DANGEROUS EXPOSURE: 

FARMWORKER CHILDREN AND PESTICIDES

Health & Safety The Fields

Programs Annual Publication

Volume I, 2011
Health & Safety Programs

To address the needs of workers in one of the most dangerous jobs in the country, AFOP’s Health & Safety 

Programs strive to empower farmworkers to protect themselves against pesticides and heat stress through 

health and safety education. Our programs utilize bilingual, interactive, low-literacy training techniques and 

materials.

Programs

Project HOPE (Health Outreach through Pesticide Education)

SAFE AmeriCorps Program (Serving America’s Farmworkers Everywhere) 

Project LEAF (Limiting Exposures Around Families) 

Proyecto Sol (Heat stress education)

Publications

¡Salud! (Newsletter)

The Fields (Annual Publication)

For more information, contact Levy Schroeder, Director of Health & Safety Programs at

schroeder@afop.org or (202) 828-6006 ex. 130

David Strauss

Executive Director

Health & Safety Programs

Levy Schroeder

Director, Health & Safety Programs

Jessica Werder

Senior Program Manager

Melanie Forti

Program Coordinator

Amanda Jordan

Program Associate

Valentina Stackl

Program Associate

Editor ¡SALUD! and The Fields

 

This publication was developed under Cooperative Agreement No. 

X8-83237601 awarded by the U.S. Environmental Protection 

Agency (EPA). It has not been formally reviewed by EPA. The views 

expressed in this document are solely those of AFOP and EPA does 

not endorse any products or commercial services mentioned in this 

publication.

© 2011 by Association of Farmworker Opportunity Programs

Design and production: AFOP Health & Safety Programs

Photos: AFOP Health & Safety Programs and Children in the Fields 

Campaign staff.

The Association of Farmworker Opportunity Programs’ (AFOP) mission is to 

improve the quality of life for migrant and seasonal farmworkers and their 

families by providing advocacy for the member organizations that serve them. 

The thread that binds the Association is the concept that training and education 

can provide the launching pad to a better and more stable life for the workers 

who plant, tend, and harvest the crops that Americans consume at their tables.

Association of Farmworker Opportunity Programs

1726 M St NW, Suite 602, Washington, DC 20036 (202) 828-6006

Twitter: @AFOPHealth Facebook: AFOP Health and Safety Website:

www.afop.org

This publication is printed on post-consumer recycled paper 

(100% inside; 30% cover) in a carbon neutral process.
This publication is dedicated to the millions of people living all over the country who work hard to bring food to the tables of the 

rich and poor alike, as well as the tireless efforts of the scientists, service providers, and advocates that make concrete the 

evidence of their struggles. 

1

All the things with the way they are, I still hope that there will be

change. Just like what we’re doing right here, we’re letting people

know and be aware. There’s also the government that has laws and

things in place. As long as they keep applying those laws and

inspecting, I think that there’ll be a change eventually

-Duperval Frantz (States: Maryland, Florida Crop: Tomatoes, Oranges)

1
2

A job that requires that you work in fields or orchards saturated with poisonous chemicals that

can cause debilitating skin diseases, neurological disorders and cancers of various kinds. A job

that may often have you come in physical contact with those same deadly chemicals because

proper safety procedures were not followed or were purposely ignored. And then you are

terrified to go home because the last thing you want to do is to contaminate your loved ones and

you are not certain that you have washed properly or sufficiently?

To work in not only one of the most dangerous occupations on earth, but in a job that often

subjects you to treatment that is humiliating and can rob you of your dignity. A job that provides

little to no protections against workplace abuse and that scorns you and castigates you if you

ask for common decency in the way you are treated on the job?

Why would someone choose to work under these conditions? The short answer to that question

is that most of the 157 million working persons in these United States do not choose, would

never choose, to subject themselves to those conditions. Yet the work of harvesting the field

and row crops that feed us and a good part of the world, has to be done, doesn’t it? If it wasn’t

done, people would starve and farmers and a good portion of our economy would go bankrupt.

The longer answer to that question is a little more complicated, but should be easy to

comprehend. It is about a parent’s love for their children and how they would give their very

lives to provide for them, to make sure they are fed, clothed and educated. It is about enduring

all types of indignity and physical and mental abuse to provide their family with a better life. It

speaks to a hunger for independence and self-respect.

I think that a big part of that long answer is love. Farmworkers love their families. They love

America, being free and working very hard to earn their share of the “dream” for themselves

and their families. They love to sing, dance and to celebrate the fruits of their labor. And yes,

they even love their jobs in agriculture, even with the hardships that are part of those jobs.

I think that America should love them back, don’t you?

Ernie Flores, President

A Letter From the President of AFOP:

What would possess a person to choose to work in agriculture? In a job

that has them outdoors often in extreme heat or cold? Working in

sweltering temperatures above 100 degrees, without drinking water or

shade, or in numbing cold and frost? A job that often requires up to 10 to

12 hours of back breaking, bone racking standing, bending, lifting and

stooping? In an occupation that can both rob you of your youth and,

considering the high rates of fatalities among children in agriculture, send

you to an early grave?
Esperanza Gonzalez

Director of Minority Health 

Programs, Illinois Migrant 

Council

Esperanza Gonzalez

Since 1979 Esperanza Gonzalez has been

employed with the Illinois Migrant Council

in various positions and capacities.

Esperanza is currently the Director of the

Minority Health Programs where she

administers a wide range of health outreach

and educational programs that address

health disparities for farmworker and

Latino communities throughout Illinois,

such as breast, cervical and prostate

cancers, H1N1, HIV/AIDS prevention,

diabetes, obesity, healthy living/nutrition,

pesticide safety training, heat stress and

other issues.

She is also an experienced clinical counselor and therapist. She has

developed and administered several mental health programs providing

services to at risk farmworker and Latino youth and their families.

Esperanza was the Regional Director for the Illinois Migrant Council’s

Northern Region (13 Northern Counties) for 20 years providing a variety

of services and programs for the farmworker and Latino communities

before moving to the administration office in Chicago.

Along with having extensive experience on these programs she is also the

President of the Illinois Association of Agencies and Community

Organizations for Migrant Advocacy (IAACOMA). IAACOMA is a

committee of state agencies and community organizations created in

1977 to provide services and advocacy on behalf of migrant and seasonal

farmworkers in Illinois. Esperanza has been IAACOMA’s President for

more than 20 years. Recently Governor Pat Quinn appointed Esperanza

as a member of the Illinois Commission to End Hunger. Esperanza was

born in Racine, Wisconsin to farmworker parents. A Farmworker herself

she grew up in Cotulla, Texas. She migrated with her parents until her

high school years. In 1979 she moved to Illinois to work for the Illinois

Migrant Council and has been there ever since.

