NOAA Technical Report NMFS Circular 441 

Synopsis of the Biology of 

the Swordfish, 

Xiphias g/adius Linnaeus 

B. J. Palko, G. L. Beardsley, and 

W. J. Richards 

November 1981 

FAO Fisheries Synopsis No. 127 

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE 

Malcolm Baldrige, Secretary 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 

John V. Byrne, Administrator 

National Marine Fisheries Service 
The National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) does not approve, recommend or endorse any proprietary product or proprietary material 

mentioned in this publication. No reference shall be made to NMFS, or 

to this publication furnished by NMFS, in any advertising or sales promotion which would indicate or imply that NMFS approves, recommends 

or endorses any proprietary product or proprietary material mentioned 

herein, or which has as its purpose an intent to cause directly or indirectly 

the advertised product to be used or purchased because of this NMFS 

publication. 
(0"11-.:"01 

Identity ..•..............•.......•.......••.....••....... 

1.1 Nomenclature .......•.......•.......•.......•.•...• 

1.11 Valid name ...•................•....... 

1. 12 Objective synonymy .............••.... 

1.2 Taxonomy ... . .....•..............•........ 

1.2 1 Affinitie ............................ . 

I .22 Taxonomic tatus .....•........•.......•.....•. 

1.23 Subspecies . . ........•........•.............. 

1.24 Standard common names and vernacular names ... . ..... . 

1.3 Morphology ..... . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . ......•...............•....... 

1.31 External morphology . ....................................... . ..... . 

-1 .32 Cytomorphology ............................•.......•.............. 

-1.33 Protein specificity ....•...............•.......•.......•....... 

2 Distribution ... .. .............................•.......•....... . ..... . 

2.1 Total area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .... . 

2.2 Differential distribution ...........•................•...... 

2.21 Spawn, larvae, and juveniles ................. . 

2.22 Adults .................... ....... . ..... . 

2.3 Determinants of distribution changes ........•...... 

-2.4 Hybridization. .................. ....... . . . . .. ........ .......•.... . 

3 Bionomics and life history ..................................................... . 

3.1 Reproduction ..................•....................................... 

3. 11 Sexuality ...................... .. 

3. 12 Maturity .... . ............ . ..... . 

3.13 Mating ......................... . 

3.14 Fertilization ..................... . 

3.15 Gonads ................................. . 

3.16 pawning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . ............. . 

3. 17 pawn ........ ..........................•..................... 

3.2 Preadult pha~e ................................................ . . 

3.21 Embryonic phase . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . • . . . . . .. .... . ...... . 

3.22 Larval phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . ......... . 

3.23 dolescent phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . ......•....... 

3.3 Adulr phase . . . . . . . . . . .. ............................... . ..... . ..... . 

3.31 Longevity ................ ....... ....... . . . . . .. . ..... . 

3.32 Hardin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ....... ....... . ............ . 

3.33 ompetitors . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ............... . .. ... . ..... . 

3.34 Predators. ...... ........ .. . . .• ....... . . . . . .. . .... . 

3.35 Parasites, diseases, injuries. and abnormalities ... 

3.4 utntion and growth ... .. . .......•...... 

3.41 Feeding .. .. . .......................... . 

3.42 Food ................................... . 

3.43 rowth rate ..................................... . 

3.5 Beha\1or . . .. . ...............•...................... 

3.5) 1igrations and lcx:al m \emen ts .......•.......•...... 

• 3.52 h ling. . ......•...............•.......•...... 

3.53 Pugnacit) . ....... . ..............•.............. 

4 Populatl n . . ......•......• . ................... . 

4.1 lructure . . . . . . . . . . . . • . ......•...... 

4. 11 

4.t:! ............ .. 

4.13 ~lleco mpQ\iti n .... .. ......... .. 

4.2 Abundanl and deru,il)' (of populati n) ••..... 

4.21 abundan 

~ 

-4. l 

4.24 an 

in bundan~ •..... 

4.3ataJ.H. and n.'\:ruitment . . . • . . . .. . 

4 .3\ Re r:-du('[i nrat ............. . 

UJ 

I 

2 

2 

2 

10 

II 

11 

11 

I ... 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

I. 
·4.32 Factors affecting reproduction .. . 

4.33 Recruitment. . .. . ........ . 

4.4 Mortality and morbidity ............ . 

4.41 Mortality rates. . . . . . . • . .. ... . ........ . 

4.42 Factors causing or affecting mortality ... . 

4.43 Factors uffL-.:ting morbidity . . . . . . .. . .. 

·4.44 Relations of morbidity to mortality mtes . 

·4.5 Dynamics of population (a.s tI ~hole) . 

4.6 The population in the community and the ceo kill . 

5 Exploitation ... ...... ... .. 

5.1 Fishing equipment . ... .. 

5.11 Gear ............ . 

5.12 Boats . ... . .... . 

5.2 Fishing areas. ... .. 

5.21 Gencrnl gt'ographic dt lrihu!ion ... 

5.22 Depth rang~ ............ . 

5.3 Fi hing ea-,ons .. ... . ........ . 

. 31 General pat terns of \ 0 

5.32 DatL'S of beginn1l1g. peak, nd end of 

5.4 Fishing opemtion and rcsul 

5.41 Effort and inlenSJl), . 

*5,42 Sdecti\ity ... . 

5.43 atchc ......... . 

6 Protecti Jl and management ... . 

6.1 Regularity (\egislati\e measures) 

6.11 Limitation or reduction of total tch 

6.12 Protection of porI! ns of populau n. 

6.2 Control or alteration of ph> ieal fealur of II envy nment 

*6.3 CL ntrol or alteration of chemical eatur of the em ir nment 

·6.4 Control or alteration of the blolo i I fealur of lh emu runenl 

*65 Artificial st<xkmg . .. 

·7 Pond fish culture .. 

Ackno\\ ledgments ... . 

Literature cited ...... . 

*No information available. 

iv 

14 

14 

1 

I~ 
ynop i of the Biolo y of the 

Xiphia gladiu Linna u 

rdfi h 

R. J. P K , . B • \ R [) [[. 't • A [ \\ . J. R I 1 \ RI 

IO TITY 

1.1 omenc1ature 

1.11 Valid name 

X/ph/as glad/us Ltnnaeu , 1758 (Fig. I) . 

riginally de cribed by Linnaeus in 1758. The type locality 

Ii ted a "European ocean:' No type pecimen . ( innaeus 

8. y tema aturae Vol. 10, p. 248 .) 

1.12 Objective nyonymy 

iphia gladius Linnaeus, 175 (ec above) . 

hia imperator Bloch and chneider, 1 01 . Type locality: 

Mediterranean Sea . Type specimen : none. 

hia rondeletii Lea h, 1818. Type locality : Queen ferr y, 

Scotland . Type pecimen : a tuffed pecimen at th e 01-

lege at dinburgh (pre ent statu unknown) . 

etonichthy tuberculatus Nichol, 1923 . Type 10 al ity: 

Rapa I land, Au tral Group, outh Pacifi c. T ype 

pe imen : merican Mu eum of atural Hi tor) 257, 

mutilated pecimen, tail only . 

hia thermaicu erbetis, 1951. Type locality : ulf o f 

Thermaicu ,Mediterranean ea . Type pecimen : none . 

f the e name in the objective yo nym , ome omment 

ved. Xlphia IIllperator Bloch and hneider I ilted a having pelvi fin which X. f!,lad/us la k . 

lad/U He tor, I 7 h been Ii ted in th er 

ymie ( akamura et aI. 196 ). but our readtng of that 

n failed to reveal the u. e of that name. We e pe.:t it may 

be In 

01 a tropl t IrJ . It I 

1.2 Ta ononn 

1.21 \ lllnitic 

urragenenc 

Ph)lum 

J ne 
Specific 

Diagnosis: pelvic fins absent, scales absent in adult, one 

pair of caudal keels, snout long and sword shaped, somewhat 

flattened in cross section, base of first dorsal fin short and 

broadly separated from the second dorsal fin. 

