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Maclay, others WATER RESOURCES, RED RIVER OF TH >!ORTH IN MINNESOTA U.S.G.S. WRI1-72
BIBLIOGRAPHIC DATA 

SHEET

1. Report No. 3. Recipient's Accession No.

4. Title and Subtitle

WATER RESOURCES OF THE RED RIVER OF THE NORTH DRAINAGE 

BASIN IN MINNESOTA

5. Report Date

November 1972

6.

7. Author(s)

R. W. Maclay, T. C. Winter, and L. E. Bidwell

8- Performing Organization Rept.

No. WRI 1-72

9. Performing Organization Name and Address

U.S. Geological Survey 

Water Resources Division 

Room 1033 Post Office Building 

St. Paul, Minnesota 55101

10. Project/Task/Work Unit No.

11. Contract/Grant No.

12. Sponsoring Organization Name and Address

U.S. Geological Survey 

Water Resources Division 

1033 Post Office Building 

St. Paul, Minnesota 55101

13. Type of Report & Period 

Covered

Final

14.

15. Supplementary Notes

Prepared in cooperation with the Minnesota Department of Natural Resources 

Division of Waters, Soils and Minerals

16. Abstracts Water problems in the Red River of the North basin in Minnesota include flood! ig, 

>ollution, and water shortages. In the morainal area, problems generally are absent; bu 

Ln the flat plain of former Glacial Lake Agassiz, they can be severe. About 5.1 million 

acre-feet of water is perennially available. Average annual flow in streams tributary to 

the Red River equals 1.7 inches over the basin. Runoff ranges from less than 1 to more 

than 4 inches. Glacial sand and gravel in the morainal and in the Halma-Lake Bronson 

areas are potentially large aquifers. Presently, other sand and gravel aouifers, genera 

Ly local, provide most supplies. Much saline water occurs at depth in sedimentary rocks 

in the northwest part of the basin. Regionally, ground water moves westward from morain il 

area to lake plain or Red River. Locally, ground water in the morainal area moves from 

ligh areas to adjacent lowlands. Much deep moving water discharges at the east edge of 

the lake plain. Ground water in recharge areas is generally calcium magnesium bicarbona 

type. Sodium bicarbonate and sodium chloride type waters occur in association with 

Cretaceous and sedimentary rocks (in northwest part of basin), respectively.

17. Key Words and Document Analysis. 17a. Descriptors

Water resources, hydrography, geology, precipitation, management, water supply,

*aquifers, *streamflow, water pollution, drainage, floods, duration curves,

*frequency analysis, *groundwater movement, recreation, saline water, recharge,

*geochemistry, runoff, hydrograph analysis, *Minnesota, basins.

17b. Identifiers /Open-Ended Terms

Red River of the North, Glacial Lake Agassiz.

17c. COSATI Fie Id/Group

18. Availability Statement National Technicallnformation Servi 

Available from: U.S. Department of Commerce 

5285 Port Royal Road 

Springfield, Virginia 22151

Security Class (This 

Report)

UNCLASSIFIED

20. Security Class (This 

Page

UNCLASSIFIED

21. No. of Pages

137

22. Price

FORM NTIS-35 (REV. 3-72) THIS FORM MAY BE REPRODUCED USCOMM-DC 14952-P72
WATER RESOURCES OF THE 

RED RIVER OF THE NORTH 

DRAINAGE BASIN IN MINNESOTA

By R. W. Maclay, T. C. Winter, and L. E. Bidwell 

U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

Water-Resources Investigations 1-72

Prepared in cooperation with the 

Minnesota Department of Natural Resources 

Division of Waters, Soils and Minerals

November 1972
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OP THE INTERIOR 

Rogers C. B. Norton, Secretary

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

Vincent E. McKelvey, Director

For additional information write to

U.S. Geological Survey 

1033 Post Office Building 

St. Paul, Minnesota 55101

November 1972
PREFACE

Water is an essential for life that is too often taken 

for granted when plenty is available. As long as it is 

abundant it is given little thought or concern and, when it 

is too abundant, can even be a serious liability. As. population increases and civilization 'and technologies advance, 

demands for water increase at an accelerating rate. Water 

problems commonly are not anticipated or even recognized until 

opportunities for best solutions to these problems are past 

because of some irreversible management decision based on 

little or no knowledge of the hydrology. The effects of some 

management practices on the hydrologic system may be gradual 

and not recognized until considerable time has passed. The 

implication is clear. Knowledge of the hydrologic system including the distribution and movement of water in the system 

is essential for sound long-range management of water resources, 

and can serve as the foundation upon which legal, social, and 

economic aspects of water development and use can be based.

The development of the water resources of the Red River 

basin for particular needs often was based on limited data and 

knowledge of the entire hydrologic system. Data have been 

collected principally oh streamflow and precipitation. However, relatively little data have been collected on other 

aspects of the hydrologic system including water quality, 

ground water, and water use. Until 1963 when watershed investigations were started, no comprehensive analysis of all 

available hydrologic data in the Red River basin had been made 

to show the operation of the hydrologic system and the interrelationships between the parts of the system. Water information was fragmented, dealing only with one or another aspect 

of the hydrologic system, and indicated no feedback or side 

effects resulting from changes in the hydrologic system made 

by man. Hydrologic studies of the eight major watershed units 

in the basin of the Red River of the North in Minnesota (hereinafter referred to as the Red River basin) were to provide an 

analysis of the hydrologic system based upon available, though 

often incomplete, hydrologic data. Necessarily, the deficiency 

in data had to be compensated for by experience and reasoning. 

This report appraises the total water resources and problems 

associated with management of the resources. It describes the 

hydrologic system for the manager so that water decisions can 

be based on the most complete hydrologic information available.

The report consists of three principal sections; environmental setting, water resource management, and the hydrologic 

system. The environmental setting describes the land and people 

as related to water resources. The section on water resource

III
IV

management is intended to provide practical information needed 

for the planning and management of water resources. The section on the hydrologic system is a more technical discussion 

of water in the Red River basin. The section on water management can be used to locate the water, determine the amount 

available and its quality; whereas, the section on the hydrologic system describes the operation of the system how water 

moves through the system and why the quality is as it is.
CONTENTS

______ Page

Preface.................................................. Ill

Abstract.................................................. 1

Introduction............................................. 2

Purpose and scope................................... 5

Previous investigations............................. 5

Acknowledgments..................................... 5

Conclusions......................................... 6

Environmental setting.................................... 7

The land............................................ 7

Physiography................................... 7

Surficial geology, soils, and land use......... 10

Vegetation..................................... 12

Population.......................................... 13

Climate............................................. 16

Geologic framework.................................. 19

Precambriari crystalline rocks.................. 19

Paleozoic sedimentary rocks.................... 23

Cretaceous sedimentary rocks................... 26

Quaternary glacial deposits.................... 27

Hydrography......................................... 31

Rivers......................................... 31

Minor streams............................. 31

Major tributaries......................... 37

Red River of the North.................... 44

Lakes and wetlands............................. 44

Lakes..................................... 45

Wetlands.................................. 47

Water resource management................................ 47

Water supply........................................ ^8

Sources of water for supplies.................. ^8

Surface water............................. 52

Ground water.............................. 57

Paleozoic sedimentary rocks.......... 60

Cretaceous sedimentary rocks......... 60

Quaternary glacial deposits.......... 60

Quality of water.......................... 6l

Present and potential water supply development. 69

Management alternatives for water supply....... 71

Pollution of water resources........................ 73

Pollution problems............................. 73

Management for pollution control............... 74

Flooding............................................ 76

Flood problems................................. 76

Management for flood alleviation............... 80

Drainage............................................ 8l

Water recreation.................................... 82

The hydrologic system..................................... 84

Water balance....................................... 84

V
VI CONTENTS

Page 

The hydrologic system Continued

Surface runoff....................................... "86

Areal variation of runoff....................... 88

Time variation of runoff........................ 88

High flow.................................. 92

Low flow................................... 96

Ground-water system.................................. 104

Recharge to the ground-water system............. 108

Movement within the ground-water system......... 110

Discharge from the ground-water system.......... Ill

Relation of ground water to surface water............ 114

Relation of ground water to streams............. 114

Relation of ground water to lakes............... 116

Hydrochemical system................................. 118

Relationship of water quality to the geologic 

; environment................................... 118

Water types in the Red River basin.............. 120

References................................................ 123

ILLUSTRATIONS

__________ Page

Figure 1. Map showing drainage basin of the Red River 

of the North in the United States, average 

flow of principal streams, and generalized 

isohyetal map................................ 3

2. Map showing Red River of the North basin in

Minnesota.................................... 4

3. Map showing the three physiographic regions 

in the Red River basin and photographs of 

typical scenes............................... 8

4. Map showing topography of the Red River basin.. 9

5. Map showing glacial deposits................... 11

6. Maps showing population trends................. 15

7» Map showing average annual precipitation in

the Red River basin.......................... 17

8. Graph'showing long-term precipitation trend

in the central part of the basin at Ada..'.... 18

9. Map showing expected minimum number of

drought days from May through September...... 20

10. Map showing expected minimum water deficiency

per growing season........................... 21

11. Map showing normal precipitation during «. 

the May-September growing season and 

Thornthwaite diagrams for selected 

points in the basin.......................... 22

12. Map showing bedrock geology.................... 24

13. Photograph of glacial till near Clearbrook..... 28
ILLUSTRATIONS VI1

Page

Figure 14. Map showing thickness of the glacial drift.... 30

15. Map showing availability of ground water

from known aquifers in the drift............ 32

16. Photographs of stratified ice-contact sand

and gravel near Perham...................... 33

17. Photographs of beach ridge sand and gravel

near Gonvick................................ 34

18. Pence diagram of linear sand and gravel

deposit A................................... 35

19. Fence diagram of linear sand and gravel

deposit C................................... 36

20. Map, sections, and photographs showing

channel characteristics of the Red River

and major tributaries....................... 38

21. Profile of Red Lake River..................... 4l

22. Profile of Wild Rice River.................... 42

23. Map and sketches showing classification of

lakes in the Red River basin................ 46

24. Map showing major water problems in the basin. 49

25. Map showing average flow of the Red River and

tributary streams........................... 53

26. Map showing ten-year high and low average

annual discharge for selected sites in the 

basin....................................... 54

27. Draft storage curves and map showing location of gaging stations for which draftstorage and 7-day low flow frequency curves 

have been drawn............................. 58

28. Map showing total dissolved solids content

of water in the drift....................... 63

29. Map showing hardness of water in the drift.... 64

30. Map showing chloride concentration of water

in the drift................................ 66

31. Map showing sulfate concentration of water

in the drift................................ 67

32. Map showing municipal water supply sources

and use..................................... 70

33. Graph showing time distribution of annual

flood crests at Grand Forks, N. Dak......... 77

34. Map showing area of 1950 flood in the Red

River basin................................. 78

35. Map showing percent of land in drainage in

the Red River basin in 1950................. 83

36. Map and graphs showing water budgets for

selected sub-basins in the Red River basin.. 87

37. Map showing average annual runoff and flow 

duration curves for selected sites in the 

basin....................................... 89
Yin ILLUSTRATIONS

Page

Figure 38. Hydrographs for selected streams in the 

basin .and departure from normal 

precipitation............................... 90

39. Stage frequency relationships for selected

sites in the basin.......................... 94

40. Map showing annual peak discharge magnitude 

and fre.quency for selected sites in the 

Red River basin............................. 95

41. Graph showing frequency of maximum average 

flows for 7 consecutive days for selected 

streams in the basin........................ 97

42. Graph, showing frequency of minimum average 

flows for 7 consecutive days for selected 

streams in the basin........................ 101

43. Map showing median 7-day low flow for most

streams in the basin........................ 103

44. Map and graph showing period of record of

stream-gaging stations in the basin......... 105

45. Fence diagram showing ground-water movement

and water-quality types..................... 106

46. Hydrographs of selected observation wells..... 109

47. Map showing ground-water discharge areas...... 112

48. Hydrographs showing base flow separation for

Pine Creek and South Fork Roseau River...... 115

49. Diagrammatic sketches showing hypothetical

ground-water relationships to lakes......... 117

TABLES

_____ Page

Table 1. Physical data on the major tributaries to the

Red River of the North in Minnesota........... 43

2. Advantages and disadvantages of ground water

and surface water as sources of water supply.. 50

3. Low-flow .data for streams in the Red River of

the North basin in Minnesota.................. 56

4. Magnitude and frequency of annual high flow

at selected stream-gaging stations............ 98

5.. Magnitude and frequency of annual low flow

at selected stream-gaging stations............. 100
WATER RESOURCES OF THE RED RIVER OF THE 

NORTH DRAINAGE BASIN IN MINNESOTA

By R. W. Maclay, T. C. Winter, and L. .E. Bidwell

ABSTRACT

The drainage basin of the Red River of the North within 

Minnesota, contains 17,800 square miles and has a largely 

rural population (I960) of 240,000. The physiography is flat 

and featureless except for a hilly region containing many 

lakes in the southeast part. Major water problems of the 

basin are poor distribution of water supply, drainage of wetlands, extensive areas subject to flooding, and pollution of 

surface water.

Mean annual precipitation within the basin ranges from 

about 19 inches in the northwest to more than 25 inches in the 

southwest; however, large variation in rainfall occurs, and 

drought periods lasting several years are common. The average 

annual gross water yield is about 2 million acre-feet or about 

1.7 inches of water over the basin. Most of the streams have 

low sustained natural flows. To develop surface-water .supplies 

as a source of supply storage is required; however, storage 

sites are generally lacking.

Ground-water supplies adequate for domestic and stock purposes are available from sand and gravel units in the drift at 

most places in the basin. The principal aquifers are outwash 

sand and gravel, which generally will yield 50 gallons a minute 

or more to individual wells. Potentially, the most productive 

sand and gravel aquifers are in the northern part of the basin 

in Kittson County and along the Otter Tail River in the southeastern part of the basin. These are capable of yielding 1,000 

gallons per minute to individual wells locally.

Chemical quality of some of the waters of the Red River 

basin prevents their extensive use. Generally, the chemical 

quality of surface water is adequate for domestic and agricultural use. Water pollution problems occur locally in the 

basin, but the most serious are in the Red Lake River and the 

Red River of the North. The quality of ground water in the 

northwestern part of the basin is commonly very hard and contains high concentrations of iron which restricts its use for 

nearly all purposes. Calcium bicarbonate, the most common 

type of water in the basin, occurs in the morainal area and in
the' upper part of the ground-water system in the Glacial Lake 

Agassiz region.

Floods of the Red River of the North and its tributaries 

are typically sporadic, for although usually occurring in 

early to late spring, their dates and magnitude are subject to 

much variation. To alleviate flooding on tributaries, channel 

modification, principally straightening, has been done along 

critical reaches of the Red River. Flood control dams have 

been constructed on Otter Tail and Red Lake Rivers and one is 

being constructed on the Wild Rice River. Land areas drained 

artificially in the Red River basin ranged from less than 10 

percent in the eastern part of the morainal area to more than 

80 percent in the lake plain.

Annual runoff in the basin is generally highest in spring 

and early summer, and lowest in late winter. Base flow from 

ground-water storage is relatively small for most of the streams, 

particularly for those in the lake plain.

Much recharge to the ground-water system originates in the 

morainal area and discharges locally to nearby streams, lakes, 

and wetlands. The part of recharge that enters the deeper part 

of the ground-water reservoir in the morainal area moves laterally and discharges in a belt that lies near the edge of the 

lake plain and lake-washed till plain. Based on fluctuations 

of water level in wells and estimated specific yield, annual 

ground-water recharge to' the ground-water reservoir is about 

3 to 5 inches.

INTRODUCTION

The drainage basin of the Red River of the North forms a 

regional hydrologic system covering 38,700 square miles within 

the United States, excluding the drainage of the Souris River 

in North Dakota (fig. 1). This report is concerned with the 

drainage basin of the Red River of the North in Minnesota. It 

consists of about 46 percent of the total drainage area of the 

Red River upstream from Emerson, Manitoba, and contributes about 

75 percent of the flow to the Red River of the North. It covers 

17,800 square miles, or about one-fifth of the State of Minnesota. The basin includes 8 watershed units, as defined by the 

Minnesota Department of Conservation, Division of Waters (1959), 

that range in size from 1,128 square miles for the Roseau River 

Watershed unit to 5,988 square miles for the Red Lake River 

unit (fig. 2). Individual hydrologic atlas reports were prepared and published for each of the watershed units to show 

graphically a general description of the hydrologic system, the 

general availability of ground and surface water resources, and 

their chemical quality.
Figure l.--The largest contributions to flow in the Red 

are from tributaries in Minnesota.
REPORT 

NUMBER

HA 201

HA 237

HA 241

HA 272

HA 296

HA 307

HA 339

HA 346

NAME

Maclay, Winter and Pike, 

Maclay, Winter and Pike, 

Winter, Maclay and Pike, 1

Maclay, Winter and Bidwe

Winter, Bidwell and Macla

Maclay, Bidwell and Winte

Winter, Bidwell and Macla

Bidwell, Winter and Macla

Figure 2.--The Red River of the North basin is in the nort

part of Minnesota and covers about one-fifth of the St
Purpose and Scope

The purpose of this report is to describe and appraise 

the hydrologic system in the Red River of the North drainage 

basin in Minnesota, and emphasize the ground water, surface 

water, and water quality components. It is also intended to 

provide a background of information so water planners and 

managers can understand the occurrence, movement, and availability of water which is essential in making the best decisions in management of the resource.

This report summarizes on a broad regional scale the results obtained from investigations of the eight watershed 

units. The investigation of the Red River drainage basin in 

Minnesota, was a 5-year project started in July 1963 and 

completed in June 1968.

Previous Investigations

Water resources of the Red River basin has been the subject of study since the late l800's. Of particular importance 

is the report by Upham (1895) which is concerned largely with 

geology but includes the ground-water conditions in each of 

the counties studied. Other significant studies concerned 

largely with geology and soils are those by Tyrrel (1896), 

Johnston (1916), Leverett (1932), and Nikiforoff (1939 and 

19^7). Two of the earliest reports on water resources of the 

area is a statewide report by the State Drainage Commission 

(1910) and a report by Simons and King (1922) concerned with 

flooding in the Red River Valley. Since that time reports on 

ground water include those by Byers, Wenzel, Laird, and Dennis 

(1946); Dennis, Akin, and Worts (19^9); Paulson (1953); 

Bingham (I960); and Schiner (1963). The U.S. Army Corps of 

Engineers has a number of reports concerned largely with flood 

control measures in the basin. Augustadt (1955) reported on 

the drainage of the Red River Valley. A report on pollution 

of the Red River of the North was published by the U.S. Public 

Health Service (1965). Selected hydrologic data was published 

by the Minnesota Department of Conservation, Division of Waters 

(1965). The most recent report of geologic and some hydrologic significance is a collection of reports resulting from 

a conference of the Glacial Lake Agassiz region edited by 

Mayer-Oakes (1967).

Acknowledgments

This report benefited greatly by much information supplied 

by other individuals and agencies: U.S. Soil Conservation
Service personnel in the counties in the Red River basin for 

preliminary soil maps; U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service personnel for information on prairie pothole drainage; Minnesota 

Department of Conservation for data on lakes, drilling logs, 

well schedules, and water use; Minnesota Geological Survey for 

drilling logs and well records; municipal officials, particularly water works superintendents, for data on municipal wells 

and supplies, and in some cases, for permission to use municipal wells for test pumping; and industries in the area of 

study for data on drilling logs, well schedules, and water use,

Special thanks are due the many well drillers in the area 

of study who very unselfishly provided us with drilling information and gave us the benefit of their many years of experience, and the well owners in the Red River basin who provided 

us with much information on their wells.

Conclusions

1. The development of surface water as a source of supply in the flat terrain of the lake plain and lake-washed till 

plain is a severe problem because of wide variations in streamflow, frequent periods of no flow, and lack of reservoir sites.

2. The most serious problem of water quality exists in 

the northwestern part of the Red River basin where ground water 

contains extremely high content of total dissolved solids and 

chloride.

3. About 5.1 million acre-feet of water is available for 

manipulation by man on a continuing basis from streams or from 

aquifers within the watershed of the Red River basin within 

Minnesota. To approach any significant fraction of this yield, 

storage of surface water during high flow would be necessary.

4. The average annual flow from the tributaries to the 

Red River of the North in Minnesota is equivalent to 1.7 inches

over the entire basin.

5. The Paleozoic rocks have great potential for yielding 

water if a need for saline water should develop.

6. In terms of widespread use and total pumpage, aquifers 

of sand within till are the most important sources of ground 

water.

7. The outwash sand and gravel in east-central Otter Tail 

County and in the Halma-Lake Bronson area of Kittson County 

are potentially the largest yielding individual aquifers
of fresh water in the Red River basin in Minnesota. Yields of 

1,000 gpm to individual wells can be developed in these aquifers

8. Climate is the most significant factor controlling annual water yield.

9. Much of the recharge to the ground-water system is not 

transmitted from the morainal area to the lake plain but is 

locally discharged.

10. Ground water in recharge areas is predominantly a calcium bicarbonate type and progressively changes to sulfate or 

sodium bicarbonate types in the direction of flow.

ENVIRONMENTAL SETTING

The Land 

Physiography

The land surface in the Red River basin in Minnesota is 

generally considered to be flat and featureless. The range in 

altitude, however, is greater than 1,200 ft; from slightly 

higher than 2,000 feet above mean sea level in the southwest 

corner of Clearwater County to slightly lower than 800 feet 

where the Red River crosses the international boundary. The 

local relief and general land slope is not uniform over the 

basin and for practical purposes the area can be separated into 

three physiographic regions (fig. 3). The lake plain extends 

along nearly the entire length of the western part of the basin. 

The lake-washed till plain occurs in the northern part and the 

glacial moraine in the southeastern part of the basin.

The landscape is the result of glacial advances and retreats within the past 70,000 years and most of the area was 

covered by glaciers as recent as 13,000 years ago. The morainal area was formed by direct deposition of materials by glaciers or by meltwater streams near the margins of the glaciers. 

This is a relatively rugged type of landscape that is very, hummocky and contains many lakes, potholes, and swamps. Local relief is as much as 200 feet. Elevations in the area are largely 1,200 to 1,600 feet above mean sea level. The exceptions 

are in the southern part of the area where elevations range to 

less than 1,100 feet and the east-central part of the morainal 

area where a small group of hills rise to more than 2,000 feet 

above mean sea level (fig. 4).

The landscape in the remainder of the basin is the result 

of a large glacial lake - Glacial Lake Agassiz - which covered
oo

f Location of 

: photograph

C-. Direction of view 

from location

Figure 3.--The Red River basin contains three physiographic regions. 

typical scenes include: A) marshy area in lake-washed till plain 

B) beach ridges near Dugdale; C) lake plain near Ada; D) ice-contanear Luce; E) edge of moraine near Erhard; G) low morainal hills n
Physiographic boundary

 m*^^

Figure 4.--The topography of the Red River basin ranges from the

flat Glacial Lake Agassiz region to the hummocky morainal area.

Note the small group of hills that rise to over 2,000 feet above

mean sea level in the east-central part of the basin.
the area. The lake-washed till plain is gently rolling and 

generally has local relief of about 10 feet. It has a very 

low slope to the west. The lake plain, which is commonly referred to as the Red River Valley, is very flat. Although the 

lake-washed till plain was covered to shallow depths by glacial 

lake water, the lake plain was the deeper part of the lake. 

Shoreline features of the lake plain are long, linear, northsouth trending beach ridges along its eastern edge. Local relief is generally less than 5 feet in the western part and 

about 15 feet in the beach ridge area. The land slope is only 

a few feet per mile toward the Red River in the western part 

of the lake plain. Along the axis of the lake plain the Red 

River itself falls an average of about 0.5 foot per mile from 

Breckenridge to the international boundary.

