National Institute on Drug Abuse

RESEARCH

MONOGRAPH SERIES

Residual Effects

of Abused Drugs

on Behavior

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services • Public Health Service • National Institutes of Health

10 1
Residual Effects of

Abused Drugs on

Behavior

Editors:

John W. Spencer, Ph.D.

Division of Clinical Research

National Institute on Drug Abuse

John J. Boren, Ph.D.

Division of Clinical Research

National Institute on Drug Abuse

Research Monograph 101

1990

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH AND HUMAN SERVICES

Public Health Service

Alcohol, Drug Abuse, and Mental Health Administration

National Institute on Drug Abuse

5600 Fishers Lane

Rockville, MD 20857
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402
Residual Effects of Abused Drugs

on Behavior
ACKNOWLEDGMENT

This monograph is based on the papers and discussion from a technical

review on “Residual Effects of Abused Drugs on Behavior: ClinicalResearch Integration” held on February 23 and 24, 1989, in Rockville, MD.

The review meeting was sponsored by the Office of Science and the

Division of Clinical Research, National Institute on Drug Abuse.

COPYRIGHT STATUS

The National Institute on Drug Abuse has obtained permission from the

copyright holders to reproduce certain previously published material as noted

in the text. Further reproduction of this copyrighted material is permitted

only as part of a reprinting of the entire publication or chapter. For any

other use, the copyright holder’s permission is required. All other material

in this volume except quoted passages from copyrighted sources is in the

public domain and may be used or reproduced without permission from the

Institute or the authors. Citation of the source is appreciated.

Opinions expressed in this volume are those of the authors and do not

necessarily reflect the opinions or official policy of the National Institute on

Drug Abuse or any other part of the U.S. Department of Health and Human

Services.

The U.S. Government does not endorse or favor any specific commercial

product or company. Trade, proprietary, or company names appearing in

this publication are used only because they are considered essential in the

context of the studies reported herein.

DHHS publication number (ADM)90-1719

Printed 1990

NIDA Research Monographs are indexed in the Index Medicus. They are

selectively included in the coverage of American Statistics Index,

BioSciences Information Service, Chemical Abstracts, Current Contents,

Psychological Abstracts, and Psychopharmacology Abstracts.

iv
Contents

Page

Preface vii

Methodological Issues

Why Evaluate for Residual Drug Effects 1

John Spencer

The Long-Term Neurobehavioral Consequences of Substance

Abuse: Conceptual and Methodological Challenges for

Future Research 10

Robert Reed and Igor Grant

Use of Complex Behavioral Baselines to Monitor Residual

Drug Effects in Animals 57

Merle Paule

Clinical and Laboratory Investigations of

Residual Drug Effects

Clinical-Behavioral Observations of the Long-Term

Effects of Drug Abuse 71

George E. Woody, A. Thomas McLellan, and

Charles P. O’Brien

Adaptive Behavior in Recovering Female

Phencyclidine/Polysubstance Abusers 86

Judy Howard Leila Beckwith, and Carol Rodning

Long-Term Marijuana Use and Subsequent Effects on

Learning and Cognitive Functions Related to School

Achievement: Preliminary Study 96

Robert I. Block, Sara Farnham, Kathleen Braverman,

Russell Noyes, Jr., and M.M. Ghoneim

v
Residual Effects of Alcohol 112

Peter E. Nathan

Hepatic, Nutritional, and Genetic Influences on Cognitive

Process in Alcoholics 124

Ralph E. Tarter, Howard Moss, Amelia Arria, and

David Van Thiel

Learning and Memory Deficits in Detoxified Alcoholics 136

Marlene Oscar-Berman

Persisting Neurotoxic Consequences of Solvent Abuse:

A Developing Animal Model for Toluene-Induced

Neurotoxicity 156

Gordon Pryor

Cognitive Deficits in Abstaining Cocaine Abusers 167

Ronald I. Herning, Barbara J. Glover, Bonnie Koeppl,

William Weddington, and Jerome H. Jaffe

Abstinence Symptomatology and Neuropsychological

Deficits in Chronic Cocaine Abusers 179

Stephanie S. O’Malley and Frank H. Gawin

List of NIDA Research Monographs 191

vi
Preface

During the past decade, there has been a disturbing rise in the abuse of

various addictive drugs. What has become increasingly clear is the complexity of use of substances such as methamphetamine, marijuana, phencyclidine, cocaine or crack, and alcohol; often two or more drugs are taken

concurrently at high doses. Not only is the degree of possible toxicity

poorly understood, but so are the residual central nervous system and

behavioral effects following drug discontinuation.

Determining long-term drug effects is important if their possible adverse

consequences to physical and mental functioning are to be fully understood.

For example, the extent to which long-term drug use specifically impairs

cognition, e.g., the ability to think and reason, or exacerbates a long-lasting

psychiatric or dementialike disorder is either not known or the information

is incomplete. The ramification of residual drug effects extends beyond the

individual to include the family, various legal and educational institutions,

and even newborn infants. Estimates of the financial costs of treatment and

rehabilitation of indigent substance abusers as well as postnatal care given

to babies born to addicted mothers are escalating yearly.

