administer-
ing programs for the acquisition, relocation, or the floodproofing of buildings
and other mitigation actions. FEMA also provides technical assistance and pro-
motes governmental and non-governmental floodplain management activities.
In addition to a headquarters office in Washington, D.C., the agency has 10
regional offices.

National F nsurance Program

FEMA administers the National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP) established by
the National Flood Insurance Act of 1968, as amended. The Flood Disaster Pro-
tection Act of 1973 and the National Flood Insurance Reform Act of 1994 made
significant changes to the program. The primary purposes of the NFIP are to 1)
better indemnify individuals for flood losses through insurance, 2) reduce fu-
ture flood damages through state and community floodplain management regu-
lations, and 3) reduce Federal expenditures for disaster assistance and flood
control.

Participation in the NFIP is voluntary. However, Federal agencies are prohibited
from providing financial assistance for acquisition or construction of buildings
in the floodplains of communities that do not participate. Flood insurance is
required as a condition of receiving Federal assistance in the floodplains of those
that do participate, FEMA can only provide flood insurance in a community if
the community adopts and enforces floodplain management regulations that
meet or exceed minimum criteria established by FEMA. Over 19,000 communi-
ties now participate in the NFIP including nearly all communities with signifi-
cant flood hazards.

An important accomplishment of the NFIP has been mapping the nation’s flood-
plains. Flood hazard maps have been issued for over 20,000 communities at a
cost of over $1.2 billion. These maps provide the basis for state and community
floodplain management regulations, for calculating flood insurance premiums,
and determining whether or not buildings are required to obtain flood insur-
ance as a condition of obtaining mortgage loans or other Federal or Federally
related financial assistance. FEMA flood hazard maps are also used by states
and communities for emergency management, for land use and water resources

Appendix A
FEDERAL
PROGRAMS
RELATING TO
THE NATURAL
AND
BENEFICIAL
FUNCTIONS OF
FLOODPLAINS



The Natural and Beneficial Functions of Floodplains

Sec. 1. Each agency shall provide leadership and shall take action to reduce the
tisk of flood loss, to minimize the impact of floods on human safety, health and
welfare, and to restore and preserve the natural and beneficial values served by
floodplains in carrying out its responsibilities for (I) acquiring, managing, and
disposing of Federal lands and facilities; (2) providing Federally undertaken,
financed, or assisted construction and improvements; and (3) conducting Fed-
eral activities and programs affecting land use, including but not limited to
water and related land resources planning, regulating, and licensing activities.

Sec. 2. In carrying out the activities described in Section I of this Order, each
agency has a responsibility to evaluate the potential effects of any actions it may
take in a floodplain; to ensure that its planning programs and budget requests
reflect consideration of flood hazards and floodplain management; and to pre-
scribe procedures to implement the policies and requirements of this Order, as
follows:

(a)(1) Before taking an action, each agency shall determine whether
the proposed action will occur in a floodplain-for major Federal ac-
tions significantly affecting the quality of the human environment,
the evaluation required below will be included in any statement pre-
pared under Section 102(2) (C) of the National Environmental Policy
Act, This determination shall be made according to a Department of
Housing and Urban Development (HUD) floodplain map or a more
detailed map of an area, if available. If such maps are not available,
the agency shall make a determination of the location of the flood-
plain based on the best available information. The Water Resources
Council shall issue guidance on this information not later than Octo-
ber 1, 1977.

(2) If an agency has determined to, or proposes to, conduct, support, or allow
an Action to be located in a floodplain, the agency shall consider alternatives to
avoid adverse effects and incompatible development in the floodplains. If the
head of the agency finds that the only practicable alternative consistent with the
law and with the policy set forth in this Order requires siting in a floodplain, the
agency shall, prior to taking action, (i) design or modify its action in order to
minimize potential harm to or within the floodplain, consistent with regulations
issued in accord with Section 2(d) of this Order, and (ii) prepare and circulate a
notice containing an explanation of why the action is proposed to be located in
the floodplain.

(3) For programs subject to the Office of Management and Budget Circular
A-95, the agency shall send the notice, not to exceed three pages in length
including a location map, to the State and area-wide A-95 clearinghouses for
the geographic areas affected, The notice shall include: (i) the reasons why the
action is proposed to be located in a floodplain; (ii) a statement indicating whether
the action conforms to applicable State or local floodplain protection standards
and (iii) a list of the alternatives considered. Agencies shall endeavor to allow a
brief comment period prior to taking any action.

(4) Each agency shall also provide opportunity for early public review of any
plans or proposals for actions in floodplains, in accordance with Section 2 (b) of



SECTION FOUR The Current State of Floodplain Manager

ant and Challenges to Policy Makers

protecting and restoring natural and beneficial functions is not the primary con-
sideration in the aftermath of a crisis. During response and recovery efforts,
technical assistance should be provided on long-term floodplain management
approaches to both Federal emergency management agencies and to planners
at the state and municipal levels. Information should be targeted to beneficial
approaches to the management of sensitive areas and the techniques to restore
such areas. All response and recovery efforts should include floodplain restora-
tion and protection as a key component of project planning.

Watershed Approaches

Floodplain functions are not confined to larger rivers and streams ~ the focus of
many floodplain management efforts. The floodplains of lakes and estuaries
and smaller rivers, streams and creeks play significant roles in flood storage and
conveyance, erosion control and habitat functions. The beneficial functions of
both smaller and larger streams are dependent upon the overall hydrologic and
ecological regimes of the watershed in which they are located. Activities through-
out the watershed area, such as urbanization, land management practices, and
non-point source pollution, can affect these natural and beneficial floodplain
functions, A watershed-based approach incorporates these smaller yet vital wa-
terways and the processes and activities taking place in the watershed.

In recent years, many Federal agencies have begun to use a watershed or eco-
system approach to resource protection when evaluating their actions. They
recognize that preserving and restoring the natural and beneficial functions and
resources of floodplains requires that they consider the characteristics of the
entire watershed, not just the floodplains themselves, For example, efforts to
restore eroded stream banks may fail if development has increased the impervi-
ous surface in the watershed, altering the hydrology of the watershed and the
flow regime of the stream. Watershed and ecosystem approaches also allow
agencies to identify and evaluate the critical resources in a watershed and focus
limited resources on the primary issues and resources of concern.

Interagency Coordination

Limited coordination between agencies administering emergency management,
water resources management, and ecosystem-based programs can hinder their
overall effectiveness as well as their ability to protect natural floodplain func-
tions. Improved interagency communications, in addition to specified and shared
objectives bewween various levels of government, are instrumental in creating a
unified support system for successfully managing resources. Effective interagency
coordination prevents the duplication of actions or creation of conflicts that can
occur between agency efforts in both pre-flood and post-flood contexts, and
ensures that multi-objective approaches are not overlooked. Strong coordina-
tion also results in a more efficient use of government funds and agency person-
nel, allowing the leveraging of funds from several sources to implement an
action that a single agency may not have the resources or authorities to fund
individually.



Mississipp!'s Grand Bay
National Estuarine
Research Reserve

Office of Ocean and Coastal Resource Management

The Office of Ocean and Coastal Resource Management (OCRM) continues to
work on improving coordination and communication among the many Federal
and State agencies that manage coastal hazards.

In partnership with FEMA, OCRM has brought together State Coastal Zone Man-
agement (CZM) and FEMA Mitigation Programs for coastal hazard mitigation
workshops. These workshops provide a strong start to designing and imple-
menting joint mitigation actions that address floodplain loss reduction goals
and can lead to more unified, integrated strategies for risk reduction and coastal
hazard management.

‘Through the coastal management program, OCRM encourages and provides
financial support to state efforts to reduce life and property at risk from flooding
and storm damage through enforcement of coastal setbacks and preservation of
the natural function of coastal systems.

National Estuarine Research Reserves

The National Estuarine Research Reserve System (NERRS)
is a network of protected areas established to improve the
health of the nation’s estuaries and coastal habitats by de-
veloping and providing information that promotes in
formed resource management. Coastal states and NOAA
jointly establish and manage National Estuarine Research
Reserves, which are discrete areas containing key habitat
within an estuaries are bio-geographically representative
of their particular region of the nation. Reserves conduct
integrated programs to develop a fundamental understand-
ing of estuaries and the impact of human activities on these
areas, They also provide up-to-date, comprehensible in-
formation to users and managers of coastal resources and
generate innovative solutions to resource management
problems,

The NERRS apply science and education to improve the
management of estuaries. This network of Federal, State
and community partnerships protects approximately one
million acres of estuarine waters, wetlands, and uplands.
As of spring 1999, twenty-three reserves had been desig-
nated and four additional sites were being considered for
designation.

Essential Fish Habitat Program

National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) and Regional Fishery Management
Councils currently are amending Fishery Management Plans (FMPs) to identify
and designate essential fish habitats (EFH) for all life-history stages of species
covered by FMPs, The amendments will recommend that an ecosystem approach
to fisheries management be implemented in response to the designation of an
EFH. They will also identify activities with the potential to adversely affect EFH



The Natural ond Benef

cial F

anctions

loodplains

lands mapped or designated by the community. (See Case Study - Integrated
Watershed Management Program, Baltimore County, Maryland.)

4.2 The Challenges in Floodplain Management for
Policy Makers

While floodplain management programs and practices have improved signifi-
cantly since the 1960s, there is a continuing loss of natural and beneficial flood-
plain functions. In large part this is due to a lack of explicit goals, insufficient
technical data, inadequate coordination and a failure to use watershed-based
approaches to managing our land and water resources. While the nation has a
clearer understanding of the benefits of floodplains and has accepted the con-
cept that floodplains should be preserved, many challenges lie ahead before we
can turn the idea of preserving floodplains into measurable actions towards
improved, restored, or protected floodplain values and functions. These chal-
lenges, which necessitate floodplain management actions by local, state, and
Federal governments, are discussed below.

Clear Guidance on Considering the Natural and Beneficial
Functions of Floodplains

Without a clear and specific mandate to consider natural and beneficial flood-
plain functions, elected officials and other policymakers and personnel involved
in flood loss reduction at all levels of government may not properly assess or
consider these functions in their planning and implementation efforts. Compre-
hensive and concise program guidance is needed on effective methods for flood-
plain management that protect and restore natural and beneficial floodplain
functions that provide for a unified effort by all levels of government.