A physiographic feature of particular interest to water 

resource evaluation is the channel cutting by streams flowing 

across the beach ridge area. The most striking erosion has 

been along the Red Lake River from several miles upstream from 

Red Lake Falls to where the river crosses into Polk County. In 

this reach the valley walls are nearly vertical in places and 

up to 100 feet high;- a most unexpected feature in an otherwise 

rather monotonous landscape.

Examples of typical physiographic features in various 

parts of the Red River basin are shown in figure 3.

Surficial Geology, Soils, and Land Use

Soils in the Red River basin are closely related to the 

glacial deposits of the area (fig. 5). In the morainal area 

the soils are of three general types. Soils in the southern 

and western parts are medium- to fine-textured prairie and 

prairie border soils (Arneman, 1963) formed on a calcareous, 

silty, glacial till. Erosion control is a problem in this 

area. Crops commonly grown in the area are small grains, corn, 

and soybeans in the southern part, and alfalfa in the northern 

part of the area. Pastureland and wooded areas are also common.

The eastern and northern part of the morainal area is 

covered by medium textured forest soils formed on till and 

coarse to medium soils formed on outwash sand and gravel. 

Forest soils formed on till in hilly areas commonly develop 

gullies where forests are cut. The land is used largely for 

forestry and general farming. Small grains and alfalfa are the 

major crops.

Light-colored forest soils formed on sand and gravel occur 

northward from northern Decker County (fig. 5). Prairie soils

10
N

Sand and gravel

overlain by till

(l»-cantact)

Till

10 20 30 40 MILES 

__l______I I I

Figure 5.--Deposits formed or modified by Glacial Lake Agassiz 

are the predominant feature in the Red River basin. Other 

than the lake deposits the basin consists of till and out-wash 

and ice-contact sand and gravel.

11
formed on sand and gravel, in southern Becker and Otter Tail 

Counties, are dark colored and are farmed extensively. In the 

past, droughtiness and wind erosion have made the soils undesirable for crops but supplemental irrigation, because of the 

availability of ground water, has greatly increased the potential value of the area. Common crops are corn, oats, soybeans, and hay.

The lake-washed till plain contains large areas of peatlands. In the western part, the soils are dark colored and 

were derived from calcareous till. A major problem of this 

area is drainage. Common crops are small grains, legume seeds, 

and hay.

The lake plain is generally an area of fine textured 

prairie soils that are intensively farmed. In the western 

part the deep black soil is formed on glacial lake clay and 

silt. This is an extremely rich soil and required no supplemental fertilization to produce a profitable crop for many 

years. It is the soil that produced the abundant wheat crops 

that earned the area the reputation of "breadbasket of the 

nation" during the early part of its settlement. Principal 

crops are small grains and sugar beets. Within the lake plain 

and east of the clay and silt deposits is a belt of fine, 

sandy soil that extends nearly the length of the lake plain. 

These soils are dark colored, sandy and are subject to wind 

erosion. Natural drainage is inadequate for agriculture in 

most of this soil belt. Small grains, potatoes, legume seeds, 

and pastures are common crops in this area. Interspersed 

within the area of fine sandy soils and especially along the 

eastern edge are sand and gravel beach ridges that extend the 

length of the lake plain. The ridges are very well drained 

and tend to be droughty. Wind erosion sometimes results in 

local areas of active sand dunes. Pastures are common and 

many turkey farms are located on the sandy ridges.

Vegetation

Most of the Red River basin was covered with prairie and 

prairie-border plants. Before settlement the lake plain was 

entirely prairie except for strips of trees that grew along 

the major watercourses. The most common trees were cottonwood, 

elm, and ash (Iron Range Resources and Rehabilitation, 195*0- 

Since settlement many trees were planted to form windbreaks 

near farmsteads.

The lake-washed till plain is covered by two general 

types of vegetation - an aspen parkland and bog. The aspen 

parkland consists largely of aspen, balsam, poplar, and scrub.

12
Many scattered lowlands contain bog plants within this area. 

The extremely large bog near Upper and Lower Red Lakes is part 

of one of the most extensive bog lands in the United States. 

The bog vegetation makes intriguing patterns which include 

tear-drop shaped forested islands surrounded by what look like 

"rivers" of grasses. Heinselman (1963) has described the 

patterned bogs in detail.

The western part of the moraine was vegetated before settlement with prairie-border types of plants. These consist of 

oak predominately, but also other hardwoods and some aspen. 

The forest cover was generally not complete in this area and 

the intervening areas were covered with prairie plants. With 

the advent of farming most of the forest was reduced to local 

woodlots.

On forest soils formed on till in the eastern part of the 

morainal area the forest consisted of pines and hardwoods. 

The pine forests were cut extensively and the second growth is 

largely aspen. Many hardwood species remain, however, consisting of maple, basswood, and oak. Elm and birch are also common 

(McAndrews, 1966). Within the moraine the areas of sand and 

gravel are partly covered by extensive stands of jack pine in 

the northern part and oak in the southern part. Part of the 

outwash plain in eastern Otter Tail County supported a native 

prairie vegetation before it became extensively farmed. An 

account of the vegetational history of the Red River basin is 

given by Shay (1967). Greater detail of presettlement and 

present vegetation is provided by McAndrews (1966) and Shay 

(1967).

Population

Water problems usually are related to people. People may 

either draw water at excessive rates, use water for a carrier 

of waste without regard to the streams capacity for self purification or occupy areas that are within the reach of flood 

waters. Generally, the more people that occupy a given area 

the more water problems that arise. Because of this it is not 

only necessary to look at past population patterns, occupations, 

and related water problems, but to try to predict future population patterns and occupations. From these considerations 

predictions of future water needs and problems may be made.

Warkentin (1967) gave an example of problems faced by an 

early settler of the Red River Valley. Not only were waterlogged lands encountered, but a ground-water supply was not 

readily available. Flooded fields in spring plagued the early 

settlers but this condition was alleviated somewhat by extensive drainage projects that followed in the late 19th and 

early 20th centuries.

13
The drained water eventually increased flooding downstream, 

and one man's solution became another man's problem. The water 

supply in the example given by Warkentin was to be derived by 

diverting water from the Red River. The plan was never executed, but if it were, and people upstream from the intake used 

the river as a convenient carrier of their waste, a quality 

problem would replace a quantity problem. Subsequent to the 

large drainage programs mentioned above, the Red River Valley 

became extensively farmed. The population of the Red River 

basin in Minnesota was approximately 240,000 in I960 or about 

14 people per square mile. Approximately 80 percent of the 

population is rural; that is, people who live on farms or in 

communities with population of less than 2,500. The I960 census for population showed.rural loss and urban gain in nearly 

all the counties. The percentage of rural loss from the 1950 

census is estimated at about 5 percent. The rate of urban 

growth is fast for Fargo-Moorhead and East Grand Forks-Grand 

Forks; whereas,-growth in other communities in the basin is 

moderate. .

The population of the major communities in I960 was: 

Community Population

Moorhead 22,934

Fergus Falls - 13,733

Crookston 8,546

Thief River Falls 7,151

East Grand Forks 6,998

Detroit Lakes 5,633

A very general picture of population trends can be seen on 

figure 6.

Water problems in the area have generally been concerned 

with: (1) supply; unreliable surface-water supplies or inadequate ground-water supplies near municipalities, or poor 

quality ground water in some areas for domestic and farm use; 

(2) drainage of lands>for farming; (3) flooding of farm lands 

and municipalities; (4) pollution of surface waters. Water. 

Water resource studies and management projects have centered 

around the solution of these problems. Population and occupation trends must be predicted so that appropriate measures 

can be taken to insure the optimum management of the water 

resource. . . -

Without going into .a detailed analysis of population 

trends and water needs, local and nationwide trends show a 

decrease in farm and an increase in urban population. However, 

even with the decrease in numbers of farms the larger farms

14
V 

!

EXPLANATION

- 10 "

Line of equal population 

density, in people 

per square mile

1960

0 \Q 10 X «OMUS

Figure 6.--Estimated increases in population during the 196

Moorhead and East Grand Forks.
that result need increasingly larger water supplies. Water 

'demand for supplemental irrigation in the areas of sandy soils 

may greatly increase the need for ground-water supplies.

With the increase in urban areas, and especially the 

large anticipated increase in the Fargo-Moorhead and East 

Grand Porks-Grand Forks areas, the problems of supply will become even more critical as will the problem of waste disposal. 

.Also, with more leisure time, there will be an increasing demand for^water-based recreation facilities.

A number of management projects will probably be devised 

in anticipation of increasing numbers of people, shifts of 

population, and related water needs. Before any implementation of management developments, however, the entire water 

resource situation should be examined so that a short term 

solution does not become a long term problem.

Climate

The Red River region of Minnesota has a continental climate, characterized by a wide variation in temperature, scanty 

Winter precipitation, and a general tendency to extremes. The 

mean annual precipitation increases from about 19 inches in 

the northwest to more than 25 inches in the southeast (fig. 7). 

About 75 percent (16 inches) of the precipitation falls between April and October, usually as thunderstorms. The average number of days without killing frost ranges from about 1*10 

days near Moorhead to about 100 days near Roseau (U.S. Dept. 

Agriculture, 1941, p. 932). The climate is subhumid but there 

have been wide fluctuations between wet and dry periods. In 

the 17 years, 1861-1877, the average annual precipitation was 

24.50 inches in the valley of the Red.River (Augustadt, 1955, 

p. 570-571). During the 24 years, 1917 to 1940, the average 

precipitation was 17.80 inches and from 1941 to 1954 another 

wet cycle occurred. Averages, however, do not indicate weather 

extremes. Exceedingly dry years occur during wet cycles and 

wet years occur during dry cycles (fig. 8).

Erratic climatic conditions through the years have aggravated water problems. In long periods of drought there 

have been water shortages and no need for drainage. When wet 

periods occur, drainage and flooding are problems, part of 

which could have been avoided by action during the dry period. 

Serious flooding occurred in 1882 and 1883. The valley was 

flooded again in 1893- In 1897 one of the worst floods on 

record occurred. The years 1904, 1916, and 1920 also were 

flood years. From 1920 to 1943 major floods did not occur, 

but damaging floods in 1943, 1944, 1948, 1950, 1965, 1966, and 

1969 caused losses of millions of dollars each year.

16
N

EXPLANATION

Line of equal average 

annual precipitation; 

interval, 1 inch

0 ' 10 20 30 40 MILES 

 J I I I

Figure 7.--Average annual precipitation in the Red River basin 

increases from 19 inches in the northwestern part to 25 inches 

in the east-central part.

17
ACCUMUL

MEAN ANNUA

CO

PRECIPITATION, IN INCHES

Co 3
Droughts occur whenever the supply of water to vegetation, 

either from ...rainfall or that stored in the soil, becomes inadequate to sustain normal growth. Each day there is inadequate 

moisture in the root zone is defined as a drought day. Assuming that the soil can store 9 inches of water, the expected 

minimum number of drought days from May through September for 

a probability of 5 out of 10 ranges from more than 30 days in 

the west to about 10 days in the east (fig. 9). For the same 

soil condition the expected minimum water deficiency in inches 

per season for a probability of 5 out of 10 ranges from about 

5 inches in part of the west to less than 1 inch in the southeast (fig. 10). The relation between evapotranspiration and 

precipitation based on weather records and using a computational method developed by Thornthwaite and Mather (1957) shows the 

soil moisture deficiency at Roseau, Ada, and Fergus Falls 

(fig. 11). The determined values for deficiency of soil moisture using a soil storage capacity of 8 inches and mean monthly 

precipitation and temperature records are in approximate agreement with values having a probability of 5 out of 10.

Geologic Framework

An understanding of the geology of an area is basic to the 

understanding of its water resources. The hydrologic characteristics of streams and lakes are controlled significantly by 

surface geology and topography. Ground water is especially related to geology because it is the rocks that control the movement of ground water and react chemically with the water to 

determine its quality. Much of this ground water-in turn finds 

its way to.streams and has a great influence in many cases on 

the streamflow characteristics. The rocks in the;Red River 

basin can be separated into three general types: .Precambrian 

crystalline rocks, stratified sedimentary rocks, and drift. 

These rocks are distinctly different types and have widely 

varying hydrologic characteristics. .

In this' report the geologic description will emphasize the 

characteristics of rocks that are important to water resources. 

To evaluate the ground-water resources it is important to know 

the physical characteristics of the rock units such as their 

overall size and shape and their internal micro features such 

as grain size, fabric, and porosity. Chemically, it is not 

only important to know the gross chemical composition of the 

rocks, but also the mineralogic form in which ..the elements are 

arranged.

Precambrian Crystalline Rocks

Crystalline rocks in.this report include all igneous rocks, 

such as granite, and metamorphic rocks, such as schists and

19
N

EXPLANATION

Expected minimum number 

of drought days from 

May through September 

at 50 percent probability 

(assuming soil can store 

9 inches of water)

0 10 20 30 40 MILCS

I_____I I I I

Figure 9.--Expected minimum number of drought days from May 

through September at SO percent probability ranges from 

about 40 at the southwestern tip of the basin to less than 

10 along the eastern edge.

20
N

Wheaton 

TRAVERSE ST'EVENJi

EXPLANATION

: Expected minimum 

water deficiency, 

 v. in inches per season, 

( at 50 percent probability 

TAIL>J>/ (assuming soil can store 

9 inches of water) 1*3

0 10 20 30 40 MILES 

I_____I I I 1

Figure 20. --The expected minimum water deficiency per growing season at SO percent probability ranges from greater than 5 inches 

to less than 1 inch within the northern part of the basin. It 

is less than 1 inch throughout the remainder of the basin.

21
Roseau

Soil moisture, 8 indies

Precipitation, 19.72 inches

Actual evapotranspirotion, 19.53 inches

Deficiency, 2.23 inches 49-

6

N

J FMAMJ J A SON D 

Ada MEA"

Soil moisture, 8 inches 

Precipitation, 20.91 inches 

Actuol evopotranspirotion, 20.90 inches 

Deficiency, 2.23 inches

6

JCLEARWATERT) f *«-x~"'**

EXPLANATION

/ Normal precipitation, 

in inches, during the 

May through September 

growing season

Fergus Falls 

Soil moisture, 8 inches 

Precipitation, 29.39 inches 

Actual evapotronspiration, 21.26 inches 

Deficiency, 2.86 inches 

6

JFMAMJJASOND 

MEAN

EXPLANATION

APrecipitation

. A ..

Potential evopotronspirotion

Soil Moisture recharge

JFMAMJJASOND 

MEAN

Figure 11.--Calculated values of mean moisture deficiency using 

the Thornthwaite method show a moisture deficit in all the 

physiographic regions in the basin.

22
slates. Because the crystalline rocks in the Red River basin 

are deeply buried, except locally east of the Red Lakes, very 

little is known about them. Granite and greenstone are probably most common crystalline rocks but other types also o-ccur. 

A small deposit of iron formation was located under about 600 

feet of glacial drift just east of the Red River basin in 

southeastern Decker and northeastern Otter Tail Counties 

(Anderson, 1957).

Crystalline, particularly granitic, rocks are generally 

considered to be impermeable to ground-water movement. Where 

the crystalline rocks are fractured water occurs in the open 

spaces but these will usually contain only a small amount of 

water; in many cases no more than enough for a domestic supply, 

Small amounts of water can also be obtained from the weathered 

zone of crystalline rocks. . 

The configuration of the Precambrian crystalline rock 

surface (fig. 12) is an important factor in water resource 

studies mainly because it defines the shape of the base of the 

saturated zone of the hydrologic system. It is also important 

to define because valleys in the basement rock commonly contain very permeable deposits of sand and gravel. The general 

slope is from east to west and the relief is about 1,100 feet. 

The highest elevations on the crystalline rock surface are in 

northeastern Otter Tail County.and in Koochiching County. The 

lowest (less than 200 feet above mean sea level) is-in western 

Kittson County. A bedrock valley extends southeast from 

Pennington to central Clearwater Counties and thenq.e, southeast out of the basin. A tributary to this valley extends 

northeast beneath Lower Red Lake. Another fairly well defined 

but smaller valley occurs in the.southern part of the basin 

extending from south-central Grant County westward into South 

Dakota. 

Paleozoic Sedimentary Rocks

Sedimentary rocks of Paleozoic age overlie the crystalline rocks in the northwestern corner of the basin. Very 

little is known about these rocks in Minnesota owing to a lack 

of drill-hole data. Bayer (1959) described the bedrock stratigraphy of northwestern Minnesota on the basis of data derived from a few test holes, but supplemented these data with 

descriptions of the rocks in their area of outcrop in Manitoba,

Paleozoic rocks in this area are Ordovician in age and 

consist of two formations; the. Winnipeg Formation and the Red 

River Formation. A third rock type, the Halloc'k Red Beds, 

identified and named by Bayer (1959) is either a weathered 

part of the Winnipeg Formation or may be an extension of the

23 . ' .- 
N

(Largely thai*, but includes sand horizons)

(Limestone and sandstone, and 

minor amounts of shot*)

Precambrian crystalline rocks

 850 

Contours on the Precambrian surface 

Contours on the Cretaceous and Paleozoic rocks

Approximate limit of Paleozoic rocks that are 

covered by Cretaceous deposits

Figure 12.--Paleozoic sedimentary rooks occur in the northwest 

corner of the basin. Continuous Cretaceous sediments occur in 

the northern and southern parts. The elevation of the Precambrian surface decreases from more than 1^250 in the eastern to 

less than 200 feet above mean sea level in the northwestern 

part of the basin.
Amaranth Formation of Jurassic (?) age, which is identified 

north of the report area in Manitoba.

The Paleozoic sedimentary rocks lie in .the depression on 

the Precambrian surface in the northwestern part of the basin 

(fig. 12). The Winnipeg Formation and the overlying Red River 

Formation increase in thickness from east to west. Their 

eastern extent is about at the Kittson-Roseau county line. 

The exceptions to this are near the Canadian border where they 

extend further eastward into Roseau County and in Marshall 

County where the limit swings eastward into the eastern half 

of the county. The rocks increase in thickness from this 

feather edge westward into North Dakota, where in the Williston structural basin they have a combined thickness of about 

850 feet. At the Minnesota-North Dakota border in Kittson 

County the two formations probably reach a maximum thickness 

of about 400 to 500 feet. Comparison of the contours on the 

Precambrian surface with the supplemental contours on the 

Paleozoic and Cretaceous rocks (fig. 12) give a good idea of 

the general configuration of the sedimentary rocks. The Cretaceous rocks are thin, generally less th,an 25 feet, so most 

of the sedimentary rock thickness consists of Paleozoic rocks.

The Winnipeg Formation is separated into two general 

units in Kittson County. About 8 miles northwest of Hallock 

the lower unit consists of about 95 feet of gray, red, purple, 

and green mottled and variegated shale and mudstone containing 

minor beds of limestone. A thin sandstone unit, generally 

less than 10 feet thick, occurs at the base.of the shale sequence. The upper unit consists of about 70 feet of white, 

well-sorted, medium grained, friable sandstone. Thin beds of 

shale as well as some well-cemented sand beds occur in the 

sandstone.

The Red River Formation is separated into two units, best 

described in a log of a test hole about 8 miles northwest of 

Hallock. The upper unit consists of 135 feet of slightly dolomitic yellow and tan limestones. The upper 40, feet of this 

unit has many small open solution holes and large irregular 

cavities. The texture of this unit is granular. Tan chert 

fragments also occur throughout this unit. The lower unit of 

the Red River Formation consists of 100 feet of dark gray to 

purple limestone that is slightly more dolomitic than the upper unit. This unit is also decidedly more silty and argillaceous than the upper unit and has a very fine grained to 

dense texture. Traces of pyrite and iron oxide stain also 

occur in this unit. The Red River Formation thins to the east 

and south. It is 45 feet thick at a well 27 miles south of 

Hallock. .

The Hallock Red Beds is a name assigned by Bayer (1959)

25
tg a section of rock in a test hole drilled at Hallock, Minn. 

The unit is 105 feet thick and consists largely of pastel 

reddish-brown dolomitic mudstones. A chert and limestone unit 

15 feet thick forms a prominent bed near the top of the section, and sandy zones several feet thick are common. This 

formation was not identified in any other test holes ^±n Minnesota so its extent is unknown. However, a similar unit is 

described in a log of a hole nearby in North Dakota. Bayer 

(1959) presents and favors the hypothesis that it is a weathered portion of the underlying Winnipeg Formation, but he does 

not rule out the possibility that it is an extension of the 

Jurassic (?) Amaranth Formation found in adjacent parts of 

Canada.

Cretaceous Sedimentary Rocks

Cretaceous sedimentary rocks are found mainly in the 

northern and southern parts of the Red River of the North 

basin in Minnesota. These rocks generally are £hin and discontinuous in other parts of the basin. They consist largely 

of dark gray, soft, argillaceous shale that contains small 

nodules and lenses of iron sulfide. Thin lenses of sand occur 

within the shale sequence. The map showing Cretaceous rocks 

(see fig. 12) is based on drill log information where Cretaceous has been identified and where quality of the water is a 

distinctive type characteristic of Cretaceous rocks. Within 

the area mapped as Cretaceous rocks are probably places where 

these rocks are absent; however, the data indicates that the 

Cretaceous rocks are fairly continuous within the mapped area. 

Conversely, the areas not mapped as Cretaceous probably have 

small scattered patches of these rocks underlying the glacial 

drift. Lithologic characteristics of the Cretaceous rocks are 

very much like the overlying glacial drift and, therefore, it 

is difficult to distinguish between the two units. Isolated 

areas where probable Cretaceous rocks occur are in the Mahnomen 

area, where there is possibly 25 feet of Cretaceous, and near 

the Otter Tail-Becker county line in the eastern part of the 

county just outside the Red River basin. In this area test 

drilling into basement rock by the Hanna Mining Company shows 

a type of rock that could possibly be Cretaceous overlying 

the Precambrian (Anderson, 1957). Sloan (1964) shows much of 

the central part of the basin covered by Cretaceous. However, 

on figure 12 we separated the areas of rather continuous Cretaceous rocks from areas where they may only be in scattered 

isolated patches, since this separation is most significant 

hydrologically. Carlson (1969) shows discrepancies in interpretation, especially along the State line in the northern 

end of the basin. His map does not show Cretaceous rocks occurring in North Dakota adjacent to Marshall and northern Polk 

Counties, but that the northern limit of the Cretaceous occurs

26
perhaps, 10 miles south of Grand Forks. Indications from well 

information in Minnesota, however, show that Cretaceous probably does occur in the western parts of these counties although 

there are no good drilling data to support this.

Thickness of the Cretaceous rocks in Minnesota is generally less than 50 feet and in much of the area is probably less 

than 25 feet. This includes the area mapped as Cretaceous and 

the isolated patches that may occur, in the area shows no Cretaceous. The only part of the basin where a thickness greater 

than 50 feet occurs is in the southern part where it ranges 

from zero to greater than 400 feet near Browns Valley (Hall, 

Meinzer, and Fuller, 1911). Contours on the surface of the 

Cretaceous rocks in the southern part of the Red River basin 

are shown in figure 12. Comparison of these contours with , 

the contours on the Precambrian rocks on the same map give an 

indication of the general thickness of Cretaceous rocks in this 

area. According to Allison (1932) the same units within the 

Cretaceous sediments generally occur at the base of these rocks, 

Very little information is available, but the sand is generally 

only a few inches to a few feet thick, probably no more than 

15 feet. The sand is generally fine- to coarse-grained and 

commonly contains lignite. Where the Cretaceous is shown on 

figure 12 it is probably continuous into North Dakota, and is 

connected hydrologically to the Cretaceous sandstones there.

