NREL is a national laboratory of the U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, operated by the Alliance for Sustainable Energy, LLC.

Degradation in PV Encapsulant Transmittance: 

Results of the First PVQAT TG5 Study

1National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), 15013 Denver West Parkway, Golden, CO 80401, USA

2Specialized Technology Resources, Inc. (STR), 10 Water Street, Enfield, CT, USA 06082

3The 3M Company, 3M Center, Building 235-67-15, St. Paul, MN, 55144, USA

4Q-Lab Corporation, 800 Canterbury Road, Cleveland, OH 44145 USA

5National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), 100 Bureau Dr., Gaithersburg, MD 20899-8615, USA

6Fraunhofer Center for Sustainable Energy Systems (CSE), 5 Channel Center, Boston, MA 02210, USA

7Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems (ISE), Heidenhofstrasse 2, 79110 Freiburg, Germany

8DuPont Photovoltaic Solutions, Wilmington, DE, 19803 USA

9Atlas Material Testing Technology L.L.C., 1500 Bishop Court, Mount Prospect, IL 60056, USA,

10RenewSys India Pvt Ltd., Bommasandra – Jigani Link Road Industrial Area, Bangalore – 560 105, India

11Suga Test Instruments Co., Ltd., 5-4-14 Shinjuku, Shinjuku-ku, 160-0022, Tokyo Japan

*Presenter & TG5 X: David.Miller@nrel.gov; 

TG5 China: chenxinx@cei1958.com (Carol Chen); TG5 Europe: michael.koehl@ise.fraunhofer.de; TG5 Japan: Tsuyoshi.Shioda@mitsui-chem.co.jp 

David C. Miller1*, Jayesh G. Bokria2, David M. Burns3, Sean Fowler4, Xiaohong Gu5, Peter L. Hacke1, 

Christian C. Honeker6, Michael D. Kempe1, Michael Köhl7, Nancy H. Phillips8, Kurt P. Scott9, Ashish Singh10, 

Shigeo Suga11, Shin Watanabe11, and Allen F. Zielnik8

Q-Lab/NIST Service Life Prediction Symposium 2018

10:30-11:00 Thursday, 2018/03/22

“Meeting Place” room (Hyatt Place Hotel, Boulder CO)

NREL/PR-5K00-70366

Slides updated in the process of publishing companion PIP journal paper
2

Background: The Discoloration of (EVA) Encapsulant

•Literature correlates UV degradation with

characteristics including: transmittance, YI, 

gel content, chemistry...

Assessing degradation from change in YI.

Reid et. al., Proc SPIE, 2013, 8825-7.

Localized discoloration of EVA 

(known formulation in module) at the APS site.

Wohlgemuth et. al., Proc IEEE PVSC, 2013, 3260-3265.

•Encapsulant discoloration gained significant

attention from the 1980’s Carizzo Plains CPV

installation. 

•Measureable power loss is evident in the

literature for early (pre 2000) & installations

in hot climates.

Mechanisms identified: 

•Conjugated unsaturated sequences

(polyenes).

•α- and β-unsaturated structures.

•Incompatible formulation additives.

Jordan et. al., PIP, 24, 2016, 978-989.

Dubey et. al., All India Survey, various. 

Rosenthal et. al., Solar Cells, 30, 563-571, 1991.
3

Goal and Activities PVQAT Task Group 5 (UV, T, RH)

• IEC qualification tests (61215, 61646, 61730-2) presently prescribe up to 160 days field 

equivalent AM 1.5G TUV dose. This is << 25 years!

• Goal: develop UV test protocol(s) that may be used to compare:

PV materials, components, and modules relative to a field deployment.

Core Activities:

1: Consider weathering literature and climate meteorology (location-dependent information).

e.g., known benchmark locations...Miami, FL; Phoenix, AZ

2: Leverage existing standards, including other industries.

√Summary exists from Kurt Scott et. al.

3: Improve understanding of existing PV UV tests. 

4: Improve understanding of module durability.

4-1 Collect information about field failure modes.

e.g., the literature, site inspections, industry feedback

4-2 Confirm appropriate UV weathering models.

5: Consider suitable artificial UV sources. 

√Summary of module capable equipment from David Burns et. al.

6: Generate test procedure for accelerated UV weathering.

Presently performing experiments to provide technical basis & confident decisions.

