On the Edge of Extinction

The red wolf is one of the most

endangered animals in the world. It

is a shy species that once roamed

throughout the Southeast as a top

predator. Aggressive predator

control programs and clearing of

forested habitat combined to cause

impacts that brought the red wolf to

the brink of extinction. By 1970, the

entire population of red wolves was

believed to be less than 100 animals

confined to a small area of coastal

Texas and Louisiana.

To save the species from extinction,

the Service captured as many as

possible of the few remaining animals

from 1974 through 1980. Only 14

captured animals met the criteria

established to define the species and

stood between its existence and

extinction. These animals formed

the nucleus of a captive-breeding

program established at the Point

Defiance Zoo and Aquarium in

Tacoma, Washington, with the final

goal of reestablishing the species in

portions of its original southeastern

range. Thirty-three zoos and nature

centers in 21 states and the District

of Columbia now cooperate in a

national breeding program and are

valuable partners in efforts to

restore red wolves.

The U.S. Fish and

Wildlife Service is

reintroducing red wolves

(Canis rufus) to prevent

extinction of the species

and to restore the

ecosystems in which red

wolves once occurred, as

mandated by the

Endangered Species Act

of 1973 (Act). According

to the Act, endangered

and threatened species

are of esthetic, ecological,

educational, historical,

recreational, and

scientific value to the

Nation and its people.

cover photo: USFWS

photo: National Geographic Society
removing unhealthy animals. The

Act requires recovery plans for

endangered species. The recovery

population goal in the Red Wolf

Recovery Plan is 550 (at least three

wild populations totaling 220 and 330

in captivity at 30 or more facilities).

Lessons learned in the Red Wolf

Recovery Program have served, and

will continue to serve, as a template

for recovery of other species whose

only hope for survival is

reintroduction.

What do red wolves

look like?

Red wolves are

mostly brown and

buff colored with

some black along

their backs; there is

sometimes a reddish

color behind their

ears, on their muzzle,

and toward the

backs of their legs.

Red wolves are

intermediate in size

between gray wolves

and coyotes.

The average adult

female red wolf

weighs 52 pounds and

Back in the Wild

The red wolf is now back in the wild,

hunting, rearing young, and

communicating by its characteristic

howl, in several locations in its

original southeastern habitats. Since

1987, red wolves have been released

into northeastern North Carolina and

now roam over more than 560,000

acres that includes three national

wildlife refuges, a U.S. Air Force

bombing range, and approximately

200,000 acres of

private land.

Beginning in

1991, red wolves

were also

released into the

520,000-acre

Great Smoky

Mountains

National Park

in eastern

Tennessee.

Other red wolves

have been

released on

coastal islands

in Florida, Mississippi, and South

Carolina as a steppingstone between

captivity and the wild. Although

these islands are not large enough

to provide for the needs of more than

a few red wolves at a time, they

provide the opportunity for them to

breed and exist in the wild in order to

produce animals for future mainland

reintroductions.

Why reintroduce red wolves?

The essential reasons are to prevent

extinction of the species and to

restore the ecosystems in which red

wolves once occurred. It is important

to save all members of an ecosystem,

including predators, if we intend to

preserve the environment and be

good stewards of the land. Predators

maintain the balance and health of

ecosystems by controlling overpopulations of prey species and

Gray wolf

Red wolf

Coyote

Red fox

Gray wolf ................... 80-120 lbs.

Red wolf...................... 45-80 lbs.

Coyote ......................... 20-45 lbs.

Red fox........................ 10-15 lbs.

photo: SCWMRC

photo: Melissa McGaw ©
the average adult male weighs 61

pounds. Red wolves have tall, pointed

ears, long legs, and large feet, similar

to the domestic German shepherd.

Adult red wolves stand about 26

inches at the shoulder and are about

4 feet long from the tip of the nose to

the end of the tail.

Since coyotes exist in both red wolf

reintroduction areas (northeastern

North Carolina and eastern

Tennessee), it is important for people

to know the physical differences

between the two species. Adult

coyotes weigh about one-half to twothirds as much as red wolves and

stand approximately 4 inches shorter;

coyotes are much less massive

through the head, chest, legs, and feet.

