Ni-Co Laterites─A Deposit Model

By Erin Marsh and Eric Anderson 

Open-File Report 2011–1259

U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey
ii

U.S. Department of the Interior

KEN SALAZAR, Secretary

U.S. Geological Survey

Marcia K. McNutt, Director

U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia: 2011

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Marsh, E.E. and Anderson, E.D., 2011, Ni-Co laterite deposits: U.S. Geological Survey 

Open-File Report 2011–1259, 9 p. 

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iii

Contents

Introduction.................................................................................................................................................................... 1

History ........................................................................................................................................................................... 2

Profile Formation and Mineralogy.................................................................................................................................. 2

Example Deposits ...................................................................................................................................................... 3

Nickel Mountain, Oregon........................................................................................................................................ 3

Murrin Murrin, Western Australia............................................................................................................................ 4

Moa Bay, Cuba....................................................................................................................................................... 4

Secular Variation ........................................................................................................................................................... 5

Exploration and Geophysics .......................................................................................................................................... 5

Conclusions................................................................................................................................................................... 5

References Cited........................................................................................................................................................... 6

Figure

1. Idealized cross section through a Nickel laterite weathered profile illustrating all the possible layers. 

Natural profiles are more complex and contain diverse sequences of any or all of the layers shown. Profiles 

can be a few to tens of meters thick .............................................................................................................................. 8

Tables

1. Trace elements and major elements measured by inductively coupled plasma/mass spectrometry and 

inductively coupled plasma/atomic-emission spectrometry ........................................................................................... 9 

2. Nickel laterite terminology general mineralogy........................................................................................................ 9 
1

Ni-Co Laterite Deposits─A Deposit Model

By Erin Marsh and Eric Anderson

Introduction

Nickel-cobalt (Ni-Co) laterite deposits are an important source of nickel (Ni). Currently, there is 

a decline in magmatic Ni-bearing sulfide lode deposit resources (Dalvi and others, 2004). New efforts 

to develop an alternative source of Ni, particularly with improved metallurgy processes, make the Ni-Co 

laterites an important exploration target in anticipation of the future demand for Ni. This deposit model 

provides a general description of the geology and mineralogy of Ni-Co laterite deposits, and contains 

discussion of the influences of climate, geomorphology (relief), drainage, tectonism, structure, and 

protolith on the development of favorable weathering profiles. This model of Ni-Co laterite deposits 

represents part of the U.S. Geological Survey Mineral Resources Program’s effort to update the existing 

models to be used for an upcoming national mineral resource assessment.

Ni-Co laterites are supergene deposits of Ni ± Co formed from the pervasive chemical and 

mechanical weathering of ultramafic rocks. The formation of secondary concentrations of Ni ± Co 

significant enough for an economic resource requires a protolith lithology that is primarily enriched in 

Ni. Ultramafic rocks can contain as much as 0.3 percent Ni (Lelong and others, 1976). These rocks 

occur within ophiolite complexes as harzburgite and dunite, or within komatiites and layered complexes 

as peridotites and dunites (Brand and others, 1998). The extreme weathering removes all elements 

except the least soluble ones from the protolith. The residual material can average as much as 5 percent

Ni and 0.06 percent Co (Freysinnet and others, 2005). Since Ni-Co laterites were first studied, 

scientists recognized that the enrichment of Ni in the weathering profile is controlled by several 

interplaying factors (as with the development of all pedoliths) which include parent rock, climate, 

chemistry/rates of chemical weathering, drainage, and tectonics (Norton, 1973; Lelong and others, 1976; 

de Vletter, 1978; Ogura, 1986; Golightly, 1981, 2010; Gleeson and others, 2003; Freysinnet and others, 

2005).

Ni-Co laterites have been classified based upon their weathering profile and by their 

mineralogical characteristics. Wet, wet-to-dry, and dry-to-wet climate scenarios are used to classify NiCo laterites with regard to the weathering profile and the interplay of the factors mentioned above 

(Golightly, 1981, 2010). These three regional climate scenarios help describe the variation found in NiCo laterite deposits (table 1). This classification focuses more on process than product, whereas the 

mineralogical characteristics classification relies on the products made by these processes. This deposit 

model will concentrate on the mineralogical classification, because it is understood by researchers that 

the factors involved in the development of the weathering profile are key to the concentration of Ni and 

Co in particular minerals. The mineralogical characteristics subdivide the Ni-bearing ores into oxide, 

clay, or hydrous magnesium (Mg)-silicate types, which have significant differences from a recovery 

perspective (Samama, 1986; Brand and others, 1998; Gleeson and others, 2003; Freysinnet, 2005; 

Golightly, 2010). All three mineralogical types of ore may be present in a single Ni-Co laterite deposit. 

