Effectiveness of Post-Fire Seeding at the Fitzner-Eberhardt 

Arid Land Ecology Reserve, Washington 

Prepared in cooperation with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey

Open-File Report 2011-1241
Cover: Photograph of a lower elevation drill seeded site at Fitzner-Eberhardt

Arid Land Ecology Reserve, Washington. Flowers are Phlox and Balsomorhiza sp. 

Rattlesnake Mountain in the background. Photograph taken by Kevin Knutson, 

U.S. Geological Survey, May 2009.
Effectiveness of Post-Fire Seeding at the Fitzner-Eberhardt 

Arid Land Ecology Reserve, Washington 

By Troy A. Wirth and David A. Pyke

Prepared in cooperation with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

Open-File Report 2011-1241

U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey
U.S. Department of the Interior

KEN SALAZAR, Secretary

U.S. Geological Survey

Marcia K. McNutt, Director

U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia: 2011

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Suggested citation:

Wirth, T.A., and Pyke, D.A. 2011, Effectiveness of post-fire seeding at the Fitzner-Eberhardt Arid Land Ecology 

Reserve, Washington: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2011-1241,42 p. 

Any use of trade, product, or firm names is for descriptive purposes only and does not imply 

endorsement by the U.S. Government. 

Although this report is in the public domain, permission must be secured from the individual 

copyright owners to reproduce any copyrighted material contained within this report.
iii

Contents

Executive Summary....................................................................................................................................................... 1

Introduction.................................................................................................................................................................... 2

Monitoring Methods ....................................................................................................................................................... 4

Analyses ........................................................................................................................................................................ 5

Results and Discussion ................................................................................................................................................. 6

Site Conditions........................................................................................................................................................... 6

Mid-Elevation Aerial Seedings ................................................................................................................................... 8

Low-Elevation Aerial Seedings .................................................................................................................................. 9

Low-Elevation Drill Seedings ....................................................................................................................................10

High-Elevation Drill Seeding .....................................................................................................................................11

No Seeding Treatments ............................................................................................................................................12

Transplants ...............................................................................................................................................................12

Conclusions ..................................................................................................................................................................13

Acknowledgments ........................................................................................................................................................15

References Cited..........................................................................................................................................................16

Appendix A. Plot Data...................................................................................................................................................35

Figures

Figure 1. Location of Fitzner-Eberhardt Arid Land Ecology Reserve, Washington, and treatments applied 

following the Milepost 17 and Wautoma fires of 2007.................................................................................................. 17

Figure 2. Precipitation received at the Hanford meteorological station from January 2008 to September 2010 ......... 18

Figure 3. Monitoring photographs of (a) boundary of fire showing increased movement of soil due to wind in the 

herbicide treated area, while non-herbicided area dominated by cheatgrass stabilizes the soil but is not conducive to 

seedling germination and establishment, (b) mortality of P. secunda due to wind erosion, (c) banding of areas 

dominated by S. kali and B.tectorum/perennial grasses, and (d) apparent P. secunda mortality within banding......... 19

Figure 4. Median cover of (a) shallow-rooted perennial grasses, (b) deep-rooted perennial grasses, (c) 

B. tectorum, and (d) S. kali at the aerially seeded plots, Fitzner-Eberhardt Arid Land Ecology Reserve,

Washington, 2009–2010............................................................................................................................................ 20

Figure 5. Median cover of (a) shallow rooted perennial grasses, (b) deep rooted perennial grasses, 

(c) Exotic annual grasses (B. tectorum), and (d) exotic annual forbs at the drill seeding sites (control and treatments 

plots combined), Fitzner-Eberhardt Arid Land Ecology Reserve, Washington............................................................. 21

Figure 6. Median density (a) existing deep and shallow rooted perennial grasses, (b) seedling grass and forbs, 

(c) B. tectorum, and (d) S. kali at the mid-elevation aerially seeded treatments in 2009 and 2010 following the 2007 

wildfires at the Arid Land Ecology Reserve, Washington............................................................................................. 22

Figure 7. Median density of (a) pre-existing deep and shallow rooted perennial grasses, (b) seedling grass 

and forbs, (c) B. tectorum, and (d) S. kali by herbicide at the mid-elevation aerially seeded sites following the 

2007 wildfires at the Fitzner-Eberhardt Arid Land Ecology Reserve, Washington, 2009–10 ....................................... 23
iv

Figure 8. Median density of (a) pre-existing shallow and deep-rooted perennial grasses, (b) seedling grasses, (c) 

B. tectorum, and (d) S. kali at the low-elevation aerial seeding treatments and DJ11-2 no-drill plots (DJ11-2 C) 

following the 2007 wildfires at the Fitzner-Eberhardt Arid Land Ecology Reserve, Washington, 2009–10 .................. 24

Figure 9. Median density of (a) pre-existing shallow-rooted perennial grasses, (b) seeded grasses in 2009, 

(c) seeded grasses in 2010, and (d) seeded forbs in 2010 by treatment at the low elevation drill seeding no-drill 

and treatment plots following the 2007 wildfires at the Fitzner-Eberhardt Arid Land Ecology Reserve, Washington, 

2009–10....................................................................................................................................................................... 25

Figure 10. Median density of (a) seeded grasses, (b) seeded forbs at the control and treatment plots and 

(c) B. tectorum, and (d) S. kali by herbicide at the low elevation drill seeding treatment plots following the 

2007 wildfires at the Fitzner-Eberhardt Arid Land Ecology Reserve, Washington, 2009–10 ....................................... 26

Figure 11. Median density of (a) shallow and deep rooted perennial grasses, (b) seedling grass, (c) B. tectorum, 

and (d) S. kali by treatment at the no seeding treatments following the 2007 wildfires at the Fitzner-Eberhardt

Arid Land Ecology Reserve, Washington, 2009–10..................................................................................................... 27

Tables

Table 1. Seeding and herbicide treatments applied following the Wautoma and Milepost 17 wildfires at the 

Fitzner-Eberhardt Arid Land Ecology Reserve, Washington....................................................................................... 28

Table 2. Seedmixes applied following the Wautoma and Milepost 17 wildfires at the Fitzner-Eberhardt Arid 

Land Ecology Reserve, Washington............................................................................................................................ 29

Table 3. Target and estimated seeding rates from aerial seeding traps by species (seeds/m2) based on 

seed traps at the aerially seeded portions of the Wautoma and Milepost 17 wildfires at the Fitzner-Eberhardt 

Arid Land Ecology Reserve, Washington .................................................................................................................... 30

Table 4. Treatment groupings and statistical comparisons performed for data collected after the Milepost 17 and 

Wautoma wildfires at the Fitzner-Eberhardt Arid Land Ecology Reserve, Washington................................................ 31

Table 5. Median densities (plants/m2) of important lifeforms at the Fitzner-Eberhardt Arid Land Ecology Reserve, 

Washington, 2009–10.................................................................................................................................................. 32

Table 6. Transplant survival by treatment following the 2007 wildfires at the Fitzner-Eberhardt Arid Land Ecology 

Reserve, Washington, 2008–10 .................................................................................................................................. 33
v

Conversion Factors and Datums

Conversion Factors

Multiply By To obtain

Length

inch (in.) 2.54 centimeter (cm)

foot (ft) 0.3048 meter (m)

mile (mi) 1.609 kilometer (km)

Area

acre 4,047 square meter (m2)

acre 0.4047 hectare (ha)

acre 0.004047 square kilometer (km2)

square foot (ft2) 0.09290 square meter (m2)

Volume

ounce, fluid (fl. oz) 0.02957 liter (L) 

Mass

ounce, avoirdupois (oz) 28.35 gram (g) 

pound, avoirdupois (lb) 0.4536 kilogram (kg) 

Density

plants per square meter (plants/m2) 4,047 plants per acre (plants/acre)

plants per square meter (plants/m2) 10,000 plants per hectare (plants/ha)

Active ingredient per acre (ai/acre) is the number of grams of biologically active herbicide applied per acre.

Temperature in degrees Celsius (°C) may be converted to degrees Fahrenheit (°F) as follows:

°F=(1.8×°C)+32. 

Temperature in degrees Fahrenheit (°F) may be converted to degrees Celsius (°C) as follows:

°C=(°F-32)/1.8. 

Datums

Vertical coordinate information is referenced to North American Vertical Datum of 1988 (NAVD 88).

Horizontal coordinate information is referenced to the North American Datum of 1983 (NAD 83). 
vi

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1 

Effectiveness of Post-Fire Seeding at the FitznerEberhardt Arid Land Ecology Reserve, Washington 

By Troy A. Wirth and David A. Pyke

Executive Summary 

In August 2007, the Milepost 17 and Wautoma fires burned a combined total of 77,349 acres 

(31,302 hectares) of the Fitzner-Eberhardt Arid Land Ecology Reserve (ALE), part of the Hanford 

Reach National Monument administered by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) MidColumbia National Wildlife Refuge. In 2008, the USFWS implemented a series of seeding and 

herbicide treatments to mitigate potential negative consequences of these fires, including mortality of 

native vegetation, invasion of Bromus tectorum (cheatgrass), and soil erosion. Treatments included 

combinations of seeding (drill and aerial), herbicides, and one of six different mixtures of species. 

Artemisia tridentata ssp. wyomingensis (Wyoming big sagebrush) also was planted by hand in a small 

area in the southern end of the fire perimeter. Due to differences in plant communities prior to the fire 

and the multiple treatments applied, treatments were grouped into five treatment associations including 

mid-elevation aerial seedings, low-elevation aerial seedings, low-elevation drill seedings, high-elevation 

drill seeding, and no seeding treatments. Data collected at the mid-elevation aerial seedings indicate that 

the seeding did not appear to increase the density of seedlings compared to the non-seeded area in 2010. 

At the low-elevation aerial seedings, there were significantly more seedlings at seeded areas as 

compared to non-seeded areas. Low densities of existing perennial plants probably fostered a lowcompetition environment enabling seeds to germinate and emerge in 2010 during adequate moisture. 

Low-elevation drill seedings resulted in significant emergence of seeded grasses in 2009 and 2010 and 

forbs in 2010. This was likely due to adequate precipitation and that the drill seeding assured soil-toseed contact. At the high-elevation drill seeding, which was implemented in 2009, there were a high 

number of seedlings in 2010. Transplanting of A. tridentata following the fires resulted in variable 

survival rates that warrant further testing; however, transplants located closer to washes tended to have 

the highest survival rates. Overall, the low-elevation aerial and drill seedings, and the high-elevation 

drill seedings resulted in significant numbers of seedlings. Further research is needed on methods that 

provide land managers with critical information about whether or not to seed post-fire areas including 

status of pre-fire vegetation and estimates of plant mortality due to fire.
2 

Introduction 

In August 2007, the Milepost 17 and Wautoma fires burned a combined total of 77,349 acres 

(31,302 ha) of the Fitzner-Eberhardt Arid Land Ecology Reserve (ALE), part of the Hanford Reach 

National Monument administered by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) Mid-Columbia 

National Wildlife Refuge (First Strike Environmental, 2007a, 2007b) (fig. 1). Burned areas were 

entirely within the perimeter of the 24 Command fire that occurred in 2000 (Evans and Lih, 2005). The 

wildfires of 2007 burned across a variety of soil types and vegetation communities from the flats of 

Cold Creek Valley to the northeastern slopes of Rattlesnake Mountain. Prior to the fire, plant 

communities within the area primarily were sagebrush grasslands in various conditions ranging from 

intact to degraded; however, most sagebrush had been removed during the 24 Command fire in 2000. 

In 2008, the USFWS implemented a series of seeding and herbicide treatments to mitigate 

potential negative consequences of the 2007 fires, including mortality of native vegetation, invasion by 

the exotic annual grass Bromus tectorum (cheatgrass), and soil erosion (First Strike Environmental, 

2007a, 2007b). Treatments included combinations of seeding (drill and aerial), herbicides (Plateau® at 4 

oz/acre, Journey® at 6 or 11 oz/acre, or Milestone® at 6 oz/acre), and one of six different seedmixes

(table 1; fig. 1). Due to the multiple treatments applied, treatments are coded as follows: Seeding type 

(A = aerial, D = drill, N = none), herbicide (J = Journey®, P = Plateau®, M = Milestone®, N = none), and 

rate of herbicide in ounces per acre followed by a dash with the seedmix type (1 through 6). For 

example, the DJ6-2 treatment was drill seeded with seedmix 2 and sprayed with Journey® herbicide at 6 

oz/acre (table 1). Artemisia tridentata ssp. wyomingensis (Wyoming big sagebrush) also was planted by 

hand in a small area in the southern end of the fire perimeter in fall/winter 2008 (fig. 1). 

