University of Alaska 

Coastal Marine Institute 

Annual Report No. 7 

Fiscal Year 2000 

OCS Study MMS 2000-070 
This study was funded in part by the U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service 

(MMS), through Cooperative Agreement No. 14-35-01-98-CA-30909, Task Order No. 15161, 

between the MMS, Alaska Outer Continental Shelf Region, and the University of Alaska Fairbanks. 

The opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this report or product are those 

of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the Minerals Management Service, nor does 

mention of trade names or commercial products constitute endorsement of recommendation for use 

by the Federal Government. 
OCS Study MMS 2000-070 

University of Alaska Coastal Marine lnstitute 

IN COOPERATION 

Minerals Management Service 

University of Alaska 

State of Alaska 

Annual Report 

Federal Fiscal Year 2000 

SUBMllTED BY 

Vera Alexander 

Director 

University of Alaska Coastal Marine lnstitute 

TO 

U.S. Department of the Interior 

Minerals Management Service 

Alaska OCS Region 

Anchorage, Alaska 

November 2000 
Table of Contents 

Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................ 1 

Kachemak Bay Experimental and Monitoring Studies: Recruitment, Succession, 

and Recovery in Seasonally Disturbed Rocky-Intertidal Habitat 

[TO 1 19821 

Raymond C. Highsmith, Susan M. Saupe and Amy L. Blanchard .......................................................... 3 

Historical Changes in Trace Metals and Hydrocarbons in the Inner Shelf Sediments, 

Beaufort Sea: Prior and Subsequent to Petroleum-Related Industrial Developments 

[TO 14195 & 151671 

A. Sathy Naidu, John J. Goenng and John J. Kelley ................................................................................. 7 

An Economic Assessment of the Marine Sport Fisheries for Halibut, and Chinook 

and Coho Salmon in Lower Cook Inlet 

[TO 141961 

Mark Herrmann, S. Todd Lee, Charles Hamel, Keith R. Criddle, 

Hans T. Geier, Joshua A. Greenberg and Carol Lewis .......................................................................... 9 

Feeding Ecology of Maturing Sockeye Salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka) 

in Nearshore Waters of the Kodiak Archipelago 

[TO 15 1601 

Albert V. Tyler, Bruce C. McIntosh and Charles 0. Swanton ................................................................. 13 

Correction Factor for Ringed Seal Surveys in Northern Alaska 

[TO 15 1621 

Brendan P. Kelly, Lori T. Quakenbush and Brian D. Taras ................................................................... 14 

Circulation, Thermohaline Structure, and Cross-Shelf Transport in the 

Alaskan Beaufort Sea 

[TO 151631 

Thomas J. Weingartner and Knut Aagaard .............................................................................................. 24 

The Alaskan Frozen Tissue Collection and Associated Electronic Database: 

A Resource for Marine Biotechnology 

[TO 15 1641 

Joseph A. Cook, Gordon H. Jarrell, Amy M. Runck and John S. Chythlook .......................................... 3 1 

Beaufort Sea Nearshore Under-Ice Currents: Science Analysis and Logistics 

[TO 151691 

Thomas J. Weingartner ......................................................................................................................... 37 

iii 
Kinetics and Mechanisms of Slow PAH Desorption from Lower Cook Inlet 

and Beaufort Sea Sediments 

[TO 151701 

Susan M. Henrichs and John A. Terschak ................................................................................................ 42 

An Experimental Approach to Investigate Seasonal Differences in the 

Role of Zooplankton in the Distribution of Hydrocarbons 

[TO 151711 

Thomas C. Shirley and Switgard Duesterloh ........................................................................................... 5 1 

Seabird Samples as Resources for Marine Environmental Assessment 

[TO 15 1731 

Kevin Winker ............................................................................................................................................. 5 5 

Beaufort and Chukchi Sea Seasonal Variability for Two Arctic Climate States 

[TO 15 1741 

Andrey Y. Proshutinsky, Mark A. Johnson, James A. Maslanik 

and Tatiana 0. Proshutinsky ..................................................................................................................... 59 

Petroleum Hydrocarbon Degrading Microbial Communities in Beaufort Sea Sediments 

[TO 15 1751 

Joan F. Braddock and Kathleen A. Gannon ............................................................................................. 69 

Regional Economic Impact Analysis of Subsistence Bowhead Whaling: 

Accounting for Non-Market Activities on Alaska's North Slope 

[TO 151761 

Carol E. Lewis, Hans T. Geier, Joshua A. Greenberg, Kelly Giraud, 

Mark Herrmann and John J. Kelley ......................................................................................................... 78 

New Projects ..................................................................................................................................................... 85 

Alaska Sea Ice Atlas 

[TO 15 1771 

Orson P. Smith .................................................................................................................................... 85 

A Nowcast/Forecast Model for the Beaufort Sea Ice-Ocean-Oil Spill 

System (NFM-BSIOS) 

[TO 151781 

Jia Wang and Meibing Jin .................................................................................................................. 86 

Satellite Tracking of Eastern Chukchi Sea Beluga Whales in the Beaufort Sea 

and Arctic Ocean 

[TO 151791 

Kathryn J. Frost and Lloyd F. Lowry ................................................................................................ 87 

Funding Summary ............................................................................................................................................ 88 

University of Alaska CMI Publications ........................................................................................................... 9 1 
Introduction 

The University of Alaska Coastal Marine Institute (CMI) was created by a cooperative agreement 

between the University of Alaska and the Minerals Management Service (MMS) in June 1993, with the 

first full funding cycle beginning late in (federal) fiscal year 1994. CMI is pleased to present this 2000 

Annual Report, our seventh annual report. Of the 17 research projects covered, four have been completed 

and principal investigators are preparing their final reports. Only abstracts and study products are included 

for these projects. Abstracts for the three proposals funded in FY2000 are in the New Projects section. 

The Minerals Management Service administers the outer continental shelf (OCS) natural gas, oil, and 

marine minerals program in which it oversees the safe and environmentally sound leasing, exploration, 

and production of these resources within our nation's offshore areas. The Environmental Studies Program 

(ESP) was formally directed in 1978, under Section 20 of the OCS Lands Act Amendments, to provide 

information in support of the decisions involved in the planning, leasing, and management of exploration, 

development, and production activities. The research agenda is driven by the identification of specific 

issues, concerns, or data gaps by federal decision makers and the state and local governments that 

participate in the process. ESP research focuses on the following broad issues associated with 

development of OCS gas, oil, and minerals: 

What are the fates and effects of potential OCS-related pollutants (e.g., oil, noise, 

drilling muds and cuttings, products of fuel combustion) in the marine and coastal 

environment and the atmosphere? 

What biological resources (e.g., fish populations) exist and which resources are at risk? 

What is the nature and extent of the risk? What measures must be taken to allow 

extraction to take place? 

How do OCS activities affect people in terms of jobs and the economy? What are the 

direct and indirect effects on local culture? What are the psychological effects of the 

proposed OCS activities? 

Because MMS and individual states have distinct but complementary roles in the decision-making 

process, reliable scientific information is needed by MMS, the state, and localities potentially affected 

by OCS operations. In light of this, MMS has developed a locally managed CMI program. Under this 

program, MMS takes advantage of highly-qualified scientific expertise at local levels in order to: 

1. Collect and disseminate environmental information needed for OCS oil & gas and 

marine minerals decisions; 

2. Address local and regional OCS-related environmental and resource issues of 

mutual interest; and 

3. Strengthen the partnership between MMS and the state in addressing OCS oil & gas 

and marine minerals information needs. 

CMI is administered by the University of Alaska Fairbanks School of Fisheries and Ocean Sciences to 

address some of these mutual concerns and share the cost of research. Alaska was selected as the location 

for this CMI because it contains some of the major potential offshore oil and gas producing areas in 

the United States. The University of Alaska Fairbanks is uniquely suited to participate by virtue of its 

flagship status within the state and its nationally recognized marine and coastal expertise relevant to the 

broad range of OCS program information needs. In addition, MMS and the University of Alaska have 
worked cooperatively on ESP studies for many years. Research projects funded by CMI are required to 

have at least one active University of Alaska investigator. Cooperative research between the University 

of Alaska and state agency scientists is encouraged. 

Framework Issues were developed during the formation of CMI to identify and bracket the concerns to 

be addressed: 

1. Scientific studies to improve understanding of the affected marine, coastal, 

or human environment; 

2. Modeling studies of environmental, social, and economic processes in order to 

improve predictive capabilities and define information needs; 

3. Experimental studies to improve understanding of environmental processes and/or 

the causes and effects of OCS activities; 

4. Projects which design or establish mechanisms or protocols for the sharing of data 

or information regarding marine or coastal resources or human activities to support 

prudent management of oil & gas and marine mineral resources; and 

5. Synthesis studies of background information. 

Projects funded through CMI are directed towards providing information which can be used by MMS and 

the state for management decisions specifically relevant to MMS mission responsibilities. Projects must 

be pertinent to either the OCS oil and gas program or the marine minerals mining program. They should 

provide useful information for program management or for the scientific understanding of potential 

environmental effects of resource development activities in arctic and subarctic environments. 

Initial guidelines given to prospective researchers identified Cook Inlet and Shelikof Strait, as well as 

the Beaufort and Chukchi seas, as areas of chief concern to MMS and the state. Primary emphasis has 

subsequently shifted to the Beaufort Sea, and to the Chukchi Sea as it relates to the Beaufort Sea. 

However, a strong interest in Cook Inlet and Shelikof Strait remains. 

The proposal process is initiated each summer with a request for letters of intent to address one or more of 

the Framework Issues. This request is publicized and sent to researchers at the University of Alaska and 

to various state agencies, and to relevant profit and non-profit corporations. The CMI technical steering 

committee then decides which of the proposed letters of intent should be developed into proposals for 

more detailed evaluation and possible funding. 

Successful investigators are strongly encouraged to publish their results in peer-reviewed journals as well 

as to present them at national meetings. In addition, investigators report their findings at the CMI's annual 

research review, held at UAF in February. Some investigators present information directly to the public 

and MMS staff in seminars. 

Alaskans benefit from the examination and increased understanding of those processes unique to Alaskan 

OCS and coastal waters because this enhanced understanding can be applied to problems other than oil, 

gas, and mineral extraction, such as subsistence fisheries and northern shipping. 

Many of the CMI-funded projects address some combination of issues related to fisheries, biomonitoring, 

physical oceanography, and the fates of oil. The ultimate intent of CMI-related research is to identify the 

ways in which OCS-related activities may affect our environment, and potential economic and social 

impacts as well. 
Kachemak Bay Experimental and Monitoring Studies: 

Recruitment, Succession, and Recovery in Seasonally 

Disturbed Rocky-Intertidal Habitat 

Raymond C. Highsmith <ffrchl@ims.uaf.edu> 

Susan M. ~aupe' <saupe@circac.org> 

Arny L. Blanchard <arnyb@ims.uaf.edu> 

Institute of Marine Science 

University of Alaska Fairbanks 

Fairbanks, AK 99775-7220 

1 Present address: Cook Inlet Regional Citizens Advisory Council, 910 Highland Avenue, Kenai, AK 9961 1 

Task Order 1 1982 

Abstract 

The purpose of this study was to establish a multi-year sampling program in rocky-intertidal assemblages 

of outer Kachemak Bay and to assess recruitment and successional patterns leading to recovery of 

selected intertidal species and the intertidal community after seasonal disturbances. The speczjk 

objectives were to: 

I. Determine whether the season in which a disturbance takes place afects recovery rates 

or succession processes. 

2. Quantzfy inter- and intra-annual abundance patterns for major species. 

3. Determine the effect of wave exposure on community structure and response to 

seasonal disturbances. 

The study was initiated in response to questions raised during injury assessment studies following the 

Exxon Valdez oil spill [Highsmith et al. 19941. Several organisms showed increased numbers or percent 

cover in oiled compared to unoiled rocky-intertidal habitat. Data were not available to determine if these 

increases were correlated with the time ofyear that space had become available, due either to the oil or 

to subsequent clean-up activities, and thus rejecting timing of reproduction or recruitment for some 

species but not others. The responses of the various invertebrates and algae to the oil spill dzfered by 

species, tidal height, region, habitat, and wave exposure as reflected by increases, decreases, or no 

change to abundance, biomass, or percent cover. Rates of recovery, or convergence with control sites, 

also dzfered among the numerous taxa and depended upon the above variables. Another question raised 

was whether there were inherent dzfferences between oiled and control sites, based on the prevailing 

currents that carried oil to the impacted sites. A lack ofpre-spill intertidal data necessitated the 

comparison of oiled shorelines to unoiled control beaches for all of the intertidal inju y and restoration 

studies [Gilfillan et al. 1993; Houghton et al. 1993; Highsmith et al. 19941. With data for the major 

space-occupying species, Highsmith et al. [I9941 used the multi-dimensional scaling (MDS) method to 

evaluate recovery of invertebrate and algal communities on rocky substrates. Their results showed that 

site exposure to waves explained the ordinations and the oiling category did not. Kachemak Bay rocky- 
intertidal communities have been generally surveyed and have some similarities to lower-latitude west 

coast communities that have been more intensively studied. However, extrapolation of the lower-latitude 

results to southcentral Alaska is not appropriate, as certain key intertidal species are not present or 

occur in very low abundances in Kachemak Bay. In Alaska, physical extremes such as temperature and 

photoperiod are greater and many species are at their northern geographical limit. In fact, some of the 

major community-structuring species in the PaciJc Northwest do not occur in the Kachemak Bay 

intertidal, e.g. Mytilus californianus, or are in such low densities, e.g. Pisaster ochraceus, that they have 

little role in community dynamics. Studies in lower-latitude west coast areas have shown effects of season 

on population dynamics and recovery rates after disturbances in rocky intertidal habitat [Kinnetic 

Laboratories, Inc. 1992; Minerals Management Service 1995; Kim and DeWreede 19961. In Alaska, 

seasonal effects may be a primary factor in determining recovery rates. Generally, information on interand intra-annual variability in Alaskan intertidal communities is lacking. The final report for this project 

contains results from a study in outer Kachemak Bay to provide multi-year data on rocky-intertidal 

assemblages and to assess recovery and successional patterns after seasonal disturbances. 

In this study, experimental disturbances in diferent seasons and over a range of wave exposures were 

used to assess recruitment and succession patterns during recovery in rocky-intertidal habitat sites. To 

simulate seasonal environmental disturbances, quadrats at three tidal heights at eight sites were cleared 

of all invertebrates and algae during March, July and October 1994, and March 1995. These dates were 

selected to provide potential settlement sites (bare rock) for organisms that recruit in different seasons. 

Undisturbed control quadrats were also established to provide data on inter- and intra-annual variability 

of dominant invertebrates and algae and for comparative statistical analyses of degree of recovery 

of disturbedplots. The eight study sites were selected to represent a range of wave exposuresji-om 

highly-sheltered to frequently-impacted. Sites were surveyed, quadrats established and cleared, and 

subsequently monitored for organism abundance and/or percent cover. Sampling dates were July 1995, 

October 1995, June 1996 and September 1996. Data were analyzed using two main approaches. First, 

dominant or key invertebrates and algae were analyzed across time using repeated-measure ANOVAs 

to assess the effects of site and disturbance date. To assess recovery of the intertidal community, a 

multivariate technique, multi-dimensional scaling (MDS), was used. This method plots multi-species, 

multi-sample data sets on a two-dimensional graph such that the rank ordering of the sample distances 

agrees with the rank order of distances from a dissimilarity matrix. The ordination gives a visual 

representation of the similarity or dissimilarity of species composition between samples [Clark and 

Warwick 19941. Ordination gradients were then used to evaluate the importance of environmental 

variables in recovery dynamics from the disturbance. 

This study showed that time of disturbance relative to seasonal reproductive events of major spaceoccupying species affected the time required for recovery. Summer and fall disturbances took longer to 

recover from than spring disturbances because the latter occurredjust prior to the peak of barnacle 

larval settlement. Therefore, early barnacle recruitment appears to be a critical element in recovery 

rates. Although this three-year study provides a data and knowledge base for continued work, this project 

was not long enough for all end-points to be reached. A primary recommendation is that long-term, i.e. 

5-10 years, monitoring of experimentally disturbed sites is needed in Kachemak Bay in order to fully 

understand the speczjic events and time-course of recovery from seasonal disturbances. 

In control quadrats, the community remained relatively stable throughout the study, although some 

intra-annual variability was detected due to life histories, such as in annual algae. The acorn barnacles 

Semibalanus balanoides and Balanus glandula were thefirst to colonize the disturbed quadrats in the 

high- (1.5 meters of vertical drop [MVD] below mean higher high water) and mid- (2.5 MVD) intertidal 

zones, often with > 80% cover. Adult percent cover of these species remained above control quadrat 

levels at the end of the study, suggesting stability had not yet been achieved. The dominant alga in the 

mid- to upper-intertidal, Fucus gardneri, colonized disturbedplots only after the above barnacle species 
were established and had not returned to control levels at the end of the study except in quadrats that had 

2.5 years to recover. A similar scenario occurred for the dominant algal and barnacle species in the 

low-intertidal (3.5 MVD). Recruitment of the kelp Alaria fistulosa followed recruitment by the barnacle 

S. cariosus, and neither had recovered to control levels by the end of the study. The blue mussel 

M. trossulus, which also appears to recruit in large numbers only after barnacles have become 

established, had not recovered by the end of the study and the data indicate that much longer than 2.5 

years may be required for recovery at wave-exposed sites. Generally, recovery rates within quadrats 

scraped on different dates were driven by the seasonal timing of barnacle recruitment relative to the date 

of scraping (bare rock substrate availabilityl. 

Multi-dimensional scaling showed that scraped quadrats had not fully converged with control quadrats 

by the last sampling date, 30 months after theJirst set of quadrats were scraped in March 1994. Recovery 

rates varied by the season that quadrats were scraped, Quadrats scraped in July and October 1994 

showed slower recovery rates than quadrats scraped in March 1994 or 1995. The dissimilarity of scraped 

quadrats compared to control quadrats was reduced between July I995 and September 1996, suggesting 

community recovery was in progress but just not complete after 2.5years. Although there were 

recruitment dzferences for some species between protected and exposed sites, wave-exposure as a matrix 

variable did not account for community-level differences in recovery. 

Study Products 

Kachemak Bay Algal Voucher Collection: stored at the University of Alaska Fairbanks Kasitsna Bay 

Laboratory. 

Incorporation of the study sites from this CMI study into the NOAA HAZMAT intertidal program: 

"Epibiota sampling in Kachemak Bay", staffedlfunded by Gary Shigenaka, NOAA HAZMAT and by 

Susan Saupe, Cook Inlet Regional Citizens Advisory Council. 

Saupe, S.M., and R.C. Highsmith. 1995. Recruitment and succession after disturbances to the intertidal 

zone in outer Kachemak Bay, Alaska. Oral presentation at the University of Alaska Coastal Marine 

Institute Annual Research Review, February 1995, Fairbanks. 

Saupe, S.M., and R.C. Highsmith. 1995. Recruitment and succession after disturbances to the intertidal 

zone in outer Kachemak Bay, Alaska. Oral presentation at the Kachemak Bay Conference, Homer, AK. 

Saupe, S.M., and R.C. Highsmith. 1996. Recruitment and succession after disturbances to the intertidal 

zone in outer Kachemak Bay, Alaska. Oral presentation at the University of Alaska Coastal Marine 

Institute Annual Research Review, February 1996, Fairbanks. 

Saupe, S.M., and R.C. Highsmith. 1997. Recruitment and succession after disturbances to the intertidal 

zone in outer Kachemak Bay, Alaska. Oral presentation at the University of Alaska Coastal Marine 

Institute Annual Research Review, February 1997, Fairbanks. 

Saupe, S.M., and R. C. Highsmith. 1997. Recruitment and succession after disturbances to the intertidal 

zone in outer Kachemak Bay, Alaska. Watershed '97, The Cook Inlet Symposium, Anchorage. 

Saupe, S.M., and R.C. Highsmith. 1999. Recruitment and succession after disturbances to the intertidal 

zone in outer Kachemak Bay, p. 37 (abstract). In Proceedings Seventh MMS Information Transfer 

Meeting. Alaska OCS Region, Minerals Management Service, January 1999, Anchorage. 

(http://www.mms.gov/Alaska~ess/itm/itm99/itm.htm) 
References 

Clarke, K.R., and R.M. Wanvick. 1994. Change in Marine Communities: An Approach to Statistical 

Analysis and Interpretation. Bourne Press Ltd., Bournemouth, UK. 137 p. 

Gilfillan, E., D.S. Page, E.J. Harner and P.D. Boehrn. 1995. Shoreline ecology program for Prince 

William Sound, Alaska, following the Exxon Valdez oil spill: Part 3 -Biology, p. 398-443. In P.G. 

Wells, J.N. Butler and J.S. Hughes [eds.], Exxon Valdez Oil Spill: Fate and Effects in Alaskan 

Waters. Am. Soc. Test. Mater., Spec. Tech. Publ. 1219, Philadelphia. 

Highsmith, R.C., M.S. Stekoll, W.E. Barber, L. McDonald, D. Strickland and W.P. Erickson. 1994. 

Comprehensive assessment of coastal habitat. Vol. I. Exxon Valdez Oil Spill StatelFederal Natural 

Resource Damage Assessment Final Report (Coastal Habitat Study No. 1A). NTIS No. PB99-110447. 

Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Trustee Council. 796 p. 

Houghton, J.P., A.K. Fukuyama, D.C. Lees, P.J. Hague, H.L. Cumberland, P.M. Harper and W.B. 

Driskell. 1993. Evaluation of the condition of Prince William Sound shorelines following the Exxon 

Valdez oil spill and subsequent shoreline treatment. Vol. 11: 1992 Biological Monitoring Survey. 

NOAA Tech. Memo. NOS ORCA 73, Seattle. 

Kim, J.H., and R.E. DeWreede. 1996. Effects of size and season of disturbance on algal patch recovery 

in a rocky intertidal community. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 133:217-228. 

Kinnetic Laboratories, Inc. 1992. Study of the rocky intertidal communities of central and northern 

California. Final Report, Vol. 1-11. Prepared in association with the University of California, Santa 

Cruz, Moss Landing Marine Laboratories, and TENERA Corporation for the U.S. Department of the 

Interior, Minerals Management Service, Pacific OCS Region. Contract No. 14-12-0001-30057. OCS 

Study MMS 91-0089. 

Minerals Management Service. 1996. Mussel recovery and species dynamics at four California intertidal 

sites, 1992 data report. Prepared in association with Kinnetic Laboratories, Inc. for the U.S. 

Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, Pacific OCS Region. Contract No. PC 94- 1. 

OCS Study MMS 96-0009. 
Historical Changes in Trace Metals and Hydrocarbons 

in the Inner Shelf Sediments, Beaufort Sea: Prior and 

Subsequent to Petroleum-Related Industrial 

Developments 

A. Sathy Naidu <ffsan@uaf.edu> 

John J. Goering <goering@ims.uaf.edu> 

John J. Kelley <ffjk@uaf.edu> 

Institute of Marine Science 

University of Alaska Fairbanks 

Fairbanks, AK 99775-7220 

Task Orders 14195 & 15167 

Abstract 

This was a two-year study (1997-99) of historical changes in concentrations of selected heavy metals in 

sediments of the Beaufort Sea nearshore, arctic Alaska-ji-om Harrison Bay to the Canning River delta. 

The research involved the metals Fe, Mn, Cu, Cr, Ni, V, Pb, Zn, Cd, As and Ba in sediment mudji-actions 

(< 62 pm), and concentrations in gross sediments of total Hg (THg;) and methyl Hg (MeHg), saturated 

hydrocarbons (normal and isoprenoid alkanes, triterpenoids and steranes) andpolycyclic aromatic 

hydrocarbons (PAHs). The primary purpose of the study was to ascertain if there were any signzjkant 

increases in concentrations of the trace metals and hydrocarbons subsequent to the recent development 

ofpetroleum-related industrial activities. An additional purpose was to gain an understanding of the 

sources of hydrocarbons accumulated in the sediments in view of ongoing, as well as proposed, oil and 

gas developments in the region. 

Time-series comparisons of mean concentrations of trace elements in muddy sediments of the Beaufort 

Sea nearshore, at approximately 10-year intervals (1 977,1986 and 1997), show signzjicantly increased 

concentrations in V in 1986 and 1997 from the initial concentration measured in 1977, and in Baji-om 

1986 to 1997 accompanied by no changes in other elements. However, these findings are not reflected 

in the stratigraphic variations of the elements in two cores examined. The stratigraphy demonstrates 

a net signzjicant decrease up-core in MeHg, Zn, Cd, and Pb accompanied by no signzjicant change in 

concentrations of the other elements. The reasons for the increased concentrations in V and Ba are 

unknown, but petroleum-related activities are suspect. Despite increased concentrations in V and Ba 

detected during the past 30 years, the levels of these and other elements are below or comparable to those 

in unpolluted marine sediments. 

Correlation coefficient analysis suggests that V, Cu, Ni, Zn, As and Mn are primarily chelated (with 

ligand formation) with organic matter, whereas some of the V is also adsorbed on the clays. Cluster 

analysis of the elemental data indicates the presence of two major station groups that are discriminated 

by differences in MeHg contents. These dzfferences could have evolved from several factors, such as 

regional variations in natural terrestrial or industrial inputs of Hg, the methylation process, sediment 

granulometry, or all three. 
The molecular markers investigated in the sediments are of mixed marine and terrigenous origin. 

Generally, the resolved n-alkanes are less altd the total PAHs more than those found by others in the 

same region a decade ago. The PAH assemblage in the surface sediments is dzflerentfiom that found 

in Prudhoe Bay crude oil but is very similar to that observed in coastal peat and North Slope Jtuvial 

sediments. The triterpenoid and sterane projiles reinforce the biogenic rather than the petrogenic origin 

of major portions of the hydrocarbon. Only in isolated cases is a petroleum signature documented 

by the presence of thermally mature hopanes and steranes in small amounts. The fingerprint of 

triterpanes/steranes rather than some internal ratio parameters in the current samples helps to clearly 

distinguish biogenic inputs from petrogenic sources. The composition of triterpenoids/steranes should 

serve as an important diagnostic tool in future monitoring studies that follow subtle changes in 

hydrocarbon inputs to the study region, especially from oil-related activities. 

. In summary, the environment of the study area has remained clean as far as heavy metals and 

hydrocarbons are concerned in spite of the recent oil-related industrial activities. Results of our 

investigations should serve as a baseline for Jirture monitoring of heavy metal and hydrocarbon 

contaminations within the study area. 

Study Products 

Naidu, A.S. 1998. Historical changes in trace metal and hydrocarbon contaminants on the inner shelf, 

Beaufort Sea: Prior and subsequent to petroleum-related industrial activities. University of Alaska 

Coastal Marine Institute Annual Research Review, February 1998, Fairbanks. 

Naidu, A.S. 1998. Historical changes in trace metal and hydrocarbon contaminants on the inner shelf, 

Beaufort Sea: Prior and subsequent to petroleum-related industrial activities. MMS Information 

Transfer Meeting, May 1998, Anchorage. 