Thomas A. Arcury, PhD

Thomas A. Arcury, Ph.D., is

Professor and Vice Chair for

Research in the Department of

Family and Community

Medicine, Wake Forest School of

Medicine. He is Director of the

Center for Worker Health, and he

is Director of the Program in

Community Engagement and

Implementation.

Thomas A. Arcury, Ph.D

Professor and Vice Chair 

at Wake Forest School of 

Medicine

Reviewers

He received his PhD in Cultural Anthropology in 1983

from the University of Kentucky. Arcury is a medical

anthropologist and public health scientist with a research

program focused on improving the health of rural and

minority populations.

Since 1996, he has collaborated in a program of

community-based participatory research with immigrant

farmworkers and poultry processing workers and their

families focused on occupational and environmental

health and justice. He has authored over 250 referenced

articles, and he is the co-editor of a volume published in

2009 on the health, safety, and justice of farmworkers in

the eastern United States. He has participated in the

development of diverse educational materials intended to

return research results to immigrant worker communities.

He has also used research results to affect policy change.

Thank you to the focus group participants, who shared their experiences, concerns, and wisdom in hopes their children can be further 

protected from the effects of pesticides. Thank you also to the individuals and organizations that made the focus groups possible.

California

The five participants wished to remain anonymous

Florida

Jesus Aguilar, Orfanelia Velazquez, Floriberta

Mirade and the other three participants who wished to remain anonymous

Maryland

Cynthia Nicklow, Simon Augustus, Duperval Frantz, Lesly Lissade,

Samuel David Avila

New York

Nicole Terry

North Carolina

Hilda Acosta, Teresa Aguilar, Graciela Pérez

Texas

Olga S. Hernández, Arturo Peñafiel, Pascuala Puentes, María Ramos,

Juana Salazar, María del Carmen Valenzuela, Isabel Magallanes, and 

the other two participants who wished to remain anonymous

Focus Groups

“As long as people keep accepting certain conditions that are 

not ideal, then they’re going to keep on being taken advantage 

of, or it’s going to continue the way it is... Although we have this 

conversation here, or this type of meeting, sometimes it doesn’t 

go to the right person that can help make that change. So now 

that we’ve had this conversation...we want to make sure that 

this information goes to the right person that can do something 

about it.”

(Lesley Lissade, Maryland)

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2

Table of 

Contents

Table of 

Contents
3

 A Letter from the President of the Association of Farmworker Opportunity 

Programs ..........................................................................................................2

I. Introduction .................................................................................................................6

II. Background...................................................................................................................8

III. Methodology..................................................................................................................12

IV. Health Effects..............................................................................................................14

Birth Defects....................................................................................................15

Neurological and Behavioral Health..............................................................17

Respiratory Health..........................................................................................19

Cancer...............................................................................................................21

V. Conclusion....................................................................................................................25

VI. Recommendations...............................................................................................................27

5
3

I. Introduction

I. Introduction
3

-Nicole Terry (State: New York; Crop: 

Apples)

Children of farmworkers bear a disproportionate burden of health effects from pesticide use in

our country. Birth defects, neurological complications, respiratory illness, and cancers have all

been linked by peer-reviewed research to pesticide exposure in children. This publication

reviews research found on the effects of pesticides on these four areas related to children’s

health. The information compiled here is a tool for consumers, policy-makers, health and safety

trainers, advocates, those who serve farmworkers, and those who benefit daily from their hard

work.

Pesticide exposure occurs at work in the fields and also at home. Farmworkers may bring their

families into contact with pesticides inadvertently through their clothes or unsafe storage of

chemicals. However, thousands of children all over the country are more directly exposed to

pesticide residues while they labor in fruit, vegetable, and flower crops. Discriminatory laws

exempting farmworker youth from safe working conditions as they harvest on farms put them at

particular risk for contact with these chemicals. Parents in farm work, who largely earn below a

living wage, often opt for their children to work with them in the fields in order to provide the

basics for the family. Whether exposed through parents’ field work or their own, children who

develop illnesses as a result of pesticide exposure pay the price for our demands for cheap food.

Coupled with the concerns of farmworker parents in their own voices about pesticide exposure,

the following findings demonstrate that the health of these children is at stake.

...think of it like if it was one of your family

members. Would you want them to be out

there...spraying the pesticide, bringing it

home to their kids, your grandkids? I think it

should be fair where they should just really

investigate the stuff that they’re using on that

crop.... I don’t really think that that’s fair. I

really don’t...I’m telling you right now, I don’t

buy apples at all...and yes, I do think about,

who cut this watermelon, who harvests this

corn,...because I remember the days of me,

with that apple sack on my shoulder, coming

home dead tired...

6

6

7
3

II. Background
Farmworkers endure some of the most grueling working conditions of any occupation in the

United States. These women, men, and children work in fields, orchards, tree farms, and

greenhouses, contributing daily to the country’s food supply. Low pay, frequent wage theft, 12 to

14 hour work-days in extreme weather, and tasks that are physically destructive to their bodies

are constant realities for workers. They often labor without access to drinking water, toilets, or

hand washing facilities. In addition, most people in this line of work have no health insurance.

Housing that is provided by their employers is often sub-standard and crowded. The average

farmworker family earns less than $17,000 annually [1], well below the poverty guidelines for a

family of four or more people. Farmworkers may not seek medical help because of lack of

insurance, limited access to appropriate facilities, hostilities based on immigration status, or fear

of retribution from their employers. Yet, in spite of poverty and unsafe working conditions,

including pesticide exposure, they work daily to put food on our tables. Of the many tribulations

farmworkers and their families face, the serious effects of pesticide exposure are simultaneously

an environmental justice issue and a public health concern.

2

Farmworker Children

It is estimated that there are 2.5 million migrant and seasonal farmworkers in the United States,

with as many as 400,000 to 500,000 children working in the fields alongside their parents. In

2006, the Childhood Agricultural Injury Survey found 307,000 youth under the age of 20

employed in the agricultural industry [2]. No studies have been done on the number of child

farmworkers under age 12; however, the Association of Farmworker Opportunity Programs has

documented children as young as 6 exposed to pesticides while working in the fields. There is

also growing concern among farmworker advocates about the increased presence of

unaccompanied minors, even younger than 14, migrating alone to the U.S. to earn money in

agricultural jobs. Children in farmworker families who do not participate in the harvest also

face hardships related to their parents’ occupation. Due to lack of childcare, parents may take

infants to the fields.