Quaternary Glacial Deposits

Glacial deposits form the most extensive and massive geologic unit in the Red River drainage basin in Minnesota. These 

deposits are the result of continental glaciers which moved 

into northwestern Minnesota during the past million years. 

Glacial moraines, which are deposited directly by glaciers form 

extensive, linear, rather rugged topography in the southeastern 

part of the drainage basin. Many of the lakes that occur in 

this area are the result of ice blocks having been deposited 

with the glacial material. These later melted out causing the 

material to collapse into a basin-like depression which was 

then filled with water. The remainder of the Red River basin, 

that is the western and northern parts, were covered by a large 

glacial lake - Glacial Lake Agassiz - which occurred in this 

area after the melting of the last glaciers, about 12 thousand 

years ago. Sediments associated with the lake include long 

sandy beach ridges in the eastern part, deep-water deposits of 

clay in the central part of the Red River Valley, and linear 

sand and gravel deposits buried in the subsurface of Glacial 

Lake Agassiz (Winter, 1967).

The most recent summary of the history of Lake Agassiz is

27
by Elson (1967). The most recent summary of the glacial history of the entire basin is by Wright and Ruhe (1965). Zoltai 

(1967), and Matsch and Wright (1967) authored the most recent 

reports on the outlets of Lake Agassiz. Tamplin (1967) prepared a very informative summary of studies of Glacial Lake 

Agassiz up to 1967 that includes the earliest reports of the 

1800's. ,: r.-. f M -. , . , . 

Glacial drift is made up largely of till which is a heterogeneous mixture of clay, silt, sand and gravel (fig. 13). 

However, there are many other types of deposits that are included in glacial drift such as outwash and ice-contact deposits. Glacial till also contains numerous buried lenses of 

stratified sands, gravels, silts, and clays, that are deposited 

simultaneously with the till, often along the margin of the 

glacier or in the general vicinity of the glacier. Some buried 

sand and gravel could be buried outwash plains. The buried 

sand units range from a few inches in thickness to many feet 

and can cover many square miles. . ,; 

Figure 13.--Closeup view of glacial till near 

Clearbrook shows rocks ranging to cobble size 

in a matrix of silt and clay. Note the shrinkage cracks typical of this type of till.

28
Thickness of the glacial drift in the Red River basin 

ranges from less than 50 feet to more than 600 feet (fig. 14). 

In most of the area the drift is between 200 and 400 feet 

thick. The thickest sections of drift occur in the morainal 

area in Clearwater and Becker Counties. The glacial drift is 

thinnest in an area near Herman in Grant County where it is 

less than 100 feet thick and east of the Red Lakes in Beltrami 

and Koochiching Counties where it is less than 50 feet thick. 

Bedrock outcrops at a point near Kelliher. The isopach lines 

on this map represent the thickness of the glacial drift plus 

the Cretaceous rocks in much of the basin. They do not include 

Cretaceous rocks in an area in the northwestern part of the 

basin and the southern part of the basin where the supplemental 

bedrock contours were drawn on the geologic map (fig. 12).

Inclusion of the Cretaceous rocks in the total drift 

thickness is necessary because of the lack of. data for separating the Cretaceous rock from the drift in most drill holes. 

Where the Cretaceous can be identified, it is generally less 

than 50 feet and in most of the area less than 25 feet thick. 

Therefore, we believe the isopach lines would not change significantly, even if the Cretaceous were separated. Inclusion 

is justified, also, because in the areas where the Cretaceous 

is thin and is not connected to the Cretaceous rocks in North 

Dakota the Cretaceous is essentially part of the ground-water 

flow system in the glacial drift.

Glacial drift in the morainal area in the east-central 

part of the basin is generally sandier than the till in the 

upper part of the moraine in the western part of the area and 

in the portions of the basin underlying Lake Agassiz sediments. 

This latter glacial till generally has a silty matrix. Rock 

fragments in the drift are largely limestone, dolomite, granitic rocks, and other igneous and metamorphic rocks. All the 

tills generally are calcareous except in their upper weathered 

portions.

Lake Agassiz sediments have a significant effect on the 

hydrologic system in the Red River basin because they are extremely fine-grained, thick, and widespread. Sand deposits 

that occur immediately west of the beach ridges generally are 

very fine to fine grained and have a thickness of no more than 

10 to 15 feet. The silts and clays which lie in the westernmost part of the Lake Agassiz basin within Minnesota range in 

thickness from less than 1 foot to more than 140 feet. The 

clays tend to be thickest in the westernmost part of the area. 

Lake Agassiz clays contain some silt lenses that have a slightly greater permeability than the clay deposits. According to 

investigators in North Dakota (for example, Dennis, Akin, and 

Worts, 1949), the glacial lake clay can be separated into two

29
N

Line otequal thickness of 

glacial drift

, Interval, 50 feet

Includes Cretaceous sediments

where they may occur, except

in the areas outlined

. Jo 0 10 20 30 40 MILES 

I I . L I I

Figure 14.--Thickness of the glacial drift ranges from about 

600 feet in eastern Becker County to less than 50 feet east 

of the Red Lakes.

30
units a lower clay unit and an upper silt unit. The upper

unit ranges in thickness from 10 to 30 feet (Manz, 1956).

Clays below about 5 feet consist largely of montmorillonite.

Since the glacial drift is the main source of ground water 

and forms the bulk of the ground-water reservoir, individual 

types of geologic units that are significant aquifers are discussed in greater detail in figure 15. These include sand 

lenses within till, ice-contact deposits (fig. 16), outwash 

deposits, beach ridges (fig. 17), and buried linear deposits 

(figs. 18 and 19).

Hydrography

Hydrographic features in the Red River drainage basin include natural rivers, ditches, lakes, and wetlands. The morphological characteristics of each is controlled largely by 

geology and topography. Because the characteristics of rivers 

(including ditches) are markedly different from lakes and wetlands, each will be treated separately. The description of 

the hydrography is intended to give a general picture of the 

surface waters of the basin. Streamflow characteristics are 

treated much more intensively in the following sections of the 

report.

Rivers

River systems in the Red River of the North basin vary in 

size and shape depending on the geology and .topography; therefore, this discussion will focus on the characteristics of 

rivers of different size in the three physiographic regions. 

The morphological characteristics considered of major importance to hydrologic analysis are channel characteristics such 

as type of banks, channel capacity, and channel slope.

For purposes of this report, the streams considered to be 

major tributaries are Mustinka, Otter Tail, Pelican, Buffalo, 

Wild Rice, Sand Hill, Red Lake, Thief, Clearwater, Snake, Middle, Tamarac, Two, and Roseau Rivers (see fig. 20). All other 

streams are considered to be minor tributaries.

Minor streams !"

In the morainal area, these small streams generally begin 

as small rivulets that form from overland flow. Often they do 

not have well-defined banks and flow along only low depressions 

in the land surface. In places the streams have eroded the 

land surface to where banks a few feet high have been developed 

(fig. 20 D and H). Minor streams are commonly characterized by

31
N

Beach Ridge deposits

Buried linear deposits in 

Lake Agassiz sediments

For further information, 

see fable on.following page

Figure 15.--Large amounts of ground water are available from 

some of the known aquifers such as the ice-contact and outwash sand and gravel.

32
Lltbolodc characteristic*' Water-bearing characteristics TtansmlsBlvlty Potential for future development 

Sand unit* within till_________________

tentlal for future development _________V "~~9~*H- - ^''fj'* **^J " t4oi*^r\ "OtO t»fl.il*»,- POS'l^T |fl HlfiHH PTSOTCX^ 

| 2 I

Sand, fine, to gravel. Coareer la 

southern and eastern part*.

Sand, medium, containing much 

coarse sand to fine gravel.

Sand and gravel (detailed description not available).

Sand, fine to medium, contains 

lenses of gravel in eastern half.

430' Reported yields range from lets

than 10 gpm for farm well* to 300 

gpa for municipal wells.

> 100' Ho high-yield wells reported In 

area. Yields «f several hundred 

gpa could be expected.

Yields of several hundred gpn were 

obtained in the Moorhead area, but 

this pumpage exceeded recharge. 

Probably could yield up to 100 gpn 

on a sustained basis.

up to Yields of several hundred gpm 

100' could be expected, locally.

CEI Sand overlain by silt In eastern 

part. Silt in western part.

Sand and gravel containing silt 

layers. Sandier in northwestern 

part than in southeastern part 

where large amounts of clay occur 

in the aquifer.

Sand and gravel.

Sand and gravel.

Sand and (ravel.

Sand and gravel.

20'-50' Yield* of about ko gpm reported. 

Yields up to 100 gpm could be 

expected, locally.

}'-45* Yield* of about kO gpa reported. Up to 10,000 Fair. Currently undeveloped. 

Yields up to 100 gpn could be (estimated),

expected, locally.

< 20' Yields of about 1»0 gpm reported. 

Yields up to 100 gpa could be 

expected, locally.

5'-30' Yields of several hundred gpm are 

obtained at Roseau and can be expected at other places also.

Up to Yields up to 60 gpa reported. 

50' Yields of 100 to 150 gpm could 

be expected, locally.

Up to Yields up to 60 gpm reported. 

5O' Yields of 100 to 150 gpm could 

be expected, locally.

locally

Up to 10,000 Fair. Currently undeveloped, 

(estimated), 

locally

25,000 Good. Relatively undeveloped, 

(calculated)

Up to 20,000 Good. Currently undeveloped, 

(estimated), 

locally

Up to 20,000 Good. Currently undeveloped, 

(estimated), 

locally

Outwash deposits

15,000 Good. Currently supplies water to I o 

(estimated) most municipalities within its area.

100,000 Excellent. Currently undeveloped, 

(estimated)

fair. Aquifer was overpumped in the 

Moorhead area.

10,000 (calcu- Good. Currently undeveloped, 

lated). Could 

be as high as

30,000 

(estimated)

Up to 10,000 Fair. Currently undeveloped, 

(estimated), 

locally

Ice-contact deposits

Uand and gravel. Predominantly 

medium sand to medium gravel, 

stratified, veil s«fted (see fig. 

16). Commonly contains layer* of 

till, clay and *llt. Grades laterally imto seat/ till alone oca of 

It*

Largely Yields greater than 500 gpa have 50,000-100,000 Excellent. Italatlvely undeveloped. 

50'-100' been reported. (estimated)

Yields greater than 1000 gpa could

be expected locally.

Sand and gravel. Predominantly Largely Yields from irrigation wells gen- 20,000-60,000. Excellent. Use for irrigation

fine to medium sand containing 20'-80', erally range from 300-600 gpm. Up to 200,000, pile* 1* increasing rapidly,

much coarse sand to medium graveL >100' Yields greater than 1000 gpo could locally south

well sorted. Lenses of silt occur locally be expected locally. For a more of Rush Lake

locally. Boundary Is indefinite detailed appraisal of aquifer see and west of

along much of west and south edges Reeder (1970). Little Pine

where it grades into Ice-contact ' Lake. 

sand and gravel.

____ ___ ______________Beach Ridge deposits____________________________;____________

Sand, fine to coarse. Including 

lenses of fine to medium gravel, 

well sorted (see fig. 17). 

The area outlined shows the beach 

ridge zone. Individual ridges 

within the tone range from less 

than one to tens of miles in length 

and in width from a few hundred 

feet to more than a mile where 

several occur close together.

Only a few Yields range from about 5 to SO gpm. 5000-15,000 

feet at Yields of not more than 30 gpm (estimated) 

edges to could be expected. The smaller In the thick30 '-35' at beach ridges do not yield depend- est saturated 

thickest able supplies to -veils. The aqul- sections 

part. fere are under water-table conditions and/abou^onlyt their lower

half is saturated.

fair. Relatively

Burled linear deposits in Lake Agas8l« aedlaenta

Sand and gravel, contains many in- 20'-100', Yields greater than 1000 gpn have 50,000-90,000 Excellent. Relatively undeveloped.

150' been obtained south of Lake Bronson. (calculated) 

locally Yields of seven! hundred gpm could In Halma-Lake 

be obtained in tbe better part* of Bronson area. 

the aquifer In other areas. Less than

50,000 el*evhere.

>100' No large* yield veils in aquifer. Op to 20,000

in thick- Could yield several hundred gpm to locally

est parts wells in best parts of aquifer. (estimated)

terbeds of silt and clay. lateral 

and vertical variations in grain 

size are great. Coarsest sediments 

are In the Halma-Lake Bronson area 

(described In Schlner, 1963) and in 

the oefctixjl axial part of the aquifer elsewhere. Configuration of '' 

deposit*; shown on figure 18.

Sand, fine to medium containing 

coarse sand locally in central 

axial part, grades to very fine 

sand luiit nllt tuwnrtl InUml 

boundaries.

Sand, fine, to gravel. 1m part of >100' Yields of 350 gpa reported. Could 300,000 (calcuaqulfer consists of medium to in thick- probably yield this amount in axial lated near Dllcoarse sand and occurs in the axial est parts part throughout much of It* length, worth. Probaband lower part. Sand grades to ly less than 

very fine sand, silt, and clay 100,000 in 

toward lateral boundaries. Much of other parts. 

,1njouU. owr.lttln by nnynml r««»l of 

lacustrine clay. (Dee fig. 19).

Sand, fine to coarse, contains much 70' Yields less than 50 gpm could be 6,000 to 8,000 

gravel near Argyle. Centrsn. axial in thick- developed except near Argyle where (calculated) 

part of aquifer contains coarsest est part greater yields could be developed, near Stephen^ 

sand. Deposit described in greater to 10,000 (esdetail by Maclay and Schlner (1962). tluated) near 

Much of rt*pp«tt overlftln by m 

foet of iaoustrlna clay,

Excellent. Undeveloped.

Excellent. Relatively undeveloped. 

Currently serves a* supplemental 

source for Moorhead.

Fair. Currently daveloptd for 

Anyl* supply-
 V*? -'* ' '

*»*«

Figure 16.--The stratified (photo A) and coarse-grained material 

(photo B) typical of ice-contact deposits is clearly shown in 

a gravel pit south of Perham.

33 - " ':'' : . - : ' - :.' ..''
Figure 17.--The stratification (photo A) and grain size 

(photo B) are typical of beach ridge deposits. Photos 

taken in a gravel pit near Gonvick.
EXPLANATION

Out wash

Largely sand and gravel, but 

contains many silt and cloy 

lenses toward the sides and 

the southern end.

Glacial Drift 

Largely till, but contains 

lenses of silt, sand, and gravel 

and lake deposits of preMankato age.

uo

VJ1

Base of sections

at 700 feet 

above mean sea level

Figure 18.--Unit A^ a linear sand and gravel deposit within Lake A

extends from near the Canadian border southward into the central 

County. The thickest sections of outwash^ which also contain th

gravelj occur in the Halma-Lake Bronson area (sections C and D). 

on several sections shows an alternate shape the outwash deposit

tain thin sections of till are considered part of the outwash de
uo 

cr\

EXPLANATION

Glacial Lake Sediments 

Largely clay and silt

mm

Outwash

Largely sand, but contains, 

some gravel, locally. Silty 

toward the sides.

Glacial Drift 

Largely till, but contains 

lenses of silt, sand, and gravel 

May contain lake deposits 

of pre-Man>ato age.

USGS Test hole

Base of sec

at 700 fe

above mean 

Figure 19. Unit C >. a linear sand and gravel deposit within Lake Ag

a narrow ridge of sand generally less than a mile wide and over S

sand contains much gravel in the area east of Moorhead (T.139 N.).
steep slopes in their uppermost reaches, particularly in the 

morainal area, before they enter lakes and wetlands. The lower 

reaches commonly are short channels connecting the lakes and 

swamps sometimes rushing quite rapidly to the next lake and 

other times winding slowly through marshy wetlands.

Ditches are a special type of minor stream. They are most 

common in the western part of the morainal area and in the area 

of Glacial Lake Agassiz, where, according to Hochbaum (196?) 

"Now there is no region in the world where agricultural drainage is so intensive as within the prairie watershed of Glacial 

Lake Agassiz." In the morainal area ditches were dug mainly 

to drain small depressions and prairie potholes, which are 

small lakes that hold water all or part of the year, and generally are ringed by a marshy border. Pothole drainage probably reaches a maximum in Minnesota in Mahnomen County, where 

about 50 percent, or possibly more, of the potholes have been 

drained (Hochbaum, 1967). The ditches themselves are usually 

shallow and have moderately sloping banks. In most cases the 

channel slopes are quite flat, but, occasionally a ditch is 

seen that has a steep channel slope, and the channel is actually being eroded.

In the lake plain and lake-washed till plain the need for 

ditching was recognized by the first settlers to the area. 

Particularly in the region near the Red River, broad shallow 

lakes were formed in wet years along many of the tributary 

streams. Flooding was extremely common in the vast, flat retion and the water would stand for long periods of time. The 

extremely dense network of ditches was established to make this 

fertile area suitable for farming. The ditches range in size 

from the very broad, shallow, grass-lined ditches, which are 

found in nearly every field, to the large Judicial ditches 

which extend for many miles. The main arteries formed by the 

Judicial ditches (ditches established by district courts) could 

almost be considered major tributaries in some cases. Many are 

up to 10 feet deep with well defined banks and channels. Some 

are choked with vegetation and are relatively ineffective. The 

ditches in the vast peatlands in the lake-washed till plain 

often were dug without regard to the subtle watershed divides 

in this area and are essentially useless. Where the ditches 

cross the area of steep land slopes at the eastern edge of the 

lake plain active erosion of the channel occurs.

Major tributaries

Tributaries that head in the morainal area commonly flow 

from lake to lake in their uppermost reaches. The channel 

sizes in the reaches throughout the morainal area vary considerably. They commonly change quite abruptly from shallow

37
RED RIVER OF THE NORTH

Mil» 456.00

780 

760 

740(

1

-

1

"\

V

1

\\J

\

s

1

 ^-J~

-

) 200 400 600 800 1000 12C

Mil* 456

Mil* 320

200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 

FHT

860 

840

«70

1

h

1

Y.

i

i

y

r

i

i

-

i

Mil* 67.91

940 

9JO,

-

-

i

2C

vVN_

1

K> 4(

/

1

1

r ""

1 W 600 8(

1

~- -^

1

1

-

1

)0 1000 120

Mil*

EXPLANATION

r Approximate discharge at bankfull stage 

} far natural channel

. Mile 68 

 River mile, from outlet of Mud lake

14.50

Reoch of channel improvement for flood 

control

' Numbers indicate design capacity which 

provide for floods with approximately 

I foot of free board (From U.S. Army 

Corps of Engineers, written communication)

Location of 

photograph

Direction of view 

from location

TO 10 40 MILES

Figure 20."Channel characteristics of the Red River and major 

tributaries vary considerably as the streams traverse the area 

from the morainal uplands to the flat lake plain. A) Mustinka 

River near Wheaton; G) Two Rivers near Hallock; D) Wild Rice 

River near headwaters in moraine (near Zerkel); C) Wild Rice 

River near edge of morainal area (near Twin Valley); B) Wild 

Rice River in lake plain (near Ada); H) Shotley Brook near 

Upper Red Lake; F) Clearwater River at Red Lake Falls; E) Red 

Lake River near Crookston.

38
39
channels with very low, inconspicuous banks in the swampy areas 

to well-defined channels with low to high banks in the other 

reaches. In the reaches where the streams are contained by 

conspicuous banks lateral cutting is common.

The streams that head in and flow across the lake-washed 

till plain generally are contained by low banks. Some of these 

streams have had man-made modifications, principally channel 

straightening, for much of their length (see fig. 20). The 

exception is the Roseau River which has surprisingly welldeveloped channels upstream from Roseau where it decends quite 

sharply from Beltrami Island.

Where streams cross the eastern edge of the lake plain 

they flow in well-defined channels, and are actively eroding. 

Striking examples of well-defined channels are along the Red 

Lake River and Clearwater River near Red Lake Falls, where they 

are bound by banks about 100 feet high ( fig. 20F).

In the lake plain nearly all the tributaries flow within 

well-developed channels with low banks. Although slumping 

banks and other evidences of erosion are seen, in general, the 

tributary streams are not severely eroding in this area. As is 

typical of streams flowing in areas of low slope, nearly all of 

these tend to meander. Many of the streams have had some type 

of land modification by man along part of their reach in the 

lake plain. The photographs keyed to the map in figure 20 show 

the changing character of selected streams in the Red River 

basin.

Longitudinal profiles of the Red Lake River (fig. 21) and 

the Wild Rice River (fig. 22) were constructed to compare a 

major stream heading in the lake-washed till plain with one 

heading in the moraine. The profile of Red Lake River shows 

the flatness of the lake-washed till plain separated from the 

flatness of the lake plain by a steep slope between mile 90 and 

100, near Red Lake Falls. The profile for the Wild Rice River 

shows the sharp drop in elevation where it traverses the end 

moraine in its upper reaches above Mahnomen. From Mahnomen to 

the edge of Glacial Lake Agassiz the river flows across ground 

moraine and the slope flattens considerably. The river then 

flows across the eastern edge of the lake plain the beach 

ridge area and the slope increases again to near Ada. Westward 

from Ada the river crosses the very flat central part of the 

lake plain. The length, slope, and other pertinent data on some 

of the major tributaries within the Red River basin are shown in 

table 1.

Channel capacities for selected points on the tributaries 

are shown on figure 20. These range from less than 200 cfs in

40


Table 1. Physical data on the major tributaries to the 

Red River of the North in Minnesota

River

Mustinka

Rabbit

Otter Tail

Buffalo

Wild Rice

Marsh

Sand Hill

Red Lake

Snake

Tamarac

Two

Roseau

Red (headwaters to

Drainage 

Area 

(sq mi)

869

321

2,043

1,143

1,653

300

480

5,711

760

365

1,067

2,060

40,200

Approx. 

Length 

(mi)

68

26

200

88

193

46

104

196

60

47

76

180

394

Elev. at 

Source 

(ft above 

msl)

1,135

1,060

1,510

1,400

1,500

919

1,300

1,174

1,085

1,050

1,074

947

Elev. at 

Mouth 

(ft above 

msl)

976

955

947

851

832

815

804

794

769

766

755

750

Fall 

(ft)

159

105

563

549

768

115

496

380

316

284

319

197

Mean 

Slope 

(ft/mi)

2.34

4.04

2.82

6.24

3.46

2.26

4.77

"1.94

5.27 .

6.04

4.20

0.50

international boundary)
some streams in the morainal area to over 10,000 cfs in the 

lower reach of the Red Lake River. In most 'areas, capacities 

increase downstream, but in the Red River basin there are many 

exceptions, such as the Roseau River. At Ross, the' Roseau 

River has a bankfull capacity of 2,500 cfs, but in the swamplands below this site the capacity decreases to about 700 cfs. 

In order to provide for flood flow, channel capacities have 

been increased on most of the rivers in the lake plain area. 

Generally, the modified channels are designed to have a capacity 

which will provide for flood flows having a 10-year recurrence 

interval with 1 foot of freeboard.

Red River of the North

The Red River of the North begins at the confluence of 

Otter Tail and Bois de Sioux Rivers near Breckenridge, Minn. 

The river flows in a natural channel throughout its entire 

length to the Canadian Border except for local leveeing at 

Breckenridge, Moorhead, and East Grand Porks. The very low 

slope and nearly homogeneous, fine-grained material across which 

the Red River flows cause it to be almost a classic example of 

a meandering river. The river flows about 395 miles from 

Breckenridge to Canada a direct line distance of about 190 

miles. Slumping banks, cutoff channels and scour and fill are 

evidence that the river is actively eroding its banks and modifying its channel throughout its length. Cross sections of the 

channel of the Red River of the North show the general deepening and widening of its channel between Breckenridge and the 

Canadian border (fig. 20). Bankfull capacity of the Red River 

ranges from about 2,000 cfs at Breckenridge to more than 20,000 

cfs below its confluence with the Red Lake River.