Naidu, A.S., L. W. Cooper, B.P. Finney, R.W. MacDonald, C. Alexander and I.P. Semiletov. 2000. 

Organic carbon isotope ratios (6I3c) of Arctic Amerasian continental shelf sediments. Int. J. Earth 

Sci. In press. 

(This paper was also presented as a poster display by Dr. Naidu at the NSF-sponsored workshop, 

"Arctic Coastal Dynamics", held at the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, October 1999.) 

Naidu, A.S., J.J. Goering and J.J. Kelley. 1998. Time-series monitoring of trace elements in nearshore 

sediments of the Alaskan Beaufort Sea. Proc.1998 ASLOIESA Annual Meeting, St. Louis. p. A-63. 

Naidu, A.S., J.J. Goering and J.J. Kelley. 1999. Three-decadal time-series monitoring of trace elements 

in nearshore sediments, Alaskan Beaufort Sea, p. 11 (abstract). In Proceedings Seventh MMS 

Information Transfer Meeting. Alaska OCS Region, Minerals Management Service, January 1999, 

Anchorage. (http://www.mms.gov/Alaska~ess/itm/itm99/itm.h~) 

Naidu, A.S., J.J. Goering and J.J. Kelley. 1999. Historical changes in trace metals and hydrocarbon 

contaminants on the inner shelf, Beaufort Sea: prior and subsequent to the petroleum-related 

industrial development. University of Alaska Coastal Marine Institute Annual Research Review, 

February 1999, Fairbanks. 

A set of 35-mm slides showing sampling tasks in the field was also submitted to the CMI office at the 

University of Alaska Fairbanks. 
An Economic Assessment of the Marine Sport Fisheries 

for Halibut, and Chinook and Coho Salmon in Lower 

Cook Inlet 

Mark Iierrmann' -=ffmlh@uaf.edu> 

S. Todd ~ee~ <todd.lee@noaa.gov> 

Charles ~arnel~ <chuck.hamel@noaa.gov> 

Keith R. criddle4 <kcriddle@econ.usu.edu> 

Hans T. ~eie? <ffhtg@uaf.edu> 

Joshua A. re en berg^ <fQag@uaf.edu> 

Carol E. ~ewis~ <ffcel@uaf.edu> 

'Department of Economics, School of Management, University of Alaska Fairbanks, Fairbanks, AK 99775-6080 

'~laska Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries Service, 7600 Sand Point Way NE, 

Seattle, WA 98 1 15-0070 

3~orth Pacific Fishery Management Council, 605 W. 4th Avenue, Suite 306, Anchorage, AK 99501 

4~epartment of Economics, Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322-3530 

5~epartment of Resources Management, School of Agriculture and Land Resources Management, 

University of Alaska Fairbanks, Fairbanks, AK 99775-7140 

Task Order 141 96 

Abstract 

The Cook Inlet Planning Area includes and abuts productive commercial, subsistence, and sport fishing 

grounds. Outer Continental Shelfminerals exploration, development and production activities could 

affect the productivity of these fisheries, the quality of recreation opportunities, and the demand for 

tourism-related services. The marine sport fisheries of Cook Inlet are the focus of a large recreation 

based economic sector that provides non-monetary benefits to participants and monetary benefits to 

tourism-related businesses. This study and a companion study, Lee et al. [1999], develop a predictive 

model ofparticipation rate changes that can be linked to a regional input-output model to estimate net 

benejts to sportjshers and the regional economic impact of marine sportJishing on the Kenai Peninsula 

economy. 

The probability that a typical sportfisher would take a halibut or salmon sportfishing trip in lower Cook 

Inlet is modeled as a random utilityfinction of the expected trip cost and catch (species, size, number). 

The model, estimated using a binary probit estimation technique, allows for declining marginal utility as 

well as the interactions between salmon and halibut sportfzshing catches. The model is used to predict 

changes in participation given changes in expected catch that may result from changes in mean catch that 

could arise from changes in biomass (abundance) or changes in catch limits. The estimated probability of 

taking a trip is transformed into a prediction of changes in total sportfishing effort. 

Net benefits to sportfishers are measured by compensating variations, the amount of money that could be 

added to the price of the trip until the sportjsher would be indtflerent to taking the trip. Consequently, 

compensating variation is a measure of the consumer surplus from sportfzshing and changes in the total 

compensating variation are measures of changes in consumer surplus. The total compensating variation 

is the product of the estimated mean compensating variation per day ($87.82) and the number of 

sportfishing days. Reductions in expected catch reduce the compensating variation in two ways. First, 
the marginal participant will drop out of thejshery as the expected benefits (in terms of catch) decrease, 

thereby decreasing the total net benefits of the sportj'ishing. Second, the net benefit of taking a trip is also 

reduced for those who continue to participate because the average trip produces less net benefit when the 

catch rate declines. 

In contrast to net benefits, which are a measure of economic eficiency, economic impact is a measure 

of the distribution of economic activity. Changes in sportj'ishing effort affect regional economies by 

altering primary and secondary expenditure patterns. For example, iffishing effort were to diminish, 

fishing-related expenditures would also decline. However, estimates of these changes must account for 

the possibility that some individuals might engage in other Kenai Peninsula recreation activities as 

substitutes for the foregone sportj'ishing days. The Cook Inlet Region Marine Sportj'ishing Economic 

Assessment simulation model accounts for these substitution effects and declining marginal utility and 

allows estimation of the economic impact of lower Cook Inlet sportj'ishing for halibut and salmon under 

varying conditions of stock abundance and harvest limitations [Hamel et al. 20001. 

Five examples of changes to sporfishing trip attributes are examined: two increases (1 0% and 20%) and 

three decreases (-lo%, -20%, and -30%)from the baseline (1997) mean catch perfishing trip. The five 

scenarios reflect changes in expected harvests that might resultfiom natural stock dynamic processes; 

changes in allocation shares between commercial, subsistence, and sportfishers; changes in catch limits; 

or population, regulatory, or economic and behavioral responses to environmental damage that might 

result from accidents associated with minerals exploration, development, production, or transportation. 

The results indicate, for example, that for a 10% decrease in expected salmon and halibut catch, net 

benefits to sport fishers will decrease by 29%. The concomitant decrease in participation can be expected 

to result in a decrease of direct, indirect, and induced output expenditures in the Kenai Peninsula region, 

a reduction in personal income, and a loss ofjobs. 

Our study uses Alaska Department of Fish and Game estimates of total days fished in Kenai Peninsula 

Area saltwater sport fisheries to expand participation rate estimates into estimates of regional economic 

impacts. As a result of an internal review conducted in late 1999, ADF&G determined that computer 

programs used to process data from the statewide harvest survey contained errors that altered some 

anglers' reported catch and harvest. In addition, when generating estimates for angler-days fished and 

household trips the computer programs did not properly account for anglers who did not respond 

to the survey, resulting in an upward bias in estimated days-fished for 1995 through 1997. We did not 

become aware of these problems with ADF&GJs estimates of days-$shed until early in September 2000. 

ADF&G expects to release revised harvest and effort estimates later this fall. While the revisions affect 

our estimates of overall participation and impacts, they do not affect our coeficient estimates or the 

statistical signijkance of those coefficients. We will revise the total participation, compensating 

variation, and regional economic impacts using the revised ADF&G estimate of total days fished when 

that estimate is finalized. 

Study Products 

Publications 

Criddle, K.R., J.A. Greenberg, H. Geier, C. Hamel, M. Henmann, S.T. Lee and C.E. Lewis. 1998. 

An economic assessment of the marine sport fisheries in lower Cook Inlet, p. 5-12. In University 

of Alaska Coastal Marine Institute Annual Report No. 4. OCS Study MMS 98-0062, University of 

Alaska Fairbanks. 
Hamel, C. 2000. Economic impact of marine recreational fisheries on the Kenai Peninsula Borough. 

Master's thesis, University of Alaska Fairbanks. In preparation. 

Hamel, C., M. Herrmann, S.T. Lee and K.R. Criddle. 2001. $FISH: An economic assessment of lower 

Cook Inlet sport fisheries. Software program and manual. In preparation. 

Herrmann, M., S.T. Lee, C. Hamel, K.R. Criddle, H.T. Geier, J.A. Greenberg and C.E. Lewis. 2001. 

An economic assessment of the sport fisheries for halibut, and chinook and coho salmon in lower 

Cook Inlet. Final Report. University of Alaska Coastal Marine Institute, University of Alaska 

Fairbanks. In preparation. 

Herrmann, M., S.T. Lee, C. Hamel, K.R. Criddle, J.A. Greenberg, H. Geier and C. Lewis. 2000. An 

economic assessment of the marine sport fisheries in lower Cook Inlet, p. 9-40. In University of 

Alaska Coastal Marine Institute Annual Report No. 6. OCS Study MMS 2000-046, University of 

Alaska Fairbanks. 

NPFMC. 1999. Public review draft environmental assessment, regulatory impact review, initial 

regulatory flexibility analysis for a regulatory amendment to implement management measures under 

a guideline harvest level and/or moratorium for halibut in areas 2C And 3A: Chapter 4.0 - Economic 

tools and analytical framework. NPFMC, Anchorage. 

NPFMC. 2000. Draft environmental assessment, regulatory impact review, initial regulatory flexibility 

analysis for a regulatory amendment to implement management measures under a guideline harvest 

level and/or moratorium for halibut in areas 2C And 3A: Chapter 4.0 - Economic tools and analytical 

framework. NPFMC, Anchorage. 

Working papers 

Hamel, C., M. Herrmann, H.T. Geier, S.T. Lee and K.R. Criddle. Economic impact analysis of the Lower 

Cook Inlet sport fisheries: Participation rate driven impacts. Working paper. 

Herrmann, M., S.T. Lee, K.R. Criddle and C. Hamel. Survey results for sport caught halibut and salmon 

in Lower Cook Inlet. Working paper. 

Herrmann, M., S.T. Lee, C. Hamel and K.R. Criddle. An economic assessment of the sport fisheries for 

halibut, and chinook and coho salmon in Lower Cook Inlet. Working paper. 

Lee, S.T., M. Herrmann, K.R. Criddle and C. Hamel. The effect of fishery attributes on participation 

rates: the Kenai Peninsula marine sport fishery. Working paper. 

Presentations 

Herrmann, M., S.T. Lee, C. Hamel and K.R. Criddle. 2000. An economic discussion of the marine sport 

fisheries in Lower Cook Inlet. International Institute for Fisheries Economics and Trade, Corvallis, OR. 

Herrmann, M., S.T. Lee, C. Hamel, K.R. Criddle, H. Geier, J. Greenberg and C. Lewis. 1998. An 

economic assessment of the sport fisheries for halibut, and chinook and coho salmon in lower Cook 

Inlet. University of Alaska Coastal Marine Institute Annual Research Review, February 1998, 

Fairbanks. 

Herrmann, M., S.T. Lee, C. Hamel, K.R. Criddle, H. Geier, J. Greenberg and C. Lewis. 1999. An 

economic assessment of the marine sport fisheries, p. 41 (abstract). In Proceedings Seventh MMS 

Information Transfer Meeting. Alaska OCS Region, Minerals Management Service, January 1999, 

Anchorage. (http://www.mms.gov/Alaska/ess/itm/itm99/iM.hM) 
Herrmann, M., S.T. Lee, C. Hamel, K.R. Criddle, H. Geier, J. Greenberg and C. Lewis. 1999. An 

economic assessment of the sport fisheries for halibut, and chinook and coho salmon in lower Cook 

Inlet. CMI University of Alaska Coastal Marine Institute Annual Research Review, February 1999, 

Fairbanks. 

Herrmann, M., S.T. Lee, C. Hamel, K.R. Criddle, H. Geier, J. Greenberg and C. Lewis. 2000. An 

economic assessment of the sport fisheries for halibut, and chinook and coho salmon in lower Cook 

Inlet. University of Alaska Coastal Marine Institute Annual Research Review, March 2000, Fairbanks. 

Lee, S.T., M. Herrmann, K.R. Criddle and C. Hamel. 2000. The effect of fishery attributes on 

participation rates: the Kenai Peninsula marine sport fishery. Western Agricultural Economics 

Association, Vancouver, Canada. 

Lee, S.T. 1999. Evaluating the benefits of recreational fisheries. Fisheries Centre, University of British 

Columbia, Vancouver, Canada. 

Lee, S.T. 2000. Evaluating the benefits of recreational fisheries. National Marine Fisheries Service 

Socioeconomic Workshop, La Jolla, CA. 

References 

Hamel, C., M. Herrmann, S.T. Lee and K.R. Criddle. 2000. An economic assessment of lower Cook 

Inlet sport fisheries: software program and manual. Developed for Minerals Management 

ServiceNniversity of Alaska Coastal Marine Institute. 

Lee, S.T., M. Herrmann, I. Wedin, K.R. Criddle, C. Hamel and J.A. Greenberg. 1999. Summary of 

angler survey: saltwater sportfishing off the Kenai Peninsula, Alaska. Final Report, Alaska Sea Grant 

Project 98403 R1417.40 p. 
Feeding Ecology of Maturing Sockeye Salmon 

(Oncorhynchus nerka) in Nearshore Waters of the 

Kodiak Archipelago 

Albert V. Tyler <ffavt@uaf.edu> 

Bruce C. Mclntosh <fsbcml@uaf.edu> 

School of Fisheries and Ocean Sciences 

University of Alaska Fairbanks 

Fairbanks, AK 99775-7220 

Charles 0. Swanton ~charles-swanton@fishgame.state.ak.us> 

Alaska Department of Fish and Game 

1300 College Road 

Fairbanks, AK 99701 -1 599 

Task Order 15160 

Abstract 

As demands for additional commercial$sheries opportunities increase, forage species may be sought 

aftev by industry. We are examining the role of forage species as a part of the food energv requirements 

of the sockeye salmon, and looking at the potential impacts that nearshore development in relation to oil 

exploration leases may have on the prey species of the salmon-hence the coupling of this research with 

the Minerals Management Service. The North Shelikof Strait oil and gas lease area is known to be both a 

migration corridor and a foraging area for Kodiak's PaciJic salmon. 

During 1998, a majority of sockeye salmon sampled from Kodiak migration pathways of sockeye were 

shown to be feeding until late July when feeding was reduced, conjirming earlier publishedjindings. Both 

time and area effects on feeding prevalence and dietary content were found to be significant. Feeding 

levels for the population gradually diminish rather than abruptly ceasingprior to the fish entering into 

fresh water. Dominant prey of sockeye salmon were Pagurus crab larvae, Paczjic sandlance (Amrnodytes 

hexapterus), and a pteropod, Limacina helicina. 

Study Products 

Quarterly reports starting July 1998. 

Annual reports for 1998-1 999,1999-2000. 

Annual presentations to CMI TSC on 23 February 1999 and 9 March 2000. 

35-mrn slides from annual presentation have been submitted. 

Field and laboratory data: Data has been recorded on forms especially developed for this project. 

Copies will be submitted to the ADF&G repository at the completion of this project. 
Correction Factor for Ringed Seal Surveys in 

Northern Alaska 

Brendan P. ~elly' <ffbpk@uaf.edu> 

Lori T. ~uakenbush~ <loriq@ims.uaf.edu> 

Brian D. ~aras~ <btaras@ims.uaf.edu> 

1 Juneau Center, School of Fisheries and Ocean Sciences, University of Alaska Fairbanks, 

11 120 Glacier Highway, Juneau, AK 99801 

21nstitute of Marine Science, University of Alaska Fairbanks, Fairbanks, AK 99775-7220 

31nstitute of Northern Engineering, University of Alaska Fairbanks, Fairbanks, AK 99775-5910 

Task Order 15162 

Abstract 

The transition from occupying subnivean lairs to basking on the surface by ringed seals was studied from 

April to June in I999 and 2000 in order to develop a correction factor for aerial surveys. Eight and ten 

ringed seals were live-captured in 1999 and 2000, respectively, and their use of lairs and basking sites 

was monitored by radio telemetry. The distribution of the tagged seals was relatively stable between 

winter and spring as only one seal in two years moved beyond our detection range and did not return. 

The transition period, defined as the period during which the majority (75%) of the tagged seals began 

basking, was longer in 2000 (24 days) than it was in 1999 (7 days). The midpoint of the transition period, 

the day by which 50% of the tagged seals began basking, was 31 May in both years. Only once each year 

was a lair used subsequent to each seal'sfirst basking event. Changes in the number of seals counted 

during ground-based, visual surveys of seals resting on the ice corresponded to changes in the number of 

radio-tagged seals basking. Tagged seals spent approximately 20% of the time out of the water before 

basking began and approximately 30% of the time out of the water after basking began. The transition 

from lair use to basking appeared related to measurable characteristics of the snow. 

Introduction 

Ringed seals are an important resource for Native people of northern and western Alaska, and they are 

an important ecological component of the northern marine ecosystem [McLaren 1958a, b; Stirling and 

Smith 1977; Huntington 19921. Shore-fast ice is important as a breeding habitat for ringed seals, and they 

maintain breathing holes through the ice by abrading it with their claws. The holes become snow-covered 

in the fall or early winter, and the seals continue to breathe at the ice surface but under the snow [Smith 

and Stirling 19751. Where the snow drifts to depths greater than 20 cm above breathing holes, the seals 

may excavate snow caves (lairs). Lairs provide protected sites for seals to rest, give birth, and nurse their 

young. Throughout the winter and early spring, seals occupy lairs exclusively when out of the water. In 

late spring, however, seals lie on top of the ice and snow (bask) next to breathing holes after the snow 

cover collapses or is removed by the seals. 

In the Beaufort Sea, during winter and early spring, the oil industry uses shore-fast ice as a platform for 

seismic surveys, ice roads, ice islands, and gravel island construction. Those activities affect the use of 
shore-fast ice habitat by ringed seals [Burns and Kelly 1982; Kelly et al. 1986, 1988; Bums and Frost 

1988; Richardson et al. 19951. Aerial surveys of ringed seals on the ice have been used to estimate 

population size [Stirling et al. 1977; Kingsley et al. 19851 and their distribution and density, particularly 

with reference to industrial activities [Bums and Harbo 1972; Burns et al. 1981; Bums and Kelly 1982; 

Frost and Lowry 1988, 1998, 1999; Frost et al. 1988, 1997; Richardson and Williams 20001. Temporal 

and spatial comparisons of seal densities have assumed that the proportion of seals not seen is effectively 

constant both within and among years. During aerial surveys, some seals are not visible because they are 

under the ice, and others are not visible because they are in subnivean lairs. Estimates of the proportion of 

seals not seen are needed for estimating absolute population size and to compare densities over time or 

among areas. 

Aerial surveys have been designed to reduce, or control for, the influence of weather on the proportion 

of seals visible. For example, strong winds are thought to decrease the number of seals basking; therefore, 

surveys are not conducted at wind speeds in excess of 37 kmlhr [Kingsley et al. 1985; Frost et al. 1988; 

1997; Frost and Lowry 1988, 1998, 19991. Meteorological data used to decide if the weather conditions 

for a survey are met, however, have been taken from terrestrial sites (typically airports) some distance 

from the sea ice environment and may not be an appropriate surrogate for conditions experienced by 

seals. Furthermore, the weather guidelines were determined based on aerial observations and, therefore, 

data limited to a narrow range of weather conditions. 

We tested the assumption that the proportion of seals visible remains constant by radio-tracking ringed 

seals before, during, and after the conventional aerial survey period. We determined the proportions of 

seals visible during the transition from resting in lairs to resting in the open, and we investigated the 

influence of weather on those proportions. 

Methods 

The study area extends seaward from Prudhoe Bay (70" 22.O'N 148" 22.O'W) to just beyond Reindeer 

Island (70" 29.1'N 148" 21.4'W) in the east and is adjacent to the Northstar oil development area. Shorefast ice covers the area from October to July in most years. Water depths are mostly less than 9 m with a 

maximum of 15 m. Snowfall (measured at Prudhoe Bay) averages between 75 and 100 cm per year. Most 

of the snow falls before January and is redistributed by winds to form drifts at irregularities in the ice 

surface (e.g., pressure ridges) and areas of shallow snow overlying relatively flat ice. 

We located ringed seal lairs and breathing holes using trained dogs [Kelly and Quakenbush 19871. We 

captured seals in nets that pursed below them when they entered breathing holes [Kelly 19961. We glued 

VHF radio transmitters (164-166 MHz) to the seals' hair and subsequently monitored their locations and 

the amount of time they spent out of the water [Kelly and Quakenbush 19901. We monitored radio signals 

hourly using a telemetry receiver with an 8-element Yagi antenna on a 35-ft high tower. We rotated the 

antenna through 360" while monitoring and recorded the direction from which each signal was received. 

Each time a seal came out of the water, as indicated by the presence of its radio signal, we attempted to 

determine whether it was in or outside of a lair by determining the signal location with a hand-held 

directional antenna and viewing the area with binoculars. 

We measured air temperatures inside and outside of lairs using thermistors and Hobo temperature loggers 

(Onset Computer Corporation). Occupation of lairs by seals was indicated by abrupt temperature changes 

in the lairs [Kelly et al. 1986; Smith 1987; Kelly 1988; Kelly and Quakenbush 1990; Kingsley et al. 

19901. Ground-based surveys of seals resting on the ice (outside of lairs) were conducted daily from 

29 May-10 June 2000. An observer using 10 x 40 binoculars counted seals within the area visible from 
the roof of the Seawater Treatment Facility at the end of West Dock. Surveys were conducted at about 

16:OO Alaska daylight time each day. We operated a meteorological station on the ice within the study 

area from 21 April to 8 June 2000. Air temperature, snow temperature (from ice surface to snow surface 

at 5 cm intervals), wind speed, and wind direction were recorded every 30 minutes using a Campbell 

Scientific CRlO data logger and SM192 storage module and an R.M. Young 05 103 wind monitor. By 

examining changes in distribution of liquid water in the snow pack, in snow depth, in the size and 

morphology of snow grains, and in the overall snow landscape we monitored the transformation of the 

snow pack during snowmelt. 

Results 

Within the study area, we located 103 seal holes in 1999 and 113 in 2000. In both years, the ratio of 

breathing holes to lairs was approximately 1 : 1. Lairs were in use prior to an initial survey in early 

December and some were in use until at least 11 June 2000. We captured and radio-tagged eight seals 

in 1999 and ten seals in 2000; three seals were captured more than once. 

The majority of seals used more than one lair and up to four different lairs (Table 1). The only seal not 

tracked to a lair (ELOO) had been basking prior to capture. Radio-tagged seals used from 1-3 basking 

holes and, in 2000, one seal (LAOO) was never found outside of a lair. Similarly, one seal (SP99) was 

still resting exclusively in lairs when we left the ice on 10 June 1999. We did not receive a signal from 

one seal (SLOO) after 15 May. On several occasions after that date, however, LGL Alaska Research 

Associates received that seal's signal while flying in the vicinity of the Northstar oil development. 

Table 1. Ringed seals captured and telemetrically monitored in 1999 and 2000. 

Capture date Seal ID Minimum No. lairs Sex Date of 1st No. basking 

age used basking sites used 

6 May 99 

6 May 99 

13 May 99 

14 May 99 

15 May 99 

21 May 99 

23 May 99 

24 May 99 

25 April 00 

27 April 00 

30 April 00 

1 May 00 

2 May 00 

3 May 00 

6 May 00 

6 May 00 

17 May 00 

18 May 00 

RI99 

SW99 

MA99 

VR99 

SM99 

SP99 

CH99 

OR99 

csoo 

LMOO 

ccoo 

SLOO 

RAOO 

EL00 

PUOO 

ocoo 

LAOO 

IS00 

30 May 99 

21 May 99 

28 May 99 

29 May 99 

3 June 99 

- 

3 June 99 

2 June 99 

17 May 00 

10 June 00 

24 May 00 

- 

31 May 00 

- 

5 June 00 

3 June 00 

>4 June 00 

- 
We revisited six holes where seals were captured in 2000 five or more days afier the capture, and all six 

holes showed evidence of continued use by seals. One seal (RAOO) began basking at the same site where 

she had been captured one month earlier. Another seal (ELOO) continued to bask at his capture site within 

5 days of being captured there. Two different seals were captured at the same hole 7 days apart. As in 

1999, tagged seals (with the above exception noted) remained in the study area. 

We successfully monitored the transition from using lairs to basking in both 1999 and 2000 (Figure 1). 

For the purposes of this report, we define the "transition period" to be the period during which the 

majority of the tagged seals (75%) began basking. Specifically, this period commenced the day the 

second seal began basking and ended when only a single tagged seal continued to occupy a lair. Only 

once each year did a seal use'a lair subsequent to its first basking event. The transition period lasted 

7 days (28 May to 3 June) in 1999 and 24 days (17 May to 10 June) in 2000. In both years, 50% of the 

tagged seals had begun basking by about 3 1 May. In addition to the shift fkom using lairs to basking, the 

amount of time each day spent out of the water increased subsequent to the transition from about 20% to 

about 30% in both years. 

Figure 1. The cumulative proportion of tagged seals basking is plotted as a function of day 

of year. The transition periods for each year are delineated and seal identifiers are 

included. The dates provided are for 2000 (a leap year); add one day to obtain dates 

for 1999. 

m 

.- c 

Y 

0.8 

P 

c 

.- 0 

5 0.6 

a 

2 

Q 

a 

.1 0.4 C, 

- m 

i 

3 

(J 0.2 

I1111~""I'"1~1111I'11'~11'1I""~1"'I""~""I""~'~~'I 

- Lair-to-Bask Transition - 

+ 2000 

- --Et- 1999 - 

- Transition period (2000) 

----- Transition period (1 999) 

- - 

- - 

- - 

EL00 i i 

0.0+IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIlIIIIIIII IIIIIIIIIIIIIII/IIIIIII IIIIIIIf 

110 120 130 140 150 160 170 

(41 1 9) (4129) (519) (51 1 9) 15/29) (618) (611 8) 

Day of year (2000) 
t~air-to-6ask Transition 2000 

Tagged seals 

A Basking Survey 

Basking Survey (polynomial fit) 

- Transition period I --- I 

The trend observed in our ground-based, visual surveys was similar to that obtained from monitoring 

the tagged seals (Figure 2), suggesting that the behavior of the tagged seals was representative of the 

population in the study area. The transition period from lair use to basking occurred as the temperature 

at the snow-ice interface warmed from -5 to O°C. The end of the transition period in both years closely 

corresponded to the day when the temperature near the snow-ice interface reached 0°C and the snow 

became water saturated. 

Day of year (2000) 

Figure 2. Visual counts of basking seals are plotted along with the cumulative proportion 

basking (Figure 1). The trend observed in our ground-based surveys was similar to 

that obtained from monitoring the tagged seals. 

Proportions of the aerial survey time period (10:OO-16:OO) that tagged seals spent using lairs and basking 

are plotted for the transition period in 1999 (Figure 3). Trends in the basking and lair use proportions are 

fit with polynomial curves. These curves show that the time spent basking increased from 0% to about 

40% as lair use decreased from about 15% to 0%. 