Communities participating in the National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP) have
adopted floodplain regulations to prevent fill and other obstructions in flood-
way areas, and that require elevation or other protection for new structures to
above the “100-year” flood elevation. While some states and communities have
established additional regulations that guide local floodplain development, they
generally have not established specific policies that protect and restore the natu-
ral and beneficial functions of floodplains. However, additional efforts to out-
line floodplain resources nationally must be combined with the establishment
of national standards for protecting the natural and beneficial functions of flood-
plains. This approach would provide the framework to support a unified, na-
tional approach to managing floodplain resources,

Post-Disaster Opportunities

Often the most practicable opportunities for protecting and restoring natural
floodplain functions occur after flood disasters as part of the response and re-
covery operations. Opportunities arise to relocate structures, create greenways,
acquire easements or fee tile to property, restore stream banks and wetlands,
reconstruct roads, bridges, dikes and levees, and to repair or redesign sewer and
water systems in ways that benefit floodplain functions. There may also be op-
portunities to change attitudes toward development in the floodplain. However,



environmental issues that arose following a period of rapid suburbanization
from the 1950s through the 1970s, during which the population of the County
grew by nearly 130 percent. Today, Baltimore County’s 2,150 miles of streams
are a major focus of the Program, which has been implemented since the 1987
formation of the Department of Environmental Protection and Resource Man-
agement (DEPRM). The County's Integrated Watershed Management Program
is a coordinated set of aggressive programs for growth management and land
conservation, resource protection/regulation, restoration, facility maintenance,
watershed monitoring, research and planning, and education and citizen par-
ticipation,

As was typical of most of Maryland's counties, Baltimore Count
cern regarding impacts of floodplain use was with respect to property damage
following significant flooding events. Subsequent to damage from Hurricane
Agnes in June 1972 and other severe storms of the 1970s, the County spent
more than $10 million to remove buildings that were previously constructed in
floodplains. In 1982, the County enacted Development Regulations that included
provisions for grading and sediment control, floodplain and wetland protection,
drainage (stormwater management), slope and soil protection, and preserva-
tion of natural and historical features, The experience of implementing regula-
tions without the benefit of an integrated environmental impact review pro-
gram and detailed technical guidance for regulatory decision-making led to ef-
forts by DEPRM to re-evaluate the County's regulations from a functional eco-
system perspective,

Baltimore County's approach to the pro-
tecting of the natural functions and val-
ues of floodplains grew from the attempt
to implement the requirements of the 1982
Development Regulations, These regula-
tions established the intent to protect eco-
system functions of stream systems, but
provided inadequate design standards. In
1986, the County established a Water
Quality Policy that included 50-foot ripar-
ian buffers for all land development
projects. With the establishment of DEPRM
in 1987, the County focused on providing
the technical basis for an integrated envi-
ronmental impact review of development
activity. The development of Baltimore
county's “stream buffer” regulations was
guided initially by the County's Water
Quality Steering Committee, which recom-
mended regulatory protection in 1988. In June 1989, an Executive Order was
issued entitled Regulations for the Protection of Water Quality, Streams, Wetlands
and ¥loodplains. These regulations established the County's intent to implement
the national policy for the restoration and maintenance of the chemical, physi-

cal, and biological integrity of waters as embodied in the Clean Water Act of

1977. The stream buffer provisions were amended in 1990 to include protec-

“toch Raven" by Rachel
Bakalyar, age 16, Good
Shepherd School,
Baltimore, Maryland.
2001 National Art

Finalist, River of Words

Contest ®



The Natural ond Beneficial Functio:

£ Floodploing

In 1975, the U.S, Water Resources Council (WRC) created the Federal Inter-
agency Floodplain Management Task Force to periodically report to Congress
through the President on the progress made toward achieving the goals of flood-
plain management. In 1976, the Task Force prepared the report, A Unified Na-
tional Program for Floodplain Management, pursuant to Section 1302(c) of the
National Flood Insurance Act of 1968, and presented the document to the Pres-
ident for submittal to Congress. In 1977, the President signed Executive Order
11988, Floodplain Management, in recognition of the need to “.., avoid to the
extent possible the long and short term adverse impacts associated with the
occupancy and modification of floodplains and to avoid direct and indirect sup-
port of floodplain development wherever there is a practicable alternative...”
E.O. 11988 directed Federal agencies “... to provide leadership and take action
to reduce the risk of flood loss, minimize the impact of flood events on human
safety, health and welfare, and restore the natural and beneficial values served
by floodplains...” At the same time, Executive Order 11990, Protection of Wet-
lands, was issued to protect wetland resources.

The Federal Interagency Floodplain Management ‘Task Force updated and re-
vised the Unified National Program document in 1979. This revision incorporat-
ed Federal concern for natural and beneficial values of floodplains, responded
to Presidential policy directives, expanded strategies to include restoration and
preservation of natural values, and addressed the lack of awareness of alterna-
tive strategies for reducing flood losses. In 1982, after the WRC was disbanded,
OMB assigned responsibility for the Unified National Program to the Federal
Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), which assumed the Chair of the Task
Force.

An updated Unified National Program report was prepared by the Task Force
and submitted to the Congress by the President in 1986. This report (1) set forth
a conceptual framework for floodplain management; (2) identified strategies
and tools for reducing flood losses and protecting and restoring the natural
resources and functions of floodplains; (3) assessed the floodplain management
capability of Federal and State agencies and programs, as well as those of local
governments; and (4) made recommendations to further reduce the loss of life
and property caused by floods and to protect and restore the natural resources
and functions of floodplains.

In 1992, the Task Force completed a comprehensive report, Floodplain Manage-
ment in the United States, an Assessment Report and noted that “as the latest
addition to an array of floodplain management strategies and the one least well-
integrated with the others, it is not surprising that this strategy [restoring and
preserving the natural and cultural resources of floodplains] has met with limit-
ed success. It has been difficult to quantify the value of natural and cultural
resources of floodplains and therefore difficult to justify government expendi-
tures to preserve floodplains in their natural state.” The findings of this report
were timely, when, following major flooding along the Mississippi River and its
tributaries in 1993, there was renewed interest in floodplain management strat-
egies, particularly those that protect natural floodplains.

Following the Mississippi River flood of 1993, the Interagency Floodplain Man-
agement Review Committee was established to determine the major causes and



umans have always been attracted to floodplains because of their Section Th ree
many sustaining attributes: fresh waters, rich diversity of fish and

game resources, fertile soils, level terrain and their proximity to wa THE IMPACT

terways. Activities such as agriculture, forestry, and industrial, com-
mercial and residential development have historically thrived in floodplains. OF HUMAN

These activities have altered the landscape and adversely impacted the natural
functions of floodplains. Only recently have we begun to understand the ad- ACTIVITI ES ON

verse effects that years of human development and industrialization have had FLOODPLAINS
upon floodplains. These adverse effects include decreases in water quality, loss
of wildlife habitats, and an increase in the frequency and severity of catastrophic
flood losses. Through an understanding of our impacts upon floodplains and of
the economic and environmental benefits of floodplains, can we formulate bet-

ter floodplain management approaches that will better protect the floodplain’s
natural and beneficial functions.

3.1 Impacts of Flood Control and
Other Water Resources Structures

Although the Task Force recognizes that many flood control and other water
resources structures provide valuable benefits to society in the form of flood
control, water supply, power, and recreation, these structures can have signifi-
cant impacts on the natural floodplain and on natural and beneficial floodplain
functions including reducing flood velocities and peak flows. Less intrusive so-
lutions can sometimes achieve these same benefits without the loss of flood-
plain resources and functions.

Channelization and Diversions

Channelization is the process of deepening, straightening, and/
or widening a waterway for the purpose of moving high water
flows quickly downstream to prevent over bank flooding of
adjacent lands. Channel deepening and straightening is also
done to improve navigation. Channelization can reduce fload-
ing in the immediate area of the channel, but can also aggta-
vate flood heights and velocities, and erosion downstream,
Channelization can also eliminate or reduce floodplain func

tions by lowering water levels, effectively disconnecting the
floodplain from the stream, reducing the retention of water in
wetlands, decreasing habitat diversity, and destroying ripar-
ian vegetation. Construction usually requires the clearing of
vegetation to allow access for equipment to excavate and main-
tain the channel.

Channelizing streams can reduce flooding
Diversions, which are particularly common in the West, are in the immediate area of the channel, but
open or closed channels used to transfer water from a water __ it offen increases flood heights and erosion
body.to a new location for use in industry, agriculture, or for downstream. Stream channelization also
domestic consumption. Many state policies on agricultural di- degrades water quality, destroys habitats
version practices require that specified amounts of flow be for fish and wildlife, and adversely impa
maintained in the channel or that the diverted water be re- the natural functioning of the stream and
tured to the stream or river after use in order to prevent the its floodplain



APPENDIX D Presidential Executive Orders

Executive Order No. 11514, as amended, including the development of proce-
dures to accomplish this objective for Federal actions whose impact is not sig-
nificant enough to require the preparation of an environmental impact state-
ment under Section 102 (2) (C) of the National Environmental Policy Act of
1969, as amended.

(b) Any requests for new authorizations or appropriations transmitted
to the Office of Management and Budget shall indicate, if an action
to be proposed will be located in a floodplain, whether the proposed
action is in accord with this Order,

(c) Each agency shall take floodplain management into account when
formulating or evaluating any water and land use plans and shall
require land and water resources use appropriate to the degree of
hazard involved. Agencies shall include adequate provision for the
evaluation and consideration of flood hazards in the regulations and
operating procedures for the licenses, permits, loan or grants-in-aid
programs that they administer, Agencies shall also encourage and
Provide appropriate guidance to applicants to evaluate the effects of
their proposals in floodplains prior to submitting applications for Fed-
eral licenses, permits, loans or grants,

(d) As allowed by law, each agency shall issue or amend existing regu-
lations and procedures within one year to comply with this Order,
These procedures shall incorporate the Unified National Program for
Floodplain Management of the Water Resources Council, and shall
explain the means that the agency will employ to pursue the nonhaz-
ardous use of riverine, coastal and other floodplains in connection
with the activities under its authority. To the extent possible, existing
Processes, such as those of the Council on Environmental Quality
and the Water Resources Council, shall be utilized to fulfill the re-
quirements of this Order. Agencies shall prepare their procedures in
consultation with the Water Resources Council, the Federal Insur-
ance Administration, and the Council on Environmental Quality, and
shall update such procedures as necessary.

Sec. 3. In addition to the requirements of Section 2, agencies with responsibili-
ties, for Federal real Property and facilities shall take the following measures:

(a) The regulations and procedures established under Section 2(d) of
this Order shall, at a minimum, require the construction of Federal
structures and facilities to be in accordance with the standards and
criteria and to be consistent with the intent of those promulgated
under the National Flood Insurance Program. They shall deviate only
to the extent that the standards of the Flood Insurance Program are
demonstrably inappropriate for a given type of structure or facility,

(b) If after compliance with the requirements of this Order, new con-
struction of structures or facilities are to be located in a floodplain,
accepted floodproofing and other flood protection measures shall be
applied to new construction or rehabilitation. To achieve flood protec-

QO


The Notural and Beneficial Functions of Flood

Naturally functioning
wetlands are vital to

ensuring good nesting and
brood habitat for the
canvasbeck duck, Habitat
conservation programs that
involve farmers and other
lorge landowners ore key to
the continued success of the
cenvesback and many other
waterfowl species

Partners for Fish and Wildlife

The USFWS Partners for Fish and Wildlife Program works in vol-
untary partnership with private landowners and other partners to
restore floodplains, wetlands and other important fish and wild-
life habitats, Program purposes are to improve the quantity and
quality of wetlands, grasslands, riparian and in-stream habitat,
and other important habitats; and to directly involve private land-
owners in pro-active stewardship of Federal trust species habitats.
Landowners agree to maintain restoration projects as specified in
cooperative agreements, but otherwise retain full control of the
land. To date this program has resulted in the restoration of over
526,000 acres of wetlands, 550,000 acres of prairies/ grasslands,
and 3,200 miles of riparian/in-stream habitat through 24,000 landowner agree-
ments. The program also develops Fisheries Habitat Restoration Partnerships to
facilitate habitat restoration projects for imperiled freshwater fishery resources
in the United States.

The USEWS assists the Department of Agriculture agencies and private land-
owners under the conservation provisions of the Farm Bill (e.g., Wetlands Re-
serve Program, Conservation Reserve Program, Wildlife Incentive Program, and
Wetland Conservation provision). The USEWS provides technical assistance on
site selection, restoration planning and compatible uses; wetland identification:
and assessment of functions and values.