The metalliferous laterites are mineralogically complex, discontinuous, and often have Ni enrichment in 

more than one of the weathering profile zones (Lelong and others, 1976). Some deposits are 
2

subsequently mechanically weathered, re-deposited, re-concentrated, and possibly covered by new 

sediment (Golightly, 1981). 

Ni laterites make up 72 percent of the global Ni resource and only 42 percent of the global 

produced Ni (Elias, 2002; Dalvi and others, 2004). This disparity stems from the expense and 

complexity of the metallurgy involved in extracting Ni from the mineralogically diverse and erratic Ni 

concentrations through a laterite profile. Three different processes are used to extract Ni and Co from 

the respective enriched layers; the processes include a carbon process or acid leaching for the oxide 

mineralization and a smelting process for the clay and hydrous Mg silicate mineralization (Elias, 2002; 

Dalvi and others, 2004). Recently, an ore-processing technique was developed to treat the entire laterite 

profile. This innovation, DNi, developed by Direct Nickel, is a hydrometallurgical process capable of

extracting 95 percent of the Ni and 85 percent of the Co in laterites (Direct Nickel, 2010). With the 

success of the DNi hydrometallurgical process, Ni-Co laterites may be a much larger contributor to the 

world’s production of Ni. 

History

The term laterite was first defined by Buchanan (1807). The term is derived from the Latin word 

(later) for brick and was used to describe the indurated clay in India, which Buchanan saw contained a 

large concentration of iron and hardened upon surface exposure. Buchanan’s application of the term is 

quite specific to material used for building. Depending on the perspective of the researcher, the term 

laterite has been applied to a variety of aspects of tropical weathered rocks. Laterite has been known as 

a variably cemented sesquioxide-rich soil, a surficial or near surface reddish soil, and also by an 

assortment of mineralogical definitions (Helgren and Butzer, 1977; Schellmann, 1986). The term has 

since evolved to describe a profile in a tropically weathered regolith in which the most soluble elements 

are removed and the least soluble elements are progressively redistributed throughout a series of more to 

less weathered protoliths to form a concentrated deposit (Samama, 1986). 

Weathering is the most fundamental process in the formation of Ni-Co laterite deposits. Two 

phases of weathering can occur in Ni laterite deposits. Initially, the protolith of the Ni laterite may be 

weathered to serpentinite, which is subsequently weathered into a laterite profile concentrating Ni and 

Co. For the latter process, many factors are involved in creating a complicated profile. Weathering 

depends on the mineralogical characteristics of the parent rock, the Eh and pH of the circulating water, 

geomorphology, and climate (Ogura, 1986). The Ni-Co laterite deposits are formed from the chemical 

weathering of the ultramafic rocks that removes the most soluble elements (Mg, calcium (Ca), and 

silicon (Si)) and concentrates the least soluble elements (iron (Fe), Ni, manganese (Mn), Co, zinc, (Zn), 

yttrium (Y), chromium (Cr), aluminum (Al), titanium (Ti), zirconium (Zr), and copper (Cu)) (Brand and 

others, 1998). Mechanical weathering of the host material by fractures and faults, increases the surface 

area exposed to the water driving the chemical weathering.

Ni-Co laterites can occur surficially as in situ deposits, buried as karst (Albania and Greece), or

as linear/fault-hosted deposits (Urals) (Golightly, 1981). For this model, we will focus entirely on the in 

situ deposit types because linear and karst type deposits have similar mineralogy as the in situ deposits 

but are further complicated by their setting in fault zones or along the contacts between ultramafic 

carbonate rocks. 

Profile Formation and Mineralogy

Within the three mineralogical subtypes of Ni laterite deposits (oxide, clay, and hydrous Mgsilicate), there are over 30 Ni-bearing minerals that have been recognized (Brand and others, 1998; 
3

Gleeson and others, 2003; Freysinnet, 2005; Golightly, 2010). Their distribution as ore is not universal 

or consistent. Terms used to describe the progressively developed stages of weathering in a laterite 

profile are listed in table 2 along with their typical mineralogy.