7: Perform laboratory verification of proposed test standard/failure mode.

- mini-module study (Japan), SoPhia round-robin (Europe), interlaboratory “study 1” (TG5 X)
4

Recent Activities for PVQAT TG5 (UV, T, RH)

•IEC 61215-2 qualification test prescribes 54 MJ⋅m-2 (~40 days equivalent*)

IEC 60904-3 AM 1.5G UV radiation dose. IEC 61730-2 safety test: 4x. 

This is << 25 year warranty!

⇒International PV Quality Assurance Task Force (PVQAT)

•TG5 Goal: develop UV- and temperature-facilitated test protocol(s) that

may be used to compare PV materials, components, and modules 

relative to long-term field service.

Applications:

•IEC 62788-7-2 (UV weathering of PV materials and components).

Accelerated aging test(s) for encapsulation, backsheet, adhesives...

•IEC 62788-1-7 (optical durability of transparent PV materials).

-Combines IEC 62788-1-4 (optical transmittance) and

IEC 62788-7-2 (UV weathering).

-To be required in IEC 62788-1-1 (encapsulant guiding standard).

• Encapsulant discoloration from UV degradation is a known degradation

mode for PV modules. Jordan et. al., PIP, 24, 2016, 978-989.

*Assumes 1-axis tracking, 8 hour perfectly sunny days
5

Goals for the TG5 Transmittance Interlaboratory Study

1. Investigate the spectral requirements for UV sources, 

i.e., by comparing specimens aged by Xe-arc, UVA-340, metal-halide.

Is visible light required (e.g., enabling photobleaching)?

2. Determine if there is significant coupling between aging stressors,

i.e., UV, temperature, and humidity.

What weathering stressors must be included in a standardized test?

3. Quantify Ea.

Provide a sense of the range of Ea by examining “known bad,” “known good,” 

and “intermediate” material formulations.

•Knowing Ea is critical to prescribing & interpreting UV weathering.

•Unfortunately, Ea is not known for the UV degradation of common PV materials.

Arrhenius representation for rate of ∆ characteristic





 



 −





 





=

RT

n E

d

a

e

T

T Ak

0
6

INGREDIENT DESCRIPTION MAKER

Elvax PV1400 EVA resin, 33 wt% VAc E. I. du Pont 100 100 100 100 100 N/A

butylated

hydroxytoluene

anti-oxidant (AO), heat stabilizer

in EVA resin. N/A 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 ?

Z6030 siloxane primer, gamma-methacryloxy 

propyl trimethoxysilane Dow-Corning Corp. 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 ?

TBEC curing agent, OO-Tertbutyl-O-(2-ethylhexyl)-peroxycarbonate Arkema Inc. N/A 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 ?

Lupersol 101 curing agent, 2,5-Bis(tert-butylperoxy)-2,5-

dimethylhexane Arkema Inc. 1.5 N/A N/A N/A N/A ?

Tinuvin 329 UV absorber, benzotriazole type BASF Corp. N/A N/A N/A 0.3 N/A ?

Cyasorb UV-531 UV absorber, benzophenone type Cytec Industries Inc. 0.3 0.3 0.3 N/A N/A ?

Tinuvin 770 hindered amine light stabilizer (HALS) BASF Corp. 0.1 0.1 0.1 N/A N/A ?

Tinuvin 123 non-basic aminoether-hindered amine light 

stabilizer (NOR-HALS) BASF Corp. N/A N/A N/A 0.1 0.1 ?

Naugard P AO, phenolic phosphonite Chemtura Corp. 0.2 0.2 N/A N/A N/A ?

Designation

(Note)

EVA-A

(known bad, 

"slow cure" )

EVA-B

(improved, 

"fast cure")

EVA-C

(known

good)

EVA-D

(modern)

EVA-E

(no UV

absorber)

TPU

(known

bad)

MASS {g} 

The Materials Used in the TG5 Study

•Discoloration of encapsulation somewhat studied in the literature:

⇒We have a sense of the general rate of degradation (accelerated tests).

⇒Use historical (literature) and contemporary formulations.

TPU formulation: not for PV, but chosen as a reference material.

Compare peroxide used for cross-linking (module manufacture).

Compare type or use of UV absorber.
7

Summary of the weathering chambers 

and nominal chamber conditions 

(settings) in the study.