Aerial spraying for all herbicide treatment combinations occurred between February 28 and 

March 9, 2008 using fixed-wing aircraft. Areas treated with Plateau® were deemed to be at risk for an 

increased abundance or invasion of cheatgrass, especially in areas where cheatgrass was not prevalent 

prior to the fire. In these areas, native bunchgrasses were relatively intact but had been burned more 

intensely in 2000 during the 24 Command fire. The active ingredient in Plateau® is imazapic, which can 

be applied as both a pre- and post-emergent herbicide that is readily absorbed by leaves and roots and 

translocated to meristematic tissue where it acts to inhibit synthesis of several amino acids. Imazapic is

a selective herbicide depending on the species, timing, and rate of application (Tu and others, 2001). 

Imazapic has been effective at controlling cheatgrass and some other annual weeds, but also can cause 

some damage to mature perennial grasses and forbs (Tu and others, 2001; Kyser and others, 2007; 

Baker and others, 2009; Morris and others, 2009). 

Areas treated with Journey® were deemed to be at a moderate (receiving 6 oz/acre) or high 

(receiving 11 oz/acre) risk of invasion or dominance by B. tectorum and where pre-existing 

bunchgrasses had not been burned as intensely in the 24 Command fire. Journey® contains the active 

ingredient imazapic as well as glyphosate (Roundup®), a non-selective herbicide. Journey® is used when 

suppression of actively growing and photosynthesizing vegetation at the time of spraying is desired or 

can be tolerated. For example, the combination of both herbicides will suppress vegetation at both the 

time of spraying, and imazapic will cause residual suppression of sensitive species. Milestone is a 
3 

broadleaf specific herbicide that was sprayed for the control of Chondrilla juncea (rush skeletonweed) 

at ALE). Actual rates of active ingredients (ai) in each herbicide used on ALE were: 

1. Plateau® 4 oz/acre: 0.06 lb imazapic ai/acre or 69.20 g ai/ha. 

2. Journey® 6 oz/acre: 0.04 lb imazapic ai/acre or 39.20 g ai/ha and 0.07 lb glyphosate ai/acre or 

78.74g ai/ha. 

3. Journey® 11 oz/acre: 0.06 lb imazapic ai/acre or 72.10 g ai/ha and 0.13 lb glyphosate ai/acre or 

144.42 g ai/ha. 

4. Milestone® 6 oz/acre: 0.09 lb aminopyralid ai/acre or 105.00 g ai/ha. 

The Plateau® at 4 oz/acre has a higher rate of imazapic than the Journey® 6 oz/acre 

treatment. 

Drill seedings were applied on flat areas close to Washington State Route 240 where existing 

plant communities were less intact and abundance of B. tectorum was greater than areas where aerial 

seeding was applied. Three different models of drills were used (John Deere 455 (35 ft), Great Plains 

(12 ft), and a Laird (10 ft). Cultipackers were pulled behind each drill to firm the soil seedbed. Drill 

seedings were applied between mid-November 2008 and February 2009 with the exception of one area 

(DJ11-6), where application occurred in late fall 2009. Aerial seedings were applied with a fixed-wing 

aircraft on steeper slopes where pre-existing plant communities generally were more intact except for 

the absence of sagebrush. Aerial seedings were applied during the last week of November 2008. 

Six seedmixes were applied to burned areas (table 2). Seedmixes 1 and 2 were applied to low 

elevation sandy or silt loam soils with degraded plant communities. Seedmix 1 had higher rates of 

Achnatherum hymenoides (Indian ricegrass) and Elymus elymoides (bottlebrush squirreltail) than 

seedmix 2 and was applied only over a very small area. Seedmix 2 was similar to seedmix 1 but had a 

lower overall rate due to the large area of application. Seedmix 3 was applied over a large area of silt 

loam soils with mostly intact plant communities composed primarily of Poa secunda (Sandberg's 

bluegrass), A. hymenoides and Pseudoroegneria spicata (bluebunch wheatgrass). Seedmix 3 differed 

from seedmix 4 in that it had roughly twice the rate of P. secunda and P. spicata. Areas treated with 

seedmix 4 were deemed to have high densities of P. secunda and P. spicata before the fire than after the 

fire and, therefore, seedmix 4 included lower rates of these species. Seedmix 5 was applied to an area of 

loamy sand, whereas seedmix 6 was applied to a high-elevation portion of Snively Basin that was 

historically converted to Secale cereale (cereal rye).

In December 2007, bare-root sagebrush seedlings were planted within a small portion of the 

burned area (fig. 1). Transplants received one of three different treatments (Plant Successtm tablets, 

MycoApply® root dip, TerraSorb® fine hydrogel) or were untreated, and one of two spacings (15 or 4

ft). Plant Successtm tablets were added into the hole at the time of transplanting. Plant Successtm tablets 

contain multiple species of mycorrhizal fungi and fertilizer and are designed to increase plant growth 

and survival by enhancing mycorrhizal colonization. MycoApply® root dip is a similar product that 

contains mycorrhizae except that roots were dipped in the mixture prior to planting. TerraSorb® fine 

hydrogel consists of granules of potassium polyacrylamide acrylate copolymers that capture moisture 

when it is available and slowly releases it over time as the soil dries. One pound of TerraSorb® fine 

hydrogel was mixed with 25 gallons of water, and the roots of each transplant were dipped in the slurry 

prior to planting (approximately 90 mg of medium per transplant with some variation in the amount due 

to transplant size and handling). Those areas receiving 4 ft (0.047 plants/m2

) spacing were located 

linearly along washes, whereas those planted with a spacing of 15 ft (0.67 plants/m2) were located in 

upland areas. 
4 

The objectives of treatments applied on ALE were to mitigate the potential negative 

consequences of these fires, including invasion of exotic annual plants and loss of existing perennial 

plants. Herbicides were applied to reduce the risk of exotic annual grass abundance and invasion, and 

seed was applied to establish new plants that would replace plants lost to fire and also to enhance 

degraded plant communities. The density of seeded plants is the best measure of seeding effectiveness 

in the first several years after a fire. Monitoring fluctuations of cover and density of annual plants after 

treatment can help explain patterns of seeding success. In order to measure these objectives, USGS 

monitored density and cover of vegetation within each of the treatments in 2009 and 2010, with special 

emphasis on seedlings and exotic annual plants. 

Monitoring Methods

Seed traps were placed during aerial seeding in fall 2008 to verify that proposed seed rates were 

applied. Aluminum trays (36 × 26 cm) lined with contact adhesive-coated paper were placed within 

areas to be treated. Seeds trapped within each tray were sorted by species and viability (hard, filled 

seeds) and used to estimate the actual seeding rate of the aerially treated areas. The measured seeding 

rate was lower than the target rate for all seedmixes (table 3). Seed traps were located just prior to the 

aerial seeding and collected no more than 1 day later; however, it is possible that some seeds bounced 

out of the seed traps or that some were removed by rodents. 

In spring 2009 and 2010, 127 vegetation monitoring plots were placed within treated areas of the 

Milepost 17 and Wautoma fires within ALE (table A1). Permanent plots were placed randomly within 

each treatment/herbicide combination. At each plot, three 50-m transects were established 5 m from the 

plot center and spaced 120° from each other in a spoke design (Herrick and others, 2005). Photographs 

were taken from the plot center pointing outward along each transect and also at 25 m pointing toward 

the ground. These were used to document the vegetation and soil surface conditions of each transect. 

Along each transect, plant densities of perennial grasses and seeded forbs were recorded by counting the 

number of each plant species in 10, 0.5-m2

 quadrats spaced 5 m apart. In 2010, seedlings were 

categorized as perennial grass, wheatgrass, needlegrass1

, or P. secunda. For aerial seedings, all 

seedlings were called "seedlings" because seedlings from the treatments and from naturally occurring 

plants could not be distinguished. For drill seedings, seedlings occurring in drill rows were called 

"seeded" because they could be identified as resulting from the treatments. In 2009, all seedling grasses 

were classified as seedling perennial grasses because identification to species was uncertain. Seedling 

forbs were identified to species in 2009 and 2010. Stem density of B. tectorum and density of S. kali

individuals were counted within 0.04-m

2

 (20 × 20 cm) subquadrats within each 0.5-m2 quadrat. Density 

of less-common perennial grasses and shrubs were counted in 2 × 50-m belt transects in the aerial 

seedings and 3 × 50-m belt transects in the drill seedings. In 2010, density of perennial grasses within 

the 0.5-m2

 quadrats was only recounted if there was an apparent difference in the number from 2009. 

Density within belt transects was not repeated in 2010 to maximize the amount of field time spent 

searching for seedlings. Cover of vegetation was collected using the line-point intercept technique in 

which 100 points were collected along each transect (every 0.5 m), resulting in 300 points collected per 

plot (Herrick and others, 2005). 

 

1 Needlegrass is a common name for three species in two genera. The common name is used throughout this report because 

the species could not be differentiated as seedlings. 
5 

Eight aerial control plots (AC) were established outside of the aerially seeded area in 2010 in an 

attempt to assess natural seedling emergence; however, there were few locations that could be 

considered equivalent to the aerially seeded areas. Most AC plots were higher than the mid-elevation 

aerial seedings and were representative of an intact plant community. Two low-elevation AC plots were 

invaded by B. tectorum and not representative of most aerially seeded areas. They were, therefore, 

excluded from comparisons (AC-5 and AC-6). Additionally, six plots at the NJ6-N were not seeded and 

could be potentially used as controls but lacked the deep-rooted perennial grass component 

characteristic of most aerially seeded areas (tables A2 and A3). 

Monitoring plots for transplants were established in late October 2008, and were subsequently 

monitored in June 2009 and June 2010. Sagebrush transplants in the treatments using 15 ft spacing were 

monitored using the same plot selection and design as for the seeding and herbicide treatments except 

that only belt transects were collected. Each belt transect was 12 × 50-m in size, resulting in the 

sampling of 1,800-m2

 per plot. The number of live sagebrush transplants was counted within each 

transect. Plantings using the 4 ft spacing were linear and not wide enough to be monitored using the 

three-transect spoke design. Therefore, for the 4 ft plantings, single transects were established parallel to 

washes to monitor transplant survival. Because monitoring of transplants began in October 2008, initial 

plant densities of 0.047 and 0.67 plants/m2

 in the 15 and 4 ft spacing treatments were assumed.

Analyses 

Statistical analysis was conducted using the R statistical language (R Development Core Team, 

2010). Most of the data were positively skewed, resulting in means that overestimated vegetation cover 

and density. To adjust for this, data were log transformed for analyses, and medians are presented in 

graphs and tables rather than means. Significance (α-level) for all statistical tests was 0.1.

Due to differences in plant communities prior to the fire and the multiple treatments applied, 

treatments were grouped into five treatment associations (table 4): 

1. mid-elevation aerial seedings, 

2. low-elevation aerial seedings, 

3. low-elevation drill seedings, 

4. high elevation drill seeding, and 

5. no seeding treatments. 

The mid-elevation aerial seedings consisted of treatments AJ6-3 (n=11), AJ6-4 (n=5), AP4-3 

(n=14), AP4-4 (n=5), ANN-4 (n=5), AP4-1 (n=3), and AJ6-1 (n=5) (table 4). The AC plots established 

in 2010 were used to compare the effectiveness of these aerial seedings in establishing seedlings, and 

the ANN-4 plots were used to assess the effectiveness of herbicides. A one-way analysis of variance 

(ANOVA) was used to test for differences among groups, followed by a Dunnett's test to test for 

differences between each group and the reference (AC or ANN-4). Due to initial differences in areas 

receiving the different treatments, direct comparisons among all treatments could not be made, and no 

statistical comparisons were made among different seedmixes. 

The low-elevation aerial seedings consisted of the AJ11-1 (n=3) and AJ11-2 (n=5) treatments. 