The general mineralogy of a Ni laterite profile can be separated by paragenetic sections (fig. 1). 

The lower section consists of the unweathered protolith, such as fresh or primarily serpentinized dunite 

or peridotites. Peridotites, dunite, and primary serpentinized alterations of these rocks are the source of 

the Ni in these regolith supergene deposits. The major constituent of these rocks is olivine (with varying 

amounts of pyroxene) and alteration products that include serpentine and chlorite. Above this is a 

saprolite layer consisting of remnants of the protolith and lizardite, goethite, magnetite, maghemite, 

chromite, and hydrous Mg- and Ni-rich silicates. At the top of the saprolite is a transition into a clayrich layer. Above the clays is a limonite layer with goethite, maghemite, hematite, gibbsite, and Mnoxyhydroxides, such as lithiophorite and asbolan. At the top of the profile is a hematite- and goethiterich ferricrete or iron cap.

The oxide minerals are goethite, hematite, asbolan, lithiophorite, and heterogenite. Most of the 

Co occurs in these Mn-oxyhydroxides. Nontronite, beidellite, montmorillonite, and saponite make up 

the Ni-bearing minerals of the clay-silicate type Ni laterite ore. There are generally five groups of 

silicate minerals in the hydrous Mg-silicate type Ni laterite ore, which include the poorly crystalline 

garnierite group, sepiolite group, serpentine group, talc group, and chlorite group (Brand and others, 

1998; Freyssinet and others, 2005). 

Example Deposits

It is helpful to look at specific occurrences to illustrate the development and diversity of Ni and 

Co in a laterite deposit. The Nickel Mountain deposit in Riddle, Oregon is a hydrous Mg-silicate type 

Ni laterite, as are the deposits in New Caledonia, California, and North Carolina. Murrin Murrin, in 

Western Australia, is a classic clay ore Ni-Co laterite deposit. The Cawse deposit in Australia, as well 

as many of the deposits in Cuba, are oxide ore Ni-Co laterite deposits. A few deposits in Greece and the 

Ural Mountains (Russia) are karstic Ni-Co laterite deposits. The Bulong deposit in Western Australia 

contains both oxide and clay ores. The Goro deposit in New Caledonia has economic Ni grades in each 

zone of its profile. More detailed grade and tonnage summaries of known Ni-Co laterite deposits are 

presented by Berger and others (2011).

Nickel Mountain, Oregon

The Nickel Mountain deposit is located in the Klamath Mountains of Oregon. Its setting is 

unique in that it lies outside of the typical 20 degrees north and south of the equator that delineates most 

of the other Ni-Co laterite deposits. The Nickel Mountain deposit developed from the Tertiary 

weathering of Jurassic peridotite, dunite, and serpentinite. The orebodies occur at the crest of the 

Klamath Peneplain and along the terrace below. The top of the laterite profile has been weathered 

away, leaving only the saprolite layer with a thin oxide-weathered cap that developed during more 

recent exposure (Chace and others, 1969). The average Ni grade was between 1.18 percent and 1.5 

percent, with a total of 26.7 million tonnes (Mt) produced between 1954 and 1998, and an estimated 

total size of the deposit to be 63.8 Mt (Cumberlidge and Chace, 1968; D.F. Briggs, unpub. data, 2006; 

Eckstrand and others, 2008; U.S. Geological Survey, 2011). Though hydrous Mg-silicate is the 

dominant ore at Nickel Mountian, 20 percent of the reserve is held in oxides (U.S. Geological Survey, 

2011). 
4

Murrin Murrin, Western Australia

In 2005, the Murrin Murrin deposit contained a resource of 334 Mt and reserves of 145 Mt at 

1.07 percent Ni and 0.085 percent Co (Elias, 2006). The topography of the area is generally low and 

subdued. The ore deposit developed from thoroughly serpentinized peridotite, a komatiitic olivine 

cumulate in the Late Archean Norseman-Wiluna greenstone belt (Monti and Fazakerley, 1996; Wells 

and Butt, 2006). The cumulate exhibits all textural variations from orthocumulate to adcumulate 

(Gaudin and others, 2005). This is an important feature that has an effect on the thickness and 

development of the weathered zones in the laterite profile. The serpentinized peridotite contains 0.2 

percent Ni, mostly hosted in lizardite (Gaudin and others, 2005). Two areas of serpentinized peridotite 

outcrop in the Murrin Murrin area. 