A technical review entitled “Residual Effects of Abused Drugs on Behavior:

A Clinical-Research Integration” was held at the National Institute on Drug

Abuse in Rockville, MD, on February 23 and 24, 1989. The two major

goals were: (1) to evaluate the current state of knowledge on the residual

effects of chronic substance abuse on behavior, and (2) to foster an interdisciplinary research effort to study and understand long-term drug effects

by involving both laboratory researchers and clinicians.

vii
The papers presented at this technical review form the basis for the present

monograph.

John W. Spencer, Ph.D.

John J. Boren, Ph.D.

Clinical and Behavioral Pharmacology

Branch

Division of Clinical Research

National Institute on Drug Abuse

Rockville, MD 20857

viii
Why Evaluate for Residual Drug

Effects

John W. Spencer

INTRODUCTION

If illegal drugs such as cocaine and crack, phencyclidine, marijuana, or

methamphetamine are repeatedly abused for an indefinite period of time, are

there long-lasting effects on behavior following discontinuation of use? Can

either temporary or permanent brain damage or brain dysfunction be described? If some type of behavioral deficit does exist, can it be directly

attributable to the use of the drug itself? Despite over 20 years of research,

answers to these questions are either not known or are incomplete.

What has been described in the research literature is that following alcohol

withdrawal and, to some extent, inhalant abuse, certain individuals may have

a behavioral, cognitive impairment in the initiation and flexibility of thinking and reasoning, a loss in memory function, or both (Nathan, this volume). These longer lasting, persistent impairments in behavior extending

beyond any detoxification period have been termed “residual effects.”

Studies that have attempted to establish whether residual effects exist for

any illegal drug of abuse have been more equivocal (Reed and Grant, this

volume).

The major points that will be described and developed in this chapter are

that, following repeated abuse of any substance, it will first be necessary to

evaluate and establish whether residual drug effects exist; then the careful

profiling or classifying of residual effects into type, degree of severity, and

duration of effect or recovery for a specific population (children, adults) can

provide a directed focus of research into the consequences of long-term

illegal drug usage.

STEPS IN CLINICAL EVALUATION

Clinically, it is important to describe the presence of any detrimental behavioral deficits following long-term substance abuse. The neuropsychologist is

1
often presented with assessment referrals that request evaluation of detoxified drug abusers. A major job is the thorough indexing of performance

impairments. Data collected helps to describe behaviorally what tasks the

individual can or cannot perform. It is useful to analyze both level and

quality of performance. This information can reveal how deficient the

client is when compared to a drug-nonabusing subject, as well as reflecting

the degree of accuracy and speed on specific items. Areas that need to be

measured include motor dexterity, sensory processing (visual, auditory, and

tactile), reaction time, attention and concentration, language functioning and

verbal reasoning, visual-spatial analysis and construction, verbal and nonverbal memory, and degree of abstraction, planning, and problem-solving

skills. Many of these perceptual and cognitive functions overlap in the

skills required for successful performance. Memory may involve both

verbal stimuli and visual-spatial configurations and depend upon adequate

sensory processing ability. Concentration deficits can impair the ability to

reason, as well as the ability to make judgments. Motivational deficits also

may contribute to impairment at all levels of functioning. As will be discussed later in this chapter, more specific types of neurobehavioral

responses may need to be evaluated. Neuropsychological evaluations should

not only help describe cognitive impairments but should also list performance strengths that are not adequately used by the abstinent substance

abuser.

It is equally important to ascertain not only if drug abusers understand

certain abstractions but if they can access this ability to function adaptively.

For example, in addition to simply indexing cognitive performance deficits,

the relationship of these deficits to practical, everyday life situations should

be made. Schaffer and Parsons (1987) demonstrated that sober middle-aged

alcoholics who initially learned to match each face of six men and six

women with a given name and then were required to recall the name after

the face was again presented were less accurate than age- and educationequated controls. These learning deficits suggest a type of impairment in

current adaptive behavior as, in the same study, the face-naming test predicted significant positive correlations between task performance and therapist ratings for the clients on various components of treatment behavior and

treatment benefit, e.g., ability to plan ahead. The Adaptive Skills Battery

(ASB) may be another type of test that has some degree of clinical relevance to the evaluation of cognition in detoxified drug abusers. Responses

are scored in terms of competency of coping skills in a variety of common

situations in the workplace and in marital, peer, and social relations. The

respondent records what he or she would do in a given situation and, setond, records what the very best response or action would be. Patterson

et al. (1988) showed that detoxified alcoholics produced lower competency

scores than controls’ scores in a “give your typical response” set; however,

in “give your best response” set, alcoholics and nonalcoholics did not differ,

suggesting that it is in the execution of the cognitive or problem-solving

skills and not in the capacity for such skills that drug abusers have the

2
most difficulties. This interpretation was strengthened because there was no

significant correlation between performance on impersonal neuropsychological tests, e.g., nonverbal conceptualization, and competency of responding

on the ASB. Through the use of adaptive behavior tests, the residual

effects of drugs on certain aspects of cognition, such as interpersonal problem solving, may be elucidated. This information may be used to begin to

make more accurate predictions of success in treatment, likelihood of

relapse, and quality of posttreatment competency.