To evaluate effectiveness for these treatments, the AJ11-1 and AJ11-2 treatments were compared to

DJ11-2 no-drill plots. An ANOVA was used to test for differences between groups, followed by a 

Dunnett's test to test between each of the seeded and non-seeded treatments. The same type and rate of 

herbicide were used on all three of the low-elevation treatments, and there were no suitable controls; 

therefore, no statistical analyses were performed for effects of herbicide on the low-elevation aerial 
6 

seedings. The low-elevation drill seeding treatments consisted of DJ6-2 (control n=8, treatment n=7), 

DJ11-2 (control n=9, treatment n=11), and DP4-5 (control n=3, treatment n=3). Treatment plots were 

compared to control plots using a Welch 2 sample t-test for unequal sample sizes and variances using 

log-transformed data. No-drill plots from DJ11-2 were compared to treatment plots for DJ11-1 because 

DJ11-1 was too small to have no-drill plots. The high-elevation drill seeding treatment consisted only of 

the DJ11-6 (n=3) seeding conducted in late fall/early winter 2009, and the no-seeding treatments 

included NJ6-N (n=6) and NM6-N (n=3). For the high-elevation drill seeding and no-seeding 

treatments, data are presented but statistical comparisons were not conducted. 

To evaluate the effectiveness of the different herbicide applications, the change in cheatgrass

densities from 2009 to 2010 were compared to either a control (for aerial seedings, the ANN-4 

treatment), or between each of the individual drill treatments because there were no controls for the 

herbicide application at the drill seedings. An ANOVA, followed by Dunnett's test was used for this 

analysis (table 4). 

Transplant survival by treatment compared the original densities planted in fall/winter 2007 to 

densities measured at subsequent monitoring in 2008, 2009, and 2010. No statistical tests were 

performed because of the uncertainty regarding initial transplant numbers, different plot designs, and 

low sample sizes.

Results and Discussion

Site Conditions 

Average annual precipitation in this area is approximately 6.8 in/yr. Precipitation after seeding

was close to average from December 2008 through April 2009, followed by a 5-month period (May–

September 2009) during which each month received less than 40 percent of the long-term average 

precipitation (1981–2010; fig. 2). These are typically dry months in this region. Fall/winter 2009–10 

were relatively dry with 4 of 6 months receiving less than average precipitation. Late spring 2010 was 

wet, with May and June 2010 having more than twice the long-term average precipitation. Weather data 

were obtained from the Hanford meteorological station, which is located northwest of ALE on the 

Hanford Nuclear Reservation.

Pre-fire vegetation communities within aerially seeded portions of ALE consisted of relatively 

diverse mixtures of deep- and shallow-rooted grass species, perennial forbs, and biological soil crusts, 

along with low densities of invasive annuals (B. tectorum and S. kali) (Evans and Lih, 2005). Deeprooted perennial grasses consisted primarily of P. spicata, A. hymenoides, Heterostipa comata (needleand-thread grass), Acnatherum thurberianum (Thurbers needlegrass) and Poa cusickii (Cusick's 

bluegrass). Shallow-rooted grass species consisted overwhelmingly of P. secunda and, occasionally, 

Poa bulbosa (bulbous bluegrass). Over the entire aerially seeded area, in 2009 and 2010, there was a 

mean density of 43.6 shallow-rooted and 2.25 deep-rooted perennial grass plants/m2

 (table 4). The 

predominant soil types were silt loams in aerially seeded portions, with the exceptions of AJ11-1 and 

AJ11-2. These two treatments had a lower abundance of perennial grasses and generally sandy soils

(table A1). 

In contrast, drill-seeded areas consisted of less perennial grass and biological soil crusts along 

with a higher abundance of invasive annuals than aerially seeded portions (table 5). Drill-seeded areas 

consisted of a mixture of silt loam and sandy soil types (table A1). 
7 

Within aerial seeding treatments, fire-induced mortality of pre-existing perennial grass plants 

appeared to be low. Few dead bunchgrasses were observed during monitoring in 2009 and 2010. Within 

the entire treated area, there was a decrease in densities of B. tectorum from 2009 to 2010 (table 5). In 

2009, B. tectorum plants were small and stunted, although very dense, possibly due to a wet winter 

followed by a very dry spring. Residual effects of the 2008 herbicide application also may have had an 

effect. In 2010, there were much lower densities of B. tectorum, but because of the wet spring, plants 

were much larger and produced more seeds than in 2009. Densities of S. kali were more variable with an 

overall decrease in the drill seedings, and a slight increase in the aerial seedlings from 2009 to 2010. 

Some effects of herbicides were noted that were not apparent in the density or cover data. These

effects were dramatic in some areas that were dominated by B. tectorum prior to the fire. A shift from B. 

tectorum to bare ground was observed at some locations with unstable soils (fig. 3a). In these areas, soil 

loss due to wind and apparent mortality of P. secunda was observed (fig. 3b). It is unknown whether or 

not this mortality of P. secunda was due to the fire, herbicide, post-fire erosion, or a combination of all 

three factors. Throughout herbicide areas, but especially in areas with high B. tectorum abundance, a 

visible banding pattern of vegetation dominance was observed. This banding was the result of 

alternating predominance of B. tectorum or perennial grasses and S. kali (fig. 3c). It is uncertain if areas 

dominated by S. kali (fig. 3c, green bands) were areas that received the full herbicide rate and the other 

(fig. 3c, brown bands) a lesser rate, or if the areas evident as green bands received a higher rate than the 

adjacent areas evident as brown bands. In some areas, it appeared as if there was mortality of P. secunda

within bands dominated by S. kali (fig. 3d). Mortality of P. secunda also has been observed by Bekedam 

(2004) within sagebrush steppe treated with Imazapic. In addition, Kyser and others (2007), working in 

northern California and southeastern Oregon, observed a shift from dominance of annual grass species 

to broadleaf species after application of imazapic. They found generally less vegetation cover with 

increasing rates of imazapic (ranging from 35 to 210 g ae/ha) (Kyser and others, 2007). S. kali

germinates later in the season than B. tectorum, so in locations where B. tectorum was absent due to the 

herbicide, S. kali had less competition. Additionally, the later germination of S. kali may have allowed it 

to escape any damaging effects of glyphosate. 

Cover of perennial grasses generally was lower in 2010 despite increased water availability at

aerial- and drill-seeded treatments (figs. 4a, 4b, 5a, and 5b). This effect is most apparent at aerial-seeded 

areas due to the initial abundance of perennial grasses. Below normal precipitation in 2009 may have 

influenced the cover of perennial grasses in 2010 by causing reduced tillering, resulting in less leaf area 

the following year (Brown, 1995) or it is possible that herbicides could have damaged growth, but not 

survival of existing perennial grasses (Shinn and Thill, 2004). Cover of B. tectorum also decreased in 

most treatments from 2009 to 2010 (figs. 4c and 5c), with the exception of DJ6-2 and AJ11-2. Cover of 

S. kali was variable, decreasing in some treatments, and increasing in others (figs. 4d and 5d). 

Additionally, increases in cover of biological soil crusts were recorded from 2009 to 2010. This was 

because these crusts were easier to identify when conditions were moist, as they often were in the spring 

of 2010 (Table A4). Litter cover was variable, increasing at sites in 2010 with high vegetative cover and 

decreasing at sites with low cover (for example, AJ11-1, AJ11-2, and AP4-1) (Table A4). Bare ground 

within the aerial seedings was similar in 2009 and 2010 except for AJ6-1 where there was a 14 percent

decrease and AJ11-2 where there was a 12 percent increase in bare ground (Table A4). For drill 

seedings, several treatments increased bare ground by 10 percent or greater (DJ6-2 and DP4-5 drill 

plots). Bare ground at the DJ11-1 drill plots increased by 35 percent. Bare ground at the NJ6-N noseeding treatments was generally the same from 2009 to 2010 (tables A4 and A5). 
8 

Mid-Elevation Aerial Seedings

The mid-elevation aerial seedings (AJ6-3, AJ6-4, ANN-4, AP4-3, AP4-4, AP4-1, and AJ6-1) 

encompassed most of the treated area (18,209 acres). These treatments had a large component of preexisting shallow- and deep-rooted perennial grasses (fig. 6a). 

In 2009, there were few seedlings found, but in 2010, there was significant emergence of both 

grass and forb seedlings (fig. 6b). In 2010, seedling grasses emerged differently by site (ANOVA, F(7, 46)

= 2.97, p=0.01). Treatments AJ6-1 and AJ6-3 had significantly lower emergence of seedling grasses 

than the non-seeded site (AC) (Dunnett's test, p=0.04 and 0.02, respectively). All other treatments were 

not different from the non-seeded plots (Dunnett's test, p>0.01). Composition of seedling grasses at 

seeded sites primarily were P. spicata (89.5 percent), with a small amount of P. secunda (4.6 percent) 

and needlegrasses (3.1 percent).

Several aerial treatments showed higher densities of seeded forbs (primarily A. millefolium) than 

the control site (fig. 6b); however, due to a high amount of variability in the data and low sample size in 

some treatments (for example, AP4-1 had only three plots due to its small size), there were no 

significant differences between sites (ANOVA, F(7, 46) = 1.35, p=0.24). Seedmix 3 had a higher rate of A. 

millefolium than seedmix 4, which may have contributed to the variability. Additionally, different 

densities of pre-existing A. millefolium in the different treatments probably further affected the seedling 

densities. Although densities of pre-existing A. millefolium generally were low, ANN-4 had the highest 

(median density of 0.045 plants/m2), and AP4-1 and AJ6-1 had median densities of 0.016 and 0.013 

plants/m2, respectively. 

Decreases in median density of B. tectorum occurred at all treated sites from 2009 to 2010. The 

site that received no herbicide treatment (ANN-4) also showed a decrease (fig. 6c). Cover of B. 

tectorum also decreased correspondingly (fig. 4c). Densities of S. kali increased at most treatments from 

2009 to 2010 (AJ6-1, AJ6-3, AP4-3, and AP4-4), although decreasing in the AP4-1 treatment. There 

was only a slight decrease in S. kali density at the no-herbicide (ANN-4) treatment and at AJ6-4, but 

these treatments had low initial densities in 2009 (fig. 6d). Cover of S. kali showed generally similar 

patterns to the changes in density (fig. 4d). 

Two levels of herbicides were used within the mid-elevation aerial seedings, Plateau® at 4 oz/ 

acre and Journey® at 6 oz/acre. Areas receiving the Plateau® and Journey® herbicides had nearly equal 

densities of shallow- and deep-rooted perennial grasses, although the area receiving no herbicide (ANN4) had somewhat higher densities of shallow-and deep-rooted perennial grasses (fig. 7a). Densities of 

seedling perennial grasses were significantly different among treatments (ANOVA, F(2, 51) = 2.73, p= 

0.07) in 2010. Seedling perennial grasses were higher in Plateau®-treated areas than in Journey®- treated 

areas in 2010 (median density of 3.17 seedlings/m2 in Plateau® 4 oz/acre and 1.2 seedings/m2 in the 

Journey® 6 oz/acre) but both had significantly lower densities than the no-herbicide treatment (6.0 

seedlings/m2, fig. 7b, Dunnett's test = p<0.01 for both the Journey® and Plateau® treatments). The 

herbicide possibly inhibited germination of perennial grass seedlings in the treated areas. There were no 

differences in seeded forbs among treatments (ANOVA, F(2, 51) = 0.32, p=0.72) (fig. 7b). 

Median densities of B. tectorum decreased in all herbicide treatments from 2009 to 2010 (fig.

7c). Median density of B. tectorum decreased by 95 percent in the Plateau® treatment, 82 percent in the 

Journey® treatment, and 48 percent in the non-herbicide treatment (ANN-4). To account for the 

differences in initial densities, analyses were conducted using the proportional decreases in B. tectorum

by treatment from 2009 to 2010. The proportional decrease in B. tectorum density from 2009 to 2010 
9 

was significant (ANOVA, F(2, 44) = 18.15, p=<0.01). Both treatments receiving Plateau® and Journey® 

had a significantly greater decrease in B. tectorum from 2009 to 2010 than the ANN-4 plots (Dunnett's 

test, p<0.01 for both treatments).

