U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey

Open-File Report 2018–1196

Contaminant Baselines and Sediment Provenance along the 

Puget Sound Energy Transport Corridor, 2015
FRONT COVER

Picture of the Burlington Northern Santa Fe rail line on the upper beach in Edmonds, Washington, dated 

July 2, 2008. Photograph by Renee Takesue, U.S. Geological Survey.
Contaminant Baselines and Sediment 

Provenance along the Puget Sound Energy 

Transport Corridor, 2015

By Renee K. Takesue and Pamela L. Campbell

Open-File Report 2018–1196

U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey
U.S. Department of the Interior

DAVID L. BERNHARDT, Acting Secretary

U.S. Geological Survey

James F. Reilly II, Director

U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia: 2019

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Suggested citation:

Takesue, R.K., and Campbell, P.L., 2019, Contaminant Baselines and Sediment Provenance along the Puget Sound 

Energy Transport Corridor, 2015: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2018–1196, 10 p., 

https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr20181196.

ISSN 2331-1258 (online)
iii

Contents

Abstract...................................................................................................................................................................1

Background............................................................................................................................................................1

Methods..................................................................................................................................................................2

Site Description and Sediment Collection..............................................................................................2

Inorganic Element Analyses......................................................................................................................2

PAH Analyses ...............................................................................................................................................3

Total Organic Carbon Analyses ................................................................................................................3

Sediment Quality Criteria ...........................................................................................................................3

Results and Discussion........................................................................................................................................3

Sediment Quality at Five Nearshore Puget Sound Sites .....................................................................4

Baseline Sedimentary Contaminants Along the Energy Transport Corridor...................................4

Elements Elevated at Urban Saltwater State Park ...............................................................................7

Sediment Provenance from Rare Earth Element Patterns..................................................................7

Summary.................................................................................................................................................................9

Acknowledgments ................................................................................................................................................9

References Cited...................................................................................................................................................9

Figures

1. Satellite imagery map showing the five study sites, Puget Sound, Washington...................2

2. Graphs showing fine sediment contents of chromium relative to titanium, and nickel

relative to magnesium, Puget Sound, Washington......................................................................4

3. Box and whiskers plots of fine sediment arsenic, copper, lead, zinc, mercury, and

vanadium contents at Chuckanut Bay, Padilla Bay, Snohomish River Delta, Saltwater

State Park, and Nisqually River Delta, Puget Sound, Washington ...........................................6

4. Graphs showing diagnostic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) ratios calculated

from individual PAH values at Chuckanut Bay, Padilla Bay, Snohomish River Delta, and

Nisqually River Delta, Puget Sound, Washington.........................................................................7

5. Graphs showing normalized rare earth element patterns in fine sediment from five sites;

Chuckanut Bay, Padilla Bay, Snohomish River Delta, Nisqually River Delta, and

Saltwater State Park, Puget Sound, Washington.........................................................................8

Tables

1. Fine sediment contents of potentially toxic elements, total polycyclic aromatic

hydrocarbon concentrations, and sediment quality guidelines for nearshore samples,

Puget Sound, Washington.................................................................................................................4

2. Baseline levels of potentially toxic elements, vanadium, and polycyclic aromatic

hydrocarbons in sediment along Burlington Northern Santa Fe tracks and at

Saltwater State Park, Puget Sound, Washington, September 2015 .........................................5
iv

U.S. customary units to International System of Units

Multiply By To obtain

Volume

gallon (gal) 3.785 liter (L) 

gallon (gal) 0.003785 cubic meter (m3

) 

gallon (gal) 3.785 cubic decimeter (dm3

) 

million gallons (Mgal) 3,785 cubic meter (m3

)

Conversion Factors

Multiply By To obtain

Length

millimeter (mm) 0.03937 inch (in.)

meter (m) 3.281 foot (ft)

kilometer (km) 0.6214 mile (mi)

kilometer (km) 0.5400 mile, nautical (nmi)

meter (m) 1.094 yard (yd)

Volume

liter (L) 33.81402 ounce, fluid (fl. oz)

liter (L) 2.113 pint (pt)

liter (L) 1.057 quart (qt)

liter (L) 0.2642 gallon (gal)

Mass

gram (g) 0.03527 ounce, avoirdupois (oz)

International System of Units to U.S. customary units

Temperature in degrees Celsius (°C) may be converted to degrees Fahrenheit (°F) as 

°F = (1.8 × °C) + 32.