In addition, the National Agricultural

Workers Survey (2001-2002) found that a

large number of farmworker parents have

their children living with them [3], making

them unintentionally subject to chemical

exposure through traces of pesticides

brought home from work.

Pesticides

Pesticides are “intended for preventing,

destroying, repelling, or mitigating any pest”

[4]. These chemicals include insecticides,

It’s not allowed to

bring children to

the fields, but in

vacations, they go.

We take all of the

kids during school

vacations to where

we work.... But it’s

dangerous for

them.

-Maria del Carmen Valenzuela (States: New 

Mexico, Texas’ Crop: Chilies, Onions)

herbicides, and other substances that are used to control unwanted insects, weeds, or fungi.

Pesticides also regulate plant growth or fruit maturity, often used as defoliants or desiccants.

Although used in homes around the country, they are most heavily used in agriculture.

The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) estimates that one billion pounds of pesticide 

active ingredient are used annually in the United States, of which nearly three quarters are used 

in agriculture [5]. There are currently over 1,400 pesticides approved and registered by the EPA 

with about 18 new pesticide registrations per year [6]. With over 16,000 pesticide products on 

the market, the U.S. spent over $12.5 billion on pesticides in 2007[7][8].

9
Occupational Exposure to Pesticides

Exposure to agricultural pesticides occurs in a number of ways: pesticides are ingested through

food or water, consumed directly by accident, inhaled or absorbed through the skin.

Farmworkers, including children, are at high risk for occupational pesticide exposure, as they

come into contact with these chemicals every day. They also are exposed to pesticide residues on

crops as they plant, cultivate, and harvest. They are exposed when they load, unload, move, mix,

store, and apply pesticides.

.

2

Residential Exposure

Migrant farmworker housing is

frequently old, in severe state of

disrepair, and not well maintained by

the landlords or the employers who

provide the facilities. Pesticides

accumulate in these ramshackle

conditions through drift from pesticide

applications in the fields nearby. It also

occurs from take-home exposure when

residues on farmworkers’ boots,

clothing, and work gear are transferred

to the floor, furniture, and pillows.

Directly they used the byplanes. I know they’re not just

flyin’ around just for an OV

(overhead view)...I don’t know

if they got any laws that

dictate when. From what I

understand, no workers are

supposed to be in the field

while the plane be goin’ up

and down and actually

spraying, spraying something.

Yeah, I’ve been directly

involved with this. And I get

sneezes and stuff, too, so I

know...but I don’t know what

the medical part of it is later

on...

-Simon Augustus (States: 

Florida, Georgia, S. 

Carolina, N. Carolina, 

Virginia, Delaware; Crop: 

Watermelons)

Farmworkers and their children are also exposed to pesticides when they use products to

combat nuisance pests in their dwellings. In a study of 41 farmworker homes in western North

Carolina, researchers detected traces of pesticides inside the homes. They collected wipe

samples of the floor, children’s toys, and children’s hands, and tested the samples for the

presence of specific classes of pesticides. Pesticides were present in 39 of the 41 samples and

included “organochlorine insecticides in at least 17 of the dwellings, organophosphorus

insecticides in at least 32 of these dwellings, carbamate insecticides in at least 15 of these

dwellings, and pyrethroid insecticides in 38 of these dwellings.” The study then examined the

exposure pathway to the children. The wipe samples were traced from the 39 floor samples

(95% of the homes) to children’s toys in 29 of the homes (71%), and from the toys to the

children’s hands in 24 houses (55%) [9].

In conjunction with the aforementioned research, Arcury and his colleagues collected urine

samples from the adults and children of nine of the houses where the wipe samples were taken

[10]. The urine was analyzed for pesticide metabolites, which signal pesticide exposure.

Farmworkers living in those houses had high levels of these metabolites as compared with

National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey’s findings on the general U.S. population. As

a follow-up, the investigators analyzed urine samples of 60 farmworker children age 1-6 years

old, all of whom lived in farmworker housing in eastern North Carolina [11]. All of the children

had detectable pesticide metabolites in their urine—including agricultural insecticides and

herbicides, non-agricultural pesticides, pesticides used for livestock, and in some instances

pesticides that had been banned since 1986 [12].

10
A similar study has been done in the Salinas Valley in California, the so-called grocery cart of

America because of its intense agriculture production of vegetables and fruits. Using the wipe

sample technique on floors of farmworker residences, it was found that the presence of

agricultural toxins was 10-200 times higher than in the air indoors or the soil around the home

[13]. These studies are important because they document the occurrence of in-home exposure to

farmworkers and their families. They tell us that in early childhood, farmworker children are

likely to be directly exposed to a number of toxic pesticides every day. There is compelling

evidence that the risk for childhood diseases could be elevated by these exposures.

Children’s Vulnerability

Physiologically, children are at increased risk from pesticide exposure. The World Health

Organization describes this vulnerability:

Children's bodies metabolize, detoxify and eliminate substances differently than adults' bodies do.

The central nervous system undergoes its period of most rapid development from the fetal stage

through the first six years of life, so young children are especially vulnerable to pesticides that act

as neurotoxins. The dermal area of an infant per unit of body weight is greater than that of an

adult, allowing for greater vulnerability to dermal absorption. Children's breathing zones are

closer to the ground, exposing them to inhalation of pesticides that linger at floor level [14].

Children have special vulnerability to health effects because of exposure through their behaviors.

Crawling and playing on the floor put them at risk for residue absorption through their skin.

Additionally, children are quick to put hands, toys, and other objects in their mouth increasing

the opportunity for residue ingestion.

2

Health Risks of Exposure

The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has identified 400 chemicals that are

known, probable, or possible carcinogens. A startling number of these are compounds found in

many commonly used pesticides. Others, particularly the organophosphates, are endocrine

disruptors, which mimic or block reproductive and thyroid hormones. Furthermore, pesticide

manufacturers are not required to register inactive ingredients in their products, so it is

impossible to ascertain even an estimate of the total amount of these chemicals being used, or

the danger they may pose. For example, xylene, which is associated with increased risk of brain

tumors, rectal cancer, and leukemia, is an inactive ingredient in 900 different pesticides [15].

Organs, as an adult, are

more resistant than they

would be for a child. It

depends on the quantity or

the level of pesticides,

where the child is weaker

than an adult. The child’s

organs will be affected

more.