The Weathering Applied in the TG5 Study

PARTICIPANT

IRRADIANCE

SOURCE

IRRADIANCE

FILTER

(inner/outer)

E340,

IRRADIANCE

AT 340 nm

{W⋅m-2⋅nm-1}

ChT,

CHAMBER

TEMPERATURE

{°C}

ChRH,

CHAMBER

RELATIVE

HUMIDITY

{%}

1 Xe D7869/quartz 1.0 45 30

1 Xe D7869/quartz 1.0 60 30

1 Xe D7869/quartz 1.0 80 30

2 Xe s-boro/quartz 0.80 80 20

3

HQI

metal-halide N/A 0.43 40 50

3 ~UVA-340 N/A 2.17 60 50

3 ~UVA-340 N/A 2.92 80 50

4 N/A N/A 0 40 30

4 N/A N/A 0 60 30

4 N/A N/A 0 80 30

5 Xe D7869/quartz 1.0 60 50

5 Xe D7869/quartz 1.0 90 20

5 UVA-340 N/A 1.2 60 ~7

6 UVA-340 N/A 1.0 60 ~7

7 Xe Daylight/quartz 1.0 60 30

7 UVA-340 N/A 1.0 60 ~7

ARTIFICIAL WEATHERING

•Additional experiments:

-Arrhenius analysis

(ChT 45, 60, & 80°C).

-Proposed 62788-7-2

(80°C/20%; 90°C/20%) 

•Only E340, ChT, ChRH specified, e.g. no BPT specification.

•Lamps types: Xe-arc; HQI metal-halide; UVA-340 fluorescent; no light.

•Filter types: ASTM D7869 compliant; daylight; quartz; type S glass.

•Nominal condition: 1.0 W⋅m-2⋅nm-1 (340 nm); ChT 60°C, and the ChRH 30%.
8

Details of the kd Methods and Experiment: Encapsulation Transmittance Test

•Silica/polymer/silica coupon specimens measured using a spectrophotometer 

(with integrating sphere).

•Measure at specimen center (anaerobic, minimal O2) and periphery (aerobic).

•Analyze: solar-weighted transmittance, yellowness index, and UV cut-off λ. 

User summary:

• Geometry: silica/polymer/silica (3.2 mm/0.5 mm/3.2 mm).

• Size: 2” x 2”.

• Quantity: 3 replicates of 6 materials (pre-conditioned), and 1 reference (not pre-conditioned).

• Aging: 0, 15, 30, 45, 60, 75, 90, 120, 150, 180 cumulative days (indoors).

or 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 years (outdoors).

• Measurements (non-destructive): repeatedly age and measure at each laboratory/test site.

Specimens in sample holders for 

indoor aging at NREL.

Specimens on outdoor rack, 

aging in Golden, CO at NREL. Visual appearance after 180 days of Xe

weathering at 90 °C ChT, 20 % ChRH. 

5 cm

EVA-A EVA-B EVA-C EVA-D EVA-E TPU
9

The τ Measurements Used in the TG5 Study

PARTICIPANT

MAKE

SPECTROPHOTOMETER

MODEL

SPECTROPHOTOMETER

MEASUREMENT

RANGE

{nm}

1 Perkin Elmer Lambda 1050 250-2500

1 Perkin Elmer Lambda 1050 250-2500

1 Perkin Elmer Lambda 1050 250-2500

2 Perkin Elmer Lambda 950 200-2500

3

(a) Bruker &

(b) custom

(a) Vertex 70 &

(b) custom 320-2400

3

(a) Bruker &

(b) custom

(a) Vertex 70 &

(b) custom 320-2400

3

(a) Bruker &

(b) custom

(a) Vertex 70 &

(b) custom 320-2400

4 Perkin Elmer Lambda 900 250-2500

4 Perkin Elmer Lambda 900 250-2500

4 Perkin Elmer Lambda 900 250-2500

5 Agilent Cary 5000 200-2650

5 Perkin Elmer Lambda 1050 200-2500

5 Agilent Cary 5000 200-2650

6 Shimadzu UV 2600 200-800

7 Otsuka Electronics MCPD-7700 250-800

7 Otsuka Electronics MCPD-7700 250-800

OPTICAL CHARACTERIZATION

Summary of the optical characterization 

equipment and settings in the study.