Supplemental Information

Concentrations of chemical constituents in sediment are given in milligrams per kilogram (mg/

kg), micrograms per kilogram (μg/kg), micrograms per gram (μg/g), or nanogram per gram (ng/g).

Datum

Horizontal coordinate information is referenced to the World Geodetic System standard of 1984 

(WGS84).
Abstract

The transport of coal and oil can result in contaminated 

soil, water, and organisms from unintended releases. Trains 

carrying coal and crude oil regularly pass through Puget 

Sound, Washington, and an increase in the number of coal and 

oil trains is expected in the future. This study characterized 

levels of potentially toxic contaminants in sediment in 

September 2015: arsenic, metals, and polycyclic aromatic 

hydrocarbons (PAHs) at four sites with fine-grained sediment 

(Chuckanut Bay, Padilla Bay, Snohomish River Delta, 

Nisqually River Delta) adjacent to the Burlington Northern 

Santa Fe (BNSF) rail line in the Puget Sound region. Arsenic 

(As) and metals levels were compared to those measured at 

a fifth site, urban Saltwater State Park, which was expected 

to show contaminants associated with urbanization but not 

rail transport of coal and oil because it is not adjacent to the 

BNSF rail line. Knowledge about current properties of soil 

and sediment is essential for quantifying impacts of spills 

and other releases, and for setting remediation or restoration 

targets. For the sampling effort and timing of this study, 

all five sites had fine sediment contents of cadmium (Cd), 

mercury (Hg), lead (Pb), and zinc (Zn) below minimal effects 

levels. Pb and Zn appeared to be urban sourced. Median As, 

chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), and nickel (Ni) levels were in the 

range where adverse biological effects would possibly occur; 

however, Cr and Ni were geologically sourced and unlikely to 

be bioavailable to organisms. As, Cu, and antimony (Sb) levels 

were highly correlated, an association that is characteristic of 

legacy smelting operations; however, total sediment contents 

of these three elements, along with Hg and As/Sb ratios, were 

near natural levels and could indicate river-borne inputs. 

Median total PAH concentrations were highest at Snohomish 

River Delta, but were below minimal effects levels at all sites. 

Diagnostic PAH ratios were indicative of PAHs sourced from 

petroleum combustion and coal/biomass burning, rather than 

from spilled petroleum or coal. Rare earth element patterns 

were distinct among watersheds with Cascade volcanoes, 

granitic rocks, or non-volcanic sediments, making them 

promising sediment provenance indicators. Knowledge about 

sediment sources and contaminant distributions could provide 

unique insights about sediment-bound contaminant sourcing, 

delivery, and dispersal in nearshore regions.

Contaminant Baselines and Sediment Provenance along 

the Puget Sound Energy Transport Corridor, 2015

By Renee K. Takesue and Pamela L. Campbell

Background

Coal and oil are transported through Puget Sound, 

Washington, on rail lines adjacent to marshes, estuaries, and 

beaches that are important to many species of fish, invertebrates, 

and birds that use them as nursery habitat, for foraging, or for 

shelter from predators (Howe and Simenstad, 2015; Rubin and 

others, 2018; Woo and others, 2018). Coal and oil can be released 

unintentionally during transport (Lazo and McClain, 1996; Jaffe 

and others, 2015), and where deposited, they can have direct 

and indirect adverse effects on health (Lazo and McClain, 1996; 

Tang and others, 2017). In 2014, railroad companies reported 

19 unit trains of Bakken oil moving through Washington State 

each week, with each unit train made up of as many as 100 cars 

carrying a total of 3 million gallons of oil (Etkin and others, 2015). 

