Prepared in cooperation with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 

An Evaluation of Traditional and Emerging 

Remote Sensing Technologies for the Detection 

of Fugitive Contamination at Selected Superfund 

Hazardous Waste Sites 

By E. Terrence Slonecker and Gary B. Fisher 

Open-File Report 2011–1050 

U.S. Department of the Interior 

U.S. Geological Survey 
U.S. Department of the Interior 

KEN SALAZAR, Secretary 

U.S. Geological Survey 

Marcia K. McNutt, Director 

U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia: 2011 

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Suggested citation: 

Slonecker, E.T., and Fisher, G.B., 2011, An evaluation of traditional and emerging 

remote sensing technologies for the detection of fugitive contamination at selected 

Superfund hazardous waste sites: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2011–

1050, 16 p., available only at http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2011/1050/. 

Any use of trade, product, or firm names is for descriptive purposes only and does 

not imply endorsement by the U.S. Government. 

Although this report is in the public domain, permission must be secured from the 

individual copyright owners to reproduce any copyrighted material contained within 

this report.
iii

Contents 

Executive Summary .............................................................................................................................................. 1

Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................... 2

Background ........................................................................................................................................................... 3

Remote Sensing of Hazardous Waste .............................................................................................................. 3

Remote Sensing Data Collection and Analysis ........................................................................................... 5

Site Visit and Field Sampling .......................................................................................................................... 7

Analysis and Quality Control ........................................................................................................................... 8

Criteria for Elevated Metal Concentrations ................................................................................................. 8

Results of Analysis ............................................................................................................................................... 9

Summary and Conclusions ............................................................................................................................... 12

References Cited ................................................................................................................................................ 14 

Figures 

1. Locations of the five Superfund test sites in Maryland and Virginia ............................................ 2 

2. Hyperspectral image showing the volume of data collected by the Jet Propulsion 

Laboratory’s Airboard Visible/Infrared Imaging Spectrometer over Moffet Field, Calif. ........... 4 

3. When processed, the image cube can be analyzed with conventional spectroscopic 

analysis methods .................................................................................................................................... 5 

4. The combined hyperspectral techniques used in this report ......................................................... 6 

5. The solar-reflected electromagnetic spectrum coverage of the ARCHER and Analytical 

Spectral Devices Inc. instruments ...................................................................................................... 7 

6. Soil sampling and field X-ray fluorescence screening .................................................................... 8 

7. Hyperspectral anomaly detection results showing anomalies along the northern border of 

the Middletown Road Dump ............................................................................................................... 10 

8. Drums and debris along the northern border of the Middletown Road Dump .......................... 11 

9. Leachate discharging into a local waterway along the north side of the Middletown Road 

Dump ....................................................................................................................................................... 11 

10. The correlation between hyperspectral band ratios and soil zinc concentrations at the 

Rhinehart Tire Fire site ......................................................................................................................... 12 

Table 

1. Listing for the background, residential, and industrial risk-based concentrations of 

selected metals ....................................................................................................................................... 9
iv

Conversion Factors 

Multiply By To obtain

Length 

inch (in.) 25.4 millimeter (mm) 

foot (ft) 0.3048 meter (m) 

mile (mi) 1.609 kilometer (km) 

Area 

acre 4,047 square meter (m2) 

acre 0.4047 hectare (ha) 

Acronyms and Abbreviations 

ARCHER Airborne Real-Time Cueing Hyperspectral Enhanced Reconnaissance 

CERCLA Comprehensive Environmental Response Compensation and Liability Act (“Superfund”)

EPA U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

MAWP Mid-Atlantic Wood Preservers

NPL National Priorities List

ppm parts per million 

RBC risk-based concentration

SSF synchronous scanning fluorescence

USGS U.S. Geological Survey

XRF X-ray fluorescence 
1 

An Evaluation of Traditional and Emerging 

Remote Sensing Technologies for the Detection 

of Fugitive Contamination at Selected Superfund 

Hazardous Waste Sites 

By E. Terrence Slonecker and Gary B. Fisher 

Executive Summary 

This report summarizes the remote sensing and in-situ data collection and analysis 

at five delisted Superfund sites in Maryland and Virginia. These sites were imaged with a 