National Wetlands Inventory

The National Wetlands Inventory (NWI) produces information on the charac-
teristics, extent, and status of the Nation's wetlands and deep-water habitats.
Federal, State, and local agencies, academic institutions, Congress, and the pri-
vate sector use this information. ‘The NWI has mapped 90 per cent of the lower
48 states, and 34 per cent of Alaska, of which about 44 per cent and 13 per cent,
respectively, have been digitized and are available on the Internet World Wide
Web (http://wetlands.fws.gov). The NWI also produces status and trends re-
ports on wetland losses and gains for Congress at ten-year intervals.

The public makes extensive use of NWI maps in a myriad of applications includ-
ing planning for watershed and drinking water supply protection, siting of trans-
portation corridors, construction of solid waste facilities, and siting of schools
and other municipal buildings. Resource managers in the Service and the States
use maps for effective habitat management and acquisition of important wet-
land areas needed to perpetuate migratory bird populations, for fisheries resto-
ration, floodplain planning, and endangered species recovery plans. Agencies
from the Department of Agriculture use the maps as a major tool in the identifi-
cation of wetlands for the administration of their programs. Regulatory agen-
cies and private sector planners use the maps to help in advanced wetland iden-
tification procedures, and to determine wetland values and mitigation require-
ments in framing alternative plans to meet regulatory requirements.



The Natural and Beneficial Functions of Floodplains

provide information, and conduct research as the Task Force considers appro-
priate.

(j) Termination - The Task Force shall terminate upon the expiration of the
24-month period beginning upon the designation of the last member to be des-
ignated under subsection (b).

Committee Report

Section 562 — Task Force on Natural and Beneficial Functions of
the Floodplain

The Committee intends that the Director of FEMA, the Undersecretary of Com-
merce for Oceans and Atmosphere, the Director of the United States Fish and
Wildlife Service, the Administrator of the United States Environmental Protec-
tion Agency, and the Secretary of the Army, shall serve on the Task Force on the
Natural and Beneficial Functions of the Floodplain, which shall identify the natural
and beneficial functions that reduce flood losses and make recommendations
on how the nation can further reduce flood losses through the protection of the
natural and beneficial functions of the floodplain.

In addition, the Conferees expect that the study will include a discussion of
examples of the uses of natural floodplain management to reduce flood losses,
and the status of, range of benefits associated with, and potential that may exist
for protecting relatively natural floodplain functions. The study should also ad-
dress tradeoffs and costs and benefits associated with such floodplain manage-
ment approaches, the range of uses usually considered compatible with the
protection of such floodplain functions, such as protecting water quality, re-
charging groundwater, and provision of habitat that may accompany protection
of relatively undisturbed natural floodplains. In addition, the study should con-
sider the appropriate roles of local, State, and Federal government agencies and
the private sector in identifying, managing, and protecting such floodplain func-
tions, how such approaches may relate to other approaches to reduce flood
losses, and make recommendations for administrative and legislative initiatives
to best utilize natural floodplain resources.

The Task Force is also encouraged, to the extent appropriate, to consult with
other Departments and agencies, such the National Park Service Rivers and
Trails Program, State and local government officials and the private sector,

ia)


The Natural and Beneficial Functions of Floodploins

Protection of Wetlands

Executive Order 11990. May 24, 1977

By virtue of the authority vested in me by the Constitution and statutes of the
United States of America, and as President of the United States of America, in
furtherance of the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969, as amended (42
U.S.C, 4321 et seq.), in order to avoid to the extent possible the long and short
term adverse impacts associated with the destruction or modification of wet-
lands and to avoid direct or indirect support of new construction in wetlands
wherever there is a practicable alternative, it is hereby ordered as follows:

Sec. 1. (a) Each agency shall provide leadership and shall take action to mini-
mize the destruction, loss or degradation of wetlands, and to preserve and en-
hance the natural and beneficial values of wetlands in carrying out the agency's
responsibilities for (1) acquiring, managing, and disposing of Federal lands and
facilities; and (2) providing Federally undertaken, financed, or assisted con-
struction and improvements; and (3) conducting Federal activities and programs
affecting land use, including but not limited to water and related land resources
planning, regulating, and licensing activities.

(a) This Order does not apply to the issuance by Federal agencies of
permits, licenses, or allocations to private parties for activity involv-
ing wetlands on non-Federal property.

Sec. 2. (a) In furtherance of Section 101 (b) (3) of the National Environmental
Policy Act of 1969 (42 U.S.C. 4331 (b) (3)) to improve and coordinate Federal
plans, functions, programs and resources to the end that the Nation may attain
the widest range of beneficial uses of the environment without degradation and
tisk to health or safety, each agency, to the extent permitted by law, shall avoid
undertaking or providing assistance for new construction located in wetlands
unless the head of the agency finds (1) that there is no practicable alternative to
such construction, and (2) that the proposed action includes all practicable
measures to minimize harm to wetlands which may result from such use. In
making this finding the head of the agency may take into account economic,
environmental and other pertinent factors.

(b) Each agency shall also provide opportunity for early public review
of any plans or proposals for new construction in wetlands, in accor-
dance with Section 2 (b) of Executive Order No. 11514, as amended,
including the development of procedures to accomplish this objec-
tive for Federal actions whose impact is not significant enough to
require the preparation of an environmental impact statement under
Section 102(c) of the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969, as
amended.

Sec. 3. Any requests for new authorizations or appropriations transmitted to
the Office of Management and Budget shall indicate, if an action to be proposed
will be located in wetlands, whether the proposed action is in accord with this
Order,

Sec. 4. When Federally-owned wetlands or portions of wetlands are proposed

Oo
fon


Such is the case in the City of Darlington, located in the southwestern part of
Wisconsin in an area of rugged hills, ridges, and river valleys. Located on the
slopes of the Pecatonica River, the downtown area is crossed by the river, which
has a well-defined floodplain, and several community parks located along the
riverfront.

The city was settled in the 1850s as a commercial point along an early trade
route between Galena, Illinois and Mineral Point, Wisconsin. The downtown
area has several buildings of architectural and historical significance such as the
Lafayette Counry Courthouse, which has been on the National Register of His-
toric Places since 1978. In 1994, the State Historical Society of Wisconsin nomi-
nated Darlington’s historic Main Street Central Business District to the National
Register of Historic Places,

The City of Darlington experienced flooding in 1950, 1959, 1969, 1990, and1993,
with the 1990 flood event being one of the worst. Rushing waters from the
swollen Pecatonica River washed out bridges and roads, and caused extensive
crop damage, damage to dozens of homes and businesses, sewer back-up, de-
bris build-up in streams, power outages, and damage to the area’s hiking trails.
High water levels forced the closing of all major highways into the city and
created islands of high ground. Several fuel and chemical storage tanks, which
are located along the River, were damaged and damage was reported at the
city’s wastewater treatment plant. In the historical downtown area, approxi-
mately 30 businesses were damaged, and flooding was so severe that several
downtown residents had to be evacuated by motorboat. Outside of the down-
town area, homes were inundated as flood waters rose 7 feet above flood stage.
In all, the damages in Darlington during the 1990 flood event accounted for the
vast majority of damages experienced in Lafayette County, which totaled ap-
proximately $2.8 million.

PROJECT ACCOMPLISHMENTS

Darlington's history of flooding and associated damages indicates that mitiga-
tion measures would be appropriate and could end the cycle of repetitive flood
damage. After the 1993 flood, the City of Darlington decided to undertake an
extensive flood mitigation project. The project involved the following elements:

= Floodproofing 12 structures in the downtown area, and acquisition
and relocation of 15 additional structures, The floodproofing con-
sisted of filling the basements with sand and suitable fill, elevating
the first floors, constructing vestibules, and installing removable
floodshields. Floodshields in the interiors of the buildings would al-
low water to infiltrate the vestibules. The vestibules were constructed
with drainholes and made of material that can easily be hosed down
after a major flood. These floodproofing designs conformed to the
Secretary of the Interior's Standards for Building Rehabilitation and
Guidelines for Rehabilitating Historic Homes, and the floodplain man-
_agement requirements of the State of Wisconsin Natural Resource
Code 116,

= Development of a business park on a 35-acre parcel south of
Darlington using Economie Development Administration funds to

Appandix B CASE STUDIES



The Noturol and Beneficial Functians of Floodplains

= Maximize the use of all potential funding sources before and after a
disaster to protect and restore natural and beneficial functions of
floodplains. Utilize these resources to stimulate and assist in the de-
velopment of State/tribal watershed initiatives and local model flood-
plain management programs.

= Ensure that mitigation and post-flood recovery measures after disas-
ters do not create adverse impacts on the natural and beneficial func-
tions of floodplains, but rather to the maximum extent possible,
protect, restore and enhance those functions.

RECOMMENDATION 5:

Improve the analytical approaches to floodplain management by
providing scientific and technical assistance, including economic
guidance, to organizations with floodplain management responsibilities.

= Develop quantitative methods to determine the value of floodplain
resources and functions. These will include the assessment of flood-
plain data needs such as mapping and assessment procedures for
natural and beneficial floodplain functions, analyzing and modeling
hydrologic, hydraulic and geomorphologic properties, and socioeco-
nomic costs and benefits associated with floodplain uses.

= Coordinate a study to determine annual flood loss in the U.S. This
study should include “natural” flooding from streams, rivers and
coastal storm surges, as well as “man-made” flooding induced by
poor stormwater management practices.

RECOMMENDATION 6:
Encourage natural, non-structural solutions to reducing flood damages.

= Review and revise the Economic and Environmental Principles and
Guidelines for Water and Related Land Resources Implementation Studies
to ensure that the value of the natural resources and functions of
floodplains is given equal consideration with economic goals.

= Modify the current benefit-cost analysis methods to include and re-
flect the long-term environmental and economic benefits derived from
utilizing non-structural alternatives to allow for an accurate cost com-
parison with structural alternatives when determining projects and
priorities.

RECOMMENDATION 7:

Improve coordination and partnerships among all levels of government
and other parties to facilitate the protection and restoration of
floodplains.

= Establish a coordinating committee to improve communication and
coordination among Federal agencies and State, tribal and local gov-
ernments in order to develop and promote policies and actions to



The Natural and Benefic

netions of Floodplain

called the Raritan Bay, To the north is the Fresh Kills Landfill, ignominiously
known as the world’s largest landfill.

South Richmond is also the last, large section of New York City that does not
have sewers, Because of the lack of sewers, development has employed on-site
storm water systems like septic tanks and package treatment plants, and on-site
storm water management measures like dry wells and retention basins. Unfor-
tunately, these systems often prove to be inadequate, leading to the current
conditions of local flooding, degraded water quality, erosion, and negatively
impacted wetlands.

In 1975, the city enacted the Special South Richmond Development District to
preserve the area's low-density, open character. To achieve the goals of preserv-
ing natural features such as ponds and streams, an Open Space network (OSN)
of nearly 700 acres was designated to remain in its natural state. It was deter-
mined that the OSN should be used as a storm water management system.

Following the creation of the OSN, the New York State Department of Environ-
mental Conservation began regulating development in an extensive system of
freshwater and tidal wetlands in South Richmond. During the 1980s, the state
issued a series of maps for the freshwater wetlands on Staten Island, which
include the streams and ponds of importance for storm water management. The
ongoing regulatory program has preserved wetland areas that are significant to
the overall drainage system.