We monitored the temperature in twelve lairs in 1999 and twelve lairs in 2000 for periods ranging from 

5-47 days. Distinct diurnal patterns were observed in ambient air temperatures, but temperatures inside 

lairs were stable, as they were heated by the thermally constant seawater and insulated from atmospheric 

temperatures by their snow cover. When a seal entered the lair, its body heat produced a marked increase 

in lair temperature; when the seal left the lair, the temperature dropped quickly (Figure 4 [Figure 1 from 

the 1999 CMI Annual Report]). Temperature records showed that some lairs were in use until at least 

11 June 2000. 
I~l~ll~llll~llll~"ll+ 

Lair use and basking during aerial 

- survey time period (1 0:OO-16:OO) Survey A - 

Lair use 

A Basking ..... Lair use - fit A 

I 

- - A Basking - fit 

- - 

- - 

.............................................* 

- - 

9144444 

145 150 

(5130) 

155 

(5125) (614) 

Day of year (1 999) 

Figure 3. Proportions of the aerial survey time period spent using lairs and basking are 

plotted for the transition period in 1999. Averages are fit with polynomial curves 

to help illustrate the trends in lair use and basking. Surveys A and B refer to 

hypothetical surveys flown at different stages of the transition period. 

Meteorological and snow data are not presented here but will be used to determine the influence of 

weather parameters (wind, temperature, cloud cover) on the proportion of seals basking. 

Discussion 

Seasonal changes in proportions of time spent basking affect the interpretation of aerial survey data. For 

example, surveys flown on 6 June 1999 (Survey A in Figure 3) would count, on average, 40% of the 

population; however, surveys flown on 29 May 1999 (Survey B in Figure 3) would count, on average, 

12% of the population. Inter-annual variability in the duration and timing of the transition period (Figure 1) 

further complicates between-year interpretations of aerial survey data. 
3- Lair 98H021 

2 - - 

Y 

2 

9 I- ' seal exits lair 

2 

g OC3 

-1 - 

-2 3 

\ Seal enters lair -3 . .............. . ... ... . ............ ... . . .... .. .................. . . .. ....... . ............ . .. . .. . . . . .. ................ .. ................ . .. , ,. , , , ................. ...... . ... . . .. .. .... ... .. .. . ...... . ........ .. 

00:W 01:W 02:W 03:W 04:W 0500 06:W 07:W 08:b 09:W 10:W 11:W 12:W 13:W 14:W 15:W 16:W 17:W 18:W 19m 20:W 21:W 220 

TLME 

12 May 1998 

Figure 4. Temperature record of a ringed seal haul out inside a lair found in the 

Beaufort Sea in 1998. 

Previous investigations have found inconsistent relationships between the density of visible ringed seals 

and air temperature, wind speed, and cloud cover [Kingsley et al. 1985; Stirling et al. 1977; Burns and 

Harbo 1972; Burns and Kelly 1982; Frost et al. 19881. We found that the temperature of the snow pack 

(which integrates air temperature, wind speed, and cloud cover) appears to be a good predictor of when 

seals are visible. We observed a longer transition period in 2000 (24 days) than in 1999 (7 days), but 

the periods were centered on nearly the same date. In both years, the transition periods corresponded to 

changes in the temperature of the snow near the snow-ice interface. Most of the radio-tagged seals were 

basking as the temperature of the snow reached 0°C. 

It may be possible to use historical records of snow conditions to estimate the transition period for 

previous years and to correct past surveys for the proportion of ringed seals not visible. Records of snow 

temperature on the ice are lacking, but it may be possible to use snow temperature records from the tundra 

as a proxy. 

We discovered that the transition from dry, insulating snow to wet conductive, snow is visible in Ku-band 

radar backscatter signatures. In collaboration with S.V. Nghiem at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory in 

California, we obtained Ku-band backscatter images of our study area in spring 2000 and were able to 

correlate the transition of radio-tagged seals from lair use to basking with the changes in the radar 

backscatter. The use of the Ku-band radar data as an early indicator of snowrnelt conditions and as a 

means to determine (remotely and in real time) when to fly aerial surveys of ringed seals is worthy of 

further investigation. 
Acknowledgements 

This project is funded by the Coastal Marine Institute (Minerals Management Service), the National 

Marine Mammal Laboratory (National Marine Fisheries Service), and the Natural Resources Fund 

(University of Alaska). ARCO Alaska, Inc. and Phillips Alaska provided extensive logistic support in the 

form of snowmachines, generator, fuel, room and board, air transportation of our field crew, and ground 

transportation of our field gear. Mike Joyce, Linda Allen, Michael Stewrnan and the crew at the Seawater 

Treatment Plant (ARCO Alaska) were extremely helpful with logistics in the field. Special thanks to Ole 

Olsgard and Dennis Wall in the shop for helping us keep everything running. In 1999, Alaska Clean Seas 

provided two snowmachines and the Spill Response Team delivered them directly to our camp. Five 

undergraduate students from the University of Alaska Southeast-Raychelle Daniel, Shannon Crowley, 

Oriana Harding, Karen Blejwas, and Philip Singer-put in many long hours in the field. Two University 

of Alaska Fairbanks graduate students-Michael Simpkins and Jamie Womble-also assisted the project 

in 1999. Oriana Harding continues to be of great assistance in data reduction. Doug Wartzok of the 

University of Missouri provided expertise and assistance in the field. John Bengston and Peter Boveng 

of the National Marine Mammal Laboratory provided PTTs and excellent help in the field in 1999. We 

appreciate the efforts of pilots Dave Neel, Arctic Wilderness Lodge, and Sandy Hamilton, Arctic Air 

Alaska, for flights over our study area in 1999. Kathy Frost and Sue Hills provided coordinates of the 

aerial survey transects flown over our study area and Lloyd Lowry listened for our radio signals when 

those transects were flown. In 1999 and 2000 Michael Williams, LGL Alaska Research Associates, was 

willing to adjust flight altitudes over our study area to minimize disturbance to tagged seals. He and his 

crew assisted us in listening for radio signals during those flights. We are grateful to Matthew Sturm, 

Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, for his assistance in establishing the meteorological 

station and loaning us a portable structure. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service; U.S. Geological Survey, 

Biological Resources Division; the University of Alaska, Institute of Arctic Biology and the Alaska 

Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit assisted our project by loaning telemetry equipment. 

Finally, three Labrador retrievers-Raven, Jambeny, and Reba-made the study possible by locating 

seal holes, often under adverse conditions. 

Study Products 

Two reports on the progress of this project have been delivered in spoken presentations this year. On 

8 March 2000, Brendan Kelly spoke to the Coastal Marine Institute on developing a "Correction factor 

for ringed seal surveys in Northern Alaska" in Fairbanks and on 27 July 2000, Oriana Harding presented 

a seminar on "Activity patterns of ringed seals" to the National Science Foundation Research Experience 

for Undergraduates Symposium in Juneau. 

References 

Burns, J.J., and K.J. Frost. 1988. Winter ecology of ringed seals (Phoca hispida) in Alaska. Final Report, 

OCSEAP Research Unit 232, Part 1, to U.S. Dept. Comm., NOAA, Natl. Ocean Sew., Ocean Assess. 

Div., Alaska Office, Anchorage. 105 p. 

BUGS, J.J., and S.J. Harbo. 1972. An aerial census of ringed seals, northern coast of Alaska. Arctic 

25:279-290. 

Burns, J.J., and B.P. Kelly. 1982. Studies of ringed seals in the Alaskan Beaufort Sea during winter: 

impacts of seismic exploration. Unpublished Annual Report, OCSEAP Research Unit 232, to U.S. Dept. 

Comm., NOAA, Off. Mar. Pollut. Assess., Juneau, AK. 57 p. 
Burns, J.J., B.P. Kelly and K.J. Frost. 1981. Habitat use and winter ecology of ringed seals in the Beaufort 

Sea. Unpublished Annual Report, Part 2, OCSEAP Research Unit 232, to U.S. Dept. Commerce, 

NOAA Office of Marine Pollution Assessment, Juneau, AK. 81 p. 

Frost, K.J., and L.F. Lowry. 1988. Effects of industrial activities on ringed seals in Alaska, as indicated by 

aerial surveys, p. 15-25. In W.M. Sackinger, M.O. Jeffries, J.L. Irnrn and S.D. Treacy [eds.], Port and 

Ocean Engineering Under Arctic Conditions, Vol. 11: Symposium on Noise and Marine Mammals. 

Geophysical Institute, University of Alaska Fairbanks. 

Frost, K.J., and L.F. Lowry. 1998. Monitoring distribution and abundance of ringed seals in northern 

Alaska. Interim Report, April 1997-March 1998. Report from Alaska Department of Fish and Game, 

Fairbanks, AK for Minerals Management Service, Anchorage. 48 p. 

Frost, K.J., and L.F. Lowry. 1999. Monitoring distribution and abundance of ringed seals in northern 

Alaska. Interim Report, April 1998-March 1999. Report from Alaska Department of Fish and Game, 

Fairbanks, AK for Minerals Management Service, Anchorage. 44 p. 

Frost, K.J., L.F. Lowry, J.R. Gilbert and J.J. Burns. 1988. Ringed seal monitoring: Relationships of 

distribution and abundance to habitat attributes and industrial activities. Final Report, OCSEAP 

Research Unit 667, to U.S. Dept. Comm., NOAA, Natl. Ocean Serv., Ocean Assess. Div., Alaska 

Ofice, Anchorage. 101 p. 

Frost, K.J., L.F. Lowry, S. Hills, G. Pendleton and D. DeMaster. 1997. Monitoring distribution and 

abundance of ringed seals in northern Alaska. Alaska Department of Fish and Game. Final interim 

report, May 1996-March 1997, Cooperative agreement 14-35-000 1-308 10. 

Huntington, H.P. [ed.]. 1992. Wildlife Management and Subsistence Hunting in Alaska. Belhaven Press, 

London. 

Kelly, B.P. 1988. Ringed seal, p. 59-75. In J.W. Lentfer [ed.], Selected Marine Mammals of Alaska: 

Species Accounts with Research and Management Recommendations. Marine Mammal Commission, 

Washington, DC. 

Kelly, B.P. 1996. Live capture of ringed seals in ice-covered waters. J. Wildl. Manage. 60:678-684. 

Kelly, B.P., J.J. Bums and L.T. Quakenbush. 1988. Responses of ringed seals Phoca hispida to noise 

disturbance, p.27-38. In W.M. Sackinger, M.O. Jeffr-ies, J.L. Imm and S.D. Treacy [eds.], Port and 

Ocean Engineering Under Arctic Conditions, Vol. 11: Symposium on Noise and Marine Mammals. 

Geophysical Institute, University of Alaska Fairbanks. 

Kelly, B.P., and L.T. Quakenbush. 1987. Trained dogs and wild seals. Whalewatcher, J. Amer. Cetacean 

SOC. 21:8-11. 

Kelly, B.P., and L.T. Quakenbush. 1990. Spatiotemporal use of lairs by ringed seals (Phoca hispida). 

Can. J. Zool. 68:2503-2512. 

Kelly, B.P., L. Quakenbush and J.R. Rose. 1986. Ringed seal winter ecology and effects of noise 

disturbance. Outer Cont. Shelf Environ. Assess. Program, Final Report of Principal Investigators., 

NOAA, Anchorage, OCS Study MMS 89-0026; NTIS PB89-234645.61:447-536. 

Kingsley, M.C.S., M.O. Hammill and B.P. Kelly. 1990. Detecting ringed seal lairs by the heat they radiate. 

Mar. Marnm. Sci. 6:339-347. 

Kingsley, M.C.S., I. Stirling and W. Calvert. 1985. The distribution and abundance of seals in the 

Canadian High Arctic, 1980-82. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 42: 1 189-1210. 

McLaren, I.A. 1958a. The economics of seals in the eastern Canadian Arctic. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. Circular 

No. 1, Montreal. 
McLaren, I.A. 1958b. The biology of the ringed seal seals (Phoca hispida Schreber) in the eastern 

Canadian Arctic. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. Ms. Rep. (Biology) 653. 146 p. 

Richardson, W.J., C.R. Greene, Jr., C.I. Malme and D.H. Thomson. 1995. Marine Mammals and Noise. 

Academic Press, San Diego. 

Richardson, W.J., and M.T. Williams [eds.] 2000. Monitoring of ringed seals during construction of ice 

roads for BP's Northstar oil development, Alaskan Beaufort Sea, 1999. Report from LGL Alaska 

Research Associates Inc., Anchorage, AK and Silver Spring, MD. 103 p. 

Smith, T.G. 1987. The ringed seal, Phoca hispida, of the Canadian western Arctic. Can. Bull. Fish. Aquat. 

Sci. 216. Ottawa. 81 p. 

Smith, T.G., and I. Stirling. 1975. The breeding habitat of the ringed seal (Phoca hispida): The birth lair 

and associated structures. Can. J. Zool. 53: 1297-1305. 

Stirling, I., W.R. Archibald and D. DeMaster. 1977. Distribution and abundance of seals in the eastern 

Beaufort Sea. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 34:976-988. 

Stirling, I., and N.A. 0ritsland. 1995. Relationships between estimates of ringed seal (Phoca hispida) and 

polar bear (Ursus maritimus) populations in the Canadian Arctic. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 

52:2594-2612. 

Stirling, I., and T.G. Smith. 1977. Interrelationships of Arctic Ocean mammals in the sea ice habitat, 

p. 129-136. In Circumpolar Conference on Northern Ecology. Section 11. Natl. Res. Council. Ottawa. 
Circulation, Thermohaline Structure, and Cross-Shelf 

Transport in the Alaskan Beaufort Sea 

Thomas J. Weingartner <weingart@ims.uaf.edu> 

Institute of Marine Science 

University of Alaska Fairbanks 

Fairbanks, AK 99775-7220 

Knut Aagaard <aagaard@apl.washington.edu> 

Applied Physics Laboratory 

University of Washington 

1013 NE 40th Street 

Seattle, WA 981 05-6698 

In collaboration with: 

Taketoshi Takazawa 

Japan Marine Science and Technology Center (JAMSTEC), Yokosuka, Japan 

Eddy C. Carmack 

Department of Fisheries and Oceans, Institute of Ocean Sciences, Sidney, British Columbia, Canada 

The Canadian and Japanese partners are providing 

in-kind (matching) support to this project through shiptime 

(Japan and Canada) and instrumented moorings (Japan). 

Task Order I 51 63 

Abstract 

This program has collected hourly time series of ocean velocity, temperature, and salinity properties from 

moored instruments deployed along the outer shelfand slope of the Alaskan Beaufort Sea for a period 

of one year. The goals are to: 1) quantiJjl the vertical and cross-shore spatial and temporal scales of 

variability in the circulation and the density (thermoha1ine)Jield in this region, and 2) estimate the 

transport within the eastwardflowing subsurface undercurrent. The flow and the density structure on the 

outer shelfand slope affect the cross-shelf transfer of momentum, water properties (heat, salt, nutrients, 

etc.), contaminants, andpollutants. The region is also an important migratory corridor for marine 

mammals, particularly bowhead whales that feed here during part of the year. Previous measurements 

showed that the near surface flow here (< -50 m depth), and over the inner she& is westward and forced 

by the winds. However, flow reversals are common and often a result of upwelling of the undercurrent. 

Further, the pressure field responsible for the undercurrent must influence the dynamics of the inner 

shelJ: The undercurrent originates in the eastern Arctic as a result of injlow through Fram Strait and 

is fed by outflows from the Eurasian shelfseas. Hence it is circumpolar in its extent and in its water 

properties. It could thus transport pollutants from these regions to the Alaskan she& The proposed 

observations will provide information crucial in guiding model development and evaluating the 

performance of pollution transport models. The study site is practical @om the resource manager's 

perspective and for logistical reasons) and optimal from a scientflcperspective, for measurements here 

will capture the integrated effects of the circumpolar forcing which we believe force the undercurrent. 
Background and Framework Issues 

Flow along the Alaskan Beaufort Sea shelf is influenced by the flow along the adjoining slope and 

shelfbreak. That flow field is complicated and consists of a surface (upper 50 m), westward flow and a 

subsurface, eastward flow. The surface flow is wind-driven and forced by the prevailing northeasterly 

wind field. It is the southern limb of the clockwise Beaufort Sea Gyre. The kinematic properties (vertical 

and horizontal motion scales, speeds, transports, and temporal and spatial scales of variability) are poorly 

described. The dynamics of the subsurface flow (also know as the Beaufort Undercurrent, Aagaard 

[1989]) are not understood but include a number of influences: both the local and far-field alongshore 

winds, inflows from the continental shelves bordering the Arctic Ocean to the west of the Beaufort Sea, 

and inflows from the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. 

We believe that regional (Beaufort Sea shelf) oil spill trajectory models will need to include the influence 

of the circulation along the shelfbreak and slope in order to correctly assess the fate and transport of 

contaminants into the local marine environment. Our observations will guide model development and 

evaluation. 

Objectives 

The overall purpose of this program is to provide a kinematical and, where possible, dynamical 

description of the circulation, thermohaline structure, and cross-shelf transport along the Beaufort Sea 

shelfbreak and slope. To achieve this goal the field and data analysis portion of the program is designed 

to address the following questions and objectives: 

1. What is the mean transport over the outer shelf and slope and what are the cross-shore 

and vertical scales of the mean flow field? 

2. What are the magnitudes of transport variability and what are the dominant temporal 

and spatial scales associated with this variability? 

3. What is the relation between variations in temperature and salinity and variations 

in the flow field at time scales from the synoptic to the seasonal? Are changes in 

the baroclinic flow consistent with changes in the cross-shore density structure? 

4. What are the cross-shore fluxes of heat, salt, and momentum? Do these appear to 

be related to instabilities (eddy generation mechanisms) of the alongshore flow? 

5. How are these variations related to changes in the surface wind field? 

6. Compare the results obtained from the proposed field program with those collected 

in 1987188 by Aagaard et al. 119891 to determine whether recent large changes in 

the Arctic Ocean are also reflected in conditions in the Beaufort Sea. 

7. Combine this data set with other measurements recently acquired from around the 

Arctic Ocean to provide an updated synthesis that relates the Beaufort Sea to the 

large-scale circulation of the Arctic Ocean. 

Met hods 

We are completing the field program, which has included the deployment of six instrumented moorings 

at the locations listed in Table 1 and shown in Figure 1. Mooring deployments (fall 1998) and recoveries 

(fall 1999) were conducted from the CCGS Sir Wilfred Laurier. Figure 2 shows the vessel and Figure 3 
shows a portion of the mooring deployment operation on the well deck. All of the moorings were 

recovered in fall 1999 except for B4. The acoustic releases did not appear to be responding when we 

attempted recovery. However, persistently bad weather (high winds, freezing spray) limited the amount 

of effort that could be expended in the search for this mooring to only a few hours. The program was 

extended for an additional year so that a more intensive effort could be applied to recovering this 

mooring. The CCGS Sir Wilfied Laurier is now (September 2000) in the Beaufort Sea searching for 

this mooring. We will be analyzing these data in conjunction with the surface wind field computed fiom 

sea level pressure fields prepared by the European Center for Medium Range Weather Forecasting 

(ECMWF). We have obtained these pressure fields from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric 

Administration's National Center for Atmospheric Research (NOAA, NCAR). 

Table 1. 1998 Beaufort Sea mooring deployments. 

TIC Depth (m) 

Mooring ID lsobath Current Meter Depth (m) (M-Cats at 60 rn; Latitude (N) Longitude (W) (m) RCM = Default; F = FSI S-Cats 

MAIN ARRAY 

84-98 80 50,70 none 70" 54.30' 146" 41.15' 

60990, 1203 150, 700 56.94' BFS-g8 500 50,90,180,240,400 (S4+CT) (JAMSTEC) 180, 210, 240 146" 35.48' 

83-98 1200 50,150,250,400,900 60, 125,200,300 71" 00.78' 146" 36.58' 

B4-98 1700 50,250, 500,800 (F), 1200 60, 125,200,300 71" 07.46' 146" 31.27' 

B5a-98 1000 50,250, 500, 1000 (F), 1500 60, 125,200,300 70" 35.62' 139" 57.54' 

WESTERN MOORING (JAMSTEC) 

BF-K-98 120 none 71 " 23.00' 152" 04.72' 60,65 (600 kHz ADCP), 95, 

108,115 

Ancillary Programs 

This mooring program complements two additional programs being undertaken simultaneously by the 

principal investigators. The first is sponsored by the Office of Naval Research (ONR) and is an 

investigation of the circulation and thermohaline structure of the Chukchi-Beaufort continental slope. 

It employed the unique sampling capabilities of a U.S. Navy nuclear submarine (SSN Hawkbill) operating 

beneath the ice pack. The sampling included underway measurements of temperature and salinity at a 

depth of -130 m from a sail-mounted CTD and submarine-launched expendable CTDs (SSXCTD). Such 

data are helping to determine the decorrelation length scale of the along-slope density field, the magnitude 

and structure of the alongshore baroclinic pressure gradient, and along-slope variations in the cross-slope 

baroclinic pressure gradient. These measurements are directly related to the scales of cross-slope 

exchanges and forcing mechanisms for the eastward-flowing undercurrent. The second program, 

sponsored by NOAA, supported moorings in Bering Strait. The purpose of this program is to monitor 

transport and water mass variations in Bering Strait. Since the flow through the strait eventually feeds 

the flows along the Beaufort slope, these data are relevant to this CMI program. The strait measurement 

program results in a nearly 10-year-long time series of direct transport measurements in Bering Strait. 

This time series will allow us to discuss the data from the Beaufort slope mooring program in the context 

of interannual and seasonal variability of the flow through Bering Strait. 
Figure 1. Bathymetric map of the Alaskan Beaufort Sea region showing locations of the moorings listed in Table 1. The numbered 

locations indicate positions where submarine launched expendable conductivity-temperature-depth probes (SSXCTDs) were 

launched from the SSN Hawkbill in April 1999. 
Figure 2. The Sir Wilfred Laurier, the Canadian Coast Guard 

icebreaker that supported the mooring operations during 

this program. 

Figure 3. Deployment of one of the Beaufort Sea moorings fkom 

the well-deck of the Sir Wilfred Laurier. 
Preliminary Results 

We briefly outline two results that illustrate the data we have gathered. Figure 4 shows time series of the 

north-south (V), east-west (U), temperature, and salinity from mooring B398 at the 150-m depth. The data 

have been smoothed with a 3-day running mean to focus on the low-frequency features. Note that most of 

the flow is in the east-west component, indicating that it approximately parallels the local isobaths. The 

along-slope flow varies throughout the year, being weak and variable from July through October 1998, 

strongly eastward fkom November 1998 through March 1999, and weak but generally westward from 

May through September 1999. By contrast, the north-south velocity component is comparatively weak, 

suggesting that there is little onshore-offshore flow. Temperature and salinity variations are closely 

correlated throughout the record indicating water masses from within and below the Arctic Ocean's 

halocline. Indeed, over most of the record the temperature range is between -0.4 and 0.2"C and the salinities 

are between 34.5 and 34.8. These water mass characteristics are those of Atlantic Ocean waters that entered 

the Arctic Ocean through Fram Strait and flowed counter-clockwise around this basin. 

B398 150 m 3-day running mean (preliminary data) 

Figure 4. From top to bottom are time series of the salinity, temperature, east-west (U), and 

north-south (V) velocity components from mooring B398 at the 150-m depth. Each time 

series was smoothed with a 3-day running mean to highlight longer period fluctuations. 
Figure 5 shows the along-shore dynamic height obtained from the SSXCTDs collected by the SSN 

Hawkbill in April 1999. These data show a trough in the dynamic height at about 150" W (longitude 210). 

The dynamic height slopes upward to the east and west of the trough. The structure of the along-slope 

dynamic height field (in conjunction with the cross-shore dynamic height which is not shown) implies a 

flow with eastward velocity shear (eastward velocities increase and westward velocities decrease with 

decreasing depth) to the west of 150" W and westward velocity shear (westward velocities increase and 

eastward velocities decrease with decreasing depth) to the west of 150" W. The dynamic height picture 

is consistent with the velocity time series from Figure 5 that shows that the eastward flow at the 150-m 

depth decreased from early winter 1998-99 to April 1999. The joint analyses of these data are ongoing. 

0.00 

200 205 210 21 5 2 2 0 

Longitude 

Figure 5. The variation in dynamic height at selected depths (and all referenced to 

600 db) from west to east along the Beaufort Sea slope in April 1999. 

References 

Aagaard, K. 1989. A synthesis of the Arctic Ocean circulation. Rapp. P.-V. Reun. Cons. Int. Explor. Mer 

188: 1 1-22. 

11 14 15 17 22 23 27 30 33 

SSXCTD # 
The Alaskan Frozen Tissue Collection and Associated 

Electronic Database: A Resource for Marine 

Biotechnology 

Joseph A. Cook <ffjac@uaf.edu> 

Gordon H. Jarrell <fnghj@uaf.edu> 

Amy M. Runck <ftamr@uaf.edu> 

John S. Chythlook ~john~chythlook@fishgame.state.ak.us~ 

University of Alaska Museum 

University of Alaska Fairbanks 

Fairbanks, AK 99775-6960 

Task Order 151 64 

Abstract 

The Alaska Frozen Tissue Collection (AFTC) is the primary regional archive for frozen zoological 

samples and a major contributor to biotechnology studies of the North Pacific and Arctic oceans. 

Between I July 1999 and 30 June 2000, the AFTC accessioned tissues from 822 marine mammals. This 

was more than double the number of marine mammal specimens acquired in typical recent years and 

reJects an exceptionally large accession of walrus samples. Frozen tissue loans (n = 12) representing 128 

individual animals have been made to ongoing research projects. Database development has expanded 

onto a highly professional system and is being integrated across all of the Museum's biological 

collections. The AFTC has played a signal role in attracting National Science Foundation support for the 

Museum's Arctic Archival Observatory. 

Introduction 

Long-term monitoring of biological change in marine ecosystems dictates long-term accumulation 

of data. Because it is difficult to predict which data will be important, or even what methods may be 

available, accumulation of well-documented specimens is crucial to assessing change. This mandates 

permanent, cooperative archives with appropriate protocols for sharing specimens and associated data, 

such as the Alaska Frozen Tissue Collection (AFTC). 

For the past year, CMI has provided a coordinator for the AFTC in the form of a graduate student 

assistantship dedicated to recruiting and processing marine animals from subsistence hunting. CMI has 

also provided auxiliary support for supplies and travel, and the Museum has matched this funding with 

a state-funded student assistantship that was initially created from earlier CMI support. The objectives 

of this project were to (1) expand the marine sector of the AFTC, (2) establish an online catalog of the 

AFTC, and (3) commit the university to long-term support of the AFTC subsistence coordinator. 
This project and earlier CMI support have made the AFTC into the primary regional archive for 

frozen zoological samples. For at least two reasons, this is a substantial contribution to the scientific 

infrastructure: 

1. Improved methods for extracting data from DNA sequences, stable isotope signatures, 

and trace element concentrations are making the historical archives found in museums 

crucial to the study of long-term ecological change. Older specimens in collections are 

becoming important for interpreting past environments (baseline conditions). Material 

now being archived will serve such functions better in the future. Ultracold storage of 

biological tissues preserves a broad suite of biochemical characteristics and is an 

efficient means of preserving specimens for such studies. 