hyperspectral remote sensing instrument and then visited for field sampling and 

verification. The purpose of this research was to determine if remote sensing technology, 

especially hyperspectral remote sensing, could be a useful tool in postclosure monitoring 

of hazardous waste sites. Two forms of hyperspectral remote sensing were employed in 

this study. First an aircraft-based visible-to-near infrared hyperspectral imaging sensor 

known as Airborne Real-Time Cueing Hyperspectral Enhanced Reconnaissance 

(ARCHER) was used to collect hyperspectral imagery over all five sites. Second, because 

the ARCHER sensor does not collect data in the full range of the solar-reflected 

electromagnetic spectrum, soil and sediment samples were also analyzed in the laboratory 

with an Analytical Spectral Devices Inc. full range spectrometer for the potential 

detection of contaminants. 

Field work consisted of the collection of soil samples; a general inspection of site 

conditions; informal interviews with local officials, residents, and property owners; and 

the collection of sediment and water samples where conditions indicated possible 

contaminants. Laboratory analysis consisted of hyperspectral data collection and analysis, 

image processing techniques, and X-ray fluorescence analysis of soil and sediments for 

metals. Analysis of soil and water samples for hydrocarbons was conducted using 

synchronous scanning fluorescence (SSF) spectroscopy. 

Basic remote sensing proved to be valuable in identifying and characterizing 

current site status and morphological changes in site size and activity. Hyperspectral 

imagery was effective in identifying drums, waste metal, containers, and leachate through 

an anomaly detection routine. 

Hyperspectral analysis in the laboratory was used to successfully detect 

hydrocarbons in the soil. SSF spectroscopy confirmed the hydrocarbon detection. An 

experimental analysis of hyperspectral band ratios provided some correlation with heavymetal concentrations in the soil. 

Vegetation stress from chemical and (or) metal pollution could not be fully 

addressed because acquisition of the imagery occurred during the fall and winter. 
2 

Elevated concentration of zinc was spatially correlated with a photochemical reflectance 

index of vegetation at one site. Additional research is needed to fully identify the 

capabilities of imaging spectrometry relative to the post-closure monitoring of hazardous 

waste sites. 

Introduction 

This report represents a remote sensing research effort conducted by the U.S. 

Geological Survey (USGS) in cooperation with the U.S. Environmental Protection 

Agency (EPA) for the EPA Office of Inspector General. The objective of this 

investigation was to explore the efficacy of remote sensing as a technology for postclosure monitoring of hazardous waste sites as defined under the Comprehensive 

Environmental Response Compensation and Liability Act of 1980 (CERCLA; Public 

Law 96–510, 42 U.S.C. §9601 et seq.), also known as “Superfund.” 

Five delisted Superfund sites in Maryland and Virginia (fig. 1) were imaged with 

a hyperspectral sensor and visited for collection of soil, water, and spectral samples and 

inspection of general site conditions. 

Figure 1. Locations of the five Superfund test sites in Maryland and Virginia. 

The five delisted Superfund sites are: 

1. Mid-Atlantic Wood Preservers in Harmans, Md., Superfund identification no. 

MDD064882889 

2. Middletown Road Dump in Annapolis, Md., Superfund identification no. 

MDD980705099 

3. Dixie Caverns Landfill in Roanoke County, Va., Superfund identification no. 

VAD980552095 

4. Matthews Electroplating in Roanoke County, Superfund identification no. 

VAD980712970 
3 

5. Rhinehart Tire Fire Dump in Frederick County, Va., Superfund identification no. 

VAD980831796 

This report evaluates traditional and hyperspectral imagery and field 

spectroscopic measurement techniques in the characterization and analysis of fugitive 

(anthropogenic, uncontrolled) contamination at previously remediated hazardous waste 

disposal sites. 

Background 

In 2007, the EPA Office of Inspector General issued Evaluation Report 2007–P–

00039, “Limited Investigation Led to Missed Contamination at Ringwood Superfund 

Site” (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2007). This report documented problems 

of insufficient characterization and clean up at the Ringwood, N.J., National Priority List 

(NPL) Superfund site. 

The site was contaminated with paint sludge and placed on the NPL in 1983. 