In 1990, the New York City Department of Environmental Protection (DEP)
created the Staten Island Bluebelt unit, and a major effort began to acquire
wetland properties in order to complete the continuity of the stream corridors
and other wetlands in the OSN, In 1995, DEP began redesigning the storm and
sanitary sewer drainage plan to respect and utilize the area’s natural features.
The following goals were established by the DEP:

= Development of a comprehensive stormwater management system,
which utilizes streams, ponds, and other areas to channel, store, and
filter storm water.

« Use of urban Best Management Practices (BMPS) to reduce peak dis-
charges, improve water quality and enhance aesthetics.

= Preservation and enhancement of ecosystems in the area for wildlife
and open space.

= Unification between the constructed elements and the natural ele-
ments of the storm water management system, with an emphasis on
complementing the rustic, pastoral, and historic characteristics of the
surrounding area.

= Securing state designated Bluebelt sites from dumping and vandal-
ism.



SECTION FIVE Task Force Recommendation

protect and restore the natural resources and functions of floodplains.
Potential areas of responsibility for the Coordinating Committee should
include:

= Encouraging uniform application of policies and enhancement of in-
teragency coordination at the Federal level.

= Proposing legislative initiatives, where appropriate, to achieve water
resource management goals.

« Assuring the efficient and equitable resolution of Federal/interstate
water management conflicts.

Exploring the creation of public/private partnerships and promoting
collaborative planning to solve complex water resource issues.

Improve intergovernmental coordination and planning for floodplain
management, This coordination and planning should take place be-
fore and after disasters to make effective use of the resources of all
available programs to facilitate sound floodplain management and
the protection of natural functions to reduce the potential for flood
loss. Coordination could be provided through entities established for
watersheds or river basins,

RECOMMENDATION 8:

Evaluate various Federal programs that impact floodplains to ensure
that Federal agency implementation of floodplain management
objectives are complementary and support State and local initiatives.
Ensure that Federal programs that respond to floods are not working at
cross-purposes.

= Cooperative Federal/State/local roles and goals should be reviewed
in the context of Federal programs and initiatives to provide for a
more effective and efficient process for pre- and post-flood flood-
plain management actions and for appropriate use of staff and bud-
get resources. The objective is to ensure that these combined efforts
both protect the natural and beneficial functions of the floodplain
and reduce flood losses.

On
oa)



Jofurat and Beneficial Functions of Floodpla

The “Great Swamin” in southeastern New York provides
thousands of acres for storing the toodwaters of the Eost
Branch of the Craton River {as shown above during o
flood event), It also provides habitats for a wide variety of
flora end tauno, excellent water quality for a downstream
reservoir, and is a canoeist’s paradise

Operating and coordinating programs on a wa-
tershed basis makes sense environmentally, finan-
cially, socially, and administratively. For example,
by jointly reviewing assessment effort results for
drinking water protection, pollution control, fish
and wildlife habitat protection and other aquatic
resource protection programs, managers from all
levels of government can better understand the
cumulative impacts of various human activities.
Critical problems within each watershed also can
be determined: Using this information to set pri-
orities allows public and private managers to allo-
cate limited financial and human resources to ad-
dress the most critical needs. Establishing environ-
mental indicators helps guide activities toward
solving high priority problems and measuring suc-
cess in making real world improvements rather
than simply fulfilling programmatic requirements.

‘The watershed approach strengthens teamwork
between the public and private sectors at the Fed-
eral, state, tribal, and local levels to achieve the
greatest environmental improvements with the re-
sources available, This emphasis gives those people
who depend on the aquatic resources for their
health, livelihood, or quality of life a meaningful
role in resources management. Through such ac-
tive and broad involvement, the watershed ap-
proach can build a sense of community, reduce
conflicts, strengthen commitment to the actions
necessary to meet societal goals and ultimately im-
prove the likelihood of sustaining long-term envi-
ronmental improvements.

Section 319 of the Clean Water Act

Section 319 of the Clean Water Act established a national program to control
nonpoint sources of water pollution, and was implemented by States with Fed-
eral approval and assistance. States address nonpoint source pollution by:

= Developing nonpoint source assessment reports;

« Adopting nonpoint source management programs: and

= Implementing the management programs over a period of years.

. a AllStates, Territories, and 52 Tribes now have EPA-approved nonpoint
source assessment reports and management programs. Section 319
also authorizes EPA to issue annual grants to States, Territories, and
Tribes to assist them in implementing their programs, requiring at
least a 40 percent nonFederal dollar match. In FY 1999 and 2000,



4.1 The Current State of Floodplain Management

lood damage reduction in the United States has historically consisted of

structural measures, such as dams, reservoirs, levees, and channelization

that alter the location, depth, and duration of floodwaters. Although a

significant portion of Federal, State and local money is allocated to the
implementation of structural measures, the approach to flood damage reduc-
tion is shifting. As the awareness of increased costs and the environmental im-
plications grows, greater consideration is being given to alternative solutions
and implementation of non-structural measures is increasing, In addition, flood-
plain managers and other stakeholders are realizing that implementation of
non-structural measures often maintains or even restores the natural functions
of the floodplain, in addition to reducing flood losses.

Non-structural approaches to reducing flood losses modify the susceptibility to
flooding (e.g., removing a building from the flood hazard), instead of attempt-
ing to control floodwaters. Non-structural floodplain management alternatives
include the regulation of new floodplain development by states and communi-
ties; the acquisition, relocation, elevation, and floodproofing of existing
floodprone structures; land easements and acquisitions; restoration of wetlands;
and land and watershed management. Non-structural approaches may also in-
clude the use of some structural elements, such as creating a detention pond,

This section discusses a number of current government programs dealing with
floodplain management and identifies some of the challenges and remaining
barriers to protecting and restoring the natural and beneficial functions of flood-
plains. It also references Case Studies (located in Appendix B), which illustrate
successful Federal, State and local approaches to floodplain management. In
addition, Appendix A provides a more comprehensive description of govern-
mental programs related to floodplains, their resources, and management.

Federal Efforts

During the past 30 years, some Federal, State, and local agencies have sup-
ported the gradual shift to non-structural flood damage reduction and the resto-
ration and protection of floodplains with a variety of programs and approaches.
Over this same time period, technical advances, particularly in mapping and
other data gathering, have improved the capability of government at all levels to
undertake actions in support of the maintenance and restoration of natural and
beneficial functions of floodplains, Public education programs have been initi-
ated, environmental awareness increased, and resource protection programs
implemented across the nation. These programs and initiatives have helped to
make flood loss reduction and the protection and enhancement of the natural
functions of the floodplain a unified objective. (See Case Study — Napa Creek
Flood Protection Project, Napa Valley, California).

Examples of Federal efforts that involve the protection and restoration of the
natural functions of floodplains include:

« The issuance and implementation by Federal agencies of Executive
Order 11988, Floodplain Management, and Executive Order 11990,
Protection of Wetlands

Section Four

THE CURRENT
STATE OF
FLOODPLAIN
MANAGEMENT
AND
CHALLENGES TO
POLICY MAKERS



and slow flood flows. ‘These activities also reduce flood losses by eliminating
activities and structures from flood-prone areas and by maintaining these areas
free from incompatible development. Flood loss reduction is also the purpose of
other agency projects on which the Service provides planning assistance. The
following is a brief summary of USFWS programms, all of which are involved to
some degree in the protection and restoration of fish and wildlife resources and
habitats and other floodplain functions.

Project Planning

The USFWS is involved in several programs that include protection and restora-
tion of fish and wildlife habitats in floodplains. The Service works with permit
and license applicants, developers and Federal agencies to evaluate impacts of
proposed water resource development projects on fish and wildlife resources.
The USFWS makes recommendations to conserve and protect fish and wildlife
while facilitating the balanced development of the nation’s resources. The Ser-
vice provides advice and recommendations on fish and wildlife impacts to other
agencies in the planning of flood control projects. In recent years, increasing
emphasis has been placed on flood loss reduction through non-structural means
such as easements and floodplain evacuation.

Primary authorities for the Service's involvement include the Fish and Wildlife
Coordination Act, the Endangered Species Act and the National Environmental
Policy Act (NEPA). The Coordination Act requires coordination with the Service
whenever a Federal agency constructs, permits or licenses a water resource de-
velopment project. Where listed or proposed endangered and threatened spe-
cies or their critical habitats are involved, consultation takes place under Section
7 of the Endangered Species Act. The Service also provides comments on and
may be a cooperating agency for the preparation of evaluations and documents
under NEPA,

Coastal Program

The Fish & Wildlife Service is working to conserve coastal resources. The Coastal
program identifies important coastal resource problems and solutions, seeks
partnerships to carry out on-the-ground conservation projects, and encourages
public action in 11 high priority coastal areas. In the past seven years, this pro-
gram has restored over 54,160 acres of coastal wetlands, 19,670 acres of coastal
upland, and 645 miles of riparian habitat; protected an additional 227,990 acres
of habitat through conservation easements; and reopened 3,300 miles of coastal
streams to anadromous fish passage. Coastal Wetlands Conservation Grants are
awarded each year to coastal States for the acquisition, restoration, or enhance-
ment of coastal wetlands and tidelands. Since it began in 1992, 25 States and
one U.S. Territory have been awarded $75 million to protect and/or restore
93,000 acres of coastal wetlands and submerged habitat. The Coastal Barrier
Resources System is a defined set of undeveloped high risk coastal barriers. The
intent the legislation that established these areas was to reduce Federal support
(including Federal flood insurance) for development in these high risk areas. As
a result, Federal funds are saved, lives are protected, and important natural
resources are conserved.

a! Programs Relating to the Natural ond Beneficial Functions of Floodplains



ctians of Floodplair

provide the necessary infrastructure (a water main, gravity sewer
and force main, on-site sewage lift station, an access road and drain-
age improvements), After completion of these improvements, sev-
eral of the businesses in the flood prone areas of the city that were
acquired were moved to this parcel for the business park.

= Conversion of the acquired land near the river to a park and camp-
ground.

= Federal, state, and local outlays for the mitigation project totaled
$3.4 million representing 78 percent of total project funds (58 per-
cent came from FEMA, and 20 percent from the Economic Develop-
ment Administration), The remainder of the funds for the project
came from State and local contributions, as well as from local finan-
cial institutions and the resources of local property owners.

In addition to the reduction in potential damages, this mitigation project pro-
duced a number of other indirect benefits. Darlington's environment was made
safer, its aesthetic quality was heightened, the natural function of the floodplain
was restored, and the city’s economic development potential was increased, For
example:

= By relocating many of the storage tanks and distribution systems for
fuel oil, propane, and natural gas, the flooding threat to these re-
sources has been almost entirely eliminated. This has significantly
reduced the potential for pollution or explosion associated with these
sites,

= Businesses that use and maintain varying quantities of hazardous
materials were relocated outside the floodplain, thereby eliminating
the threat of hazardous material dispersion by floodwaters.

= The removal of structures and associated materials from the flood-
plain reduced the potential for dangerous floating debris during floods.

= The open space created by removal of structures from the floodplain
increased the area’s aesthetic quality and created recreational oppor-
tunities. This has benefited not only the look of the downtown area,
but has also increased the economic potential of nearby businesses,
since the improved downtown area is now more attractive to shop-
pers and store patrons.