-Lesly Lissade (States: Maryland, 

Florida; Crops: Oranges, Tomatoes) 

An increasing body of research suggests

relationships between pesticides and

serious illnesses, particularly among

children. The risk of these diseases is

dependent on the intensity of the dosage,

timing, and the length of exposure or

repeated exposures. Measurements of

exposure are difficult to assess, yet

researchers have attempted to form the

links between pesticide exposure and

childhood illnesses, including reproductive,

neurological, and respiratory disease

outcomes, in addition to several types of

cancers.

11
III. Methodology
Primary scientific research from accredited journals, such as the American Journal of

Epidemiology and Environmental Health Perspectives, as well as first-hand narratives from

farmworkers working in more than seven states were utilized for this publication. The

conclusions drawn from research on children and pesticides permit evidence-based descriptions

of the risks these chemicals pose to growing bodies. In addition, farmworker parents’ personal

experiences with pesticides illustrate the serious concerns people working in the field have for

their children’s health. Experts in farmworker advocacy and pesticide science have also reviewed

this publication, lending their unique expertise on the issue of farmworker health and safety.

This publication largely focuses on the effects of agricultural pesticides on children. However,

studies highlighting residential exposure were also utilized. Many pesticides used in the home

contain similar compounds to those used in agriculture, putting farmworker children doubly at

risk for negative health outcomes. Where used, studies examining long-term effects of pesticides

on children’s health also took precedence over acute poisoning incidents. No studies researching

exposure to pesticides through food consumption are referenced in the text. Farmworker

children, like any other children in the country, face exposure to pesticides through food.

Toddlers and youth who work or accompany working parents in the fields may pick fruits and

vegetables to eat right away, even without washing them first. However, it was important to

highlight often overlooked dangers inherent in the distinctive pathways of take-home and field

exposure the children experience as a unique and vulnerable population.

Challenges of the publication include the limited nature of the data available on the health effects

of pesticide exposure on children, specifically farmworker children. The variability in research

methodologies and measurements of exposure at times made it difficult to draw concrete

conclusions. We noted these instances in our review. In addition, while extensive, our review of

studies relating children’s illnesses to pesticide exposure was not exhaustive. Every effort was

made to use a convincing amount of the most relevant and scientifically sound research

available. Finally, recognizing ourselves as advocates for farmworker health and safety, we still

made every effort to present information in an accurate manner.

2

When he comes home from work, I tell my

husband to take off his shoes, the ones he takes to

work, and to leave them outside...Because those

shoes carry pesticides and it’s not good for him to

enter. Also, with my husband’s work clothes, I

wash them separately...and I don’t let him bring it

inside either. I just wash his clothing apart.

Because I know that it has pesticides. I’ve heard

that, in the Center, and also at the school they

talked to us about it. We already had a meeting. It

was, a woman, I don’t remember her name, and

she was talking to us about pesticides and all that,

-Hilda Acosta (States: and so from there I learned a little.

North Carolina and Maryland)

13
2

IV. Health

Effects
2

Long-term Health Effects of Pesticide Exposure in Children

There is a body of research connecting farmworker children’s exposure pathways, including

parental occupational exposure, household pesticide use, and residence near agricultural

production, with serious health effects capable of creating lasting damage in a growing child.

Birth defects, problems related to neurological functioning, respiratory illnesses, and childhood

cancers have all been associated with pesticide exposure

Well, you feel bad because you think that,

you try to take care as much as you can so

that they don’t get sick because of us,

because of all that we bring in terms of

sicknesses because of our work. So that’s

what we want to avoid, that they get sick

because of our lack of responsibility in

taking care of ourselves in order to take

care of them too, so they don’t get sick. After

that...we do all that and when we go to pick

them up, we try to go with other

clothes...And that’s why we do that, so that

our kids are okay. We’re okay if they’re okay,

too.

-Graciela Pérez (States: North 

Carolina; Crops: Sweet Potatoes, 

Tobacco, Chillies, Cucumbers, 

Oranges, Tomatoes)

Birth Defects

The birth of a child is generally an

occasion for celebration and

reflection as parents and family

share in the experience of a new

life. Unfortunately for some

parents, that sense of awe is

overshadowed by a deep sadness

as they receive news that their

child is born with a serious or

potentially life-threatening

condition. Complications in the

development of physical or

neurological system are often not

recognized until birth.

Making the link between pesticides and congenital malformations is a complex task. Yet, in

spite of the obstacles, evidence does exist. Studies conducted in the United States suggest that

children conceived during the spring have higher rates of birth defects than children conceived

during any other season [16], especially in agriculturally productive regions of the country [17,

18]. This same effect has also been found internationally, suggesting a possible link between

the season in which pesticides are most heavily used and resulting birth defects [19]. General

studies have also associated paternal employment as a pesticide applicator [18] and maternal

employment in agriculture [20] with higher rates of malformations.

Birth defects generally result from one of two situations: 1) genetic damage before conception

or; 2) direct interference with the developing embryo or fetus [4]. A variety of factors can

produce either of these scenarios, though environmental causes are often suspect. In the case

of farmworker parents, the nature of the job begs the question: could pesticide exposure be the

cause of certain birth defects, including those of the limbs, neural tubes, and the urogenital

tract?

15

Such conditions are known as congenital malformations or birth defects. 
.

5

Parental Occupational Exposure 

Limb Defects

Efforts to more carefully characterize the relationship between pesticide exposure and specific

birth defects have resulted in a significant amount of epidemiologic evidence. Research on limb

defects, in which a child is born with missing or malformed arms or legs, suggests an

association between maternal employment in agriculture and higher than normal incidence of

this particular birth defect [21]. Additional evidence also links limb defects with maternal

residence in counties having high agricultural productivity or high pesticide use [22]. Results

from Norway suggest an increased risk of limb defects among the children of grain farmers who

purchased large amounts of pesticides [19].

Neural Tube Defects

While limb defects are devastating for parents of a newborn, there are another set of life

threatening conditions linked to pesticide exposure, known as neural tube defects. These

malformations are characterized by abnormalities in the development of the spinal cord or

brain. Well-known neural tube defects include spina bifida, which can result in lifelong

paralysis, and anencephaly, which usually leads to death within the first hours of life. Studies

have found links between neural tube defects and home use of pesticides [23], living near

cultivated fields [23], paternal occupational exposure to agrochemicals [24], and maternal

agricultural occupation during early pregnancy [25]. Others have associated neural tube defects

with maternal residence within 1000 meters of pesticide application [26] and being born to

parents whose farm has tractor spraying equipment [19].