1.22 Taxonomic status 

The most recent review is by Nakamura et al. (1%8) and they 

consider the swordfish to be a cosmopolitan species of the 

monotypic family Xiphiidae. 

1.23 Subspecies 

None recognized. 

1.24 Standard common names and vernacular names 

The names capitalized are official or in more common use. 

Compiled from Rosa (1950) and Nakamura et al. (1968). 

Algeria - pesce espada, pez espada 

Argentina - PEZ ESP ADA 

Belgium - ESPADON 

Brazil - PEIXE ESP ADA, agulhao, espadarte 

Ceylon - kadu koppara 

Chile - PEZ ESP ADA, Albacora 

China - chien yu 

Cuba - PEZ-ESPADA, emperador 

Denmark - SV AERDFISK 

France - ESPADON, emperadour, pei empereur 

French West Africa - bongjhojh 

Germany - SCHWERTFISCH 

Greece - XIPHIAS 

Ireland - luinniasc 

Italy - PESCE SPADA 

Japan - MEKAJIKI 

Madeira Is. - PElXE AGULHA 

Malta - P [SCISP AT, pixxi spad 

Mexico - PEZ ESP ADA 

Netherlands - ZW AARDVISCH 

New Zealand - BROADBILL 

Norway - SV AERDFISK 

Philippines - SWORDFISH; dugso, malasagi (Bikol dialect); 

malasugi, manumbuk - (marinao, samal and tao sug); dogso, 

lumod, malasugi, mayaspas - (visayan) 

Portugal - AGULHAO, agulha, espadarte, peixe agulha 

Rumania - PESTE CU SPADA 

Spain - PEZ ESPADA, espada, chichi spada, emperador, peix 

espasa, jifia, espasa, espardarte, aja pala 

Sweden - SW ARDFISK 

Taiwan - ting mien chiu chi yu, pai jou ting pan 

Tunisia - pesce espada, boussif 

USSR - mesh-riba, meshvenosouiye 

Union of South Africa - SWORDFISH, broadbill 

United States - swordfish, broadbill, common swordfish, spearfish 

Venezuela - PEZ ESPADA, emperador, espadon 

Vietnam - ho ca mui kiem 

Yugoslavia - SABLJAN, sabljack, iglun, jaglun, macokljun, pese 

~pada. 

2 

1.3 Morphology 

[Condensed from Nakamura et al. (1%8) and Richards 

(1974).] 

1.3 1 External morphology 

Adult fish have no scales or teeth, but the young stages have 

pronounced atypical scales. There is no pelvic fm. The base of the 

first dorsal is short in the adults but very long in the young and 

confluent with the second dorsal; in the adult the two fms are 

widely separated. The snout is long in all sizes, broadly flattened in 

the adults. The body is rather heavy and round in the a(lults, but in 

the young it is long, thin, and snakelike. The cranium is hard and 

wide; temporal crest and pterotic crest in the posterior end of the 

cranium are fairly well developed. The posterior projection of the 

pterotic and the epiotic are weakly developed. The supraoccipital 

projection is fairly well developed. The neural and haemal spines of 

the vertebrae are flattened. There are 26, rarely 27 vertebrae, 15-16 

trunk plus 10-11 caudal. [Richards (1974) reversed the vertebral 

counts.] The lateral apophysis is not well developed. 

There are two dorsal fms with 38-49 rays in the first and 4-5 

rays in the second. There are two anal fms: 12-16 rays in the first, 

3-4 rays in the second. There are 17-19 pectoral rays and no pelvic 

fin . 

A striking change in shape takes place during growth. The 

body not only changes from long and thin , but the fins, coloration, 

squamation, and bill shape also change radically. There are many 

recent accounts of swordfish ontogeny as well as accounts early in 

this century. Richards (1974) gave details of the history of swordfish 

development and cited the various accounts. 

1.32 Cytomorphology 

Nothing found in the literature. 

1.33 Protein specificity 

Nothing found in the literature. 

2 DISTRIBUTION 

2.1 Total area 

Swordfish are the most widely distributed billfish and occur 

worldwide from about lat. 45 ON to 45 oS in all tropical, 

subtropical, and temperate seas (Fig. 2). 

In the western Atlantic, swordfish occur from the coast of 

Newfoundland (Tibbo et al. 1961) to Argentina (de Sylva 1962; 

Wise and Davis 1973). 

In the eastern Atlantic, swordfish have been recorded off 

Scandinavia (Duncker 1936), Great Britain (Rich 1947), France, 

Spain, in the Mediterranean Sea (Sanzo 1922), and the Sea of 

Marmara (Artiiz 1963). Swordfish have been reported in the 

Black Sea off the coast of Bulgaria and Rumania, and there are 

indications that swordfish migrate from the Black Sea to the Sea 

of Azov in the summer (Ovchinnikov 1970). In the Baltic Sea, 

swordfish have been collected off Tallinn and Haapsalu 

(Ovchinnikov 1970) and Wolin Island (Jakuczun 1971). In the 

eastern South Atlantic, swordfish occur along the west coast of 

Africa down to the Cape of Good Hope (Penrith and Cram 

1974). 

In the eastern Pacific, swordfish range from Oregon (Fitch 

1960) to Talcahuano, Chile (Lobell 1947). Swordfish are caught 
SWORDFISH 

0 00 

Haur 2. Oblrlbullon or ,,..ordn,h In Ihr Paeln ·, Indian , and "nli 0, an h don, I,h ral 

ral (number of fbh !Xr 1,000 honk,). bo ,ho"n (aret< I, 2, and J) ~ Cfnl." !If (OOl nlrallOn of h' p"lh 

le,1 foolnol 10, Oa. I.) 

off the Ila\\<alian (. tra\hurg 1970) and alarago\ I lands. In the 

we~lern Pacific, bawd on Japanc\e longline data, \,\ordfi~h arc 

'~Idely di\tribuled from temperale \\<alt:rs off the COOl t of Jaran 

(Yabe et al. 19 9) to the ',aters f u\tralia and e'>' Z~aland 

(Webh 1972). 

'H1rdfi~h occur In thc Indian Ocean ',ith area of conccntratlon off the coa\t~ of IndIa ( haLko ct al. 19(4), 't:ylon 

(Deranlyagala 1951), audl rabla (Ra\\ 1(65), the cast coa t 01 

"frica, and around the Capc of C, od Hope. I\hi~a,\a and 

c)anagi (1974) ha\e also ,ho',n areas 1 roncentra!lOn 

he!\\een lat.:!O and 40 ,long. 60 ° and 1 ~ '. I dult s\\ordfish also oc"ur in good com:entratiom If the s uth\\ est Loast of 

us! r ,lli 

2.2 Dtlfcren!ial dlstriblltion 

:!.:!1 ra\\I1, lanae, and ju\cnile 

"'\\ordlt h lanae o,xur in all the tropical cas, and Ih~lr 

dlo,[llhulion i, c1osel~ a sOLiated \\ ith urfaLc temr ralure 

be!\, ecn 24 0 and 29 (Taning 1955). rbuno\ a (1969) lound 

cOllL<.:ntratiol1\ 01 \\, rdlish Ian ae 111 the outhwe lern area 

01 the \tlanllc, In the cOl tern ran of the Ind13n uan, nd 

III the central w~lter of the Pactt!c )Lcan ouch l)f the cqu -

t r. 

In thc \\estern ,\tlanuL, \!arlde (19 4) t tcd. ba c 
Total Larval 

Captures 

3~80[ 40 .11\ 40~ ~ 40 Illl 0 25.4 

l~oUt J ;--0 ~ 0 80l 

oU'P-- ~ o 40 ~ 

o fau.uwJ.lWl.lJll-A 120 

67.5 

o 

o 8 80· 

80 

o 

25° 

o 

20~~111111~1~1111 ; l:J I 4 \,..0 0 

'5' ~ L 1B.9 :~ I o 386 0 28.5 

o 

o o I 

3C.B 

. :/ • 4 . 