Lakes and Wetlands

Distribution of lakes and wetlands in the Red River basin 

is related very closely to physiography.' For example, lakes 

are very common in the morainal area but almost nonexistent in 

the Glacial Lake Agassiz region. The notable exceptions to this 

are the reservoir lakes such as the Upper and Lower Red Lakes, 

Lake Traverse, and Lake Bronson.

Potholes and wetlands are very abundant in the morainal 

area. Wetlands are also common in the low areas between beach 

ridges. The extremely large area of peat in the lake-washed till 

plain is a special type of wetland and is part of one of the most 

extensive peatlands in the United States.
Lakes

Upper and Lower Red Lakes, covering 288,800 acres, comprise the largest body of water lying entirely within Minnesota. 

Their stages are currently controlled at the outlet of Lower Red 

Lake, but even at the natural level the lakes covered nearly 

this area.

The morainal area of the Red River basin contains one of 

the largest concentrations of natural lakes in Minnesota. 

Throughout most of the morainal area the concentration is 

greater than 21 lakes per township. The lakes range in size 

from 10 acres the smallest body of water included in the Department of Conservation's Inventory of" Lakes to 13,85^4 acres 

Otter Tail Lake (Minnesota Department of Conservation, Division 

of Waters, Soils, and Minerals, 1968).

Shorelines of the lakes are highly variable even around 

individual lakes. They range from flat, swampy peatlands to 

wave-cut cliffs or sharp steep banks formed in glacial till, 

that have local relief up to 100 feet. Depths of lakes vary 

considerably depending upon local topography. Generally, the 

deeper lakes with the more rugged shorelines are in the most 

hummocky part of the morainal area. The smaller lakes in .the 

western part of the morainal area, commonly referred to as 

potholes, are shallow lakes with gently sloping shorelines. 

These are often ringed by a zone of rooted aquatic plants and 

willow and boxelder trees. Wetlands in the morainal area have 

much the same hydrologic characteristics as lakes. The major 

difference between the two is that sediment accumulation in 

the wetlands has filled in the lake basin*

To bring some semblance of order to the widely varying 

factors affecting lakes it is necessary to classify them into 

natural groupings. Zumberge (1952) classified the lakes of 

Minnesota according to their geologic origin but did not attempt to delineate the areas of various lake types on a map. 

Moyle (1956) and Bright (1968) classified the lakes of Minnesota 

into very general categories based on water chemistry. These 

are very useful classifications but none are based on the total 

environment of the lakes. Because of the wide variations in 

each of the factors affecting lakes.and the great amount of 

study needed on all of them, the ideal classification will probably take some time to develop. Of the major factors such as 

climate, geology, topography, and drainage.area, for a general 

classification for hydrologic purposes, geology and topography 

are of primary importance.

The lakes in the morainal area are grouped into three basic 

types (fig. 23): 1) Lakes in the very hummocky morainal area

45
Area of no lakes 

(Glacial Lake Agassiz pla

Area of lakes In glacial Ice-contact or outwash areas underlain by sand and gravel - lakes 

are usually quite deep, but have a lesser amount 

of sediment on the bottom than the lakes underlain by till. Productivity is high, but not as high 

as in lakes underlain by till and aquatic plants 

are usually less abundant. The water table in 

the land surrounding the lake is usually fairly 

flat because of the high transmissibtlity of the 

sand and gravel. Lakes in this setting are 

usually clear and nave a good interconnection 

with the ground-water system. ;

Area of lakes in very hilly, glacial moraine 

underlain by glacial till - lakes are usually 

deep and have a thick accumulation of sediment 

on the bottom. Productivity (the total living 

organisms) in this type of lake is high and 

aquatic plants are usually abundant. The water 

table gradient is generally quite steep in the 

hills surrounding the lake because of the 

tightness of the till. This causes high potential 

but slow ground-water movement to the lake 

and is the reason for the occurrence of many 

springs surrounding these lakes.

' Area of lakes in gently rolling glacial moraine 

underlain by glacial till (prairie potholes) - lakes 

and marshes are usually shallow and have a 

relatively large accumulation of sediment on 

the bottom. Productivity is extremely high and 

aquatic plants usually cover the entire lake 

area. The water table gradient in the surrounding 

land is not steep and at certain times of the year 

might actually be lower away from the lake than 

in the lake. Indicating potential recharge to the 

ground-water system. However, the impermeability of the bottom sediments probably allows 

only a small amount of water to move into or 

out of the ground water system.

Figure 23.--Lakes in the Red River basin are classified according to their geologic and

topographic setting into 3 types.
underlain by till. This lake type is characterized by highly 

variable slopes of the bottom and surrounding hillsides that 

range up to several tens of feet in local relief. They are 

generally the deeper lakes and sediment accumulation can be 

tens of feet thick. 2) Lakes in areas of outwash and icecontact deposits underlain by sand and gravel. This type is 

also characterized by highly variable shoreline relief and 

deep water in the ice-contact areas, but fairly low shoreline 

relief and shallow water in the outwash areas. Sediment accumulation generally is less in these lakes than in the other 

two types. 3) Lakes in the gently rolling glacial moraine 

underlain by till. This type of lake is usually shallow with 

low sloping shorelines/ Sediment accumulation is relatively 

rapid and many have aquatic plants growing over the entire 

bottom.

Wetlands

This section of the report is concerned only with the wetlands in the basin of Glacial Lake Agassiz (wetlands in the 

morainal area were discussed in the section on lakes). The 

wetlands in the areas between beach ridges are fairly continuous 

but do not cover a large area. In general, they are fed by 

seepage from the precipitation that infiltrates into the sandy 

beach ridges. Peat accumulation is not great, probably no more 

than a few feet.

The wetlands in the lake-washed till plain are a part of a 

vast peatland that covers much of north-central Minnesota. Peat 

accumulation is more than 10 feet thick in places. Much of the 

peat is nearly completely saturated, but attempts to drain the 

entire wetland beginning in the 1920 T s has met with little success. The ditches, dug at mile intervals across most of the 

area, crossed watershed divides and little water actually 

drained from the area. Vegetation patterns that occur in this 

area (see Heinselman, 1963), which are probably related to natural water movement in the peat, were essentially unaffected by 

the .ditches. Much of the land along the margins of the'wetland 

that was drained for farming has since been abandoned and is reverting to wetland. :

WATER RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

As clean water becomes increasingly important to people 

and their activities, management of the water in the best interest of all becomes essential. It is important not only to 

solve the present water problems wisely, but to anticipate what 

the future holds. A seemingly adequate solution might be very

4?
temporary in duration,and might actually aggravate a future 

problem. . . : ,

In the past water management in the region has been largely for flooding, drainage, and water supply. The Garrison 

diversion unit is planned to divert 8,850 cfs (cubic feet per 

second) from the Missouri River drainage, at Garrison Reservoir 

to the ; Red River, the Souris.and the James River drainages for 

irrigation and municipal-industrial uses. Also included as 

part of the Garrison diversion plan are measures for flood control, drainage of non-irrigable lands, and pollution abatement. 

Much of the water management prior to 1967 has included major 

flood-control projects, local, flood protection projects, watershed protection projects, fish and wildlife developments, land 

drainage, and some irrigation. A considerable number of manmade reservoirs, large and small, have been constructed particularly in North Dakota. The largest of these is Lake Ashtabula 

on the Sheyenne River, which holds about 69,000 acre-feet of 

usable storage.

In the Red.River basin many water problems currently exist 

(fig. 24). It is a:region of water scarcity in some places and 

overabundance in others.. .Some of.the water is very pure and 

some is unusable for many purposes. Some areas flood annually 

and ,other> rarely flood. The principal concerns of the people 

in .the Red River basin regarding water are water supply, floods, 

pollution, drainage, and recreation.

 - .. ",' Water Supply

. ,-.: ; Sources of Water for .Supplies

Primary considerations- in the management of water supply 

are: 1) Location .and amount of the supply. 2) Accessibility can .it be brought, .to. the user? 3) Dependability can the 

supply be relied on for a long period of time and under adverse 

climatic conditions.? 4) Quality is the natural, quality of 

the water suitable for the intended-use? Table 2 shows the advantages and disadvantages of ground water and surface water in 

regard to the four considerations above. . ' 

In the following section of this report location, amount, 

and dependability of water sources and the natural quality of 

the water is discussed. Accessibility is not treated in detail 

because this .depends largely, on the location of the intended 

user and' engineering aspects of carrying water.
N

JCLEARWATERJ] C '*~S~"'

EXPLANATION

Physiographic boundary

Poor quality ground water

Pollution

Figure 24.--Most major water problems occur in the lake plain

and lake-washed till plain.
Table 2. Advantages and disadvantages of ground water and sur

as sources of water supply

SURFACE WATER GROUND 

Location

and 

amount

Surface-water is easily located Ground water can 

where surficial d

good possibility 

bearing.

Amount of surface water is not large 

in some areas, even with storage.

In most places ex

drilling or other 

necessary to loca

of supplying high

is true even for 

Locally, even obt

ply is sometimes 

o

Accessibility Surface water is readily accessible 

to riparian land owners.

With or without e

water is generall

most people regar

live. 

For the large number of people not 

living along streams and lakes, surface water is generally not available. Even if they had the right 

to take water, the cost of physically transporting water is an important economic factor.

Locally, an aquif

plying highr yield 

in the immediate 

nicipality may ha

miles to obtain a 
Dependability Because streamflow can be observed 

and measured it is possible to calculate the amount of water that 

will probably be available for any 

length of time.

Data is already available at some 

locations on many of the streams.

Streamflow is highly variable in 

most streams in the basin. Dependable water supplies of almost any 

size require storage reservoirs.

Ground-water sour

very dependable. 

not exceed natura

normally be used 

time including du

droughts.

Determining the s

aquifer is diffic

done with the sam

curacy as for a s

Ordinarily the da

and it is costly 

surficial aquifer

dependable during 

Quality Surface water is generally low in 

total dissolved solids and is fairly 

uniform over the entire Red River 

basin.

Treatment is generally necessary to 

remove suspended sediments and organic matter that is hazardous to 

health.

Temperature and color varies 

widely over the year at any location along the river.

Ground water is g

quality for most 

varies over the b

does not vary at 

time. Temperatur

throughout the ye

organic pollution 

problem.

Certain chemical 

as hardness and i

many places and t

necessary.

In some areas, 

western corner of 

water is unaccept

consumption.
Surface water

Approximately 0.7x10° million gallons of water per year 

are available for management from streams or from aquifers 

within^'the watershed assuming no reuse of water. The availability of surface water as streamflow throughout the Red 

River of the North basin is shown on figure 25. The diagram 

shows the theoretical maximum quantity of streamflow that 

could be developed for a water supply. .Since storage of high 

flows would be required to approach complete utilization of 

the average flow, consideration must be given to storage and 

transmission .losses and evaporation. The significant variations in average streamflow are related to the differences in 

land characteristics such as=the geology, and topography and 

variation in the regional precipitation pattern.

Variations in basin characteristics are complex within 

the Red River of the North basin in Minnesota because of the 

contrasting physiography in the moraine, lake plain, and lakewashed till plain. In the morainal area streams generally 

yield a higher average flow per squar.e mile than those in the 

lake plain. The Otter Tail, Wild Rice, and Red Lake Rivers, 

all of which head in the morainal area, have the largest average annual flow although many smaller streams within the moraine have equally as large yields per square mile. Examples 

of streams having low yields (basins are mostly within the 

lake plain) are the Mustinka^ South Branch Buffalo, Middle 

River, and Two Rivers. Streams within the lake-washed till 

plain generally have greater yield than those in the lake plain 

but less than the streams in the moraine. The exception to 

this is the Roseau River which has a yield comparable to those 

streams in the morainal area. The high yield is.probably 

caused by the presence of two large sandy areas that lie partially within its watershed. The integrated effect on the 

areal variability is the average flow in the Red River of the 

North. The tributaries from Minnesota contribute heavily to 

the average, flow of the Red River of the North and^ interestingly, the Otter Tail and Red Lake Rivers contribute one-half 

the average flow to the main stem at Breckenridge and East 

Grand Forks, Minn., respectively, where each joins the Red 

River. The average annual flow from the tributaries in Minnesota is equivalent to 1.7 inches of water over the entire basin 

and is the residual from an average annual precipitation of 21 

inches~on the basin as a whole.

The annual mean discharge varies from year to year and is 

dependent upon the vagary of weather and the antecedent moisture conditions within the basin. The frequency characteristics of annual mean discharges at the 10-year recurrence interval for 26 selected sites in the basin are shown on figure 26.

52
N

Red River of the North 

and Red Lake River

and Tributaries AH other Tributaries 

of the Red River

Width of pattern along stream indicates 

1 j approximate average flow in .cubic feef. 

,J per second (1931-64 wafer years)

Figure 25.--The average flow is the theoretical maximum quantity 

of streamflow that could be developed for a water supply. 

Losses of water which would occur through seepage and evaporation while in storage and during transmission from reservoir 

to user must be considered.

53
N

Upper number is the annuol mean discharge 

which will be exceeded at the 10-year 

recurrence interval. The probability 

of exceedance in any one year 

would be 10 percent.

Lower number is the annual mean discharge 

which will not be exceeded at the 10-year 

recurrence interval. The probability 

of non-exceedance in any one year 

would be 10 percent.

Physiographic boundary

Figure 26 . - -Ten-year high and low annual mean discharge 

is shown for selected sites in the basin to facilitate 

regional comparison.
The annual mean discharge at the sites will be greater than 

the higher figure and less than the lower figure on an average 

of once in 10 years. The probability of exceedance of the t 

higher figure or nonexceedance of the lower figure in any one 

year would be 10 percent.

A knowledge of the probability of recurrence of extremes 

of annual mean discharge is useful in understanding the hydrology and characteristics of surface runoff of a basin. A 

preliminary analysis of streamflow might entail a consideration of the usefulness of a stream for a surface supply with 

or without storage. The suitability of such a supply and the 

acceptable cost-benefit ratio might be weighted against the 

10-year low annual mean discharge. The ratio of the high to 

low 10-year annual mean discharge is an indication of the 

yearly variability of a stream and the figures on the map can 

be used for comparing one stream with another, and in delineating general areal surface water availability. A large 

ratio indicates areas which do not have a large yearly carryover or residual surface and ground-water storage.

The daily mean flow is subject to seasonal variations, 

and dependable supplies are governed by low flows in the late 

summer, fall, and winter when streams have receded to their 

minimum because of evapotranspirative demands and reduced 

ground-water inflow during the winter freezeup. The average 

low flows of streams within the Red River basin within Minnesota are shown on table 3- The table shows various low-flow . 

parameters computed for 17 gaging stations. These sites have 

been selected because the data shown describes the low-"flow 

characteristics of the major streams throughout the basin.

The 7-day average low flow, the low 10-year annual mean 

discharge, and the streamflow that is exceeded 90 percent of 

the time are of particular significance in hydrologic studies 

relating to water supply and waste disposal in streams. A 

more complete discussion of the mean 7-day low flow (that which 

occurs on the average once every 2 years) is found in the section on the hydrologic system. Streams in small drainage 

basins will have different low-flow characteristics than those 

shown in the table and many cease to flow nearly every year. 

Most streams receive little dry weather flow in the lake plain 

and the lake-washed till plain; but exceptions are streams receiving substantial discharge from springs in ground-water discharge areas, and those flowing through deposits of sand and 

gravel.

Since all streams in the Red River of the North basin are 

characterized by variability in discharge and if the anticipated demand is greater than the natural supply either an alternate supply must be provided, such as ground water, or

55
Table 3. Low-flow data for streams in the Red River of the North basin in Minnesota

Map Key 

(fig. 29)

1

2

3

1

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

11

15

16

17

Gaging Station

Mustinka River above Wheaton

Otter Tail River below Orwell

Dam, near Fergus Falls

Pelican River near Fergus Falls

Red River of the North at 

Fargo, N. Dak.

Buffalo River near Dilworth

Wild Rice River at Twin Valley

Wild Rice River at Hendrum

Sandhill River at Climax

Red Lake River at Crookston

Clearwater River at Red Lake 

Falls

Thief River near Thief River 

Falls

Middle River at Argyle

Red River of the North at 

Grand Forks, N. Dak.

Two Rivers below Hallock

Red River of the North at 

Emerson, Manitoba, Canada

Roseau River at Ross

Roseau River below South 

Fork near Malting

7 

Period of f 

record - 

(water years)

1916-17, 1919- 

21, 1931-58

1931-61

1910-12, 

1913-65

1902-65

1932-65

1910-17, 

1931-65

1915-65

1911-65

1902-65

1910-17, 

1935-65

1910-17, 1921, 

1923-21, 

1929-65

1915, 1951-63

1882-1961

1915-55

1911-65

1929-61

1917-65

-day average minimum discharge 

or indicated recurrence interval:

2-year (cfs)

0

68

16

71

8.5

16

15*

6

200

35

0

0

100

0

130

6.5

1

10 year (cfs)

0

8

0

9

.1

3.8

3*

3

18

12

0

0

88

0

91

1.5

.1

Low 10-year 

3 annual mean 

discharge 

(cfs)

5

50

3 °«

92

33

55

60*

23

210

78

9

7

630

13

900

56

15

Daily discharge 

at 90 percent 

flow duration 

(cfs)

no flow

23

7

105

1"

13

20*

8

80

33

no flow

no flow

195

 3

180

8

8

 Estimated for 1931-61.

X Adjusted for breakthrough (south of Ada) to Marsh River, 1918-52, and extended to period of record 

of gage at Twin Valley.
facilities developed for storing high flow for later release 

during droughts. The storage required to maintain specified 

rates of flow in six tributary basins of the Red River is 

shown in figure 27. All curves are based on low flow of 10- 

year recurrence interval or 1 year out of 10 on the average 

the storage will be deficient to maintain the specified draft 

rates. Draft storage relationships for other recurrence intervals, are shown in the Hydrologic Atlas series-except for 

the Mustinka and Middle River watersheds where low streamflow 

and scarcity of reservoir sites make draft storage analyses 

impractical.

Ground water . ' " 

Most; water that occurs iri geologic materials beneath the 

surface of the earth is ground water. The upper surface .of 

the ground-water system is the water table. Beneath this surface ground water completely fills all the available open 

space, or pore space, between the rock and mineral grains. 

The characteristics of rocks that describe the total pore 

space is termed porosity. Differences in hydraulic potentials 

within the ground-water system either natural or caused by man 

through pumping wells or ditching, etc. causes ground water to 

move within the ground-water system. The rate of water movement is controlled by the differences in hydraulic potential 

and the size and interconnection of pore spaces within the 

rocks. The interconnected pore.spaces provide the avenues 

through which the water moves and is termed hydraulic conductivity (permeability). Hydraulic conductivity, K, is defined 

as the rate of flow of water in gallons per day through a 

cross-sectional area of 1 square foot under a hydraulic gradient of 1 foot per foot at a temperature of 60°P (Ferris and 

others, 1962, p. 72).

Geologic materials within the Red River basin, particularly the drift, contain a wide range of hydraulic conductivity which depends on grain size and sorting. Sorting is a 

characteristic of sediment that describes how uniform or clean 

it is. Well-sorted material has uniform grain size and, hence, 

uniform porosity which generally provides better hydraulic 

conductivity. In poorly sorted material, even though it might 

contain a large percentage of large particles, the pore spaces 

are filled in with finer particles and causes the overall hydraulic conductivity to be low. Glacial, till is an example of 

this type of material. For this reason wells completed in 

till do not yield much water arid are generally termed "dry 

holes" even though the till is completely saturated. A well 

must be completed in sand, sand and gravel, or gravel units, 

which are usually well-sorted and have a good hydraulic conductivity before adequate supplies of water are obtained. The

57
oo

EXPLANATION 

Stream gaging station

9 Number key to low flow 

table and 7 day low 

flow frequency curves 

(Table 3 and figure 42)

5) Letter key to draft 

storage curve

^ y

s

100

50

LU 20

LU

< 10 3

o

2 5.0 ^u

» 

LU 

LU 

U_

LU

£ 2.0

o

< a* 

O

1.0

0.5

0.2

0.1

Storage required is not adjusted for losses

from evaporation or seepage. 

Low flow of 10-year recurrence interval--

10 percent of the time, on the average,

the storage will be deficient.

0.001 0.002 0.005 0.01 0.02 0.05 0.1 0.2 

DRAFT RATE, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND PER SQUARE MILE

Figure 2? . --Draft storage curves for selected rivers in the basin show that less storage 

is required to maintain a specified draft rate in streams in the morainal area than in 

the Glacial Lake Agassiz region.
term aquifer is applied to rock units that yield water readily 

in sufficient quantity that it can be considered'a source of 

supply. V ''

For most domestic and stock needs it is possible to encounter a sand and gravel unit that will yield enough water 

(about 10 gpm, or less) nearly everywhere in the Red River 

basin. These units can be almost -any size and occur at any 

depth. ' Most well drillers will test or examine each sand unit 

as drilling progresses and usually will complete the well in 

the first adequate sand unit encountered. If a well eventually 

becomes inadequate often times- it is .necessary only to drill a 

little deeper to penetrate another sand unit which may satisfy 

the heed. For this reason well depths have, "a very wide range 

in areas of glacial drift. ; '

Where high yield wells are needed the problem of finding 

an adequate sand and gravel unit is generally much more difficult. Test drilling is generally -necessary to locate1 sand 

and gravel units that will yield more than 50 gpm (gallons per 

minute) to individual wells. It . is likely that supplies of 

this magnitude 'can be found in most t-ownships if adequate test 

drilling- is done. ' " 

In describing the aquifers '-it is necessary to know the 

meaning of several terms called aquifer constant's; these are 

transmissivity and storage coefficient. Transmissivity is 

generally used in field practice as 'a means of expressing flow 

rates through the entire saturated thickness1 of the aquifer 

and is equal to the hydraulic conductivity multiplied by the 

saturated thickness. It is a regional spatial average and may 

not be representative of any particular section of material. 

Transmissivity, T, is defined-as the rate of flow O'f water at 

the prevailing water'temperature in gallons' per day, through a 

vertical strip of the aquifer, 1 foot wide and extending the 

full saturated height of the aquifer, under a hydraulic gradient of 100 percent. Total stdrage within an aquifer varies as 

the water level fluctuates. The storage coefficient, S, of an 

aquifer is defined as the volume of water it releases from, or 

takes into, storage per unit surface area of the aquifer per 

unit change in component of head normal to that surface. .

For all the aquifers described in this report in which 

high yield wells are completed an attempt was made to obtain 

pumping test information so the aquifer constants cquld be determined. Knowledge of aquifer constants is important because 

they are 'essential in calculating the potential development of 

the aquifer. Of primary importance in estimating ground-water 

potential is to determine the "safe yield," that is, the amount 

of water that can be removed on a sustained basis without seriously dewatering the aquifer. " .: ..... .

59'
Paleozoic sedimentary rocks

The sandstones and limestones that comprise the bulk of 

the Paleozoic rocks in the Red River basin are untested with 

respect to their water yielding capacity. Because of the 

highly saline water that occurs in these rocks the aquifers 

have never been used. Test holes that have penetrated the 

Paleozoic rocks have yielded flows up to 60 gpm under very 

great hydraulic pressure. Controlled pumping tests were never 

run on the rock- units so aquifer constants are not known. The 

greatest potential of obtaining water is probably from the 

upper zone 'in the dolomitic limestone of the Red River Formation and the upper sandstone unit of the Winnipeg Formation. 

From the meager data available, it appears that the Paleozoic 

rocks have great potential for yielding water if a need for 

saline water should develop.