Male Urogenital Malformations

Developing male embryos face a unique vulnerability to parental chemical exposure. Significant

amounts of research have addressed two congenital conditions of the male urinary and

reproductive systems: hypospadias and cryptorchidism. Hypospadias is a condition in which

the urethral opening is abnormally placed on the penis; cryptorchidism refers to a situation in

which the testes remain inside of the abdominal cavity instead of dropping into the scrotum.

The possible link between these conditions and pesticides was first proposed in the 1990s. It

was then that scientists began to hypothesize that “environmental estrogens” could be

negatively affecting the formation of the male reproductive tract during development, due to its

sensitivity to hormone balance [27].

Environmental estrogens are also known as endocrine disruptors because they interfere with

the normal function of the human endocrine (hormone) system. These chemicals resemble the

hormone estrogen and mimic it during crucial developmental stages, such as the formation of

male urogenital tract. Many currently-used pesticide compounds are endocrine disruptors. A

number of studies in Europe have linked high incidence of hypospadias and/or cryptorchidism

with exposure to agricultural pesticides [28] [29] [30] or a parent’s employment in agriculture

[31-33].

Spontaneous Abortion 

Spontaneous abortion, commonly known as a miscarriage, may be the result of a severe birth

defect preventing a fetus from continuing to develop fully. As such, spontaneous abortion could

be viewed as a symptom of malformation in the womb. A number of studies have linked

pesticide exposure to spontaneous abortion [34-36].

16
Discussion

Birth defects are rare conditions, therefore limiting researchers’ data collection and the

strength of their studies. In addition, measuring actual exposure is both complicated and

expensive. Nevertheless, significant evidence points to a link between birth defects and parents’

exposure to pesticides.

Neurological and Behavioral Health

The brain is the center for all physical and cognitive human activity. Any disorder of the brain or

related nervous system has long- term, negative consequences for the physical, psychological or

social health of a developing person. Children are still in the process of growing, and as such,

their neurological development is especially vulnerable to the effects of pesticides.

While in the womb, a fetus’ exposure to chemicals used in agriculture may contribute to lasting

neurotoxic damage, including visible effects on reflexes and working memory after babies are

born[37]. The placenta naturally provides a certain amount of protection for the developing

fetus, yet certain chemicals in pesticides have been shown to cross the placenta [38]. Because

many pesticides are lipophilic, or attracted to fat, the brain is especially sensitive because of its

high fat content[39]. This may result in concentrations of these chemicals in the fetal nervous

system [38]. Here, these toxins can have severe effects on development, inhibiting the normal

function of sensitive processes. Data suggest that prenatal, infantile, and childhood exposure to

pesticides may permanently alter the development of cognitive faculty and motor skills.

Many pesticides say, “Do not enter for

two days.” Yet, we enter the fields one

day later. That is the problem, that

the liquid is still there. It depends on

the supervisor. It’s the supervisor’s

negligence. When we are picking we

say “my clothes are so itchy!” Oh, it’s

because they were spraying and you

don’t realize until later. Then you

feel...warm. And sometimes I even feel

something that feels like bumps on

my skin, and I think it’s because of the

orchard.

-Jesus Aguilar (States: 

Florida, Michigan; Crops: 

Apples, Tobacco, 

Blueberries, Oranges)

Thyroid Functioning

For those families living in

agricultural communities, pesticide

exposure is a constant danger.

Fetuses exposed in the womb may

face continual exposure, both

before and after being born, leading

to complications in thyroid function

and other aspects of brain

development. Infants’ small,

growing brains are sensitive to any

outside influence.

In fact, the blood barrier protecting the brain from toxic agents is not completely formed until at

least six months after birth [40]. Certain environmental toxins harm thyroid functioning, pivotal

to normal neurological development from the womb through the early years of a child’s life.

Even low levels of pesticides blocking thyroid hormones during brain development are

dangerous[41], yet they have been found in the cord serum of exposed pregnant mothers and

later affecting thyroids in their same children at four years of age[42].

17
Problem Solving and Mental Flexibility

Damage to neurological development at the most vulnerable stages of life creates continuous

difficulties for a child in school, presents challenges in his or her social life, and impedes general

cognitive capabilities. Children exposed to pesticides have faced disproportionate challenges in

problem solving and general mental flexibility [43,44]. In a particular instance, the use of

methyl parathion (a chemical normally used in agriculture) around homes in Ohio and

Mississippi was associated with short-term memory problems [45]. Children born and raised in

an agricultural community with heavy pesticide application have also been observed with

debilitated short term memory and the capacity to draw a person clearly when compared to

children in a nearby region not exposed to pesticides [46].

Motor Control and Response Time

Inhibited motor control and

response time in children has been

associated with possible exposure to

pesticides [43, 46-48]. Indicative of

prenatal exposure, certain studies

have found significant traces of

organophosphate pesticides in the

urine samples of some pregnant

women.

It can also poison us

sometimes not just

through our clothing,

but also by breathing it.

It’s more dangerous.

-Teresa Aguilar with her

daughter Lisani (States: 

North Carolina, Florida; 

Crops: Cabbage, 

Strawberries, Sweet

Potatoes)

A preoccupying number of children born to mothers in two studies of prenatal exposure had

three or more abnormal reflexes, including higher-than-average difficulties in walking, which is

considered clinically significant [49, 50].

Attention-Hyper Deficit and Autism Spectrum Disorders

Both for pregnant women working in the fields and those coming into contact with pesticides in

the home, heavy prenatal exposure subtly invades the intricate process unfolding in their

wombs. Continual exposure to pesticides may also increase the risk of these neurological

problems, prompting many researchers to test for pesticide presence in the womb and later

when the infants have grown. Children who were found with high levels of pesticides in their

bodies prenatally and throughout the first years of their lives, have been observed with various

attention and response delays, some of which relate to Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder

(ADHD) and Autism Spectrum Disorder [51, 52]. Additional evidence suggests the risk of

children developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, characterized by impaired social interaction

and restricted communication, may be affected by prenatal exposure to agricultural pesticides,

especially for parents living close to fields where crops are grown[53]. Use of excessive

insecticides within and around the home has been linked to higher rates of autism in children in

the United States as compared to Italy, where domestic pesticide use is less common [54].

Cholinesterase Depression

As children grow, there are many ways they can be exposed to pesticides, whether it is through

drift and take-home exposure in agricultural communities or domestic use of pesticides. More

seriously, aside from exposure in and around the home, children come into contact with

pesticides through their own work in the fields.