• 

o 40 

I 

1 .1 I 

o 28.4 

10° 

90° 

Figure 3.-Numbers, size ranges, Bnd meBn lengths of s"ordflsh IBn De-collection, from ,...nou, ,ou" includ.njl f h IY R, thO. td 01 ( on d. (lr m \1 r .. 197~ , 

fi~ . 3 and caplionl. 

fish between lat. 35 oN and 40 "S, with best catches m the coastal 

areas between lat. 20 ° and 30 oN and the areas adjacent to Baja 

California. For the southeast PaCific, the principal swordfISh 

grounds are centered in coastal waters from the equator to about 

lat. 15"S and around the Galapagos islands. Concentrations of 

swordfish extend westward from this area in a longitudinal band 

along the equator during all seasons. During the first and fourth 

quarters (southern spring and summer), a secondary longitudinal 

band extends westward between lat. 10 ° and 20"S. Royce (1957) 

believed that the distribution of swordfish in the western PaCific 

indicates that the adults prefer cooler waters than other bill fishes. 

In the Indian Ocean, concentrations of swordfish occur off 

Saudi Arabia at lat. 15 °N, and long. 40 0

-70 0E and in the Bay of 

Bengal between long. 90 ° and 95 °E (Rass 1965; Nakamura 1974). 

2.3 Determinants of distribution changes 

Their geographical distribution in the northwestern Atlantic 

apparently varies considerably due to marked seasonal variation in 

environmental conditions (Beckett 1974). In the winter, swordfISh 

are confmed to waters associated with the Gulf Stream, but in the 

4 

ummer the~ are lound mer a mu h 

temperature \anation, apparentl> lOt1uell,,-e a dlffen:ntlai L Inbution by size'" ith larger fish being found In Lookr \ ater nd fe\lo r~ h 

under 90 kg seen m \\ater of < I r U aJ.o Iffer \lth 

temperature, as fe\' male are found in the L lder (belo \ 1 

\\ater. 

There is undoubtedl) a relation hip bet\\ecn the O.::.::urren.:e of 

swordfISh larvae and the di tribution, intera-:tion, and moclifi.::ati n 

of water masses according to Tibbo and LaULlcr (1969). U Ian ae 

they examined \\ere captured I\ithin relati\el) narrO\\ rang of 

surface temperature (23.4 °-25.6 C and salinit) (35. \-36.36°/ 00 ), 

In the Pacific, distribution of lanal \\ordfi his asso.:iated \\lth 

the North Equatorial Current or the Kuroshio Current dunng priJ 

and May (Nakamura et al. 1951). Ishika\\a and Ueyanagi (19 4) 

noted a marked difference between surface and sub urface cat hes 

during the day but not as much during the night and felt this difference represented diurnal vertical movements of larval word fISh. 

In the Pacific, swordfish larvae and juveniles are restricted to areas 

of upwelling where high productivity prOVides favorable conditions 

(Gorbunova 1969). Yabe et al. (1959) stated that young word fish 

are distributed in the tropical and subtropical zones and migrate to 
,. 

. . . .St ... .. . . ~ 

• ~ 

~ • r 

. • 

... 

0 

... 

u 

Z 

... ... :l: .. 

• • ~ ::> 

~ 

V % " 

0 ~ ~ " 

Ii .: 

~ ~ 

Ii 
higher latitudes as their size increases, and Gorbunova (1969) 

indicated that juvenile swordfish do not migrate far dunng their 

first year of growth. 

Kondritskaya (1970) noted that the dLstribution of swordfish 

larvae in the Indian Ocean is bounded by the 24 mean annual 

isotherm. In the northwestern Indian Ocean, Osipov (1968) believed 

that' catches of swordfish change from area to area and show a 

seasonal variation between summer and winter, which is related to 

environmental conditions or eddy patterns within major current 

systems such as the Mon oon Current and the Equatorial ountercurrent. 

2.4 Hybridization 

Nothing found in the literature, 

3 BI0 OM1CS AND LlFE HI TOR Y 

3.1 Reproduction 

3.11 Sexuctlity 

Swordfish are heterosexual. 

distinguish males from females, 

usually female. 

j 12 Mattlrity 

o \...no\\ n e ... ternal Lharacler 

although large s\\ Iml Ii h ~rc 

There is little information on size and age at tir t matunty and 

some of it is contradictor}. Yabe et al. (1959) stated that \\ ruti h 

first spawned at 5-6 yr and 150-170 cm eye-fork length 0 dun· 

nikm (1970) said males reached sexual maturit) at a length 01 

around 100 cm and females at a length of 70 em (author' note: 

measurement parameters not given In tran'latlon); ho\\e\er, fl'l.:ent 

research conducted on s\\ordfish off the outhell!>t cOa! t of the 

United States indicates that males mature at a smaller Size than 

females (about 21 kg for males and 74 \...g for females) (E. Houde'). 

Kume and Joseph (1969) treated swordfish of < 130 cm in eye-fork 

length as immature. 

3.13 Mating 

Swordfish are apparently solitary animals and rare I)- gather in 

schools. However, several occurrences of pairing thOUght to be 

associated with spawning have been noted in the Atlantic (GuitartManday 1964) and in the Mediterranean (LaMonte and Marcy 

1941), although pairing is considered a rarity. 

See section 3.16. 

3.14 Fertilization 

Fertilization is external. 

3.15 Gonads 

The testes are paired, elongate organs, thin and ribbonlike in 

immature fish and flattened, pinkish white, and not round in cross 

section in adults. The ovaries are paired, elongate, and always 

round in cross section even in immature ftSh. The ovaries are always 

'Dr- Ed Houde, Rosenstiel School of Marine and Almospheric Science, 4600 

Rickenbacker Causeway, Miami, FL 33149, pers. commun, June 1979. 

6 

much hortcr and thi kn Ihall the tcst 

reported that the wordli h 

remains comp,ll! .IIlU lirrn. 

3.16 Sp.l"nin 

ncar ( uba, th 

nd 

e\ idence 01 a difference an pa\\ nin time an.. nou par of the 

Pacific, which was ren~'"led by the easonalll~ of ren of 

Iar\ae and juveniles. pawning occur in prm and ummer 

(March-luly) in the central Pa if Ie and In pring 

(September-December) in the .... estern uth P fie. The), 

noted that spawning takes place all year in equatorial ter and 

begins and ends 1 or 2 month earlier in the \\e em Pa ... ifi in 

the Philippine· Formosa areas compared ith the Ha" aiian 

Islands area. T i-Gen (1960) stated that pa\ming indi\;duals 

could be found at any time of the year in the .... estern Pacifi . 

Yabe et aI. (1959) found a spawning area south of the ubtroplcal convergence which they believed formed the recruitment for 

the fishing grounds of the North Pacific. The" also collected 

mature ovaries in the northern part of the Coral ea In October 

and in the Fiji Islands in lune. 

In the Indian Ocean, Yabe et a!. (1959) found ripe ovarie In 

April and young swordfish In the lo\\er latitude areas near the 

equator in August, ovember, and December. Based on \\ordfish larvae found in stomach content of tunas and marlin, they 

concluded that the spawning eason started after April and continued until December. In the Mozambique Channel, a \\ ordfish larva was collected in late January (Kondritskaya 1970) and 

larvae have been reported east of Madagascar Island (LUtken 

1880; Gorbunova 1969), although no dates are available. 
c.:hlyama and 

e\cral developmcntal 

uiameter : 

homura (1~74) la IIleU the 0\ IntO 

lat I hal are not dq> nd nl on 

I. Primordial ova-Ova tran p rent, o\old, ,IOU 

dlameter~ range from 0.01 to 0.05 O1m. Prim rdralo\<I 

arc pre enl in all O\·ane . 

2. I:arly devel ping ma-Ch'a till tran\parent anu 

o\oid; diameter\ range from appro imatd)' 0.06 to 

0.24 mm. A chorion memhrane ha~ developed around 

the ovum and opaque yolk like material ha hegun to 

be depo\ited within the 0 um. 

J. Developing ova-Ova completely opaque, more 

\\edge-shaped than o\oiu, and diameter ran c.: 

het\\een 0.16 anu 0.96 mm. The ch n n is \Irctcheu 

and not vl~ible In th" stage. 