This number could increase up to 137 unit trains per week if the 

full build-out of proposed export facilities is permitted (Etkin 

and others, 2015). The increased numbers of oil and coal trains 

passing through the Puget Sound region and larger freight volumes 

will introduce a greater risk of environmental contamination and 

spills and adverse effects to organisms. Environmental impact 

studies and remediation plans related to increased traffic and 

unintended releases in the Puget Sound energy transport corridor 

will benefit from knowledge about pre-increase/pre-release, or 

current baseline, characteristics of soil and sediment. This study 

characterizes baseline levels of potentially toxic contaminants 

along the energy transport corridor in four nearshore depositional 

environments: Chuckanut Bay (northern Puget Sound), Padilla 

Bay (northern Puget Sound), urban Snohomish River Delta 

(central Puget Sound), and Nisqually River Delta (southern Puget 

Sound). A fifth site, Saltwater State Park (central Puget Sound), 

was included because it is in an urban environment but is not 

adjacent to the rail line. Target analytes included arsenic (As), 

potentially toxic metals and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons 

(PAHs) and their diagnostic ratios.

In addition to coal and oil transport, there are many 

natural and anthropogenic sources, (historical and current) 

of potentially toxic elements and PAHs to shallow nearshore 

environments of Puget Sound. These include river-borne and 

storm water inputs from urban, residential, and agricultural 

regions (Brandenberger and others, 2008); atmospheric 

deposition from incomplete combustion processes (that is, 

fossil fuel burning); creosote-treated wood (Davies and others, 
2 Contaminant Baselines and Sediment Provenance along the Puget Sound Energy Transport Corridor, 2015

2012); and historical atmospheric deposits from the ASARCO 

copper and lead smelter (Crecelius and others, 1975; Bloom 

and Crecelius, 1987; Louchouarn and others, 2012). Inputs 

from multiple sources likely contribute to operationally defined 

contaminant baseline levels in September 2015.

Immobile elements in sediment, or those that are little altered 

by chemical weathering, erosion, and transport, were explored 

as sediment provenance indicators. Land-derived sediment 

delivered to Puget Sound is sourced solely or as mixtures from 

upland Cascade volcanoes and lowland glacial deposits, and the 

two sources are expected to have distinct geochemical properties 

(Takesue and others, 2017). When identified in downstream 

deposits, these distinct geochemical properties, or signatures, can 

be used to infer sediment sources, input pathways and timing, and 

dispersal (McLennan and others, 1993).

Methods

Site Description and Sediment Collection

Surface sediment was collected September 14–17, 2015, 

from four nearshore depositional (fine-grained) environments 

adjacent to the Burlington Northern Santa Fe (BNSF) rail line 

in Puget Sound, Washington: Chuckanut Bay, Padilla Bay, the 

Snohomish River Delta, and the Nisqually River Delta (fig. 1). 

Sediment was collected from the northern end of Chuckanut Bay, 

south of the City of Bellingham, in a shallow embayment behind 

a train trestle. Sediment was collected from the southern end of 

Padilla Bay in a tidal channel adjacent to the train tracks; Padilla 

Bay is a National Estuarine Research Reserve and is bounded on 

the west by March Point, the site of two oil refineries, an oil pier 

and an oil train spur on the southern and western sides of the bay. 

Sediment was collected along the banks of the estuarine reach 

of the Snohomish River Delta near the BNSF Delta Yard and 

Highway 2 Bridge at the City and Port of Everett. Sediment was 

collected along the banks of Red Salmon Creek at the Nisqually 

River Delta where it meanders close to the rail line that borders 

the Nisqually National Wildlife Refuge to the east. Bluff, beach, 

and stream bank sediment was collected from Saltwater State Park 

(fig. 1) on April 22, 2015. Between five and eight field replicates 

were collected at each site (25 samples total); however, not all 

samples had sufficient fine-grained material for all geochemical 

analyses. Samples were handled with stainless steel (PAHs) 

or plastic (inorganic elements) sampling tools and placed into 

pre-combusted glass jars (PAHs) or plastic wire-top sample bags 

(inorganic elements). Samples were stored and shipped frozen 

until analysis.

Inorganic Element Analyses

Sediment was oven dried at 60 °C and disaggregated 

gently with a mortar and pestle to avoid changing grain sizes. 