After a removal remedy and monitoring plan was implemented, the site was removed 

from the NPL in 1994, and two subsequent 5-year reviews, concluded in 2003, were 

conducted with findings of no significant pollution. However, local residents continued to 

discover waste products, including paint sludge, in the area. A reevaluation of the site and 

surrounding area was required by the EPA in 1998, and an additional 24,000 metric tons 

of paint sludge and soil contaminated with heavy metals was removed by the principal 

responsible parties after 2004. A further reevaluation of the site and surrounding area was 

required by the EPA in 2003, and in 2006, the Ringwood site became the first Superfund 

site ever to be placed back onto the NPL. 

A key finding of the evaluation report was that the failure to detect the extent of 

contamination at the Ringwood site might have been avoided if the EPA had made 

greater use of available aerial photographs. Morphological characteristics of the 

landscape and landscape changes, as documented on historical aerial photographs, could 

have been used to detect the much larger extent of paint sludge and contamination than 

was thought to exist after the initial remedial investigation (Baker, 1984; U.S. 

Environmental Protection Agency, 2007). 

Remote Sensing of Hazardous Waste 

Remote sensing is increasingly advancing the understanding of environmental 

processes, conditions, and changes affecting human and ecological health. Advancements 

in sensor technology and processing algorithms have resulted in technical capabilities 

that can record and identify Earth surface materials based on the interaction of 

electromagnetic energy with the molecular structure of the material being sensed (Goetz 

and others, 1985; Green and others, 1998; Clark, 1999; Clark and others, 2009). 

Hyperspectral remote sensing records reflected and emitted electromagnetic energy in 

hundreds of very narrow wavelengths, resulting in data that can be analyzed with the 

same chemical spectroscopic techniques that have been used by chemists and 

astronomers for decades. In addition, new analytical techniques are constantly being 

developed and refined that permit the identification and analysis of key environmental 

processes, such as photosynthesis and nutrient cycling. 

Spectral reflectance of vegetation and other landscape conditions has received 

renewed interest by the remote sensing community during the past decade because of the 
4 

development of hyperspectral imaging technology. Many of the early and definitive 

studies in spectral reflectance (Horler and others, 1980; Chang and Collins, 1983; Milton 

and others, 1989) used spectroscopic measurement instruments in a laboratory setting. 

These instruments measured reflected energy and produced spectra that could be 

analyzed using standard spectroscopic techniques. The collection of hyperspectral 

imagery in very narrow bandwidths across the solar-reflected part of the electromagnetic 

spectrum results in a digital file of hundreds of bands of coregistered imagery, sometimes 

called a “image cube” (fig. 2). After processing, this image cube represents an imagery 

version of the same energy and matter interactions measured in the laboratory and can be 

analyzed with a variety of standard and emerging statistical methods in spectroscopy and 

remote sensing. Reflected spectral patterns can be used to identify certain compounds, 

materials, and conditions (fig. 3) based on the interaction of photons with the molecular 

structure of the target material (Vane and Goetz, 1988; Green and others, 1998; Clark, 

1999). Spectroscopic analysis techniques can now be employed outside of the laboratory 

through the use of hyperspectral remote sensing and imaging techniques and portable 

field spectroradiometers. 

Figure 2. Hyperspectral image showing the volume of data collected by the Jet 

Propulsion Laboratory’s Airborne Visible/Infrared Imaging Spectrometer over Moffet Field, 

Calif., collected on August 20, 1992, from a height of 20,000 meters. Hyperspectral images 

are collections of hundreds of bands of coregistered imagery. Each band collects 

reflected energy in a slightly different band location and results in what is often called an 

“image cube.” Image from the Jet Propulsion Laboratory 

(http://aviris.jpl.nasa.gov/html/aviris.cube.html). 
5 

Figure 3. When processed, the image cube can be analyzed with conventional 

spectroscopic analysis methods, hence the term “imaging spectroscopy.” Image from the 

Jet Propulsion Laboratory (http://aviris.jpl.nasa.gov/html/aviris.concept.html). 