4. Auvanccd developing ova -O.a ovoid and diametcr~ 

range from 0.47 to 1.20 mm. va ha.e a tramlucent 

margin, a icrtili/ation membrane, and a round ~olk. 

5. [arly npe o.a Ova diameters range fr m 0.60 to 

1.20 mm. rhe yolk material is translu.:ent and oil 

globulc~ havc begun to f rm. 

6. Ripe 0 a-Ova transparent and \vith oil globulcs. Dia -

mcters range from O. 0 t 1.66 0101. 

7. Re. idual ova-Ova in thi lage how Igns of degeneration and ova are thin-walled, tran lucent, and measure approximately O. 0 mm in diameter. 

Ace rUl1lg to ella (1911) and anlO (1922). "the eggs arc 

buoyant and transparent \\lIh a large orl dr plel. The) Ik sa.: is 

vcr sl11all; yolk \cslcular; capsule \lith a quite cvident amorphous net\\orl<.. rhc egg diameter IS ab ut 1.6 - 1. mOl; the ort 

droplet, 0.4 mm:' 

hsh (1926) n ted lhat a swordfish \\clghlng 6 kg containcd 

matullng O\'arrcs \\clghing I 5 kg and cstlmared the number 01 

ova ,\I 16,130,400, measuring o\'a onl . from 0.1 0101 to O. 501111 

111 dl,lmctcr. 

3.2 Prcauult phasc 

3.21 Fmbr)onic phasc 

!.::mbno11lc dc\elopl11ent is rapid (21 2 ua)\ 01 incubation 1r 

a lillie I11l~re) At an carl) stage. melan ph re are OHr all the 

\Url,ICe or lhe )olk and trunk 'Iter I day l t incubation, the) 

.He atread) \\ell ui per\tU, .1I1d at thi lllge there be.: 10 to 

.Ippear )n the trunk a uilfu\ed \(ra\\·)ello\\ c lor. The Ue\e.:kl[lIllent 11 the chr ,matophore\ (n (he _ olk nd (heir b an~hin 

rcnde.:r (hc c')), Ic\\ tramrarenl and dirt\-"hlte.: (llior. \t the 

be.: 'I1lnin' III the third da\. the 1l1danorl1llre r~ g III 

11Icntuj .• Inu (illhe lln the trunk. (l rrt p lndin~ ll) the men!, 

h,l\( \11 n 'cr r.llnillcUlil)n . 1 hc dil u J tf \\ 'r I mIen· 

died. there arc 24 c 'm~nt (Padl) 19~6). 

e.:c e.:'11 n .'.2' 

1 I l III r n I m rph 

arpcaran~e. 

\\ lrd fi h I n 
<Xl 

A D 

B E 

c F 

Figure S.-Larvae and young of the swordfISh: (A) 7.8 mm SL; (B) 14.5 mm SL; (C) 27.2 mm SL; (D) 68.8 mm SL; (E) 252 mm BL (length from posterior edge oforbil to base ofcaudaI fin); (F) 580 mm BL. Specimens A, B, C, 

and D from Arata (1954); E and F from Nakamura el al. (1951). 
through the middle of the: eye and ""a I( t anout three-tour h 

of the way acro the opercle." 

.3 Adult nha e 

1.11 [on e~lt 

Ba l:(J on ta gmg data from 1%1 to IIJ76, the rna; unum e 

i al lca~1 '1 r, a~ umin' il t,I~' U minimum of 2)r tor a ""or 

fish 10 grow far'e cnough to lUg (Beard,lcy 197 ). 

1 here arc m~ut IlLient data to dl!tertl1lne \\-hclhcr the rcaler 

\i;e allained b Icmale~ n:lali.c to male,> I uue to a more rarllJ 

'ro\\-lh rate or to u can Iderably Ion 'er lile ran (lkc~elt 19 4). 

o information 1\ available for the Pa illc anu Indian 0 C<1I1 , 

although Ikard ~lc} hCl! I olnote 6) notl!u that a e- \cllo!ht uat 

su' l!,t Pucific ~tod.\ may haH: a lo\\(:r gro\\-th rute and ro \ 

to a \nwller a,ymptollc ..,i/e than Atlantic ,\HHdfi h . 

.1.32 Ifaruine,,> 

Auult \woru!i,h mu'>t be adaptable to relatively large 

change ... in their enVironment. They ma!..e I!!eding e cursiom 

Into wat!!r\ 01 5 °_ 10 C and depth, or at lea't 650 m (Church 

196) r hey are able to ma!..e horilOntal migration\ from trorical and \ubtroplcal lones to lhe tl!mpl!ratl! wa!c.:r ... in all ocean~ 

of thl! world. I hey hay!! been \ighled at th!! heau of submarine 

canyon\ m th!! Gulf 01 MeXICO in uepth, in e\ce" ot 45 m 

(Church 196 ). In auulllOn, .,\\ordll..,h arc adartable in their 

abilll} to utill;e a \ariet of food .,ource\, teeuml?, on both ,urfacc anu ncar ,>urrace animal... a, \\c)) a ... benthic 'reCle., anu 

t ho.,e ,>pecie ... \\ hich occur in bet wcen . 

.1 . .13 <.. ompetit r ... 

, \\oru!t,h pre,umably comrete \\Ith othl!r billti .. hc a "ell 

;1'> othel large pelagic rreuator., lor the ame organism, ill the 

1')1d challl. J here i, no information, ho\\e\er, on the ctfcctthi 

comrc!ition has on their ,>un i\ aJ. That el kd i .. probabl~ 

minimal ,ince ,\\oruli,h arc carable ot teeuing on a \:lTlt:t) of 

IOl)U\ rr 111 the \urlace to the floor 01 the l)Cean , Lan tra\d 

from tropical to temrerate \\aler'. and an: opportUI1l lJ 

rll ~uator . 

pon fi hermen 

fi h. 

lh 
Table I.- List of parasites found on swonlfosh (adapted from Silas 1964 and '>Uas and l ,mmerkulty 1964). 

Locality 

Monogenetic trematodes (Silas 1967) 

Atlantic 

Adriatic. Mediterranean, N.W. 

Atlantic, Pacific 

Atlantic 

Digenetic trematodes (Silas 1967) 

Atlantic-Woods Hole 

Pacific, Atlantic 

Atlantic 

Cestodes (Silas 1967) 

N.W. Atlantic, Europe 

N.W. Atlantic 

N.E. Atlantic and Mediterranean 

Atlantic (Woods Hole) 

N.W. Atlantic 

N.W. Atlantic 

.~.t lantic 

Atlantic (Woo(b Hole) 

Para~ite 

CapslIla laevtS 

TrifilOlfW Integrum 

Trls/omu con'meum 

D,dYflloCY.IIU IIpilou/ .. " 

Jllrudlll ella da"ala 

HIrtle/mel/a 'nJnlTlCO\(J 

fUlu!tcola p!tcalul 

GnllollU Ulllaceu\ 

Gn""orh ~'I1(hu\ 

rG,mf/orhrndllll) IUgll' 

Gl'fllJlorh "/lcil,l\ (.\fo/,uJ/a) 

1Illnnulu') 

\"bdlllia ( \ '''t'llIIkJ) 

btlUh'alu 

\ "/Je/lllkJ ('\ ,belll/w) 

/U1l10 Idt' 

Y"bt'll/Ild (\ "b .. !tnld) 

/lIIglld/" 

Ulubulitnlllll I (}1"t>"lh"'",1I 

I (M.:aIHJll un ho t 

~III 

mu Ie anJ gill l.~ It) 

IOm.l,h 

"ail (II onl line nO r«tum 

lorna h nd mte inC ,.a11 

mil Ie 

mu les 

Cf"f/dtull" flesh nd ~ ern 

tlantic Olobolhrtum (PseudolobOlh"lIm) 

N.W. Atlantic 

N.W. Allantic 

N.W. Atlantic 

Atlantic 

dlSpacum 

Ph"IIubOlitnlJfII I,,!tglf/I< 

, u/e\ p/l'IIrcJlJt'l'/L 

Te"lcl4:ulcJrtcJ blt'(llu, 

TenlCJ<.uldrtu (.onphuenu 

Copepods (Silas and Ummerkully 1967) 

N.W. Atlantic 

N.W. Atlantic 

BftJ('hw/ld rUfll""" 

Bradllella Ih,f/", 

Calt~u, chellfer urI' c 

Atlantic. Mediterranean urI' ,c 

Atlantic ? 