2. The AFTC facilitates cost-effective use of specimens. Many assessment and inventory 

projects generate important sampling opportunities, frequently at tremendous expense. 

Such projects are usually short term because of funding limitations and in the past few 

have gathered or archived specimens. Now, through extensive cooperative efforts, the 

AFTC is becoming a long-term, specimen-based record of the biotic environment of 

the North Pacific and Arctic oceans. Unique and important material is being made 

available to the general scientific community in perpetuity, and AFTC specimens are 

being used extensively in ongoing research. The value of CMI support will be realized 

as future investigations call for, or are designed around, the use of archived samples. 

Molecular analyses (e.g., DNA sequences) are now basic to defining and managing natural populations. 

These techniques are providing insight into social systems [Karl and Bowen 19991, effective population 

size, lineage divergence [O'Corry-Crowe et al. 1998; Avise 19941 and the effects of inbreeding and 

outbreeding depression [O'Brien et al. 1985; Ralls et al. 19881. DNA sequencing has eclipsed much of 

the stock-delimiting work formerly done by electrophoresis of allelic proteins [Moritz 1994; Brooks et al. 

19921. Improvements in sequencing technology are yielding more data per sample at lower costs and 

streamlining the processing of larger sample sizes. This work relies on cryogenically archived specimens. 

Frozen tissue collections are also important in studies of epidemiology in wild populations. Crises such as 

the distemper epidemic in North Atlantic gray and harbor seals (see Dickson [I9881 for an early review) 

suggest that we should be building a baseline of tissue samples for Alaskan marine organisms. Blood 

samples archived in the AFTC were used to screen for seal (phocine) distemper subsequent to the 

epidemic in the North Sea. Hundreds of AFTC samples have been used in three projects screening for 

hantavirus and babesiosis in Alaska rodents. Epidemic diseases of wildlife can only be understood when 

the baseline levels of infection are known. Good baseline data require material collected over many years. 

Both frozen samples and samples from standard dry museum specimens are being used to examine carbon 

and other stable isotope signatures in several marine species (Don Schell, University of Alaska Fairbanks, 

Institute of Marine Science [UAFIIMS]; James Burton, University of Wisconsin; Merav Ben-David, 

UAF Institute of Arctic Biology). These are powerful new methods for tracking biologically important 

elements through ecosystems. 

Frozen tissues can also be used as indicators of environmental toxicity [McBee and Bickham 19901, 

particularly when high trophic level organisms are archived. Samples from older, dry museum specimens 

have been particularly significant because they often represent pre-disturbance, baseline conditions. 

Temporal changes in environmental mercury, over a span of decades, are currently being examined in the 

annual growth segments of bowhead (Balaena mysticetus) baleen archived in the Mammal Collection. 
In order to provide tissues for research such as this, the AFTC must continue to develop and maintain 

a broad coverage of Alaskan marine organisms. This can only be done by coordinating the efforts of 

potential collectors, and by maintaining easy access for the research community. 

Collection Growth 

Approximately 4,900 mammal specimens were added to the collection and about 17% of these were 

marine mammals. Table 1 outlines the major marine mammal accessions. 

Table 1. Major marine mammal accessions. 

A single accession of 506 walrus tissue samples accounts for most of this increment and puts the year's 

growth well above what would have otherwise been a typical healthy year's increase in marine mammal 

holdings. Marine Mammal Management at the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) transferred the walrus 

samples to the AFTC. Sue Hills collected the samples in 1992 during a USAIRussia pinniped research 

cruise in the Bering Sea. This accession will certainly form the basis for several studies over the next few 

years. The USGS Marine Mammals Management program may initiate a study of population structure of 

North Pacific walrus this year. 

Other important accessions included a total of 129 harbor seals coming to us from Alaska Department 

of Fish and Game (ADF&G) biologists through a co-management agreement between the Alaska Native 

Harbor Seal Commission and the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS). Additional samples of 

historic interest were acquired, including skulls, teeth, claws, jaws, a fetus, and bacula from 80 phocid 

seals collected by ADF&G from 1967 to 1985. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) provided 
nineteen sea otter skulls, some collected in the 1960s by the noted zoologist, Karl Kenyon. Calvin 

Lensink (USFWS, retired) donated 22 sea otter skulls with bacula. 

Collection Use 

A dozen loans involving marine mammal material acquired with CMI support were conducted: 

Donald Siniff of the University of Minnesota requested two more blood samples 

from Antarctic Weddell seals collected in 199 1 for paternity analyses (at Curtis 

Strobeck's lab, University of Alberta) in order to complete a pedigree of the White 

Island population and test genetic distances and population subdivision in the 

McMurdo Sound region. These investigators have indicated that they will archive 

samples from two decades of work on Weddell seals in the AFTC. 

Don Schell's laboratory used frozen tissues from twelve western arctic bowhead 

whales in a study to determine the importance of the eastern part of the Alaskan 

Beaufort Sea as a spring feeding area. 

Peter Boveng of the National Marine Mammal Lab received teeth from 45 harbor 

seals for age analysis. The ages are being used in an age class and capture study that 

is necessary for effective harbor seal management. 

Alan Springer at UAFIIMS received teeth from twelve sea lions for age analysis. 

Michael Castellini and Heather Harmon of the Alaska SeaLife Center and UAFIIMS 

received pituitary and pineal glands from six Steller sea lions and one fur seal. These 

glands will be used in reproductive hormone analysis. Little is known about their 

reproductive endocrinology, and evidence suggests that their reproductive rates may 

have decreased over the past several decades. 

Forty-seven blubber samples from harbor seals were loaned to Sara Iverson at 

Dalhousie University, Nova Scotia. These samples will be used in an ongoing study 

screening blubber samples for contaminants. 

Tissue samples from 21 harbor seals were sent to Greg O'Corry-Crowe (NMFS 

Southwest Fisheries Center, La Jolla) for ongoing analyses of the genetic structure 

of the Alaska populations. 

Six seal skeletons were loaned to National Park Service (NPS) archeologist Becky 

Saleeby (NPS Anchorage) for use in a course on faunal analysis of archeological 

middens. 

Tissue samples from 28 sea otters were sent to Klaus Koepfli in Robert Wayne's 

laboratory at UCLA for a study of geographic population structure of the entire 

species. 

Educational donations of a belukha skull were made to Kate Wynne of the UAF 

Marine Advisory Program at Kodiak and of a sea otter skull to Kay Furman of the 

Staatliches Museum fiir Naturkunde, Oldenburg, Germany. A polar bear skull was 

loaned to Brendan Kelly (University of Alaska Southeast) for a student project on 

bear craniology. 
Computerization and Information Technology 

Database development for the AFTC is now intertwined with the larger initiative of bringing all of the 

Museum's biological collections into the comprehensive database of the new Arctic Archival Observatory 

(AAO). The Museum has received funding from the National Science Foundation (NSF) to develop the 

AAO as a first part of NSF's National Ecological Observatory Network (NEON). A key part of this 

project is to create a web-based, georeferenced database of a wide variety of ecological samples. 

Conceptual development has been catalyzed by ongoing CMI support. 

Since 1996, the AFTC has had a summary database of its holdings on the world wide web. This site also 

allows users to interrogate a summary of the Museum's Mammal Collection that provides information on 

all AFTC samples and conventional museum specimens. It is an excellent overview of our holdings and, 

increasingly, requests for tissues are explicit, indicating that the requestor is already familiar with our 

holdings. 

We are now engaged in implementing a far more sophisticated system on an enterprise-caliber platform. 

The 1 10-table database is running in Oracle software on a dedicated Sun Microsystems server. The 

database architecture and the development environment for user and client interfaces are identical 

to those at the University of California's (Berkeley) Museum of Vertebrate Zoology 

(http://elib.cs.berkeley.edu,mvz). MVZ's programmer, John Wieczorek, is in the final stages of migrating 

mammal records into the system, and the AAO's full-time programmer, Dorothy Corbett, is now working 

with him on expanding the model and developing interfaces for our other biological collections. 

Students 

John Chythlook and Amy Runck, both of whom were supported by CMI-funded graduate research 

assistantships in the AFTC, defended their M.S. theses this spring. John is now working in fisheries 

management with ADF&G and Amy is continuing with AFTC under NSF support. 

Conclusions 

The Alaska Frozen Tissue Collection has continued to expand its holdings and its utility. Development 

of the collection database is accelerating rapidly and allowing the University of Alaska Museum to apply 

information technology to collection documentation and management. Web access is allowing a wide 

clientele to access and expand this resource. CMI support has built the AFTC into a widely used and 

internationally recognized scientific resource and was integral to the creation of the Arctic Archival 

Observatory. 

References 

Avise, J. 1994. Molecular markers, natural history, and evolution. Chapman and Hall, New York. 

Brooks, D.R., R.L. Mayden and D.A. McLennan. 1992. Phylogeny and biodiversity conserving our 

evolutionary legacy. Trends Res. Ecol. Evol. 7:55-59. 

Dickson, D. 1988. Canine distemper may be killing North Sea seals. Science 241 :1284. 

Karl, S.A., and A. Bowen. 1999. Evolutionary significant units versus geopolitical taxonomy: Molecular 

systematics of an endangered sea turtle (genus Chelonia). Conserv. Biol. 13:990-999. 
McBee, K. and J.W. Bickham. 1990. Mammals as bioindicators of environmental toxicity, p. 37-88. 

In H.H. Gains [ed.], Current Mammalogy, Vol. 2. Plenum Publishing Corp. 

Moritz, C. 1994. Applications of mitochondria1 DNA analysis in conservation: A critical review. Mol. 

Ecol. 3:401-4 1 1. 

OYBrien, S.J., M.E. Roelke and L. Marker. 1985. Genetic basis for species vulnerability in the cheetah. 

Science 227: 1428-1434. 

OYCorry-Crowe, G.M., R.S. Suydam, A. Rosenberg, K.J. Frost and A.E. Dizon. 1998. Phylogeography, 

population structure and dispersal patterns of the beluga whale Delphinapterus leucas in the western 

Nearctic revealed by mitochondria1 DNA. Mol. Ecol. 6:955-970. 

Ralls, K., J.D. Ballou and A. Templeton. 1988. Estimates of lethal equivalents and the cost of inbreeding 

in mammals. Conserv. Biol. 2: 185-193. 
Beaufort Sea Nearshore Under-Ice Currents: 

Science Analysis and Logistics 

Thomas J. Weingartner <weingart@ims.uaf.edu> 

Institute of Marine Science 

University of Alaska Fairbanks 

Fairbanks, AK 99775-7220 

Task Order 15169 

Abstract 

We are measuring and will analyze currents in the landfast (nearshore) ice zone of the Beaufort Sea 

in the vicinity of Prudhoe Bay, Alaska. Our objective is to quantzfi the circulation variability in this 

region where current measurements are largely lacking during the freeze-up, ice-covered, and ice melt 

seasons. This information is deemed critical for designing oil spill response protocols for offshore 

drilling operations in the Northstar and Liberty$elds. The data will also be useful in evaluating regional 

numerical circulation models that would be used for oil spill trajectory predictions. Although these 

are the principal reasons for undertaking this study the data is expected to have broader scientific 

applications to other Arctic shelves. For example, current energy is expected to be low beneath the 

landfast ice zone, implying little vertical mixing. Low vertical mixing has potentially important 

implications on the formation offionts and the circulation structure on the inner she& These data will 

enable us to better understand mixingprocesses on the innermost portion of Arctic shelves. 

Background and Relevance to Framework Issues 

Liberty and Northstar oil prospects are on-line for development in the near future, with construction 

activities beginning at Northstar in 2000. There is considerable concern these actions might impact 

nearshore biota. The Minerals Management Service (MMS) Alaska Outer Continental Shelf Region is 

requiring integrated studies of key issues, including long-term impacts on benthiclkelp communities and 

other sensitive resources. 

Understanding the under-ice currents is a necessary precursor to estimating potential effects of oil spills 

on sensitive resources in the landfast ice zone, and in particular at the Liberty project. The one prior study 

of under-ice currents supported by MMS [reported by Matthews 198 11 was made within Stefansson 

Sound (Figure 1). His measurements indicated that under-ice oil spills can move off-site and risk 

nearshore resources. This risk cannot be evaluated with the standard MMS oil risk analysis based on 

regional circulation. Another important question is whether the under-ice currents could transport 

suspended sediments from the development area to the nearby Boulder Patch and endanger kelp during 

the critical under-ice growth period. 

Under-ice current speed and direction are important because currents of 10-20 cmls will move spilled oil 

along the underside of the ice. Matthews [I9811 found that average currents under landfast ice appeared 

to be related to brine drainage and peak currents to wind-forced, negative surges. He did not measure 
currents directly under the ice, but estimated these from mass-balance considerations. Under-ice currents 

averaged 6 cmls and had a maximum onshore speed of 37 cmls. We caution that the model assumptions 

might not be correct, but if they are, these speeds imply onshore displacements of approximately 3 and 20 

nautical mileslday. Alongshore currents appeared to have similar magnitudes. Actual currents might be 

swifter if the water column is stratified. Note that we expect wind-forced currents to dominate in this 

region as tidal currents are only about 2 cmls [Kowalik and Proshutinsky 19941. 

-1 48" 48' -148" 36' -148" 24' -148" 12' -148" 00' -1 47" 48' -1 47" 36' -1 47" 24' -1 47" 12' I I I I I I I 

W a @% 

0 

70" 27' -" rn Argo - 70" 27' 

Dinkum I- 70' 24' 

Figure 1. Regional map showing location of current meter moorings. 

Matthews' [ 198 11 measurements, made from mid-November 1978 through February 1979, were obtained 

within Stefansson Sound, a shallow lagoon bounded offshore by barrier islands. We anticipate that the 

lagoon circulation is less energetic than the flow offshore of the barrier islands. In this regard, his 

measurements are probably more applicable to the Liberty development than to Northstar. Moreover, his 

measurements did not include the early fall period of vigorous ice growth and the developing landfast ice 

cover. We expect under-ice currents to be swifier during this period, as the ice is still mobile and therefore 

effective in transmitting the momentum from the winds to the underlying ocean. We expect that until the 

landfast ice cover is established, the drag of the ice over the ocean will form a fiictional boundary layer 

(e.g., very large vertical gradients in ocean velocity) in the surface layer. Finally, his measurements did 

not include the effects of river runoff, which increases rapidly in early summer when fast ice is still 

present. The river plume will spread under the ice, likely forming strong vertical velocity gradients with 

maximum speeds near the bottom of the ice. 

Landfast ice is an immobile lid that inhibits the flux of wind energy into the water column. Apriori we 

expect that portion of the inner shelf covered by landfast ice to be relatively quiescent. This zone typically 

lies shoreward of the 20 m isobath [Reimnitz 19781. In summer this region receives a large influx of river 

water with much of the discharge flowing under the landfast ice. Whether this freshwater mixes with 

ambient shelfwater, and if it does, how this mixing evolves, is crucial in the seasonal evolution of the 

shelf circulation [Chapman and Lentz 1994; Yankofsky and Chapman 1997; Weingartner et al. 19991. 
Goal and Objectives 

The goal and objectives of this project are to provide direct measurement of winter under-ice currents 

in the vicinity of the Liberty and Northstar projects to help MMS and the Alaska Department of 

Environmental Conservation (ADEC) evaluate oil-spill and sedimentation risk to the nearshore Beaufort 

Sea, including the Boulder Patch and other local resources. The specific objectives are to: 

I. Deploy three instrumented moorings in the vicinity of the Liberty and Northstar 

projects for a period of one year. The moorings will collect velocity, temperature, 

salinity, and transmissivity data at hourly intervals. Transmissivity is a proxy for the 

suspended sediment load in the water column. 

2. Quantify the variability of the current meter and local wind records and their 

relationship to each other. 

3. Determine the vertical structure of the currents throughout the water column and how 

this structure changes with the development of the landfast ice through winter and in 

summer when the ice melts and rivers flood the inner shelf. 

Results 

This project commenced in May 1999 with the purchase of the instrumentation. From June through July 

1999 mobilization for the fieldwork took place at the University of Alaska Fairbanks Institute of Marine 

Science's Seward Marine Center (Seward, Alaska). During this time the instruments arrived from the 

manufacturer, the mooring frames were built and the equipment was prepared for shipment to Prudhoe Bay. 

Three instrumented mooring frames were deployed in the Prudhoe Bay vicinity in August 1999. Figure 1 

shows a map of the region, including the three deployment sites (Argo, Dinkum, McClure). The specifics 

of these moorings are given in the accompanying table (Table 1); Figure 2 shows a frame (fabricated from 

fiberglass angle stock) and the instruments installed on it. The instruments were configured to collect 

current, temperature, salinity, turbidity, and subsurface pressure at hourly intervals. They are to be 

recovered in August-September 2000. (Recovery operations were underway during the preparation of 

this annual report.) The instruments were deployed from MMS vessel "1273". 

Each mooring also includes an Edgetech AMTR200 ReleaseITransducer that sends and receives acoustic 

signals when remotely interrogated. These instruments will be used during recovery operations to locate 

the moorings. The release mechanism is hooked to a float that will rise to the surface and that trails a line 

to the mooring frame. Retrieval of the mooring would begin by hooking onto the float and then hauling 

the line. Each mooring also includes a 27 kHz pinger as a backup for recovery. The pinger allows divers 

to locate the mooring should the release or floats fail or visibility be obstructed. Figure 3 gives an idea 

of the frame dimensions in comparison to the 6-ft tall Dr. Okkonen. The ADCP (yellow plastic cover) is 

mounted in the top and center of the frame. The instrument is installed on gimbals so that the ADCP 

transducers point straight up even if the frame is tilted while resting on the seabed. 

BP, Inc. provided matching support through logistics and lodging. Funds for the purchase of the 

equipment used in this program were provided by the Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation. 
Table 1. Mooring specifics. 

Time Latitude (N) Longitude (W) Bottom Depth (GMT, 1998, Instrumentation Name 

I 200 HZ ADCP', Argo 70" 27.177' 148" 12.722' 13 Aug: 1821 8.4 m (27.7 ft) Microcat with pressure senso* 

1200 kHz ADCP', Seacat Dinkum 70" 24.352' 147" 53.656' 14 Aug: 1837 6.8 rn (22.4 ft) with transmissometer3, 

1200 kHz ADCP' , Seacat McClure 70" 20.204' 147" 32.701' 14 Aug: 2007 6.7 rn (22.2 ft) with transmissometer3 

1 1200 kHz ADCP is an Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler which measures velocity every 0.5 m throughout the water 

column including to within - 0.5 m beneath the ice. These instruments transmit sound at a 1200 kHz and then measure 

the Doppler shift of the backscattered signal. The ADCPs depend upon scatterers (density discontinuities, zooplankton, 

flocculated material) suspended in the water column. Internal software reconstructs the current profile throughout the 

water column at a high vertical and temporal resolution. The instruments are also capable of measuring ice displacement 

as a function of time. This feature will be particularly valuable during fall fieeze-up and spring break-up when the landfast 

ice is mobile. The data will provide us with infoxmation on the difference in velocities between the bottom of the ice and 

the near-surface portion of the water column. 2 Microcats measure temperature, salinity and water pressure. 3 Seacats are similar to the Microcats but also measure transmissivity (turbidity). 

Figure 2. Close up of mooring frame with instrument package. 
Figure 3. Frame dimensions in comparison to the 6-fi tall Dr. Okkonen. 

References 

Chapman, D.C., and S.J. Lentz. 1994. Trapping of a coastal density front by the bottom boundary layer. 

J. Phys. Oceanogr. 24:1464-1479. 

Kowalik, Z., and A.Y. Proshutinsky. 1994. The Arctic Ocean tides, p. 137-1 58. In O.M. Johannessen, 

R.D. Muench and J.E. Overland [eds.], The Polar Oceans and Their Role in Shaping the Global 

Environment. Geophys. Monogr. 85, American Geophysical Union, Washington, DC. 

Matthews, J.B. 198 1. Observations of under-ice circulation in a shallow lagoon in the Alaskan Beaufort 

Sea. Ocean Manage. 6:223-234. 

Reimnitz, E., L. Toimil and P. Barnes. 1978. Arctic continental shelf morphology related to sea-ice 

zonation, Beaufort Sea, Alaska. Mar. Geol. 28: 179-2 10. 

Weingartner, T.J., S. Danielson, Y. Sasaki, V. Pavlov and M. Kulakov. 1999. The Siberian Coastal 

Current: A wind and buoyancy-forced arctic coastal current. J. Geophys. Res. 104:29697-29713. 

Yankovsky, A.E., and D.C. Chapman. 1997. A simple theory for the fate of buoyant coastal discharges. 

J. Phys. Oceanogr. 27: 1386-1401. 
Kinetics and Mechanisms of Slow PAH Desorption from 

Lower Cook Inlet and Beaufort Sea Sediments 

Susan M. Henrichs <henrichs@irns.uaf.edu> 

John A. Terschak <ftjat@uaf.edu> 

Institute of Marine Science 

University of Alaska Fairbanks 

Fairbanks, AK 99775-7220 

Task Order 151 70 

Abstract 

Adsorption and desorption of a polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon, phenanthrene, by marine sediment and 

synthetic humic substances is being investigated. The objective is to better understand the phenomenon of 

slow or incomplete desorption of aromatic hydrocarbons from sediments, and thus to better predict the 

fate of such contaminants in the marine environment. Experiments completed so far are consistent with 

previous work, showing strong adsolption by a synthetic humic substance. Phenanthrene partition 

coeficients do not vary with concentration and adsorption is only partly reversible for reaction times up 

to two weeks. Initial results suggest that the rates of both adsorption and desorption are influenced by a 

slow diffusion process. 

Introduction 

Marine sediments are important reservoirs for many organic contaminants, including polycyclic aromatic 

hydrocarbons (PAH), which can be derived from petroleum, combustion, and other sources. PAH are of 

particular concern because many molecules in this class are highly toxic and degrade slowly in the marine 

environment. PAH can persist in contaminated sediments for at least 20 years after an oil spill [Teal et al. 

19921 due, in part, to a strong association between the sediment particles [Means et al. 19801 and the 

decrease in biodegradability associated with this adsorption [Guerin and Boyd 1992; Braddock and 

Richter 19981. 

Because hydrocarbons have very low solubilities in both freshwater and seawater [Shaw 19891, they tend 

to partition into other organic phases. One important organic phase is the naturally occurring organic 

matter that is a part of the marine sediments. The adsorption of hydrophobic compounds by sediments and 

soils is positively correlated with their organic matter content [Means et al. 1980; Schwarzenbach and 

Westall 198 1; Shaw and Terschak 19981. Sorption of aromatic hydrocarbons is positively correlated with 

the nonpolar-to-polar kctional group ratio [Garbarini and Lion 1986; Rutherford et al. 19921 and the 

proportion of the organic structure that is composed of aromatic rings (aromaticity) [Gauthier et al. 19871. 

Aromatic hydrocarbons are strongly adsorbed by marine sediments, and adsorption is not rapidly, 

completely reversible, indicating that this process probably affects PAH retention by contaminated 

sediments [Brusseau et al. 199 1 ; Hatzinger and Alexander 19951. In particular, the final report of a 

CMI-funded project "A study of the adsorption of aromatic hydrocarbons by marine sediments" 
[Henrichs et al. 19971, reported that lower Cook Inlet sediments strongly adsorbed phenanthrene, 

naphthalene, and benzene, and that this adsorption was not completely reversible. Since desorption was 

carried out for a maximum of three days and using water:particle concentration ratios equal to those used 

in adsorption experiments, they recognized that adsorption could be reversible under more favorable 

conditions. For example, Means 119951 found that pyrene adsorption by sediments was reversible, but 

employed an experimental procedure which would allow even slow desorption of strongly adsorbed 

hydrocarbons to proceed to completion. The results of Henrichs et al. [I9971 were most consistent with 

the apparently irreversible adsorption being due to diffusion of the hydrocarbons into a 3-dimensional 

organic structure; reversal of this process would be slow. Although adsorption of aromatic hydrocarbons 

at several types of sites (with varying partition coefficients) on the particle surface did not explain the 

observations as well, this remained a possibility. 

In another, related CMI-funded project, "Interaction between marine humic acids and polycyclic aromatic 

hydrocarbons in Lower Cook Inlet and Port Valdez" [Shaw and Terschak 19981, the interactions of PAH 

with humic acid were investigated. Humic acids are defined as the fraction of organic material isolated 

from natural waters, soils, and sediments that is soluble in aqueous base but insoluble in aqueous acid 

[Parsons 19881. Humic acids are thought to play a central role in the sorption of PAH to soils, with 

aromaticity being an important quality. Chin et al. [I9941 showed that the humic acid-PAH association 

appears to result from weak dipole interactions between aromatic rings of the PAH and those of humic 

acids, particularly the aromatic structures derived from lignins of woody terrigenous plants. 

Shaw and Terschak [I9981 showed that humic substances were strong adsorbers of phenanthrene, 

consistent with an important role of sediment organic matter in governing aromatic hydrocarbon 

adsorption. There was marked variation in the adsorptive properties of humics from different sediments 

that did not support their main hypothesis that aromaticity is positively correlated with PAH adsorption. 

However, the data did show that phenanthrene was adsorbed less by humic substances extracted from 

sediment that contained higher concentrations of PAH (or total aromatic hydrocarbons, TARO). One 

interpretation of this result is that a limited number of strong phenanthrene adsorption sites were present, 

and were already occupied in the more contaminated sediments, leading to inhibition of further adsorption. 

The current project is further investigating the apparently irreversible aromatic hydrocarbon adsorption 

that was found in Henrichs et al. [1997]. Longer reaction times are being used and studies are employing 

organic matter extracted from sediments, to better determine the adsorptive properties of sediment humic 

substances by eliminating variability associated with other sediment constituents. The current project 

is also investigating the possibility that humic substances from sediments with greater levels of PAH 

contamination adsorb less phenanthrene because sites that strongly bind PAH are already occupied. This 

aspect of the work is using laboratory synthesized humic acids, initially free of hydrocarbon contamination. 

Methods 

All glassware and foil used were cleaned of hydrocarbons or other organic matter by heating to 2450°C 

in a muffle furnace. Materials that could not be heated were cleaned with chromic acid. Intertidal 

sediment samples were collected from the upper section of Jakolof Bay (lower Cook Inlet) during an 

extreme low tide, -5.9 ft below mean lower low water. Collection was done using a metal implement 

to remove the upper 1 cm of mud (the oxic layer). This mud was stored frozen in 8-oz glass jars with 

foil-lined lids. 

Synthetic humic acids were made via reaction of glucose and bovine casein [Yamamoto and Ishiwatari 

19891. Glucose was dissolved in 100 mL of a buffer solution (50% 0.1 M K&P04 / 30% 0.1 M NaOH/ 

20% glass distilled H20). Likewise, casein was dissolved in a separate flask. The two solutions were then 
mixed together and allowed to reflux for 24 hr. The mixture was allowed to cool and then was centrifuged 

to remove the insoluble part of the reaction products. 