18
A certain enzyme (cholinesterase) needed for normal nerve functioning is inhibited by

organophosphate and carbamate pesticides, commonly used to kill insects in agricultural

settings [55]. Chronic effects of pesticides have been repeatedly linked to high levels of

cholinesterase inhibition in children. Exposed children harvesting cotton in Egypt, tobacco in

Mexico, green vegetables in Brazil, and various crops in the United States have all exhibited

significant neurobehavioral impairment in the performance of simple tasks [56-59].

Discussion

Clinically diagnosed disorders related to brain functioning, and their many symptoms, are not

easily linked to one, specific cause. While evidence is apparent in many parts of the world,

pesticide exposure may not necessarily be the sole link in inhibited thyroid function or

damaged motor and cognitive skills. Neurobehavioral issues are difficult to detect and measure

because they are not easily distinguished from normal variation in child development. A

looming concern is the misdiagnosis of neurological and behavioral problems among ethnic

minorities due to systemic disparities in language and material resources. In addition, certain

neurodevelopment problems may only be observed as the child matures, making early

intervention, timely diagnosis, and causal links to pesticide exposure difficult [50]. As with

other health issues facing children in farmworker communities, studies delineating type and

level of exposure, control for other environmental neurotoxins, and longitudinal studies which

follow children’s development over time are necessary to more fully understand how children’s

brains are affected by these chemicals. Finally, population-appropriate testing of neurological

health would increase the strength of these studies, including the use of tools that are sensitive

to a participant’s culture, education, and technical level.

Respiratory Health

Respiratory illnesses inhibit some of the best times of childhood, and unfortunately, many

times carry their biting symptoms into adulthood. A body of research links pesticides to

chronic respiratory illnesses. Children whose parents perform field work have more frequent

exposures to dangerous pesticides, and many parents worry about their risk of developing

respiratory issues, including allergies, as compared to other children their age.

As far as me, I might have a rash or

you know, an itch or something, but

my daughter, she’s more sensitive. Like

her lungs, more of coughing, sneezing,

more like a cold, she get more of that,

you know, of that affect. As to where I

might just have an itch and I can go

take a bath and I’m okay. But for

children, I think it effect more of their

breathing...the respiratory system.

She’s five right now.

-Cynthia Nicklow (States: Florida, Gerogia, S. Carolina, N. Carolina, 

Virginia, Delaware, Maryland; Crops: Beans, Peas, Apples, Christmas 

Trees, Watermelons)

19
Atopic Asthma

Atopic (or allergic) asthma,

complicating the normal functions

of the nose and lungs, has a high

prevalence among people who

have grown up on farms around

pesticides. Exposure to the

presence of more than one

chemical has been shown to

augment this risk [64,65]. While

consistent, low-intensity exposure

throughout a person’s adult life

may be linked to atopic asthma,

early and consistent childhood

exposure to pesticides likely

increases the risk of adulthood

respiratory illnesses.

6

Chronic Respiratory Illnesses

Data suggest that children who have been exposed to pesticides during their first year of life

have a higher risk of suffering from chronic respiratory illnesses, like asthma, than those who

have not been exposed. Children growing up in agricultural communities with high-pesticide

use are particularly at risk [60]. The two most sensitive stages for pesticides to damage infants’

fragile respiratory systems are while they develop in the womb and in the first year of life [61].

Chronic respiratory complications, including persistent wheezing (signaled by a high-pitched

whistling sound in the chest and labored breathing) and chronic phlegm, mar the lives of small

children who were exposed through their parents’ occupational and domestic pesticide use

[62]. Data suggests that chronic cough or wheezing is negatively influenced by prenatal

exposure to pyrethroids (a common class of pesticides)[63].

Discussion

Focused studies of long term respiratory complications among children in agricultural

communities are lacking. Children spending time in or near the fields often complain about

sneezing and other symptoms of respiratory ailments—both acute and chronic. As the

agricultural sector becomes increasingly industrialized, these problems will persist with

growing demands for pesticides.

Many variables confound the link between pesticide exposure and respiratory illness

including exposure to tobacco smoke, dust and exhaust present in truck driving routes,

dioxins produced through industry, and pollen[66]. For children who already have asthma,

more data is needed to characterize the possible aggravating effects that pesticides might

have on pre-existing respiratory conditions[67]. Studies intent on identifying the types of

pesticides, including those with an organochlorine or carbamate base, and the frequency of

exposure, would prove beneficial in understanding these persistent respiratory illnesses.

20
Cancer 

Cancer is a life threatening disease that is feared universally. When an adult is diagnosed with

cancer, the news is devastating; when a child is struck with it, it is heartbreaking. The

American Cancer Society reports that there were 10,700 new cases of childhood cancer

(children 0-14 years old) in 2009. While cancer deaths among children are declining, it

remains the second leading cause of death among children, following accidents. Leukemia is

the most commonly diagnosed cancer among children, accounting for nearly one third of all

childhood cancers. Other common childhood cancers include lymphomas, brain tumors and

Wilms tumor, a specific type of kidney cancer unique to children.

Decades of scientific research point to two general causes of cancer: genetic and

environmental. Relatively few childhood cancers are attributed to genetic causes. In fact,

according to the American Cancer Society, 75-80% of all incidences of cancer are caused by

environmental factors [68]. The President’s Cancer Panel 2008-2009 Report expresses

profound concern about environmental causes of the dread disease, and makes a persuasive

plea for concentrated efforts to be directed toward mitigating environmental risks for cancer

[69]. 

An increasing body of research is pointing toward pesticides as a contributing factor to

childhood cancers. In a 2002 case-controlled review of 162 child leukemia patients, there is

evidence that timing of exposure is a critical factor in increased risk. Focusing on indoor

residential insecticide exposure, this study indicates such exposures very early on, from

before conception to three years after birth, “appear to be more significant than later

exposures”, with the most vulnerable time occurring during pregnancy [70].

When discussing pesticide exposures and a child’s increased cancer risk, two scenarios

generally emerge: prenatal exposure and post-natal exposure. Pre-natal exposures, or

exposures to a developing fetus, result from a mother’s exposure during pregnancy or, of

increasing concern, a father’s occupational exposure before conception or birth of the child.

Postnatal exposures, or childhood exposure, can occur as the result of take-home exposure,

use of residential pesticides, or children’s direct contact with pesticides while working in the

fields.