RESEARCH NEEDS

In many clinical referrals, specific questions are often asked. For example,

“Is there evidence of brain damage?” or “What is the prognosis?” The

implied assumption is that long-term drug abuse either directly or indirectly

alters brain functioning. Research indicates that alcohol abuse can result in

a pattern of behavioral impairments suggestive of central nervous system

(CNS) damage (Tarter et al., this volume). Alcoholics demonstrate a pattern of generalized cognitive impairments in the areas of concept formation,

perceptual-motor performance, and complex learning. These deficits are

thought to be related to a diffuse pattern of cortical impairment, although

some investigators suggest that frontal-limbic circuits are more susceptible.

Alcoholics also show a type of residual memory deficit that may become

severe enough to produce Korsakoff’s syndrome, which is thought to be

related to a more diencephalic subcortical pathology. Additionally, the

extent to which long-term drug abuse may potentially hasten a form of

organic brain disorder such as dementia, while presently not understood, becomes a challenging research issue in the study of residual drug effects, as

it has clinical-prognostic significance.

Separation of Effects

A related research issue is that if residual drug effects exist, performance

testing procedures should describe and separate the transient from the longer

term effects. This information has implications for accurately describing

and predicting the clinical course of recovery and for interfacing assessment

and treatment. Early in treatment, substance abusers may be cognitively

impaired to the extent that information processing cannot be adequately performed. Repeated neuropsychological assessments can help describe the

degree to which the patient’s mental functioning is recovering, as well as

measuring recovery in general. Longer lasting deficits, particularly those

involving memory loss, need to be documented, and appropriate adjustments

made in the treatment plan. For example, teaching new skills or alternative

activities to replace impairments caused by the drug-taking behavior may

not be as easy to accomplish if memory processes are not intact.

3
Developmental Effects. At present, there is no concentrated research effort

describing and subsequently tracking performance deficits in children who

have stopped abusing drugs. It would be useful to determine if any residual drug effects can be found in this population, because it is at this age that

various components of cognition, including planning, evaluation, and

abstracting skills, undergo major developmental changes. A need exists to

present data concerning the possible deleterious effects of a specific drug or

drug combinations that might occur at a particular developmental stage in

the formation of intelligence, emotional functioning, or social functioning.

This information might be of help in remediation programming. If it can

be demonstrated, for example, that a particular drug has a long-lasting residual effect on a specific behavior such as learning, impulse control, or motor

activity, the parent or teacher’s early knowledge of this information may

help in understanding the child’s maladjustment or difficulty in coping.

Analysis of Subcomponents of Behavior. If residual drug effects can be

found in drug-abstinent children or adolescents, it is then useful to evaluate

the components of certain cognitive skills, such as types of memory deficits,

that may provide important information concerning the ways drug-abstinent

children differ from drug-nonabusing children. Of paramount importance is

the complete description of types of specific performance errors. For

example, brain-impaired individuals can have many cognitive memory deficits, but these failures may occur for different reasons. Korsakoff's patients

have difficulty recognizing information (declarative memory) but can acquire

new skills (procedural memory), whereas persons with Huntington’s disease

show a generalized impairment in memory but fail because of deficits in

procedural learning rather than failures in recognition (Mat-tone et al. 1984).

Oscar-Berman (this volume) provides additional descriptions of types of

errors made by Korsakoff's patients. Further, information of specific learning deficits in drug-abusing children may help uncover potential differences

between the maturing right and left hemispheres. Adult alcoholics have difficulty performing visual-spatial tasks, which are the hallmark of right

hemisphere damage in patients with documented pathology of this brain

area. Yet most research has provided little evidence of greater right- than

left-hemisphere damage. It remains to be clarified whether drug-abstinent

children, whose cortices are less mature, make the same types of errors that

reflect a generalized brain dysfunction in adults.

Many subclinical or “soft” signs seen in abstinent drug abusers may be

more readily demonstrated if specific tests or a standardized and computerized neuropsychological test battery were available. Traditional testing batteries such as the Halstead-Reitan or Luria-Nebraska, used primarily for

brain-damaged individuals, may be insensitive to drug-induced impairments.

Lucki and Rickels (1986) have demonstrated that psychometric tests such as

symbol copying and digit span did not reveal any significant deficits in subjects who had been taking benzodiazepines (BZ) chronically for at least 5

years. A test that measures visual perception thresholds, critical flicker

4
fusion, did reveal significant changes in long-term BZ users. Abilityspecific tests may be more useful than gross performance measures, which

are not demanding and focused enough to detect impairments. What

appears to be needed is the investigation of elementary components of complex behavior. Instead of evaluating logical memory and language by a

simple recall of a story or sentences, Zurif (1980) suggested the use of a

lexical decision task that breaks language down into separate functions.

Another example of the reduction of behavioral components to help evaluate

total performance can be seen in a model developed by Sternberg and

Gardner (1983). Verbal analogies are solved in a stepwise progression that

involves encoding, inferring, applying, comparing, justifying, and responding.

This type of “componential analysis” of analogical reasoning can help

describe specific processes that may be adversely affected by long-term drug

abuse. Remediation can then be directed at these deficits and not at other

processes that are functioning normally. A measurement process needs to

be developed that begins at the sensory transduction level and terminates

with motor output. Both capacity and efficiency of performance plus speed

in responding should be described. Neurologically impaired patients can be

accurate but very slow to process cognitive information. Whether this same

relationship exists for drug abstinent patients remains to be clarified.