Did red wolves ever exist in North

Carolina and Tennessee?

Based on fossil and archaeological

evidence, the original red wolf range

extended throughout the Southeast,

from the Atlantic and Gulf Coasts,

north to the Ohio River valley and

central Pennsylvania, and west to

central Texas and southeastern

Missouri. At least one archaeological

specimen has been found in North

Carolina. In addition, court records

from eastern North Carolina

document that wolf bounties were

paid from 1768 to 1789.

Do red wolves

hybridize with coyotes?

Red wolves, gray wolves, domestic

dogs, and coyotes are capable of

interbreeding and producing fertile

offspring. Social structures and

territoriality usually prevent such

interbreeding. Due to the widespread

persecution of predators and the

destruction of suitable habitat, by the

1960s the number of red wolves was

dwindling, and coyotes had migrated

into the Southeast.

When the few remaining red wolves

Former range

of the Red Wolf

photo: Jack Winfield Ross © photo: Curtis Carley
How does

the Service

keep track of

the wolves?

Each red wolf

that is captured

or released is

outfitted with a

radio transmitter

that emits pulse

signals or

“beeps” that

biologists can

read with a radio

receiver. These signals enable the

biologists to locate the wolves. The

frequency of locations varies from

once or twice daily to once a week,

depending on specific circumstances.

Are red wolves a threat to humans?

There have been no documented

cases of healthy wild red wolves

attacking humans in North America,

despite 500 years of historical

coexistence. Wild red wolves are shy

and usually stay away from humans

and human activities.

However, wolves are capable of

attacking and injuring humans, and

such encounters with Native

Americans may have occurred before

the use of modern weapons and the

resulting fear of man by wolves.

Although unlikely to be a threat to

humans, red wolves, and all wildlife,

should not be approached in order to

avoid possible injury to the animal or

the people involved.

What do red wolves eat?

Although the exact diet of red wolves

is difficult to determine and varies

depending on available prey, a study

of approximately 2,200 scats (feces)

of wild red wolves from northeastern

North Carolina estimated that their

diet consisted of about 50 percent

white-tailed deer, 30 percent

raccoons, and 20 percent small

mammals, such as rabbits, rodents,

were unable to find mates of their

own species hybridization with more

abundant coyotes did occur. This

hybridization is generally accepted as

the final factor that resulted in the

near extinction of the red wolf.

In reintroductions, instances of red

wolves breeding with coyotes have

occurred that involved lone red

wolves that did not have access to

potential red wolf mates. Similar

breedings between gray wolves and

coyotes also occur. It is believed that

limited interbreeding between wolves

and coyotes on the fringes of wolf

populations is a natural occurrence

that does not affect the integrity of

either species.

However, where wolf populations are

small and isolated, as in restorations,

intensive management may be

needed to ensure that availability of

mates of their own species. We

conclude that, given a choice, red

wolves prefer red wolves as mates.

How many

red wolves

are there?

Red wolf

numbers

continually

change due to

births and deaths.

At the end of

August 1997, the

total population was 240 to

317. Wild populations numbered 54 to

129, with 45 to 92 of these animals

occurring in eastern North Carolina

and the other 9 to 37 occurring in the

Great Smoky Mountains National

Park in eastern Tennessee. Another

11 to 13 red wolves existed on three

island propagation sites off the

Atlantic and Gulf Coasts. The

remaining 175 red wolves were

located at 35 captive-breeding

facilities involving 33 cooperators.

SSP Facilities (33)

Mainland Release Sites (2)

Island Projects (4)

photo: Barron Crawford photo: Barron Crawford
and nutria. Nonmammalian prey,

domestic pets, and livestock were

uncommon as prey items, but they did

occur in very low numbers (less than 2

percent). A red wolf consumes about

two to five pounds of food per day.

Do red wolves live

and/or hunt in packs?