Humic acids were isolated from both the natural sediments and the synthesis reaction mixture using the 

method outlined by Anderson and Schoenau [1993]. Acid (150 mL of 0.5 M HC1) was mixed with 30 g 

wet sediment for 10 min to remove debris and acid-volatile inorganic forms of C, N, P, and S. The sample 

was then centrifuged for 20 min at 5000 rpm. Next, the sediment was washed twice with 150 mL doubledistilled water and centrifuged again as above. Then 150 mL of freshly prepared 0.5 M NaOH was added 

to the sediments or to the supernatant fiom the humic synthesis reaction. The headspace was flushed with 

ultra-high purity nitrogen (UHP-N2) gas to minimize oxidation of the humic and fulvic acids. The sample 

was then shaken for 20 hr and centrifuged at 5000 rprn for 20 min. The supernatant was decanted into a 

tared centrifuge bottle and the humic acids were precipitated by the slow addition of about 23 mL of 

6 M HC1, until a pH of 1.5 was obtained. The mixture was allowed to stand for 15 min and was then 

centrifuged for 30 min at 5000 rpm. After centrifugation, the fulvic acid supernatant was discarded and 

the precipitated humic acid portion was lyophilized at -85OC for 24 hr. The resulting dry humic acid 

was weighed and stored in a glass vial until needed. The humic acids were characterized by a battery 

of spectroscopic and chemical analyses, including total organic content, Fourier transform infrared 

spectroscopy, ultra-violet-visible light spectroscopy, isotopic analyses (6I3c and ti1%), and crosspolarized magic angle spinning I3c nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. 

A standard montmorillonite (A.P.I. #26,49 E 2600 from Clay Spur, WY) was used as the solid phase to 

which the isolated humic acids were bound to simulate a marine sediment. The clay was ground for 2 rnin 

using a shatterbox equipped with carbide rings and pucks. The resulting powder was passed through a 

270-mesh sieve using a Rotap shaker. Organic matter associated with the clay was removed by treating 

with 30% hydrogen peroxide until no evolution of C02 gas was observed. The clay was then centrifuged 

at 5000 rprn for 30 min, washed with organic-free water, and centrifuged again. 

In order to coat the clay, a lyophilized humic acid was dissolved in organic-free water brought to pH = 10 

with sodium hydroxide. Once dissolved, the humic acid solution was added to the washed clay and 

allowed to mix for 24 hr. The suspension was transferred to a centrifuge bottle containing the crystallized 

salts resulting from the evaporation of an equal amount of artificial seawater and mixed for 48 hr. The 

suspension was then centrifuged at 5000 rprn for 30 min and the supernatant discarded. After flushing the 

headspace with UHP-N2 gas, the humic coated clay was stored in a refrigerator. 

Sorption experiments began by weighing 0.1 g of wet, humic-coated clay into 2-dram vials whose caps 

were lined with Teflon. Five milliliters of artificial seawater solutions containing either phenanthrene or 

radiolabeled phenanthrene at several concentrations (50,300, or 700 pg/L) were added to the vials. A 

15-second agitation on a vortex mixer thoroughly mixed the clay and solution. The vials were then placed 

on a table shaker. After sorption for 1 h, 1 d, 3 d, 7 d, or 14 d the vials were centrifuged at 5000 rprn for 

30 min and a 1 .O-rnL aliquot of each of the radiolabeled reaction solutions was removed and scintillation 

counted. The remaining supernatant, including that from all vials containing phenanthrene without 

radiolabel, was discarded and fresh phenanthrene solution was added to begin the desorption. Desorption 

was carried out for 1 d, 3 d, 7 d, 14 d, 30 d, 60 d, or 90 d. Phenanthrene solution (300 pg/L) without 

radiolabel was added to vials that previously contained radiolabeled phenanthrene, and radiolabeled 

phenanthrene (also 300 pg/L) was added to vials that previously contained phenanthrene without 

radiolabel. The vials were vortex mixed as above and returned to the table shaker. At the given desorption 

times, a group of vials was centrifuged as above and a 1 .O-mL aliquot was taken from each supernatant 

and scintillation counted. 
Results and Discussion 

Adsorption of phenanthrene by a synthetic humic acid 

Figure 1 shows the variation with reaction time of phenanthrene adsorption to synthetic humic acid 

coated on montmorillonite. Although the partition coefficients on the synthetic humic-coated clay are 

lower than those on natural sediments, the new results are similar in several ways to the findings 

reported by Henrichs et al. [1997]. In particular, much of the phenanthrene adsorption occurred within 

1 hr, and adsorption was only slightly greater for a reaction time of 3 d relative to 1 d. No clear increase 

in adsorption was seen at the longer reaction times (7 and 14 d), which were not done in the earlier study. 

Rapid adsorption reactions (such as ion exchange) that occur at the particle surface are typically complete 

within minutes in well-mixed systems [Stumm 19921, indicating that phenanthrene adsorption is slowed 

by factors not affecting such simple cases. Similar to the Henrichs et al. [I9971 study, there was no 

apparent effect of phenanthrene concentration on adsorption for reaction times 2 1 d. Partition coefficients 

at the three concentrations did range over a factor of two for the 1-hr reaction time, but this is attributable 

to experimental variability, since small differences in the execution of the experiment, e.g., mixing of 

the clay and solution, have more effect at short reaction times. Constant partition coefficients with 

concentration, consistent with the Henrichs et al. [I9971 study, indicate that all adsorption sites have 

similar partition coefficients for phenanthrene and that availability of adsorption sites does not limit 

adsorption in the concentration range used. 

Figure 1. Partition coefficients for phenanthrene adsorption onto a clay coated 

with synthetic humic acid. *Phenanthrene concentrations in pgL. 

300 

250 - 

2~ 

= : 200 i, .E 

g u 

$ 8 150° 

: oE 

g 3 100" 

5 .E. 

50- 

0 

In order to investigate the hypothesis that previous aromatic hydrocarbon adsorption affects subsequent 

adsorption, phenanthrene was adsorbed to the clay coated with synthetically prepared humic acid. After 

this "primary sorption", phenanthrene adsorption from a fresh, radiolabeled phenanthrene solution was 

measured ("secondary sorption"). Figure 2 shows typical secondary sorption (1 to 14 d reaction times) on 

a humic-coated clay, for which primary sorption of phenanthrene had been carried out over a 3-d reaction 

A $ A 

rn 

l 

111 I I I I 

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 

Time (days) 
time. In all cases, it appears that secondary sorption is less than primary sorption for short reaction times 

(1 to 3 d), but at longer times the partition coefficients approach the values for primary sorption. The 

difference between the values for primary sorption and secondary sorption after a I-d reaction time grow 

larger as the reaction time for primary sorption increases (Figure 3). However, as the secondary sorption 

times become longer, primary sorption reaction time has little effect and the quantity of secondary 

sorption is near that for primary sorption (Figure 4). 

Primary 

14d 

Primary Sorption Phenanthrene 

Concentration (pg/L) 

Figure 2. Secondary sorption after three days of primary sorption from 

solutions containing 50,300, or 700 pg/L phenanthrene. 

60.00 

8 50.00 8 

3 40.00 Primary 

0 

c 

30.00 5 

c 

g 20.00 

Q 

'ii 

14d 

f 10.00 r 

0 

8 0.00 

50 300 700 

Primary Sorption Phenanthrene 

Concentration (pglL) 

Figure 3. Effect of primary sorption times on secondary sorption at a 

one day reaction time. 
Primary 

50 300 700 

Primary Sorption Phenanthrene 

Concentration (pg/L) 

Figure 4. Effect of primary sorption times on secondary sorption at a 

seven day reaction time. 

The results of the adsorption experiments are consistent with one of our hypotheses on the mechanism 

of phenanthrene adsorption. There appear to be binding sites, probably on or near the surface of the 

organic coating, where phenanthrene adsorption and desorption are rapid. However, there are additional 

sites where both adsorption and desorption are slower. A plausible explanation is that some phenanthrene 

diffuses slowly into small water-filled volumes within the three-dimensional organic matrix, or moves 

to sites within the organic coating via a slow process of surface diffusion. During the secondary sorption 

reaction, the slow diffusion limits the rate at which new phenanthrene exchanges with that sorbed 

during the primary sorption step. The diffusion rate during the secondary sorption should decrease with 

increasing primary phenanthrene adsorption, because the concentration gradient into the organic matter 

coating would decrease. 

Desorption of phenanthrene from a synthetic humic acid 

The reverse processes were examined by measuring the percent of an adsorbed phenanthrene that 

dissolved when the clay was recovered and resuspended in a fresh, 300 pg/L phenanthrene solution. 

An expected desorption value was calculated based on the assumption that sorption was completely 

reversible at a given reaction time, and that all adsorption sites had the same phenanthrene partition 

coefficient. Deviations from the expected value indicate that the desorption reaction was slow relative 

to the reaction time, there was more than one type of binding site for phenanthrene on the particle surface, 

or there was another deviation from the idealized adsorption process. 

Figure 5 shows typical desorption data for reaction times ranging from 1 to 14 d, and the corresponding 

expected value calculated for idealized adsorption. For this example the adsorption reaction time was 

1 hr. Unexpectedly, longer desorption times decreased the total amount of phenanthrene desorbed. In 

all but two cases, the values are consistently below the idealized prediction. There are several possible 

interpretations of the results, which will be better discriminated when all of the planned experiments are 

completed. On first examination, the results seem inconsistent with the adsorption results described 

above. Based on the adsorption experiments it was expected that desorption would increase with time and 

approach the idealized values, as adsorbed phenanthrene slowly difhsed out of the organic matter, but 
instead desorption decreased with increasing desorption time. However, the desorption results could be 

due to the same slow diffusion processes that seem to explain the adsorption data. The initial adsorption 

reaction probably was incomplete, since in this example the adsorption reaction time was only one hour. 

In this case, the desorption results would reflect continued diffusion and adsorption of phenanthrene on 

new sites within the organic coating, as well as desorption of some of the adsorbed phenanthrene. An 

additional possibility is that adsorption sites that bind phenanthrene more strongly than most exist within 

the humic acid coating and are relatively inaccessible, so that adsorption at these sites is very slow. 

(These sites are not on the clay mineral surface because separate experiments have shown only weak 

adsorption to the clay.) Although the concentration vs. adsorption data (Figure 1) do not indicate the 

presence of more than one type of adsorption site, desorption data are much more sensitive indicators 

[Ding 19981. Another possibility is that there is a gradual conformational change in the humic coating, 

associated either with the phenanthrene adsorption itself or with prolonged suspension in aqueous 

solution, that changes either partition coefficients, accessibility of adsorption sites, or both. 

Q) 70 

E 60 

f 50 

88 40 

'0 0 41 30 

20 '0 5 10 

0 

s 0 

50* 300* 700* 

Primary Sorption Phenanthrene 

Concentration (pglL) 

Figure 5. Effect of time on desorption, after primary sorption with a 

one hour reaction time. *Phenanthrene concentration in 

primary sorption step. 

Preliminary Conclusions 

The results obtained so far are consistent with the interpretation that phenanthrene adsorption and 

desorption are slow processes because of slow diffusion of phenanthrene in the organic matter coating 

clay particles used in the experiments. The results help to further explain observations of Henrichs et al. 

[I9971 and Shaw and Terschak [1998]. In particular, the partly irreversible adsorption Henrichs et al. 

[I9971 observed in relatively short experiments can be thus explained, but our new results suggest that 

complete desorption, if it occurs at all, will require many weeks. The new results are also consistent with 

Shaw and Terschak's [I9981 observations that humic substances from sediments with high PAH initially 

adsorb less phenanthrene, but suggest that this is a short-term effect that disappears if exposure times are 

longer than a few days. 
Future Work 

This project will conclude in June 2001. The current experiment, which provided data for this report, will 

continue in order to provide longer desorption times (30,60, and 90 d). Also, adsorption and desorption 

properties of additional synthetic humic acids, with varying aromaticity, will be studied. The synthetic 

humic acids will be compared to those extracted from natural sediments from lower Cook Inlet, Port 

Valdez, and the Beaufort Sea. 

Study Products 

Terschak, J.A. 1999. Humic acids & hydrocarbons: CMI dkjh vu? Oral presentation at the MMS office 

in Anchorage, October 1999. 

References 

Anderson, D.W., and J.J. Schoenau. 1993. Soil humus fractions, p. 391-395. In M.R. Carter [ed.], Soil 

Sampling and Methods of Analysis. Canadian Society of Soil Science, Lewis. 

Braddock, J.F., and Z. Richter. 1998. Microbial degradation of aromatic hydrocarbons in marine 

sediments. Final Report. OCS Study MMS 97-0041. University of Alaska Coastal Marine Institute, 

University of Alaska. 82 p. 

Brusseau, M.L., R.E. Jessup and P.S.C. Rao. 1991. Nonequilibrium sorption of organic chemicals: 

elucidation of rate-limiting processes. Environ. Sci. Technol. 25: 134-142. 

Chin, Y.P., G. Siken and E. O'Loughlin. 1994. Molecular weight, polydispersity, and spectroscopic 

properties of aquatic humic substances. Environ. Sci. Technol. 28: 1 853-1 858. 

Ding, X. 1998. Organic matter accumulation and preservation in Alaskan continental margin sediments. 

Ph.D. thesis, University of Alaska Fairbanks. 

Garbarini, D.R., and L.L. Lion. 1986. Influence of the nature of soil organics on the sorption of toluene 

and trichloroethylene. Environ. Sci. Technol. 20: 1263-1269. 

Gauthier, T.D., W.R. Sietz and C.L. Grant. 1987. Effects of structural and compositional variations of 

dissolved humic materials on pyrene &, values. Environ. Sci. Technol. 21:243-248. 

Guerin, W.F., and S.A. Boyd. 1992. Differential bioavailability of soil-sorbed naphthalene to two 

bacterial species. Appl. Environ. Microbial. 58: 1 142-1 152. 

Hatzinger, P.B., and M. Alexander. 1995. Effect of aging of chemicals in soil on their biodegradability 

and extractability. Environ. Sci. Technol. 29537-545. 

Henrichs, S.M., M. Luoma and S. Smith. 1997. A study of the adsorption of aromatic hydrocarbons by 

marine sediments. Final Report. OCS Study MMS 97-0002. University of Alaska Coastal Marine 

Institute, University of Alaska. 47 p. 

Means, J.C. 1995. Influence of salinity upon sediment-water partitioning of aromatic hydrocarbons. 

Mar. Chem. 51: 3-16. 

Means, J.C., S.G. Wood, J.J. Hassett and W.L. Banwart. 1980. Sorption of polynuclear aromatic 

hydrocarbons by sediments and soils. Environ. Sci. Technol. 14: 1524-1528. 

Parsons, J.W. 1998. Isolation of humic substances from soil and sediments, p. 3-14. In F.H. Grimmel 

and R.F. Christrnan [eds.], Humic Substances and Their Role in the Environment. Wiley, New York. 
Rutherford, D.W., C.T. Chiou and D.E. Kile. 1992. Influence of soil organic matter composition on 

the partition of organic compounds. Environ. Sci. Technol. 26:336-340. 

Schwarzenbach, R.P., and J. Westall. 198 1. Transport of nonpolar organic compounds from surface 

water to groundwater. Laboratory sorption studies. Environ. Sci. Technol. 15: 1360-1367. 

Shaw, D.G. [ed.]. 1989. Hydrocarbons with Water and Seawater. Part 11. Hydrocarbons C8 to C36. 

IUPAC Solubility Data Series, Vol. 38. Pergamon Press. 561 p. 

Shaw, D.G., and J. Terschak. 1998. Interaction between marine humic matter and polycyclic aromatic 

hydrocarbons in Lower Cook Inlet and Port Valdez, Alaska. Final Report. OCS Study MMS 98-0033. 

University of Alaska Coastal Marine Institute, University of Alaska. 27 p. 

Stumm, W. 1992. Chemistry of the Solid-Water Interface. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 428 p. 

Teal, J.M., J.W. Farrington, K.A. Burns, J.J. Stegeman, B.W. Tripp, B. Woodin and C. Phinney. 1992. 

The West Falmouth oil spill after 20 years: Fate of fuel oil compounds and effects on animals. Mar. 

Poll. Bull. 24:607-614. 

Yarnamoto, S., and R. Ishiwatari. 1989. A study of the formation mechanisms of sedimentary humic 

substances - 11. Protein-based melanoidin model. Org. Geochem. 14:479-489. 
An Experimental Approach to Investigate Seasonal 

Differences in the Role of Zooplankton in the 

Distribution of Hydrocarbons 

Thomas C. Shirley <tom.shirley@uaf.edu> 

Switgard Duesterloh cftsd@uaf.edu> 

Juneau Center, School of Fisheries and Ocean Sciences 

University of Alaska Fairbanks 

11 120 Glacier Highway 

Juneau, AK 99801 

Task Order 15171 

Abstract 

This project investigates the role of zooplankton in distributing oil components and the effects of 

hydrocarbons on copepod reproduction. Copepods are thought to contribute to the distribution of oil 

components in three ways: I) through the food chain, 2) through sedimentation of oil-laden feces, and 

3) through incorporation of hydrocarbons in reproductive tissue and delayed release of eggs. Due to their 

seasonally high abundance, the copepods Neocalanus spp. and Pseudocalanus spp. are important prey 

for various fish and birds. The production of fecal pellets and pseudofeces by these species enhances 

sedimentation rates of ingested material, possibly includingpolyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) from oil. 

Sedimented organic matter is consumed by benthic suspension and detritus feeders and PAH may 

enter benthic food chains by this pathway. Finally, due to their lipophilic properties, PAH adhere to 

storage lipids, which are mostly diverted into egg material. This distribution pathway may result in a 

reintroduction of PAH into the surface food chain in the subsequent season, when copepod larvae ascend. 

Oil exposure experiments with the copepods Neocalanus spp. and Pseudocalanus spp. and with the 

pteropod Limacina helicina and the euphausiids Thysanoessa spp. will be conducted. Lipid samples will 

be analyzed for the ratio of triglycerides, phospholipids and wax esters. Due to the lipophilic properties 

of PAH, a positive correlation between total lipid content and PAH uptake is expected. Establishment of a 

correlation coeficient between total lipid content and PAH uptake will make estimates of the PAH load of 

predominant plankton on the basis of abundance data and their lipid profile possible. 

Objectives and Progress 

Zooplankton are collected with a 16-ft skiff, using a hand-drawn ring net to a maximum depth of 120 m. 

Twelve daytime and three nighttime sampling trips were made in Auke Bay and adjacent waters between 

mid May and August 2000. Due to a general shortage of Neocalanus spp. in the area, the calanoid 

copepod Calanus marshallae was substituted in the experiments. Along with Metridia spp., Calanus 

marshallae represents the second largest copepod biomass in Prince William Sound after Neocalanus spp. 

Euphausiids were not encountered during day sampling with zooplankton nets. At night, predominantly 

subadult stages of Thysanoessa raschi were collected and one experiment was conducted with these 
specimens. No specimens of the pteropod Limacina helicina were encountered in the area. Early attempts 

to sort Pseudocalanus spp. females for experiments were unsuccessful due to low numbers of the species 

in the samples. However, Pseudocalanus spp. females have their peak abundance between July and 

October and efforts are currently concentrated on this species. 

Development of a successful and reproducible experimental design for oil exposure experiments with 

zooplankton is a major objective of this project. Substantial progress has been made in this regard. 

Generators were developed that consist of glass tubes filled with oiled glass beads. Effluent PAH 

concentration can be estimated from the volume of the glass beads, their surface area, the film thickness 

of the oil on the beads and the flow rate. Five kilograms of glass beads were treated with weathered North 

Slope crude, dried and frozen to assure a uniform oil source for all subsequent experiments. A peristaltic 

pump was purchased to ensure stable flow rates. Experiments have been conducted with the following 

objectives: 

a) to show variability between columns at start of the experiment; 

b) to show if and how the concentration of the test water decreases over the 

extent of the experiment; 

c) to show whether saturation of copepods and euphausiids is achieved; 

d) to determine the exposure time required to reach equilibrium in tissue; and 

e) to ensure the sample size is adequate (15-20 Calanus marshallae). 

Water and tissue samples were extracted at the National Marine Fisheries Service Auke Bay Laboratory 

and were frozen for gas chromatographic and PAH analyses to be conducted this October. 

Although no exact data have been collected on the concentration of the PAH effluent of the columns to 

this date, some evidence of the functionality was provided by two experiments on the combined toxicity 

of PAH exposure and ultra-violet light. While a 24-hr PAH exposure alone did not impact vitality or 

behavior of copepods, and UV exposure alone had little effect, the combination of both PAH and W 

exposure resulted in noticeable impairment to mobility. These preliminary experiments strongly suggest 

that PAH dosing is in the sublethal range and that PAH are acquired in copepod tissue during a 24-hr 

exposure. 

To address the lipid composition of forage plankton and its seasonal variability, and the significance 

of lipid content and composition for the accumulation of hydrocarbons in body tissue, a sample was 

collected and frozen immediately after each sampling. These samples have been stored at -80°C for later 

processing and analysis. Mean total lipid content per individual will then be related to the mean PAH 

content of the exposed specimens from the same sampling event. 

The effects of previous oiling on egg production and hatching rates of copepods are to be tested in culture 

experiments. A feasibility study was conducted in August 1999, in which females of Pseudocalanus spp. 

were cultured in culture wells over four days and their egg production was monitored. Production rates 

of these unoiled copepods were less than reported in the literature. Several factors may have affected 

production: varying temperatures in the cultures, insufficient food supply, or decline of production rates 

in the late season. However, the goal of the study was to test the methods for further experiments with 

oiled and unoiled females. Stable temperatures can be assured in future experiments. 
Further, Neocalanus spp. females and fifth stage copepodites (CV) were cultured. While survival of CV 

was poor, some females survived in culture for more then three months, developed gonads and extruded 

eggs, which hatched in culture. 

Between June and August 2000 similar experiments were conducted with Calanus marshallae. Twentyfour unoiled females were cultured and monitored for egg production and survival rates for more then five 

weeks. Egg production varied between 0 and 80 eggs per female, averaging 27. Nineteen females (79%) 

spawned in culture, all laying one or two clutches of eggs before they stopped spawning. Copepods were 

not fed in the cultures. 

In mid July, 11 females were included in a 24-hr oil exposure experiment at low PAH dosage. Eleven 

control specimens were kept in culture at about 7°C. Subsequently, egg production and mortality were 

monitored. The large individual differences in production rates did not allow for evaluation of productivity 

differences in this experiment. Only two of the oiled and four of the control specimens spawned. No 

difference in egg vitality was observed in this experiment. However, after 19 days in culture, oiled 

females had significantly higher mortality rates then control females (Figure 1). This could be a delayed 

effect of the oil exposure when lipid reserves are utilized and PAH that were stored in the lipids were 

metabolized. However, these observations need further careful investigation, because of a temperature 

difference between the exposure flasks and the reference cultures during the time of exposure. 

PAH exposure (24 hours) Calanus marshallae post-oil survival 

Days in culture 

Figure 1. Survival of female Calanus marshallae following 24-hr oil exposure. 
Experiments to collect fecal material from oiled and unoiled copepods require high abundances of test 

species and a concentrated sampling effort, because many specimens are needed to produce an adequate 

sample size for analysis. The low abundances of zooplankton precluded experiments which would test 

PAH concentrations in fecal pellets. 

Study Products 

1. Duesterloh S., and T. Shirley. 2000. An experimental approach to investigate seasonal differences 

in the role of zooplankton in the distribution of hydrocarbons. Oral report of research progress at the 

University of Alaska Coastal Marine Institute Annual Research Review, March 2000, Fairbanks. 

2. Duesterloh, S. 2000. An experimental approach to investigate seasonal differences in the role of 

dominant zooplankton in the distribution of hydrocarbons. Oral presentation at Juneau Student Chapter 

of the American Fisheries Society Symposium, April 2000, Juneau, AK. 

3. Shirley, T.C. 2000. An experimental approach to investigate seasonal differences in the role of 

zooplankton in the distribution of hydrocarbons. Seminar summarizing research progress at Minerals 

Management Service office, March 2000, Anchorage. 

4. An article for Onchorhynchus, the newsletter of the Alaska Chapter of the American Fisheries Society, 

was submitted in June 2000, but has not yet been published. 
Seabird Samples as Resources for Marine 

Environmental Assessment 

Kevin Winker cffksw@uaf.edu> 

University of Alaska Museum 

University of Alaska Fairbanks 

Fairbanks, AK 99775-6960 

Task Order 15173 

Abstract 

If analyses contrasting places or events in time are to continue to be used to monitor stability or change 

in the environment among biological systems, archival samples of these biological systems must be 

routinely preserved. Birds are excellent environmental indicators, and can be thought of as small 

biologicalJilters sampling various aspects of marine ecosystems. In preserving samples of these ffilters ' 

we enable present andjGture analyses to determine such diverse questions as changes in contaminant 

levels, causes for population changes, nature of the genetic stocks affected, and other issues related to 

Outer Continental Shelf(0CS) activities. These analyses grow more important each day as we attempt 

to determine the rate and characteristics of natural and anthropogenic changes. 

Marine birds are an important component of the higher marine trophic levels, making them desirable to a 

broad array of researchers. Demands by researchers for seabird specimens for analyses of contaminants, 

stable isotopes, genetics, and morpholog~ have recently exceeded available holdings, making it clear 

that the pitifully low influx of such specimens must change ifresearch of this nature is to continue. By 

supporting a graduate assistantship to process marine bird specimens, this project is making such sample 

preservation both active and less geographically and taxonomically haphazard than in the past. In the 

jirst year of this project, more than 220 seabirds have been prepared and archived as skin, skeleton, and 

tissue samples in the University of Alaska Museum (UAM). Two important research projects have been 

supported, and visiting researchers have also been using this material. 

Introduction 

The birds of Alaska that depend on marine environments comprise a complex array of more than 100 

species occupying three trophic levels. These birds are a major component of Alaska's marine ecosystems 

and are vulnerable to both natural and anthropogenic changes (e.g., Outer Continental Shelf activities). 

This is a particularly sensitive group of marine organisms because they are protected by international 

treaties with such countries as Russia, Japan, Canada, and Mexico. Also, many are a source of food for 

humans. Birds have long served our society as environmental indicators, and specimens representing 

baseline conditions have been crucial for documenting both natural and anthropogenic changes. 