Individual Differences. Describing individual differences regarding the

presence or absence of residual drug effects in children or adults may help

explain why some individuals are especially vulnerable to developing substance abuse habits. Predrug-use measures that list the presence or absence

of developmental delays, head injuries, attention deficits, minimal brain dysfunction, hyperactivity, as well as cognitive and learning disabilities, should

be well documented. Neuropsychological deficits may reflect a long-standing weakness in a particular cognitive process rather than revealing the

effects of only recent drug use on CNS functioning. The importance of

such research design issues can be illustrated by the strong suggestion that

individuals with childhood histories of hyperactivity or attention-deficit disorder are at increased risk for the development, later in life, of psychiatric

illness, including the tendency to abuse drugs. Knop et al. (1985) have

documented that sons of alcoholic fathers were reported by their teachers to

experience a more disturbed school career and have poorer impulse control

as well as deficient verbal proficiency. An understanding of predrug behavior, when available, can help substantially in interpreting residual drug

effects.

Use of Animal Studies

Because of the complexities of interpretation of data in many clinical

studies, animal models can be useful for testing hypotheses regarding residual drug effects on cognition or other neurobehavioral processes. Among

the difficulties in evaluating human research has been relating long-term

drug abuse to brain dysfunction, which then may cause cognitive

5
impairment (causal hypothesis) or in demonstrating that with increased drug

use, performance impairments become correspondingly more severe (Parsons

et al. 1986).

By controlling diet and preventing nutritional deficiencies, the direct toxic

effects of repeatedly administered abused drug(s) on learning or performance

studies in animals may be evaluated over a specific time course. Important

variables such as drug dose, frequency and length of drug administration, as

well as the effect of age or gender, can be partialed out and quantified in

parametric studies. The repeated administration of drugs to animals over

time provides for a controlled way to evaluate hypotheses relating to residual drug effects. Determination of the relevance to clinical studies remains

an inherently difficult but necessary task.

CLINICAL EVALUATIONS’ CONTRIBUTION TO RESEARCH

Finally, evaluation for the presence of subtle residual drug effects may help

stimulate and develop a more comprehensive clinical and research methodology. As one example, Ciesielski et al. (1985) were able to show abnormalities in the visual evoked response of long-term substance abusers. The

human evoked potential (EVP) is an electrophysiological measurement in

which a sensory or cognitive signal “evokes” or stimulates a response that

is detected from the scalp and presumably represents brain responsiveness to

a stimulus. The EVP is reproduced as an averaged tracing with latency

(stimulus onset to response) and amplitude (height of response) within a

series of generated waveforms. Differences indexed in the Ciesielski study

included decreases in the amplitude of N2-P3 potentials. Some lateralizing

effect(s) were observed. Longer EVP latencies occurred over the right

rather than left hemisphere. No significant abnormalities were observed for

various psychometric tests, e.g., logical memory, visual reproduction, and

visual short-term memory. This finding suggested to the authors that not

only were the brain potentials a more sensitive indicator of cerebral impairment than were behavioral tests, but the finding might also indicate that

brain dysfunction physiologically can precede observable behavioral impairment. However, the assumption made in this study was that the psychological tests used were valid for the behavior studied. Other tests evaluating for memory dysfunction might have revealed different results. Certainly, noninvasive techniques such as the EVP, sleep-stage electrophysiology,

and autonomic measures of galvanic skin response, vagal responsiveness,

and neuromuscular physiology (tremors, balance) may be useful as adjunct

indicators for describing possible residual drug impairment. For example,

Harbin (1985) has reported that a late positive component of the eventrelated cortical potential can be correlated with memory (exponentially

decaying; long-term or recent) or response speed, two indicators of neurological status and possibly of long-term drug effects. Porjesz et al. (1987)

have also shown that the EVP (P3) appears to be reduced in voltage in

abstinent alcoholics but not controls, when the subjects were engaged in

6
tasks that measured attention. The suggestion was made that multiple system deficits were involved, including frontal or medial temporal lobe sites,

proposed generators for P3 wave forms. Continued research needs to clarify whether these interpretations are correct and to document the clinical

relevance of observed changes in the EVP during drug abstinence.

CONCLUSION

To summarize, it first needs to be established that residual effects do exist

following long-term drug abuse. It also remains to be clarified whether

long-term drug abuse produces irreversible brain damage or more subtle reversible brain dysfunction. By the careful analysis of various types of

learning and performance strengths and weaknesses, treatment planning strategies may begin to be made. This is especially true in cases in which

there is a dual diagnosis of a mental disorder coexisting with the substance

abuse, e.g., schizophrenia, depression, or dementia. It is important to know

how long-term drug abuse can produce symptoms similar to these disorders

as well as how the disorders control the drug-taking habit. A better understanding of the long-term performance deficits and any psychiatric disability

may help in formulating an appropriate followup and lessen the occurrence

of drug relapse. The study for possible residual drug effects in children

and adolescents may help describe the types of learning, social, and emotional problems they can be expected to have in school and in the home.

In this population, any neuropsychological assessment should include tests

that are valid and appropriate for each developmental stage. A challenge

for future research is to develop a new technology for indexing subtle, subclinical deficits occurring as a result of long-term drug abuse. One critical

variable that investigators will need to attend to is the degree to which

predrug deficits may interact with or influence outcome in the evaluation

for residual drug effects. Animal models may be especially useful and

appropriate.