Water from Cretaceous aquifers is not widely used in the 

Red River basin. Most use is for farm supplies so pumping 

rates usually do not exceed 10 gpm. Cretaceous aquifers are 

tapped most commonly for large yields in the southern end of 

the basin where the Cretaceous sediments are relatively thick. 

The few large-yield wells that were constructed in this part 

of the basin were very difficult to develop and most attempts 

have failed. Pumping test, grain size, and thickness data are 

inadequate for determining hydraulic constants of the aquifer.

Recharge to the Cretaceous sand units is largely from 

leakage through confining shale beds. The very low vertical 

hydraulic conductivity of the shale is one of the most critical "restrictions on water availability from Cretaceous sand 

units.

The potential for development of large municipal and industrial water supplies from Cretaceous aquifers is poor. 

Where the sand is more than 10 feet thick and widespread it 

might be possible to develop wells that yield up to 100 gpm, 

or slightly more. If the sand is only several feet thick, 

yields less than 50 gpm should be expected.

Quaternary glacial deposits

The drift is the most significant source of ground water 

in the Red River basin. The most important aquifers in the 

clacial drift include ice-contact sand and gravel, outwash 

sand and gravel, linear sand and gravel deposits in the subsurface of Glacial Lake Agassiz, and sand lenses in till.

60
The availability of ground water for development from these 

aquifers is discussed in figure 15. Other aquifers within the 

till undoubtedly also exist, but they are as yet undefined.

Quality of water

Chemical quality of some water in the Red River basin 

imposes serious limitations on its use. Described in this 

section of the report are the physical and chemical characteristics of water that have a significant effect on .its use.

Physical properties of water of importance .to most users 

are temperature, color, and sediment concentration. Generally, 

ground water is very uniform in temperature roughly equivalent to the average annual air temperature, is colorless, and 

is free of sediment. Surface water varies widely in tempera-, 

ture throughout the year; from freezing in the winter to almost 

90°F in summer on some of the smaller streams. Surface water 

can be highly.colored in some areas, particularly in peatlands 

and in streams draining them. Sediment concentration varies 

considerably in streams both areally and with time. Sediment 

concentration and loads are not great in the forested areas 

of the Red River basin. Where farming is intense and in areas 

where active erosion occurs along stream valleys, sediment 

concentrations increase. Sediment concentration and load are 

generally much greater during high flows in spring and after 

thunderstorms than in other times of the year. Sediment concentration can also include suspended pollutants which are 

common in some reaches of the tributaries and in the Red River 

itself. . .

Chemical constituents and properties of water of importance to most users include total dissolved solids, hardness, 

chloride, sulfate, iron, fluoride, nitrate, boron, sodium, and 

pH. Chemical properties of surface water vary with time. In 

the spring of the year and after thunderstorms the concentration of dissolved chemical constituents in streams is low. At 

times of low flow, when water in streams is largely groundwater seepage, the quality strongly reflects the quality of 

water in the upper part of the ground-water system.

Wide variations in chemical characteristics of ground 

water, areally and with depth, are common particularly in the 

areas where the glacial drift is underlain by Cretaceous or 

Paleozoic sedimentary rocks. To illustrate the areal variations, maps showing lines of equal concentration of selected 

chemical constituents were drawn. Because of vertical variation in some areas, only water analyses from wells finished 

in the glacial drift that were between 50 and 200 feet in 

depth were used. This excludes shallow wells that draw water

61
from the upper part of the.ground-water system which are more 

likely to show effects of pollution, and .it excludes the 

deeper, wells that .are in rocks beneath the glacial' drift or 

in the part of the drift that may contain water that closely 

reflects the quality of water in the sedimentary rocks. In 

some areas, particularly in the northwestern part ojf the 

basin, even in the interval selected, the influence of water 

moving upward from the Paleozoic rocks-is clearly seen. Vertical variation of water types is not discussed in detail 

because only the general water quality situation is of interest here. A detailed discus.sion.-of vertical variation of 

water quality is included in the section on hydrochemistry 

later in the report.. ... . .

Total dissolved solids .The parameter reported as total 

dissolved solids (the residue after evaporation) consists primarily of the dissolved mineral constituents, but it also : 

includes organic matter. .'Water containing less than 500 mg/1 

(milligrams per liter) of dissolved solids is considered generally adequate ,for domestic and many industrial purposes.- 

However, -in 'parts of the Red River basin, water -of much higher 

concentration is'used either as.raw water .or as treated water. 

Water with more.than 1,00.0 mg/1 dissolved solids is likely to 

be unsuitable-for many purposes. The map of dissolved' solids 

concentration within the Red River basin (fig. 28) shows a 

wide variation of dissolved solids from about 300 mg/1 in the 

eastern-part to, more than 2,000' mg/1 in the northwestern and 

southern parts.-:" In-most .o'f the basin the* concentration is be^- 

tween 300 and 600. mg/1. . , . -....-

Hardness Hardness is a measure of the soap-consuming 

capacity of water. Soap is precipitated by metallic ions, 

principally calcium and.magnesium." Among the-industries requiring.-soft water :are . laundries., 'some food processing plants, 

and manufacturers :of certain grades of paper. The'hardness 

of ground .water in ;the Red River basin-ranges from less than '. 

100 to more, .than 1^0:00 mg/1, but water in most of the basin is 

between <;;200 and 400 mg/1 (:fi-g. 29).. Hardness standards generally recognized are .as followsr .

Hardness (mg/1) "' Rating:/'.'. .' ". "Suitability

0-60 . , .soft .. Suitable for most uses without 

.. . : " ' ; further'softening '' .

61-120 ' moderately hard Usable except in some industrial

, \ . applications

121-180 .' hardT ..' < Softening ..required by laundries 

" ' ... " .and some..other industries . .

181+ ' very" hard Requires softening for many uses

62
N

Line of equal total dissolved 

solids content

Data used were from wells between 

50 and 200 feet in depth 

finished in glacial drift

Not contoured where greater 

than 2000 mg/l

Interval, 200 mg/l

10 20 30 40 MILES

Figure 28. Total dissolved solids content of water, in the drift 

ranges from less than 400 to more than 2,000 mg/l. The effect 

of the poor quality water moving upward into the drift can be 

seen in the northwestern part of the basin.

63
N

Line of equal hardness content 

of water in the glacial drift

Data used were from wells between 

50 and 200 feet in depth

Not contoured where greater 

than 1000 mg/l

Interval, 100 mg/l

Figure 29. Hardness of water in the drift is less than 200 mg/l

in much of the lake plain area.
Chloride Chloride is dissolved from rocks and soils and 

tends to stay in solution longer than most ions as water moves 

through the ground-water reservoir. Locally, ground water may 

contain chloride derived from pollution. Small quantities of 

chloride, generally less than 250 mg/1 have little effect on 

the use of water for domestic and municipal uses. Large quantities, in water that also contains considerable calcium or 

magnesium, increases the corrosiveness of the water. Sodium 

chloride gives the characteristic salty taste to water that is 

detectable generally, when the chloride content exceeds about 

250 mg/1. However, it was observed that in parts of the Red 

River basin most well owners did not describe the water as 

"salty" until the concentration of chloride was 500 to 750 

mg/1. The chloride concentration of ground water in the glacial drift in the Red River basin is shown on figure 30. Most 

water in the basin contains less than 50 mg/1 of chloride. In 

general, where the chloride concentration is greater than 750 

milligrams per liter water is not used for domestic purposes. 

At many places in the northwestern part of the area chloride 

concentrations of 2,000 mg/1 or more were determined in waters 

from wells less than 100 feet deep.

Sulfate Sulfate is dissolved from the unweathered glacial drift which contains iron sulfide minerals, gypsum, and 

anhydrite. Sulfates of most of the common metallic elements 

are readily soluble in water. The sulfate ion, once formed, 

is chemically stable in most of the environments to which 

natural waters are subjected. Because of these two facts, the 

areas of high concentration of sulfate shown on figure 31 are 

believed to be largely in waters that have moved through the 

ground-water system for a considerable distance." However, 

high sulfate concentrations might also be caused by local geologic conditions. Sulfate in waters within the Red River basin 

is generally no.t a problem as most of the water has a sulfate 

concentration less than 300 mg/1. In areas where the sulfate 

concentration is greater than 1,000 mg/1 ground water could 

have a laxative effect and an unpleasant taste.

Iron High concentrations of iron are common in ground 

water within the Red River basin and are usually excessive for 

many uses. Iron is objectionable because of the aesthetic 

considerations and taste when its concentration exceeds about 

0.3 mg/1 and because it causes a reddish-brown stain on porcelain and enamelware at higher concentrations. It is also 

troublesome in water used for many industrial purposes, including the manufacture of food, carbonated beverages, high 

grade paper, and ice. The occurrence of iron is highly variable and it is difficult to map any patterns. It is generally greater than 1 mg/1 throughout most of the watershed and 

in local areas it exceeds 5 mg/1. Iron may be removed by 

appropriate treatment of the water.

65
N

Line of equal chloride concentration 

of water in glacial drift

Data used were from wells between 

50 and 200 feet in depth

Not contoured where greater than 

1000 mg/l

Interval, 250 mg/l

Supplemental contours of 50 and 

.100 mg/l also shown

0 ' 10 20 30 ; 40 MILES

I I '

Figure 30.--Chloride concentration of water in the drift is less 

than 50 mg/l throughout most of the basin.

66
N

iel RJrer Falls j 

T 0 N j

Line of equal sulfate concentration 

of water in glacial drift

Data used were from wells between 

50 and 200 feet in depth

Interval, 100 mg/l

1000

Figure 31. Sulfate concentration of water in the drift is less 

than 300 mg/l in most of the basin,, but increases to more than 

900 mg/l in the southern and northwestern parts.

67
Fluoride Fluoride is present in most waters in the glacial drift but largely in concentrations of less than 1 mg/1. 

At a few places water in the deeper part of the -drift or the 

underlying Cretaceous rocks has fluoride concentrations of 1.5 

or more mg/1. Fluoride concentrations of about 1.0 mg/1 in 

drinking water may be beneficial in reducing dental decay, 

especially among children. At higher concentrations, it can 

cause mottling of teeth and other harmful effects. In. the 

southern part of the watershed, near Graceville, some wells 

tapping Cretaceous deposits and deeper drift deposits have 

been abandoned because of detrimental effects of the water on 

the appearance of teeth.

Nitrate Much of the nitrate in the ground waters of the 

Red River basin probably is of organic origin. Some plants in 

the area contribute nitrogen compounds to the soil; in addition, the leaching of fertilizers, animal excreta, and sewage 

effluent add nitrate to the waters, of the region. The concentrations of nitrate in shallow sandy aquifers in some areas 

are as high as 5 mg/1.. Some shallow dug wells contain waters 

with nitrate nitrogen in excess of 50 mg/1. Waters, containing 

50 mg/1 of nitrate are harmful to infants. However, most 

ground waters have a nitrate concentration of less^ than 1 mg/1. 

Waters of the streams generally are much higher in' nitrate concentration than ground water. ..

Boron Boron is a necessary element for normal plant 

growth but may be toxic to plants when in excess of 0.5 mg/1. 

Boron concentration in the glacial drift is generally less 

than 1 mg/1 except locally in-the southern part of the watershed. Ground water from rocks of Cretaceous and Paleozoic ages 

generally contain more than l/mgy'l of boron and where these 

waters are moving upward the boron concentrations are locally 

higher in the drift.

Sodium The relation of sodium to calcium plus magnesium 

concentration is significant to the use of water for irrigation. When sodium is present in irrigation water in relatively 

higher concentration than calcium and magnesium, it may replace 

the calcium and magnesium ions adsorbed on the soil colloids 

and deflocculate the soil. Calcium and magnesium, when adsorbed on soil particles, tend to aggregate .the soil particles; 

flocculation is the first step in the; formation of stable soil 

aggregates and in the development of soil having good tilling 

ability. The sodium-adsorption ratio of water is directly related to the adsorption of sodium by soil and thus is a criterion for determining the suitability of an .irrigation supply. 

In general, those waters occurring within the Cretaceous deposits or in the deeper drift deposits near the Red River of 

the North tend to have high sodium adsorption ratios, and 

therefore, in some cases make the water unsuitable for 

irrigation purposes.

 68
Present and Potential Water Supply Development

The need for municipal, industrial, or rural water supplies has resulted in a certain amount of development of 

ground- and surface-water sources. Municipal water use and 

source of supply in the Red River, basin is shown on figure 32. 

The water use data were collected over a period of 5 years, 

1963 to 1968. It is difficult to separate municipal from 

industrial use in many cases because some industries buy water 

from the municipalities. For this'reason the use figures are 

very general and should be used with caution. They are presented only to give relative orders of magnitude.

The larger water users Moorhead, East Grand Forks, Fergus 

Falls, Breckenridge, Thief River Falls, and Crookston and two 

smaller users Hallock and Stephen obtain their water from 

surface-water sources. All but Moorhead and East Grand Forks 

have constructed reservoirs to store water to assure that supplies are adequate during periods of low flow. The reservoirs 

are near town in most places but several communities, such as 

Hallock, are quite, distant from the reservoir and water losses 

during transmission from the reservoir to community are significant. All other communities in the Red River basin use ground 

water. Municipal wells are generally 6 to 12 inches in diameter, screened, and some are gravel packed. .Most communities 

have a central distribution system so there are few communities 

where a large concentration of domestic wells are clustered in 

a small area.

The amount of water used for industrial purposes is not as 

well known as for municipal. In some.communities the industrial use is included in the totals .;shown on figure 32. Where 

the industrial use is known and is an unusually large part of 

total use it is noted on the map. The greatest amount of water 

for industrial purposes is used for dairy product processing; 

agricultural product processing, such as potato washing and 

potato product industries; sugar beet processing; and water 

power. Most of these uses are nonconsumptive and most of the 

water is returned to streams. In creamery, potato washing, 

and power generation the water quality is affected very little. 

However, in potato and sugar beet processing, although much of 

the water returns to the system, the quality is more seriously 

affected.

Most creameries use ground-water sources because of its 

low temperature. Construction of industrial wells is much the 

same as for municipal wells. The potato and beet processing 

industries use surface water more than ground water and storage 

in surface reservoirs is usually necessary.

Water used for rural purposes is either for irrigation 

supplies or for rural domestic and stock supplies. Irrigation

69
N

(65)*, XN 0 R M A H

( A190 (64) Surface water

( 320(54) Ground water

Number is water use, in 

millions of gallons, for 

year shown in parenthesis

Figure 32.--Moat municipalities obtain their water from 

ground-water sources. However^ the largest users have 

surface-water sources.

70
is not widely practiced in the Red River basin.." The only areas 

where it is currently practiced is east of Moorhead, where several irrigators draw supplies largely from the: Buffalo and 

South Branch Buffalo Rivers, and the area of, out-wash'.sand and 

gravel in the southeastern part of the basin. In the outwash 

area irrigators obtain supplies from both surface- and groundwater sources. Surface-water supplies are drawn from both 

rivers and lakes. Ground water is obtained by large .diameter 

screened wells. 

Rural, domestic, and stock supplies are obtained, from both 

surface- and ground-water sources also.. Domestic supplies are 

entirely from wells, and for stock most farmers use a combination of both sources. The small yield wells, which are ade- ' 

quate for most farm needs, have in the past been mostly openhole wells or screens fashioned on the spot simply by slotting 

the pipe. Use of screens has increased'in recent years.

The concentration of wells in the basin is directly related to.population distribution. In the heavily farmed areas 

such as the clay and silt areas of the Red River Valley, in 

the gently rolling western part of the moraxnal area, and in .' 

the area of outwash, well density is. 1 to 3 per square mile. 

In the beach ridge area and in the western part of the lakewashed .till plain the density is less from less than 1 to- 1 

per square mile. In the less peaty parts of the lake-washed 

till plain well density is about the same as in the Red River 

Valley, but in the peat areas there, are no wells at all. In 

the rugged part of the morainal area well density is very low 

overall, but there are concentrations of wells used by cabin ; 

owners around many of the lakes.

Prom the discussion of water sources and present water 

use a general idea of the potential for water supply development can be derived. The ground-water resources are relatively 

undeveloped except locally, such as near Moorhead. Much surface water is already being stored in existing reservoirs. 

Locations that would be adequate for small amounts of surfacewater storage'still exist in the basin, but sites for storing 

large volumes of water are generally lacking. Therefore, 

future development of surface water through storage in reservoirs would probably involve small reservoirs.

Management Alternatives for Water Supply

Many alternatives for managing water are "available; some 

of which could, be applied to water problems in the Red River 

basin. Some of these are operational and others are currently 

undergoing research. Many of them require research every time 

they .are used so they can be 'adapted -to each local situation.

71
Surface-water management: Many factors must be considered 

if reservoirs are to be constructed. . Reservoirs generally 

serve many purposes such as water supply, flood control, pollution abatement, and re.creation. , Often, operation of the 

reservoir for one purpose is not always in the best interest 

of another purpose; for flood control it is desirable to have 

the reservoir level as low as possible in later winter so 

maximum storage of spring runoff water is possible. This is 

often undesirable for people living adjacent to the reservoir 

because it causes unsightly shorelines, affects wildlife, and 

inhibits recreation. Also, care must be taken so enough water 

of good quality remains for water supply throughout the winter. 

In years of low streamflow, release, of water may be necessary 

for pollution abatement, which again will have an affect on 

recreation and water supply.

It might be desirable, if water must be transmitted for 

long distances from reservoirs, to use a series of small reservoirs in the lake plain area rather than a large reservoir in 

the morainal area. Another important consideration in surfacewater storage is that-annually about 2 feet of water is lost 

from the water surface through evaporation a significant loss 

of water. It may be desirable to study the feasibility of using evaporation suppressants on water stored in surface-water 

reservoirs to reduce water loss.

Ground-water management: Research into better methods of 

locating ground-water supplies is greatly needed.. This would 

assure that the best and closest possible source is being used. 

Better methods of well drilling and construction could lead to 

better development of water supplies in some of the small 

aquifers in the Red River basin. Special uses of saline or 

other poor quality water could be beneficial in part of the Red 

River basin where this type of water is abundant. Desalinization might be considered for these areas when it becomes economical. Pumping water from the lower-yielding aquifers by 

using several low-yield wells rather than one high-yield well 

might be desirable. *This is particularly applicable to beach 

ridge aquifers.

Joint management of both sources: Joint use of ground 

and surface water also offers many management possibilities 

particularly in the lake plain. Mixing of good quality water 

with poor quality water often results in an intermediate type 

which is acceptable for a particular use. This might be considered in areas again where poor quality water is abundant. 

The storage capacity of aquifers should be studied because of 

the possibility of storing surface water in them. Groundwater pumpage.could greatly exceed natural recharge if surface 

water .at high flow could be injected into ground-water reservoirs. This technique could probably be used near Moorhead 

where high flows from the Buffalo River could be injected into

72
Aquifer C (fig. 15) and pumped out later in the year. Storage 

in the ground has several advantages to surface storage: 1) 

the sand and gravel would have a filtering effect on the water; 

2) the water would be cool; and 3) there would be no evaporative loss. Care should be taken in an operation like this, 

however, so the underground system is not contaminated or 

ruined physically. For example, waters must be chemically compatible or precipitates will form that reduce hydraulic conductivity. Suspended solids must be removed before injection and 

contamination by bacteria must be prevented.

Delivery systems: Development of better and less costly 

methods are needed for carrying water by pipelines, or other 

methods, both from source to central distribution system, and 

from this system to individual users. Better metering and more 

realistic water billing in some of the communities in the Red 

River basin would reduce water demands.

In summary, many future alternatives to the management of 

water for water supplies are possible. The selection of any 

one or several of these methods depends upon the economic and 

hydrologic feasibility. In selecting any one or set of these 

alternatives it should always be remembered that the development of a water resource should be considered a part of the 

hydrologic system, and that any change in the hydrology in one 

place will have consequent changes at other places within the 

system. These consequent changes could have beneficial or nonbeneficial side effects.

Pollution of Water Resources

Pollution of natural water bodies is the introduction into 

the water of substances which alter its natural quality so as 

to impair its usefulness or render it offensive to sight, taste, 

or smell. Water supply and waste disposal are closely interrelated activities that are of major concern to a water manager. 

Naturally clean water can be drawn only from an unpolluted 

source. Water managers, therefore, should be thoroughly familiar with the catchment area of their supply in .the case of 

large streams and lakes, and with the ground-water system within 

the vicinity of the source.

Pollution Problems

Water pollution problems occur at several places in the 

basin, but the most serious are in the Red Lake River and the 

Red River of the North. Sources of pollutants are municipal, 

industrial, and agricultural wastes.

73
Most municipalities and industries discharge wastes into 

nearby streams, ditches, or lakes (Minnesota Pollution Control 

Agency, 1968). In most cases the wastes receive primary or 

secondary treatment but a few installations still discharge 

untreated sewage. Even with secondary treatment the waste is 

not entirely of desirable quality. The waste commonly contains an abundance of nutrients such as nitrate and phosphate 

that lead to prolific eutrophication. In an area like the Red 

River basin, where streams are generally small and subject to 

wide variations in flow, the buildup of waste sometimes becomes critical. This is particularly common during the period 

of low or no flow in the minor streams in late fall and winter.

The most serious pollution in the Red River basin has been 

caused by municipal and industrial wastes in several localized 

areas in the main stem of the Red River of the North (U.S. 

Public Health Service, 1965).

Pollution from agricultural sources can result from accelerated rates of erosion and excessive use of fertilizers 

such as nitrogen and phosphorous compounds. These products 

are dissolved and carried to lakes and streams or move downward to the ground-water system. Areas where large numbers of 

animals are kept, such as feedlots, can have a harmful effect 

on water resources. Runoff of animal waste into streams during rainfalls is common. Where the waste products are heavily 

concentrated it is also common to find shallow ground-water 

supplies contaminated.

When surveying contamination of underground water, the 

major problem is identifying the pollution and predicting the 

areal extent of the contaminated zones that result from dispersion of the contaminant in the ground. Many changes involving oxidation, adsorption, and complexing within the zone 

of aeration determine whether the pollutants are reduced to 

harmless proportions before they reach the ground-water systems. The degree of dilution of the polluted water at given 

distances from the waste injection site is also an important 

consideration.

Management for Pollution Control

Streams tend to purify themselves naturally. Water managers must recognize that the capacity of a stream to dilute 

waste and purify itself is an important economic factor to be 

used. It is necessary, therefore, for the water manager to be 

able to recognize and be familiar with the symptoms of pollution and the methods for prevention or cure that the natural 

forces exert for self purification. He must be able to 1) 

identify the origins and intensity of pollution; 2) measure
and estimate the magnitudes of the forces of natural purification; 3) recognize the limitations of these forces; and 4) prescribe either a regimen that will bring about a spontaneous 

cure or one in which sufficient external remedial aid is given 

to insure recovery.

Rapid lake eutrophication, as commonly indicated by algal 

blooms and prolific weed growth, occurs in many smaller lakes 

and a few of the larger lakes within the Red River basin. The 

water quality of these lakes may deteriorate to such a degree 

that the economic use of the waters for water supply, recreation, aquatic life, and agriculture is affected. Lakes undergo eutrophication, which is the natural aging process, however, 

this process can be greatly accelerated by man who may knowingly or unknowingly increase the nutrient content of the water. 

Nitrogen and phosphorous are two of the major macronutrients 

that greatly affect the eutrophication process. These two 

nutrients occur at high concentrations in effluents from secondary sewage treatment plants and when these effluents are 

discharged into lakes, even though the other organic materials 

have been removed, may result in accelerated lake eutrophication.