Based on IEC 62788-1-4 (“optical τ encapsulants”)

•Suggested settings (proven this study): 200≤λ≤2500 nm. 1 nm increment.

-200≤λ≤400 critical, including UV transparent encapsulants. 

•Subsequent analysis:

-τsw (general solar 280-2500 nm) 

-τrsw (1j PV, 300-1250 nm) 

-YI (acute indicator)

-λcUV (UV absorber diagnosis)

•Some measurement discrepancies 

follow from equipment limitations.

•Development of 62788-1-4:

Miller et. al., Proc SPIE, 2013, 8825-8. 
10

The kH Method of Data Analysis

Degradation rate comparison, applied to 

compare UVA-340 and Xe sources . 

Data shown for the NREL aged τ coupons

(center measurements).

•Verify what data may be analyzed. 

e.g., delayed loss of formulation additive.

•Here: H < inflections in ∆τrsw or ∆YI data. 

•Linear (e.g., not polynomial) fits here.

•Fits typically fixed to origin, i.e. ∆τrsw and 

∆YI were examined. 

•Example: what kH is required map the 

UVA-340 data parallel to the Xe data?

• (Linear) degradation rate or

(logarithmic) shift factor comparison 

may be used to examine different test 

conditions, e.g., UV sources.

J.A. Simms, J. Coat. Technol., 59 (748), 1987, 45-53.

Gillen et. al., Polym. Deg. Stab., 24, 1989, 137-168.

Xe

UVA

H

slope

slope k 340

=
11

Details of the Arrhenius Analysis

•Data analyzed for H for λ=340 nm for general comparison

(commercial chambers control irradiation at 340 nm).

A set of 4 coupons (different 

representative makes of glass and 

encapsulant) were circulated in a 

separate round-robin experiment 

for temperature verification.

•Analysis performed at Tspecimen, verified using

coupons at weathering test conditions.

-Embedded T-type thermocouples.

-Concern over radiative heating... T may be high.

•Error analysis according to method of

propagation of uncertainty.

-Rise in specimen temperature from

discoloration was not considered in error analysis.

-Data analyzed typically limited to ∆τ<2%, e.g.,

inflection in data profile.
12

Effects of Additives in EVA and Polymers

•Representative (normalized) results shown for ~0.01% wt. concentration additive in hexane.

•UV absorbers (UV-531 & T329) feature double absorptance peaks and act 280≤λ≤380 nm.

•HALS and Anti-Oxidants typically characterized by strong absorptance at λ <240 nm. 

Optical absorptance spectra for UV absorbers and AOs used in the 

TG5 EVA formulations, including: Cyabsorb UV 531, Tinuvin 123, 

Tinuvin 328, Tinuvin 329, Tinuvin 770; butylated hydroxytoluene

(BHT), and Naugard P. 

Representative fluorescence spectra (excitation on left; emission on 

right) for AOs often used in contemporary polymers, including 

butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT), Irgafos 168, Irganox 245, Irganox

1010, Irganox 1076, and Naugard P. Some additives have multiple 

fluorescence peaks. 

•UV absorbers often characterized by single thermalization emission peak at ~400 nm, e.g., I168. 

•AOs may characterized by more specific excitation & emission peaks, although a few common 

peak sets were observed here. 

•Fluorescence signature may be different when multiples additives are present 

(and interacting). 
13

UVA-340 vs. Xe: A Comparison of τrsw With Age

Change in τrsw with H for the NREL aged transmittance coupons (center measurements). 

The data points have been connected to guide the eye. 

This presentation: H shown for 295≤λ≤360 nm.

UVA-340 

fluorescent UV source Xe UV source

•TPU affected more in Xe (∆τrsw -5.1%) than UVA-340 (∆τrsw -3.4%). 

•EVA-A affected continuously for Xe, delayed for UVA-340. Same ∆τrsw -2.3%. 

•EVA-C improved (∆τrsw 1.0% for UVA-340)!
14

•Yellowness index (YI) calculated from measured τh. 

•Repeatability: YI (0.27) < τrsw (0.63). 

YI is overt indicator of degradation trends.

UVA-340 vs. Xe: Insights From YI

UVA-340 fluorescent 

UV source

Xe UV source

•Many instances of ~linear change with irradiation.

•Inflection (∆slope) in some profiles: EVA-A (UVA-340); EVA-C (UVA-340); TPU (Xe).