ORGANIZATION OF THE MONOGRAPH

In the remaining chapters of this monograph, both the methodological and

clinical research studies investigating residual drug effects on behavior are

discussed. All the studies reveal the presence of some form of residual

drug effect on behavior. Mr. Reed and Dr. Grant provide a comprehensive

review of neuropsychological studies devoted to analyzing residual drug

effects focusing on the importance of valid and reliable measurements and

appropriate research designs to index behavioral deficits. Of special interest

is the tracking mechanism necessary to keep drug abusers in longitudinal

studies. A method of evaluating animal behavior, using complex operant

baselines, is suggested by Dr. Paule to be amenable to evaluating residual

drug effects. Data are presented that show various response-recovery rates

in animals previously exposed to certain drugs. Dr. Woody reviews the

clinical manifestations of stimulant and opiate residual effects. Of interest

7
is the possible biological alteration in the endocrine system of opiate

abusers and the corresponding changes in certain behavioral-affect rating

scales. Dr. Howard reviews her clinical findings, which show that in a

small group of black, disadvantaged women, abuse of phencyclidine has

residual effects on adaptive behavior 12 to 24 months after discontinuation

of drug use. The profound effect of phencyclidine used in conjunction with

other drugs appears to also influence sensory, motor, and play behavior of

infants born to these drug-abusing women. Dr. Block presents data that

show that heavy marijuana use may have residual effects on certain language-mediated tasks. The design of this study includes a predrug measurement, a component lacking in many residual studies. Investigations concerned with residual effects of alcohol have been going on for 20 years.

Researchers in this area have both knowledgeable and valuable contributions

to make to the field of polydrug abuse. Chapters by Drs. Nathan, Tarter,

and Oscar-Berman review the effects of long-term alcohol abuse on various

social and cognitive tasks. Alcohol abuse may produce a neurotoxic effect

involving the liver and vitamin E absorption, which may be partially

responsible for observed cognitive deficits. Learning deficits in alcoholics

are suggested to be related to a diffuse cortical damage, whereas memory

deficits may be more related to subcortical damage. Dr. Pryor utilizes an

animal model to demonstrate that behavioral measurements of grip strength,

stride length and width, and foot splay can be used to evaluate the subtle

residual effects of toluene in the rat. This finding shows how a drug that

is thought to act in an area of the brain responsible for motor control does

in fact impair motor behavior. Reporting on the residual effect of cocaine,

Dr. Herning uses a combined information-processing and reaction-time paradigm with an electrophysiological measurement (event-related potential) to

demonstrate subtle residual drug effects, and Dr. O’Malley reviews the

clinical abstinence symptomatology of cocaine and presents neuropsychological data that reveal some mild impairments. Of interest is that the length

of cocaine abstinence correlates with performance on tests that discriminated

cocaine abusers from normals.

REFERENCES

Ciesielski, K.T.; Madden, J.S.; Bligh, J.G.; and Schopflocher, D. Long term

brain impairment in chronic alcoholics: N2-P3 cognitive potentials in a

template matching memory task. Alcohol Alcohol 20:903-408, 1985.

Harbin, T. The late positive component of the evoked cortical potential:

Application to neurotoxicity testing. Neurobehav Toxic Teratol 7:345-350,

1985.

Knop, J.; Teasdale, T.; Schulsinger, F.; and Goodwin, D. A prospective

study of young men at high risk for alcoholism: School behavior and

achievement. J Stud Alcohol 46:273-278, 1985.

Lucki, I., and Rickels, K. The behavioral effects of benzodiazepines following long-term use. Psychopharmacol Bull 22(2):424-433, 1986.

8
Mat-tone, M.; Butters, N.; Payne, M.; Becker, J.T.; and Sax, D. Dissociations between skill learning and verbal recognition in amnesia and dementia. Arch Neurol 41:965-997, 1984.

Parsons, O.A., and Stevens, L. Previous alcohol intake and residual cognitive deficits in detoxified alcoholics and animals. Alcohol Alcohol

21(2):137-157, 1986.

Patterson, B.; Parsons, O.; Schaeffer, K.W.; and Errico, A.L. Interpersonal

problem solving in alcoholics. J Nerv Ment Dis 176:707-713, 1988.

Potjesz, B.; Begleiter, H.; Bihari, B.; and Kissin, B. Event related brain

potentials to high incentive stimuli in abstinent alcoholics. Alcohol

4(4):283-287, 1987.

Schaeffer, K.W., and Parsons, O. Learning impairment in alcoholics using

an ecologically relevant test. J Nerv Ment Dis 175:213-218, 1987.

Sternberg, R.J., and Gardner, M.K. Unities in inductive reasoning. J Exp

Psycho1 [Gen] 112:80-116, 1983.

Zurif, E. Language mechanisms: A neuropsychological perspective. Am

Sci 68:350-361, 1980.

AUTHOR

John W. Spencer, Ph.D.