Median cover of B. tectorum decreased by 82, 61.5, and 20 percent in the Plateau® 4 oz, 

Journey® 6 oz, and no-herbicide treatments from 2009 to 2010. Differences among treatments were 

statistically significant (ANOVA, F(2,41) = 3.14 , p=0.05). Sites receiving Plateau® at a rate of 4 oz/acre 

showed a statistically significant decrease in B. tectorum cover from 2009 to 2010 compared to the 

ANN-4 plots (Dunnett's test, p=0.06), whereas those receiving Journey® at a rate of 6 oz/acre did not 

(Dunnett's test, p=0.73). 

As previously discussed, the Plateau® treatment of 4 oz/acre contained a higher amount of the 

active ingredient imazapic than the Journey 6 oz/acre treatment. The Plateau® 4 oz/acre treatment may 

have reduced B. tectorum to a greater extent than the lower rate of imazapic with the addition of 

glyphosate in the Journey® 6 oz/acre treatment, but B. tectorum densities decreased significantly in both 

treatments from 2009 to 2010. In addition to the herbicide, the difference in weather between the 2 years 

likely also affected the observed densities of B. tectorum. 

Density of S. kali increased in the Plateau® and Journey® treatments by 48 and 1,200 percent,

respectively, from 2009 to 2010 (fig. 7d). Densities of S. kali in plots receiving herbicide were higher 

than the no-herbicide treatment (ANN-4) in 2010, although these plots had very little S. kali to begin 

with. Increases in the density of S. kali in 2010 could be due to the lack of competition with B. tectorum. 

Cover of these exotic annual species showed similar patterns, with B. tectorum decreasing and S. kali

increasing from 2009 to 2010 in the two different herbicide treatments (fig. 4c and 4d). S. kali may have 

escaped the effect of glyphosate because significant germination of this species likely occurred after 

herbicide application.

Data collected at the mid-elevation aerial seedings indicate that:

1. There were equal amounts of seedlings in seeded and unseeded areas. 

2. Within seeded areas, there were likely some emerging plants from the seeding, but it was not 

possible to distinguish between seeded and unseeded plants. 

3. The seeding did not appear to increase the density of perennial seedlings compared to the nonseeded area in 2010. 

4. Seed production from the pre-existing plant community was sufficient to produce substantial 

perennial seedlings in 2010. 

Low-Elevation Aerial Seedings

The low-elevation aerial seedings consisted of the AJ11-1 and AJ11-2 treatments and covered

948 acres of the treated area within ALE. These treatments were different from the mid-elevation aerial 

seedings not only by being at lower elevations, but also, soils at AJ11-1 and AJ11-2 generally are sandy 

as opposed to the silt loams found at the mid-elevation aerial seedings (table A-1). 

Median densities of pre-existing perennial grasses within the low-elevation aerial seedings were

lower than mid-elevation aerial seedings. AJ11-2 had higher densities of shallow- and deep-rooted 

perennial grasses than AJ11-1 or the DJ11-2 no-drill plots (fig. 8a). In 2010, seedling grasses were 

found at significantly different densities among treatments (ANOVA, F(2,14) = 12.87, p<0.01 ) (fig. 8b). 
10

In 2010, both AJ11-1 and AJ11-2 had significantly higher densities of seeded grasses than the DJ11-2 

control plots (Dunnett's tests p=0.01 and 0.00 for AJ11-1 and AJ11-2, respectively). Compositions of 

seeded grasses within both the AJ11-1 and AJ11-2 were P. secunda (61.3 percent),

P. spicata (23.1 percent), needlegrasses (12.2 percent), and 3.3 percent unknown perennial grass. 

Densities of seeded forbs were not significantly different among treatments (ANOVA, F(2,14) = 

2.52 , p=0.12 ), despite the fact that differences appeared considerable (fig. 8b). This is due to the large 

amount of variability in the data, which reduced the ability to detect statistical differences. 

In 2010, density of B. tectorum was lower than 2009 (fig. 8c) at the low-elevation aerial seeding 

treatments. Densities of S. kali also decreased from 2009 to 2010 in all the low-elevation aerial seeding 

treatments (fig. 8d). All areas received herbicide so we could not compare changes in B. tectorum and S. 

kali from 2009 to 2010 to an untreated area.

Data collected at the low-elevation aerial seedings suggest that there were significantly more 

seedlings at seeded areas in comparison to non-seeded areas for both AJ11-1 and AJ11-2. Low densities 

of existing perennial plants probably fostered a low-competition environment, enabling seeds to 

germinate and emerge in 2010 during adequate moisture. 

Low-Elevation Drill Seedings

The low-elevation drill seedings consisted of the DJ11-1, DJ11-2, DJ6-2, and DP4-5 treatments 

These treatments covered 6,291 acres of the total treatment area. No-drill plots were established at all 

the low-elevation drill seedings, with the exception of DJ11-1 due to its small size. The no-drill plots 

were established after herbicide application so cannot be used for assessing herbicide effectiveness. 

Densities of pre-existing shallow- and deep-rooted perennial grasses were variable among 

treatments, but generally were much less than aerially seeded treatments (fig. 9a). For all treatments, 

there were significantly higher densities of seeded grasses at drilled plots than at no-drill plots in 2009 

and 2010 (p<0.01) and seeded forbs in 2010 (p=0.06). This pattern held across all treatments, likely due 

to higher precipitation in 2010. 

The DJ11-2 drilled plots had significant emergence of seeded grasses in 2009 (0.87 versus 0.0 

plants/m2

, t=10.17, p<0.01) and 2010 (5.87 drill versus 0.2 plants/m2, t =5.89, p<0.01, figs. 9b and 9c). 

In 2010, most seedling seeded grasses were classified as P. secunda (85.3 percent), with the others 

classified as 6.5 percent P. spicata, 3.0 percent needlegrasses, and 5.1 percent unknown perennial 

grasses. Seedmix 2 contained a high seeding rate for P. secunda, which likely explains the dominance of 

this species in the emerging seedlings. There were no differences between drill and no-drill plots for 

seeded forbs in 2009 or 2010. All emerging forbs were A. millefolium. 

Similar to the DJ11-2 treatment, the DJ6-2 treatment had significantly higher densities of 

seedling grasses in drill plots compared to no-drill plots in 2009 and 2010 (t = 3.63, p<0.01, 1.4 versus 0 

plants/m2 in 2009 and t=4.48, p<0.01, 5.8 versus 0.07 plants/m2

 in 2010) (figs. 9b and 9c). Seeded 

grasses were 41 percent P spicata, 34.4 percent P. secunda, 10.3 percent needlegrasses, and 12.3 

percent unknown. There were no significant differences between seeded forbs at the drill versus no-drill 

plots in 2009 and 2010. Most seeded forbs were A. millefolium and rarely L. perenne. 

There also were significantly higher densities of seeded grasses at drill plots than at no-drill plots 

at the DP4-5 in 2009 and 2010 (t = 18.59, p<0.01 in 2009 and t=3.38, p=0.02 in 2010). In 2009, there 

were 1.33 versus 0 plants/m2, and in 2010, there were 1.93 versus 0.4 plants/m2 in the drill and no-drill 

plots (figs. 9b and 9c). Grass seedling composition was 31.5 percent P. secunda, 29.3 percent unknown 

perennial grass, 25.8 percent needlegrass, and 13.3 percent P. spicata. There was very little forb 

germination in either year at the DP4-5 treatment area (fig. 9d). 
11

Drill plots at the DJ11-1 were compared to the DJ11-2 no-drill plots because the DJ11-1 

treatment area was too small to include no-drill plots. In 2009, there were no differences in seeded 

grasses and forbs at the drill versus no-drill plots. In contrast, in 2010 there were significant differences 

for both seeded grasses (t = 5.03, p<0.01, 3.07 versus 0.07 plants/m2) and seeded forbs (t = 5.57, 

p<0.01, 5.73 versus 0 plants/m2). Seeded grass composition was 59.2 percent P. secunda, 29.2 percent

P. spicata, 6.9 percent unknown perennial grass, 4.6 percent needlegrass. All seeded forbs that emerged

were A. millefolium. 

All three levels of herbicide were included in the lower elevation drill-seeding treatments. There 

were no areas that did not receive herbicide that could be used as a suitable herbicide control. In 2009 

and 2010, there were no differences between the herbicide treatments in terms of grass seedlings 

(ANOVA, F(2,22) = 0.11 in 2009 and 0.49 in 2010, p>0.1, fig. 10a). In 2009, there was also no 

differences for seeded forbs among herbicide treatments (ANOVA, F(2, 22) = 0.37, p=0.69). In 2010, 

there was a difference between herbicide treatments for seeded forbs (ANOVA, F(2,22) = 2.65, p=0.09) 

due to no forb seedlings being found in the DP4-5 treatment (fig. 10b). The lack of forb seedlings in this 

treatment could potentially be due to the herbicide, but sandy soils, which were subject to redistribution 

by wind, also could have been a factor. 

Decreases in the median density of B. tectorum between 2009 and 2010 (treatment and no-drill 

plots combined) were 91.6, 51.3, and 73.0 percent in the Plateau® 4 oz/acre, Journey® 6 oz/acre, and 

Journey® 11 oz/acre treatments, respectively. Overall, decreases were large, but were not significantly 

different between treatments (ANOVA, F(2,41) = 2.27, p=0.11). Despite large decreases in density, 

decreases in cover from 2009 to 2010 were modest (fig. 5c). Larger plants appeared to compensate for 

the decrease in density. 

Based on the data from the low-elevation drill seedings: 

1. The low-elevation drill seedings resulted in significant emergence of seeded grasses in 2009 

and 2010 and of forbs in 2010. 

2. In 2009, assuring soil-to-seed contact by drill seeding likely increased germination whereas 

germination was likely suppressed for the aerial seedings where seeds were placed on the 

soil surface. 

In 2010, adequate moisture promoted significant germination in low-elevation drill seedings. It 

is unknown what the survival of these seedlings will be in the future. It is normal for a die-off period to 

occur after initial emergence. 

High-Elevation Drill Seeding

The drill seeding in the high-elevation Snively Basin was delayed until fall 2009. This 700 acre 

area was previously used for S. cereale (annual rye) production and the vegetation prior to treatment 

was composed primarily of S. cereale and a low number of P. secunda (11.9 plants/m2

). This area 

received Journey® herbicide at the rate of 11 oz/acre at the same time as the other treatments (February 

2008) and additional chemical treatments in May 2009 and November 2009. It also was burned again 

intentionally in November 2009 to help control S. cereale. 
12

In 2010, coincident with the above average precipitation, there were a high number of seedlings 

(table A3). There were an estimated 60.9 grass and 48.8 forb seedlings/m2

 in spring 2010. Forb 

seedlings primarily were A. millefolium, many of which were likely naturally occurring rather than 

seeded. This seeding also had a relatively high density of B. tectorum at 165.8 plants/m2, but no S. kali.

Based on the initial densities, the potential for establishment of seeded species is high, even with high 

seedling mortality rates. 

No Seeding Treatments 

The no-seeding treatments NM6-N and NJ6-N covered an area of 2,660 acres. Within the two 

no-seeding treatments, there were very low densities of deep-rooted perennial grasses, but medium to 

high densities of shallow rooted perennial grasses (fig. 11a). There were no seeded grasses found in 

2009, but similar to the AC plots in 2010, there were some emerging non-seeded seedlings in 2010 (fig.

11b), likely due to favorable moisture conditions. There were more grass seedlings found in the NJ6-N 

treatment, which had higher densities of shallow-rooted grasses and lower densities of B. tectorum than 

the NM6-N treatment (fig. 11c). The density of B. tectorum at NJ6-N, which received Journey®

herbicide at 6 oz/acre, decreased from 2009 to 2010, whereas NM6-N, which received Milestone®

herbicide (broadleaf specific), showed an increase in B. tectorum density during the same time period. 

This provides some evidence that the herbicides Journey® and Plateau®, even though they were applied 

2 years earlier, were having significant residual effects on the B. tectorum populations. S. kali densities 

in these two treatments increased slightly, but not significantly from 2009 to 2010 (fig. 11d). 

NM6-N was located near State Highway 240 and was heavily infested with B. tectorum, yet it 

did not burn during the 2007 fires. Figure 3a shows the boundary between the non-burned and burned 

(B. tectorum-infested) area, and an adjacent area that also was dominated by B. tectorum prior to the fire 

but was burned and treated with Journey® at 11 oz/acre. Without herbicide, the community in the 

burned area likely would look similar to the unburned community after 1 or 2 years of recovery. 