Baltimore County, Maryland

PROJECT NAME: Integrated Watershed Management Program
LOCATION: Baltimore County, Maryland

BACKGROUND

The protection and restoration of the natural functions and values of flood-
plains in Baltimore County are achieved through several components of the
County's Integrated Watershed Management Program. This program evolved
from initiatives taken by the County to respond to growth management and



EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Section One
INTRODUCTION .

Section Two
THE NATURAL AND BENEFICIAL FUNCTIONS OF FLOODPLAINS
2.1 What Are Floodplains and Why Are They Important?
2.1.1 Riverine Floodplains

2.1.2 Coastal Floodplain:

2.2 The Natural and Beneficial Functions of Floodplain:
2.2.1 Water Resources Functions

2.2.2 Ecological Functions

2.2.3 Functions of Coastal Floodplain

2.3 Human Values of Floodplains..............

Section Three
THE IMPACT OF HUMAN ACTIVITIES ON FLOODPLAINS

3.1 Impacts of Flood Control and Other Water Resources

Structures wo...

3.2 Impacts of Changes in Land Use

Section Four
THE CURRENT STATE OF FLOODPLAIN MANAGEMENT AND
CHALLENGES TO POLICY MAKERS

4.1 The Current State of Floodplain Management .... pict heel
4.2 The Challenges in Floodplain Management for Policy Makers . 4-4
Section Five
TASK FORCE RECOMMENDATION ...........cccececceeceeeeeee eee eee tees eeeenee 5-1
Section Six
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHM... coserasexenenguenssrsresernsansternenenavernmmegnue yanarsangenn 6-1
Appendix A

FEDERAL PROGRAMS RELATING TO THE NATURAL AND BENEFICIAL

FUNCTIONS OF FLOODPLAINS

» Federal Emergency Management Agency
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
U.S. Department of Commerce...

TABLE OF
CONTENTS



stura| ond Be

Functions of Fle

Technical Community Option, these government entities may be provided fund-
ing to complete some or all of the necessary activities for completing and/or
modernizing their flood maps. FEMA will furnish guidelines and specifications
for doing the work, provide technical assistance, and conduct periodic reviews
throughout the process.

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

Flood Damage Reduction and Ecosystem Restoration
Programs

U.S, Army Corps of Engineers
Rice Lake Environmental
Management project — a
\70-acre shallow floodplain
lake located an the right
bank of the Minnesota River
within the Minnesota Valley
Nationa! Wildlife Refuge near
Minneapolis, Minnesota

Projects under these two programs include structural (dams,
channel improvements, and levees) and non-structural (flood
proofing, flood warning/, preparedness, permanent evacuation,
and the preservation or protection of open space) measures.
They must be worthwhile projects, Le., the benefits derived
must be greater than the costs, and they must be cost-shared
by local sponsors (state and/or community). As part of the
cost sharing, local sponsors must provide lands, easements,
rights-of-way, relocation and disposals sites, and maintain the
project after completion. Large projects require congressional
approval for funding while smaller projects are implemented
under continuing authorities.

Technical Assistance

‘The Floodplain Management Services (EPMS) Program® and the Planning As-
sistance to States (PAS) Program’ help communities develop and initiate their
own plans and actions. USACE specifically developed FPMS to help others miti-
gate flood damages. The program provides the full range of technical services
and planning guidance necessary lo support flood damage reduction. Assis-
tance varies from developing site specific data (L-¢., depth of flooding at a resi-
dence) to helping a community select the most effective measures for a compre-
hensive floodplain management plan. The PAS, on the other hand, assists in the
preparation of comprehensive plans for the development, utilization, and con-
servation of water and related land resources. Although PAS program authority
is much broader, its flood damage reduction assistance is similar to that pro-
vided by the FPMS Program.

Challenge 21

Challenge 21 is a flood hazard mitigation and ecosystem restoration program
focused on America’s floodplain communities. Challenge 21 is a comprehensive
program for sustainable approaches to flood hazard mitigation with the goal of
protecting natural and beneficial functions of floodplains and reducing flood
losses. Through USACE's leadership, Challenge 21 is:

« Focused on non-structural solutions to reducing flood damages, while
maintaining the flexibility to use more traditional structures (e.g.,
levees, flood walls) where appropriate



Functions of Fioodpiain:

planning and by Federal agencies when they apply Executive Order 11988, Flood-
plain Management to their actions. Although the initial mapping of the nation’s
floodplains is essentially complete, there is a continual need to modernize exist-
ing maps, and to revise and update floodplain maps to reflect changed condi-
tions and to include new areas that will be undergoing development.

Most maps along rivers and streams designate a floodway that includes the
channe! and adjacent floodplain areas that must be protected in order to main-
tain the capacity of the floodplain to convey floodwaters. Communities must
prohibit development in these floodways unless it can be shown that it would
cause no increase in flood elevations, The floodway requirements provide sig-
nificant protection to the natural and beneficial functions of floodplains. Ap-
proximately 9,000 square miles of floodway have been designated along 40,000
linear miles of streams and rivers.

Community floodplain management regulations also require that residential
buildings be elevated to or above the elevation of the base flood (the flood that
has a 1 percent chance of occurring during any given year, also known as the
“1.00-year” flood). Nonresidential buildings can either be elevated or floodproofed
(made watertight) to this elevation. The NFIP also has established a Community
Rating System (CRS) that provides discounts on flood insurance premiums in
those communities that establish floodplain management programs that go be-
yond NFIP minimum requirements. Over 900 communities participate in the
CRS, which accounts for almost two thirds of the NFIP’s 4 million flood insur-
ance policies. Under the CRS communities receive credit for more restrictive
regulations, acquisition, relocation or floodproofing of floodprone buildings,
preservation of open space, and other measures that reduce flood damages or
protect the natural resources and functions of floodplains.

FEMA Grant Programs

FEMA also administers two programs that can fund the acquisition, relocation,
elevation, or floodproofing of floodprone buildings or other mitigation actions.
The largest of these is the Hazard Mitigation Grant Program established under
Section 404 of the Robert T. Stafford Disaster Relief and Emergency Assistance
Act of 1988, as amended, Federal funding under this program is based on 15
percent of the Federal expenditures for assistance to states, communities, and
individuals for each disaster. This program is generally administered by state
emergency agencies that establish funding priorities and select projects. Gener-
ally, project applicants are communities. Since 1993, this program has acquired,
relocated or elevated over 26,000 floodprone buildings. FEMA also administers
the Flood Mitigation Assistance Program established by the National Flood In-
surance Reform Act of 1994. This program provides funding to states and com-
munities for flood hazard mitigation planning and for mitigation projects that
protect insured buildings, This program is currently funded at $20 million per
year, Under both programs, any acquired property is deeded to the community
and must be maintained as open space.

Under Section 406 of Robert T. Stafford Disaster Relief and Emergency Assis-
tance Act of 1988, as amended,’ FEMA provides assistance to states, communi-
ties, and certain non-profit organizations for the repair of damaged buildings

cap

on pe ae eee ee! ee


Appendix B CASE STUDIES

management plans for the characterization of water quality prob-
lems and identification of priorities for restoration. The plans typi-
cally include a watershed water quality model such as the EPA Storm
Water Management Model (SWMM) for existing and future land use,
and evaluation of stream channel stability using the Rosgen stream
classification method. Additional research has included the develop-
ment of regional curves for geomorphic relationships of local Pied-
mont streams. The DEPRM also completed research for @ project
entitled A GIS-based Methodology for Establishing Greenway Corri-
dors in a Fragmented Forest Landscape. This project is a tool for the
assessment of the County’s forest patches and the identification of
priorities for both conservation and for reforestation of riparian cor-
ridors and gaps. The DEPRM is also starting work on a 2-year study
funded by the Water Environment Research Foundation on the effec-
tiveness of riparian buffers in urbanized areas for water quality, stream
channel stability, and habitat.

PROJECT ACCOMPLISHMENTS

Baltimore County has developed an Integrated Watershed Management Pro-
gram that addresses Federal nonpoint source pollution control mandates, State
of Maryland initiatives for restoration of the Chesapeake Bay, and local priori-
ties and cooperative water quality projects. The DEPRM has used a multi-func-
tional, watershed-based approach for the protection of its resources, including
the ecosystem functions of floodplains. ‘To date, DEPRM’s programs have ac-
complished the following:

» Resource Protection/Regulation. The County’s Regulations for
the Protection of Water Quality, Streams, Wetlands and Floodplains
have been applied to an estimated 1,700 land development projects.
In combination with other resource protection programs such as Storm
Water Management and Forest Conservation, the regulations are pro-
tecting the integrity of stream corridors, even in the densest planned
town centers. Studies to evaluate the effectiveness of these programs
are underway.

Restoration. The DEPRM has completed nearly a dozen stream
testoration projects, many of which involved re-creation or enhance-
ment of functioning floodplains. More than 18 additional projects
are in the design, permitting, or construction phase. Although new,
the County's community reforestation program has already included
several urban and rural riparian reforestation projects that include
planting of floodplains.

= Research and Planning. The DEPRM has completed watershed
management plans for 4 of its 14 major watersheds, with 3 other
plans nearing completion and 2 additional plans recently underway.
The County has invested more than $1 million through these studies
to guide decision-making for resource management,

In all of these efforts, Baltimore County works closely with Federal, regional and
State agencies, neighboring jurisdictions, non-profit organizations, and commu-



otural end Beneficial Functions joodpla'

pacity of the channel, 2) surface runoff from the surrounding watershed, and 3)
direct precipitation (Figure 2-3). The generally flat nature of natural floodplains
is favorable for local ponding and flood detention, and the permeable nature of

alluvial soils promotes infiltration into the subsurface for storage in soils and
aquifers,

Figure 2-3. The Hydrologic Cycle

(Adapted from Stream Corridor Restoration: Princiales,
Processes and Practices, 1998). Federal Interagency Stream
Restoration Working Group (15 federal

agencies} (FISRWG}

r cloud formation )

rain clouds oe

- evaporation
¢

av

7) y, §
é
>

precipitation

from oce?
transpiratio”

percolation

Co aye

Floodwater
that exceeds the convey-
ance capacity of the waterway is stored

in floodplains for varying periods of time after a pre tion event and flows to
the watercourse gradually, either as surface or subsurface (groundwater dis-
charge) flow, The floodplain’s natural capacity for flood storage and conveyance
serves to reduce flood velocities and peak flows in the stream channel. Flood-
plain vegetation also plays an important role in determining the flow patterns
and the velocity at which water flows across the land. Except in narrow, steep
valleys and areas of coastal bluffs, floodplains provide an expansive area where
floodwaters can slow in velocity and disperse over a broader area. Decreased



The Noturol and Beneficial Functions of Floodplains

RICA program helps communities protect rivers, trails, and greenways on lands
outside the Federal domain and without Federal ownership.

The Rivers & Trails program is based on the principle of partnerships, By work-
ing together, residents, landowners, government agencies and private organiza-
tions can meet the challenges of conservation. Regional and state organizations
coordinate and support local groups and act as umbrella organizations to make
their efforts more visible and effective. The NPS works with groups to establish
goals, resolve difficult issues and reach agreements on how community resources
should be utilized and managed.

Rivers & Trails program staff provides the following types of assistance:
= River, Trail, and Greenway Planning
= Regional Assessments
= Conservation Workshops and Consultations

Information and advice on conservation and recreation topics are avail-
able from any NPS office. However, a group must formally apply to receive
longer-term assistance.