Perhaps the most widely recognized example of this was the use of historic museum egg collections to 

demonstrate the effects of increased concentrations of DDT on the reproduction of birds occupying higher 

trophic levels (e.g., Peregrine Falcons, Falco peregrinus). 
The ability to process, archive, and retrieve biological samples in support of environmental research has 

become an increasingly important function of natural history museums. But with limited resources to 

apply to broad taxonomic, geographic, and scientific demands, museums do well to cover even a few 

areas well. Because many of the researchers making sample requests to the University of Alaska Museum 

are engaged in studies directly relevant to the Framework Issues of interest to the Minerals Management 

Service (MMS), this project was proposed as a partnership with MMS, through CMI, whereby marine 

bird samples are actively brought in and preserved for this research community. Requests for Alaska 

marine bird samples vary widely, from studies of temporal contrasts of contaminant levels and 

stable isotope ratios, to comparative systematic studies of population and species-level genetics and 

morphology, to synoptic studies for the identification of archaeological material. This collection, though 

limited in its holdings, provides these researchers with a substantial percentage of the samples pertinent 

to their questions. It is clear that this science could be substantially strengthened if more samples were 

available, and this project was developed to meet this objective through the establishment of a half-time 

graduate assistantship to focus on processing marine bird samples. 

This project is separate from other sample preservation projects and fills a major gap in present sample 

archiving efforts. It complements existing projects and addresses an obvious weakness in the preservation 

of samples of higher marine organisms. Our objectives are to preserve and make available to the research 

community a substantially increased number of marine and coastal bird samples from Alaska for studies 

ranging from contaminants and stable isotopes to genetics and morphology. It is clear that this is not 

occurring anywhere at levels sufficient to meet the needs of this research community, and that the UA 

Museum is in a unique position to effectively address this need. In pursuing this goal we make possible 

the testing of numerous hypotheses, particularly those addressing environmental changes from events 

such as contaminations and other OCS activities impacting Alaska's marine environments. 

Our goal of maximizing the usefulness of each individual bird to the scientific community leads us to 

preserve, when possible, a combination skinlskeleton prep, two tissue samples, and stomach contents 

from every bird. We use no chemicals in the preparation process, except when a specimen is particularly 

fatty; in these cases the fat remaining after fleshing the skin is often removed with a solvent (e.g., mineral 

spirits). Skin and skeleton preparations are archival in quality, and are expected to last for centuries. 

Tissue samples are placed in two, 2-mL plastic cryovials and archived at -80°C in the Alaska Frozen 

Tissue Collection (AFTC). Stomach contents are preserved in isopropyl alcohol. 

Results 

With notification of funding approval during summer 1999, the graduate assistantship that this project 

supports was widely advertised. The response was very good, and Deborah Rocque was selected to 

join UAF as a Ph.D. student in the fall of 1999. Deb received a Master's degree at the University of 

Connecticut, where she gained experience studying contaminants in birds. This is therefore a particularly 

appropriate match to the position. Deb had not prepared bird specimens before arriving here, but during 

this first year she has become a proficient preparator and has thus far prepared excellent series of seabird 

specimens. Becoming proficient as a preparator takes considerable time and skill, and both ornithology 

collections manager Dan Gibson and I have been impressed with how quickly and how well Deb has 

mastered the processes involved. 

More than 220 specimens were prepared during this first year, representing a diverse array of seabird 

genera, including: Fratercula, Clangula, Somateria, Gavia, Phalaropus, Melanitta, Histrionicus, 

Cepphus, Stercorarius, Uria, Rissa, Puffinus, Aethia, Brachyramphus, and Lams. Key localities 

represented are Barrow, the Chukchi Sea, Cook Inlet, and scattered localities around the Bering Sea. 
Dan Gibson and I are in the process of cataloguing those birds prepared so far, and we are rearranging 

the entire collection to make room in proper taxonomic sequence for continued additions of seabirds. 

We are still communicating with AMMTAP (Alaska Marine Mammal Tissue Archival Project) regarding 

sampling protocols and the possibilities of depositing samples with them. Their avian efforts are still 

restricted to eggs so far, but we have agreed to serve as an archival repository for the eggshells that their 

sampling generates. 

Collection Growth 

The graph below shows what an immediate impact this project is having on samples of key seabird genera 

in the UAM bird collection. It is equally important to realize that these samples, representing unique 

points in time and geographic space, are not being replicated elsewhere. 

1 Number catalogued per year 1 

Collection Use 

Two loans of seabird samples that occurred this year go straight to the heart of the purpose behind this 

project. One was for Vicki Friesen's (Queen's University, Ontario) genetics study comparing Prince 

William Sound seabird populations with Aleutian populations unaffected by the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill. 

This request demonstrated the importance of having comparative material available from outside of 

areas affected (or potentially affected) by petroleum development. Some of these birds were processed 

specifically to meet this request. Another loan made was to George Divoky for a retrospective study of 

mercury loads as reflected in feathers (Arctic Ocean). Another loan of seabird samples for stable isotope 

analyses was made, and we received two independent visits fi-om researchers to work with UAM eider 

specimens. 
Discussion 

Having the ability to process seabirds and notifying people that we'd like to receive birds from them has 

begun to create a good snowball effect: we have a lot of seabirds coming in. In the forthcoming year we 

anticipate receiving enough birds from the Arctic Ocean, Cook Inlet, and the Chukchi Sea to saturate our 

preparation abilities. Everything is in accordance with the proposed timeline and the project is going well. 

Acknowledgments 

We are grateful to all biologists who obtain dead seabirds, label and freeze them, then deposit them with 

the University of Alaska Museum. Particularly important on this project thus far have been the efforts 

of Robert Suydam, Alan Springer, Jeff Williams, Vernon Byrd, John Piatt, Shannon Fitzgerald, and 

Paula Cullenberg. This work is conducted under a series of permits from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife 

Service, CITES (Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora), 

the Alaska Department of Fish and Game, and U.S. Department of Agriculture Animal and Plant Health 

Inspection Service (USDA-APHIS). We thank permitting officers for their continued facilitation of 

permits and related matters. 
Beaufort and Chukchi Sea Seasonal Variability for 

Two Arctic Climate States 

Andrey Y. Proshutinsky1 <prosh@ims.uaf.edu> 

Mark A. ~ohnson' ~johnson@ims.uaf.edu> 

James A. ~aslanik~ <jarnes.rnaslanik@colorado.edu> 

Tatiana 0. Proshutinsky' <fstop@uaf.edu> 

1 lnstitute of Marine Science 

University of Alaska Fairbanks 

Fairbanks, AK 99775-7220 

2~ooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences 

University of Colorado at Boulder 

Boulder, CO 80309-021 6 

Task Order 151 74 

Abstract 

Arctic navigation, oil and gas exploration, and arctic pollutant transport depend on arctic environmental 

conditions. Existing atlases, manuals and reference books contain multiyear mean environmental 

variables and their multiyear mean seasonal variability; however, uncertainties sometimes result from 

the existing atlases because they do not take climate change and climate variability into account. 

Our project work is motivated by the recentfinding of two regimes (or two climate states) of arctic 

atmosphere-ice-ocean circulation described by Proshutinsky and Johnson [1997]. Based on our recent 

work, we expect that seasonal variations in ice concentration, ice thickness, and ice drift; ocean currents, 

ocean temperature, and saliniiy; horizontal and vertical heatfluxes; atmospheric pressure, wind speed, 

cloudiness, and precipitation; river discharge; and permafrost temperatures are dzflerent for cyclonic 

and anticyclonic arctic climate states. The major goal of this research is to document the atmospheric, 

ice, oceanic and terrestrial signals showing seasonal variability of environmental parameters during 

cyclonic and anticyclonic climate states in the Beaufort and Chukchi seas. During the first year of the 

research we analyzed observational data to document seasonal variability of the Beaufort and Chukchi 

seas, including environmental characteristics for the cyclonic and anticyclonic arctic climate regimes. 

Introduction/Background 

The Proshutinsky and Johnson [I9971 results indicate that wind-driven motion in the Arctic alternates 

between anticyclonic (ACCR) and cyclonic (CCR) circulation with each regime persisting for 5-7 years 

(the period is 10-15 years), based on analysis of modeled sea level and ice motion. Anticyclonic winddriven motion in the Arctic and in the Beaufort Sea appeared during 1946-1952, 1958-1962, 1972-1979, 

1984-1988 and 1998-present; cyclonic motion appeared during 1953-1957,1963-1971,1980-1983, and 

1989-1997. Shifts fiom one regime to another are forced by changes in the location and intensity of the 

Icelandic Low and the Siberian High. These transformations from one regime to another can be defined 
as climate shifts in the Arctic Ocean and occur quite rapidly. In very general terms, for the traditional 

and historically well-known anticyclonic circulation, high atmospheric pressure prevails over the Arctic 

Ocean during anticyclonic ice and surface water motion in the Arctic Basin. The arctic atmosphere is 

termed "cold and dry" and the Arctic Ocean is termed "cold and salty". In the cyclonic climate regime, 

low atmospheric pressure prevails over the Arctic, and surface ice and water motion are cyclonic. The 

arctic atmosphere is termed "warm and moist" and the ocean is termed "warm and fresh". For each 

regime these terms describe general conditions in ice concentration, salinity, and ocean-atmosphere heat 

flux, which are expected to be highly variable over the Beaufort and Chukchi seas. The two regimes of 

arctic climate explain the significant basin-scale changes in temperature, salinity and circulation that have 

been recently observed, and are a major influence on both past and present variability of ice and ocean 

conditions. The existence of these two regimes of circulation provides the foundation and motivation for 

the research proposed here. We believe that the fundamental changes in Arctic Ocean circulation and 

arctic climate [e.g., Quadfasel 1991; Rudels et al. 1994; Steele and Boyd 1998; Smith 1998; Tanaka et al. 

1995; Walsh et al. 1996; Zhang et al. 19981 may account for the inferred changes based on recent 

Arctic Ocean measurements that led Carmack and Aagaard [I9961 to conclude that "remarkable new 

observations call for a revised conceptual model of the Arctic Ocean, and a re-thinking of theory and 

process parameterization." The two-climate regime theory may help explain some of these problems 

related to observed variability in the Arctic Ocean, and the different conclusions among scientists who 

have analyzed hydrography data, water circulation, ice thickness and ice motion, and other parameters. 

Analyses of regional sea ice anomalies have been linked to the cyclonic circulation regime dominant in 

recent years [Serreze et al. 1995; Maslanik and Dunn 1998; Maslanik et al. 19981. However, existing 

atlases of environmental parameters and reference books do not describe this climate variability. 

Hypothesis: 

The two climate states, anticyclonic and cyclonic, dominate interannual variations in environmental 

parameters. Preliminary results reveal significant differences among atmosphere, ice, and ocean processes 

during the anticyclonic and cyclonic regimes in the Arctic Ocean and particularly in the Beaufort and 

Chukchi seas. Figure 1 shows seasonal variability of some of these parameters and demonstrates the 

expected range of their differences in terms of magnitude and direction between two climate regimes. 

Based on existing data and results of numerical experiments, we conclude that during the anticyclonic 

circulation regime the prevailing processes lead to increases in atmospheric pressure in the Arctic, in ice 

concentration and ice thickness, river runoff, and surface water salinity, as well as to decreases in air 

temperature, wind speed, number of storms, precipitation, permafrost temperatures, coastal sea level, and 

surface water temperature. As a result of the dynamic-thermodynamic processes we expect that the rate 

of land-shelf and shelf-basin interactions (transport of ice, fresh water, sediments, pollutants) will be 

lower than usual during the anticyclonic circulation regime. 

During the cyclonic circulation regime the prevailing processes lead to increased air and water 

temperatures, wind speed, number of storms, open water period, and heights of wind waves, and to 

decreases in ice thickness and ice concentration, river runoff, atmospheric pressure, and water salinity. 

These processes will enhance the magnitude and rate of land-shelf and shelf-basin interactions. Crossshelf transport of sediments and contaminants will be promoted and sediments and contaminants will 

be flushed out of the coastal regions and shelves. 
This project has several broad objectives: 

Do a quality control of the existing data and analyze temporal and spatial variability 

of the environmental fields at seasonal and interannual time scales. These fields will 

be analyzed using standard statistical methods, time series analysis, and empirical 

orthogonal function (EOF) analysis. 

Average existing data for the periods of cyclonic and anticyclonic regimes of 

circulation. The averaged fields will then be used for analysis of differences in ice 

drift and water circulation between the two regimes. 

2 meter air temperature Surface wind speed 

6 

months 

s 

Sea ice concentration 

2 4 6 8 10 12 

months 

Sea level atmospheric pressure 

t'"""""""""'1 

months months 

Figure 1. Atmospheric parameters for the cyclonic (thick lines) and anticyclonic (thin lines) climate 

states. 
Resul ts1Progress 

Data collectionlprocessing 

During the reporting period we have been working on data collection and partial analyses of the existing 

information. Monthly mean sea level atmospheric pressure (SLP) fields were reconstructed for the period 

1899-1998. Sea ice concentration satellite derived data (1978-1996) and the Arctic and Antarctic 

Research Institute AARI 10-Day Arctic Ocean EASE-Grid Sea Ice Observations (1953-1990) were 

obtained from the Earth Observing System Data and Information System, National Snow and Ice Data 

Center (EOSDIS, NSIDC) Distributed Active Archive Center, at the University of Colorado at Boulder. 

We obtained some water temperature and salinity data from the Joint US.-Russian Atlas of the Arctic 

Ocean [1997]. In this atlas, water temperature and salinity are gridded and averaged in time for the 

periods 1950-1959, 1960-1969,1970-1979 and 1980-1989. These atmospheric, ice and oceanic data 

were analyzed and re-processed for the purposes of our project (interpolation into the Beaufort and 

Chukchi seas model grid, analyses of seasonal variability for the anticyclonic and cyclonic climate states). 

We obtained water temperature and salinity data from The Polar Science Center Hydrographic 

Climatology (PHC) [Steele and Morley 19991, a global physical oceanographic atlas found at the 

University of Washington web site: http://psc.apl.washington.edu/Climatology.html. We simulated 

ice drift and water circulation to analyze ice and water trajectories during years with the cyclonic and 

anticyclonic circulation regimes. 

Seasonal cycle of the atmosphere 

Observational data form the basis for this section. Assuming that the sea level atmospheric pressure 

(SLP), winds, surface air temperature (SAT), precipitation, and cloudiness are different for the CCR and 

ACCR, we have averaged them separately over years with either the cyclonic or anticyclonic regimes. 

Resulting seasonal cycles of the atmospheric parameters are discussed below. 

Seasonal variability of SLP for the two circulation regimes are presented in Figure 1 (lower right). A 

center of high SLP is located over the Beaufort Sea during the mean ACCR year, except in August and 

September (not shown). Anticyclonic winds prevail from October through July. In August and September 

the atmospheric circulation becomes cyclonic. When the CCR dominates in the Arctic, the Icelandic Low 

is intensified and a tongue of low SLP propagates to the north (not shown). From June through September 

the center of low pressure is located in the vicinity of the North Pole, where it generates cyclonic winds. 

Even in October and December the isobars have a cyclonic curvature in the central Arctic. The center of 

high SLP is well developed over the Beaufort Sea in January, April and November only. Detailed analysis 

of the SLP during ACCR and CCR years is presented in Johnson et al. [1999]. During the ACCR the SLP 

is higher overall than during the CCR everywhere in the Arctic. In August the SLP is lower by about 

4 hPa during the CCR, compared with the ACCR. Figure 1 (upper right) shows the seasonal variability of 

geostrophic winds: in general, wind speed is higher for CCR, especially in summer, than for ACCR. 

Air temperature and cyclonic activity 

The daily SAT (2 meter) data used in this analysis are derived from buoys, manned drift stations, and 

all available land stations [Martin and Munoz 1997; Rigor et al. 19971. The seasonal variability of SAT 

is presented in Figure 1 (upper left). The mean ACCR winter is colder than the mean CCR winter 

everywhere in the Arctic. The SAT difference between mean ACCR and CCR years tends to decrease 

from regions adjacent to the North Atlantic toward the Pacific Ocean, reaching its minimum in the 

Beaufort Sea. The maximum temperature difference of 9°C is in March in the central arctic region. The 

ACCR and CCR SAT in summer are practically equal. Arctic warming during the CCR is related to 

advection of heat from the North Atlantic due to atmospheric circulation. According to Proshutinsky and 
Johnson [1997], the 1990s were CCR years. Enhanced cyclonic activity may cause increased cloudiness 

associated with a warmer arctic winter during the CCR compared with the ACCR. 

Arctic ice seasonal cycles 

Our investigations of the relationships between large-scale atmospheric circulation indices and ice 

severity in the BeaufortIChukchi region take advantage of a variety of data sets and model results. Using 

historical data augmented by remotely-sensed products, the variability of late-summer ice extent in the 

Alaskan sector of the Arctic Ocean is seen to be quite variable over the past 45 years (Figure 2). The 

unusually large reductions in ice cover in the late 1990s are also apparent, including the record minimum 

ice extent in the BeaufortIChukchi region in 1998. Comparison of this time series to the series of the 

intensity of cyclonic/anticyclonic circulation in the Arctic Basin does not suggest any significant, direct 

correlation. However if we average ice concentration for the years with the cyclonic and anticyclonic 

circulation regimes (see Figure 1, lower left), one can see that the ice concentration generally decreases 

during the cyclonic circulation regime and increases during the anticyclonic regime (in summer, of 

course). 

Year 

Figure 2. Sea ice extent at the end of September in the BeaufortIChukchi region for 

1953-1999. Note that the two years with lowest ice extent were 1998 and 

1999. See Maslanik et al. [I9991 for a description of region and data sets used. 
Figures 3 and 4 depict mean ice motion and mean multiyear ice concentration during cyclonic and 

anticyclonic years, respectively. The data shown were obtained from SMMR and SSWI satellite data 

spanning the period from 1979-1997, and represent averages of monthly means for the years indicated 

in the figures. The mean ice motion captures the basic circulation patterns associated with cyclonic 

and anticyclonic atmospheric conditions. Ice drift during cyclonic years (Figure 4) shows a weakened 

Beaufort Gyre, with the center of the gyre shifted to the east. As a consequence, ice flows into the central 

Arctic and Transpolar Drift Stream from the Siberian Arctic. The western boundary of the gyre transports 

ice more northward in the Chukchi Sea than during anticyclonic years, with a decreased southward flow 

in the eastern portion of the gyre. The effects of these differences in drift patterns between cyclonic and 

anticyclonic years are consistent with the differences seen in multiyear ice concentration and extent in the 

figures. During anticyclonic years, the concentration of multiyear ice is increased in the eastern portion of 

the Beaufort Sea, with higher concentrations extending farther southward into the southern Beaufort and 

Chukchi seas. During cyclonic years, the northward transport in the western side of the Beaufort Gyre 

may be contributing to the reduction in southward extent of the multiyear ice in the Chukchi Sea. From 

our analyses of National Ice Center ice charts for these and other years, the passive microwave-derived 

estimates of the extent of the multiyear icepack appear reasonable. Our work to date suggests that the 

late-winter multiyear ice extent may provide a useful indicator of the potential for ice retreat during the 

following summer [Maslanik et al. 19991. Multiyear ice extents in spring 1997, 1998, and 1999, for 

example, correspond reasonably well to the subsequent ice edge limit at the end of the melt season. The 

time series of end-of-summer ice extent in the western Arctic (Figure 3) indicates that the large reduction 

in multiyear ice extent that followed the record melt-back year of 1998 was followed by another season 

of well-below-normal ice extent in 1999. In 1999, the summer ice pack was relatively diffuse, with a 

reduced ice concentration over large areas. The potential existed for reductions in ice extent similar to or 

exceeding that of 1998. However, unlike 1998, southerly winds did not develop to drift this weakened, 

diffuse ice pack further northward. 

We plan to continue investigation of these relationships between atmospheric circulation, ice drift, and 

ice pack characteristics to determine the degree to which the types of relationships discussed above may 

provide an improved ability to predict the likelihood of heavy vs. light ice conditions in the Beaufort 

and Chukchi seas. In addition, we intend to consider whether basic changes in ice conditions, such as 

a general thinning of the ice pack, could lead to different responses by the ice-atmosphere system. For 

example, winter 1998 was mainly a period of anticyclonic atmospheric circulation, yet multiyear ice 

extent was well below normal in winter, followed by record ice reductions in summer. Thus, continued 

work is needed to assess how basic circulation modes interact with more localized atmospheric patterns 

and underlying ice conditions. 

Acknowledgements 

We are grateful for information provided by the EOSDIS NSIDC Distributed Active Archive Center at 

the University of Colorado at Boulder. 
Years 1979, 1980, 1981,1983,1984 

Figure 3. Mean ace motloll during anticyclontc years ( December-March). 

Years 1985,1986, 1988, 1989,1990, 1991, 4 993, 

1995,1996,1997 

Figure 4. Mean Ice motion dwmg cyclonic years (December--March). 
Study Products 

Publications 

Maslanik, J.A., M.C. Serreze and T. Agnew. 1999. On the record reduction in 1998 western Arctic 

sea-ice cover. Geophys. Res. Lett. 26: 1905-1908. 

Polyakov, I.V., A:Y. Proshutinsky and M.A. Johnson. 1999. Seasonal cycles in two regimes of Arctic 

climate. J. Geophys. Res. 104:25761-25788. 

Proshutinsky, A.Y., M.A. Johnson and T.O. Proshutinsky. 2000. Understanding climatic controls on 

contaminant transport with sea ice in the Arctic Ocean. Ann. Glaciol., accepted. 

Proshutinsky A.Y., I.V. Polyakov and M.A. Johnson. 1999. Climate states and variability of Arctic ice 

and water dynamics during 1946-1997, Polar Res. 18: 1-8. 

Presentations 

Proshutinsky, A.Y. and T.O. Proshutinsky. 1999. Arctic atmosphere and ocean oscillations. Fall 1999 

American Geophysical Union Meeting, November 1999. EOS (Suppl.), Trans. Am. Geophys. Union 

80:F212. 

Overviews of the project methodology and progress-to-date were presented at the CMI Annual Research 

Review, March 2000 and in a seminar at the MMS office in Anchorage, May 2000. 

References 

AARI 10-Day Arctic Ocean EASE-Grid Sea Ice Observations. National Snow and Ice Data Center, 

Distributed Active Archive Center, University of Colorado at Boulder. 

@ttp://nsidc.org/NSIDC/CATALOG/ENTRIES/nsi-005O.html) 

Carmack, E.C., and K. Aagaard. 1996. The dynamic Arctic Ocean: Spatial, temporal, and conceptual 

heterogeneities. Abstract, EOS, Trans. Am. Geophys. Union 76:0S12. 

Johnson, M.A., A.Y. Proshutinsky and I.V. Polyakov. 1999. Atmospheric patterns forcing two regimes 

of arctic circulation: A return to anticyclonic conditions? Geophys. Res. Lett. 26: 1621-1624. 

Joint US.-Russian Atlas of the Arctic Ocean. 1997. Environmental Working Group, 

Gore-Chernomyrdin Commission. (http://www.nnic.noaa.gov/atlas) 

Martin, S., and E.A. Munoz. 1997. Properties of the Arctic 2-meter air temperature field for 1979 to the 

present derived from a new gridded data set. J. Climate 10:1428-1440. 

Maslanik, J.A., and J. Dunn. 1998. On the role of sea ice transport in modifying Arctic responses to 

global climate change. Ann. Glaciol. 25: 102-1 06. 

Maslanik, J., C. Fowler, J. Key, T. Scambos, T. Hutchinson and W. Emery. 1998. AVHRR-based Polar 

Pathfinder products for modeling applications. Ann. Glaciol. 25:388-392. 

Maslanik, J.A., M.C. Serreze and T. Agnew. 1999. On the record reduction in 1998 western Arctic 

sea-ice cover. Geophys. Res. Lett. 26:1905-1908. 

Proshutinsky, A.Y., and M.A. Johnson. 1997. Two circulation regimes of the wind-driven Arctic Ocean. 

J. Geophys. Res. 102: 12493-125 14. 

Quadfasel, D. 1991. Warming in the Arctic. Nature 350:385. 

Rigor, I.G., R. Colony, S. Martin and E. Munoz. 1997. Statistics of surface air temperature observations 

in the Arctic. J. Climate 13:896-914. 
Rudels, B., E.P. Jones, L.G. Anderson and G. Kattner. 1994. On the intermediate depth waters of the 

Arctic Ocean, p. 3346. In O.M. Johannessen, R.D. Muench and J.E. Overland [eds.], The Polar 

Oceans and Their Role in Shaping the Global Environment. Geophys. Monogr. 85, Am. Geophys. 

Union, Washington, DC. 

Serreze, M.C., J.A. Maslanik, J.R. Key, R.F. Kokaly and D.A. Robinson. 1995. Diagnosis of the record 

minimum in Arctic sea ice area during 1990 and associated snow cover extremes. Geophys. Res. Lett. 

16:2183-2186. 

Smith, D.M. 1998. Recent increase in the length of the melt season of perennial Arctic Sea ice. Geophys. 

Res. Lett. 25:655-658. 

Steele, M., and T. Boyd. 1998. Retreat of the cold halocline layer in the Arctic Ocean. J. Geophys. Res. 

103:10419-10436. 

Steele, M., and R. Morley. 1999. The Polar Science Center Hydrographic Climatology. Applied Physics 

Laboratory, U. Washington. (http://psc.apl.washington.edu/Climatology.html) 

Tanaka, H.L., R. Kanohgi and T. Yasunari. 1995. Recent abnormal weather in the Arctic, p. 13-16. In 

Proceedings of the Wadati Conference on Global Change and Polar Climate, 7-10 November 1995. 

Tsukuba Science City, Japan. Geophysical Institute, University of Alaska Fairbanks. 

Walsh, J.E., W.L Chapman and T.L. Shy. 1996. Recent decrease of sea level pressure in the central 

Arctic. J. Climate 9:480-486. 

Zhang, J., D.A. Rothrock and M. Steele. 1998. Warming of the Arctic by a strengthened Atlantic inflow: 

model results. Geophys. Res. Lett., 25:1745-1748. 
Petroleum Hydrocarbon Degrading Microbial 

Communities in Beaufort Sea Sediments 

Joan F. Braddock <ffifb@uaf.edu> 

Kathleen A. Gannon <ftkag@uaf.edu> 

Institute of Arctic Biology 

University of Alaska Fairbanks 

Fairbanks, AK 99775-7000 

Task Order 151 75 

Abstract 

Despite large-scale development on the North Slope, no recent studies examining Alaskan arctic marine 

sediment microbial communities and their ability to metabolize petroleum compounds have been 

published. Microbial degradation of spilledpetroleum hydrocarbons is a major mechanism of removal of 

these compoundsji-om the environment. In this study we initiated a survey of marine sediment microbial 

populations in the Arctic Ocean to determine what microorganisms are present and what their metabolic 

capability is for degradation of various petroleum hydrocarbons. We also began a series of laboratory 

studies to examine the bioavailability of the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon, phenanthrene, to 

microorganisms in the presence of sediments collected near Barrow, Alaska. In our survey we found high 

total numbers of microorganisms in the sediments examined (approximately 10' cells/g dry wt sediment). 

Only about lo6 of these organisms were culturable in a marine heterotroph medium. Most probable 

numbers of culturable phenanthrene and hexadecane degraders were fairly high, - 104/g dry wt sediment 

each. Mineralization potentials were low for both hexadecane andphenanthrene. Despite the low organic 

carbon content of these sediments (<IS%), substantial adsoption toparticles occurred; adsorption was 

rapid. Laboratory bioavailability studies using these same sediments are ongoing. The results of this 

study will be useful in predicting the fate of spilledpetroleum hydrocarbons in the Arctic Ocean. 