However, with the suppression of B. tectorum, there is high cover of bare ground and evidence of soil 

movement due to wind is apparent. 

Transplants

The initial planting densities for sagebrush transplants were 0.047 plants/m2 (15-ft spacing) and 

0.67 plants/m2

 (4-ft spacing) (table 6). Performance of transplants can be examined in two ways—

comparing densities of plants at the time of each monitoring to the initial planting density or comparing 

densities of plants from the first monitoring period to subsequent monitoring periods. From the initial

planting in December 2007 to the first monitoring in October 2008, plant density decreased from 5.5 to 

48.9 percent of the initial densities (table 6). Decreases were greatest in the two treatments where plants 

were spaced at 4 ft. Of the remaining treatments, the TerraSorb® fine hydrogel with the 15-ft spacing 

had the lowest percentage of initial density (34 percent), whereas the MycoApply® root dip 15 ft had the 

highest percentage (48.9 percent). 

Changes in density from October 2008 to June 2009 were different between treatments, with the 

Terrasorb® fine hydrogel with 15-ft spacing having the lowest survival (25 percent). The control 15 ft, 

MycoApply® root dip 15 ft, and Plant Successtm tablets 15 ft had survival rates of less than 50 percent 

from October 2008 to June 2009, whereas the 4 ft spacing treatments had the highest survival (93.9 and 

64.9 percent for the Terrasorb® fine hydrogel and control, respectively). In contrast survival was lowest 

in the TerraSorb® fine hydrogel 4 ft and control 4 ft treatments (4.6 and 3.6 percent, respectively) when 

compared to the original densities, and highest for the Plant Successtm tablets 15 ft (21.2 percent). 
13

From June 2009 to June 2010, survival was greater than the previous 2 years, ranging from 60 to 

100 percent. Despite having an overall low survival rate during the entire period, the TerraSorb® fine 

hydrogel 15 ft did not show any decrease from 2009 to 2010, while all other treatments had some losses.

A favorable moisture year combined with plants that were probably relatively well established were 

likely factors in a higher survival rate during this time period. 

Comparing final densities in 2010 to the first monitoring in 2008, the two treatments with the 

highest survival rates were treatments that received the 4 ft-spacing (control 4 ft and TerraSorb® fine 

hydrogel 4 ft with 45.9 and 75.8 percent survival, respectively). The location of the 4-ft spacing 

treatments (near washes) may have been a factor responsible for the higher survival of transplants in the 

high-density treatments. However, there were fewer plots that received this treatment and variation was

higher because of the smaller sample size (table 6). Additionally, this result may have occurred because 

of the particular weather patterns experienced during the monitoring period. For instance, survival from 

2009 to 2010 was much higher (a wet period) than survival from 2008 to 2009 (a dry period). 

When comparing the initial planting densities, all treatments with 15-ft spacing had similar 

overall percentages of initial density ranging from 8.5 to 12.8 percent. The plots receiving the 4-ft

spacing had the lowest rates (2.5 –3.7%). Due to the uncertainty of the initial planting densities, it is 

difficult to determine which treatments had an overall better result. However, it is clear that the 4-ft

spacing treatments had greater survival from 2008 to 2010, regardless of initial densities. Further testing 

of these types of treatments is for sagebrush transplant establishment is warranted. 

Conclusions

Significant emergence of grasses and forbs occurred at the mid-elevation aerial seedings in 2010, 

but it is impossible to quantify the proportion of these seedings that were due to the seeding versus 

naturally occurring. Because densities of emerging seedlings in aerially seeded areas were similar to 

densities in unseeded areas, enough seed was produced, germinated, and emerged from pre-existing 

perennial grasses to contribute a substantial amount of seedlings when conditions were appropriate, as 

they were in spring 2010. These seedlings, regardless of whether they were from existing plants or from 

the seeding treatments, will have a large amount of competition due to the high densities of pre-existing 

perennial grasses. Aerially seeding into "closed" communities reduces seedling emergence and 

establishment because most available suitable microsites are already occupied by live plants or biotic 

crusts. Historically, emergence and establishment of aerially applied seed has been very low in general 

due to loss of seed from landing in inadequate microsites, desiccation, wind and water erosion, and 

predation by rodents and birds (Nelson and others, 1970). 

If plant mortality due to the fire were higher, this may have opened up more microsites and 

caused increased seedling emergence and a greater chance at establishment; however, mortality of 

existing plants was low. Additionally, within the large area treated by aerially seeding, there may have 

been locations with lower-than-average pre-existing plants where seedlings were primarily due to the 

seeding. 
14

At the lower elevation aerial seedings, there was a more limited seed source from pre-existing 

plants and some emergence due to the treatments likely occurred. Seedlings found in these treatments 

are more easily attributed to the aerial seedling due to the low densities of pre-existing perennial 

grasses.

Within drill seedings, a significant amount of seedlings emerged in 2009 and 2010, ranging from 

0.13 to 1.40 in 2009, and 1.90 to 5.90 grass seedlings/m2 in 2010. The drill seedings resulted in some 

germination even in 2009, a drought year, when no-drill plots had no seedlings, and significant 

germination in 2010, a year when no-drill plots showed some seedling emergence. These emerging 

seedlings will have reduced competition from the low densities of pre-existing perennial grasses, but 

potentially higher competition from exotic annual grasses and forbs as their populations fluctuate over 

time. Therefore, it is unclear how many of these seedlings will ultimately survive. Intermediate and 

long-term success of these treatments should be assessed by future monitoring and comparison to the 

no-drill plots. 

Although the effect of the herbicides Plateau® (Imazapic) and Journey® (Imazapic + glyphosate)

are difficult to quantify because they were applied prior to the beginning of monitoring, it is apparent 

that there was a profound effect on the dominance of B. tectorum (and indirectly, S. kali) in areas where 

these species were abundant before treatment. In areas with shifting soils (sand dunes), fire combined 

with herbicide treatment that drastically reduced B. tectorum cover and density may have facilitated 

mortality of shallow-rooted perennial grasses and loss of soil due to wind. The effect is less clear in 

aerially seeded areas that had high densities of existing perennial grasses, although reduced B. tectorum

density and cover did occur in these areas as well. The variability seen in densities of S. kali may be due 

to the herbicide banding. Areas that appeared to have a great amount of S. kali and a potential loss of P. 

secunda may have been areas that received more than the prescribed herbicide rate because of drift of 

the herbicide. This may have created areas where all B. tectorum were removed, and the shallow-rooted 

perennial grasses had reduced growth, leading to more available resources for S. kali. 

Lower densities of B. tectorum and S. kali combined with adequate moisture, and perhaps 

reduced cover of existing grasses, combined to create optimal conditions for germination in 2010. There 

is a natural amount of seedling mortality after emergence, and it is unclear what this amount will be for 

these treatments, although it is likely to be substantial. Based on some estimates for wetter sites (10–12 

in. annual precipitation), approximately 5 plants/m2 is indicative of a successful seeding in the 

Intermountain West (Vallentine, 1989). These current sites receive nearly one-half this precipitation, so 

it is reasonable to expect less plant density from a successful seeding. Therefore, drill seedings appear to 

be on track for a successful seeding unless mortality rates become excessive (greater than 75 percent). 

The location of transplanting A. tridentata (near a wash or an upland area) seemed to affect 

survival the greatest, with survival rates from 46 to 76 percent. Within the upland areas, all treatments 

showed similar survival, but further study is warranted. Information on planting locations, microsites, 

and other treatments to increase transplant survival of A. tridentata is needed as the area occupied by 

this species decreases due to wildfires, such as on ALE.
15

Overall, the seedings following the Milepost 17 and Wautoma fires demonstrate that significant 

germination can occur given proper seeding methods and favorable weather conditions, despite low 

elevation and low average annual precipitation (6.8 inches). Additionally, knowledge regarding pre-fire 

vegetation and accurate estimates of post-fire mortality are critical for land managers when deciding

when and where to seed. Pre-fire plant communities affected by the Wautoma and Milepost 17 fires 

were well known, but the level of possible mortality was not. Within the burned area, there was very 

little mortality of pre-existing plants due to the fire, despite estimates that mortality would be high. 

Research is needed on quick and reliable methods to predict mortality of pre-fire plants in these upland 

areas to aid resource allocation after wildfires. In general, treatments with high amounts of pre-existing 

grasses are able to reseed themselves given favorable climate and probably do not need to be seeded 

unless they have lost key species, such as sagebrush. For these areas that are lacking primarily 

sagebrush, but have a relatively intact understory of native perennials, an alternative to transplanting

may be to seed in multiple years to increase the chance that conditions will be conducive to plant 

establishment. 

Acknowledgments 

The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Columbia River National Refuge Complex provided the 

funding for this work (Agreement #135808H344). We would specifically like to thank Heidi Newsome, 

Kevin Goldie, and Greg Hughes from USFWS. We also would like to thank USGS staff that have 

helped with fieldwork, offered advice, and assisted with report preparation including: Kevin Knutson, 

Meagan Gates, Peter Del Zotto, Georjanna Pokorney, Andrew Lindgren, Nicole DeCrappeo, Scott 

Shaff, Susan Powell, Janet Erickson, Ruth Jacobs, and Sue Phillips. Additional thanks to Lisa Ganio 

and Manuela Huso for statistical advice.
16

References Cited

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big sagebrush restoration for Gunnison sage-grouse. Natural Areas Journal, v. 29, p. 204-209. 

Bekedam, S., 2004, Establishment tolerance of six native sagebrush steppe species to imazapic 

(PLATEAU®) herbicide: Implications for restoration and recovery: Corvallis, Oregon, Oregon State 

University, M.S. Thesis, 93 p. 

Brown, R., 1995, The water relations of range plants: Adaptations to water deficits, in Bedunah, D., and 

Sosebee, R.E., eds., Rangeland Plant Physiology and Morphology: Denver, CO, Society for Range 

Management, 710 p. 

Evans, J.R., and Lih, M.P., 2005, Recovery and rehabilitation of vegetation on the Fitzner-Eberhardt 

arid lands Ecology reserve, Hanford Reach National Monument, following the 24 Command fire, 

Final Report 2001-2004: Seattle, WA, The Nature Conservancy of Washington, 254 p. 

First Strike Environmental, 2007a, Wautoma Fire Burned Area Emergency Response Plan: Roseburg, 

OR, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report, 173 p. 

First Strike Environmental, 2007b, Wautoma Fire Burned Area Emergency Response Plan: Roseburg, 

OR, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report, 129 p. 

Herrick, J.E., Van Zee, J.W., Havstad, K.M., Burkett, L.M., and Whitford, W.G., 2005, Monitoring 

manual for grassland, shrubland and savanna ecosystems Volume 1: Quick Start: USDA – ARS 

Jornada Experimental Range: Las Cruces, New Mexico, 36 p.

Kyser, G.B., DiTomaso, J.M., Doran, M.P., Orloff, S.B., Wilson, R.G., Lancaster, D.L., Lile, D.F., and 

Porath, M.L., 2007, Control of medusahead (Taeniatherum caput-medusae) and other annual grasses 

with imazapic: Weed Technology, v. 21, p. 66-75. 

Morris, C., Monaco, T.A., and Rigby, C.W. 2009. Variable impacts of imazapic rate on downy brome 

(Bromus tectorum) and seeded species in two rangeland communities. Invasive Plant Science and 

Management, v. 2, p. 110-119. 

Nelson, J.R., Wilson, A., and Goebel, C., 1970, Factors influencing broadcast seeding in bunchgrass 

range: Journal of Range Management, v. 23, p. 163-170. 

R Development Core Team, 2010, R: A language and environment for statistical computing: Vienna, 

Austria, R Foundation for Statistical Computing, available only online at http://www.R-project.org. 

Shinn, S.L., and Thill, D.C., 2004, Tolerance of several perennial grasses to imazapic: Weed

Technology, v. 18, p. 60-65. 

Tu, M., Hurd, C., and Randall, J.M., 2001, Weed Control Methods Handbook, The Nature Conservancy, 

available only online at http://tncinvasives.ucdavis.edu. 