Division of Clinical Research

National Institute on Drug Abuse

Parklawn Building, Room 10A5600 Fishers Lane

Rockville, MD 20857

9
The Long-Term Neurobehavioral

Consequences of Substance

Abuse: Conceptual and

Methodological Challenges for

Future Research

Robert J. Reed and Igor Grant

INTRODUCTION

In this chapter, we discuss issues that need to be considered and directions

that might be taken in the investigation of central nervous system (CNS)

consequences of the long-term chronic abuse of psychoactive drugs. In so

doing, we will consider the current status of work in this area, several conceptual issues influencing such work, theoretical models for understanding

and guiding the development of sound research strategies, methodological

issues important to the implementation of repeated measures designs, and

some of the current neurodiagnostic methods that could be incorporated into

future multidisciplinary research.

Overview

In the 1960s, there began the well-documented upsurge in the nonmedical

use of pharmaceutical and nonpharmaceutical psychoactive chemicals, which

has yet to abate, some 25 years later. In the early 1970s, a number of

often contradictory reports began to appear in the literature describing the

findings of neuropsychological (NP) investigations of marijuana and hallucinogen use. The appearance of these articles signalled a caution that one

could not repeatedly expose the brain to psychoactive agents without ultimately paying a price. Simultaneously, the number of drug users whose

preferred substances included the barbiturate and nonbarbiturate CNS depressants and stimulants began to increase. Prevalence of heroin abuse also

escalated as many military personnel who were initially exposed to this drug

in Vietnam came home and continued to seek out and use opiates. During

this decade, it also became clear that the concept of the “pure” heroin

10
addict or the “pure” marijuana abuser was losing its validity, since the

majority of substance abusers had begun to avail themselves of several different drugs; hence the term “polydrug user” (Wesson et al. 1978).

Toward the end of the 1970s, the Nation was beginning to experience the

fallout from the large-scale introduction of cocaine into American society, as

production and distribution centers in Central and South America became

more sophisticated. The 1980s saw the advent of free-base cocaine and

crack as well as the spread of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection through the use and sharing of dirty needles by intravenous (IV)

abusers of cocaine, heroin, and amphetamines. Thus, even the recent history of substance abuse has many eddies and currents.

In the following review of research on neurobehavioral consequences of

substance abuse, especially the NP findings, we attempt to define the limits

of our knowledge in this area and point out the problems in methods and

measurement that have made interpretation of data difficult.

Current Status of Work in the Area

During the 1960s and 1970s, a number of studies on the CNS consequences

of chronic substance abuse were completed. These were mainly NP investigations, the results of which have been summarized by Grant and Mohns

(1975), Parsons and Farr (1981) Grant and Reed (1985), and Carlin (1986).

In brief, the best designed controlled studies of heavy marijuana use

(Mendelson and Meyer 1972; Grant et al. 1973; Rubin and Comitas 1975;

Miras and Fink 1972; Satz et al. 1976; Stefanis et al. 1977) found no indications that NP abilities were adversely affected. Other clinical studies and

some case reports (Campbell et al. 1971; Kolansky and Moore 1971; Kolansky and Moore 1972; Soueif 1971; Wig and Varma 1977; Mendhiratta

et al. 1978) repotted NP deficits and computed tomography (CT)-measured

atrophy in cannabis users. Several of the latter studies were uncontrolled,

however, or other clinical conditions were prevalent among their subjects,

which could account for the reported dysfunction.

More recently, there have been indications that both acute and longer term

dysfunction in attention, information processing, and memory may result

from marijuana use (Belmore and Miller 1980; Wetzel et al. 1982; Block

and Wittenbom 1984; Hooker and Jones 1987; Page et al. 1988). The

report from Page and colleagues comes from a followup in Costa Rica of

the study originally reported by Satz and associates (1976). In the earlier

study, no significant differences were found to exist among Costa Rican

nationals who had been smoking marijuana heavily for more than a decade

on average and a group of nonusers matched for socioeconomic status. The

followup, however, included both the previously used measures and a new

set of tests designed to assess attention and concentration and the learning

1 1
and retrieval components of memory. Twenty-seven of the forty-one original users and 30 of 41 original nonusers were successfulIy reevaluated.

Again, there were no between-group differences on the original NP measures and, perhaps more interestingly, there were no meaningful performance

changes between first and second evaluations for either group. The using

group, however, by then having histories of more than 25 years of heavy

cannabis use, was uniformly and significantly more impaired on the new

tests of attention, concentration, and memory. Page and colleagues note

that, although these differences were real and significant, they were sufficiently subtle to have been classified as subclinical. Interestingly, users had

worse social functioning in several areas. They tended to have less

demanding jobs and were more likely to have spent time in prison.

Page and associates do not address the possibility that their cannabis-using

group may have been exposed to greater drug-use- and drug-nonuse-related

risks for NP deficit in the interval between the first and second NP evaluations. As it is frequently the case that U.S. alcoholics and drug abusers are

exposed to greater neuromedical risk (head injury, loss of consciousness,

nutritional deprivation, hepatic disease, chronic obstructive pulmonary

disease) than are nonabusers, and as such events have been shown to explain a significant portion of the variance in NP test results in both alcoholics (Adams and Grant 1986) and polydrug abusers (Grant et al. 1978b), it is

possible that the same confounds might have been operating in this Costa

Rican sample.