I would say that for a child it’s

more impactful. Well, for example,

for my own daughter. I took my

daughter and I had to leave her

inside...And I didn’t want to take

her for the same reason that

when...she smelled [the air] she

started to sneeze. So it’s stronger

for them than for you.

-Olga Hernandez (States: 

Oklahoma, New Mexico, Texas; 

Crops: Onions, Cotton, Corn)

21
6

Parental Occupational Exposure 

Prenatal exposure may cause genetic changes in the sperm or ovum when either parent is

exposed to a toxic agent, or may interfere with the child’s development in the womb. There is a

large body of research linking parental occupational exposure to toxic substances, pesticides

included, with elevated risks for childhood cancer in their offspring,

Speaking generally about children’s cancers, the Agricultural Health Study (AHS), which looks at

the health of agricultural pesticide applicators and their families, examined the cases of 21,375

children of study participants in Iowa and North Carolina. The children of parents who did not

use appropriate protective gloves had twice the risk of developing childhood cancers compared

to those whose parents did use the gloves [71].

Leukemia 

Maternal occupational exposure to

pesticides before and during

pregnancy has been associated with an

increased risk for childhood acute

nonlymphocytic leukemia (ANLL) [72,

73]. Paternal occupational exposure to

pesticides has also been linked with

childhood acute lymphoblastic

leukemia, especially when fathers are

exposed to fungicides [74]. Similar

associations have been found between

parental pesticide exposure and

children suffering from a rare form of

leukemia, called Acute Myelogenous

Leukemia (AML). In one study,

postnatal occupational exposure to

either parent was positively associates

with AML [75]. Among a number of

environmental variables, the study also

cited parental occupational exposure

as the highest risk factor for childhood

leukemia.

Lymphoma

Data suggest that children of parents employed as agricultural pesticide applicators, have an

increased risk for lymphoma, including Hodgkin’s lymphoma [71]. Additionally, parental

occupational exposure to pesticides has been linked with increased risk for Burkitt lymphoma

[76].

Additional Cancers

An international study on brain tumors has linked maternal exposure to agricultural pesticides

within five years of a child’s birth with risk of developing brain tumors [77, 78]. Another study

links paternal occupational exposure to pesticides with tumors of the nervous system [79].

Other studies examine specifically the paternal occupational exposure to toxins and cancer in

children. Once such study of Ewing’s Sarcoma (a bone cancer) showed an increased risk for

children who had been born to fathers working in agriculture six months prior to conception.

The researchers suggested a relationship between Ewing’s Sarcoma and children whose fathers

had worked with herbicides, insecticides and fertilizers [80].

22
7

One group of researchers presents an intriguing set of data, suggesting that certain children

may be more likely to develop brain cancer when exposed to organophosphate or carbamate

pesticides due to a certain genetic mutation which prevents them from “detoxifying” these

dangerous chemicals once they have been introduced to their bodies [81].

Residential and Take Home Exposure

A large number of studies indicate a positive association with residential pesticide exposure

and various types of cancer in young children such as childhood leukemia, brain tumors and

non-Hodgkin’s lymphomas.

Leukemia

Findings demonstrate significant associations between household exposures to pesticides and

leukemia [70, 82-85]. Several studies suggest a strong relationship between childhood leukemia

and critical windows of exposure to residential pesticides, most predominantly during

pregnancy. One particular study on childhood leukemia warns of the potential danger of

prenatal exposure to pesticides, with the strongest evidence pointing toward household

insecticides, particularly professional pesticide applications in the home, no-pest strips, house

bombs and flea and tick products for pets. The study looked at a number of toxic sources,

including solvents, plastics, petroleum products, and lead, and reports that “the most significant

maternal exposure was to pesticides.” The same research group cited direct exposure to

pesticides in the home as a strong risk factor for leukemia in children [72]

23
Additional data further link the use of home insecticides or use of professional pest control

services during pregnancy to this class of cancers [70, 72]. Mother’s postnatal occupational

exposure to pesticides has also been linked to acute nonlymphocytic leukemia [72], indicating

possible take-home exposure. Exposure to certain pesticides during childhood, such as garden

insecticides, fungicides and lice shampoo, also may increase a child’s risk of acute leukemia

[82]. Some researchers believe the elevated risk of pregnant women is significant enough to call

for a concerted public information campaign to raise awareness about the potential harm from

pesticide exposure for children.

Lymphoma 

In an investigation on pesticides and non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma (NHL) in children, significant

findings were shown when mothers reported using household pesticides during pregnancy,

with the exposure risk increasing with the frequency in which the mothers had used the

products [86]. The use of professional pesticide applications was also shown to be strongly

associated with NHL [76].

Prenatal exposure to these products point toward a higher risk for cancer than postnatal

exposure. In a very large international investigation of farmworkers (2,223 subjects), from

seven countries, yet again the prenatal and preconception exposure to pesticides lead to an

association with CBT [88].

Discussion

Given that agricultural pesticide residues are present in farmworker housing, that farmworkers

likely use household pesticide products, and that farmworker children are exposed to parental

occupational residues, we can see that farmworker children come in contact with these toxins

at every turn. While it is a challenge for researchers to pinpoint exact causalities of cancer, there

is sound evidence that draws associations between pesticides and these devastating diseases.

Further evidence exists in a University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill review of literature noting,

“Collectively these studies suggest an increase in brain cancer, leukemia, Wilms tumor, Ewing

Sarcoma, and germ cell tumors associated with paternal occupational exposure to pesticides

prior to and during pregnancy” [89].

If I was the boss...I would take

preventive measures. I would put an

area where the children can be

better, and not smell the fertilizer. I

would put everything. I would put

more bathrooms...

-Pascuala Puentes (States: Texas and others

Crops: Onions, Chillies, Pecans)

Childhood Brain Tumors

In studies of childhood brain

tumors (CBT), some researchers

contend that the highest risks

occur with exposure to household

pesticide products. Mothers

having direct contact with these

chemicals while preparing,

applying, or cleaning with them,

place their unborn children at risk

for pediatric brain tumors [87].

24
Photo by Jessica Werder

8

V. Conclusion
9

Based on the evidence reviewed, pesticide exposure is likely linked to a host of children's health

problems. Strong evidence suggests links between parental pesticide exposure and certain birth

defects, including cryptorchidism, hypospadias, and limb defects. Additional evidence associates

parental pesticide exposure with certain neural tube defects and spontaneous abortion.

Neurological and behavioral development may also be negatively impacted by pesticide exposure.

Children with prenatal exposure to pesticides have been observed with abnormal reflexes, and

evidence suggests a higher risk of exposed children developing Autism Spectrum Disorder.