Vallentine, J.F., 1971, Range development and improvements: Provo, Utah, Brigham Young University 

Press, 524 p. 
17

Figure 1. Location of Fitzner-Eberhardt Arid Land Ecology Reserve, Washington, and treatments applied following 

the Milepost 17 and Wautoma fires of 2007. Coordinates are in North American Datum 1983, Universal Transverse 

Mercator Zone 11 North.
18

 

 

Jan 2008

Feb 2008

Mar 2008

Apr 2008

May 2008

Jun 2008

Jul 2008

Aug 2008

Sep 2008

Oct 2008

Nov 2008

Dec 2008

Jan 2009

Feb 2009

Mar 2009

Apr 2009

May 2009

June 2009

Jul 2009

Aug 2009

Sep 2009

Oct 2009

Nov 2009

Dec 2009

Jan 2010

Feb 2010

Mar 2010

Apr 2010

May 2010

June 2010

Jul 2010

Aug 2010

Sep 2010

Precipitation (inches)

0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

1.2

1.4

1.6

1981 - 2010 Average Precipitation

Figure 2. Precipitation received at the Hanford meteorological station from January 2008 to September 2010. 

Purple bars indicate months that received 80–120 percent of normal precipitation, green bars received greater than 

120 percent average precipitation and orange bars indicate months that received less than 80 percent average 

precipitation. 
19

Figure 3. Monitoring photographs of (a) boundary of fire showing increased movement of soil due to wind in the 

herbicide treated area, while non-herbicided area dominated by cheatgrass stabilizes the soil but is not conducive 

to seedling germination and establishment, (b) mortality of P. secunda due to wind erosion, (c) banding of areas 

dominated by S. kali and B.tectorum/perennial grasses, and (d) apparent P. secunda mortality within banding.

a) b)

c) d)
20

AJ11-1AJ11-2 AJ6-1 AJ6-3 AJ6-4 ANN-4 AP4-1 AP4-3 AP4-4 AC

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

20

AJ11-1AJ11-2 AJ6-1 AJ6-3 AJ6-4 ANN-4 AP4-1 AP4-3 AP4-4 AC

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

AJ11-1AJ11-2 AJ6-1 AJ6-3 AJ6-4 ANN-4 AP4-1 AP4-3 AP4-4 AC

Median Cover (%)

0

10

20

30

40

2009 

2010 

Treatment

AJ11-1AJ11-2 AJ6-1 AJ6-3 AJ6-4 ANN-4 AP4-1 AP4-3 AP4-4 AC

0

10

20

30

40

a. Shallow rooted b. Deep rooted

c. B. tectorum d. S. Kali

Figure 4. Median cover of (a) shallow-rooted perennial grasses, (b) deep-rooted perennial grasses, (c) B. tectorum,

and (d) S. kali at the aerially seeded plots, Fitzner-Eberhardt Arid Land Ecology Reserve, Washington, 2009–2010. 

See figure 1 for treatment codes. Note different scales on the Y-axes.
21

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

Treatment

DJ11-1 DJ11-2 DJ6-2 DP4-5 NJ6-N NM6-N

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

2009 

2010 

DJ11-1 DJ11-2 DJ6-2 DP4-5 NJ6-N NM6-N

0

10

20

30

40

50

Median Cover (%)

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2009 

2010 

a. Shallow rooted b. Deep rooted

c. B. tectorum d. Exotic annual forbs

Figure 5. Median cover of (a) shallow rooted perennial grasses, (b) deep rooted perennial grasses, (c) Exotic 

annual grasses (B. tectorum), and (d) exotic annual forbs at the drill seeding sites (control and treatments plots 

combined), Fitzner-Eberhardt Arid Land Ecology Reserve, Washington. See figure 1 for treatment codes. Note 

different scales on the Y-axes.
22

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

Grass 

Forb 

*

0

20

40

60

80

Shallow Rooted

Deep Rooted

Treatment

AJ6-1 AJ6-3 AJ6-4 AP4-1 AP4-3 AP4-4 ANN-4 AC

Median Density (plants/m2)

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

2009 

2010

AJ6-1 AJ6-3 AJ6-4 AP4-1 AP4-3 AP4-4 ANN-4 AC

0

50

100

150

200

a. Pre-existing perennial grasses 2010 b. Seedlings 2010

c. B. tectorum d. S. kali

*

Figure 6. Median density (a) existing deep and shallow rooted perennial grasses, (b) seedling grass and forbs, (c) 

B. tectorum, and (d) S. kali at the mid-elevation aerially seeded treatments in 2009 and 2010 following the 2007 

wildfires at the Arid Land Ecology Reserve, Washington. See figure 1 for treatment codes. Note different scales on 

y-axes.
23

Median Density (plants/m2)

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

Grass

Forbs

0

20

40

60

80

Shallow

Deep

P4 J6 None

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

2009

2010

Herbicide

P4 J6 None

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

a. Pre-existing perennial grasses b. Seedlings 2010

c. B. tectorum d. S. kali

*

*

*

*

Figure 7. Median density of (a) pre-existing deep and shallow rooted perennial grasses, (b) seedling grass and 

forbs, (c) B. tectorum, and (d) S. kali by herbicide at the mid-elevation aerially seeded sites following the 2007 

wildfires at the Fitzner-Eberhardt Arid Land Ecology Reserve, Washington, 2009–10. See figure 1 for treatment 

codes. Asterisks denote significant differences between treatment compared to no treatment. Note different scales 

on y-axes.
24

Treatment

Median Density (plants/m2)

0

1

2

3

4

5

Shallow

Deep

0

1

2

3

4

Grass

Forb

AJ11-1 AJ11-2 DJ11-2 No Drill

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

200

2009

2010

AJ11-1 AJ11-2 DJ11-2 No Drill

0

50

100

150

200

250

a. Pre-existing perennial grasses 2010 b. Seedlings 2010

c. B. tectorum d. S. kali

*

*

Figure 8. Median density of (a) pre-existing shallow and deep-rooted perennial grasses, (b) seedling grasses, (c) 

B. tectorum, and (d) S. kali at the low-elevation aerial seeding treatments and DJ11-2 no-drill plots (DJ11-2 C) 

following the 2007 wildfires at the Fitzner-Eberhardt Arid Land Ecology Reserve, Washington, 2009–10. See figure 

1 for treatment codes. Note different scales on the y-axes. Asterisks denote a significant difference between the 

DJ11-2 no-drill plots.
25

DJ11-1 DJ11-2 DJ6-2 DP4-5

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

1.2

1.4

1.6

No Drill

Drill

ns

ns

ns

ns

0

5

10

15

20

Treatment

DJ11-1 DJ11-2 DJ6-2 DP4-5

Median Density (plants/m2) 0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

No Drill

Drill

c. Seeded grass 2010 d. Seeded forb 2010

a. Pre-existing shallow rooted grass 2010 b. Seeded grass 2009

*

* *

*

*

*

*

*

Figure 9. Median density of (a) pre-existing shallow-rooted perennial grasses, (b) seeded grasses in 2009, (c) 

seeded grasses in 2010, and (d) seeded forbs in 2010 by treatment at the low elevation drill seeding no-drill and 

treatment plots following the 2007 wildfires at the Fitzner-Eberhardt Arid Land Ecology Reserve, Washington, 

2009–10. Note different scales on the y-axes. Asterisks denote significant differences between no-drill and 

treatment plots for seeded grass and forbs while "ns" denotes non-significance.
26

Median Density (plants/m2)

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

No Drill

Treatment

a. Seeded grass 2010

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

b. Seeded forbs 2010

Herbicide

P4 J6 J11

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

2009 

2010 

c. B. tectorum

P4 J6 J11

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

d. S. kali

*

Figure 10. Median density of (a) seeded grasses, (b) seeded forbs at the control and treatment plots and (c) B. 

tectorum, and (d) S. kali by herbicide at the low elevation drill seeding treatment plots following the 2007 wildfires at 

the Fitzner-Eberhardt Arid Land Ecology Reserve, Washington, 2009–10. See figure 1 for treatment codes. 

Asterisks denote significant differences between treatments. Note different scales on the Y-axes.
27

Treatment

NJ6-N NM6-N

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

1600

2009

2010

NJ6-N NM6-N

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

Density (plants/m2

)

0.0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0

10

20

30

40

50

Shallow Rooted

Deep Rooted

a. Pre-existing perennial grasses b. Seedling grass 2010

c. B. tectorum d. S. kali

Median Density (plants/m2)

Figure 11. Median density of (a) shallow and deep rooted perennial grasses, (b) seedling grass, (c) B. tectorum, 

and (d) S. kali by treatment at the no seeding treatments following the 2007 wildfires at the Fitzner-Eberhardt Arid 

Land Ecology Reserve, Washington, 2009–10. See figure 1 for treatment codes. Note different scales on the Yaxes. 
28

Table 1. Seeding and herbicide treatments applied following the Wautoma and Milepost 17 wildfires at the Fitzner-Eberhardt Arid 

Land Ecology Reserve, Washington.

[Number of plots: Number before and after the comma (,) is treatment, no-drill plots. oz/acre, ounce per acre]

Treatment 

code

Seeding 

type

Herbicide Herbicide rate

oz/acre

Seedmix Seeding date Herbicide date Acres Number of 

plots

AJ11-1 Aerial Journey 11 1 11/08 3/08 131 3

AJ11-2 Aerial Journey 11 2 11/08 3/08 818 5

AJ6-1 Aerial Journey 6 1 11/08 3/08 1434 5

AJ6-3 Aerial Journey 6 3 11/08 3/08 3760 11

AP4-1 Aerial Plateau 4 1 11/08 3/08 533 3

AP4-3 Aerial Plateau 4 3 11/08 3/08 8719 14

AP4-4 Aerial Plateau 4 4 11/08 3/08 1300 5

ANN-4 Aerial None None 4 11/08 na 610 5

AC Aerial None None None na na na 6

DP4-5 Drill Plateau 4 5 11/08-2/09 3/08 567 3, 3

DJ6-2 Drill Journey 6 2 11/08-2/09 3/08 2725 7, 8

DJ11-1 Drill Journey 11 1 11/08-2/09 3/08 62 3

DJ11-2 Drill Journey 11 2 11/08-2/09 3/08 2938 11, 9

DJ11-6 Drill Journey 11 6 11/09 3/08 704 3

NJ6-N None Journey 6 None na 3/08 1851 6

NM6-N None Milestone 6 None na 3/08 810 3
29

Table 2. Seedmixes applied following the Wautoma and Milepost 17 wildfires at the Fitzner-Eberhardt Arid 

Land Ecology Reserve, Washington.

Species Rate (pure live seed lbs/acre)

Sandy/loamy lowelevation soils Silty/loamy mid-elevation soils Seedmix 6

High 

elevation 

soils

Seedmix 1 Seedmix 2 Seedmix 3 Seedmix 4 Seedmix 5

Achnatherum hymenoides

'Nezpar' (Roem. & Schult.) 

Barkworth

3.00 1.50 2.75 1.38 1.38 3.00

Heterostipa comata 

'Hanford'

(Trin. & Rupr.) Barkworth

0.00 0.00 0.20 0.10 0.10 0.05

Poa secunda 'Hanford' J. 

Presl 5.00 2.50 3.00 1.50 1.50 3.00

Pseudoroegneria spicata

(Pursh) A. Löve 0.00 0.00 3.00 1.50 1.50 3.00

Sporobolus cryptandrus 

(Torr.) A. Gray 0.50 0.25 0.50 0.25 0.25 0.50

Elymus elymoides (Raf.) 

Swezey 1.50 0.75 1.25 0.63 0.63 1.00

Elymus lanceolatus

'Schwendimar'

(Scribn. & J.G. Sm.) Gould

0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

Achillea millefolium L. var. 

occidentalis DC. 0.30 0.15 0.30 0.15 0.15 0.30

Linum perenne L. 0.30 0.15 0.30 0.15 0.15 0.30

Artemisia tridentata Nutt. ssp. 

wyomingensis Beetle & 

Young

0.00 0.00 0.10 0.05 0.05 0.10

Krascheninnikovia lanata

(Pursh) A. Meeuse & Smit 0.00 0.00 0.10 0.05 0.05 0.10

Purshia tridentata (Pursh) 

DC. 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.10

Leymus cinereus (Scribn. & 

Merr.) A. Löve 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 4.00

Total pure live seed seeded 10.60 5.30 11.50 5.76 5.80 15.50
30

Table 3. Target and estimated seeding rates from aerial seeding traps by species (seeds/m2) based on 

seed traps at the aerially seeded portions of the Wautoma and Milepost 17 wildfires at the FitznerEberhardt Arid Land Ecology Reserve, Washington. 