Disaggregated sediment was passed through stainless steel 

sieves to obtain 2 grams (g) of the less than 63 micrometer 

(μm) fraction, which was sent to the U.S. Geological Survey 

(USGS) Central Mineral and Environmental Resources 

Science Center Analytical Chemistry Project, which contracted 

with SGS Minerals, for determinations of major, minor, and 

trace elements. Contents of rare earth elements (REE) and 

CHU

PAD

SNO

SAL

NIS

 123.5° 122.5° 121.5°

48.6°

48.2°

47°

47.4°

47.8°

Base map data from Google, 2018

N

Figure 1. Satellite imagery map showing the five study sites, Puget

Sound, Washington. The white line shows the Burlington Northern 

Santa Fe railroad track. CHU, Chuckanut Bay; PAD, Padilla Bay; SNO, 

Snohomish Delta; SAL, Saltwater State Park; NIS, Nisqually Delta.
Results and Discussion 3

trace elements in refractory minerals were determined in total 

sediment digests using a sodium peroxide fusion and analysis 

by inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy 

(ICP-AES) for major and minor elements, and by inductively 

coupled plasma mass spectroscopy (ICP-MS) for trace 

elements (Morrison and others, 2009). Contents of other 

trace elements were determined in sediment that was subject 

to a near-total decomposition with a four-acid mixture and 

analyzed by ICP-MS (Goldhaber and others, 2009). Elemental 

data were deemed acceptable if recovery of each element in 

reference materials was ±15 percent at 5 times the lower limit 

of determination. Triplicate analysis of sediment from Padilla 

Bay yielded a relative standard deviation of 7 percent or less 

for elements of interest. Total mercury was measured by cold 

vapor atomic absorption spectrometry (Smith and others, 

2009), which has a reporting range from 1 to 100,000 parts per 

billion. Mercury data were deemed acceptable if recovery in 

reference materials was ±20 percent at 5 times the lower limit 

of determination. Triplicate analysis of sediment from Padilla 

Bay yielded a Hg relative standard deviation of 10 percent.

Sediment contents of potentially toxic elements were 

compared to aluminum (Al), iron (Fe), magnesium (Mg), 

and titanium (Ti), which are major constituents of rockforming minerals and indicative of geologic sources, and Sb, 

a component of emissions from ore smelters and vehicles. 

Sediment REE contents were normalized to a North American 

Shale Composite (NASC) of McLennan (1989, table 2). 

Normalized REE contents are denoted with the letter ‘N’.

PAH Analyses

Molecular composition of the sedimentary organic fraction 

was determined by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry 

(GC-MS) at the USGS Organic Geochemistry Laboratory in 

Santa Cruz, California. Approximately 1–2g of freeze-dried

organic matter was extracted from bulk sediment by pressurized 

(accelerated) solvent extraction (ASE, Dionex Corporation, 

California). Samples were extracted with solvent mixtures of 

hexane:acetone (1:1) followed by dichloromethane:methanol 

(2:1). An internal standard (ortho-terphenyl), in addition to 

surrogate standards (acenaphthene-d10, phenanthrene-d10, 

chrysene-d12, perylene-d12; ULTRA Scientific), were added 

to samples prior to extraction. Prior to use, all glassware 

was washed, solvent rinsed (methanol, hexane, and 

dichloromethane), and combusted at 450 °C overnight. Blanks 

were run for the entire procedure, including extraction, solvent 

concentration, and purification. After evaporation of extracts 

to approximately 5 milliliters (mL) volume using a TurboVap 

Evaporation Concentrator (Zymark Corporation), samples were 

loaded onto liquid chromatography columns for compound 

class separation. Each column was layered with 2.5 g of 

5 percent deactivated alumina, 2.5 g of 62 silica gel, and 5.0 g

of 923 silica gel, which had been previously activated at 500 °C

for 8 hours; and then, in the case of the alumina, partially 

deactivated with ultrapure water (5 percent water-in-water). 