Successful applicants generally meet several criteria:

= An Involved Public: conservation projects are more likely to succeed
if they have broad public support

= Cost-Sharing and Cooperation: public agencies and private groups
sponsoring a project must help fund it, with either cash or in-kind
services

= Results Orientation: successful applications have specific, tangible,
attainable goals

= Significant Resources: proposed projects should protect or enhance
important community resources (such as rivers, trails, and landscapes)
that will improve the quality of life for residents and visitors alike

U.S, Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS)

The mission of the Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS), working with others, is
to conserve, protect and enhance fish, wildlife and their habitats for the continu-
ing benefit of the American people. Floodplain habitats such as wetlands and
riparian areas are very productive, supporting a wide variety and diversity of
fish and wildlife resources. Activities under most USFWS programs include the
protection and restoration of fish and wildlife resources and habitats in flood-
plains. Service activities may also benefit other floodplain functions such as
improving water quality, increasing groundwater recharge, stabilization of stream
banks, etc.

USFWS programs may also contribute to flood loss reduction. Protection and
restoration of wetlands and other floodplain habitats through actions on Service
lands, programs with private landowners and others, and acquisition of flood-
plain areas after flood events, may increase the storage area for flood waters



The Natural and Boneficicl Functions of Floodplains

sites; and funding research and inventory projects. Funds are also used to im-
prove aquatic habitats for certain fish species, land acquisition, construction of
fishing areas for the public and long-range fisheries research. States receive
reimbursement from these funds for 75 percent of the costs of project.

A-20


he Natural and Be

of Flood

Floodplain Vegetation

The diverse vegetation in floodplains provides habitat for wildlife, controls ero-
sion and sedimentation, and improves water quality by filtering pollutants. Flood-
plains often contain different zones of vegetation, with shallow aquatic vegetation
changing gradually to trees and shrubs in upland areas. The diverse vegetation
of floodplains can support a wide variety of wildlife and smaller organisms feed-
ing on plants. Trees and shrubs in more upland areas provide food, protection,
nesting and roosting areas for many species. In addition, fallen branches and
rool masses create macro- and micro-habitats among the pools, breaks, and
riffles in the stream (Interagency Floodplain Management Task Force, 1996).
The shading effect of riparian vegetation is beneficial for avoiding temperature
extremes that stress natural biota. The warming of surface water due to the
removal of streamside vegetation also lowers dissolved oxygen levels in the
water, making it more difficult for aquatic species to migrate, reproduce or fulfill
their expected life cycles.

In coastal systems and around large lakes, vegetated floodplains and dunes
reduce wave heights and velocities from hurricanes, coastal storms, and thun-
derstorms. This reduces flood and erosion damage to critical areas and struc-
tures located within flood hazard areas.

Wetlands

Wetlands are important components of the floodplain environment that provide
numerous biological, environmental and economic benefits. Wetlands act as
a natural buffer against flooding by storing and slowly releasing floodwaters.
Wetlands also protect water quality by filtering pollutants and sedi- ments from
surface runoff.

Wetlands are highly productive ecosystems that are often essential for maintain-
ing biodiversity within a watershed. Wetlands provide habitats for fish, shellfish,
waterfowl and a wide va-
riety of other aquatic and
semi-aquatic species. The
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Ser-
vice estimates that up to
60 to 70 percent of threat-
ened and endangered ani-
mal species rely on
wetlands for habitat (Fed-
eral Interagency Stream
Restoration Working
Group, 1998).

Wetlands are being de-
stroyed or converted to

= nae other uses at an alarming
The Great Floride Marsh" by Martin J. Heade. Even in the nineteenth century, there rate. According to esti-
were people who appreciated wetlands for their aesthetic and other values. mates by the U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service, 53 per-
cent (117 million acres) of



his report documents the findings and recommendations of the Task
Force on the Natural and Beneficial Functions of the Floodplain, The
Task Force was established by Congress under Section 562 of the Na-
tional Flood Insurance Reform Act of 1994 to:

« identify the natural and beneficial functions of floodplains that re-
duce flood losses; and

= recommend how the nation can further reduce flood losses through
the protection and restoration of the natural and beneficial functions
of the floodplain.

Congress directed the Task Force to make the information it gathered and the
recommendations available to the public.

Members of the Task Force designated by Congress included:
Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), Elected Chair
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS)
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE)

Other members of the ‘Task Force included:

National Park Service Rivers, Trails, and Conservation Assistance
Program (Rivers & Trails)

Natural Resource Conservation Service (NRCS)

The Task Force concluded that protecting and restoring the natural and benefi-
cial functions of floodplains will not only reduce flood damages, but also con-
tribute to a community's social and economic well-being. As we continue to live
in close proximity to rivers and streams, naturally functioning floodplains will
become increasingly critical community assets. Preservation and restoration of
the natural and beneficial functions and values of floodplains depends on pre-
ventative floodplain management policies, programs, and initiatives. While much
of this will occur as a result of initiatives at the state and local levels, Federal
programs and policies must support and encourage these efforts,

The Task Force would like to thank URS Corporation for their assistance in
supporting the Task Force and developing the report, and Jon Kusler for his
guidance and expertise. As Chair of the Task Force, FEMA would also like to
thank the Task Force members representing the member agencies and the nu-
merous staff of the participating agencies who contributed to the development
of the recommendations and the report,

PREFACE



SECTION FIVE Task Farce Recommendation

= Incorporate the protection and restoration of natural and beneficial
functions in pre- and post-disaster planning and management efforts
by all levels of government,

RECOMMENDATION 3:

Enhance the capabilities of State, tribal, and local programs and planning
processes that protect and restore natural and beneficial floodplain
functions.

« Improve public education and outreach regarding the array of Fed-
eral programs that support floodplain management activities and
provide post-flood recovery opportunities.

# Assist communities to better understand how to incorporate future
flood risk reduction and environmental restoration and natural flood-
plain enhancement efforts in development and zoning decisions.

« Promote effective implementation and compliance of the floodway
requirements in those NFIP communities with designated floodways.
Where appropriate, concentrate on clearing floodways through ac-
quisition and relocations of homes/buildings. Effective implementa-
tion would establish buffer areas between the water and development
that would protect the natural resources and functions of floodplains.

= Provide greater incentives to develop stronger State/tribal/regional
/local floodplain and watershed management capabilities.

= Assist State/local/tribal/regional organizations to acquire the neces-
sary expertise and tools for effective floodplain management.

« Support groups such as the Western Governors’ Association, the Na-
tional Governor's Association, the Association of State Floodplain Man-
agers, and similar groups in their efforts to promote sound floodplain
management at the State and local levels.

= Support local planning processes and projects that protect and re-
store natural and beneficial floodplain functions.

RECOMMENDATION 4:

Focus restoration and protection efforts on those floodplains or portions
of floodplains identified as having the greatest flood risks and significant
natural and beneficial functions.

# Through pre-disaster planning and interagency coordination, iden-
tify riparian and coastal floodplain areas to be acquired or restored
that would contribute to the reduction of future flood risk and dam-
ages and lead to the maximization of environmental benefits. Im-
prove the efficiency of post-disaster recovery efforts through clear

~ identification of target areas for potential non-structural flood loss
reduction alternatives,



Westernport, Maryland

PROJECT NAME: Westernport Flood Mitigation Project
LOCATION: Westernport, Maryland

HIGHLIGHTS: Extraordinary cooperation leads to successful community plan-
ning efforts that reduce flood losses and restore stream health.

BACKGROUND

On September 6, 1996, Hurricane Fran deposited 7 inches of rain on the Georges
Creek watershed in Allegany County, Maryland (a Project Impact Community.)
The result was devastating floods that literally ripped apart many homes located
in the steeply sloped mountain valley. Particularly devastated was the town of
Westernport, located at the confluence of Georges Creek and the Potomac River,
Over 10 homes along the Front Street and Main Street Extended area were
rendered structurally unsound, with a dozen more seriously flooded. In addi-
tion, the embankment of Maryland Route 36 was eroded, and sections of the
sanitary sewer were washed away or clogged with debris,

Allegany County was subsequently declared a Federal Disaster Area, the third of
three declarations Occurring in less than 12 months, Although the declaration
brought needed financial assistance from FEMA and NRCS to remove debris

construct the Westernport Flood Mitigation Project, The $2.5 million project
involved the purchase and removal of 27 homes from the floodplain, construc.
tion of streambank retaining walls to protect a major highway, repair and relo-
cation of sanitary sewers, and restoration of the stream and riparian areas for a
one-half mile section of Georges Creek.

The town then initiated a second phase in their Fload Recovery Program ~ a
community planning effort to identify open Space uses and activities for the
buyout area. At the Town’s request, the Rivers, ‘Trails, and Conservation Assis-
tance Program (RTCA) of the National Park Service joined the planning team to

Proach, which included community workshops, citizen Surveys, interest group
mectings, outreach through the local media, and the development of a local
steering committee to oversee plan development.

In October 1996, a team led by the chief engineers of Allegany County, SHA,
and NRCS convened meetings with other government entities and town repre-

sentatives to develop ways to Pool resources, programs, and talents to assist
Westernport. The following Project goals were agreed upon:

Appendix B CASE STUDIES



TION THREE The Impact of Human Activities

diminish aquifer recharge areas, lower water tables, and add
pollutants to potable water supplies. Over-grazing by domes-
tic livestock can trample and devegetate floodplain areas, ef-
fectively removing vegetative cover in riparian areas.

Inappropriately managed forestry practices can also eliminate
valuable floodplain resources and adversely affect floodplain
processes. Tree removal practices such as clear cutting can
either overload or decrease the quantity of nutrients in the
watershed, which can affect the quality, quantity, and timing
of stream flows. Removal of shade trees adjacent to the water-
way can increase water temperatures and reduce available
habitat for fish and wildlife. Clearcutting and the construction
of roads related to forestry can expose, remove or compress
soils, leading to increased runoff and erosion, resulting in the
siltation of streams.

Introduction of Exotic Species
Exotic plant and animal species may be introduced into flood-

plain systems by a variety of mechanisms from surrounding residential and ag-
ricultural areas. Exotic plant species may be intentionally introduced through
horticulture practices or inadvertently introduced through other human activi-
ties. Exotic species that prove to be invasive can disrupt floodplain ecosystems
increasing competition of indigenous plants for moisture, sunlight, and space
and by changing the structure of native plant communities. This change in struc-
ture can supersede natural plant cover, eliminate or reduce the quality of food
sources and cover for indigenous animal species, disrupt the food chain and
adversely affect endangered species by changing the components of their exist-
ing habitat. Exotic plants that are introduced but do not become invasive, can be
vectors for other species (insects, microorganisms, and other plants) that can
become invasive. Invasive aquatic organisms that are introduced into a stream
or river can radically affect the floodplain food web and have other detrimental
affects as well. Since habitat disturbance can facilitate the introduction or spread
of invasive species, a naturally functioning floodplain may prove to be more
resistant to the establishment of many non-native species. Therefore, protecting
and restoring natural floodplain functions in conjunction with aggressive eradi-
cation programs can help maintain the native flora and fauna populations and
the viability of the floodplain ecosystem. Many exotic species are capable of
exploiting newly restored habitats to the detriment of native species. Therefore,
restoration should be approached carefully in the context of clear resource man-

agement objectives.