Remote Sensing Data Collection and Analysis 

Remote sensing data were collected in two forms. Initially, hyperspectral data 

from the Civil Air Patrol’s Airborne Realtime Cueing Hyperspectral Enhanced 

Reconnaissance (ARCHER) system were collected for each site between September 2009 

and April 2010. Collection dates and times were not always optimal owing to a number 

of administrative, programmatic, and meteorological delays. However, the ARCHER 

system represents a low-cost alternative for high-resolution spatial and spectral remote 

sensing data. 

Subsequently, soil samples were screened in the laboratory with a full-range field 

spectrometer for potential hydrocarbon and organic signatures that have been 

demonstrated to exist in the near-infrared region by Cloutis (1989), King and Clark 

(1989), Allen and Krekeler (2010), and Slonecker and others (2010). Figure 4 shows the 

different data collection strategies. Although the presence of hydrocarbons and other 

organic material is unlikely under a postclosure site scenario, the combination of 

ARCHER imagery and laboratory spectroscopic analysis represents a full analysis of 

potential signatures for hazardous waste that might exist in the solar-reflected portion of 

the electromagnetic spectrum from 400 to 2,500 nanometers (nm). Figure 5 shows the 

coverage of the two sensors in the electromagnetic spectrum. 
6 

A B 

C 

D E 

Figure 4. The combined hyperspectral techniques used in this report. A, The Airborne 

Real-Time Cueing Hyperspectral Enhanced Reconnaissance (ARCHER) sensor 
7 

[photograph from Civil Air Patrol (2009)]; B, a Civil Air Patrol aircraft [photograph from Civil 

Air Patrol (2009)]; C, imagery and spectra from the ARCHER sensor [photograph from Civil 

Air Patrol (2009)]; D, full-range spectroscopy in the laboratory with Analytical Spectral 

Devices Inc. spectroradiometers (photograph by Gary B. Fisher, U.S. Geological Survey); 

and E, an example spectrograph prepared for this study from the ARCHER system. 

Figure 5. The solar-reflected electromagnetic spectrum coverage of the Airborne RealTime Cueing Hyperspectral Enhanced Reconnaissance (ARCHER) and Full Range Field 

Spectrometer instruments. IR, infrared; UV, ultraviolet. 

ARCHER is a hyperspectral data collection, analysis, and visualization system 

developed for the Civil Air Patrol. It combines cutting-edge hyperspectral imaging 

technology with advanced real-time data processing capabilities and is a remote sensing 

technology that works by analyzing an object’s reflected light. The system uses a special 

camera that faces down through a quartz glass portal in the belly of the aircraft, which is 

typically flown at a standard mission altitude of 2,500 feet [800 meters (m)], at 100-knot 

(50-meters per second) ground speed and results in imagery with 1-m spatial resolution. 

ARCHER combines a visible and near-infrared hyperspectral imaging system, a 

high-resolution visible panchromatic imaging sensor, and an integrated geopositioning 

and inertial navigation unit; the navigation unit is capable of acquiring and correcting 

data onboard and in real time, precisely georegistering collected imagery, and detecting 

and cueing acquired targets. ARCHER can automatically scan detailed imagery for the 

signature of an object being sought (such as a missing aircraft or unique metallic objects), 

for abnormalities in the surrounding area or for changes from previously recorded 

spectral signatures (Civil Air Patrol, 2009). 

Site Visit and Field Sampling 

Field visits for site inspection and sample collection and analysis were conducted 

in March and April 2010, except for the Mid-Atlantic Wood Preservers site, which was 

visited in August 2010. Arrangements for site visits were coordinated through the EPA 

regional office and with the appropriate land owners and administrators. During visits, 

sites were reviewed for general conditions and visual appearance. Visits were conducted 

to any specific site areas of interest based on the remote sensing analysis, and soil 

samples were screened and collected for metals via portable X-ray fluorescence (XRF) 

technology (fig. 6). 
8 

Figure 6. Soil sampling and field X-ray fluorescence (XRF) screening. Photograph by 

Gary B. Fisher, U.S. Geological Survey. 

Analysis and Quality Control 

Soil samples were reprocessed in the laboratory using XRF methods. After soil 

samples were air-dried, disaggregated, and sieved through a #10 (2-millimeter) mesh, 

they were reprocessed with an XRF for a minimum of 3 minutes. Approximately 10 

percent of the soil samples were sent to an outside laboratory for confirmatory analysis 

by use of standard laboratory inductively coupled plasma (ICP) methods. 