Two separate fractions were collected: F1-saturate (100 percent 

hexane eluent) and, F2-aromatic (30 percent toluene, 70 percent 

hexane eluent) and reduced in volume under nitrogen gas (N2

) 

to 1.0 mL. Extracts were analyzed by splitless injection onto 

an Agilent 6890 gas chromatograph interfaced to a HewlettPackard 5973 mass spectrometer. The gas chromatograph 

oven program had an initial temperature of 90 °C, which was 

held for 4.0 minutes then ramped at 5 °C per minute to a final 

temperature of 310 °C and held at this final temperature for 

10 minutes. The capillary column (DB-5MS: 30-meter (m) 

length, 0.25-millimeter (mm) inner diameter with a 25-μm 

phase thickness) was directly interfaced to the ion source of the 

mass spectrometer. Hexane instrument blanks and procedural 

sample duplicates were done every 10 samples. Compound 

identifications were made by comparison with known 

analytical standards or published reference spectra, or both. 

Concentrations of individual PAHs were calculated from the 

internal standard. Concentrations (microgram per gram; μg/g)

are reported normalized to organic carbon (OC) contents. Values 

of source-indicative diagnostic PAH ratios were obtained from 

Yunker and others (2002).

Total Organic Carbon Analyses

Total carbon (TC) and total inorganic carbon (TIC) 

of bulk sediment were determined coulometrically using a 

CM5015 Coulometer, a CM5230 furnace, and a CM5130 

acid digester (all UIC, Inc.). The total organic carbon (TOC) 

content was calculated as the difference between TC and TIC.

Sediment Quality Criteria

Sediment contents of potentially toxic elements and 

PAHs were compared to sediment quality guidelines for 

marine and estuarine sediment (Long and others, 1995). The 

Effects Range-Low (ERL) is a minimal-effects level below 

which adverse biological effects would be rarely observed. 

The Effects Range-Median (ERM) is the value above which 

adverse biological effects would be frequently observed. 

Sediment with analyte contents between the ERL and ERM 

are within a possible effects range in which adverse effects 

would occasionally occur (Long and others, 1995).

Results and Discussion

Fine-sediment contents of As, potentially toxic metals, 

and sedimentary PAH concentrations were compared to 

sediment quality criteria and regionally across the five study 

sites. Rare earth element patterns characterized sediment 

provenance. Inorganic element data for individual samples are 

available online at ScienceBase (Takesue, 2018).
4 Contaminant Baselines and Sediment Provenance along the Puget Sound Energy Transport Corridor, 2015

Sediment Quality at Five Nearshore Puget 

Sound Sites

Median fine sediment contents of cadmium (Cd), Hg, 

Pb, and Zn for the combined 25 samples from five sites were 

below the ERL (and ERM) (table 1). Fine sediment Cd contents 

were close to the analytical reporting limit of 0.1 milligram per 

kilogram (mg/kg), and the maximum Cd content (0.4 mg/kg, 

Chuckanut Bay) was three times lower than the ERL. For these 

reasons, Cd will not be discussed further as a contaminant in these 

Puget Sound sediments. Median fine sediment contents of As, 

chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), and nickel (Ni) were between the 

ERL and ERM (table 1). The elements Cr and Ni are known to 

be elevated in mafic minerals (Lefkovitz and others, 1997) and in 

such phases are not readily bioavailable. High total Cr contents 

were correlated with Ti, and high total Ni contents were correlated 

A B

Element or Compound Minimum Median Maximum Effects 

Range-Low

Effects 

Range-Median

Arsenic 5 8 19 8 70

Cadmium 0.05 0.2 0.4 1.2 9.6

Chromium 46 91.5 115 81 370

Copper 13 36 65 34 270

Lead 10.1 12.5 15.5 46.7 218

Mercury 0.03 0.06 0.41 0.15 0.71

Nickel 21.5 45.3 60.4 20.9 51.6

Zinc 61 89 102 150 410

Total PAHs DW 11 531 2,448 4,022 44,792

Figure 2. Graphs showing fine sediment contents of chromium relative to titanium (A), and nickel relative to 

magnesium (B), Puget Sound, Washington. CHU, Chuckanut Bay; PAD, Padilla Bay; SNO, Snohomish River Delta; 

SAL, Saltwater State Park; NIS, Nisqually River Delta; wt %, weight percent; mg/kg, milligrams per kilogram.