Recreation

The flat terrain, proximity to water, and scenic vistas provide abundant recre-
ational opportunities in floodplains. The impacts of recreation on the floodplain
environment depend largely upon the characteristics of the floodplain (i.e., veg-
etation, soils), and the type and intensity of the recreational use. For example, a
recreational trail in the floodplain can have little impact if the important func-
tions of the floodplain are recognized and preserved. Well-planned parks or

Over-grazing by
domestic livestock can
trample and devegetate
floodplain areas,
effectively removing
vegetative cover in
riparian areas,

nn


The Natural And Beneficial
Functions Of Floodplains

Reducing Flood Losses By Protecting
And Restoring The Floodplain Environment

June 2002

A Report For Congress By The Task Force On The
Natural And Beneficial Functions Of The Floodplain


APPENDIX A al P

quantity and/or quality and will include conservation or enhancement recom-
mendations to minimize the adverse effects these activities cause.

Natural Disaster Reduction Initiative (NDRI)

NOAA's contributions to the Department of Commerce's NDRI effort include the
following:

Moving Out of Harm’s Way

Improved warnings and forecasts for protecting people and property from the
immediate threat of natural hazards, NOAA proposes to focus its efforts on sup-
porting and upgrading operational systems and improving predictions critical

to forecasting as well as communicating information prior to and during haz-
ardous events. Lead times and accuracy of warnings and forecasts will be im-
proved, thereby enabling emergency managers, businesses, and communities to
better prepare and respond to extreme events.

Keeping Out of Harm’s Way

New information for private and public sectors of society to ensure that people
and property are either not in the path of natural hazards in the first place or are
more resilient to them when they occur. NOAA will work with Federal, state,
and industry partners to identify areas of high hazard risk and develop tech-
niques for mitigating hazard impacts. ‘The partners will work to improve local
and state capabilities to prevent disasters from occurring. These measures are
expected to improve hydrologic forecasts at several time scales, They will assist
water resource managers and emergency managers in reducing the impact of
floods and will provide risk assessments of the exposure or vulnerability of com-
munities to natural hazards that can be used in land use planning and building
at local and state levels.

The NDRI will allow NOAA to improve forecasts of weather-related natural di-
sasters ranging from a few minutes to several months in advance. NOAA also
will be able to provide local, state, Federal, and private-sector partners with
better information on how to avoid and mitigate the impacts of natural hazards.

National Weather Service (NWS) Hydrologic Services Program

This program provides river and flood forecasts, warnings for protection of life
and property, and basic hydrologic forecast information for the nation’s eco-
nomic and environmental well being. In addition, the NWS provides detailed
estimates of flood losses from 1903 to present. These estimates are compiled
from information provided by NWS field offices and other Federal agencies and
include direct damage due to flooding that results from rainfall, snowmelt, and
dam failures.

NWS Advanced Hydrologic Prediction Services (AHPS)

AHPS consists of a combination of software and hardware tools used for analyz-
ing data and creating graphic displays of probability forecasts of river flows and
levels. AHPS builds upon NOAA's modern technologies, i.e., Doppler weather

rograms Relating to the Natural and Beneficial Functions

of Floodplain



SECTION FOUR The Current State of Flaod,

must also possess or have access to the technical skills required
to interpret and utilize available information on these func-
tions. Government affiliated and sponsored programs should
train planners and emergency response employees, and oth-
ers who lack experience with floodplain issues in the identifi-
cation and strategic management of floodplain resources. This
approach would be particularly advantageous for small mu-
nicipalities where access to personnel knowledgeable about
floodplain resources may be limited. Training efforts should
address the issues of planning, mapping, restoration and com-
prehensive management related to the natural and beneficial
functions of floodplains.

Maps and Database Information

Databases and detailed maps identifying floodplain areas have
been created for the majority of the nation. FEMA and other

ain Management and Challeng

to Policy Makers

Government programs should train
planners and emergency managers in the
identification and management of
floodplain resources.

agency flood hazard maps and studies are useful in identifying flood convey-
ance, flood storage capacity, wave attenuation and erosion areas. However, in-
formation on many of the other natural and beneficial functions of floodplains
for these same areas is often limited. While flood hazard maps are usually cre-
ated using the latest technology, they are not currently integrated with data-
bases that have information on the resources and natural and beneficial functions

of floodplains.

Often there are discrepancies or incompat-
ibilities among the software used by Fed-
eral, State and local agencies. This,
combined with limited funding, limits the
availability of information. Although there
are some publicly and privately funded
grant programs that can furnish software,
equipment and provide technical training
for smaller agencies, knowledge of these
programs is limited.

Where maps and databases on natural
floodplain functions are available, flood-
plain managers often do not know about
their availability or understand their use.
Federal, state and local government bud-
gets provide only limited funding to carry
out surveys, inventories, assessments, and
planning or implementation efforts for the
natural and beneficial functions of flood-

plains. Government officials at all levels
are often unfamiliar with potential fund-
ing sources relative to map and database
development and the access to the infor-
mation these resources can provide.

Fload Insurance Rete Maps (FIRMs) and other flood data
produced by FEMA provide information on flooding, but
information on the natural and beneficial functions of
floodplains is often limited.



SECTION SIX Selected Bibliography

U.S. Department of the Interior. 1991. A Cosebook in Managing Rivers for
Multiple Uses. National Park Service, Washington, D.C.

U.S. Department of the Interior. 1975. Information/Data Handling Requirements
for Selected State Resource Management Programs. Office of Land Use and
Water Planning and U.S. Geological Survey, Resource and Land Investigation
Program. Technical Supporting Report C. Washington, D.C.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1993. Netural Wetlands and Urban
Stormwater; Potential Impacts and Management. Office of Wetlands, Oceans
and Watersheds, Wetlands Division. Washington, D.C. 843-R-001-

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1997. A system for Mapping Riparian Areas in the
Western United States. National Wetlands Inventory.

U.S. Water Resources Council. 1978. Floodplain Management Guidelines for
Implementing Executive Order 11988. Reprint from 43 Federal Register 6030,
February 10, 1978,

Whitaker, D., B, Shelby, W. Jackson, and R. Beschta..1993, Instream Flows for
Recreation: A Handbook on Concepts and Research Methods, National,



= Public land planning and management by agencies (e.g., the U.S.
Forest Service, Bureau of Land Management, National Park Service,
and Fish and Wildlife Service) who administer programs with flood-
plain, wetland, and riparian components (e.¢., the Natural Resources
Conservation Service’s Wetland Reserve Program)

= Mapping and information gathering (e.g., FEMA flood hazard map-
ping and the National Wetlands Inventory)

= Enrollment of communities into the National Flood Insurance Pro-
gram (NFIP)

= The regulatory permitting process pursuant to Section 10 of the Riv-
ers and harbors Act of 1899 and Section 404 of the Clean Water Act
of 1977 (activities in navigable waters and the discharge of dredged
or fill material into wetlands and other waters of the United States)

= ‘Technical assistance programs for State and local governments and
private landowners (¢.g., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Partners for
Fish and Wildlife Program)

= Reviews of proposed projects under the National Environmental Policy
Act

Other Federal, State, and local programs are showing
initiative in protecting the natural and beneficial func-
tions of floodplains. For example, the restoration of wet-
lands, riparian areas, riverbanks, and broader floodplains

Some of the Federal Laws and Policy
Initiatives Affecting Floodplains

Executive Order 11988, Floodplain
Management (1977)

Executive Order 11990, Wetlands Protection
(1977)

Federal Public Land Planning Initiatives
Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act of 1958
National Flood Insurance Act of 1968
National Environmental Policy Act of 1969
Clean Water Act of 1972

Water Resources Development Acts

Water Quality Standards

No Net Loss of Wetlands Policy
Clean Water Action Plan (1998)

is taking place at thousands of sites throughout the na-
tion. This is occurring under the 1996 Farm Bill Programs;
the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) 1135 pro-
gram and other USACE authorities; FEMA's Hazard Miti-
gation Grant Program and other mitigation efforts; the
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's (USFWS) Coastal Pro-
grams; and other related endeavors. New efforts recently
authorized, such as the USACE's Challenge 21 Program,
focus on reducing flood losses, while emphasizing non-
structural measures and the protection and restoration
of the natural resources and functions of floodplains.
Hundreds of local governments across the nation are
using these programs to take positive steps toward flood-
plain restoration through development and implemen-
tation of “greenway” programs. Many agencies at all
organization levels are increasingly entering into part-
nership to achieve these goals. (See Appendix A for an in
depth discussion of these and other Federal laws, programs
and initiatives that can support protection of the natural
and beneficial functions of floodplains.)

“Sustainable development" — a term that has been used for more than a decade —
refers to the coordination and integration of policies on economic growth that
will benefit present and furure generations without detrimentally affecting the

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1


a! Functions of Floo

anadromous fish (ocean fish that migrate to fresh waters to spawn). These same
watercourses also provide a migration route for catadromous fish (fish that spawn
in the ocean but return to fresh water to reach adulthood). Dams without fish
ladders are barriers to spawning migrations and are one of the leading factors in
the demise of many anadromous/catadromous fish runs.

2.2 The Natural and Beneficial Functions of
Floodplains

The Wekive River, near
Orlando, is a naturally
functioning riverine/
floodplain/wetland
system that provides
numerous benefits for

the community,

Surface waters, their floodplains, and
watersheds are viewed as parts of a
broader, single system. This interaction
of land and water exists in a state of dy-
namic equilibrium. Ifa component of the
natural system is disturbed, the entire
system works to readjust towards a new
equilibrium. This is true of riverine and
coastal systems alike. The effects of a
system’s readjustment are often felt far
from the original site of the disturbance
and can last for decades. The protection
and restoration of floodplains must be
undertaken with these important envi-
ronmental and economic consequences
in mind.

Floodplains perform a variety of essential functions including floodwater con-
veyance and storage, groundwater recharge, wave attenuation, stream bank
erosion control, reduction in sedimentation rates, water quality maintenance,
and support of highly productive ecosystems. Benefits to humans are also pro-
vided in the form of sites for various types of water dependent development and
recreational opportunities as well as cultural and scientific values.

Over the past years there has been considerable discussion over how to categorize
or describe the natural and beneficial functions of floodplains. At various times
they have been called “values”, “functions”, and “resources.” Early in its delibera-
tions the Task Force determined that further efforts in this area were not produc-
tive. Regardless of what the functions are called the value to society is the same.

The 1994 revision to A Unified Program for Floodplain Management (Federal
Interagency Floodplain Management Task Force, 1994) points out that rela-
tively undisturbed floodplains or those that have been restored to a nearly natu-
ral state provide a wide range of benefits to both human and natural systems.
Some of these benefits are static in nature (e.g., providing aesthetic pleasure)
and some are dynamic processes (e.g,, filtering nutrients), In thar document
floodplain resources and functions are categorized under the general headings
of Water Resources, Biologic Resources and Societal Resources (see Table 2-1).
‘Table 2-2 provides another example of how to characterize these functions that
may be useful to the reader. (Source: A Unified Program for Floodplain Manage-
ment, 1994)



The Natural ond Beneficial F

A one-half cent
sales tax will
generate over
$120 million over
20 years for the
implementation of
a ‘living river
strategy" in the
Napa River
watershed.

unetions of Floodplain

= Develop a “dry” bypass channel to bridge the Oxbow. This bypass will
allow low water flows to remain in the Oxbow, and help maintain natu-
ral characteristics. During flood flows, water will be diverted out of the
Oxbow and onto a more direct route through central Napa.