Hooker and Jones (1987) administered a series of memory and informationprocessing measures to subjects in a counter-balanced double-blind crossover

design. These subjects were males between 19 and 22 years of age and

averaged 14.8 years of education, with a range from 13 to 17 years. In the

year prior to the experiment, the subjects’ marijuana experience ranged be

tween once per month and once per week. Two subjects had a lifetime frequency of marijuana use of over 1,000 occasions. Subjects were tested

after smoking either one active or one placebo marijuana cigarette. Second

assessments were made 1 to 3 weeks later. Analyses indicated that acute

marijuana intoxication was related to the more frequent appearance of intrusions in a delayed free-recall verbal-memory procedure and to poorer performance on the Stroop color-word interference test.

Although Hooker and colleagues did not focus in this study on residual deleterious effects of marijuana, it is possible that 6 of the 12 subjects (those

who received active cannabis at baseline) actually could have demonstrated

residual effects at followup. If indeed there were residual effects, differences between placebo and cannabis groups might be expected to attenuate or

disappear at followup, resulting in a significant treatment-by-time interaction

in repeated measures analyses. Such a result did not occur, thus there is a

tentative indication that marijuana use will not have residual effects. This

conclusion is not compelling, however, given that the distribution of values

12
for potentially confounding subject attributes, i.e., prior drug and alcohol

use, educational achievement, and IQ, were not described for the marijuanafirst and placebo-first groups. The facts that the subjects smoked only one

marijuana cigarette during the experiment and that the sample was very

small also limit our ability to form generalizable conclusions about residual

effects.

Thus, although the best early work with marijuana suggested that it was a

relatively innocuous agent from a neurological standpoint, the more recent

data tentatively suggest that it may have both acute and residual effects on

some abilities that generally were not assessed in the earlier studies. Data

on residual effects remain inconclusive, however.

Phencyclidine (PCP) was first synthesized in 1956. Used and then abandoned as a surgical anesthetic in humans, PCP has also served as an experimental drug in producing model psychoses and as a veterinary tranquilizer.

It first appeared as an illicit street drug in 1965 and, according to some

national surveys, has been consumed by more than 8 million Americans

(Young et al. 1987). Its application as a surgical anesthetic was marred by

postoperative psychotic reactions and acute agitation. It has frequently been

linked with violent behavior in clinical case reports and in the popular

press, but Brecher and associates (1988) state that, in many of these reports,

other factors that may relate to violent behavior, such as simultaneous intoxication from other substances, are not dealt with. They further suggest that

little empirical data exist that support the putative link between this substance and violence. There is no denying, however, that persons acutely

toxic on this agent can present with a host of bizarre symptoms.

Acutely intoxicated PCP abusers frequently demonstrate both the active (hallucinations, fixed delusions, paranoia) and passive (thought disorder, withdrawal, apathy, catatonia) symptoms of schizophrenia (Javitt 1987). French

(1988) reported that chronic exposure to PCP among rats did not diminish

the drug’s ability to activate mesolimbic neurons, which are thought to be

implicated in the etiology of schizophrenia. He speculates that this absence

of a tolerance effect may partially underlie the biological mechanism by

which chronic use of larger doses of PCP can lead to psychotomimetic

symptoms. These recent findings and others suggest that PCP might provide a more encompassing chemical model for schizophrenia than do the

hallucinogens or the amphetamines.

In early NP reports, PCP abusers demonstrated acute and postacute sensory

and motor disabilities as well as anterograde amnesia (Davies 1961; Luby

et al. 1959; Luisada 1978). PCP-using polydrug abusers appeared in one

study to be more impaired neuropsychologically than polydrug users who

did not use PCP (Ware 1978), while another study of similar design did not

find significant differences (Carlin et al. 1979).

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In sum, the residual effects of PCP are not understood. PCP must remain,

however, high on the list of substances that might have long-lasting deleterious neurobehavioral effects; the severe acute and subacute (lasting days to

weeks) behavioral disruption it is known to cause make this a plausible

inference. Furthermore, PCP’s lipophilic properties favor its remaining in

the body for prolonged periods, thereby lengthening the potential for longterm toxic effects.

CNS depressants have been associated with postabstinence NP impairment

that resembles the pattern seen among alcoholics (Adams et al. 1975; Judd

and Grant 1975; Bergman et al. 1980; Grant et al. 1978a). Hendler and

colleagues (1980) and Petursson and associates (1983) reported NP impairment in chronic benzodiazepine users on the Wechsler Adult Intelligence

Scale, and Golombok and colleagues (1988) found impaired visual-spatial

ability and impairment of sustained attention among British patients prescribed this same class of psychoactive agents for at least 1 year.

Bergman and associates reported, in a followup of their 1980 study (Bergman et al. 1989), that 30 of their original 55 sedative-hypnotic-abusing subjects showed slight but significant improvement in NP functioning 4 to

6 years later. These investigators partitioned their sample on the basis of

relapse vs. abstinence during the interim. While both subgroups improved

significantly on seven out of nine measures at the second evaluation,

relapsed sedative-hypnotic abusers performed more poorly on a block design

measure, on the Trailmaking Test, and on a measure of field dependence

than did the abstinent subgroup. Interestingly, the relapsed group demonstrated greater improvement than the abstinent group on both the Trailmaking and the Witkin Rod and Frame Tests. Bergman and colleagues suggest

that, because of the extremely poor scores obtained at baseline by the

relapsers, they had more room for improvement at second testing. It is also

possible that those who relapsed did so because they were impaired prior to

onset of drug use. Comparisons made of the abusers’ data, both at baseline

and at followup, with socioeconomically matched normative data indicate

that despite the pooled sample within-group improvement, the sedativehypnotic abusers continued to demonstrate significant NP impairment 4 to

6 years after treatment.