Table 1. Fine sediment contents of potentially toxic elements (25 samples), total polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon

concentrations (12 samples), and sediment quality guidelines for nearshore samples, Puget Sound, Washington.

[Elements: Sediment concentrations in milligrams per kilogram (mg/kg) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) concentrations 

were converted to nanograms per gram (ng/g) dry weight (DW) for comparisons with sediment quality guidelines. Effects Range-Low 

and -Median from Long and others (1995)]

with Mg, indicating that these elements were likely mineral-bound 

(fig. 2). For this reason, Cr and Ni will not be considered further 

as contaminants in these Puget Sound sediments. Total PAH 

concentrations were below the ERL (and ERM) when converted to 

a dry weight basis (table 1).

Baseline Sedimentary Contaminants Along the 

Energy Transport Corridor

Baseline levels of potentially toxic elements, vanadium 

(V) (a component of petroleum and other geologic materials),

As/Sb ratios, and total PAHs in sediment are tabulated for each

of the four sites along the BNSF rail line and one urban site

(table 2). As, Cu, Hg, and V had the highest median contents

in the Snohomish Estuary (fig. 3). As, Cu, Hg, and the
Results and Discussion 5

Table 2. Baseline levels of potentially toxic elements, vanadium, and polycyclic

aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in sediment along Burlington Northern Santa Fe tracks 

and at Saltwater State Park, Puget Sound, Washington, September 2015.

[All values in milligrams per kilogram (mg/kg) unless otherwise specified. Polycyclic aromatic 

hydrocarbon (PAH) concentration units are micrograms per gram organic carbon (μg/g OC). 

Abbreviations: CHU, Chuckanut Bay; PAD, Padilla Bay; SNO, Snohomish River Delta; NIS, 

Nisqually River Delta. n, number of samples; nd, not determined]

Statistic CHU (n=5) PAD (n=5) SNO (n=8) SAL (n=4) NIS (n=7)

Arsenic

Mean 6 9 16 8 6

Median 6 9 17 8 6

Minimum 5 8 13 6 5

Maximum 7 10 19 10 7

Copper

Mean 15 34 54 36 37

Median 15 35 52 34 36

Minimum 13 28 50 26 33

Maximum 18 38 65 49 41

Lead

Mean 13 13 14 24 14

Median 13 13 14 23 14

Minimum 11 12 12 10 13

Maximum 14 14 15 42 17

Mercury

Mean 0.07 0.05 0.12 nd 0.04

Median 0.06 0.05 0.08 nd 0.04

Minimum 0.05 0.05 0.07 nd 0.03

Maximum 0.09 0.06 0.41 nd 0.04

Vanadium

Mean 96 133 143 113 107

Median 96 133 140 112 106

Minimum 91 124 132 104 102

Maximum 101 141 157 123 113

Zinc

Mean 67 90 98 104 73

Median 67 90 97 106 73

Minimum 65 84 93 70 70

Maximum 71 94 103 136 76

Arsenic to Antimony ratio

Mean 11 17 15 6 17

Median 11 15 16 6 15

Minimum 10 14 11 5 13

Maximum 13 21 17 7 21

Statistic CHU (n=3) PAD (n=3) SNO (n=2) SAL NIS (n=4)

Total PAHs

Mean 46 59 99 nd 5

Median 52 60 99 nd 5

Minimum 20 48 89 nd 4

Maximum 66 68 108 nd 7
6 Contaminant Baselines and Sediment Provenance along the Puget Sound Energy Transport Corridor, 2015

A B

C D

E F

Figure 3. Box and whiskers plots of fine sediment (A) arsenic (As), (B) copper (Cu), (C) lead (Pb), (D) zinc (Zn), (E) 

mercury (Hg), and (F) vanadium (V) contents at Chuckanut Bay (CHU, n=5), Padilla Bay (PAD, n=5), Snohomish River 

Delta (SNO, n=8), Saltwater State Park (SAL, n=5), and Nisqually River Delta (NIS, n=7), Puget Sound, Washington. 