N.W. Atlantic 

Ca!tlllll e!Uf/gaIU\ Ie rdpar) 

ChondrownlhllS lI{,h/(Jt' 

G/olupule, omdlll5 

'Bassett-Smith , P W 1899 s),tcmau<: J=npuon 01 para,flle Cop.:poJa founJ on fISh • 

the known Species. Proc. Zoo!. SO<. Lond 1899:438507 Incorrectl) rC!,<lncJ In Sda and 

reponed as synonym of rapax in 1899 by Bas.,ell-Smflh. 

bunova 1969; manuscript not seen by authors), the period of 

intensive feeding coincide in time with the period of greatest 

frequency of larvae caught in sampling nets. Juvenile swordfish 

8 mm long will swallow fish that are as long as them elves (T£nning 1955). 

Adult swordfish are opportunistic feeders, known to forage 

for their food from the bottom to the surface over great depths 

and distances. Their diet varies with location and species. 

According to Beardsley (see footnote 6), "Swordfish are diurnal 

feeders, rising to the surface and near surface waters at night. 

Over deep water they feed primarily on pelagic fishes and 

squids, while in shallower water large adults make feeding 

excursions to the bottom where the temperatures may be 5-10 °C 

and feed on demersal species~' 

In temperate waters of the Atlantic and Pacific, swordfish 

frequently bask on the surface. This behavior is rarely observed 

in tropical waters and is thought to facilitate digestion in temperate waters (surface waters being relatively warmer). 

Stomachs sampled from swordfish caught at the surface were 

either full or completely empty (Tibbo et aI. 1961). They noted 

that swordfish would on occasion regurgitate everything from 

their stomachs before capture and sometimes would even evert 

the stomach. 

There is some question as to the use of the sword in obtaining food. Goode (1883) reported that swordfish rise beneath a 

o 

chool of Ii h. triking to the right and left \Ilh their \\ord 

until the} have killed a number of fi h. whidllhe) then proceed 

to devour. Recent re earchers (Tibbo et al 191'11) ha\e found 

evidence from stomach contents that Ihe \wordti h u-,e il 

word to kill orne of its food SLott and Tlbbo (196 ) tated the 

wordfi h differs from the spearftshes (m rlins and ailfi h) in 

that the s\\ord is long and dor oventrall) (omprc ed. Thu . the 

swordfi h appear to be more hlghl) ,>pedalized fo r lateral 

slashing. They believed such a peLlallZatiOn would be pointle 

unless directed towards a verticall} oriented prey or unle the 

wordfish slashe mainl while vertically oriented. as when 

ascending or de cending. 

3.42 Food 

Arata (1954) examined tomach contents from larvae from 

the western Atlantic ranging in size from 7.8 to \92.1 mm. Only 

the two smallest specimens (7.8 and 9.0 mm) contained zooplankton, while for all of the other specimen, fish larvae were 

the main food source. 

In the Pacific, swordfi hat 9.0-14.0 mm feed on organisms 

such as Mysida, Phyllopoda, and Amphipoda and do not begin 

to feed on other fish until about 21 mm long (Yabe et aI. 1959). 

As juveniles, swordfish feed on squids, fishes, and some 

pelagic crustaceans. It is widely accepted that, in general, large 
no Information a\UJlab\t: on clther C lI.11 Jillerel1l.:e 111 t 

hahit or leedll1g habit In p'l tlon to lIe nd e . 

Information on \w\)rdli,h gro\\th i\ limited uno ome \h t 

wntradictor}. \\-ordli h hatch <It a kngth 01 4.0·4.2 mm II1d 

lar ae .5 ml11 arc about da) old (. anI() 1922). AralU (I,}S4) 

,taled that \\\ordli,h larvae ha .. e 3 high ro\\th r<lte. uhout O.fI 

mm / day, \\hile Tlbbo and I aUlier (11)69) indicated that the 

growth rate Wa\ around 2 mm/day. In the Paci IC, \\\ord I~h 

row to S ·600 111m In the lir\t jcar (Yabe et al. 1959). 

III thc nOllh~e\t tlantlc, adulb enter temrclate \\atcr III 

June, arc u~ually thin, hut Will add 22·)4 kg a, the ea n 

advance\ (Tibbo et al. 19(1). Ikdett (1974) u e~ted that the 

Irowlh of lemale \\\ordli,h may bc rarld \\ nh a general a 'C 

weight rclatlon,hlr of: 

ge I . 4 kg 

ge 2 15 kg 

gc J • 40 kg 

gc 4 . 70 kg 

ge ~ . 110 kg 

ba\cd on J rough anaIY'I\ 01 ,i/c frequencie\ Irom LOllll11ercial 

catche\ and lhe anal}\I\ 01 tagging re\ult,. HO\le\er, Guitar!-

l anda (1964) bcllc.cd that a \\\ rdli,h 01160 CI11 and 59 kg III 

lhe \outhl\e\l IlantlL (of[ Cuba) 1\;1\ 2 yr old . 

In the PaLlIK, yabe ct .II (1959) II1dicated that \\\ordll\h 

~O 60 CI11 long I\ere I )r old, lhal the Ii\h cau 'hi commercially 

II ere rrelhm1ll1ately -1 5) r old. and lhat \\\ oro li\h \ralu1ed lor 

lhe f\l\t tll11e at 'i 6 yr 'Iorofl\h III the \\e\tern PaLlIlc gro\\ 

,Ihout 2~ ..:mJ yr n ,lbe el al. 1959), \\ hilt: ca,tern P CIItC \\\ ordIt\h he!llecn 62 and 165 cm groll ab)ut J un /) r (Kumc and 

.Il)\eph 1969). 

I here 1\ ~l)llO elioen..:e lor oilkrential gro\lth het\\n:n 

1ll,lle\ and lernale, \11th Icmalc attaining the l.lrger 17e «(ala· 

liere 1%3. IUlt.lrt \1 ,1110.1) 196-1. l\.ul11e and .Il) eph I (9). 

l'elll alc 'rOIl more rapldh than male and nIH on" n I to .1 

'reatcr kn 'th than mak . but arc f"rl1f" rtillnalh healier at the 

\,II11elcn l th (Sklllm,1ll ,lIld)on' 19 4). Be~kett(19"4) \J ted 

th,lt Icl\ l11ale t: ~n:d 2l <.111 1 l (11H len 'th) (.IPf"fl) Inlatd 

120 k I). 

J.~ Bd1311d 

11 

( uba «(.UI!<itI Janda 

IIrumlJ bra",1J 

uld 

l OIdc:ont.rlCd Ii 

l'tTl Irrilon 

IIramlJ 

I tl'ldopw 

""U"lI 

rr01(hlpl. "' 

I'olinun, hlh 
not come inshore but set up a meandering course seaward. 

These experiments involved two tagged fish in the Atlantic and 

five tagged fish in the Pacific. 

In the eastern Pacific, catch records indicate a movement of 

fish from off the tip of Baja California during the spring and 

towards the north during the summer and fall (Kume and 

Joseph 1969). Kume and Joseph also suggested that swordfish 

along the coastal regions of South America move northward 

from Chile to Peru from June to September, and they further 

postulated that swordfish move seaward to spawn from 

November through February. 

3.52 Schooling 

Nothing found in the literature. 

3.53 Pugnacity 

Swordfish have a reputation for being a pugnacious fish. 

There are records of attacks on boats (Gray 1871; Smith 1956), 

whales (Brown 1960; Machida 1970; Peers and Karlsson 1976), 

and even submersibles (Zarudski 1967). 