•Initial yellowing to stable-state for EVA-D (UVA-340 & Xe).

⇒Effects of aging are dominated by interactions between additives, not base material!

Change in YI with H for the NREL aged τ coupons (center measurements). 

The data points have been connected to guide the eye.

This presentation: data shown for average of 3 replicates, with error bars for 1 S.D. 
15

Formulation Specific Trends in the Study

•TPU demonstrated the greatest loss in τrsw with a 

corresponding increase in YI in 12/16 experiments. 

•EVA-A was typically the second most affected material 

in the experiments. 

•The occurrence and H duration for inflections for 

EVA-B, EVA-C, EVA-D, and TPU varied with the ChT

used during weathering. 

•EVA-E (no UV absorber) did not significantly change in 

τrsw or YI through the various experiments.

Change in YI with H for the NREL aged τ coupons (center measurements). 

The data points have been connected to guide the eye.

This presentation: data shown for average of 3 replicates, with error bars for 1 S.D. 

•Excluding Lupersol 101 peroxide (EVA-B) greatly 

reduces discoloration; excluding Naugard P AO (EVA-C) 

can modestly reduce discoloration. 

• τrsw of EVA-C increased with weathering in several 

experiments - may follow from the evolution of 

crystallinity or loss of additives with weathering. 

•EVA-E (no Cysorb UV-531) confirms that additive 

interactions with the UV absorber, are the primary 

source of discoloration in the EVA formulations here. 
16

Comparing the Experiments: EVA-A

Overlay of all experiments for EVA-A. The details of the results at lower ChT are shown in the inset (b).

•Stable τrsw for E=0 identifies that degradation in other experiments follows from UV 

degradation. Thermal- and hydro-degradation are not significant without irradiation.

•The distinct separation between the experiments performed at the ChT of 80 °C or 90 °C 

suggests a different regime, e.g., where the kinetics has fundamentally changed by 

elevated temperature or loss of formulation additives. 
17

Comparing the Experiments: EVA-B

Overlay of all experiments for EVA-B. The details of the results at lower ChT are shown in the inset (b).

•Similar observations: minimal ∆τrsw for E=0; elevated ∆τrsw for ChT = 80 °C or 90 °C. 

•Comparing EVA-A (known bad product) to EVA-B (improved product) suggests that the 

limit of 2% might be applied for τrsw as an acceptance limit for the ChT of ~60 °C.
18

UV spectral transmittance for coupons aged at participant 5 (center measurements). 

–u (solid lines) indicates unaged specimens; –a (dashed lines) indicates the final weathered specimens.

UVA-340 vs. Xe: Insights From the τ Spectra

•EVA-A, EVA-D, and TPU show a significant rounding of the UV cut-off (shifted ↓, right) 

and increased YI corresponding to ∆visual appearance. 

•Likely explained by chromophore formation (from UV absorber, peroxide, and AO).

UVA-340 fluorescent UV source Xe UV source

•For EVA-B, EVA-C, EVA-E, the UV cut-off wavelength is decreased (shifted left) and 

there is an increase in τ. τrsw is increased for EVA-C about ~350 nm.

•EVA-A: is UV absorber lost for UVA-340 source? VIS required (photobleaching for Xe)? 
19

Insights From the τ Spectra for Hot Experiments

Participant 1 (E340 of 1.0 W⋅m-2⋅nm-1, ChT of 80 °C, ChRH 30%) is compared to 

Participant 2 (E340 of 0.8 W⋅m-2⋅nm-1

, ChT of 80 °C, ChRH 20%).

UV spectral transmittance for the Xe chamber experiments.

(center measurements , participant 1 on left; participant 2 on right). 

–u (solid lines) indicates unaged specimens; –a (dashed lines) indicates the final weathered specimens.

•Both labs: Loss of UV absorber implied from τh for EVA-A and EVA-C.

UV absorber only active additive from 280<λ<380nm.

Participant 2: UV absorber for EVA-B depleting enough to affect λcUV. More damage.

•Greater degradation (despite lesser E and ChRH follows from s-boro/quartz filters 

at participant 2. Short λ radiation exceeding terrestrial spectrum.