The aqueous environment chemistry is directly influenced 

by the relative abundance of elements involved. It is a system that involves interchanges of gases, nutrients, and energy 

between the living organisms and the elements and materials 

held in suspension and solution. Gas exchanges indicate the 

activity of plants and animals in photosynthesis and respiration. The exchange of nutrients describe the recycling processes. Energy exchanges occur in the form of some life as 

well as organic material which may include pollution. Optimum 

water quality management requires an understanding of the complexities of this system.

Management practices used to alleviate or control eutrophication involve the control of the principle nutrients, 

nitrates and phosphates. The most obvious method of nutrient 

control involves the diversion of sources of nutrients away 

from the lake. If this is not feasible, other methods for 

nutrient control may include: 1) removal of nitrogen and 

phosphorous by tertiary treatment of sewage effluent; 2) harvesting of weeds in the lake; 3) harvesting of fish decreases 

the nutrients slightly; and 4) removal of lake sediments that 

may be a source of nutrients or a site of nutrient storage.

In the Red River basin local waste disposal practices include surface dumping, sanitary land fills, septic tanks and 

cesspools, and sewage stabilization ponds. Since most wastes 

are released at the ground surface or at a slight distance

75
below, the water table is accessible to contamination by waste, 

however, up to the present no extensive pollution of the groundwater reservoir is known to occur within the Red River basin. 

Proper management of these facilities will result in little or 

no pollution. Hydrologic characteristics which are important 

in the selection of sites for disposal of wastes are the permeability and sorptive capacities of the materials both in the 

ground-water reservoir and in the zone of aeration. The zone 

of aeration is especially effective in attenuating most contaminants and thus a considerable depth to the water table is considered favorable in waste disposal practices. Proper surface 

drainage of disposal sites can materially lessen pollution 

hazard by the prevention of leaching. Within the zone of saturation most contaminants are dispersed. Dispersion and dilution may be desirable practices in pollution control. In 

order to safely manage land disposal waste the water manager 

should be cognizant of hydrologic conditions as well as the 

type of waste being disposed. With this information the water 

resources can be adequately protected for future use.

In conclusion, the water manager needs to have adequate 

hydrologic information as well as adequate planning to solve 

any problems regarding the contamination of the water resources. 

Some problems involving surface streams are best solved on a 

regional scale, whereas, other problems including solid waste 

disposal may be handled adequately at the local level.

To manage and alleviate pollution, the classification for 

water use and the standards of quality and purity have been 

established by the Minnesota Water Pollution Control Commission (1967) for the Red River of the North from its origin at 

the confluence of the Bois de Sioux and Otter Tail Rivers to 

the Canadian boundary; the lower Otter Tail River from Fergus 

Falls to Breckenridge, and the Red Lake River from Crookston 

to the mouth in East Grand Forks. The standards were set to 

maintain water quality so the water may be used for domestic 

consumption, fisheries and recreation, industrial consumption, 

agriculture and wildlife, and waste disposal.

Flooding 

Flood Problems

Floods of the Red River of the North and its tributaries 

are typically sporadic, for, although generally occurring in 

early to late spring, their dates and magnitude are subject 

to much variation. Most of these floods are caused by rain 

falling on melting snow or by intense rainfall on land already 

sodden by antecedent conditions. Although the summer floods

76
occur less frequently than those in the spring, they cause 

high agricultural losses from soil erosion and crop damage. 

At Grand Forks, the time distribution of annual flood crests 

are shown on figure 33. The floods of April-June 1950 in the 

lower part of the Red River of the North basin in Minnesota 

were the largest that had occurred in several decades and 

caused the greatest damage that the area had ever sustained 

up to that time. Damages along the main stem (both sides) 

and the tributaries in Minnesota totaled about 18.5 million 

dollars (U.S. Geol. Survey, 1954, p. 153). The areal extent 

and discharge of the 1950 flood together with the maximum 

flood known and year of occurrence at selected sites is shown 

on figure 34. Locally, the 1950 flood has been exceeded.

-^ *- v I I III

CM

oo 15 00 IJ

L/>

LLJ

5 10

u. 5 

o

1 1

i i i

I 1 I I I I I I IT l| I I I I I I I 

From Horrison, 1968-

EXPLANATION 

All annual flood crests 

Flood crests higher than 28 feet 

Flood crests higher than 40 feet

M n

510152025 510152025 510152025 510152025 510152025 510152025

MARCH APRIL MAY JUNE JULY AUGUST 

TIME DISTRIBUTION OF ANNUAL FLOOD CRESTS

Figure 33. Time distribution of annual flood crests 

on the Red River at Grand Forks* N. Dak. indicates 

mid-April is the time of the most frequent and 

severe floods.

77
EXPLANATION

a in which major Hoods occurred 

spring of I9SO

Upper number is peat discharge at 

gaging station during 1950 flood 

438(0 

9200>/(!909J

lower number is highest peak 

discharge known at gaging station 

and year of occurrence

Discha ubic feet ond

Period of record at gaging stations 

is not for a common period

Figure 34.--Area inundated by the 1950 flood was greatest 

along the Red River north of Grand Forks, N. Dak.

78
Floods on the Red River of the North and its tributaries 

above (south of) Fargo, N. Dak. in April 1952 were the greatest since 1897- Flood damages were heaviest in the urban 

area of Fargo-Moorhead. The spring flood of 1965 produced 

near record stages and discharge in many areas of the Red 

River of the North basin. Moorhead, East Grand Forks, and 

Oslo on the main stem, and Crookston and Roseau on tributaries 

suffered considerable damage. Agricultural and transportation 

losses were high. Again in 1966 spring floods on the Red 

River of the North and its tributaries approached or exceeded 

record flood stages at many points in the basin. The total 

flood damages in 1966 were only one quarter as large as the 

1950 flood damages, due mainly to the construction of flood 

control projects over the intervening years, issuance of advance warnings by the U.S. Weather Bureau and the U.S. Army 

Corps of Engineers, and the extensive flood fight waged by 

affected communities. In the 1966 flood the greatest damages 

were agricultural, of which almost one-half occurred in the 

Red River basin (U.S. Army, Corps of Engineers, written 

commun., 1966 ). l

Major floods have occurred along the tributary streams 

to the Red River of the North in Minnesota. The village of 

Roseau and other communities along the course of the Roseau 

River have been sporadically subjected to severe flooding. 

Planning and flood control measures are now being considered 

in order that these losses may ,be decreased.

Local flooding on small drainage areas is caused by 

heavy intense thunderstorm rainfall. Although these floods 

are of local extent they occur with high frequency. Damages 

from these local floods is increased by inadequate drainage 

and capacity of some of the ditches and streams within the 

area.

1 A major flood occurred in the Red River basin again 

in 1969. Peak stages and discharges exceeded previous known maxima on parts of most major tributaries 

of the Red River of the North (Anderson and Schwob, 

1970).

79
Management for Flood Alleviation

As the size of the tributary channels increas:e through 

modification, the Red River channel itself becomes less adequate to carry flood discharge. An enlargement of the river 

channel, principally by deepening or clearing in order to 

increase its discharge capacity, is usually precluded by the 

cost and in some cases by the large amounts of sediment that 

would be deposited within the channel when floods subside. 

Such enlargement has been done along several reaches of the 

Red River. The discharge efficiency of a river within the 

limits of its banks depends largely on the fall and the cross 

section of the channel. The only way to increase the fall is 

to reduce the length of the channel by straightening. In the 

case of large rivers in flat terrane it is difficult to maintain straight channels because of the natural tendency to meander. Straightening of channels has been accomplished within the Red River basin, particularly on the Mustinka River, 

Clearwater River, Ruffy Brook, Red Lake River, Wild Rice River, 

Sandhill River, and several others.

Another flood control practice is the restriction of the 

river to its channel by building embankments along its course. 

This practice was carried out in the vicinity of Breckenridge, 

Moorhead, East Grand Porks, and Crookston. These are largely 

local measures and have no effect in lowering flood peaks 

further downstream.

The most effective way to reduce flood peaks is to provide 

storage during periods of high flow. This may be done by 

either diverting water into a natural low-lying depression, 

such as is proposed for Roseau Lake (drained lake depression 

near Roseau) or by creating artificial storage through construction of a dam as has been done on Otter Tail River and 

is proposed on the Wild Rice River. By use of storage, flood 

peaks can be materially decreased, and for floods of shorter 

recurrence interval, even lowered to such a point that flooding 

will not occur downstream from the reservoir.

Flood damages can be materially reduced by nonstructural 

measures such as preparedness action resulting from advance 

warning, improved land use practices, and flood-plain zoning.

Flood-prone area maps are now being made for communities 

along the Red River and its tributaries that are subject to 

flooding. By forecasting the probable frequency in areas of 

flooding, builders in these flooded areas can anticipate necessary measures to prevent high damages. In some cases the flood 

area maps will result in restricting land use in the areas subject to frequent flooding.

80
As it has been so aptly stated, "The flood plain is nature's safety valve," and is needed to carry waters above 

bankfull stage. Proper management and restriction in the use 

of flood plains must be considered in all areas concerned with 

flood prevention problems. Flood plain zoning goes hand-inhand with the other common flood control and damage prevention 

measures and should be a part of the integrated plan for flood 

control and damage reduction in a river basin.

In summary, flooding is one of the major problems of the 

Red River basin. Much work has been done in the area of improvement of channel capacity and construction of structural 

measures to alleviate flood damages. In the future more effort will be directed toward nonstructural measures to control 

floods. By knowing the natural regimen of streams, man can 

adapt his land management practices to alleviate or materially 

decrease flood damages.

Drainage

Drainage in the Red River basin has been extensive, particularly in the Glacial Lake Agassiz region. The richness of 

the clayey and silty soils in the lake plain is due partly to 

the wetness of the area. Before settlement the areas were 

somewhat marshy for part of the year and the soil that developed was deep and rich in organic matter. The very factors 

that caused the rich soil to form were drawbacks to farmers 

who could not farm such wet lands. Drainage seemed to be the 

best solution and the extent that drainage was accomplished is 

shown on figure 35. In 1950 the percentage of land in drainage in the Red River basin ranged from less than 10 percent in 

the eastern part of the morainal area to over 80 percent in the 

Glacial Lake Agassiz area in Marshall County.

In the lake plain the flatness of the land and inadequate 

outlets for spring or storm runoff contributed to poor drainage. Water remained on the land surface for long periods of 

time and was discharged largely by evapotranspiration. Drainage ditches had to form almost a complete drainage system from 

small ditches in nearly every field to larger collector ditches 

to still larger collector ditches, which approach major tributaries in importance. Even with the construction of the drainage system in its present form, backwater from full or plugged 

ditches continues to flood fields. More than 50 percent of the 

land is in drainage throughout most of the lake-plain area, and 

in the western part of the lake-washed till plain.

In the eastern part of the lake-washed till plain, the 

peat is not only a depression-fill type but is also partly upland peat. Minor topographic features exist in this vast

81
peatland that form watershed divides. The extensive drainage 

program of the early 20th century often ignored these divides 

and consequently did not succeed entirely; only in a few areas 

were the ditches effective. In many places where the peat did 

drain, extensive fires that burned for many years occurred in 

the marshes. Much "of the land that was. farmed as a result of 

this drainage has been abandoned and the land is slowly reverting to its natural condition.

In the morainal area, drainage activity is nearly all related to local marshes and potholes. As a result 10 to 30 

percent of the land in the western part of the morainal area 

was in drainage by 1950 (fig. 35).

Land drainage is one of the primary concerns of water 

managers in the Red River basin. Drainage is a very useful 

water management practice if done in the best interest of the 

entire watershed. It is a challenge to water planners and 

water managers to keep to a minimum the undesirable sideeffects that are caused by the conflicting methods of the many 

and varied water users and manipulators.

Water Recreation

The morainal area of the Red River basin is outstanding in 

terms of water recreation. Although some water-based activity 

is available on the Red River and on reservoirs on the major 

tributaries, the vast majority of recreation activity centers 

on the many lakes in the morainal area. In this case, tourism 

is a major factor in the economy.

The water-oriented activity of most vacationers is fishing, swimming, and water skiing. Nearly every lake in the 

basin is used for one or more of these purposes, but not all 

with the same intensity. The lakes most intensively used are 

the larger lakes in Otter Tail and Becker Counties, especially 

near the towns of Detroit Lakes, Perham, and Battle Lake.

Water-fowl hunting is a major attraction in the Red River 

basin in the fall of the year. This activity again draws a 

large number of people to the area. Hunting centers around 

the prairie pothole region in the western part of the morainal 

area, but is also common in the eastern part.

Canoeing is not a primary activity of vacationers in this 

basin, but several rivers have good potential for this sport. 

The Red Lake, Wild Rice, and Otter Tail Rivers all are large 

enough for'canoeing, and offer a wide variety of canoeing experiences. A report by Ropes, Brown, and Wheat (1969) describes the recreation values for the Red Lake River. This

82
N

EXPLANATION

50.

equal percent 

n drainage,

1950

MILES

Figure 35. More than 40 percent of the land in most of 

the Glacial Lake Agassiz region is in drainage.

83
river is also included in a book published by the Minnesota 

Department of Conservation, Division of Parks and Recreation 

(1968). Canoeing on the Otter Tail River is discussed very 

briefly in HA-296.

Pleasure driving is also a very common activity with vacationers, and clean unpolluted lakes are an important factor 

in the aesthetic value of an area.

Tourism is good for the economy of the area, but the concentration of people also creates problems. Many power boats 

on shallow lakes tend to stir up the lake and make the water 

dirty and unpleasant for swimming. Where many power boats are 

docked the water often has a layer of oil. Where many cabins 

surround a lake, by-products of human waste eventually get into the lake waters and create an excess of nutrients. This 

creates profuse growth of algae and other aquatic life which, 

in turn, causes accelerated eutrophication and build-up of 

organic sediment.

With the growing numbers and leisure time of people, water 

managers must be concerned with the water needs for tourism, 

especially if it is a major factor in the economy of an area. 

The need for clean and pleasant rivers and lakes is essential 

to the Red River basin, and land and water resource planners 

and managers must assure that the attractiveness of the morainal area is maintained.

THE HYDROLOGIC SYSTEM

This section of the report is a more technical discussion 

of the hydrologic system than the section on water management, 

which covers the more practical aspects of water resources. It 

should provide a deeper understanding of the water resources in 

the basin for water scientists, planners, and managers who wish 

to model all or parts of the hydrologic system.

Water Balance

The steady state conceptual model or water balance equation applied to the Red River of the North area in Minnesota 

is: P=R+ET, where P is the mean annual precipitation (inflow); 

R is the runoff (outflow); and ET is the mean evapotranspiration (water loss). The model states that inflow equals outflow 

plus water loss (largely evapotranspiration), and that on a 

long-term basis there is no change in storage within the hydrologic system. Storage changes do occur within the hydrologic 

system from season to season and from year to year, however, 

these changes are generally compensating on a long-range basis..

84
Therefore, to quantify this model, mean values for both precipitation (inflow) and runoff (outflow) were used.

Mean annual precipitation'in the Red River basin is 21 

inches (weighted on the basis of the percent of the total area 

within each contour interval of precipitation, fig. 7). Groundwater inflow was considered negligible. This consideration is 

based on the low transmissivity and low hydraulic gradients 

within the ground-water reservoir, and the fact that the regional surface water divide and ground-water divide approximately 

coincide in most areas. It is known that in some places underflow enters the Red River basin and in other places it leaves 

the basin, but these inter-basin transfers are relatively small 

and are assumed to be compensating. Locally, underflow would 

be a significant factor in the hydrologic balance of a small 

area.

Runoff, or water yield, from the Red River basin in 

Minnesota is 2 inches. Runoff is one of the more readily measurable variables within the hydrologic equation. Therefore, 

it is one of the more reliable factors in computing the water 

balance. The estimate of water yield for the Red River basin 

in Minnesota is based upon streamflow records which vary in 

period from a few years to as much as 85 years. It represents 

the water available for man's use. However, it should be realized water may be reused several times before leaving the 

basin.

Water loss represents the difference between water input 

and water output if no change in water storage occurs. It is 

that water returned to the atmosphere by evaporation and transpiration. Evapotranspiration is the water used in natural 

cycling which sustains plant growth and moderates and controls 

atmospheric and land surface temperature. Therefore, it is 

not a loss in the sense of performing essential hydrologic and 

biologic function, but does decrease the amount of water available for man's use. It is the largest variable in the hydrologic equation that removes water from the land and also is 

effective in decreasing precipitation before reaching the land 

surface. The mean annual water loss for the Red River basin 

is estimated to be 19 inches; the difference between precipitation and runoff.

Evapotranspiration was computed for several locations 

within the Red River basin on the method described by 

Thornthwaite and Mather (1957), (fig. 11).

Potential evapotranspiration is the evapotranspiration 

that theoretically would occur if water is always available to 

satisfy all evapotranspirative processes. By allowing for

- 85
changes in soil moisture storage the computed values of evapotranspiration based on .Thornthwaite's equation was generally 

greater but agreed within 10 percent of those calculated as the 

difference between precipitation and runoff. Because of the 

uncertainties involved in estimating soil moisture capacity it 

was interpreted that the evapotranspiration calculated as a 

difference to be more representative of natural conditions.

In order to show the annual variation in the components 

of the hydrologic equation, analyses were made for several 

subbasins within the Red River of the North drainage in Minnesota (fig. 36). The assumption that no storage change occurs 

is not entirely met and storage change may be as much as 1 

inch for some areas in the moraine. As indicated by the variation in the runoff, water availability for use is not uniform 

areally or with time, fluctuating widely from year to year.

In conclusion, climatic conditions are the most significant factors controlling the annual water yield. Because of 

the low transmissivity and the essentially full condition of 

the ground-water reservoir, variation in annual water yield 

cannot be explained by variation in ground-water runoff. This 

above condition is particularly true for basins of drainage 

area greater than several hundred square miles. For smaller 

drainage basins the effect of ground-water storage and groundwater runoff could moderate the water yield from year to year.

On the following pages a more thorough examination is made 

of the surface runoff and ground-water systems--both major 

parts of the total hydrologic system. Because of the importance of water quality for all uses of water, a section on the 

hydrochemical system of the Red River basin is included also.

Surface Runoff

Surface runoff is that part of precipitation that appears 

in surface streams and is the natural flow unaffected by artificial diversion, storage, or other works of man. When precipitation falls many varying factors immediately start to function to determine the extent to which a part of the precipitation will appear as surface runoff. Runoff varies with time; 

for a storm period, a month, a season, or a year. Before runoff can occur, the demands of evapotranspiration, infiltration, 

and surface and channel storage must be satisfied. Intensity 

and duration of storms, areal distribution of storms, antecedent conditions of the land surface, temperature, velocity 

and duration of winds, and surface storage are the variable 

factors affecting the rainfall-runoff relationship which must 

be considered in studying the hydrologic cycle on a short term 

basis.

86
N

EXPLANATION

o

g> (water year)

Evaporronspirorion, 

in inches

Runoff, in inches

Precipitation, 

in inches

BCD

ROSMU River Red Lake River 

(1150 sq mi) (5280 sq mi

Two Rivtrs Middle River

(644 iq mi) (265 sq mi)

XN 0 R M A N

2 20 8 4 >20 12 2 5 IS 3 16 3 

RECURRENCE INTERVAL, IN YEARS

E F G

WHd Rice River Pelican River

(888 sq mi) (482 sq mi)

Buffalo River Mustinka River

(1040 sq mi) (834 sq mi)

4 30 3 2 12 4 2 >20 16 2 21 3 

RECURRENCE INTERVAL, IN YEARS

Figure 36.--Water budgets for selected sub-basins in the 

Red River basin show the variations in rainfall-runoffevapotranspiration relationships between years and 

between the different physiographic areas.

87
Runoff varies from place to place and is thus related to 

basin characteristics of which the following are influential: 

1) topography, 2) geology, 3) soils and vegetation, 4) size 

and shape of basin, 5) basin orientation, and 6) natural surface storage. Although total runoff increases with basin 

size, unit runoff generally decreases as basin size increases

Volume and rate of runoff from a basin can be changed 

significantly by the works of man. Volume of runoff can be 

affected by developments such as storage of water in reservoirs, irrigation, ditching, and artificial recharge. Rates 

of runoff can be altered by use of flood control reservoirs, 

channel modification and diversion, changes in land use and 

soil cover, and changes in water use.

Areal Variation of Runoff

The amount and areal distribution of annual runoff in 

the Red River basin in Minnesota is shown in figure 37. Generally, the average annual runoff is lowest, less than 1 inch, 

in the lake plain, and increases from west to east in a pattern similar to the distribution of precipitation. The 

greatest average annual runoff, more than 4 inches, is in the 

morainal highlands south of the Red Lakes. Local minor variations will occur, especially in areas of ground-water discharge along the west edge of the moraine, in local areas of 

rough terrain, and in areas of poorly defined surface drainage

Time Variation of Runoff

To understand the variations in surface runoff a knowledge of the daily, seasonal, and yearly changes in streamflow is needed. Although the average flow (fig. 25) is theoretically the maximum quantity of water in the stream that 

could be developed for a water supply it does not show the 

natural variation of unregulated streamflow in the Red River 

basin. Monthly, seasonal, and yearly variations in streamflow are shown by the hydrographs in figure 38.

In general, the highest runoff in the basin is in the 

spring and early summer, thereafter receding to the minimum 

for the year in late winter. The period of record used in 

the hydrographs (1931-65) includes the extreme drought years 

of the 1930's as well as the destructive and widespread 

spring floods of 1950 and 1965.

A comparison of the relationship between rainfall and 

runoff can be made from figure 38. The departure from normal 

of the monthly precipitation for 1931-65 for Crookston is
jf

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representative of the Red River basin in Minnesota. The below 

normal precipitation of 1931-^0 had a marked effect on streamflow throughout the basin.

Three streams were chosen to illustrate differences in 

streamflow that can be expected because of location and differences in basin characteristics. The Mustinka River is 

typical of the streams in the lake plain, which contains few 

lakes or aquifers. It has long periods of no flow and wide 

variations of flow most years. In contrast, the Wild Rice 

River above the gage at Twin Valley drains the moraine with " 

its many lakes and aquifers. The flow is more sustained during droughts, does not go dry, and has less monthly, seasonal, 

and yearly variation than that of the Mustinka River. The 

sustaining influence of the Minnesota tributaries heading in 

the moraine, such as the Otter Tail, Wild Rice, and Red Lake 

Rivers, is apparent in the hydrograph for the Red River of 

the North. The hydrograph shows the integrated effects of 

precipitation patterns, changes in geology and topography, 

and the regulatory effect of flow-controlling reservoirs.

Flow duration curves are useful for analyzing both the 

availability of streamflow and making comparative studies of 

many streams within a basin. The shape of the curves reflect 

the factors that influence streamflow in a river basin. The 

steepness of the curve is an indication of variability of 

daily discharge. A steep slope is indicative of a stream 

having little ground- or surface-water storage and a flat 

slope is indicative of high base flow from ground- or surfacewater sources.

Flow duration curves for the Red River of the North and 

seven smaller streams in the basin are related to the average 

runoff and the three physiographic regions as shown in figure 37. With the exception of the Red River of the North, 

the seven streams have little or no artificial regulations 

and they were chosen because they are representative of the 

various regimens of flow found throughout the basin (flow 

duration curves for most gaging stations in the basin are 

found in the series of Hydrologic Atlas reports).