4 POPULA nON 

4.1 Structure 

4.11 Sex ratio 

In the northwestern Atlantic harpoon fishery, only large 

(120 kg) females are caught; however, in the longline fishery 

both sexes appear in the catch (Lee 1942; Tibbo et al. 1961). 

Guitart-Manday (1964) found both sexes in the catch in the 

southwestern Atlantic with males in greater numbers than 

females (72-28070); however, most of the large (75-137 kg) fish 

were females. Beckett (1974) found that sex ratios differ with 

temperature, as few males are found in the colder (under 18°C) 

water. In the Caribbean and adjacent regions, for example, 

Beckett found that males comprise from 67 to 100% of the 

catch. 

In the eastern Pacific, the proportion of females to males in 

a sample of 1,449 swordfish was roughly equal over the size 

range 130-170 cm, but above this range the proportion of 

females became progressively higher (Kume and Joseph 1969). 

4.12 Age composition 

Using Beckett's (1974) age estimates arid length-frequency 

data from Beardsley et al. (1979'), the age composition of 

swordfish in the western North Atlantic sport fishery is primarily ages three to five with some 1 and 2 yr olds and some 6 yr and 

older also being caught. In the Sea of Marmara (using Beckett's 

age estimates), commercially caught swordfish are primarily 3 

and 4 yr olds with very few 2 yr olds and some 5 and 6 yr olds in 

the catch (Artiiz 1963). 

Yabe et al. (1959) concluded from an 8 yr study of the 

Pacific swordfish fishery that swordfish taken commercially in 

the North Pacific fishing grounds are approximately 2 yr old 

'Beardsley, G. L., R. J. Conser, A. M. Lopez, M. Brassfield, and D. 

l\~lClellan.1979. Length and weight data for western Atlantic swordfish, 

\Iph/(Js g/ad/Us. CoU. Vol. Sci. Pap., VllI(SCRS·1978):490495. tnt. Comm 

Con-erv. Atl. Tunas, General Mola 17, Madrid I, Spain. . 

12 

and older, and the predominant age group consists of 4-5 yr 

olds, although there are some 1 yr olds caught. 

4.13 Size composition 

Swordfish grow to a very large size, occasionally attaining 

weights of over 500 kg. The world record swordfish taken by 

sportfishing gear was captured off Chile in 1953 and weighed 

536 kg (International Game Fish Association 1979). Beckett 

(1974) reported a swordfish landed at Cape Breton, Nova 

Scotia, that weighed approximately 550 kg. 

Size data from the Japanese longline fishery in the Atlantic 

show a broad range from 80 to 300 cm in length (rear of the 

orbit to the caudal fork) with the majority between 130 and 230 

cm (7ig. 6). Beckett (see footnote 7) showed a rapid decline in 

the average size of swordfish caught in the Canadian longline 

fishery, from 120 kg round weight in 1963 to 60 kg in 1969. Part 

of this decline Beckett attributed to a gradual expansion of the 

fishery into warmer waters where smaller males are more common in the catches. 

In the eastern Pacific, Kume and Joseph (1969) presented 

size data for swordfish taken by longline vessels (Fig. 7). The 

range was from 50 to 275 cm eye-fork length with the mode 

located at about 170 cm. In the western pacific, Yabe et al. 

(1959) presented length data for swordfish captured by the 

longline fishery from 1948 to 1956. Average size decreased 

steadily from about 170 cm to about 130 cm body length during 

that period (Fig. 8). 

Length-weight relationships of swordfish are summarized 

in Table 3. 

4.2 Abundance and density (of population) 

4.21 Average abundance 

No estimates of population size are available. 

4.22 Changes in abundance 

See section 4.24. 

4.23 Average density 

Nothing found in the literature. 

4.24 Changes in density 

. In the we~tern North Atlantic, catch per unit effort (CPU E) 

m the Canadian longline fishery declined from 2.88 fish/ 100 

hooks in 1963 to 0.92 fish/IOO hooks in 1965. This decline in 

CPUE was accompanied by a decrease in average size from 120 

kg. roun~ w:ight to < 60 kg (Beardsley see footnote 6). Part of 

thiS decline III average size may have been due to an expansion 

of the fishery to more southern grounds. In 1975 however 

f~lIowing a 4 yr period when there was no fishing du~ to restric: 

lions on the sale of swordfish due to mercury contamination 

CPUE had risen to 2.31 fish/IOO hooks (Caddy 1976). Guitart: 

Manday (1975) showed a general increasing trend in the catch 

per days fish~ng for swordfish off Cuba by the Cuban longline 

~e~t. CPUE m the Japanese longline fishery for the total AtlantiC Illcreased steadily from 1956 to 1968 then stabilized through 

1975. (Fig. 9). 

In the eastern Pacific, catch rates for swordfish by the 
80 

30 

40 

:z: 

11\ 

ww0 30 lit 

... 

GIl 

~ 

:J 

z 40 

SO 

40 

40 

:z: 

III 

~ 

... 

0 

lit 

... 

III 

~ 80 :J 

z 

40 

WESTERN !fORTH ATLANTIC 

JAN rEB MAR 197 

N :13 

EASTERN NORTH ATlANTI 

APR - MAY JUN APR MAY JUN 1975 

N : 112 I 75 

N 341 

40 

JUl AUC -SEP JUl- AUC -SEP SO 1975 1975 

N : 63 N : SS4 

40 

OCT NOV- DEC 

1975 

N 520 

40 

91100 131-140 HI-ISO 211-220 251-260 291-300 91-100 13H40 171-180 211 -220251260 2<31300 

WESTERN NORTH ATLANTIC 

JAN - FEB MAR 

1976 

N=196 

APR -MAY- JUN 

1976 

N=149 

JUl-AUC SEP 

197 

N= 0 

lENCTH, CM 

80 

40 

LE C H, C 

EASTERN NORTH All ANTIC 

APR -MAY-JUN 

1976 

N=131 

JUl AUC EP 

1 7 

~33 

JAN - FES - MAR 

1976 

N=703 
SWORDFISH 

50 100 150 250 

EYE - FOR K LENGTH CLASS I N em 

Figure 7.-SIze-frequency curve, In percentage, for 1,449 swordfish caughl by 

longllne vessels In the eastern Pacific (from Kume and J oseph 1969, fig . 14 and caption). 

Japanese longline fishery show generally an increasmg trend in 

the two main fishing areas through 1969 (Fig. 10) (10 eph et al. 

1974). The authors pointed out, however, that the increase may 

be due to an in" 'ease in the number of night sets and concentration on the more productive swordfish areas. Sakaga\o\a and Bell 

(1978 1°, showed the same general increase in CPUE through 

1969 but then a sharp decline through 1975 (Fig. I I, Area 3). 

CPUE over the entire I-'acific, however, shows a gradual decline 

from 1958 through 1967 then stabilizing through 1975 (Fig. 12). 

4.3 Natality and recruitment 

4.31 Reproduction rates 

See section 3.1. 

4.32 Factors affecting reproduction 

Nothing found in the literature. 

4.33 Recruitment 

A rough estimate of size at first capture using a 

comparison of commercial size frequencies by longline and harpoon in the mid-1960's indicates that size at first capture by harpoon is in the vicinity of36 kg (155 cm FL) and probably slightly 

lower than this in the Pacific (Beardsley see footnote 6). The size 

at first capture by longline in the Atlantic is in the vicinity of 4.5 

kg (80 cm FL) 

4.4 Mortality and morbidity 

4.41 Mortality rates 

For western North Atlantic stocks, estimates of total mortality (Z) have been made for the ha rpoon fishery 

(Z=0.12-0.65) and for the longline fishery (Z=0. 16-0.59). 

The natural mortality of swordfish may be relatively low when 

compared to other billfishes because of their longevity, and 

preliminary estimates derived from the relationship between M 

and K, 

M = - 0.0195 + 1.9388 (K), 

"Sakagawa, O. T., and R. R. Bell. 1978. Swordfish, Xiphiasg/adius. In R. 

S. Shomura (editor), Summary repon of the Billfish Stock Assessment Workshop, 

Pacific Resources, Honolulu, Hawaii, 5- 14 December 1977. Mimeo. Rep., p. 