Participant 1 Participant 2
20

Visual appearance of specimens from the hottest experiments, including: (a) round voids at the periphery of the coupon for 

participant 2 [Xe lamp, with the chamber controlled at 80°C and 20%RH]; (b) round voids and heterogeneous discoloration in EVAB for participant 2 [Xe lamp, with the chamber controlled at 80°C and 20%RH]; and (c) linear voids in EVA-E for participant 1 

[~UVA-340 lamp, with the chamber controlled at 80°C and 50%RH]. 

Unique Damage Was Observed in the Hottest Experiments

For ChT 80 or 90 °C (4 experiments):

•Linear voids observed specifically for EVA-E (no UV absorber). 

-The key factors contributing to the unique geometry here are not clear.

Miller et. al., PIP, 24, 1385-1409, 2016. 

•Rounded voids observed, e.g. EVA-A, with a lesser frequency for EVA-B, -C and –D.

-Located at periphery.

-Not observed in traditional PV modules (rack mounted glass/backsheet). 

-Voids/delamination observed in CPV encapsulation study (glass/glass coupons).

•Heterogeneous discoloration was observed for the EVA-A, -B, -C, -D.
21

Comparison of fluorescence spectra for EVA-C. Excitation spectra (X, dashed lines on the left) and 

corresponding emission spectra (M, solid lines on the right) are shown for a representative experiments. The 

nomenclature in the figure identifies the wavelength of greatest emission (for M) or wavelength monitored 

during excitation (X) as well as the source type, chamber temperature, and chamber relative humidity.

Fluorescence Spectroscopy Reveals Changes in Chemistry With Test Conditions

•Strongest emission and corresponding excitation spectra are self-similar for Xe & 

UVA-340 experiments for ChT ≤ 60°C.

-Similar profile, greater intensity for UVA-340 1.2/62/~7 and Xe 0.8/60/50.

-Weak spectra observed for dark experiment for ChT of 80°C.

•Different spectra profiles observed for Xe chambers, ChT of 80 and 90°C.

•Photodegradation is again

implied vs. dark experiments.

•Different product species and 

corresponding enabling 

chemistry is implied for the 

hottest experiments.

•The UV source spectra can be 

disproportionately damaging.
22

•Effect of T examined directly at lab 1: same irradiance, RH applied using 

three similar chambers (Ci5000, Xe lamp with Right Light filter).

•Analysis (linear fit) was 

performed up to an inflection 

(shown as data points only). 

•EVA-D uniquely analyzed after 

initial stabilization.

•Tm of 56.4 °C (average measured 

for the EVAs) indicated in inset.

Comparison of change in transmittance with ChT for 

EVA-A. The same default irradiance and RH 

conditions were used at in separate Xe chambers, 

set at 45, 60, or 80 °C. H is shown for 295≤λ≤360 

nm. The slope from linear trendline fits (through the 

origin, prior to an inflection in the data profile) was 

examined using an Arrhenius analysis.

Thermal Activation Was Quantified in Study 1
23

Results of the Arrhenius Analysis in Study 1

•EVA’s and TPU effected, Ea ~30-60 kJ⋅mol-1.

•Exception: EVA-E (no UV absorber). ∆τ~0. Ea could not be determined.

•τ nd YI (analyzed separately) gave similar (order of magnitude) results.

•Low Ea’s consistent with defect mediated degradation.

(additive interactions or impurities).

Summary of the Arrhenius analysis at λ=340 for the six materials in the study. 

Results were separately analyzed for transmittance and yellowness index.

MATERIAL

c1, 

FREQUENCY

FACTOR

{s-1}

Ea

{kJ⋅mol-1}

c1,

FREQUENCY

FACTOR

{s-1}

Ea

{kJ⋅mol-1}

EVA-A 1.8E+08 58±8 3.5E+09 49±5

EVA-B 2.7E+06 50±8 2.9E+10 59±9

EVA-C 8.4E+03 36±8 1.7E+06 32±8

EVA-D 2.8E+06 47±8 1.9E+09 50±8

EVA-E N/A N/A N/A N/A

TPU 8.3E+07 53±8 7.9E+09 50±4

τrsw YI
24

Comparison of change in transmittance for EVA-A and TPU with chamber 

relative humidity (30 %RH or 50 %RH). The default irradiance of 1.0 W⋅m-2⋅nm-1

at 340 nm and temperature of 60°C was applied in each Xe chamber.