Roseau and Thief Rivers are both in the lake-washed till 

plain but the duration curves for the two rivers are dissimilar in shape. Roseau River receives much ground-water contribution from large areas of sand in part of its drainage area; 

whereas, the Thief River drainage basin consists largely of 

peat and poorly permeable glacial till, has little base flow, 

and goes dry most years. Clearwater River heads in the glacial moraine and flows through considerable deposits of outwash sand and gravel which contribute substantial quantities 

of ground water to the stream. The stream receives less

91
ground-water contribution in the reach in the lake-washed till 

plain, and a duration curve for a site on the Clearwater River 

in the- morainal area upstream would be much flatter at its 

lower end than the curve shown for Red Lake Falls. Wild Rice 

and Otter Tail Rivers drain a morainal area which includes 

lakes and outwash sand and gravel before flowing across the 

lake plain. The Pelican River heads in a lake area of the 

moraine which is similar to the headwaters area of the Otter 

Tail River, but has less ground-water contribution per unit 

area along the lower reaches than Otter Tail River, and it 

goes dry some winters. Mustinka River is typical of streams 

mostly within the lake plain. It is highly variable, receives 

little ground-water inflow, and goes dry most years. The 

daily flow of the Red River of the North is affected by manipulation of reservoir storage and sewage effluent as well as 

the natural effects of great variation in tributary discharge.

High flow

Analyses of flood peak discharge and stage and the duration of high flows are necessary to provide specific usable 

information on flood events. Although the duration curve 

shows the percentage of time a specified discharge is equaled 

or exceeded it does not indicate the magnitude, frequency, or 

duration of floods.

Most flooding on the larger streams in the Red River of 

the North basin has occurred in the spring and was a result 

of melting snow or a combination of melting snow and spring 

rains. Factors affecting the severity of flooding on a specific stream are 1) above-normal antecedent soil moisture; 

2) unusually heavy snowfall; 3) delayed melting of snow; and 

4) above-normal precipitation during the breakup period. 

Flooding during the snowmelt period is often aggravated by 

blockage of river channels and drainage ditches by snow and 

ice. This is especially true in the lake plain where low relief and slope of the land surface and the small capacity of 

natural channels result in slow runoff and overbank flooding 

that inundates large areas. There are also many areas in the 

lake plain where there is no protective tree cover to trap 

drifting snow, and channels often fill with snow to the level 

of the surrounding prairie.

Many of the larger tributaries of the Red River of the 

North head in the moraine where stream gradients are steep and 

the runoff is rapid. Flooding on the lower reaches of these 

streams is intensified because of the flat gradients of their 

channels in the lake plain. Ice jams on the main stem of the 

Red River of the North produce particularly damaging river
^stages between East Grand Forks and Canada; particularly during medium range floods. The river flows from south to north 

and the initial spring breakup in the headwaters is at least 

a week or two earlier than the ice breakup in the lower (northern) reaches of the main stem.

Because most floods occur in the spring and are coincident 

to breakup and ice jams, the stage of a river is not always dependent upon discharge. When there is a possibility of damage 

from inundation the stage-frequency relationship provides valuable data. The height of overbank flooding which occurs on the 

average at 5, 10, and 20 year recurrence intervals for 10 gaging stations in the basin is shown on figure 39. The sites 

were selected to provide an insight into the stage-frequency 

relationships, especially as it relates to the physiography of 

the basin.

Stage-frequency data for the Red River of the North at 

Grand Forks, N. Dak., is not related to the tributaries in 

Minnesota because of its north-south orientation and because 

of the great variety of basin factors affecting floods. The 

Red Lake River at Crookston also deviates from other streams 

in the basin because it is regulated at all stages by storage 

in the Red Lakes.

The stage-frequency data for the remaining 8 gaging stations are generally more characteristic of the moraine, lake 

plain, and lake-washed till plain areas in the basin. Sites A 

(Otter Tail River) and B (Buffalo River) are in the moraine 

and are similar, with little overbank flooding. Sites E 

(Clearwater River) and F (Wild Rice River) are both in the 

flat terrain, but on streams that head in the moraine, and 

have more frequent overbank flooding. Sites C (Sprague Creek), 

D (Middle River), G (South Branch Buffalo River), and H (Two 

Rivers) are within the lake plain or lake-washed till plain 

where overbank flooding is severe.

The stage-frequency relationship provides data for studies 

on flood-plain zoning and can be used in plans to reduce damages which might occur on the flood plain. Channel geometry is 

not constant throughout a physiographic area and a study of the 

topography and channel changes in an area is a necessary supplement to specific stage-frequency data for selected sites.

Records of peak discharges were analyzed by the annualflood array method for the Red River of the North basin in 

conjunction with a flood-frequency study by Prior and Hess 

(1961). The mean annual peak discharge and the annual peak 

which will occur on the average once every 10 and 20 years at 

many sites in the basin are shown on figure 40. The floodpeak frequency data is especially applicable in the design of

93
EXPLANATION

vo4=-

Height of flooding above bankfull 

for 5, 10 and 20-year recurrence 

intervals

Letter indicates location on map. 

Number is recurrence interval, 

in years, of bankfull stage.

Gaging station 

Physiographic boundary

Otter Tail

River near

Detroit Lakes

*"V_ ' ' -_Y y

Clearwater

River at 

Plummer

Wild Rice

River at

Twin Valley

So. Branch

Buffalo River

at Sabin

(5) 1/2

Two Rivers 

below 

Hallock

Red Lake 

River at 

Crookston

CD-2%

Red River of the

North at Grand

Forks, N. D.

(1V2

SELECTED GAGING STATIONS

Figure 39.--Stage-frequency relationships for selected sites in the basin show little 

overbank flooding in the morainal area and considerable flooding on the Red River.
82,000

57,000

20,500 N

10 20 30 40 MILES

2000

1600

800

5000

4000

2000.

1100

850 

430

26,000^) 47.

18,000 

6500J

\

Annual peak discharge 

occurring on the average 

once every 20 years

Annual peak discharge 

occurring on the average 

once every 10 years

Mean annual peak discharge

Figure 40.--The ratio of annual peak discharge magnitude between 

most of any 2 stream-gaging sites is generally similar for the 

range of frequencies shown. There appears to be no relationship to physiographic region.

95
bridge openings, channel improvement, and problems relating 

to reservoir capacity and flood routing.

The volume of water discharged is directly related to the 

duration of high water. The design of flood control structures is dependent upon the frequency and duration of floods. 

A high-flow frequency analysis has been made of the streamflow 

records from 5 gaging stations on the Red River of the North 

and 51 gaging stations on 12 large streams in the basin in 

Minnesota. Although there is some similarity in the shape of 

the high-flow frequency curves throughout the basin, differences do exist because of differences in the flood-producing 

factors. Seven streams were selected as representative to 

show the type of high-flow frequency relationships that are 

found throughout the basin. The data for the highest mean 

flows in cubic feet per second per square mile for 7 consecutive days for the 7 streams are presented in graphical form 

for ease in comparison (fig. 41). The curves for Red River of 

the North at Grand Forks and Red Lake River at Crookston illustrate the relationship for the largest streams, and include 

the greatest variety of basin characteristics.

Otter Tail River flows through the morainal area, has 

more than 13 percent of the drainage area in lakes, and has 

the least high mean flow per square mile. In contrast, the 

drainage area of the Wild Rice River at Twin Valley is also 

in the moraine but has only 3 to 4 percent in lakes, and 

maximum flows are higher. The Middle River and South Branch 

Buffalo River are entirely within the lake plain and show the 

highest maximum mean flow per square mile. .Roseau River at 

Ross is in the lake-washed till plain but is similar to the 

Wild Rice River for recurrence intervals of 5 to 30 years because it is affected by storage in swamps and sandy areas. 

The highest mean flow for recurrence intervals of 2, 5, 10, 

20, and 30 years for 7, 15, 30, 60, and 90 consecutive days 

for these same 7 streams is shown in table 4.

Low flow

Droughts call attention to the need for facts on the reliable yield of streams for present and future water supply 

needs. Low streamflow is affected by many natural factors 

which include 1) precipitation, 2) the amount of water stored 

in ground and surface reservoirs, 3) evapotranspiratlon, 4) 

length and severity of winter freezeup, 5) pattern of groundwater movement, and 6) the type, number, and location of 

lakes, potholes, and marshes in a river basin. Although factors affecting low flow are more homogeneous within the lake 

plain and lake-washed till plains (beach ridges and incised 

channels are exceptions) great variations exist within the

96
10

o

« 1 UJ

o. 

O

8 0.5

UJ

QC

? 0.3

S 0.2 

y

CD

<J

0.1 _

O

Of.

u 

5

0.05 | 

0.03

0.02

0.01

Curves based on records for wafer years 1931-64 

Sriorf periods of record were exfended by corre/afion

Example The maximum average flow for 

7 consecutive days will be greater than 1.2 cfs 

per square mile at average intervals of 10 years 

on Red River of the North at Grand Forks, N. Dak.

I___I I I I I I____I

1.1 1.3 1.5 2.0 2.5 3 4 5 7 10

RECURRENCE INTERVAL, IN YEARS

15 20 30 40

Figure 41.--Frequency of maximum average flows for 7 consecutive days show higher values for streams in the lake plain 

than for those in the moraine.

97
Table 4. Magnitude and frequency of annual high flow at 

selected stream-gaging stations

Station Name

Otter Tail

River near

Detroit

Lakes, Minn.

So. Branch

Buffalo

River at

Sabin, Minn.

Wild Rice

River at

Twin Valley,

Minn.

Red Lake

River at

Crookston,

Minn.

Red River

of the

North at

Grand Forks,

N. Dak.

Middle

River at

Argyle,

Minn.

Roseau

River at

Ross, Minn.

Drainage 

area 

(sq ml)

270

522

888

5,280

30,100

(includes

3,800 sq

mi in

closed

basin)

265

1,220

Period of 

record 

(water 

years)

1938-61

1916-61

1910-17

1931-65

1902-65

1905-63

1951-65

1929-62

Period 

(consecutive 

days)

7

15

30

60

90

7

15

30

60

90

7

15

30

60

90

7

15

30

60

90

7

15

30

60

90

7

15

30

60

90

7

15

30

60

90

Highest mean flow, in cubic feet per 

second, for indicated 

recurrence intervals, in years

2

151

115

137

122

107

760

510

310

198

118

920

760

615

115

375

1,830

1,050

3,050

2,300

1,950

11,100

9,300

7,000

5,100

1,100

160

310

180

105

81

1,100

1,300

1,080

780

610

5

231

219

207

183

162

1,300

890

580

350

217

1,600

1,280

1,080

810

680

8,100

6,550

5,100

1,200

3,520

20,800

17,600

13,800

9,800

8,200

800

560

360

210

170

2,120

2,000

1,720

1,250

1,030

10

300

275

256

228

200

1,710

1,170

790

190

310

2,080

1,650

1,370

1,010

880

10,700

8,600

7,000

5,100

1,100

27,200

23,500

18,100

13,100

10,800

1,010

710

500

320

210

2,650

2,180

2,120

1,600

1,280

20

360

330

303

270

231

2,300

1,530

1,030

660

160

2,650

2,120

1,710

1,320

1,120

11,000

11,000

8,600

6,100

5,100

32,700

28,700

23,000

16,500

13,500

1,100

930

610

150

330

3,250

3,050

2,600

2,000

1,580

30

100

368

330

299

252

3,020

2,110

1,910

1,500

1,280

16,300

12,600

9,800

7,150

5,950

36,000

31,700

25,600

18,500

15,300

3,630

3,130

2,930

2,300

1,780

98
morainal area. In this region the effect of droughts on low 

streamflow is directly related to the presence of lakes, surficial sand and gravel aquifers, and the presence of seeps and 

springs. Local droughts extending through a few weeks or a 

season have fairly well-defined .recurrence intervals. In contrast, major droughts, such as the drought of the 1930's, have 

a poorly defined recurrence interval because of lack of longterm streamflow records. Although flow-duration curves reveal 

the variability of daily discharge, it does not show the sequential character of natural flow. For example, a flow of 

12 cfs is equaled or exceeded 90 percent of the time on the 

Wild Rice River at Twin Valley (fig. 37), but whether this 

discharge occurred in one drought period or in scattered days 

cannot be determined from the duration curve. The low-flow 

frequency curves define the minimum average flow for a specified number of consecutive days for various recurrence intervals. Streams that originate in the lake plain have no flow 

for long periods and low-flow frequency curves cannot be prepared for many of them. The minimum or no flow periods normally occur between late summer and the spring breakup. In 

order to consider the low-flow periods as a unit, the climatic 

year (April 1 to March 31) is used as the yearly unit for the 

low-flow frequency computations. For comparison the low flow 

of streams were analyzed on a regional basis and a common and 

representative period was used.

Ten rivers were selected to show the low-flow characteristics of streams in the Red River basin (table 5). This selection identifies the similarities and differences of lowflow characteristics in the three physiographic regions in 

the basin. The recurrence interval was determined for the 

minimum average flow for 7, 14, 30, 60, and 90 consecutive 

days and the values shown in table 5 for 2, 5, 10, 20, and 

30 year recurrence intervals.

Minimum average flows for 7 consecutive days for 8 of the 

selected sites were converted to cubic feet per second per 

square mile, and plotted as frequency curves (fig. 42). 

Curves were not drawn for Middle River because the long periods of no flow precluded its use; or for the Red River of the 

North because the low flow is regulated and is not comparable 

to the tributary streams. To remove the differences caused by 

non-concurrent periods of record, frequency curves were defined also for the climatic years 1931-64. Frequency curves 

were not developed for 1931-64 for the Pelican River and South 

Branch Buffalo River because a satisfactory correlation could 

not be made with data for a long-term station.

Thief and South Branch Buffalo Rivers were selected to 

show the lack of ground-water contribution to streamflow.

99
Table 5- Magnitude and frequency of annual low flow at 

selected stream-gaging" stations

Drainage 

Station Name area 

(sq mi)

Middle 265

River at

Argyle

Thief River 959

near Thief

River Falls

So. Branch 522

Buffalo

River at

Sabin

Pelican 482

River near

Fergus Falls

Roseau 1,220

River at

Ross

Otter Tail 270

River near

Detroit

Lakes

Red River 30,100

of the (includes

North at 3,800 sq

Grand Forks, mi in

N. Dak. closed

basin)

Wild Rice 888

River at

Twin Valley

Red Lake 5,280

River at

Crookston

Buffalo 1,040

River near

Dilworth

Period of 

record 

(climatic 

years)

1951-64

1910-16,

1920,

1923,

1929-64

1945-63 v

1910-11,

1943-64

1929-61

1937-63

1904-64

1910-16,

1931-64

1902-64

1931-64

Period 

(consecutive 

days)

7

14

30

60

90

7

14

30

60

90

7

14

30

60

90

7

14

30

60

90

7

14

30

60

90

7

14

30

60

90

7

14

30

60

90

7

14

30

60

90

7

14

30

60

90

7

14

30

60

90

Lowest mean flow, in eufci(i feet per 

second, for indicated 

recurrence intervals, in years

2

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

.1

.1

.1

.1

.2

16

17

19

20

21

6.5

7.5

8.5

11

13

il 3

5*. 8

6.7

10

13

400

440

480

530

580

16

18

19

22

27

200

220

245

285

320

8.4

9.0

9.8

11

12

5

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

.3

.6

1.2

2.1

2.8

2.7

3.1

4.0

5.7

7.1

1.1

1.5

2.1

3.7

5.0

160

180

200

230

250

6.7

7.4

8.5

10

13

45

53

69

80

93

1.9

2.2

2.6

3.8

5.0

10

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

.1

.3

.6

1.5

1.8

2.4

3.7

4.7

.4

.6

.9

1.9

2.8

88

99

110

130

140

3.8

4.3

5.2

6.2

8.0

18

20

27

31

3^

.4

.6

.8

1.4

2.5

20

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

.2

.7

.9

1.5

2.3

3.2

.1

.2

.4

1.0

1.6

46

52

58

71

80

2.2

2.7

3.3

4.1

5.3

8.3

9.5

12

14

15

.1

.1

.2

.5

1.3

30

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

.1

.3

.6

1.0

1.6

2.6

.1

.1

.3

.6

1.3

31

35

39

49-

55

1.6

2.0

2.6

3.2

4.3

5.7

6.6

7.8

9.2

10

0

.1

.1

.2

. .9

100
0.10 i i r

EXPLANATION

Frequency of minimum overage flows for 7 consecutive 

days for selected streams. Solid line shows relationship" 

for period of record at station, dashed line is for 

climatic years 1931 64. The period of record was 

nearly concurrent with the climatic years 1931 64 

for sites 5 and 16 and one curve is shown. No 

relationship was developed for climatic years ~ 

1934-64 for sites 3 and 18.

0.0001

1.1 1.3 1.5 2.0 2.5 3 4 5 7 10 15 

RECURRENCE INTERVAL, IN YEARS

20 30 40

Figure 42.--Frequency of minimum average flows for 7 consecutive days show the contrasting characteristics between 

streams in the lake plain such as South Branch Buffalo River 

at Sabin and those in the moraine, such as Wild Rice River at 

Twin Valley.

101
Thief River is in the lake-washed till plain and drains large 

areas of peat and glacial till and has long periods of no 

flow. South Branch Buffalo River is in the lake plain and 

drains lake clay and fine lake sand. The low-flow frequency 

curve for South Branch Buffalo River does not include the 

period of extreme low flow during the 1930 T s, and consequently 

is relatively high in discharge in comparison to the Thief 

River curve. Most of the streams in the lake plain that head 

near the edge of the moraine, such as the South Branch Buffalo 

River, have much ground-water contribution from seeps and 

springs in the headwaters area. Three factors tend to reduce 

the amount of base flow in downstream reaches of these 

streams: 1) evapotranspiration is high in the bogs and at the 

base of the moraine; 2) long periods of no flow occur during 

winter because of freezeup and continual buildup of ice 

throughout the winter in the poorly developed drainage channels in the flat terrain; and 3) small ground-water contribution to base flow along the stream channels within the lake 

plain.

Although the Roseau River is within the lake-washed till 

plain, ground water in the large areas of sand, especially in 

the Beltrami Island area, contributes heavily to the low flow 

at Ross. The Wild Rice and Otter Tail Rivers have high base 

flow from large amounts of ground-water storage in sand and 

gravel deposits in the morainal area. In contrast, the Pelican River has lower sustained flows and goes dry during severe 

winters. Red Lake River is a large contributor of low flow 

to the Red River of the North below East Grand Forks because 

of surface storage. The low-flow frequency curve for Crookston does not reflect natural flow conditions because of 

regulation from the Red Lakes.

The 2-year 7-day low flow is useful in determining the 

adequacy of streamflow for water supply or its capability to 

dilute waste effluent. The median 7-day flows are a direct 

indication of the base-flow characteristics of the streams 

in the basin. The median 7-day low flows were converted to 

cubic feet per second per square mile and whenever possible 

the short term records were extended by correlation to the 

climatic years of 1931-64. These median 7-day values at the 

gaging stations were extended along the streams based on miscellaneous discharge measurements, size of drainage area, 

surficial geology, and topography (fig. ^3). As previously 

emphasized, the low-flow figures do not include streams 

draining small areas because locally there are great variations in basin characteristics.

Since the question of adequacy is one of the first to 

be considered for a water supply, tables 3 and 5 and figures

102
N

EXPLANATION

Median 7-day low flow, in 

cubic feet per second 

per square mile

^| Over 0.05 

__ 0.03 to 0.05 

ill 0.01 to 0.03 

Trace to 0.01 

I I No flow

Physiographic boundary

Figure 43.--The highest median 7-day low flow occurs in the 

Otter Tail and Clearwater Rivers where they traverse the 

areas of outwash and ice-contact sand and gravel.

103
42 and 43 should be considered in answering: 1) will there 

be enough flow to meet the minimum requirements; 2) will the 

no-flow periods be of such short duration that they may be 

neglected; and 3) will the recurrence intervals of specific 

low flows be great enough to warrant the use of a surface 

supply.

An indication of the extent to which streams in the basin go dry is shown by the 30 selected gaging stations on 

tributary streams in figure 44. Streams selected were those 

that are representative of natural conditions throughout the 

basin. Each year in which 7 consecutive days of no flow occurred is identified. It has been concluded by Erskine (1962) 

that the minimum flows of the 1930 f s were probably the lowest 

that occurred in the Red River of the North during a period of 

at least 150 years and because of its severity the years 1931- 

40 have been accentuated by the shaded band in the table in 

figure 44. Streamflow records show a marked reduction in discharge during the drought years, but it is apparent from figure 44 that the streams that had no flow for 7 consecutive 

days during 1931-40 continued to have similar periods of no 

flow in most other years of record.

Ground-Water System

The ground-water reservoir, the saturated zone lying between the water table and the top of the basement rocks, forms 

a highly complex system. Because of the internal variability 

of the reservoir, the ground-water flow patterns are complex 

in detail; however, the larger aspects of ground-water flow 

can be described by a model based on water-level measurements 

and topography (fig. 45). This model is conceptual, especially 

for much of the upland recharge area, because reliable information on water levels were not available to delineate more 

precisely areas of recharge and discharge. Quantitative estimates of input and output cannot be determined from this model; 

however, they are in approximate balance. Tentative interpretations that can be drawn from the descriptive model are: 1) 

the ground-water reservoir is essentially full, the water table 

is usually within 30 feet of the land surface in the morainal 

area, and within 10 feet in the Glacial Lake Agassiz area; 

2) much of the recharge is not transmitted from the morainal 

recharge area to the lake plain but is locally discharged; 3) 

some of the recharge that enters the upland area is discharged 

in a belt that lies near the edge of the lake plain and lakewashed till plain; and 4) streams and lakes are not generally 

a source of large quantities of natural recharge in the morainal upland but are areas of discharge. The last conclusion has 

particular significance to water management because it is

104
o

VJ1

MAP 

KEY STATION NAME

YEARS O

1910 1920 1930 1

30 ROSEAU RIVER BELOW SOUTH FORK NEAR MALUNG

29 SPRAGUE CREEK NEAR SPRAGUE

28 ROSEAU RIVER AT ROSS

27 PINE CREEK NEAR PINE CREEK

26 ROSEAU RIVER BELOW STATE DITCH 51 NEAR CARIBOU

25 STATE DITCH 85 NEAR LANCASTER 

24 NORTH BRANCH TWO RIVERS NEAR LANCASTER 

23 NORTH BRANCH TWO RIVERS NEAR NORTHCOTE 

22 TWO RIVERS AT (AND BELOW) HALLOCK 

21 TWO RIVERS NEAR HALLOCK 

20 SOUTH BRANCH TWO RIVERS AT PELAN 

19 MIDDLE RIVER AT ARGYLE

18 THIEF RIVER NEAR THIEF RIVER FALLS

17 ClEARWATER RIVER AT PLUMMER

16 CLEARWATER RIVER AT RED LAKE FALLS

15 SANDHILL RIVER AT CLIMAX

14 LOST RIVER AT OKLEE

13 MARSH RIVER NEAR SHELLY

12 WILD RICE RIVER AT TWIN VALLEY

11 WILD RICE RIVER AT HENDRUM

10 SOUTH BRANCH WILD RICE RIVER NEAR BORUP

9 BUFFALO RIVER NEAR DILWORTH

8 BUFFALO RIVER NEAR HAWLEY

7 SOUTH BRANCH BUFFALO RIVER AT SABIN

6 OTTER TAIL RIVER NEAR DETROIT LAKES

5 PELICAN RIVER NEAR DETROIT LAKES

4 OTTER TAIL RIVER AT GERMAN CHURCH NEAR FERGUS FALLS f~~

3 PELICAN RIVER NEAR FERGUS FALLS

2 RABBIT RIVER AT CAMPBELL

1 MUSTINKA RIVER ABOVE WHEATON

D

. .1

1

__ 1

ZU

1

i.

i

c]

s

[

III L

"

II II

czu

1 _

1

1 *

L

L.....n

INDICATES YEARS 

Figure 44.--Many streams in the basin, particularly those confined 

plain or lake-washed till plain, have years in which at least 7 

no flow occur.
o

ON EXPLANATION 

GEOLOGY

Glacial drift

Cretaceous 

sedimentary rocks

Precambrian 

crystalline rocks

GROUND WATER MOVEMENT

J

Direction of regional 

movement

Direction of local 

movement

Direction of regional

movement when 

perpendicular to fence
B

Numbers ore percentage reacting vafues.