The laterite profile consists of five zones upward, which include: unweathered country rock at 

the base, saprolite, smectite, limonite (known as the ferruginous zone at Murrin Murrin), and a cap of 

colluvium. The developed profile is locally influenced by faulting and shearing, but most of the 

variation in the profile mineralogy can be directly correlated to the underlying lithology where 

aluminum-rich orthocumulates develop more chlorite and therefore thicker clay zones (Wells, 2006). 

The highest Ni concentrations occur in the clay zone. The cobalt occurs in Mn-oxides in the limonite 

zone and upper part of the clay zone. Unlike many other Ni-Co laterites, there is no garnierite found at 

Murrin Murrin, which may be due to the parent rock at Murrin Murrin being entirely serpentinized 

(Gaudin and others, 2005). Golightly (1981) speculated that garnierite is only present where the parent 

rock is fresh to partially serpentinized. 

Moa Bay, Cuba

In general, Ni-laterite deposits in northeastern Cuba are oxide-type (Gleeson and others, 2003). 

As with many Ni-laterite districts, there are areas of exceptions in northeastern Cuba where hydrous 

Mg-silicate is the main ore type (Proenza and others, 2007). 

The Moa Bay district is located in northeastern Cuba. It produced 33,599 tonnes (t) of Ni and 

3,721 t of Co in 2009 (Sherritt, 2010). Contained metal was reported as 0.76 Mt Ni,with a grade of 1.27 

percent Ni (Freyssinet, 2005). The oxide-type deposits in Moa Bay developed from the weathering of 

serpentized peridotites (harzburgite), as well as dunite, of the Mayari-Baracoa ophiolite belt, which prior 

to laterization contained 0.2 percent Ni (Roqué-Rosell and others, 2010; de Vletter, 1955). In an 

environment of low relief and heavy rainfall, the olivine, clinopyroxene, and antigorite of the partially 

serpentized ultramafic rocks were gradually leached of their most soluble elements, Mg and Si, whereas 

the less-soluble components, Fe, Ni , Co, Al, and Cr, were enriched. 

A weathering profile was created with economic amounts of Ni and Co, which formed in a 

continous process and caused the enrichment zone to progressively move along the weathering profile 

(de Vletter, 1955; Lelong and others 1976). At the Yagrumaje oxide-type Ni-laterite deposit in Mao 

Bay, the laterite profile consists of a ferricrete cap underlain by limonite containing goethite, 

maghemite, hematite, and gibbsite, as well as Mn-Ni-Co oxyhydoxides. The limonite is underlain by 

saprolite consisting of lizardite, goethite, magnetite, maghemite, chromite, and hydrous Mg-silicates. 

These layers overlay the protolith of serpentized peridotite and harzburgite (Roqué-Rosell and others, 

2010). Because the Moa Bay district is an area of lower relief, some deposits are enriched due to the 

lateral transportation and subsequent re-weathering of lateritic material from higher elevation 

(Linchenat and Shirokova, 1964). The Mn-Ni-Co oxides occur at the base of the limonite zone as veins 

and coatings or concretions along fractures (de Vletter, 1955; Proenza and others, 2007). The Ni and Co

occur in goethite (0.3–4.5 weight percent (wt%); 0.1–1.7wt%), maghemite (0.5–8 wt%; 1.1 wt%), and 

lithophorite (up to 12 wt%; 6 wt%) (Proenza, 2007). 
5

Secular Variation

Worldwide, Ni-Co laterite deposits occur within 20 degrees of the equator with a few 

exceptions, such as the hydrous Mg-silicate ore deposit in Riddle, Oreg., and deposits in the Ural 

Mountains. Their global distribution is a reflection on two factors: the ultramafic protolith from which 

they developed and the climate in which they developed. Retallack (2010) gives a complete analysis on 

the secular variation of Ni laterites. He describes the deposits as suffering from “the pull of recent,” a 

concept discussed by Hay and Wood (1990) and Wilkinson and others (2009), as they are surface 

deposits and thus easily susceptible to denudation. Retallack (2010) notes that the initiation of laterite 

deposit formation was approximately 2,300 million years ago (Ma), just subsequent to the onset of the 

first “Great Oxidation Event” (Rye and Holland, 1998), and that older laterites (approximately 3,430 

Ma; Ohmoto and others, 2007) are weathered banded iron formations. Retallack (2010) also describes 

the importance of CO2 in the process of hydrolytic weathering and that prior to 392 Ma there was a 

scarcity of laterite formation because the high amount of CO2 that can be produced in rain forest soils 

was not seen before this time (Sheldon, 2006). A combination of atmospheric CO2 spikes and 

paleoclimatic fluctuations occurred during the development of the deposits that formed far from the 

equator, such as those in Oregon and the Ural Mountains. 