Boxes show the first and third quartiles; whiskers show maximum and minimum values. One Hg outlier was 

excluded at SNO. Hg was not measured at SAL. ERL, Effects Range Low; ERM, Effects Range Median from Long and 

others (1995). mg/kg, milligrams per kilogram.
Results and Discussion 7

element Sb are known to co-occur at elevated levels in legacy 

emissions from the copper smelter in Tacoma; however, total 

sediment contents and As/Sb ratios for the energy transport 

corridor sites (table 2) were within the ranges of natural riverborne sources (Crecelius and others, 1975). Fine sediment V 

contents were similar to the average continental crust value of 

135 mg/kg (Nriagu, 1998), highly correlated with Fe (r=0.78, 

p<0.001, n=25), and therefore not considered to be associated 

with petroleum transport or refining at the time of this study.

Total sediment PAH concentrations ranged from 

4–108 μg/g OC (11–2448 nanograms per gram (ng/g) dry 

weight) and median values among the four sites were highest at 

urbanized Snohomish River Delta and lowest at Nisqually River 

Delta (table 2). Diagnostic PAH ratios were indicative of PAHs 

sourced from petroleum combustion (vehicular emissions) and 

of coal and/or biomass combustion (fig. 4). One sample from 

Nisqually River Delta had a PAH ratio indicative of a liquid 

petroleum source, but examination of the low to high molecular 

weight PAH ratio in this sample indicated a combustion PAH 

source, so it was excluded from further interpretation.

Figure 4. Graphs showing diagnostic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) ratios calculated from individual PAH values at 

(A) Chuckanut Bay, (B) Padilla Bay, (C) Snohomish River Delta, and (D) Nisqually River Delta, Puget Sound, Washington. Some 

individual PAHs were not detected in some samples. IDP, indeno(1,2,3-cd)perylene; BZP, benzo(ghi)pyrene; FLA, fluoranthene; 

PYR, pyrene. PETRO, petroleum; EM, vehicular emissions; BIOM, biomass combustion. Dashed lines show source-indicative 

values from Yunker and others (2002).

Elements Elevated at Urban Saltwater State Park

Saltwater State Park had the highest fine sediment 

contents of Pb and Zn (figs. 3C and D) and the metalloid, 

Sb (not shown), among the five sites, and the co-occurrence 

of these elements in urban environments is indicative of a 

vehicular emission source (Sutherland and Tack, 2000).

Sediment Provenance from Rare Earth Element 

Patterns

The REE are particularly robust sediment provenance 

indicators because they are little altered by environmental 

processes such as soil formation and erosion and sediment 

transport (Surpless, 2015). Normalized REE patterns at the 

four Puget Sound energy transport corridor sites had distinct 

characteristics, and REE patterns at urban Saltwater State Park 

were most similar to those at Snohomish River Delta (fig. 5). 

Relatively high values of light REE (LREE), which consist of 

A B

C D
8 Contaminant Baselines and Sediment Provenance along the Puget Sound Energy Transport Corridor, 2015

lanthanum (La), cerium (Ce), praseodymium (Pr), neodymium 

(Nd), and samarium (Sm), are indicative of a granitic sediment 

source at Chuckanut Bay (fig. 5A). The Nisqually River Delta 

receives sediment from andesitic Mount Rainier volcano, 

and the sharp and narrow peak around europium (Eu) and 

relatively low heavy REE contents [HREE, which consist 

of terbium (Tb), dysprosium (Dy), holmium (Ho), erbium 

(Er), thulium (Tm), ytterbium (Yb), and lutetium (Lu)] are 

indicative of felsic volcanic sediment (fig. 5D). Sediment 

at Padilla Bay originated from the Skagit River, which has 

tributaries that originate on Mount Baker and Glacier Peak 

Cascade volcanoes, and also was characterized by a peak 

around Eu (fig. 5B). The broader and lower magnitude Eu peak 

Figure 5. Graphs showing normalized rare earth element patterns in fine sediment from five sites (A) Chuckanut Bay, (B) 

Padilla Bay, (C) Snohomish River Delta, (D) Nisqually River Delta, and (E) Saltwater State Park, Puget Sound, Washington. 