A “pack” is simply defined as an

extended family unit, which is the

primary social structure of both

red and gray wolves. A typical red

wolf pack consists of five to eight

animals—an “alpha” or breeding

adult pair and offspring of different

years. The alpha wolves are the only

breeders in the pack; wolves breed

once a year.

Wolf packs have specific home ranges

that they actively defend against

other canids, including wolves. The

pack is a very closely knit group; in

fact, older offspring assist the alpha

pair with den attendance and puprearing. Almost all offspring between

1 and 3 years of age will leave the

pack or “disperse.”

Since the red wolf ’s diet does not

consist of large ungulates, such as

elk, bison, or moose, group or pack

hunting is probably not necessary.

Most hunting by red wolves is

believed to be done individually

or in pairs.

What does a red wolf on private

land mean to the landowner?

All wild red wolves are classified

as experimental nonessential under

the Act. This designation is intended

to minimize effects on individual

landowner rights or lawful activities,

such as farming, logging, hunting,

trapping, or livestock operations.

In fact, critical habitat cannot be

legally established for experimental

nonessential species. In the case of

livestock or domestic pet depredation,

relaxed regulations were passed in

April of 1995 allowing landowners

to take (kill) red wolves while

depredation is occurring, provided

that freshly wounded livestock or

pets are evident.

There are also mechanisms for

landowners to be paid if they choose

to become involved with red wolf

recovery or if they suffer depredations

on their livestock or pets. Red wolves

generate benefits for landowners by

preying on species such as deer,

raccoons, and nutria that can be pests

on farms. Additionally, the presence of

a pack of red wolves is likely to limit

the distribution of coyotes in that area.

Private lands are an integral

component of the Red Wolf Recovery

Program. In eastern North Carolina,

private lands provide only about 35

percent of the available habitat but

support over 65 percent of the red

wolf population. While it is clear that

private lands are crucial to this and

other endangered species programs,

the challenge is to find ways to make

it work in a manner that is expedient

and fair to all.

photo: Becknell
1979 Nowak’s definitive work on taxonomy

of North American Canis entitled

“North American Quaternary Canis”

is published. This work retains

Goldman’s classification in regard to

the red wolf. Evaluation of Land

Between The Lakes in Tennessee

and Kentucky for first red wolf

reintroduction project begins.

1980 Last red wolves removed from the

wild and red wolf declared extinct in

the wild. Unique allele found by

Ferrell et al. in Canis specimens

from within red wolf range supports

conclusion that red wolf is a distinct

species.

1984 Red wolf recovery plan revised,

updated, and approved. Red wolf

incorporated into AZA’s SSP. Land

Between The Lakes red wolf

reintroduction project abandoned

due to lack of public and state

support. ARNWR established on

land in northeastern North Carolina

donated to the Service by Prudential

Insurance Company.

1987 First reintroduction begins with the

release of red wolves into ARNWR.

First island propagation project

begins on Bulls Island in attempt to

Historic Time Line for the Endangered Red Wolf

1791 Red wolf first described by Bartram.

1851 First publication of valid scientific

name for red wolf by Audubon and

Bachman.

1905 First recognition of red wolf as a

distinct species by Bailey.

1937 First recognition of three subspecies

of red wolf by Goldman.

1962 Scientific community informed by

McCarley that red wolf is in danger

of extinction.

1967 Red wolf listed as an endangered

species under provisions of the

Endangered Species Preservation

Act of 1966.

1968 Service begins a study of the red wolf

in southeast Texas and southwest

Louisiana.

1969 First red wolf placed into captivity

initiating the red wolf captivebreeding center at PDZA.

1971 Study on the brains of canids by

Atkins and Dillon confirms

distinctiveness and primitive

characteristics of red wolf.

1973 Endangered Species Act becomes

Federal law. First red wolf recovery

plan completed and implementation

begins. In a race against extinction, an

all-out effort to capture wild red

wolves for captive-breeding program

begins.

1977 First litter of red

wolf pups born in

captivity at PDZA.