Moisture Reduced the Affect of UV Degradation for EVA

•Degradation rate compared for Xe chamber: 30% or 50% RH.

• 0.4< kH EVA <1; 1.1 < kH TPU <1.2. 

•Suggests increased 

degradation for EVA 

in drier environments.

•Rate of production 

and/or neutralization 

of chromophores 

could be affected by 

water. 

kH

%30

%50

m

m kH =
25

Use of UV Weathering to Screen Through Early Life

•The hottest experiments suggest an alternate weathering regime, 

based on large ∆τ, loss of UV absorber (from spectra), void formation, 

and disparate lumophore product species.

•Unclear if melt transition, out-diffusion/breakdown of additives, or 

competing kinetics dominates results in hottest experiments.

•Relative to hottest experiments, the ChT of ~60°C is recommended for 

typical PV products (rack mounted).

•TG5 study 1: H ~ 3.5y equivalent dose AM1.5G TUV in Phoenix, AZ.

•Literature: Isc degradation rate of ~0.25-0.33 %⋅y-1 from discoloration is 

estimated for Si PV.

-Loss in performance on the order of 2% might be expected after 6-8 

years of field use.

•Compared to EVA-B, 2%∆τ acceptance limit, would apply to the early 

life of a PV module constructed using improved EVA, weathered similar 

to nominal test conditions of: 

1.0 W⋅m-2⋅nm-1 at 340 nm, ChT of 60°C, ChRH of 30% RH. 
26

•Rack mounted glass/glass modules ~200 hours ≥65°C⋅TMY3-1.

Weathering ChT and Application (Module) T

Time-temperature histograms (King model, with 10C binning) of the cell in rack-mounted glass/glass (left) and insulatedback glass/backsheet (right) modules. Tmax values are given in the figures for each location. 

How much time do PV modules spend at the ChT in the experiments?

•Both ~96% percentile temperatures in hot-dry locations, respectively.

•4000h weathering cumulative of ~25y at highest temperatures.

•Also: hot spot (reverse bias) T >100°C.

•Hottest modules found in hot-dry locations, e.g., Riyadh or Phoenix.

•Insulated-back glass/backsheet modules ~200 hours ≥85°C⋅TMY3-1.

65°C ~Tmelt EVA 65°C ~Tmelt EVA
27

Summary

•Xe/s-boro/quartz filter and UVA-340 fluorescent sources, confirm the

importance of the source spectrum. Match the terrestrial spectrum.

•Additive specific durability of the materials ⇒ degradation is specific to the

formulation (i.e. UV absorber), not the base resin material (EVA).

•2% ∆τ is suggested here to screen for acceptable encapsulant materials,

in artificial weathering when simulating the early years of module life.

•An alternate weathering regime was identified for the hottest experiments in

this study, i.e. chamber temperature at or above 80 °C.

•Enabling factor(s) could include: out-diffusion and/or breakdown of

formulation additives; Tm of EVA; competing kinetics of the enabling chemistry.

•Chamber temperature on the order of 60 °C should be used for artificial

weathering of transparent coupon specimens for typical (rack) PV products.

•Ea of ~50 kJ⋅mol-1 determined here, consistent with defect mediated

degradation, facilitated by additive interactions and impurities.

•Rate factor analysis suggests moisture reduces discoloration during aging.
28

Acknowledgements

There has been fantastic participation in TG5. 

Thank you to the many participants for your ongoing support!!! 

•If interested in TG5 activities or the experiments, please contact 

David.Miller@nrel.gov

NREL STM campus, Dennis Schroeder

Your questions and feedback are much 

appreciated! Please help me to cover the 

important details & perspectives.

This work was supported by the U.S. Department of Energy under 

Contract No. DE-AC36-08GO28308 with Alliance for Sustainable 

Energy, LLC, the operator of the National Renewable Energy 

Laboratory, and the U.S. Department of Energy’s Office of Energy 

Efficiency and Renewable Energy (EERE) under Solar Energy 

Technologies Office (SETO) under Agreement Number 30308. The 

views expressed in the article do not necessarily represent the views 

of the DOE or the U.S. Government. The U.S. Government retains and 

the publisher, by accepting the article for publication, acknowledges 

that the U.S. Government retains a nonexclusive, paid-up, irrevocable, 

worldwide license to publish or reproduce the published form of this 

work, or allow others to do so, for U.S. Government purposes.