Colored lines show individual samples. NASC, North American Shale Composite. La, lanthanum; Ce, cerium; Pr, praseodymium; 

Nd, neodymium; Sm, samarium; Eu, europium; Gd, gadolinium; Tb, terbium; Dy, dysprosium; Ho, holmium; Er, erbium; Tm, thulium; 

Yb, ytterbium; Lu, lutetium; N, normalized. (F) Graph of normalized fine sediment contents of LuN relative to LaN. PAD, Padilla 

Bay; CHU, Chuckanut Bay; SNO, Snohomish River Delta; NIS, Nisqually River Delta; SAL, Saltwater State Park.

A D

B E

C F

in Padilla Bay sediment and the slightly higher HREE contents 

could indicate that non-volcanic sediment mixed with Cascade 

volcano-sourced sediment in the Skagit River drainage. The 

central Puget Sound sites Snohomish and Saltwater receive 

non-volcanic sediment and have REE patterns with an overall 

positive (upward) slope (figs. 5C and E), indicative of mafic 

sediment sources in these drainages. Normalized sediment 

contents of Lu (LuN) relative to La (LaN) for all samples 

grouped by site (fig. 5F) indicate that fine-grained Snohomish 

River Delta and Saltwater State Park sediment had a similar 

provenance that was different from volcanic-sourced sediment 

at Nisqually River Delta and Padilla Bay, and from graniticsourced sediment at Chuckanut Bay.
References Cited 9

Summary

This study determined baseline levels of arsenic (As), 

vanadium (V), potentially toxic metals, and polycyclic aromatic 

hydrocarbons (PAHs) at four nearshore depositional (finegrained) sites along the Puget Sound energy transport corridor 

in September 2015: Chuckanut Bay, Padilla Bay, Snohomish 

River Delta, Nisqually River Delta, and at Saltwater State 

Park, an urban site more than 6 kilometers distant from the 

Burlington Northern Santa Fe rail line at which urban but 

not rail transport contaminants were expected to be present. 

Baselines were quantified to provide context and potential 

remediation targets for environmental impact assessments and 

restoration efforts for future rail traffic increase or unintended 

coal or oil release, or both. For the sites sampled in September 

2015, sediment contents of cadmium, mercury (Hg), lead 

(Pb), zinc (Zn), and total PAHs were low (below a minimaleffects level) and As, chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), and nickel 

(Ni) were within the range where adverse biological effects 

would be possible. Pb and Zn seemed to be urban-sourced. 

Cr and Ni were geologically sourced and mineral-bound, and 

therefore unlikely to affect biota. Sediment contents of As, Cu, 

Hg, antimony, and V were within ranges of natural sources 

and had regional maxima in central Puget Sound. Diagnostic 

PAH ratios were indicative of vehicle emissions and coal/

biomass burning as sources of PAHs and were highest at 

Snohomish River Delta. Fine-grained sediments from volcanic 

watersheds (Mount Baker, Glacier Peak, and Mount Rainier) 

had distinct rare earth element patterns compared to watersheds 

with granitic (Chuckanut Bay) and non-volcanic (Snohomish 

River Delta, Saltwater State Park) sediments. Geochemical 

provenance indicators could help elucidate sediment and 

sediment-bound contaminant sources, delivery, and dispersal in 

nearshore regions.

Acknowledgments

Funding for this study was provided by the USGS 

Ecosystems Mission Area and the USGS Coastal and Marine 

Geology Program. Angela Tan (USGS) and Greg Justin (retired 

USGS) assisted with field sampling and the USGS Washington 

Water Science Center provided field support. Leticia Hallas 

assisted in the Inorganic Geochemistry laboratory. Kathy Conn 

and Rick Dinicola provided review comments that improved the 

manuscript.

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Menlo Park Publishing Service Center, California

Manuscript approved December 19, 2018

Edited by Carolyn Donlin

Layout by Cory Hurd
Takesue and Campbell—Contaminant Baselines and Sediment Provenance along the Puget Sound Energy Transport Corridor, 2015—Open-File Report 2018–1196

ISSN 2331–1258 (online)

https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr20181196