1978 First successful

experimental

release, tracking,

and recapture of red wolves on Bulls

Island, South Carolina, solidifies

reintroduction techniques.

photo: GSMNP

photo: Barron Crawford
red wolves on private property in two

counties goes into effect. Revised

relaxed Federal regulations published

addressing private landowner

concerns about reintroduced red

wolves. National Wilderness Institute

files petition to delist red wolf based

on nuclear DNA results.

1996 Economic study by Cornell

University shows strong regional

support for red wolf recovery,

substantial potential tourism

benefits, and a significant willingness

of the public to pay for red wolf

recovery that far exceeds the cost of

the program. Wild- born red wolves

comprise approximately 90 percent

of the free-ranging northeastern

North Carolina red wolf population.

Study by East Carolina University

shows strong local support for red

wolf recovery in northeastern North

Carolina and a willingness to

contribute financially to support the

program.

1997 1995 petition request to delist the red

wolf found unwarranted by Service.

Two North Carolina counties and two

individuals file suit to invalidate

federal regulations regarding the red

wolf. Fourth island propagation

project initiated on Cape St. George

Island off the Gulf Coast of Florida.

Key to Acronyms

ARNWR Alligator River National Wildlife

Refuge, North Carolina

AZA American Zoo and Aquarium

Association

GSMNP Great Smoky Mountains National

Park, Tennessee

mtDNA Mitochondrial DNA

PDZA Point Defiance Zoo and Aquarium,

Tacoma, Washington

PLNWR Pocosin Lakes National Wildlife

Refuge, North Carolina

SSP Species Survival Plan

give red wolves some wild experience

before release into mainland

reintroductions.

1988 First litter of red wolf pups born in

the wild at ARNWR.

1989 Second island propagation project

initiated by the release of red wolves

on Horn Island off the coast of

Mississippi.

1990 Third island propagation project

begins by releasing red wolves on St.

Vincent Island off the Gulf Coast of

Florida. PLNWR established on land

within red wolf experimental

population boundaries in eastern

North Carolina.

1991 Second reintroduction project

started by the release of red wolves

into GSMNP. Wayne and colleagues

publish mtDNA results suggesting

that the red wolf may be of hybrid

origin. American Sheep Industry

Association files petition to delist red

wolf based on mtDNA results.

1992 Second-generation red wolf pups

born in the wild at ARNWR. 1991

petition request to delist the red wolf

found unwarranted by Service.

1993 Red wolves released into PLNWR.

First red wolves born in the wild in

GSMNP.

1994 Wayne and colleagues publish first

nuclear DNA results suggesting, once

again, that the red wolf may be of

hybrid origin.

1995 Attitude survey by North Carolina

State University shows majority of

residents in eastern North Carolina

support red wolf reintroduction.

Amendment to Interior Appropriation

Bill introduced in Senate to suspend

all funding for Red Wolf Recovery

Program. Amendment narrowly

defeated.

North Carolina law to allow taking of
Red Wolf Coordinator

V. Gary Henry

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

160 Zillicoa Street

Asheville, NC 28801

Phone: 704/258 3939, extension 226

Fax: 704/258 5330

E-mail: gary_henry@fws.gov

Red Wolf Field Coordinator/

Northeastern North Carolina Project

Brian Kelly

Alligator River National Wildlife Refuge

P.O. Box 1969

Manteo, NC 27954

Phone: 919/473 1131

Fax: 919/473 1668

E-mail: r4rw_nc.all@fws.gov

Red Wolf Captive Breeding Coordinator

Will Waddell

Point Defiance Zoo and Aquarium

5400 North Pearl Street

Tacoma, WA 98407

Phone: 253/404 3668

Fax: 253/591 5448

E-mail: wwaddell@pdza.org

Southern Appalachians Project

Chris Lucash

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

10241 Park Circle Drive

Townsend, TN 37882

Phone: 423/448 6835

Fax: 423/448 6835

E-mail: r4fwe_gsmnp@fws.gov

U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

1 800/344 WILD

http://www.fws.gov/~r4eao

October 1997