Introduction 

The response to recent lease sales in the Beaufort Sea suggests that Beaufort Sea offshore oil development 

projects will be increasing in number and frequency over the upcoming decade. Increased offshore oil 

and gas production can lead to both chronic and acute additions of petroleum hydrocarbons to the arctic 

marine environment. One important unanswered question in this context is: "What is the long-term fate 

of petroleum hydrocarbons spilled in the Arctic Ocean?" 

Following the Exxon Valdez oil spill (EVOS), the most recent high-latitude large oil spill for which 

published studies are available, the fate of EVOS oil was determined from the most complete and 

accurate mass balance of any oil spill [Wolfe et al. 19941. The most significant term in the mass balance 

was approximately 50% of the spilled oil that biodegraded either in situ on shorelines or in the water 

column. It is apparent that the microbial component was the most important of the mechanisms 

determining the long-term fate of EVOS oil in Prince William Sound (PWS). As noted by Sugai et al. 

[1997], prediction of hydrocarbon persistence following a spill requires systematic ecosystem-level 
studies of the abiotic and biotic factors influencing biodegradation. Among these many factors are 

nutrient availability, oxygen tension, presence of fine-grained sediments, and presence of an acclimated 

community of hydrocarbon-metabolizing microbes [Leahy and Colwell 19901. 

In contrast to the many EVOS-generated studies of oil impact and fate, relatively little information is 

available regarding the potential fate or persistence of oil spilled in the Beaufort Sea. The marine 

environment of the Beaufort Sea is quite different from that in PWS, so data from the EVOS studies 

should be extrapolated to the Beaufort Sea environment with caution. Microbial studies conducted in the 

1970s and 1980s [Atlas et al. 1978; Haines and Atlas 19821 found that hydrocarbon-degrading microbes 

generally increased following oil contamination, but petroleum hydrocarbons were degraded very slowly. 

In general, following initial abiotic losses from their experimental systems, biodegradation of oil was 

limited and did not significantly alter the chemical composition of the residual oil. The authors found 

that oil is degraded in arctic sediments very slowly; biodegradation was only detectable after a full year 

of exposure of oil to the sediments. They pointed to several factors limiting biodegradation. These 

included limited populations of hydrocarbon-metabolizing microbes, localized high concentrations of 

hydrocarbons, low temperatures, unfavorable C:N and C:P ratios, low oxygen tensions and limited 

circulation of interstitial waters in fine-grained sediments. They also noted that abiotic weathering of the 

oil was also slow, with "limited loss of low molecular weight aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons during 

2 years' exposure." 

Despite large-scale development on the North Slope, no recent studies examining Alaskan arctic marine 

sediment microbial communities and their ability to metabolize petroleum compounds have been 

published. In year one we conducted a survey of Arctic Ocean offshore sediments near Barrow, 

Alaska, and evaluated the sediment microbial communities for their ability to metabolize petroleum 

hydrocarbons. In addition, laboratory acclimation studies using field sediment were used to estimate the 

adaptability to hydrocarbon metabolism of extant microbial communities. Sediment samples collected 

were also split and archived cryogenically for potential later analysis of microbial community structure 

by DNA or phospholipid fatty acid analysis. Samples were also collected for laboratory-based studies 

on the effects of sediment sorption on bioavailability of petroleum hydrocarbons. These latter studies 

are designed to assess the effects of Arctic Ocean sediments on biodegradability of petroleum fractions 

known to be toxic (e.g., phenanthrene or other polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons). 

Methods and Materials 

In the first year of this project we focused our efforts on sediments collected near Barrow, Alaska. 

Sampling occurred 24-25 July 1999. Samples were collected in Elson Lagoon, offshore the former Naval 

Arctic Research Laboratory (NAIU,), and offshore the town site of Barrow (see Table 1 for specific 

locations). At each sampling location five sites were selected and at each site triplicate grabs were taken 

for a total of 45 sediments collected. From each grab, sediment samples were collected with a disinfected 

metal spoon. Each replicate sample was placed into sterile containers and kept cold until processing. 

Additionally a 15-rnL cryovial was filled from each grab sample to be frozen and preserved to have 

available for genetic or fatty acid analysis at a later date. Samples for microbial analysis were chilled until 

being returned to the laboratory in Fairbanks. Cryovials were frozen (-20°C) as soon as possible (within 

-4 hr of collection) and stored frozen until returned to Fairbanks, at which point they were transferred 

to an ultracold freezer (-80°C). The unfrozen sediments were then analyzed for existing hydrocarbon 

degradation potential as well as hydrocarbon degradation acclimatization potential. 
Table 1. Sampling locations for this study were Elson Lagoon (E), offshore the former Naval 

Arctic Research Laboratory (NARL; N), and offshore Barrow (B). Three grabs were 

collected at each of five sampling sites at each location. Latitudes and longitudes were 

recorded from a handheld GPS unit once at the Elson Lagoon sampling sites and each 

time a grab was taken at the offshore NARL and Barrow sites. 

Sampling 

Location Latitude Longitude Approximate 

Depth (m) 

Microbial population and activity assays to determine the existing potential of the sediments were 

initiated within two days after returning to Fairbanks. Analyses included estimates of total, heterotrophic, 

crude oil emulsifying, and substrate-specific degrader microbial populations, and assays for metabolic 

activity. Data derived from these assays was pooled (i.e., six values for each assay from each sampling 

site) to generate mean and standard error estimates. In addition, some samples were analyzed for total 
carbon content at the UAF Mass Spectrometer Facility and others were analyzed for particle size 

composition at the University of Washington Analytical Services Laboratory (see Table 2). 

Table 2. Particle size analysis and percent carbon content of selected Arctic Ocean sediment samples. 

Sampling Location %C Size Class (%) 

rock sand silt clay 

>2mm 2-0.05 mm 0.05-0.002 nun < 0.002 nun 

Elson Lagoon 

Site 1 0.088,0.093 x 92.5 1.25 6.25 

Site 2 x 55.0 20.75 16.25 

Site 3 x 54.0 10.0 36.0 

Site 4 x 3.75 43.75 52.5 

Site 5 x 46.25 27.5 26.25 

Offshore NARL 

Site 1 x 14.0 54.0 32.0 

Site 2 1.59, 1.50 x 26.0 52.0 22.0 

Site 3 x 74.0 10.0 16.0 

Site 4 x 93.75 2.50 3.75 

Site 5 x 96.25 2.50 1.25 

Offshore Barrow 

Site 1 0.044,0.044 9.22 79.36 2.27 9.07 

Site 2 x 86.2 5.05 8.75 

Site 3* x, x, x 83.75,70.0,58.0 3.75, 10.0,20.0 12.5,20.0,22.0 

Site 4 22.6 26.3 18.6 32.5 

Site 5 x 50.0 24.0 26.0 

*Five samples (grabs) were collected at each site. Only one sample was analyzed for particle size except at 

Barrow Site 3 where three different samples were analyzed to assess variability at a given site. 

Microbial population analyses included most-probable-number assays (MPNs) for crude oil emulsifiers 

[Brown and Braddock 19901, marine heterotrophs [Lindstrom et al. 19911, substrate specific assays for 

phenanthrene and hexadecane [Braddock and McCarthy 1996; Wrenn and Venosa 1996; Braddock and 

Catterall 19991, and total microscopic direct counts of marine microbes [Braddock et al. 19901. Activities, 

as well as numbers, of specific types of hydrocarbon degraders were assessed using a technique for 

extracting kinetic data from the cultures set up for enumeration [Lindstrom et al. 19981. Selected samples 

were also spiked with I4c-labeled hydrocarbons in microcosms. To prepare each microcosm, 10 mL of a 

1: 10 sediment slurry in a mineral salts medium (Bushnell Haas; Atlas [1993]) was added to a previously 

sterilized, 40-mL septum vial (I-Chem Research, Hayward, CA). After the microcosms were constructed, 

50 pL of a 2-g/L solution (in acetone) of radiolabeled hydrocarbon was added by syringe to each vial 

through the septum. The resulting initial concentration of added hydrocarbon was then 100 pg per vial 

(10 pg/mL culture broth; radioactivity ca. 50,000 dpm). Substrates used (Sigma Chemical Co., St. Louis, 

MO) included the alkane hexadecane (1-14c-labeled), and the polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) 

phenanthrene (9-I4c-labeled). Each treatment was replicated five-fold, and killed controls were used to 

check for abiotic I4c02 evolution. Vials were incubated at 8OC for 96 hours, killed by adding NaOH 

to stop respiration, and assayed for I4c02 from hydrocarbon mineralization [Brown et al. 19911. 
To begin to understand the acclimation potential of the microbial population and to understand the 

effect of the presence of particles on biodegradation, enrichment flasks were set up, as well as abiotic 

microcosms, to assess the adsorptive properties of the sediments collected. An additional set of 

experiments in the presence of hydrocarbon degrading populations (bioavailability experiments) is 

ongoing and will not be reported here. 

Phenanthene solutions for adsorption experiments were prepared using [9-I4clphenanthrene 

(10.0 mCi/mrnole, 98% purity; Sigma) dissolved in spectranalyzed acetone (99.7% pure; Fisher). 

Fifty microliters (ca. 50,000 dpm) of a stock solution was injected into 10 rnL of the appropriate 

sediment slurry to yield final phenanthrene concentrations of approximately 1.25,2.50,3.75, or 

5.0 ng phenanthrenelml slurry (the solubility of phenanthrene is - 1.0 pg/rnL in pure water at 2S°C; 

[Shaw 1989]).The chemical extractability of sorbed phenanthrene was determined for each sediment 

slurry concentration (1,2%). Microbial activity was inhibited by autoclaving. Samples were spiked with 

50 pL of the appropriate [9-I4clphenanthrene stock solution to yield final concentrations as indicated for 

each experiment. Triplicate vials of each sediment and phenanthrene concentration were incubated as 

indicated depending on the experiment. No aging (0 day) samples were extracted as soon as practical after 

spiking the samples. All glassware was washed, combusted and autoclaved before use. To extract the 

phenanthrene from the samples, the vials were first centrifuged at approximately 3000 x g for 1 min 

after which 2.5 mL of the supernatant was removed. This fraction is indicated as the aqueous phase 

phenanthrene concentration. 

Results and Discussion 

Particle size analysis indicated variability in samples in the distribution of sand, silt or clay (Table 2). 

In the three samples analyzed for organic carbon content, all were very low (- 1.5% or less). 

Direct counts of microorganisms in sediments collected at all sampling locations indicate healthy 

populations (- 10' cellslg dry wt sediment) of microorganisms present in surface sediment from Elson 

Lagoon and offshore Barrow and NARL (Figure I). These numbers are consistent with total direct counts 

on average of 2 x lo9 cellslg dry wt sediment reported by Kaneko et al. [I9781 for the Beaufort Sea. The 

cultivatable marine heterotrophs were lower (on average about three orders of magnitude lower) than 

direct counts. These numbers are also consistent with Kaneko et al. [1978], who found approximately 10' 

heterotrophic microorganismslg dry wt sediment. Phenanthrene and hexadecane degraders were between 

lo3 and lo4 cellslg dry wt sediment. Even after a long incubation period for the sheen screen plates (crude 

oil degraders) we found little to no activity present for any sediment (data not shown). 

While populations of microorganisms are present in these Arctic Ocean sediments, their ability to readily 

degrade petroleum hydrocarbons appears to be limited. The 96-well plate kinetic data were hampered by 

very slow growth rates of phenanthrene and hexadecane degraders. In addition, mineralization potentials 

for phenanthrene and hexadecane were uniformly low (Table 3). These sediments universally showed 

higher potential for mineralization of the linear alkane, hexadecane, than the polycyclic aromatic 

hydrocarbon, phenanthrene. A further indicator of low activity is that our efforts to enrich for a 

consortium that degrades both hexadecane and phenanthrene have thus far had limited success. We are 

continuing our efforts to find an isolate or consortium appropriate for the bioavailability experiments. 

To begin to understand the adsorptive properties of these Arctic Ocean sediments we initiated a series of 

isotherm assays (Figure 2). NARL sediment most rapidly adsorbed phenanthrene, a result consistent with 

the somewhat higher organic carbon content measured for this sediment (Table 2). Aging generally led 

to increased partitioning into the sediment fraction. The adsorption isotherms were used to calculate 

partition coefficients (Kp) under various experimental conditions (Table 4). The NARL sediment was 

clearly the most adsorptive of the three sediments examined. 
offshore NARL 

Direct Counts Heterotrophs Phen. Deg. Hex. Deg. 

Microbial Population 

Figure 1. Microscopic direct counts and most probable numbers of heterotrophs, phenanthrene 

degraders, and hexadecane degraders from sediments collected near Barrow, Alaska 

in July 1999. Data represent the mean of 15 sediments from each sampling location 

(five sites per location and three grabs per site) + one standard error. 

Table 3. Mineralization potentials of Arctic Ocean sediments collected August 

1999. Values shown are the mean (* SE) of five replicate microcosms. 

Sampling Location Mineralization Potential 

(ng substrate mineralizedlg dry wt sediment) - - - 

Hexadecane Phenanthrene 

Elson Lagoon 

Site 1 

Site 2 

Site 3 

Site 4 

Offshore NARL 

Site 1 

Site 2 

Site 3 

Site 4 

Offshore Barrow 

Site 1 

Site 2 

Site 3 

Site 4 

Site 5 
Elson Lagoon 

0.25 1 1% Sediment Solution A 

rn 1 minute 

2 hours 

A 2 days 

/* 

0 

c 2% Sediment Solution 

g 0.20 

Aqueous Concentration (pg/L) 

Barrow 0.25 1 

NARL 

0'25 1 fl 1% Sediment Solution 

- 2 0.0 0.5 1 .O 1.5 2.0 5 0.25 0 

c 2% Sediment Solution g 0.20 

0.0 0.5 1 .O 1.5 2.0 

Aqueous Concentration (pg/L) 

1 % Sediment Solution 2 hours 

A 2 days 0.20 I T4days 

0 

C 1 2% Sediment Solution 6 0.20 

- 

C 

0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 

Aqueous Concentration (pg/L) 

Figure 2. Phenanthrene in solution versus phenanthrene associated with sediment particles after various 

reaction times for sediments collected near Barrow, Alaska in July 1999. Experiments were 

conducted in microcosms with either 1 or 2% sediment slurries. Data points are the mean of 

triplicates * one standard error. 
Table 4. Partition coefficients (Kp) for phenanthrene in experiments using 1 or 2% 

sediment slurries. 

Sampling Location Reaction Time KP (mL/g) 

1 % Sediment 2% Sediment 

Elson Lagoon 1 minute 

2 hours 

2 days 

4 days 

Offshore NARZ, 15 minutes 

2 hours 

2 days 

4 days 

1 minute 

2 hours 

2 days 

4 days 

Offshore Barrow 

ND = no data as experiment was not performed under those conditions. 

These results indicate that sediment microbial populations have not changed appreciably since 1976. 

High numbers of microorganisms exist in these sediments, many of which were culturable with either 

hexadecane or phenanthrene supplied as a sole carbon source. However, mineralization potentials were 

low relative to other sites (e.g., Prince William Sound Alaska [Braddock et al. 19901) indicating that the 

population may only slowly acclimate to biodegradation of these hydrocarbon substrates. Adsorption 

isotherm experiments with the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon, phenanthrene, indicate rapid and 

extensive adsorption. The three sediments examined in these experiments did show differences in their 

adsorptive properties. This is likely due in part to differences in organic carbon content and to other 

unidentified differences among the sediments. Bioavailability experiments are ongoing with these 

sediments. In addition we have recently collected approximately 30 samples from offshore Prudhoe Bay 

and will use these sediments to continue our survey to characterize the sediment microbial community 

in the Arctic Ocean. 

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Sugai, S., J.E. Lindstrom and J.F. Braddock. 1997. Environmental influences on the microbial 

degradation of Exxon Valdez oil on the shorelines of Prince William Sound, Alaska. Environ. Sci. 

Technol. 31:1564-1572. 

Wolfe, D.A., M.J. Hameedi, J.A. Galt, G. Watabayashi, J. Short, C. OYClair, S. Rice, J. Michel, J.R. 

Payne, J. Braddock, S. Hanna and D. Sale. 1994. The fate of the oil spilled from the Exxon Valdez. 

Environ. Sci. Technol. 28:561A-568A. 

Wrenn, B.A., and A.D. Venosa. 1996. Selective enumeration of aromatic and aliphatic hydrocarbon 

degrading bacteria by a most-probable-number procedure. Can. J. Microbiol. 42:252-258. 
Regional Economic Impact Analysis of Subsistence 

Bowhead Whaling: Accounting for Non-Market 

Activities on Alaska's North Slope 

Car01 E. Lewis <ffcel@uaf.edu> 

Hans T. Geier <ffhtg@uaf.edu> 

Joshua A. Greenberg <ffjag@uaf.edu> 

Agricultural and Forestry Experiment Station 

School of Agriculture and Land Resources Management 

University of Alaska Fairbanks 

Fairbanks, AK 99775-71 40 

Kelly Giraud <ffklg@som.uaf.edu> 

Mark Herrmann <ffmlh@uaf.edu> 

School of Management 

University of Alaska Fairbanks 

Fairbanks, AK 99775-6080 

John J. Kelley <ffjjk@uaf.edu> 

Institute of Marine Science 

University of Alaska Fairbanks 

Fairbanks, AK 99775-7220 

Task Order 15176 

Abstract 

A fresh look at subsistence economies is needed. This project addresses the use of comprehensive 

economic methodologies to depict non-formal subsistence sectors prevalent in rural Alaska economies. 

These methodologies will be applied to subsistence bowhead whaling off the north coast of Alaska, 

specifzcally in the Beaufort Sea. A projected result is the provision of an important baseline assessment 

for communities with mixed subsistence and cash economies. Subsistence activities, whaling in particular, 

are dzficult for contemporary researchers to evaluate or to quantiJL in a format understandable by 

western social scientists. What makes this even more difjcult is the respected reluctance, for cultural 

reasons, of those participating in subsistence activities to express the importance of these activities in 

modem economic or value-based terms. Working in partnership with the Alaska Eskimo Whaling 

Commission, the North Slope Borough Department of Wildlife Management and the Barrow, Kaktovik, 

and Nuiqsut communities will ensure accurate and reliable information and ownership of the information 

by community members. 
Introduction 

Subsistence whaling for beluga and bowhead whales has been a part of the culture of the Inupiat people 

in the Bering Strait region, along the Siberian and Alaskan shores of the Chukchi Sea, the Beaufort Sea, 

and at other locations for centuries. It is a part of the subsistence way of life [Brower and Opie 1996; 

Hepa and Brower 19971. The present harvest of both species is currently limited to nine whaling villages 

in northwest Alaska. Harvest is regulated by quotas imposed by the International Whaling Commission 

(IWC) and allocated, monitored, and enforced by the Alaska Eskimo Whaling Commission (AEWC) . 

The AEWC was formed to deal with crises in the hunt of the bowhead whale in the late 1970s. A lack 

of information about the population and need for the bowhead is regarded as the cause of the restrictive 

harvest quota by the IWC. The bowhead is important to the Inupiat. Millions of dollars were spent to 

determine population and village needs. The North Slope Borough (NSB) Department of Wildlife 

Management devoted most of its efforts until the mid 1990s to help resolve bowhead whale related issues 

[Brower and Opie 1996; Hepa and Brower 19971. Thus, the residents of the NSB, by furnishing better 

information, were able to protect their use of the bowhead whale resource. 

This study concentrates on the impact of oil and gas activity on the mixed economy of subsistence 

bowhead whaling on the northern coast of Alaska. Beluga whales are also hunted but the bowhead is 

the most important [Braund 19931. The communities of Barrow, Kaktovik, and Nuiqsut are the most 

impacted by oil and gas exploration and extraction activities. Barrow is the largest of the three 

communities and is located the farthest west (250 miles) from Prudhoe Bay. Kaktovik and Nuiqsut 

are on the coast of the Beaufort Sea; the Beaufort and the Chukchi seas bound Barrow. The three 

community economies receive revenue from property taxes on businesses related to oil and gas 

production located in and around Prudhoe Bay. This revenue helps to support boththe subsistence 

and cash inputs to the community by residents. 

The Inupiat's knowledge and view of the world is changing, along with their expectations. Rapid 

modernization of rurayvillage communities has occurred in recent years [Worl 1986; Pedersen et al. 

19991. These "improvements" from past conditions have changed lifestyles. The changes require a cash 

outlay for capital improvements and operating expenses for schools, health facilities, sanitation, and water 

supplies. Capital outlays for amenities that enhance subsistence pursuits and the new quality of life are 

escalating [Geier 1993; Wheeler 19921. Concomitant with these changes is the often lack of capitallcash 

in communities with limited economic opportunity. This lack of opportunity to participate in the cash 

economy can affect participation in subsistence hunting, fishing, and gathering. 

Subsistence whaling is a significant socio-cultural focus in arctic coastal communities. It not only 

reinforces the extended family structure, since most whaling crews tend to be formed along family lines, 

but also helps to reinforce and maintain intercommunity bonds through sharing of subsistence harvests 

and cultural activities [Stoker and Krupnik 1993; Freeman 19931. Although subsistence whaling is 

important in the cash economy because of the goods and services purchased, it is of much greater cultural 

importance to all whaling villages and to the Inupiat community as a whole. 

It is difficult for those in contemporary society outside the Inupiat community to comprehend the P 

importance of subsistence whaling in Inupiat communities. Therefore subsistence activities, whaling in 

particular, are difficult for contemporary researchers to evaluate or to quantify in a format understandable 

in modem culture. What makes this even more difficult is the respected reluctance, for cultural reasons, 

of those participating in subsistence activities to express the importance of these activities in modern 

economic or value-based terms. 

The proximity of the Prudhoe Bay oil fields to Barrow, Kaktovik, and Nuiqsut is important for a number 

of reasons; the obvious is economic. However, of greater import to subsistence bowhead whaling is the 
risk of onshore and offshore disturbances on the north coast of Alaska, whether they are oil related or 

related to some other natural or human-caused event. These disturbances can be long-term and on-going, 

not necessarily catistrophic-associated with a single event. The northern coastal waters of Alaska are a 

part of the migratory path of the bowhead whale. Petroleum-related development companies and others 

associated with potential contaminants go to great lengths to prevent disasters. 

Should disaster occur, subsistence whaling could cease or, at the least, quotas would be affected. An 

example of the disturbance of subsistence resources occurred in the infamous Prince William Sound 

Exxon Valdez oil spill in 1989 [Jorgenson 1993, 19941. Affected communities sought remuneration for 

their losses, which included subsistence resources and access to those resources. Outsiders who did not 

have science-based information generated by the affected communities determined the monetary value 

of the losses. Their valuations were at best "guesstimates". 

There are no quantitative economic methodologies used in Alaska that account for the total spectrum 

of non-cash value of subsistence products, processes, and activities. The best approaches consider only 

replacement value of the products and processes. They do not account for the cultural value of subsistence 

activities nor the time spent on indirectly related tasks and events. In addition, they do not take into 

consideration long-term events that might cause bowheads to move farther offshore, leading to a greater 

risk and cost to those who hunt the whales. 

Current methodologies used to describe subsistence activities do not do so with rigorous economic theory 

[Kruse 1983a,b; Jorgensen 1984a,b, 1985; Wolfe 19841. One recent study uses a time allocation model 

with secondary data. It demonstrated significance with relation to ethnicity, reciprocity, labor supply, and 

subsistence activity using econometric models [Kerkvliet and Nebesky 19971. 

It is essential that residents of Barrow, Kaktovik, and Nuiqsut be able to document and provide a 

representative economic model of their important subsistence resource, the bowhead whale. According to 

a number of federal legislative acts, economic impact statements must be provided in order to determine 

the level of compensation due in the event of environmental disasters. Examples of such acts that are 

relevant to potential disasters in coastal communities include the Oil Pollution Act of 1990, the Federal 

Water Pollution Act of 1948, the Comprehensive Environmental Resource Compensation and Liability 

Act (CERCLA) of 1980, and the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (NEPA). 

The underlying premise for our proposed research is founded on the thesis that natural resource 

management decisions are best made in collaborative atmospheres, i.e., in the context of local community 

preferences. Community preferences are a set of descriptors that consider the quality of environmental 

resources. These descriptors are associated with particular environmental media-namely, air, water 

or terrestrial habitat. The rural communities of Alaska are rich in cultural diversity and socioeconomic 

characteristics. Their use of environmental resources is commonly allocated outside a structured market 

system. The duality of commercial and subsistence resource use makes standard economic analysis 

difficult because of the combination of market and non-market economic activities. 

To*Zxamine market and non-market activities of rural communities in Alaska, we are using a multifaceted approach. This entails non-market valuation techniques in combination with traditional regional 

input-output analysis. We are combining methodologies to capture the values of traditional lifestyles in 

the metric used for standard economic analysis. 
Methods 

Three specific methods will be used to determine the economic impact of disturbance on subsistence 

bowhead whaling in the Inupiat communities of Barrow, Nuiqsut, and Kaktovik and describe the 

economic value of the bowhead whale to the Inupiat community. 

METHOD 1. Nutritional importance of the bowhead 

The nutritional value of the bowhead whale is important to the Inupiat. We will determine what 

nutritional components in the diet would be missing in the absence of the bowhead. This differs from the 

replacement cost method that substitutes foods available in traditional western markets for the bowhead. 

METHOD 2. Cash flow in the community 

Input-output models typically depict the flow of money in and out of a community or region. We will 

be using IMPLAN economic modeling software to characterize the movement of money, including 

employment, in the market economy (boats, motors, food, gas, etc.) in Barrow, Kaktovik, and Nuiqsut. 

METHOD 3. Non-market economic model 

This is the part of the study that is the most controversial, and is causing the most concern for the NSB 

and AEWC. Consequently, a large part of the effort by project managers has been put into reviewing 

different economic methodologies and survey techniques to determine the most appropriate way to 

proceed with this very challenging and ultimately most important part of the project. As a result, the 

approach that will be used has changed from the original proposal. 

Value integration surveys (VIS) appears to be a promising technique that has been used successfully 

in areas with small populations having strongly held beliefs. It blends well with sociological and 

anthropological survey techniques and is gaining acceptance in the economic community. The 

methodology utilizes small discussion groups to gain insight into an acceptable way to view the value of 

the bowhead whale should populations become scarce or, in the worst case scenario, eliminated. It offers 

promise to be able to address the question of insurance compensation as hunters face higher risk to obtain 

a whale either because of scarcity or because of a movement of the whale population away from current 

hunting grounds. 

Results1 Progress 

The regional economic impact analysis of subsistence bowhead whaling has three phases. The first 

must be completed prior to beginning the remaining two. We have completed all but the last objective 

of Phase I: obtain letters of support from appropriate community leaders. 

PHASE IObtain approval of the Barrow, Kaktovik, and Nuiqsut community 

Prepare background material for presentation to community leaders and discussion 

with the community. 