Soil samples were also analyzed with a full range field spectrometer for the 

presence of hydrocarbons in the soil. The spectrometer provides an analysis of spectral 

qualities in the near-infrared range, beyond the spectral range of the ARCHER 

instrument, and a complete analysis in the solar-reflected spectrum. A limited number of 

water and soil samples were collected for hydrocarbon analysis based on site-specific 

conditions. These samples were analyzed by the USGS Crustal Geophysics and 

Geochemistry Science Center Laboratory in Reston, Va., for the presence of 

hydrocarbons based on synchronous scanning fluorescence technology (Pharr and others, 

1992). A complete description of the field work, sampling, and quality control procedures 

can be found in Slonecker and Fisher (2009). 

Criteria for Elevated Metal Concentrations 

Heavy metals were contaminants of concern at all five sites being evaluated. The 

ability of remote sensing technology to detect metal concentrations in soils was an 

important aspect of this study. All soils were analyzed in the laboratory with a full range 
9 

field spectrometer to evaluate the relation between reflectance and soil metal 

concentrations. XRF technology was used to screen soil metals in the field and later to 

evaluate the concentration of metals in the laboratory. 

The basic natural level of metals in soil is called the background concentration 

and has been reported in the literature by comprehensive scientific studies based on 

regional sampling (Shacklette and Boerngen, 1984). For this study, the background 

concentrations were the arithmetic mean concentrations for the Eastern United States. 

The risk-based concentration (RBC) of individual contaminants is a basic 

screening level that is also used when a potential site is initially investigated to determine 

if potentially substantial levels of contamination are present to warrant further 

investigation, such as a remedial investigation and feasibility study. RBCs are a complex 

calculation of toxicity, exposure, and carcinogenic probabilities and are applied according 

to surrounding land-use and exposure scenarios. Table 1 lists the main metals of concern 

and background concentrations based on an arithmetic mean as well as the residential and 

industrial RBCs. 

Table 1. Listing for the background, residential, and industrial risk-based concentrations 

of selected metals. 

[All measurements are listed in parts per million (ppm). BG, background concentration of metals in soil; I–

RBC, industrial rick-based concentration; R–RBC, residential risk-based concentration] 

Name BG (arithmetic mean) R–RBC I–RBC Comment 

Antimony 0.76 31 410 Metallic. 

Arsenic 7.4 22 260 Inorganic. 

Cadmium 0.0 70 800 Diet. 

Chromium 52.0 230 3,100 Chromium VI. 

Cobalt 9.2 23 300 

Copper 22.0 3,100 41,000 

Lead 17.0 400 800 

Manganese 640.0 1,800 23,000 

Nickel 18.0 1,500 20,000 Soluble salts. 

Selenium 0.5 390 5100 

Uranium 2.7 230 3100 Soluble salts. 

Vanadium 66.0 390 5200 

Zinc 52.0 23,000 310,000

For all the sites examined except for the Mid-Atlantic Wood Preservers site, 

which is in an industrial setting, the residential RBC was used to assess the concentration 

of metals as one of the main contaminants of concern. While use of the residential RBC 

may be debatable based on zoning classifications, the exposure scenario appeared to be 

primarily residential at three of the five sites, and absent any clear evidence of industrial 

land use, the residential RBC standard was used for reporting (U.S. Environmental 

Protection Agency, 2010). 

Results of Analysis 

The analysis of the data derived from the overhead remote sensing and the field 

sampling indicated basic changes in land use and site morphology at the Middletown 

Road Dump in Maryland and the Matthews Electroplating site in Salem, Va. At both 

sites, conversion to residential land use was determined to have occurred since the sites 

were removed from the NPL. Both sites also were determined to be in close physical 

proximity to debris and at locations with elevated concentrations of metals in the soil. In 
10 

addition, site expansion and additional waste disposal activity were detected at the 

Middletown Road Dump site. The basic temporal coverage of overhead imagery was an 

indicator of basic site condition, activity, morphology, and in some cases, the extent of 

waste disposal (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2007). However, overhead 

remote sensing is limited in its usefulness when the site has been completely altered into 

new land use and land cover, as was the case at the Mid-Atlantic Wood Preservers site. 