43-55. Honolulu Laboratory, Southwest Fisheries Center, NMFS, NOAA, P.O. 

Box 3830, Honolulu , HI 96812. 

14 

% 

40 

20 

-40 

20 

40 

20 

40 

20 

40 

20 

20 

20 

a. 

4. 

u. 

61 81 

I I 

65 85 

d. 1948-49 

1949-50 

c d. 1950 ...... 51 

c' 19 51 -52 

d 1952-53 

c 19 53 -5~ 

1954-55 

c 1955-56 

101 121 141 161 181 201 221 241 261 (c..m) I I I I I \ I I I 

105 125 145 165 18S 205 225 2~5 265 

Figure 8.-Body length (distance from the posterior end of Ihe upper jaw to Ihe lermlnal of tbe hypural bone) compositions of swordfish from Ihe NorU! Pacine 

fishing grounds (140 o-16() °E) for an eigbt-year period from 1948-56 (from Yabe el 

01. 1959, fig. 25 and caption; author.> nole: the abscissa Is body length in em; 

altbough the ordinate is labeled percent, we do not beUeve the number.> as sbown 

on the figure represent percent. The letter.> a, b, c, and d represent modes). 
, ... 1.-' .... llh· ... hl r"'bo" 

,,",Mi., ,I" 

dd (1'1 h) 

( .... lern \ 11 .• nll I 

1\ I(U Icy ct ~I (1'19) 

(.. I<ln '\ 11.1111. ) 

i{ cy.IlU(,Olllll (.ar (1'191 

( iI: Il"lll ,\ llanll.) 

(\k"tl.lerr mean) 

,\ molll11 ,.nu " ,Idh (l'ln) 

(" lern ,\ II,rnlll) 

,\ mUIIII1 (1'177)' 

('" lern \ llanllC) 

Sec Ie I h'<llnOle 4 

, CC Ie t Innlflolc II 

',\ 01onm, \ . I Ul' 1'177. InlOlITlC fl,dnnm 

..lei Hr III. cn d r<,"l(jll ..I 1'171 71> loll \ I 

(,cneral \lulJ 17, \tJUIIU I, "J1llll1 

Haul"\' l) ("aleh P<'r unll or~ffon . • frKlh. numMr or hl"" "-'. cal, lI In numl'tr. 

and .nd" or .ff",lhtn f,)r 'Ilanlic "ortlf"" b) Ibt Japan ( 

I~I'I~ . 

1<'1 (,'OI"Olt II. ( . ~ and ClIpl'lln l. 

l1ll1 ~' .I1( Ih.1l \f r n'l: lr~~m 0._ 1 t~) OAJ (B(.Hl.1 I 

b) . 

m rt ht\ 

In Ih hI r tun:, 

tn It:' 

• . 0 

l.O 

2JJ 

VI 

>c 1.0 

8 

x 0 

0 

0 

2 

~ 

w 

.. . 0 

% ) 0 

.. '" 

H) 

10 

0 

SWORonSH 

.. RTH Of 10'" H 

Sw ORD ISH 

TH Of 10- OR H 

All 

Ihm und m the Iter 

The p put I n In 

tem 
28 280 

24 AREA I 240 

20 ~, 200 

I , 

I ° 16 j '\ 160 

I \ \ 120 0-0 

\ \2 (J) 8 80 ~ ~ 

~ Z 

0 

§ 4 40 :3 

i 

Q 0 0 It: ..... 

0 

z 8 80 ~ 

l:J 

~ AREA 2 w 

4 40 ~ 

:r ti U 

~ 0 0 ~ 

12 120 

8 80 

4 40 

0 0 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 

YEAR 

Figure It.-Catch rates '\nd effective fIShing effort for swordfish in the Pacific 

(from Sakagawa and Bell see text footnote 10, fig. 6 and caption. Note: areas pertain to same areas portrayed in Fig. 2). 

12 600 

SWORDFISH .-EFFI':CTlVE EFFORT 

/\ f, 10 f \ I \~o 500 

\2 ~ I \ I \ I \ I \ 8 \ I \ ~ :r 8 \ I 400 

§ \ /0. /J t-, It '0' , ,0, i Q V "' ...... I- ..... 6 500 a: 0 

z CATCH RATEI ~ .... w w 

a: 

t:t 4 200 ~ 

:r 5 u ~ t:t 

u 2 100 l:J 

0 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 0 

YEAR 

Figure 12.-Pacific-wide catch rute and effective fIShing effort for swordfISh (from 

Sakagawa and Bell, see text footnote 10, fig. 3 and caption). 

seasonal variations in environmental conditions (Beckett 1974). 

In the eastern Pacific, swordfish populations are most abundant 

throughout the year in the inshore areas, probably in association 

with cool upwelled waters in that region (Kume and Joseph 

1969). 

Temperature apparently is important to the distribution of 

'swordfish in all oceans (Yabe et al. 1959; Kume and Joseph 

1969; Ovchinnikov 1970; Beckett 1974), and optimal surface 

16 

temperatures appear to be 25 °-29 °C (Taning 1955). Current 

systems such as the Gulf Stream in the Atlantic, the Kuroshio 

and Humboldt in the Pacific, as well as the Equatorials and 

Equatorial Countercurrents, playa major role in the distribution of swordfish because frontal zones with sharp gradients of 

temperature, salinity, and amounts of biogenous matter are 

created, and these are surrounded by areas of high productivity 

where swordfish and other predators concentrate (Ovchinni kov 

1970). 

5 EXPLOITATION 

5.1 Fishing equipment 

5.11 Gear 

Swordfish are taken by longlines and harpoons in the commercial fishery. The harpoon for many years was the primary 

commercial gear in most areas of the Atlantic and Pacific. In the 

early 1960's, however, following the disclosure of substantial 

catches of swordfish by the Japanese tuna longline fishery and 

the Norwegian sh'ark fishery in the Atlantic and high catch rates 

by exploratory fishing vessels in the northwest Atlantic using 

longline gear at night, most of the Canadian and United States 

vessels converted to longlines. In the eastern Atlantic and 

Mediterranean, longlines are used by the French and Spanish 

fleets, while harpoons are still the traditional gear of the Sicilian 

sword fish fleet. 

In the Pacific, longlines and harpoons are used. In the 

eastern Pacific, however, the U.S. commercial fishery is 

restricted to the use of harpoons only. 

Trolling and drift fishing using rod and reel gear are the 

primary fishing methods in the sport fishery. Until 1976, only 

trolling was used and involved initial visual observation of a 

swordfish basking at the surface before the lines were placed 

into the water. In 1976, however, sport fishermen off the east 

coast of Florida discovered that swordfish could be caught by 

drifting baited lines at night. Fishing success is substantially 

higher using this method than by the trolling method, and night 

sport fishing for swordfish now takes place all along the Atlantic 

and Gulf of Mexico coasts of the United States. 

5.12 Boats 

Commercial fishing vessels for swordfish range in size from 

the large, high-seas tuna long liners to small harpoon and 

longline boats < 10 m in length. Good descriptions of various 

types of fishing vessels used for longlining and harpooning for 

swordfish are described in Tibbo et al. (1961) and GuitartManday (1964). Vessels used in the sport fishery vary 

considerably in size and style. Rybovich (1965) presented a good 

description of a typical sport fishing vessel. 

5.2 Fishing areas 

5.21 General geographic distribution 

Catch records from the high-seas tuna longline fishery 

indicate that swordfish are taken almost throughout the range 

of the fishery. For the most part, however, swordfish are 

incidental catches in the tuna longline fishery. Important 

directed commercial fisheries for swordfish are located in the 

western North Atlantic from the Grand and Georges Banks to 
pl.tcc 111 t he Out II I' 

5.22 I) plh ran e 

S\lllldll h re aught h) hoth ornrn rCl.1I ,md port 

II heric mcr a Ilide r,tIl e 01 depth . (,cner,lIly. rnlljor fi IlIng 

arc.! .1fC IOlatcd nc.1f l;(1rllilll:lll 1rl the Atlunll III d ptll of 

< 1.000 111. In the Padll . lllaJor Ii heri wke pia e 

on idcI,lhl) reuter depths. 