Meet with community leaders (AEWC, NSB and Barrow, Kaktovik, and Nuiqsut 

community leaders) with assistance from the Department of Wildlife of the NSB to 

develop a strategy for presentation of the project. 

Discuss and present the project and steps to complete the project in lay terms to the 

Barrow, Kaktovik, and Nuiqsut whaling communities. If possible, the presentation 

will be made in Barrow. If not, it can be repeated in Kaktovik and Nuiqsut. 

Obtain letters of support from appropriate community leaders. 
Prepare background material for presentation to community leaders and discussion with the 

community 

After discussions with the AEWC, the AEWC legal council, and ! it: NSB, we concentrated our 

compilation of secondary information on Minerals Management Service publications relevant to social, 

cultural, and economic impacts on bowhead whaling that occurred prior to and following the ban on 

bowhead whaling by the IWC. 

Additional information regarding historical whaling harvests was collected during the International 

Institute of Fisheries Economics and Trade (IIFET) conference in Corvallis, Oregon, 16-20 July 2000. 

During a "Subsistence Whaling" session chaired by Mark Henmann, invited speakers Thomas Albert, 

Chief Scientist, North Slope Borough; Tom Mexsis Happynook, World Council of Whalers; Sandra 

Osawa, Upstream Productions; Bill Aron, Affiliate Professor, College of Ocean and Fishery Sciences, 

University of Washington; and Milton Freeman, Canadian Circumpolar Institute (CCI), University of 

Alberta addressed current socioeconomic issues with respect to indigenous whale harvests, resource use 

perspectives, and the historical effects of past regulatory actions on indigenous populations, including 

whaling records. A panel discussion of culture, value and perspectives on indigenous whale harvests 

followed. 

A literature search is continuing on current and past bowhead whale research, as well as on non-market 

economic methodologies and survey methods. 

Meet with community leaders (AE WC, NSB and Barrow, Kaktovik, and Nuiqsut communiv leaders) 

with assistance from the Department of Wildlife of the NSB to develop a strategy for presentation of 

the project 

On 29 and 30 March 2000 we attended a whaling meeting in Barrow between the NSB, AEWC, MMS, 

scientists, and interested community members. Discussions with the NSB and AEWC resulted in an 

action plan that would allow us to complete the regional economic impact analysis of subsistence 

bowhead whaling. A new work plan that will accommodate additional social and cultural components 

requested by the NSB and AEWC is underway. 

On 11 August 2000 the project team met with two prominent non-market economists-John Loomis, 

professor of resource economics at Colorado State University, and Joe Cooper, USDA Economic 

Research Service, Resource Economics Division, Washington DC-to discuss economic methodologies 

appropriate for this project. As a result, we are strongly considering using value integration surveys, 

a technique that has been useful in surveys of small populations with strongly held beliefs. This 

methodology would provide a more manageable data collection effort over the more extensive surveys 

previously proposed. Concurrent with the evaluation is a comprehensive literature review for VIS, 

multi-attribute utility (MAUT), and decision analysis techniques used to clarify the values of individuals 

as part of small-group negotiation processes. The application of these methodologies will enhance the 

project, making it much more proactive and inclusive. 

Discuss andpresent the project reported here and steps to complete the project in lay terms to the 

Barrow, Kaktovik, and Nuiqsut whaling communities 

This step will be completed after the new work plan is finalized. We will addresses quantification of 

the social, cultural and economic impacts and potential economic mitigation measures that may be 

appropriate in the face of continuing and possible catastrophic impacts on the bowhead whale and 

subsistence bowhead whaling. This plan to present the regional economic impact analysis of subsistence 

bowhead whaling has been accepted by MMS, AEWC, NSB, and researchers associated with the work 

plan. The request for proposals has been released by MMS so work can proceed. For this step of the 

project, the VIS, MAUT and decision analysis techniques will be necessary. 
The remaining two phases of the project will be completed following the receipt of letters of support. 

These two phases are: 

PHASE I1 Update the IMPLAN database to accurately reflect the Barrow, Kaktovik, 

and Nuiqsut cash economies 

PHASE I11 Use value integration surveys, multi-attribute utility and decision analysis 

techniques to construct a non-market economic model 

Discussion 

Our work to date has been largely preparatory under Phase I of the project. The timeline has been delayed 

due to late approval of funding, and because of requests by the NSB and AEWC for a broader focus. Any 

work beyond the quantification of the social, cultural, and economic impacts of oil and gas development 

and exploration on North Slope Alaskan Eskimo subsistence communities will be pending acceptance 

f the work plan to complete this task. Progress has been frustrated by the need to obtain additional 

resources necessary to accommodate the project expansion. MMS has approved funding and has released 

a request for proposals for the socio-cultural component of the work. Timelines will not be set until the 

selection of a research team for the completion of this component. 

Acknowledgements 

We are grateful for information provided by the North Slope Borough Department of Wildlife and Chief 

Scientist Tom Albert; the Alaska Eskimo Whaling Commission and Director Maggie Ahmoak; the 

Mayor of the North Slope Borough, George Ahmoak; and those from the Barrow, Nuiqsut, and Kaktovik 

communities who so graciously spoke to us about their culture, their communities, the importance of 

bowhead whaling and the impact of off-shore oil and gas activities on the North Slope of Alaska. 

References 

Braund, S. 1993. North Slope subsistence study Barrow, 1987, 1988 and 1989. Institute of Social and 

Economic Research, U. Alaska Anchorage. Minerals Management Service report MMS 91-0086. 

Brower, H.K., Jr., and R.T. Opie. 1996. North Slope Borough subsistence harvest documentation 

project: Data For Anaktuvuk Pass, Alaska for the Period July 1, 1994 to June 30, 1995. Dept. Wildlife 

Mgt., North Slope Borough, Barrow, AK. 

(CERCLA) Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act of 1980. Pub. L. 

No. 96-510,94 Stat. 2767 (1980). Codified as amended at 42 U.S.C. $5 9601-9675 (1988 & Supp. IV 

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Freeman, M.M.R. 1993. The International Whaling Commission, small type whaling, and coming to 

terms with subsistence. Hum. Organ. 52:242-25 1. 

Geier, H.T. 1993. Regional Economic Modeling in Rural Alaska: Accounting for "Non-Market" 

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project: Data for Atqasuk, Alaska for the period July 1, 1994 to June 30, 1995. Dept. Wildlife Mgt., 

North Slope Borough, Barrow, AK. 

Jorgensen, J. 1984a. Effects of renewable harvest disruptions on socioeconomic and sociocultural 

systems: St. Lawrence Island. John Muir Institute. A17/PB 87-190278. Minerals Management 

Service, TR-89. 

Jorgensen, J. 1984b. Effects of renewable harvest disruptions on socioeconomic and sociocultural 

systems: Norton Sound. John Muir Institute. A16PB 85-173391. Minerals Management Service, 

TR-90. 

Jorgensen, J. 1985. Effects of renewable harvest disruptions on socioeconomic and sociocultural 

systems: Chukchi Sea. John Muir Institute. A99lPB 87-199428. Minerals Management Service, 

TR-89. 

Jorgensen, J. 1993. Social indicators study of Alaskan coastal villages N. Postspill key informant 

summaries, Schedule C communities, Part 1 : (Cordova, Tatitlek, Valdez) and Part 2: (Kenai, Tyonek, 

Seldovia, Kodiak City, Karluk, Old Harbor, Chignik). Human Relations Area Files Inc. 

PB 93-20563 1. Minerals Management Service report MMS 92-0052. 

Jorgensen, J. 1994. Social indicators study of Alaskan coastal villages VI. Analysis of the Exxon Valdez 

spill area. Human Relations Area Files Inc. Minerals Management Service report MMS 94-0064. 

Kerkvliet, J., and W. Nebesky. 1997. Whaling and wages on Alaska's North Slope: A time allocation 

approach to natural resource use. Econ. Dev. Cult. Change 45:651-665. 

Kruse, J. 1983a. A description of the socioeconomics of the North Slope Borough. Institute of Social 

and Economic Research, U. Alaska Anchorage. A19PB 87-189338, Minerals Management Service, 

TR-85. 

Kruse, J. 1983b. A description of the socioeconomics of the North Slope Borough. Appendix: 

Transcripts of Selected Inupiat Interviews. Institute of Social and Economic Research, U. Alaska 

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1, 1970,83 Stat. 852 as amended by P.L. 94-52, July 3, 1975,89 Stat. 258, and P.L. 94-83, August 9, 

1975, 89 Stat. 424. 

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Pedersen, S., R. Caulfield and R. Wolfe. 1999. Subsistence economies and oil development: Case 

studies from Nuiqsut and Kaktovik, Alaska. Oral presentation at the University of Alaska Coastal 

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C.J. Cowles [eds.], The Bowhead Whale. Society for Marine Mammalogy Spec. Publ. 2. 

Wheeler, P. 1992. Subsistence economics and the use of fish and game resources in Grayling, Anvik, 

Shageluk, and Holy Cross. Cooperative Agreement #14-16-0007-7739. USFWS and the Tanana 

Chiefs Conference, Inc., Fairbanks, AK. 

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1984. Subsistence-based economies in coastal communities of southwest Alaska. Div. of 

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Region, U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Anchorage, AK. 

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Management Service report MMS 86-0088. 
New Projects 

Three new projects are being funded this federal fiscal year along with the ongoing projects reported 

above. Abstracts are presented here to show the full range of work being supported by the University 

of Alaska Coastal Marine Institute. 

Alaska Sea Ice Atlas 

O~SO~ P. Smith <afops@uaa.alaska.edu> 

School of Engineering 

University of Alaska Anchorage 

321 1 Providence Drive 

Anchorage, AK 99508-8054 

Task Order 151 77 

Abstract 

University of Alaska and Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory (CRREL) specialists 

propose to prepare an updated GIS-based Alaska Sea Ice Atlas with a view toward risk assessment for 

navigation and mineral developments. Undergraduate and graduate geomatics and engineering students 

will be integrally involved in the development. This project responds to the "Updated Ice Atlas" objective 

of the MMS Alaska Environmental Studies Program, Annual Studies Plan, FY 200&2001. All ice-covered 

federal Outer Continental Shelfand coastal waters of Alaska will be mapped. National Weather Service 

(NWS) ice reports for the Beaufort, Chukchi, and Bering seas will be scanned, geographically registered, 

and rectzj?ed to a standard map projection. Areas of uniform ice concentration, stage, and form will be 

traced as polygons for superposition on a 5-km-square grid. Ice data archived by the US. National Ice 

Center (NIC) will be treated similarly. Ice information from other sources, such as the Canadian Ice 

Service, will be applied toJill in gaps and to verzfi NWS and NIC data. Equivalent information for Cook 

Inlet, Alaska, currently being prepared under separate contract, will be included. Verbal history will be 

collected through interviews of long-time residents of the Alaska coast and applied to verzfi measured 

data and statistics. The GIS database will allow users to view a statistical average over a broad area, a 

time series of conditions at a point, or an individual historical ice report. Meteorological data related to 

ice growth, behavior, deformation, and decay will be retrievedfiom agency archives and incorporated in 

the GIS database. Parameters to be incorporated include air temperature, freezing and thawing degreedays, sea surface temperature, and wind speed and direction. Historic isobaric maps will be applied to 

hindcast surface winds and wind stress divergence over ice as an index of ice compression, the primary 

cause of ridge formation. A chapter will portray multi-year cycles of arctic climate. Final products will 

include an executable GIS on CD-ROM and on the world wide web. 
A Nowcast/Forecast Model for the Beaufort Sea 

Ice-Ocean-Oil Spill System (NFM-BSIOS) 

Jia Wang cjwang@iarc.uaf.edu> 

Frontier Research System for Global Change 

International Arctic Research Center 

University of Alaska Fairbanks 

Fairbanks, AK 99775-7340 

Meibing Jin <mbj@ims.uaf.edu> 

Institute of Marine Science 

University of Alaska Fairbanks 

Fairbanks, AK 99775-7220 

Task Order 1 51 78 

Abstract 

Numerical weather forecasts have long been accepted as a part of our daily life. However, numerical 

ocean prediction has been slow in developing. As societal use of the sea increases, ocean prediction 

systems are becoming necessary. 

This project will establish a prediction model for the Beaufort Sea ice-ocean-oil spill system (BSIOS), 

which will sewe as a future operational nowcast/forecast system for the oil industry in the region. One of 

the products provided by BSIOS will be prediction of oil spill trajectories in response to an oil spill event 

and@om pre-oil-spill stochastic modeling, which can be used to access the possible consequence of 

hypothetical spill trajectories. 

BSIOS consists of two parts: a 3-0 coupled ice-ocean model (CIOM) and a 2-0 trajectory model. 

CIOM is automatically run to predict ice-ocean variables for up to two days under forcing of lateral 

inflow/outflow provided by a large-scale Arctic CIOM that is being established at IARC (International 

Arctic Research Center) and the predicted surface winds that are automatically transferred (by fp)Ji.om 

a$le sewer at NCEP (National Center for Environmental Prediction). The winds @om the mesoscale 

Eta model (called NCEP-Eta model winds) are utilized. Then the trajectory model is run to predict the 

path due to: (I) the ice-circulation model predicted ice/ocean surface currents, (2) wind drift due to the 

predicted Eta winds, and (3) turbulent dispersion based on a random flight (Markovprocess) model. The 

predicted surface trajectories can be used to estimate the physical transport of oil spills, although the 

physical and chemical fate of spills is not included in the present model. 

NFM-BSIOS will automatically run on a daily basis on a platform at IARC/Institute of Marine Science 

(IMS) to forecast and deliver the products to managers, regulators, and industry users interested in the 

region. This model will be maintained at IARC/IMS after the three-year setup. 
Satellite Tracking of Eastern Chukchi Sea Beluga 

Whales in the Beaufort Sea and Arctic Ocean 

Kathryn J. Frost ckathy-frost@fishgarne.state.ak.us> 

Lloyd F. Lowry cIlowry@eagle.ptialaska.net> 

Institute of Marine Science 

University of Alaska Fairbanks 

Fairbanks, AK 997757220 

Task Order 151 79 

Abstract 

Beluga whales occur in northern and western Alaska and are important for subsistence to many Alaska 

Native hunters. Despite this importance and protection of belugas under the Marine Mammal Protection 

Act, relatively little is known about the movements and distribution of belugas in Alaska. Much 

information is available from when belugas inhabit coastal waters during the summer but little is 

known about them during the rest of the year. Satellite taggingprovides a means to determine beluga 

distribution and movements outside of summering areas. Recent satellite tagging studies of belugas in the 

eastern Chukchi Sea revealed that these animals spent a goodportion of the summer in the Beaufort Sea 

and the Arctic Ocean north of the Beaufort Sea. Only a fav belugas have been tagged to date in the 

Chukchi Sea, and most of those were large males. It is unknown whether the females and smaller males 

also regularly move into the Beaufort Sea, although initial results indicate that some of them do. Oil and 

gas exploration and development have the potential to negatively impact the eastern Chukchi Sea stock 

of beluga whales. We propose to capture and attach satellite tags to female and small male belugas to 

determine their distribution and movements during the summer and early fall. These data will provide a 

means to evaluate the potential impacts of ofshore oil and gas developments in the Beaufort Sea. 
Funding Summary 

Student Support 

The cooperative agreement that formed the University of Alaska Coastal Marine Institute stressed the 

need to support education as well as research. The following student support information is summarized 

fiom proposals and may not accurately reflect actual expenditures: 

Funds from Match from 

MMS other sources 

Fiscal Year 94 

2 Ph.D. students 

7 M.S. students 

Source Total 

Fiscal Year 95 

4 Ph.D. students 

7 M.S. students 

Source Total 

Fiscal Year 96 

1 Ph.D. student 

10 M.S. students 

Source Total 

Fiscal Year 97 

1 Ph.D. student 

4 M.S. students 

1 undeclaredlundergrad 

Source Total 

Fiscal Year 98 

2 Ph.D. students 

1 M.S. student 

2 undeclaredlundergrad 

Source Total 

Fiscal Year 99 

4 Ph.D. students 

4 M.S. students 

2 undeclaredlundergrad 

Source Total 

Fiscal Year 00 

1 Ph.D. student 

1 undergrad 

Source Total 

Total to Date $589,377 $246,429 
Total CMI Funding 

The total MMS funding available for funding CMI projects through federal fiscal year 2000 is 

approximately $6.7 million. Since all CMI-funded projects require a one-to-one match with non-federal 

monies, project commitments through fiscal year 2000 have totaled approximately $13.4 million. 

Sources of Matching Funds 

Matching for CMI-funded projects has come fiom a wide variety of sources. Identifying and verifymg 

match remains a major administrative challenge in the development of CMI proposals. In general, match 

has been available to those investigators who expend the necessary extra effort to locate and secure the 

support. The following partial list of fund matching participants demonstrates the breadth of support for 

CMI-fimded programs: 

Afognak Native Corporation 

Alaska Beluga Whale Committee 

Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation (ADEC) 

Alaska Department of Fish and Game (ADF&G) 

Alaska Department of Transportation and Public Facilities 

Alaska Science and Technology Foundation 

Alyeska Pipeline Service Company 

Ben A. Thomas Logging Camp 

British Petroleum Exploration 

Cominco Alaska, Inc. 

Cook Inlet Regional Citizens Advisory Council 

Department of Fisheries and Oceans Canada 

Japanese Marine Science and Technology Center (JAMSTEC) 

Kodiak Island Borough 

North Slope Borough 

Oil Spill Recovery Institute 

Prince William Sound Aquaculture Corporation 

University of Alaska Anchorage 

University of Alaska Fairbanks 

College of Science, Engineering and Mathematics 

Institute of Arctic Biology 

Institute of Marine Science 

International Arctic Research Center 

School of Agriculture and Land Resources Management 

School of Fisheries and Ocean Sciences 

School of Management 

University of Alaska Museum 

Wadati Fund 

Water Research Center 

University of Alaska Natural Resources Fund 

University of Northern Iowa 
Some of the CMI-funded projects are closely related to other federally-funded projects which cannot be 

considered as match but nevertheless augment and expand the value of a CMI project. Related projects 

have been funded by the National Science Foundation, the Office of Naval Research, the National 

Aeronautics and Space Administration, the National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration 

including the National Marine Fisheries Service, and the Alaska Sea Grant College Program. 

A positive relationship has been fostered between MMS, the University of Alaska, and the State of Alaska 

since the formation of CMI. Residents of Alaska, as well as the parties to the agreement, benefit from the 

cooperative research that has been and continues to be funded through CMI. 
~n%t&ty of Alaska CMI Publications 

These publications may be obtained from CMI until supplies are exhausted. Reports marked with an 

asterisk are no longer available in hard copy from CMI. 

Contact information 

e-mail: cmi@sfos.uaf.edu 

phone: 907.474.7707 

fax: 907.474.7204 

postal: Coastal Marine Institute 

School of Fisheries and Ocean Sciences 

University of Alaska Fairbanks 

Fairbanks, AK 99775-7220 

ALEXANDER, V. (Director). 1995. University of Alaska Coastal Marine Institute Annual Report No. 1. 

University of Alaska Fairbanks, 16 p. 

ALEXANDER, V. (Director). 1996. University of Alaska Coastal Marine Institute Annual Report No. 2. 

OCS Study MMS 95-0057, University of Alaska Fairbanks, 122 p. 

ALEXANDER, V.(Director). 1997. University of Alaska Coastal Marine Institute Annual Report No. 3. 

OCS Study MMS 97-000 1, University of Alaska Fairbanks, 19 1 p. 

ALEXANDER, V. (Director). 1998. University of Alaska Coastal Marine Institute Annual Report No. 4. 

OCS Study MMS 98-0005, University of Alaska Fairbanks, 81 p. 

ALEXANDER, V.(Director). 1998. University of Alaska Coastal Marine Institute Annual Report No. 5. 

OCS Study MMS 98-0062, University of Alaska Fairbanks, 72 p. 

ALEXANDER, V. (Director). 2000. University of Alaska Coastal Marine Institute Annual Report No. 6. 

OCS Study MMS 2000-046, University of Alaska Fairbanks, 86 p. 

ALEXANDER, V.(Director). 2000. University of Alaska Coastal Marine Institute Annual Report No. 7. 

OCS Study MMS 2000-070, University of Alaska Fairbanks, 92 p. 

BRADDOCK, J.F., and Z. RICHTER 1998. Microbial Degradation of Aromatic Hydrocarbons in 

Marine Sediments. Final Report. OCS Study MMS 97-004 1, University of Alaska Coastal Marine 

Institute, University of Alaska Fairbanks, 82 p. 

COOK, J.A., G.H. JARRELL, A.M. RUNCK and J.R. DEMBOSKI. 1999. The Alaska Frozen Tissue 

Collection and Associated Electronic Database: A Resource for Marine Biotechnology. Final Report. 

OCS Study MMS 99-0008, University of Alaska Coastal Marine Institute, University of Alaska 

Fairbanks, 23 p. 

DUFFY, L.K., R.T. BOWYER, D.D. ROBY and J.B. FARO. 1998. Intertidal Effects of Pollution: 

Assessment of Top Trophic Level Predators as Bioindicators. Final Report. OCS Study MMS 

97-0008, University of Alaska Coastal Marine Institute, University of Alaska Fairbanks, 62 p. 
HENRICHS, S.M., M. LUOMA and S. SMITH. 1997. A Study of the Adsorption of Aromatic 

Hydrocarbons by Marine Sediments. Final Report. OCS Study MMS 97-0002, University of Alaska 

Coastal Marine Institute, University of Alaska Fairbanks, 47 p. 

HOLLADAY, B.A., B.L. NORCROSS and A. BLANCHARD. 1999. A Limited Investigation into the 

Relationship of Diet to the Habitat Preferences of Juvenile Flathead Sole. Final Report. OCS Study 

MMS 99-0025, University of Alaska Coastal Marine Institute, University of Alaska Fairbanks, 27 p. 

JOHNSON, M.A., and S.R. OKKONEN [eds.]. 2000. Proceedings Cook Inlet Oceanography Workshop. 

November 1999, Kenai, AK. Final Report. OCS Study MMS 2000-043, University of Alaska Coastal 

Marine Institute, University of Alaska Fairbanks, 1 18 p. 

KLINE, T.C., JR., and J.J. GOERING. 1998. North Slope Amphidromy Assessment. Final Report. OCS 

Study MMS 98-0006, University of Alaska Coastal Marine Institute, University of Alaska Fairbanks, 25 p. 

NIEBAUER, H.J. 2000. Physical-Biological Numerical Modeling on Alaskan Arctic Shelves. Final 

Report. OCS Study MMS 2000-041, University of Alaska Coastal Marine Institute, University of Alaska 

Fairbanks, 84 p. 

*NORCROSS, B.L. 1996. Recruitment of Juvenile Flatfishes in Alaska: Habitat Preference near 

Kodiak Island, Vol. I. Final Report. OCS Study MMS 96-0003, University of Alaska Coastal Marine 

Institute, University of Alaska Fairbanks, 1 18 p. 

*NORCROSS, B.L. 1996. Recruitment of Juvenile Flatfishes in Alaska: Habitat Preference near 

Kodiak Island, Vol. 11. Final Report, Appendices. OCS Study MMS 96-0003, University of Alaska 

Coastal Marine Institute, University of Alaska Fairbanks, 118 p. 

NORCROSS, B.L., B.A. HOLLADAY, A.A. ABOOKIRE and S.C. DRESSEL. 1998. Defining Habitats for 

Juvenile Groundfishes in Southcentral Alaska, Vol. I. Final Report. OCS Study MMS 97-0046, 

University of Alaska Coastal Marine Institute, University of Alaska Fairbanks, 13 1 p. 

NORCROSS, B.L., B.A. HOLLADAY, A.A. ABOOKIRE and S.C. DRESSEL. 1998. Defining Habitats for 

Juvenile Groundfishes in Southcentral Alaska, Vol. 11. Final Report, Appendices. OCS Study MMS 

97-0046, University of Alaska Coastal Marine Institute, University of Alaska Fairbanks, 127 p. 

PROSHUTINSKY, A.Y. 2000. Wind Field Representations and Their Effect on Shelf Circulation 

Models: A Case Study in the Chukchi Sea. Final Report. OCS Study MMS 2000-01 1, University of 

Alaska Coastal Marine Institute, University of Alaska Fairbanks, 136 p. 

SHAW, D.G., and J. TERSCHAK. 1998. Interaction Between Marine Humic Matter and Polycyclic 

Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Lower Cook Inlet and Port Valdez, Alaska. Final Report. OCS Study 

MMS 98-0033, University of Alaska Coastal Marine Institute, University of Alaska Fairbanks, 27 p. 

SCHELL, D.M. 1998. Testing Conceptual Models of Marine Mammal Trophic Dynamics Using 

Carbon and Nitrogen Stable Isotope Ratios. Final Report. OCS Study MMS 98-0031, University of 

Alaska Coastal Marine Institute, University of Alaska Fairbanks, 137 p. 

WEINGARTNER, T.J. 1998. Circulation on the North Central Chukchi Sea Shelf. Final Report. OCS 

Study MMS 98-0026, University of Alaska Coastal Marine Institute, University of Alaska Fairbanks, 39 p. 

WEINGARTNER, T.J., and T. PROSHUTINSKY. 1998. Modeling the Circulation on the Chukchi Sea 

Shelf. Final Report. OCS Study MMS 98-0017, University of Alaska Coastal Marine Institute, University 

of Alaska Fairbanks, 75 p. 
The Department of the lnterior Mission 

As the Nation's principal conservation agency, the Department of the Interior has responsibility 

for most of our nationally owned public lands and natural resources. This includes fostering 

sound use of our land and water resources; protecting our fish, wildlife, and biological diversity; 

preserving the environmental and cultural values of our national parks and historical places; 

and providing for the enjoyment of life through outdoor recreation. The Department assesses 

our energy and mineral resources and works to ensure that their development is in the best 

interests of all our people by encouraging stewardship and citizen participation in their care. 

The Department also has a major responsibility for American lndian reservation communities 

and for people who live in island territories under U.S. administration. 

The Minerals Management Service Mission 

As a bureau of the Department of the Interior, the Minerals Management Service's (MMS) 

primary responsibilities are to manage the mineral resources located on the Nation's Outer 

Continental Shelf (OCS), collect revenue from the Federal OCS and onshore Federal and 

lndian lands, and distribute those revenues. 

Moreover, in working to meet its responsibilities, the Offshore Minerals Management 

Program administers the OCS competitive leasing program and oversees the safe and 

environmentally sound exploration and production of our Nation's offshore natural gas, oil and 

other mineral resources. The MMS Royalty Management Program meets its responsibilities 

by ensuring the efficient, timely and accurate collection and disbursement of revenue from 

mineral leasing and production due to Indian tribes and allottees, States and the U.S. Treasury. 

The MMS strives to fulfill its responsibilities through the general guiding principals of: (I) being 

responsive to the public's concerns and interests by maintaining a dialogue with all potentially 

affected parties and (2) carrying out its programs with an emphasis on working to enhance the 

quality of life for all Americans by lending MMS assistance and expertise to economic 

development and environmental protection.