Exploration and Geophysics

Exploration is generally focused on finding ultramafic rocks with potential for laterite 

development (Golightly, 2010). Geochemical indicators for Ni-Co laterite deposits are Ni, Co, and Cr

(Cornelius and others, 2001; Butt, 2004).

Modern geophysical methods used at multiple scales can be helpful during exploration for Ni-Co 

laterite deposits. At a regional scale, aeromagnetic, radiometric, gravity, and optical remote-sensing 

techniques provide insight into the broad crustal framework in which Ni-Co laterite deposits may be 

hosted. These methods are effective for mapping ultramafic and serpentinized rocks, as well as their

weathered products. In addition, gravity and magnetic methods can be used to map fault zones. At a 

deposit scale, magnetic, gravity, electromagnetic, electrical, and ground-penetrating radar methods can 

be useful in delineating the weathering profile of the Ni-Co laterite deposits. Interpretation of these 

datasets is non-unique, and therefore should be constrained with independent information, such as 

geologic mapping or multiple geophysical techniques.

Conclusions

The Ni-Co laterites are a supergene enrichment of Ni and Co formed from the pervasive 

chemical and mechanical weathering of ultramafic rocks. The laterite profile develops from the 

progressive weathering of ultramafic parent rocks, which occur in accretionary terranes as Alpine-type, 

as well as large thrust sheets, of obducted ophiolites and in cratonic areas as komatiites (Brand and 

others, 1998; Berger and others, 2011). These laterites occur within 20 degrees of the equator, with a 

few exceptions. Weathering is generally more pervasive along fractures and faults. The weathering 

progresses from the development of saprolite layers on the bedrock, to clay alteration of the saprolite, 

then to oxide alteration of the clay and hydrous Mg-silicates the limonite layer, and concludes with the 

hematite alteration of the oxides capping to the profile with ferricrete. The Ni can be concentrated in 

any of the layers, depending on the extent of the weathering process, which is effected by the climate, 

drainage, and tectonics of the deposit setting. 
6

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Figure 1. Idealized cross section through a Nickel laterite weathered profile illustrating all the possible layers. 

Natural profiles are more complex and contain diverse sequences of any or all of the layers shown. Profiles can 

be a few to tens of meters thick. Adapted from Samama (1986). (Mg, Magnesium) 
9

Table 1. Factors defining the climate scenarios used to describe the variation in Ni-Co laterite deposits. 

(Ni, Nickel; Co, Cobalt; Mg, Magnesium). 

Climate scenario tectonic stablity terrane climate profile development

Wet active uplift elevated rainforest Ni in hydrous Mg-silicates

Wet-to-dry stable peneplain flat increasing aridity/time Ni and Co in the oxide, clay transition zone

Dry-to-wet dissected peneplain elevated increasing moisture/time Ni and Co in clay and saprolite zones

Table 2. Nickel laterite terminology general mineralogy. Adapted from Samama (1986) and Freysinett 

and others (2005).

Ore type Zone Section Alternative 

nomenclature Nickel-bearing minerals

Oxide Limonite

Pisolitic

nodular ironstone; 

ferricrete layer; 

durricrust; iron pan; 

iron cap; canga; 

cuirasse Goethite Hematite 

Asbolan 

Lithophorite 

Heterogenite

hematite 

dominant

fine-grained saprolite; 

Red Laterite

goethite 

dominant

in-situ limonite zone; 

Yellow Laterite

Silicate

Clay

 intermediate zone; 

smectite-quartz- zone; 

quartz goethite zone, 

nontronite zone; mottle 

clay zone; 

Nontronite Beidellite 

Montmorillonite

Saponite

 

Hydrous 

MgSilicate

Saprolite; serpentine 

ore; soft serpentine, 

soft saprolite; 

saprolitic serpentine; 

coarse grained 

saprolite

Serpentine Group

Talc Group

Chlorite Group

Sepiolite Group 

Oxidized Garnierite Group

parent

rock

 

hard saprolite; 

saprolitic peridotite; 

saprock

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