Figure 45.--As shown in A, ground water moves generally from tne morainai, area to

lake plain. However, large amounts of water move from high areas to adjacent lowlands 

in the morainai area. As shown in B> highly saline water in the northwestern part of 

the basin moves into Minnesota from North Dakota in the stratified sedimentary rocks.
generally believed by many in the area that lake levels and 

stream discharges in the upland areas contribute substantially 

to ground water.

Recharge to the Ground-Water System

The most important controls on regional ground-water 

recharge are local relief, overall slope of the basin, and 

permeability of the ground-water reservoir. These factors 

determine how much water can move through the ground-water 

reservoir and, thereby, how much water may enter the reservoir. 

In the Red River of the North basin the relief and overall land 

slope is generally low and the permeability is small, therefore, little ground water moves to the deeper flow systems.

The factors that locally affect ground-water recharge are 

the condition of the soil surface, density of vegetation, 

temperature, physical properties of the soil (porosity and 

permeability, grain-size distribution, and soil-moisture content), transmissivity of the ground-water reservoir, and climatic conditions including intensity of the rainfall and time 

and space distribution of precipitation.

Field methods used in this report for determining recharge 

to the ground-water system in specific areas are based largely 

upon fluctuations of water levels in observation wells. By 

knowing the change in water level and the specific yield of the 

aquifer the amount of recharge can be estimated. Fluctuations 

of water levels in typical wells for different geologic and 

hydrologic conditions are shown on figure 46.

All the wells show a typical pattern of a large rise in 

level in spring to gradual recession throughout the remainder 

of the year. The graph for the well near Warren shows the decline of artesian pressure over a 10-year period caused by 

pumping. In general, fluctuation of water levels in deeper 

wells isolated from pumping indicate long range variations in 

the recharge due to long range variations in precipitation. 

Fluctuations of the shallow wells isolated from pumping reflect 

local climatic conditions within local flow systems.

For estimating regional recharge, base flow analysis of 

the streams, pumpage inventories, and the flow system in the 

regional discharge areas were analyzed. By this method groundwater discharge is equated to ground-water recharge assuming 

that the natural system is in hydrologic equilibrium. With 

these concepts in mind, it is estimated that recharge to local 

flow systems may be as great as 5 or 6 inches in sandy areas, 

whereas, recharge to the deeper flow systems is probably of a 

magnitude of an inch or less. For water management purposes,

108
601

3

S ft r>. TO 

hS 7f O ft 

TO rf 3 hi 

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BELOW FEET IN DEPTH, SURFACE LAND BELOW FEET IN DEPTH, 

SURFACE LAND 

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CO

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ftaft

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( BELOW FEET IN DEPTH, 

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the factor of most interest is the recharge within the flow 

system in which the aquifer occurs. However, for regional 

water planning when total water development is anticipated or 

ground-water pollution is involved, knowledge of the total recharge to both local and regional flow systems is important.

Movement Within the Ground-Water System

One of the main objectives of this investigation was to 

determine patterns of ground-water circulation within the 

ground-water reservoir. To map ground-water movement in the 

Red River of the North basin; first, a generalized water-table 

map for the entire basin was made using the maps published in 

the hydrologic atlases, and secondly, flow profiles were constructed normal to the water-table surface at selected intervals from south to north within the basin (fig. 45).

A water-table map shows direction of lateral ground-water 

movement. Vertical movement can be inferred but not mapped or 

delineated. For example, it is assumed downward movement of 

water occurs under water-table highs.

Flow profiles (fig. 45) show the vertical component of 

ground-water flow. This interpretation of flow patterns is 

based upon reported and measured water levels in selected wells 

completed at various depths within the ground-water system supplemented by topographic evidence, chemical quality of water 

within the ground-water reservoir, and observations of seeps 

and alkali belts on the land surface.

Theoretical work of Hubbert (1940), and field applications 

of ground-water flow by Meyboom (1962) and Meyboom, Van Everdingen, and Freeze (1966) were useful in interpretations of 

movement patterns in the Red River basin. Altitude of water 

level in wells is a measure of the energy potential of water at 

the point of intake which is generally the well screen. This 

potential energy is made up of an elevation component which is 

determined by the elevation of the well screen from some given 

datum plus the pressure head which is represented by the height 

of the water column above the well screen. The hydraulic potential is defined as: 0=z+hp, 

where: 0 is the potential head at measuring point, in feet.

hp = pressure head in feet, which is equivalent to the 

height of the water column above the measuring 

point divided by the specific gravity of water, 

z = elevation of datum, in feet.

In general, the flow profiles indicate a decrease in hydraulic potential with depth in the higher morainal areas and

110
a general increase in potential with depth in the discharge 

area lying along the western edge of the moraine. Two significant interpretations can be made from the profiles. First, 

that there is no simple flow system within the Red River basin 

that describes all ground-water movement although gross interpretations can be made. In the morainal area the effect of 

topography results in many local flow systems; deeper flow to 

the ground-water reservoir probably occurs only under the 

higher upland areas of the morainal area. Much of the recharge 

that occurs within the moraine is locally discharged to springs 

and lakes or rivers in the lowlands or valleys within the morainal area. This idea is developed further in the section on 

ground water-surface water relationships. Second, a regional 

discharge area was identified along the edge of the lake plain 

near the moraine. This discharge zone occurs because less 

energy is required to move the water upward to the land surface than to move it laterally through the tight ground-water 

reservoir in the western part of the lake plain. Low natural 

base flow of the Red River and tributary streams in the lake 

plain supports the above interpretation.

Discharge Prom the Ground-Water System

Ground-water discharge areas were determined by mapping 

seeps, wetlands, alkali soil belts, and vegetation patterns, 

and analyzing selected stream hydrographs and ground-water flow 

patterns. Major ground-water discharge areas for the Red River 

basin, other than streams, include wetlands and lakes in the 

morainal area and zones of upward seepage of ground water in 

the Glacial Lake Agassiz region (fig. 47). The most significant continuous belt of upward movement is along the eastern 

edge of the lake plain adjacent to the morainal area. This 

belt of ground-water discharge is indicated also by the increase in hydraulic potential with increasing depth as indicated by water level and well depth data (fig. 45). In Wilkin 

and Clay Counties, areas of alkali soil are widely scattered 

throughout this discharge area. It is believed that the alkali 

results from the migration of mineralized ground waters to near 

the surface where the alkali minerals are concentrated because 

of evaporation of the water.

Numerous springs, some of which flow at more than several 

hundred gallons per minute are found throughout this belt and 

are particularly abundant in Wilkin and Clay Counties. An unusual type of spring that flows from tops of low mounds occurs 

in the vicinity of Lawndale, in the northeastern part of Wilkin 

County. The spring mounds range in height from about 5 to 15 

feet and may cover an area up to about a half acre in extent. 

The springs occur within wet, grassy, pastureland below which 

the water table usually lies within a few feet of the land

111
N

EXPLANATION

Area of flowing wells

Area of heavy groundwater discharge to 

lakes and peatlands

0 10 20 30 40 MILES 

I_____I_____I I I

Figure 47.--Moat ground water is discharged locally to lakes^ 

peatlands, and rivers. A significant quantity of ground water 

is discharged by upward movement to the water table where it 

is removed by evapotranspiration. This area is shown by the 

zone of flowing wells.

112
surface. The mound itself consists largely of peat, and near 

the top of the mound the materials become increasingly spongey. 

In the area near Barnesville, Clay County, difficulty was encountered in preventing the creation of artesian springs at the 

site of shallow exploratory auger holes. At one auger hole 

site near Lawndale a spring was created that flowed about 200 

gpm. This spring was later grouted at considerable expense in 

order to stop the flow.

In the later 19th century and early 20th century, before 

the major influx of population within the lake plain area, 

wells tapping the drift below the lake deposits flowed in the 

vicinity of the Red River of the North. Since then water 

levels within the western part of the lake plain have slowly 

declined to the extent that flowing wells no longer exist near 

the Red River of the North. The average decline in water level 

near the Red River of the North is probably between 5 and 10 

feet for the period since the early part of the century. Locally, the water-level decline has been as much as 150 feet at 

Moorhead where buried sand and gravel aquifers have been tapped 

for a municipal water supply. Because of the declines in water 

levels in this area, ground water has locally reversed its 

gradient and now is recharging the underlying drift aquifers 

rather than discharging upward toward the land surface.

Ground-water discharge areas for the sedimentary rocks 

that underlie the glacial drift occur within the lake plain 

area (fig. 12). The Paleozoic and overlying Cretaceous rocks 

in the northwestern part of the Red River basin contain highly 

saline water which has migrated eastward from North Dakota, 

and is being discharged where these rocks pinch out against the 

crystalline rocks in Minnesota. The Paleozoic and Cretaceous 

rocks contain permeable zones; however, the discharge from them 

is greatly restricted by the overlying relatively impermeable 

drift. Slow upward migration of saline water has resulted in 

contamination of ground water within the overlying drift.

Water in Cretaceous rocks in the southern part of the Red 

River basin locally moves upward and mixes with the waters in 

the overlying drift deposits. Upward movement of water from 

Cretaceous rocks occurs largely in the lake plain. In the morainal area, some recharge to the Cretaceous rocks occurs. This 

water moves westward and in the lake plain also moves upward.

In summary, most of the ground-water discharge occurs near 

the place of recharge within the Red River basin. Because of 

the relatively impermeable reservoir rocks, regionally low 

gradients, and dominance of local flow systems in the morainal 

area, only a small part of the water that falls within the upland morainal area reaches the regional discharge areas.

113
Relation of Ground Water to Surface Water

Although it is convenient to discuss the details of surface -water and ground water separately, at certain places in 

the system the two are very closely related and it is useful 

to discuss them together. At time of low flow, surface water 

consists entirely of ground-water discharge, and in regard to 

lakes, particularly closed lakes, ground-water flow is closely 

related to lake levels.

Relation of Ground Water to Streams

The effect of ground-water discharge on streamflow can be 

shown areally or temporally. To determine areal effects, the 

stream discharge is measured at many points along a stream to 

identify reaches of the stream where ground water is entering 

or leaving and at what rate. This must be done within a relatively short period of time. To show the time effect, hydrographs of streamflow are separated to determine the base flow, 

or ground-water component. Low-flow frequency analysis and 

flow-duration analysis supplement the techniques described 

here. These are discussed in the section on the Surface Water 

System.

Numerous low-flow measurements were made on the Wild Rice, 

Sand Hill, and Clearwater Rivers. Results of these three 

studies are described in the Hydrologic Atlas series (HA-339 and 

346). The increase in ground-water contribution to the Wild 

Rice River, for example, is about 1 to 1.5 cubic feet per second 

per mile (cfs/mi) in the area of ice-contact sand and gravel in 

the morainal area and in the beach ridge sand and gravel area. 

Ground-water flow to the stream is low to moderate in the area 

of glacial till and in the lake-plain area is less than 0.1 

cfs/mi. At the time of this study the stream was at about 82 

percent flow duration.

Separation of streamflow hydrographs was done for the Wild 

Rice River at Twin Valley for 1937 and 1947 to show the relationship of base flow to total flow with a wide range in discharge. 

(See HA-339.) Hydrograph separation can also be used to show the 

effects of basin geology on ground-water contribution to streams. 

A comparative study was made between the South Fork Roseau River 

basin near Malung (sand covers about 20 percent of its drainage 

area), and Pine Creek near Pinecreek (sand covers about 60 percent of its drainage area). Base flow is relatively stable and 

an important part of the streamflow on Pine Creek; whereas, South 

Pork Roseau River is a very flashy stream that has widely variable ground-water inflow and many periods of no flow. (See 

fig. 48).

114
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DISCHARGE, IN ACRE -FEET 

PER SQUARE MILE

DISCHARGE, IN CUBIC 

PER SECOND

FEET DIS

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3
Relation of Ground Water to Lakes

In the morainal area most ground water moves from recharge 

areas at topographic highs to adjacent lowlands where the water 

is discharged. The lowlands generally contain "lakes or bogs 

which are not only the recipient of surface runoff, but also 

ground water that has moved from nearby recharge areas. The 

study of ground-water contribution to lakes is, therefore, 

largely a study of local flow systems, although knowledge of 

regional ground-water flow systems is also important.

Little thorough work has been done on the ground-water relationship to lakes. The U.S. Geological Survey is studying 

the ground-water system near potholes in North Dakota (Sjeflo 

and others, 1962). The University of Minnesota (Manson, 

Schwartz, and Allred, 1968) is also studying ground-water near 

lakes in Minnesota. In the prairies of western Canada, Meyboom 

(1966) studied ground-water flow near sloughs. The conceptual 

models discussed below show relationships that could likely exist near lakes in the Red River basin.

Diagrammatic sketches of lake basins in homogeneous, isotropic geologic material are shown on figure 49. In figure 49A 

the isopotential lines are drawn in such a manner that ground 

water can move into, but not out of, the lake. This is because 

the isopotential line labeled 11 is closed. Another 11 line 

would then have to be drawn below the line that is closed 

around the lake and a divide is then established. The presence 

of this divide makes it impossible for water to move from the 

lake into the ground-water system.

Another diagrammatic sketch of the same lake basin but 

with the isopotential lines drawn another possible way is shown 

on figure 49B. In this situation an isopotential line does not 

close around the lake and the possibility for water movement 

from the bottom of the lake does exist. It is very likely that 

water would move to the lake around the edges and away from the 

lake in the center. The line separating inflow and outflow is 

unknown.

A third possible situation could exist where the water 

table on one side of the lake is lower than lake level (fig. 

49C). In this case, water would flow from the lake into the 

ground on the side that has the lower water table, and from the 

ground to the lake on the other side. Again, the line separating inflow from outflow is not known. If one is to study 

the ground-water relationship to lakes it is necessary to establish piezometers around the lake and within the lake to 

measure ground-water gradients directly.

The examples used here are very simple and are used only 

to present concepts. In nature, many variations in geologic

116
Late sedimenfs 

Ground wafer divide 

II

A.

"~~\

70- \

9--__i

Lalce sediments ^ /

/

'

f" 'sopo/enfio/ /me-

»«

o>

7^ 

/oB.

Figure 49.--Hypothetical sketches of 3 possible relationships of 

ground water to lakes: A) lake is end point of closed ground 

water flow system; B) lake receives ground water along sides but 

loses water to ground in central area; C) lake receives ground 

water on one side but loses water to ground on other side*

117
and topographic settings exist and the ground-water relation to 

the lake is different in each case. Where the ground-water 

level in the area near the lake is about the same as the lake 

stage, wide fluctuations in lake level over the year will affect the direction of movement. For example, in the spring if 

the water level in the lake rises above the surrounding water 

table, water will move from the lake to the ground-water system. 

Conversely, throughout the remainder of the year when the lake 

level drops below the surrounding water table, ground water will 

move into the lake.

Because of the lack of data and studies it is not known 

which, if any, of the conditions described above is the most 

common. In any case, much ground water from local flow systems 

discharges to lakes around the edges.

Lake sediments affect the ground-water relation to lakes. 

The sediments are generally fine-grained, organic material with 

very low hydraulic conductivity that greatly restrict water 

movement, especially in the deeper parts of the lake where sediment accumulation is usually thickest.

Ground-water flow patterns likely are very complex around 

lakes. However, if lakes were grouped according to their geologic and topographic settings, and studies made of one or several of each group, a general knowledge of lake level - groundwater relationships would develop that could be applied to 

other lakes.

Hydrochemical System

Described in this section of the report are the relations 

between the chemical characteristics of water and the hydrogeologic environment.

Relationship of Water Quality to the Geologic Environment

Areal variations in the chemical characteristics of ground 

and surface water in the Red River of the North basin are influenced by the mineral composition of the ground-water reservoir, 

the ground-water flow patterns in the basin, and the length of 

time water has been in contact with the formations.

Mineral solutes in ground waters of the Red River basin 

strongly reflect the lithologic character of the rocks. Water 

in marine Cretaceous sediments containing ion-exchange minerals 

and sources of chloride tend to contain higher percentages of 

chloride, sodium, and smaller percentages of calcium and magnesium than waters in other geologic units. Water in calcareous

118
clay drift of western Minnesota tends to have relatively high 

concentrations of calcium, sulfate, and bicarbonate ions. 

Sulfate reduction in the presence of organic matter within the 

drift has significant affects locally on the concentration of 

sulfate, bicarbonate, hydrogen, calcium, and magnesium ions.

The relation between water quality and water movement 

within the ground-water reservoir may be better understood if 

concepts of ground-water flow as described in the previous 

section are used in conjunction with hydrochemical methods. 

In most of the basin much less mineralized water and water of 

a different hydrochemical type occur within local flow systems 

than water that occurs in the larger intermediate and regional 

flow systems.

To relate water chemistry to flow systems, it is necessary 

to have some understanding of the solubilities and exchange capacities of the minerals within the ground-water reservoir and 

the chemistry that affects the equilibria between minerals and 

ground water. The main factors that affect dissolution are the 

chemical character of the water, temperature, the area of the 

interface between soluble minerals and ground water, and the 

time the water is in contact with the minerals. It follows 

from the law of mass action that the rate of dissolution of a 

mineral solid is proportional to the saturation deficit and 

solubility of specific minerals. Hence, ground water receives 

much of its mineral solutes from dissolution in the upper part 

of the ground-water reservoir where the water is undersaturated 

with respect to particular minerals. Fine-grained material restricts ground-water movement, causing greater time in contact 

between water and mineral particles whose total surface area is 

great; consequently, mineralization of water tends to increase.

During its passage through the ground-water reservoir 

within the Red River basin, water undergoes frequent changes 

in chemical composition due to reduction, ion exchange, and 

equilibrium reactions due to changes in ion concentration. 

In northwestern Minnesota, reduction of sulfate ion concentration in ground water by the action of anaerobic bacteria 

associated with organic materials commonly occurs in buried 

lake deposits in the drift and in lignite deposits in the 

underlying Cretaceous sediments. Ion exchange commonly softens 

water in the Cretaceous deposits as indicated by a high ratio 

of sodium to calcium plus magnesium ion. In Kittson County, 

hardening of water is due largely to mixing, but may be due to 

base exchange, locally (Piper and others, 1953).

119
Water Types in the Red River basin

Changes in total dissolved solids and water type (the dominant ion or ions in solution) are the basis for the hydrochemical interpretation of water movement in the watershed. Water 

types were determined graphically by plotting the concentrations of the major ions on a trilinear diagram (fig. 45). 

Schoeller (1959) has shown that on 'a regional scale ground 

water progressively changes toward a type that approximates sea 

water. The full sequence of water types from the recharge area 

to the discharge area or deep stagnant area commonly is:

Local modifications of sequence of water type occurs where highly soluble minerals exist in the reservoir. Where several 

aquifer systems within the ground-water reservoir are hydrologically connected, mixing of ground waters will often occur. 

Mixing of ground water of the drift and Cretaceous systems in 

the southern part of the basin is indicated on figure 45. In 

this area water moves upward from Cretaceous deposits and m xes 

with the overlying drift aquifers. In the drift of the eastern 

part of the Red River basin the water type changes from a water 

of high relative concentration of calcium and bicarbonate ions 

near the source of recharge to a water of high relative concentration of sulfates and/or sodium ions at greater depths or at 

a greater distance from recharge (fig. 45).

Calcium bicarbonate type water occurs in the glacial drift 

in the eastern part of the watershed, in the surficial beach 

sands, shallow channel and outwash deposits, and in the upper 

25 feet of the lake deposits in the northwestern part of the 

watershed. The major chemical reaction in these deposits is 

the dissolution of limestone and dolomite by carbonic acid 

which results in relatively fast increase in concentration of 

calcium, magnesium, and bicarbonate ions in solution. Carbonic 

acid is produced largely by the reaction of water with gaseous 

carbon dioxide which is abundant in the soil zone due to organic 

decay. Sulfate concentration in this shallow zone is low because most of the readily soluble sulfate minerals have been 

leached. Also, sulfate concentration in water is commonly reduced by bacteria associated with plant materials.

Total dissolved solids concentration in the calcium bicarbonate water is generally less than 500 mg/1, which is the 

lowest concentration of all water types found in the Red River 

basin. Calcium bicarbonate water is the most common type in 

areas of ground-water recharge. It is common in shallow wells 

in the watershed and in surface water in most tributary streams 

during periods of low flow. Within the lake plain where deposits are locally more permeable and where mounds on the ground

120
water table exist, such as beach ridges, calcium bicarbonate 

water may extend to greater depths in the ground-water reservoir than in the more clayey and silty parts. The deeper penetration of the calcium bicarbonate water indicates relatively 

rapid ground-water movement through the permeable deposits.

Sulfate type water occurs in the glacial drift in the 

southern part of the watershed and locally underlies bicarbonate type water in the northern part of the watershed. These 

occurrences of sulfate waters may be due to local occurrences 

of gypsum and iron sulfide or may be due to the relative increase of the sulfate ions in the direction of ground-water 

flow, as suggested in the geochemical sequence of Schoeller. 

Locally, within areas of sulfate waters, sulfate concentrations 

are very low; probably as a result of reduction by anaerobic 

bacteria. Total dissolved solids in the sulfate water range 

from about 400 to about 1,200 mg/1. The higher dissolved solids within sulfate waters is compatible with the interpretation 

that in the ground-water flow system, sulfate water occurs 

downgradient from the lesser mineralized bicarbonate waters.

Sodium bicarbonate type water occurs mostly in the deeper 

drift deposits and in the underlying Cretaceous rocks in the 

western half of the watershed. These rocks and sediments contain clays and disseminated organic materials (such as lignite 

and humus) of high ion exchange capaciites which probably are 

widely distributed throughout the sediments. Hard waters moving from the drift into the Cretaceous rocks or into the drift 

immediately overlying the Cretaceous rocks are softened by base 

exchange resulting in an increase in sodium concentration in 

the water. At some places, sulfate concentration in the sodium 

bicarbonate type water was lowered by reduction resulting in an 

exceptionally high bicarbonate concentration. Bicarbonate ion 

is one of the products of sulfate reduction in presence of organic decay. The total dissolved solids of the sodium bicarbonate water is generally less than 1,000 mg/1.

Chloride type water that occurs in the sedimentary rocks in 

the western part of the watershed is highly saline in relative 

composition of the major ions and is similar to that of ocean 

water. The Paleozoic and Cretaceous rocks contain highly soluble minerals which contribute to the high salinity of the water. 

However, most of. the salinity probably has accumulated during 

the slow eastward migration of ground water through the Paleozoic rocks underlying North Dakota toward a regional discharge 

area, part of which is in northwestern Minnesota. Highly saline 

waters occur at depth in the drift near the margin of the Paleozoic rocks. These high salinities are due to the upward movement of saline water in zones of Paleozoic rocks along their 

contact with the drift. The saline water mixes with bicarbonate

121
or sulfate water in the drift to form a calcium magnesium 

chloride type. The total dissolved solids concentration of 

the chloride waters in Paleozoic rocks range from about 5,000 

to 60,000 mg/1 and in the drift from 2,000 to 4,000 mg/1.

The greater knowledge derived from the use of geochemical 

methods should prove useful to the prediction of effects of 

different management practices on the entire hydrologic system 

and to indicate ways in which water quality may be managed. 

Among the chemical equilibrium reactions which need to be 

studied in greater detail within the Red River basin are those 

involving natural softening of water. It may prove feasible 

to inject hard waters into zones where natural softening occurs, thereby obtaining soft waters at relatively low cost. 

Reactions involving oxidation or reduction of iron may have 

significant effect on permeabilities of the material within 

the ground-water reservoir.

122
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