Postnatal exposure is connected to inhibited thyroid functioning, ADHD, impeded motor control,

and short-term memory problems. While not as extensive, continued evidence suggests pesticide

exposure affects the development of asthma and other respiratory ailments. Lastly, studies have

shown that parental occupational exposure and exposure in the home are connected with

childhood cancers, including leukemia and brain tumors.

Weaknesses and Opportunities in Current Body of Research

While there is strong evidence from the research we reviewed, we recognize that there are a

number of weaknesses in the literature on farmworker children and pesticide exposure. First and

foremost, more in depth, large-scale data on farmworker children and pesticide exposure is

necessary. An example of a large-scale longitudinal study is the Agricultural Health Study (AHS),

which has followed over 89,000 agricultural workers since 1996. While this study has provided

some quality data on health of families working on their own farms, unfortunately it has no

counterpart focusing on children born to migrant and seasonal farmworkers.

Some of the studies we encountered in our research were disappointing from a design

perspective. An overwhelming majority of the research was retrospective in nature, putting into

question the validity of exposure assessments. In addition, cross-sectional studies and

inappropriate control groups tainted some studies’ findings, therefore excluding them from our

collection. Community-based participatory research, which would be especially appropriate for

this population, was also found to be sparse. The work of several research groups form a

promising base for increased farmworker involvement in formulating research related to

pesticide exposure [90]

Finally, one of the biggest challenges in investigating causal links between pesticides and child

health effects is exposure assessment. Few studies we reviewed measured exposure directly,

instead relying on geographical proximity or parental occupation as an indicator of exposure.

Additionally, many studies lumped together various environmental exposures, making it

impossible to extrapolate chemical specific exposures. A host of environmental and social factors,

including food insecurity, poverty, lack of access to healthcare, and industrial toxins can

complicate the causal relationship between pesticide exposure and childhood illness. Some

studies successfully accounted for these factors in their research, but many did not.

Although there is ample opportunity to expand the body of data available on children and

pesticide exposure, particularly with farmworker children, the evidence we do have speaks with

urgency. Children are exposed to pesticides through multiple pathways, such as well and irrigation

water, soil in the fields and near their homes, indoor and outdoor air, dust, food residues, and skin

contact with contaminated surfaces. Farmworkers bear an unjust burden of the chemical

pollutants produced by the farming industry. Therefore, it is not safe to wait any longer for

absolute scientific proof while known dangerous exposures continue unabated. Plenty of evidence

exists demonstrating the severe public health problem of pesticide exposure. This evidence should

justify and encourage immediate action to protect the most vulnerable among us, children.

26
VI. Recommendations
In light of the quantity of research suggesting a link between agricultural pesticide exposure

and negative health effects in children, the Association of Farmworker Opportunity Programs

recommends a number of immediate actions to mitigate the danger of pesticides on children

on an individual, community and policy level:

For individuals working in agriculture:

Reduce take-home exposure by refraining from bringing home any contaminated chemical

containers or pesticides, removing work clothing and boots before entering your house, and

washing work clothes separate from the family’s clothes. Know your rights; your employer is

legally required to teach you about the health effects of pesticides and how to protect yourself.

For growers and field work supervisors:

Protect yourself and your own families from the effects of pesticides. Comply with the Worker

Protection Standard, which is designed to maximize worker safety with pesticides in the

fields. This includes mandatory training, with information more effectively communicated

through interactive, culturally and linguistically appropriate educational sessions rather than

video-only training.

9

I, for example, and my husband

went to the orange (grove) to see if

we could find out what they were

spraying. My husband is very

careful about those things. When

we get home he says, “take off your

clothes,” because he is afraid that

we will bring something in and

infect our children, sometimes. But

like I said, it’s our work, and there

is no other way out. It is the work

that we have to do.

- Floriberta Mirade with her daughter

Evette (States: Georgia, N. Carolina, S. 

Carolina, Virginia, Florida; Crops: 

Watermelons, Cantaloupes, Pumpkin, Corn, 

Oranges)

For farmworker supporters:

Know where your food comes from; research labor practices of

the companies you support and prioritize efforts to deliver

organic and fairly traded agricultural products. When given the

opportunity, thank farmworkers for their necessary and

important labor. Use natural alternatives to pesticides in the

home and taking precautionary steps to keep food away from

bugs. Additionally, you can support children’s labor rights by

keeping them out of the fields (see AFOP’s Children in the Fields

Campaign) and worker safety through training (see AFOP’s

Health & Safety Programs). Continue to support policies and

programs that improve the lives of farmworkers and their

families.

Program Recommendations: 

Develop educational programs that inform farmworker families

about the risks of pesticide exposure to children’s health,

involving families and children in the design and distribution of

health and safety materials [90]. Build an alliance of health

educators and advocates in your region to promote social

change. Contact AFOP for information about project LEAF which

educates parents about take home exposure.

28
Policy Recommendations:

Policy, programs, and regulatory decisions should be based on the recognition of the

potential dangers of pesticides, rather than on the absence of evidence. Make efforts to

continue to phase out the most hazardous neurotoxic organophosphate and carbamate

pesticides, including those found to be endocrine disrupters and carcinogens. Alternative

pest management forms, such as non-pesticide alternatives or organic farming practices,

should be promoted to reduce the use of these toxic chemicals.

Create program access to affordable, accessible day care for all working families with young

children so children do not have to come into the fields with their parents. Increase buffer

zones between fields and labor housing, schools, and community centers to mitigate the

dangers of exposure through drift. Living wages are fundamental to decreasing the

presence of children in the fields as well as the country’s reliance on child labor.

Increase educational and outreach efforts for farmworker health and safety, with more

resources allocated to the enforcement of existing health and safety labor practices.

Finally, more support should be given to studies and programs with sound methodological

designs. National, periodic, up-to-date studies, collection of data, and easy accessibility of

pesticide information for the public should be supported. Examples include the Agricultural

Health Study model, the cited Spanish birth cohort studies, and the Center for health

Assessment of Mothers and Children of Salinas (CHAMACOS) project in California. The

Agricultural Health Study should be expanded to include farmworkers.

(You feel) helpless in a way because sometimes you

can’t protest or complain. Why don’t they tell you

beforehand so that you know [that the fields were

sprayed with pesticides]? It’s just that kids are

around close. I mean, it’s always the one above who

has more power, right, than the one who’s here

below.

-Claudia Ramírez (State: Texas; Crop: Pecans)

29
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