5 . .1 II hin· ~cu on 

S\\(Hdli\h ure ,:ullght throughout the year. 

.. U Dak\ 01 beglrlning. peak. and end 01 ea on 

In the lIe tern Atlantic. the longhnc 11 hcr~ lor \Iordll h 

llpu,lte\ year lound: hOlleH:r. there I a ub tanll:!1 gell raplll\; 

'hilt in the li\hc1) "ith the ea,on\. In the llml11l:f ant! carl 

lall, nllht II\hin' take, plale oft (,rant! ,1J1t! u:l1rgc Bank . In 

\linter, man} 01 the larger boat, mOle into more ollthcrn 

\I ater\, oper,lIl1lg from (ape Il utterJ\ \outhIlMt! around 

1'lmld.1 oint! throughout the (,Ilil of \1L ICO In the ea terri 

\tl.lntl': and 1cdltell.lneall, \rlll! (1961) ,tated that lant!ing 

III Jl1 the '-,ea 01 \I.1ll11ara peaket! In \la~, \\hile Re~ .1Ilt! 

(, 1Il/ak,.(iar(J, (1979 I) pre\entet! t!at •• th.1I \llll\\cd the pcak 

of the Sp.llll\h I"i\hcr) t!urlllg .Il1l) to Decel11ber. 

III the ea\lnn PalillL', longhne e.llehe arc mut!e all car 

k)1l , hut the peak \ea\on i, lIolll J.IIlUUr) throll'h :\lar~h 

(lo:ul11e .1Ilt! Il)\eph 1969). The lalill)rni.t harpol)1I II h f\ 

l)PC 1.lk, mainl) in 'lllllI11Cf ant! I.tli. 

5.41 l' lIon and inten\ll) 

f) 

thm fund m the htcr lure 

I ndm 

nd fr 

1'1{ ( 

II. I 

6.11 

In lur 

red, r 

IIIC IllC 

I 111111 lion or rcdu 

ur 

\I n 

nlr 1 

cnlll 11m nt 

f ph 

thlll fund 111 tl c lit r lur 

I1lrol 

cn\1I 11m nl 

l 

II' T 

1 

f I 
Country 

Algeria 

Argentina 

Brazil 

Bulgaria 

Canada 

Taiwan 

Cuba 

Cyprus 

Ghana 

!laly 

Japan 

"orea 

Libya 

Malta 

Mexico 

Morocco 

Norway 

Panama 

Poland 

Spain 

Tunisia 

TI r';ey 

U:'A 

USSR 

Venezuela 

TOTAL 

1967 

o 

100 

120 

o 

4,800 

o 

200 

o 

o 

1,900 

754 

o 

300 

xx 

o 

204 

300 

o 

o 

3.390 

o 

98 

474 

xx 

360 

1968 

o 

300 

120 

o 

4,400 

o 

o 

o 

o 

1.400 

1, 121 

o 

500 

xx 

o 

240 

200 

o 

o 

4,550 

o 

o 

274 

." 

o 

Bulletin, Vol. 8-1977, p . 25.) 

1969 

o 

500 

240 

o 

4.300 

o 

o 

o 

o 

2,000 

',273 

o 

xx 

xx 

o 

270 

600 

o 

o 

4,600 

o 

119 

171 

100 

120 

1970 1971 

xx xx 

400 100 

120 0 

o 0 

4.800 0 

o 0 

o 0 

o 0 

o 0 

1.800 2.900 

3,175 1,576 

o 0 

xx 100 

100 200 

o 0 

231 JIIO 

-1m 200 

o 0 

o xx 

-I.0fII 4.484 

.\ 

88 76 

287 35 

200 XO 

o () 

1972 1973 

2 If)') 

100 4H 

120 137 

o 0 

o () 

750 1.0')2 

o 0 

o () 

o 0 

1,700 2.700 

1.805 9')8 

o 0 

X.'\ x.., 

200 2f)) 

2 4 

273 201 

Ib7 +IS 

o II.,) 

-I.S 10 -1,'13 

13,000 13,105 15.293 15,661 IO.~31 

1974 

196 

() 

J4R 

() 

() 

H21 

o 

o 

o I.~OO 

1,1(,') 

() 

Jl.\ 

171 

J 

211 

lU 

o 

() 

l,S 1 

S 

b 

1,IlS 

I, 

o 

1'J7S 

500 

II) 

31 H 

U 

21 

'128 

U 

5 

[) 

1,500 

I, I.,) 

451 

() 

I I 

o 

m 

o 

o 

o ~, 6 

o 

o 

1,7 

263 

o 

1'}71o 

lfol! 

III 

no 

(J 

IS 

'IlS 

fJl) 

72 

[) 

2,140 

11 

1,147 

o 

IS(o 

o 

I 

2, 

o 

o 

o 

o 

o 

1,429 

~2 

o 

37fJ 

132 

213 

3 

111 

'm 

7()() 

II 

642 

1,9)5 

7'12 

1,2 

o 

I 

o 

lSI 

o 

o 

o 

3,97 

o 

o 

o 

.21 

o 

Table S,-Swordfish catches (metric tons) b) counlrie~ for Ihe P8dfic Oc..an 

(Saka~awa and BeD, see text (ootnote 10). 

LIfER IlJH[(IILJ) 

Year 

1952 

1953 

1954 

1955 

1956 

1957 

1958 

1959 

1960 

1961 

1962 

1963 

1964 

1965 

1966 

1967 

1968 

1969 

1970 

1971 

1972 

1973 

1974 

1975 

United 

Japan Truwan Korea Slates Chile Peru Othen; Total 

11,182 

11,604 

13,301 

16,220 

12,167 

15,771 

20,815 

19,136 

22,944 

23,636 

14,037 

13,775 

9,703 

11,955 

13,283 

13,083 

12,983 

15,612 

11,301 

9,182 

8,846 

9,644 

9,517 

11,274 

77 

185 

254 

250 

247 

262 

273 

432 

544 

300 

300 

300 

600 

838 

974 

1,023 

1,053 

1,149 

1,111 

1,269 

1,157 

1,099 

41 

47 

55 

89 

115 

115 

115 

115 

115 

115 

157 

85 

14 

80 

163 

222 

279 

265 

192 

218 

23 

58 

109 

194 

277 

181 

118 

610 

558 

91 

157 

363 

384 

512 

200 300 

200 200 

200 1,300 

200 800 

300 1,200 

200 2,400 

200 200 

100 600 

400 1,900 

218 270 

218 158 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

11,339 

11.689 

13,392 

16,485 

12,584 

16,243 

21,3011 

19,663 

23.409 

24,286 

14.604 

14,133 

10.112 

12,949 

14,601 

15,649 

100 15.230 

100 18,934 

100 15,727 

100 11,037 

100 11,029 

100 13,791 

11,664 

13,376 

We thank Donald de Sylva, Edward Houde, and Steven 

Berkeley of the University of Miami Rosenstiel School of 

Marine and Atmospheric Science, Shoji Ueyanagi of the Far 

Seas Fisheries Research Laboratory, Bruce B. Collette of the 

National Marine Fisheries Service Systematics Laboratory, and 

an anonymous reviewer for their constructive and thorough 

reviews of the manuscript. 

18 

"'IORI\I, \ I d, nd ( 

,\RAT" 

1 '154 \ conlnt>~llon 10 Ihe 

Jnd the (Jull of I 1<.0 

ARI\;()l D. E l , Jr 

1955 . Ole on the capt re C'f ) o .. n 

01 \k ICO. opel3 "H~ I I S I 

ARTL7. 'I. I 

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I Xl '"lid II h ( mmer 

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of Ita 

r H " 

• If III '. I' 

y 

1'/7 1 mbr on nd rI. laf\ aJ 

gl"d/I/ • trorn Ihe lWllcrr ncan 

1 ,\1<1 Il/":l. 1 I ~ 

1%7 "orJfi h r rn the '''I>1fI' 

h 

2221 

I, nd