= Construct new dikes, levees, and floodwalls to contain the “100-year"
flood event. Three pump stations will remove water from behind flood-
walls and levees and pump the water into the Napa River.

= Removal and replacement of a number of bridges in downtown Napa
City. Replaced bridges will be designed with higher clearances to better
pass flood flows.

= Reduce dredging and return tidal influence to historic baylands.

The Plan is estimated to cost $220 million, In 1998, the voters of Napa County
approved a half-cent sales tax increase for 20 years to help fund the improve-
ments. The $6 million per year sales tax revenue will enable plan implementa-
don, which is projected to result in an annual savings of $26 million in avoided
property damage, reduced insurance costs, avoided cleanup and emergency
service costs, and enhanced environmental improvements.

In 1997, the Governor's Office of Emergency Services awarded $7 million in
FEMA Hazard Mitigation Grant Program funding for the acquisition of 90 mo-
bile home park units and 7 homes on Napa Creek, as well as construction of
drainage improvements. FEMA also provided funds for elevation of 70 single-
family homes, and the California Department of Water Resources provided a
grant for the purchase of a non-residential parcel in the floodplain. The City has
applied for $20 million from the Federal Highway Administration to replace
three bridges, and the USACE will be responsible for the design and construc-
tion of 13 additional bridges. CALFED, a conglomerate formed in 1994 of Cali-
fornia State and Federal agencies with management and regulatory responsibil-
ity in the Bay-Delta Estuary are providing grants, in conjunction with the Coastal
Conservancy. These CALFED grants will be used to acquire land and remove
levees for the floodplain. Additional grants are being sought for door dams in
Napa City, and for elevation of homes in St. Helena, Yountville, and unincorpo-
rated parts of the County.

Darlington, Wisconsin

PROJECT NAME: Historic Structures and Community Development
LOCATION; Darlington, Wisconsin

HIGHLIGHTS; A Community balances considerations of Historic Preservation,
economic development, hazardous materials, and aesthetics with flood reduc-
tion actions and restoration of open space in the floodplain.

BACKGROUND

Mitigation measures must be designed to unite flood reduction and preserva-
tion of a community's resources. Protecting historic structures located in high-
risk areas provides a unique challenge to flood reduction.



Natural and Benefieral Functions of Flood

1. Remove homes from the floodplain through a voluntary buyout pro-
gram.

2. Utilize environmental treatment to restore Georges Creek to a stable
form providing its maximum available flow capacity.

3. Provide for stabilization of Maryland Route 36.
4. Repair or relocate damaged sanitary sewer line.

5. Manage long-term use of the acquired floodplain.and community
open space,

PROJECT ACCOMPLISHMENTS.

Funding for the estimated $3 million project was made possible through inno-
vative pilot programs developed by SHA and NRCS. It included redirecting funds
from normal highway maintenance and stream clearing activities to property
acquisition and stream restoration activities.

As construction work drew toa close, the issue of long-term management of the
floodplain buyout area came to the forefront, Town leaders wanted to explore
alternatives that would preserve the integrity of the stream restoration while
affording citizens some use of the area. In addition, there was interest in involv-
ing area residents in decision-making, and in building local support for long-
term floodplain open space protection. At the request of the Town, the National
Park Service, Rivers, Trails, and Conservation Program (Rivers & Trails) joined
the planning team to serve as coordinator for the open space planning phase of
the project.

The planning team sponsored a series of community mectings, workshops, and
public surveys to serve as a forum for citizens to contribute ideas to the planning
process. The planning team was instrumental in helping the community evalu-
ate options for use of the floodplain buyout area. In addition, the planning team
was able to expand the network of parmers, and link the town with additional
public and private sources of funding and technical assistance.

By September 1998, a Final Concept Plan, including a detailed site plan for the
Main Street Extended area, was endorsed by the Town Council that included
the following:

= Areas for passive recreation, including a walking rail, pavilion, handi-
capped accessible picnic area, open area for lawn games, and related
park amenities

= Outdoor educational facilities, including a nature trail, steam access
area, shelter/ pavilion for arts, science and history classes, and inter-
pretive signage explaining flood history and stream restoration goals.



The Natural and Beneficial Functions of Floddplains

radar, geosynchronous satellites, supercomputers, automated weather observa-
tion stations, and the new interactive weather computer and communications
system workstations known as AWIPS. Within AHPS the NWS weather and cli-
mate forecasts are coupled with hydrologic numerical models to provide a suite
of hydrologic forecast products from days to months in advance. These probabi-
listic forecasts will better convey to the public the uncertainties associated with
weather and flood forecasts, and help people understand their risk and take
appropriate action to prepare for and avoid potential flood losses.

U.S. Department of Agriculture
Natural Resources Conservation Services (NRCS)

NRCS works in partnership with 3,000 local conservation districts by which its
provides technical assistance to the Nation's private landowners. This partner-
ship is supported by personnel and funds provided by the Conservation Techni-
cal Assistance (CTA) program, the base program for NRCS. Through memoran-
dums of understanding between the Secretary of Agriculture and the local con-
servation districts and with CTA funded by annual appropriations, NRCS imple-
ments conservation programs by providing cost-sharing and technical assistance
on private land. The conservation districts, which often match county bound-
aries, are organized under State and Tribal laws and are directed by locally
elected directors or supervisors.

Watershed Surveys and Planning

Section 6 of Public Law 83-566 provides for cooperation with Federal, State,
and local agencies in making investigations and surveys of watersheds as a basis
for the development of coordinated programs. Reports of the investigations and
surveys serve as guides for the development of water, land, and related resources
in agricultural, rural, and urban areas within upstream watershed settings. They
also serve as a basis for coordination with major river systems and other phases
of water resource management and development.

Section 3 of Public Law 83-566 provides for assisting sponsoring local organiza-
tions to develop a plan on watersheds. During planning, problems such as water
quality, flooding, water and land management, and sedimentation are evalu-
ated and works of improvement are proposed to alleviate problems. Works of
improvement may include both structural and non-structural practices as well
as the purchase of conservation easements. The resulting watershed plans esti-
mate benefits, costs, cost-sharing rates, and arrange for operation and mainte-
nance necessary to justify Federal assistance to implement the works of im-
provement.

Watershed Operations, PL 83-566

Technical and financial assistance is provided in cooperation with local sponsor-
ing organizations, state, and other public agencies to voluntarily develop and
implement plans on private lands for watersheds not exceeding 250,000 acres.



USDA NRE

The Natural and Benefic

nections of Floodplains

EWP funds cannot be used to solve problems that existed before the disaster, to
improve the level of protection above that which existed prior to the disaster, or
to install measures not essential to the reduction of hazards. EWP cannot fund
operation and maintenance work, or repair private or public transportation fa-
cilities or utilities and cannot adversely affect downstream water rights. In addi-
tion, EWP funds cannot be used to perform work on measures installed by an-
other Federal agency. City and county governments, general improvement dis-
tricts, and conservation districts are the most common sponsors of EWP projects.

Flood Prevention Work, PL 78-534

The Flood Control Act of 1944 authorized the Secretary of Agriculture to install
watershed improvement measures to reduce flood, sedimentation, and erosion
damages; further the conservation, development, utilization, and disposal of
water; and the conservation and proper utilization of land. Flood prevention
work is authorized in the eleven watersheds designated in the Flood Control Act
of December 22, 1944.

Because the authorized flood prevention projects include relatively large areas,
work plans are developed on a sub-watershed basis. As of September 30, 2000,
the total planning job was about 74 percent completed, with 319 work plans
completed that include 24,268,159 acres,

Wetlands Reserve Program

The NRCS is «

cking
together with local
andowners on the lergest
wetland project ever
undertaken in the state of
Wisconsin, Over 1,700
acres Of open water'and
grassy wetland are being
restored to their former
beauty ond wetland value

The Wetlands Reserve Program (WRP) is
a voluntary program to restore or protect
wetlands on private property by establish-
ing conservation easements of either per-
manent or 30-year duration, or by resto-
ration cost-share agreements where no
easement is involved, The landowner re-
ceives payment based on the agricultural
value of the land and up to 100 percent of
the restoration costs for restoring the wet-
lands.

The WRP is an opportunity for landown-
ers to receive financial incentives to restore
and protect wetlands in exchange for re-
tiring marginal agricultural land. Congress
authorized WRP under the Food Security Act of 1985, as amended by the 1990
and 1996 Farm Bills. The U.S. Department of Agriculture’s Natural Resources
Conservation Service (NRCS) administers the program in consultation with the
Farm Service Agency (FSA) and other Federal agencies. Funding for WRP comes
from the Commodity Credit Corporation. States operated the program using a
continuous sign-up as process.

Landowners who choose to participate in WRP may sell a conservation ease-
ment or enter into a cost-share restoration agreement with USDA to restore and

A-10



# Floodplain:

velocities can increase the “lag time” of a flood (i.e., the time
between the middle of the rainfall event and the flood peak),
and minimizes the magnitude of flooding and the potential
for flood-related damage. Additionally, decreasing floodwater
velocities will reduce erosion and subsequent sedimentation
in other areas such as the stream channel,

This ground water/surface water interaction helps to natu-
rally regulate flow regimes of rivers, streams, and lakes, Dur-
ing periods of abundant flow, water enters the groundwater
system rather than contributing to seasonal flood peaks. Di-
minishing extreme variations in flow levels improves the ca-

pacity of the water body to support a diversity of wildlife, to
provide recreational benefits, in addition to contributing to
the reduction of flood peaks.

Warer entering a floodplain carries sediments of various types, sizes and amounts.
Sediments added to the system from upstream and from the surrounding water-
shed are transported downstream and deposited in floodplains and watercourses.
Erosion can increase sedimentation in streams, rivers, and lakes. Turbidity and
sedimentation degrade water quality, raise water temperature, slow convey-
ance rates, and increase floodwater heights, A corresponding decline in the use-
fulness and value of the water resource is often the end result.

Vegetated floodplains control erosion and sedimentation of streams and other
water bodies by stabilizing riverbanks and filtering run-off. Water is naturally
cleansed through the processes of filtration, ion exchange, adsorption, absorp-
tion, and aerobic biological actions that take place in the floodplain. These natu-
ral processes reduce the levels of pathogens and toxic substances that enter the
water body, while at the same time retaining the nutrients within the floodplain
soils. Vegetative floodplains also protect waterways, wetland areas, and riparian
zones from excessive erosion and sedimentation by slowing the velocity of
stormwater, allowing for the deposition of sediments on land and by binding the
soil,

2.2.2 Ecological Functions

The nation's coastal and riverine floodplains support and promote biological
productivity and often contain large and diverse populations of plants and ani-
mals contributing to the diversity and integrity of adjacent and downstream
ecosystems. Nutrients and energy that enter rivers and streams are carried down-
stream into larger water bodies. Many plant species indigenous to floodplains
are adapted to thrive in the specific conditions created by the soil types and
water regimes that characterize river corridors. Floodplains may contain the
only suitable environment for growth of some species of vegetation significant
vegetation and for the breeding/spawning of many species of fish and wildlife.
Riparian habitats are among the most important vegetative communities for
western wildlife species (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1997).

Vegetated floodplains
contro! erosion and
sedimentation of
streams and other
water bodies by
stabilizing riverbanks
‘ond filtering run-off