Hyperspectral imagery analysis conducted in the laboratory and from remote 

imagery shows promise for remote detection of spectral features related to site status. 

Hyperspectral analysis was used to detect unusual landscape features, or anomalies, at 

several sites and was especially important at Middletown Road Dump (figs. 7–9) and 

Matthews Electroplating. These anomaly features were detected as areas that did not 

match the spectral background and proved to be debris, drums, and reddish leachate 

being discharged from the waste area into a local stream at the Middletown Road Dump. 

At the Matthews Electroplating site, the anomalies were determined to be containers, old 

bumpers, and other scrap metal objects likely left over from the original electroplating 

site. 

Figure 7. Hyperspectral anomaly detection results showing anomalies along the 

northern border of the Middletown Road Dump. The image on left was derived from the 

Airborne Real-Time Cueing Hyperspectral Enhanced Reconnaissance (ARCHER) system, 

and the image on the right shows the analysis of the ARCHER image. 
11 

Figure 8. Drums and debris along the northern border of the Middletown Road Dump. 

Photograph by Gary B. Fisher, U.S. Geological Survey. 

A B 

Figure 9. Leachate discharging into a local waterway along the north side of the 

Middletown Road Dump. A, Discharge from underneath the dump site showing leachate 
12 

and a hydrocarbon sheen on the surface of the water; B, Leachate for the dump impacting 

the substrate of a nearby receiving stream. Photographs by Gary B. Fisher, U.S. 

Geological Survey. 

Hyperspectral analysis of soils in the laboratory confirmed that hydrocarbons 

were seeping from the general location of the dump and being discharged into a local 

stream at the Middletown Road Dump. No other hydrocarbons were detected at any of 

the other four sites. Hyperspectral analysis of soils in the laboratory also indicated a 

statistical correlation between the concentration of zinc present in the soil and a spectral 

band ratio of 610:500 nm (fig. 10). 

Through XRF analysis of soil metal concentrations, elevated metal readings were 

discovered at four of the sites and exceeded some of the RBCs for residential land use. 

The land use and zoning at the time of the remedial activity, which was often in excess of 

20 years ago, could have been different and led to the use of other standards for exposure 

at that time. 

Figure 10. The regression between hyperspectral band ratios and soil zinc 

concentrations at the Rhinehart Tire Fire site. 

Summary and Conclusions 

Remote sensing technology is an emerging and often underutilized technology for 

monitoring landscape activity. Basic overhead imaging and emerging hyperspectral 

remote sensing technologies were shown to have the potential to be of value in 

postclosure monitoring of hazardous waste sites. 

Routine aerial imaging has been shown to have value in describing basic site 

morphology, changes in land use, and important indicators of site activity. Hyperspectral 

analysis conducted in the laboratory and from remote imagery also shows promise for 

remote detection of spectral features related to contamination and site status. 

Hyperspectral anomaly detection from the ARCHER imagery proved to be useful at 
13 

several of the sites where fugitive drums, metal containers, and discolored effluent 

discharges were readily identified on the imagery. ARCHER itself could be useful as a 

new tool for hazardous waste site monitoring at all stages of development, especially at 

locations where disposal or dumping activity may have been renewed, as was the case at 

the Middletown Road Dump. 

The spectroscopic identification of soil hydrocarbons was an unusual and 

unexpected development in this research because hydrocarbons and organic chemicals 

generally evaporate or decompose relatively quickly and would not be expected to be part 

of an active pollution profile 10 to 20 years after site closure. However, in a scenario of 

renewed disposal activity, the presence of fugitive hydrocarbons is possible and 

detectable by hyperspectral monitoring. A goal of future research in this area could be the 

utilization of a full range hyperspectral imager, such as Airborne Visible/Infrared 

Imaging Spectrometer (AVIRIS) or SpecTIR, LLC’s High-Resolution Imager (HRI), to 

determine if hydrocarbons can be detected in hazardous waste site scenarios and what the 

parameters of the remote sensing and spectral collections might be. This experimental 

result serves as proof of concept for pollutant detection in a real-world situation. 