[Numbers in parentheses are 95-percent confidence intervals. Seeds/m2

, seeds per square meter; na, not applicable] 

Species

Mix 1

Target

Mix 1 

Traps

(n=12)

Mix 2 

Target

Mix 2 

Traps 

(n=11)

Mix 3 

Target

Mix 3 

Traps

(n=23)

Mix 4 

Target

Mix 4 

Traps

(n=23)

A. hymenoides 120.0 56.6 (30.2) 60.0 18.21 (12.4) 110.0 49.7 (12.5) 55.2 26.5 (10.1)

A. millefolium 211.4 138.0 (44.1) 105.7 52.9 (60.9) 211.4 167.7 (64.4) 105.7 63.7 (34.4)

A. tridentata 

ssp. 

wyomingensis

0.0 0.0 (0.0) 0.0 0.0 (0.0) 42.0 17.7 (9.2) 21.0 5.7 (9.6)

E. elymoides 71.1 29.4 (26.7) 35.6 15.3 (22.5) 59.3 79.7 (28.3) 29.9 18.4 (9.8)

H. comata 0.0 0.0 (0.0) 0.0 0.0 (0.0) 6.8 2.5 (2.1) 3.4 1.5 (1.7)

K. lanata 0.0 0.0 (0.0) 0.0 0.0 (0.0) 2.7 4.5 (2.9) 1.4 3.4 (3.3)

L. perenne 21.9 25.9 (20.6) 10.9 6.1 (5.3) 21.9 27.3 (11.4) 10.9 10.7 (8.4)

P. secunda 1716.6 717.7

(366.6) 858.0 484.0 (370) 1029.9 574.4 (167.2) 515.0 170.8(94.5)

P. spicata 0.0 0.0 (0.0) 0.0 0.0 (0.0) 93.1 20.2 (8.8) 46.6 4.3 (4.8)

S. cryptandrus 691.7 113.7 (99.0) 345.8 23.9 (25.1) 691.7 258.0 (95.7) 345.8 57.4 (43.7)

Unknown na 39.8 (43.6) na 41.8 (64.2) na 0.9 (1.9) na 4.5 (4.7)

Seeds/m2 2,832.5 1,121.0

(1,146.6) 1,416.3 642.2(493.2) 2,268.8 1,175.6(330.0) 1,134.8 366.3(199.6)
31

Table 4. Treatment groupings and statistical comparisons performed for data collected after the Milepost 17 and Wautoma wildfires at the FitznerEberhardt Arid Land Ecology Reserve, Washington.

Group Treatments included Plots used for 

comparison Technique

Mid-elevation 

aerial seedings

AJ6-1, AJ6-3, AP4-1, AP4-3, AP4-4 AC 1-way ANOVA followed by Dunnett’s test between each 

treatment and the AC plots

Journey: AJ6-1, AJ6-3

Plateau : AP4-1, AP4-3, AP4-4 ANN-4 1-way ANOVA followed by Dunnett’s test between each herbicide group and ANN-4 plots 

Low-elevation 

aerial seedings AJ11-1, AJ11-2 DJ11-2 no-drill plots 1-way ANOVA followed by Dunnett's test between each treatment and the DJ11-2 no-drill plots

Low-elevation 

drill seedings

DJ11-1, DJ11-2, DJ6-2, DP4-5 

DJ11-1, DJ11-2, DJ6-2, 

and DP4-5 no-drill 

plots 

Welch 2-sample t-test between the drill and no drill plots for 

each treatment

Journey, Plateau Each treatment 1-way ANOVA

High-elevation 

drill seeding DJ11-6 No comparisons made na

No seeding NJ6-N, NM6-N No comparisons made na
32

Table 5. Median densities (plants/m2) of important lifeforms at the Fitzner-Eberhardt Arid Land Ecology 

Reserve, Washington, 2009–10. 

[Drill seedings do not include DJ11-6, which was seeded in 2009. SR = shallow rooted, DR = deep rooted. 

plants/m2

, plants per square meter]

Treatment Year Seeded 

grass

Seeded 

forb

Seeded 

shrub

B. 

tectorum S. kali SR grass

DR

grass

Aerial seedings 2009 0.00 0.03 0.00 152.50 24.17 44.40 2.61

2010 3.07 2.60 0.00 17.08 63.33 42.80 1.88

Aerial control 2010 5.80 0.67 0.00 397.08 0.00 61.47 5.57

Drill seedings

(4 Sites)

2009 0.87 0.00 0.00 76.67 200.00 8.86 0.01

2010 4.20 0.47 0.00 32.50 54.17 3.27 0.01

Drill seeding 

control 

(3 Sites)

2009 0.00 0.00 0.00 157.50 225.83 7.00 0.002

2010 0.13 0.00 0.00 24.17 50.83 6.67 0.002
33

Table 6. Transplant survival by treatment following the 2007 wildfires at the Fitzner-Eberhardt Arid Land Ecology Reserve, Washington, 2008–10.

Initial planting 2008 2009 2010

Treatment / 

Site N (t) Density1 Density2 O – t1

3 Density2 t1 – t23 O – t23 Density2 t2 – t33 t1 – t33 O – t33 

Plant Success 

tablets, 15 ft 5 (3) 0.047 0.021 44.6 0.01 47.6 21.2 0.006 60.0 28.6 12.8

MycoApply 

root dip, 15 ft 5 (3) 0.047 0.023 48.9 0.007 30.4 14.9 0.005 74.4 21.7 10.6

TerraSorb 

Medium, 15 ft 15 (3) 0.047 0.016 34.0 0.004 25.0 8.5 0.004 100.0 25.0 8.5

TerraSorb 

Medium, 4 ft 12 (1) 0.67 0.033 4.9 0.031 93.9 4.6 0.025 80.6 75.8 3.7

Control, 15 ft 5 (3) 0.047 0.020 42.6 0.008 40.0 17.0 0.005 62.5 25.0 10.6

Control, 4 ft 4 (1) 0.67 0.037 5.5 0.024 64.9 3.6 0.017 62.9 45.9 2.5

1 Plants/m2 assumed from initial planting densities. 2 Plants/m2 (measured). 3 O – t1 = Percent of original density from original planting date to 2008, O – t2 = Percent of original density from original planting date to 2009, t1 – t2 = Percent 

of density persisting from 2008 to 2009, t2 – t3 = Percent of density persisting from 2009 to 2010, t1 – t3 = Percent of density persisting from 2008 to 2010, O – t3 = 

Percent of original density persisting to 2010. t = the number of transects per plot.
34

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35

Appendix A. Plot Data

Table A1. Location and physical characteristics of monitoring plots established following treatments at the 

Wautoma and Milepost 17 wildfires at the Fitzner-Eberhardt Arid Land Ecology Reserve, Washington.

[Coordinates are in North American Datum 1983, UTM Zone 11, elevation datum is North American Vertical Datum 1988]

Plot Northing Easting Elevation 

(meters)