The experimental correlation discovered between the laboratory spectral band 

ratios and concentrations of zinc in the soil at the Rhinehart Tire Fire site was based on 

recently published work by Choe and others (2008), where similar statistical correlations 

between metals and spectral band ratios of soil reflectance were demonstrated. It is 

interesting that zinc at other sites, most notably Dixie Caverns, did not show this type of 

correlation. This is possibly owing to different types of soils or the range of contaminant 

concentrations, which were much higher at the Rhinehart site. This potential monitoring 

capability needs further research and development. 

Leaf-off or senescent conditions preclude many of the plant pigment and 

vegetation health parameters that can be extracted and possibly correlated with known 

levels of landscape contamination (Slonecker and others, 2010). However, the 

photochemical reflectance index (PRI) provided a general spatial correlation with high 

soil zinc concentrations at the Rhinehart site, and recent scientific literature shows that 

the PRI index has been used successfully to indicate high soil metal concentration 

(Thorhaug and others, 2006; Slonecker, 2007; Götze and others, 2010). Vegetation 

indicators are likely to be an important area of future research in the hyperspectral 

detection of fugitive contamination. 

One of the major problems encountered in this research was the difficulty in 

obtaining hyperspectral imagery, delaying the project by nearly a year and resulting in 

off-season data collections. Prior to this research effort, the availability of hyperspectral 

data was limited to a handful of government and commercial sources. Initial attempts to 

acquire hyperspectral data led to the establishment of an interagency agreement between 

the USGS, the U.S. Air Force, and the Civil Air Patrol, through which affordable 

hyperspectral imagery can be acquired on a routine basis. 

Although hyperspectral imagery offers potential in this type of landscape 

evaluation, the full potential of the resource could not be fully evaluated with this study 

because of the problems in acquiring hyperspectral data and in the seasonal timing of 

acquisitions. Imagery was acquired during the first available window regardless of 

seasonal considerations. This resulted in autumn and winter acquisitions that negated the 

use of vegetation as an indicator of soil contamination. 
14 

In addition to the seasonal acquisition problems mentioned above, there is also a 

lack of a strong signature library for hazardous waste in the environment. Because this 

work involved delisted Superfund sites, contaminant concentration levels were likely to 

be low, if present at all, making development of a direct or indirect hyperspectral 

signature problematic because detection strategies are limited to marginal levels of 

contamination. To address this issue, additional development of hyperspectral signatures 

at active hazardous waste sites or known areas of fugitive contamination where unique 

signatures and sensitivities could be developed and transferred to an operational setting is

needed, as is additional research in the following areas. 

• Hyperspectral and field analysis.—The technical findings of this report reveal 

encouraging results for remote monitoring of site conditions. Many of the initial 

programmatic obstacles, such as the acquisition of hyperspectral imagery, have now 

been solved, and several new Superfund sites have already been imaged during 

summer conditions. 

• Laboratory and field hyperspectral signature development.—The ability of 

hyperspectral technologies to be used to detect hazardous waste site conditions is only 

in its infancy, and laboratory and field work could be important in the creation of a 

library of monitoring signatures for future use. Part of the problem with delisted sites 

is that most of the chemical contamination, if present at all, exists at marginal levels 

at or below the RBCs. Developmental work in the laboratory and at hazardous waste 

sites that have not yet been remediated could potentially provide a wider range of 

contamination conditions and permit stronger development of hyperspectral 

signatures. 

• Mid- and thermal-infrared analysis.—Full-range solar-reflected (400- to 2,500-nm) 

hyperspectral analysis is available by sensors such as AVIRIS and SpecTIR’s HRI; 

this technology could make possible the evaluation of airborne hyperspectral 

detection of key environmental contaminants, such as hydrocarbons and other organic 

chemicals, and the detection of soil metals. Thermal infrared analyses are available by 

overhead instruments, such as the Airborne Hyperspectral Imager (AHI) and the 

Spatially Enhanced Broadband Array Spectrograph System (SEBASS), and could 

bring a whole new level of spectroscopic analysis in a range of the spectrum where 

many organic chemicals and metals have detectable fingerprints. In the realm of 

detecting fugitive contaminants, this could be an important capability for the future. 

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