Slope 

(percent) Aspect Surface soil texture

AC-1 5143013 303023 383 8 Northeast Silt Loam

AC-2 5150377 287219 378 5 South Silt Loam

AC-3 5149665 288784 369 13 West Silt Loam

AC-4 5147802 296737 350 6 Northeast Silt Loam

AC-5 5151124 298000 184 2 South Sand 

AC-6 5150990 298505 181 3 North Silt Loam

AC-7 5152387 286943 270 1 East Silt Loam

AC-8 5142908 302586 408 7 Northeast Silt Loam

AJ11-1-T1 5153886 293952 197 6 South Sand 

AJ11-1-T2 5153901 293415 199 1 Northwest Sand 

AJ11-1-T3 5153768 293723 196 2 Northeast Sand 

AJ11-2-T1 5154447 294502 194 1 Northeast Sand 

AJ11-2-T2 5153260 294754 192 1 Southwest Sand 

AJ11-2-T3 5153943 294757 202 3 Northeast Sand 

AJ11-2-T4 5154421 293552 205 2 East Sand 

AJ11-2-T5 5154003 295699 195 1 Northeast Sand 

AJ6-1-T1 5144103 306060 260 3 Northeast Sand 

AJ6-1-T2 5143544 305445 291 5 Northwest Silt Loam

AJ6-1-T3 5144256 307580 205 7 East Silt Loam

AJ6-1-T4 5143894 306946 246 7 Northeast Silt Loam

AJ6-1-T5 5144463 305761 250 11 Northwest Silt Loam

AJ6-3-T1 5147111 299713 290 4 South Silt Loam

AJ6-3-T2 5146644 298958 342 5 Northeast Silt Loam

AJ6-3-T3 5150629 290864 291 2 South Silt Loam

AJ6-3-T4 5150313 289255 343 14 Northeast Silt Loam

AJ6-3-T5 5152709 290411 240 1 East Silt Loam

AJ6-3-T6 5151708 290762 257 5 South Silt Loam

AJ6-3-T7 5148223 298860 262 9 Northeast Silt Loam

AJ6-3-T8 5147781 298493 293 8 Northeast Silt Loam

AJ6-3-T9 5150890 289451 335 9 Southeast Silt Loam

AJ6-3-T10 5146766 299183 317 9 Northeast Silt Loam

AJ6-3-T11 5147715 299305 274 7 East Silt Loam

AJ6-4-T1 5150911 288243 325 8 South Silt Loam

AJ6-4-T2 5150613 286686 342 4 Northwest Silt Loam

AJ6-4-T3 5152898 287503 263 6 East Silt Loam
36

AJ6-4-T4 5152477 289025 267 7 North Silt Loam

AJ6-4-T5 5151545 287706 330 17 Northwest Silt Loam

ANN-4-T1 5143177 303201 369 5 East Silt Loam

ANN-4-T2 5142726 303631 366 6 Northeast Silt Loam

ANN-4-T3 5142383 304660 339 4 East Silt Loam

ANN-4-T4 5143101 304547 334 5 Northwest Silt Loam

ANN-4-T5 5141707 304582 360 5 Northeast Silt Loam

AP4-1-T1 5153224 293493 203 4 North Silt Loam

AP4-1-T2 5153484 293233 206 5 West Sand 

AP4-1-T3 5152979 292329 227 1 Northwest Silt Loam

AP4-3-T1 5150045 295107 225 6 South Silt Loam

AP4-3-T10 5150596 291732 287 4 Northwest Silt Loam

AP4-3-T11 5150596 295825 225 3 Northeast Silt Loam

AP4-3-T12 5150356 297020 215 9 South Silt Loam

AP4-3-T13 5150796 293143 259 1 Northeast Silt Loam

AP4-3-T14 5149199 298689 227 11 Northeast Silt Loam

AP4-3-T2 5149128 296555 292 7 Northeast Silt Loam

AP4-3-T3 5148102 297354 308 7 North Silt Loam

AP4-3-T4 5146496 301502 296 5 East Silt Loam

AP4-3-T5 5151870 292366 246 2 North Silt Loam

AP4-3-T6 5143544 303187 355 7 East Silt Loam

AP4-3-T7 5144441 302231 346 8 North Silt Loam

AP4-3-T8 5147670 301259 229 9 East Silt Loam

AP4-3-T9 5144100 303199 333 5 East Silt Loam

AP4-4-T1 5140360 303662 500 14 Northeast Silt Loam

AP4-4-T2 5139798 304820 398 6 Northeast Silt Loam

AP4-4-T3 5140038 305940 346 2 East Silt Loam

AP4-4-T4 5139230 305367 374 5 East Silt Loam

AP4-4-T5 5139305 305984 360 5 Northeast Silt Loam

DJ11-1-T1 5153286 294354 193 1 East Silt Loam

DJ11-1-T2 5153555 294324 192 1 Southeast Sand 

DJ11-1-T3 5153657 293892 196 2 Southeast Silt Loam

DJ11-2-C1 5158519 291993 204 1 East Sand 

DJ11-2-C2 5152260 295860 185 0 Northeast Silt Loam

DJ11-2-C3 5155330 293690 199 1 Northeast Sand 

DJ11-2-C4 5154809 294074 198 3 Northeast Sand 

DJ11-2-C5 5155150 293048 201 2 East Sand 

DJ11-2-C6 5157251 293032 193 0 East Sand 

DJ11-2-C7 5156715 292667 198 2 East Sand 

DJ11-2-C8 5157965 292251 198 1 East Sand 

DJ11-2-C9 5156054 293309 195 1 Northeast Sand 

DJ11-2-T1 5154995 294099 191 1 Northeast Sand 

DJ11-2-T2 5158062 292389 200 1 South Silt Loam
37

DJ11-2-T3 5152741 295068 188 0 Northeast Silt Loam

DJ11-2-T4 5158925 292108 205 0 East Silt Loam

DJ11-2-T5 5158406 292459 201 1 East Sand 

DJ11-2-T6 5155509 293258 198 1 West Sand 

DJ11-2-T7 5156853 293199 196 0 Southeast Sand 

DJ11-2-T8 5157845 292969 196 0 East Silt Loam

DJ11-2-T9 5154833 293455 200 1 Northeast Sand 

DJ11-2-T10 5154876 293028 206 1 North Sand 

DJ11-2-T11 5157119 292478 193 1 Northeast Silt Loam

DJ11-6-T1 5145892 290954 587 5 West Silt Loam

DJ11-6-T2 5146851 291075 515 15 Northwest Silt Loam

DJ11-6-T3 5146908 290552 545 8 Northeast Silt Loam

DJ6-2-C1 5144571 308913 148 1 Northeast Sand 

DJ6-2-C2 5144337 309432 146 0 Southwest Sand 

DJ6-2-C3 5143862 309856 143 2 East Sand 

DJ6-2-C4 5160412 289544 236 2 East Silt Loam

DJ6-2-C5 5160689 290376 224 1 East Silt Loam

DJ6-2-C6 5160635 288136 248 1 Southeast Silt Loam

DJ6-2-C7 5161059 288984 251 4 Northeast Sand 

DJ6-2-C8 5159047 289399 262 4 East Silt Loam

DJ6-2-T1 5159847 289189 250 5 Northeast Silt Loam

DJ6-2-T2 5158777 289273 280 10 Northeast Silt Loam

DJ6-2-T3 5144485 309216 148 1 East Sand 

DJ6-2-T4 5144299 309752 145 1 Southeast Sand 

DJ6-2-T5 5160886 290434 232 4 South Sand 

DJ6-2-T6 5160559 289086 241 2 East Silt Loam

DJ6-2-T7 5159981 290935 218 1 East Silt Loam

DP4-5-C1 5152643 296225 183 0 Northeast Silt Loam

DP4-5-C2 5152770 296885 181 0 South Sand 

DP4-5-C3 5151895 296996 182 1 East Sand 

DP4-5-T1 5152733 296622 182 0 East Sand 

DP4-5-T2 5152376 296344 184 1 Northeast Sand 

DP4-5-T3 5152257 297323 184 1 Northeast Sand 

NJ6-N-T1 5159685 287172 299 6 East Silt Loam

NJ6-N-T2 5159264 286570 343 7 North Silt Loam

NJ6-N-T3 5159107 287993 283 4 Northeast Silt Loam

NJ6-N-T4 5158336 287875 318 3 South Silt Loam

NJ6-N-T5 5158279 286461 396 14 East Silt Loam

NJ6-N-T6 5157424 286484 370 5 South Silt Loam

NM6-N-T1 5141616 311598 159 5 Northwest Sand 

NM6-N-T2 5143005 310709 159 1 North Sand 

NM6-N-T3 5142480 311025 141 0 North Sand 
38

Table A2. Median densities (plants/m2) of important lifeforms at the ALE Aerial seedings in 2009 and 2010. 

 SD = seedling, SR = shallow rooted, DR = deep rooted, PG = perennial grass, BRTE = B. tectorum, SAKA = S. Kali. 

Site Year SD_Grass SD_Forb SD_Shrub BRTE SAKA SR_PG DR_PG

AC 2010 5.80 0.67 0.00 397.08 0.00 61.46 5.57

AJ11-1 2009 0.00 0.00 0.00 174.17 230.00 3.40 0.09

2010 2.60 3.13 0.00 15.83 24.17 1.40 0.09

AJ11-2 2009 0.27 0.00 0.00 105.00 73.33 3.67 1.36

2010 3.73 0.47 0.00 31.67 51.67 4.07 1.09

AJ6-1 

2009 0.067 0.80 0.00 95.00 19.17 54.00 2.62

2010 1.13 6.33 0.00 3.33 77.50 54.00 2.75

AJ6-3 

2009 0.00 0.07 0.00 475.83 2.50 43.40 2.60

2010 1.07 1.07 0.00 48.33 64.17 43.4 1.60

AJ6-4 

2009 0.00 0.00 0.00 355.00 0.83 41.80 4.05

2010 6.60 0.47 0.00 49.17 0.00 31.73 4.11

ANN-4 

2009 0.07 0.13 0.00 115.00 0.83 74.00 5.83

2010 6.00 4.87 0.00 24.17 0.00 74.00 5.83

AP4-1 

2009 0.00 0.00 0.00 152.50 169.17 19.60 0.82

2010 3.00 11.13 0.73 3.33 88.33 20.13 0.29

AP4-3 

2009 0.00 0.00 0.00 142.08 49.17 49.00 4.22

2010 1.27 0.38 0.00 7.91 182.08 46.70 2.78

AP4-4 

2009 0.00 0.13 0.00 180.00 1.67 50.60 4.14

2010 5.87 0.20 0.00 18.33 14.17 49.60 3.87
39

Table A3. Median densities (plants/m2) of important lifeforms at the ALE drill seeding treatment and controls in 

2009 and 2010. 

SD = seedling, SR = shallow rooted, DR = deep rooted, PG = perennial grass, BRTE = B. tectorum, SAKA = S. Kali. 

Site Year SD_GRASS SD_Forb SD_Shrub BRTE SAKA SR_PG DR_PG

DJ11-1 

Treatment 

2009 0.133 0.00 0.00 156.67 394.17 12.53 0.00

2010 3.07 5.73 0.07 27.50 124.17 11.33 0.00

DJ11-2 

No-drill 

2009 0.00 0.00 0.00 50.83 225.83 1.60 0.03

2010 0.07 0.00 0.00 26.67 49.17 1.800 0.03

DJ11-2 

Treatment 

2009 0.87 0.00 0.00 104.17 200.00 0.67 0.01

2010 5.87 0.40 0.00 63.33 46.67 0.80 0.01

DJ6-2 

No-drill 

2009 0.00 0.00 0.00 157.50 78.33 19.67 0.00

2010 0.20 1.53 0.13 19.17 124.17 17.40 0.00

DJ6-2 

Treatment 

2009 1.40 0.00 0.00 63.33 148.33 18.23 0.01

2010 4.93 2.03 0.00 49.17 89.17 18.30 0.01

DP4-5 

No-drill 

2009 0.00 0.00 0.00 273.33 560.00 6.33 0.00

2010 0.40 0.00 0.00 24.17 9.17 6.67 0.00

DP4-5 

Treatment 

2009 1.33 0.00 0.00 39.17 399.17 8.87 0.01

2010 1.93 0.00 0.00 7.50 32.50 9.47 0.01

NJ6-N 

Treatment 

2009 0.00 0.00 0.00 199.17 102.92 41.06 0.25

2010 0.47 0.00 0.00 14.58 86.25 40.93 0.25

NM6-N 

Treatment 

2009 0.00 0.00 0.00 932.5 75.00 3.86 0.05

2010 0.00 0.00 0.00 1339.17 245.83 4.53 0.05

DJ11-6 

Treatment 2010 60.93 48.8 0.00 165.83 0.00 11.87 0.00
40

Table A4. Cover of important lifeforms at the ALE Aerial seedings in 2009 and 2010. 

EAG = Exotic annual grasses, EAF = Exotic annual forbs, SR_PG = Shallow-rooted perennial grasses, 

DR_PG = Deep-rooted perennial grasses, L = Litter, BSC = Biological soil crust (visible), Bare = Bare ground. 

Site Year EAG EAF SR_PG DR_PG L BSC Bare

AC 2010 17.67 0.00 29.33 24.33 62.67 7.17 9.5

AJ11-1 2009 6.67 35.67 3.67 1.67 34.00 1.67 36.0

2010 2.67 4.33 1.33 1.33 26.00 1.67 32.00

AJ11-2 2009 2.67 5.33 3.00 2.33 27.00 0.00 51.00

2010 3.00 3.67 3.66 1.67 24.67 0.00 63.00

AJ6-1 

2009 2.00 0.67 27.33 15.00 23.33 0.33 36.00

2010 1.00 7.00 23.00 12.00 36.67 2.67 22.33

AJ6-3 

2009 11.00 0.33 31.33 13.33 45.00 2.67 16.00

2010 5.00 3.33 27.67 8.00 48.67 10.67 19.66

AJ6-4 

2009 13.00 0.00 29.33 17.00 37.67 0.33 21.00

2010 5.00 0.00 32.00 11.00 53.33 2.00 16.33

ANN-4 

2009 5.00 0.00 52.00 38.00 29.00 19.67 8.66

2010 4.00 0.00 29.00 25.67 37.67 33.67 13.00

AP4-1 

2009 5.00 7.67 17.00 3.67 37.00 1.33 40.33

2010 0.00 10.33 13.67 2.33 35.00 2.00 46.66

AP4-3 

2009 3.83 6.00 24.50 15.67 32.67 3.67 31.30

2010 0.83 10.67 23.33 6.83 43.17 6.67 29.83

AP4-4 

2009 7.33 0.00 32.33 26.33 37.67 1.67 23.66

2010 2.00 1.00 29.33 21.67 47.33 4.33 20.00
41

Table A5. Cover of important lifeforms at the ALE drill seedings in 2009 and 2010. 

[EAG = Exotic annual grasses, EAF = Exotic annual forbs, SR_PG = Shallow-rooted perennial grasses, 

DR_PG = Deep-rooted perennial grasses, L = Litter, BSC = Biological soil crust (visible), Bare = Bare ground]

Site Year EAG EAF SR_PG DR_PG L BSC Bare

DJ11-1 

Treatment 

2009 11.00 46.33 6.67 0.00 30.33 0.00 31.66

2010 2.33 12.67 7.00 0.00 20.67 0.00 66.66

DJ11-2 

Control 

2009 3.67 9.33 2.67 1.00 28.67 0.00 53.66

2010 1.67 2.33 2.33 0.33 34.33 0.00 54.33

DJ11-2 

Treatment 

2009 4.00 7.33 0.33 0.00 26.67 0.00 59.33

2010 4.67 4.67 0.67 0.00 36.67 0.00 51.66

DJ11-6 

Treatment 2010 12.33 0.00 3.67 0.00 68.67 0.00 19.66

DJ6-2 

Control 

2009 6.00 7.33 14.67 0.17 28.00 0.67 45.17

2010 3.00 9.00 13.00 0.00 39.33 0.33 41.33

DJ6-2 

Treatment 

2009 2.17 2.50 15.00 0.00 19.67 0.00 54.66

2010 3.83 4.17 16.00 0.00 30.00 0.00 44.33

DP4-5 

Control 

2009 4.00 18.00 6.67 0.33 36.00 0.00 52.00

2010 0.33 3.67 5.33 0.00 31.00 0.00 60.00

DP4-5 

Treatment 

2009 0.00 22.67 4.67 0.00 25.33 0.00 44.33

2010 0.33 4.00 7.33 0.00 25.33 0.33 62.00

NJ6-N 

Treatment 

2009 4.67 2.00 24.50 1.83 38.5 0.67 33.83

2010 1.66 10.33 23.83 1.33 33.83 7.33 40.50

NM6-N 

Treatment 

2009 50.67 0.33 8.00 0.33 88.67 1.00 5.66

2010 60.00 0.67 7.33 0.00 88.33 2.67 8.00
42

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For more information concerning the research in this report, contact the 

Director, Forest and Rangeland Ecosystem Science Center,

U.S. Geological Survey, 777 NW 9th Street

Corvallis, Oregon 97330

http://fresc.usgs.gov
Wirth and Pyke—Effectiveness of Post-Fire Seeding at the Fitzner-Eberhardt Arid Land Ecology Reserve, Washington —Open-File Report 2011-1241