Volatile substances are abused recreationally by a relatively small percentage

of the population, but are of significant concern because many persons are

at risk for their effects through contact with such substances as toluene,

acrolein, n-hexane, and methylbutylketone in their occupations or through

the increasing presence of these agents in the ambient environment. The

research so far suggests that some of these substances, particularly toluene,

can produce both neuropsychological and neuroradiological abnormalities

(Arlien-Soborg et al. 1979; Bruhn et al. 1981); others, mostly the ketones,

may cause peripheral neuropathy (see review by Grant and Reed 1985).

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Animal models of addiction indicate that cocaine and the amphetamines produce more persistent drug-seeking behavior than does any other class of

psychoactive chemical (Gawin and Ellinwood 1988). Thus, it is not surprising that stimulant addiction, to cocaine in particular, has grown rapidly.

Despite this widespread exposure, little is known about long-term effects on

brain function. Some very early studies and clinical case reports described

vasculitis, necrotizing angitis, and cerebrovascular accidents in abusers of

CNS stimulants (Citron et al. 1970; Weiss et al. 1970; Kane et al. 1969).

Rylander (1972) suggested that disturbances in memory, concentration, and

certain types of abstract thinking occurred as long-term sequelae of stimulant abuse, but there were no reports that spoke of stimulant toxicity manifesting as NP impairment following abstinence. Grant and associates

(1978a), for example, found no association between use of CNS stimulants

and NP performance in their sample of 151 polydrug abusers.

On the other hand, human and animal neuropharmacologic studies raise concerns that there may be irreversible CNS effects of stimulant abuse. For

example, long-term administration of stimulants to animals indicates that

there is depression in the mesolimbic and mesofrontal cortical reward systems of the brain. This depression might correspond to the anhedonia

demonstrated during withdrawal in humans (Colpaert et al. 1979; Leith and

Barrett 1976; Kokkinidis and Zacharko 1980). A stimulant-induced supersensitivity of the inhibitory autoreceptors on the dopamine (DA) neuron has

been suggested as the primary neurophysiologic substrate of cocaine withdrawal (Gawin and Ellinwood 1988).

As yet, however, it has not been conclusively shown that there is a longterm or permanent impairment of ability to experience reward because of

chronic perturbation of the dopaminergic system through stimulant abuse.

There is evidence in the animal literature that amphetamine is neurotoxic if

elevated brain levels are sustained for very long. This toxicity can result in

histopathological and neurochemical changes, including degeneration of

nigrostriatal presynaptic DA terminals and striatal DA depletion. Postsynaptic neurons appear to be affected by repeated and sustained exposure to amphetamine as well (Robinson and Becker 1986). In some animals, notably

the cat, DA depletion can persist for up to a year following as few as three

injections (Levine et al. 1980). The issue of whether amphetamines or

cocaine effectively reduce the number of pre- and postsynaptic DA receptors

is a controversial one (see Robinson and Becker 1986 for a comprehensive

review of this area). But, if long-term or permanent changes in the dopaminergic system are a consequence of amphetamine abuse, these changes

could lead to NP and information-processing impairments and to decreased

social and occupational functioning, via decreased ability to anticipate

rewards.

Although some early investigations found NP dysfunction in hallucinogen

abusers, other investigations did not (Cohen and Edwards 1969; McGlothlin

1 5
et al. 1969; Acord 1972; Wright and Hogan 1972; Acord and Barker 1973).

These early lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) studies were compromised in

many ways (small sample sixes; absence of, mismatched, or inappropriate

control groups; uninterpretable or unreported drug consumption metrics; use

of poorly understood, possibly invalid measurement instruments; and failure

to estimate premorbid ability level of participants). But these contradictory

and unreliable findings, combined with the Collaborative Neuropsychological

Study of Polydrug Users’ (CNSP) failure to find a relationship between

reported hallucinogen use and CNS deficit, suggest that deficit, if it exists,

is more subtle than can be assessed by existing NP measures.

The recreational use of inhalants such as amyl and butyl nitrite has become

more common in the last decade. We are not aware of any data to suggest

direct neurotoxicity associated with the abuse of these substances. The use

of these agents to facilitate sexual enjoyment is commonly acknowledged in

gay subpopulations. HIV infection is prevalent among homosexual men,

and AIDS-related dementia occurs in a smaller subset of these persons. It

is not clear whether the nitrites play any role in facilitating CNS complications in such groups.

Opiates have been studied neuropsychologically since 1974, when Fields and

Fullerton first reported an absence of Halstead Reitan Battery (HRB) performance differences in groups of heroin addicts and medical controls. In a

report by Grant and colleagues (1978a), polydrug users who reported using

a relatively greater amount of opiates, including heroin, opium, and synthetic narcotics, were more likely to be judged impaired on clinical NP

evaluation than polydrug users who used relatively little of this class of

drug. Thus these two early studies present conflicting information on the

effect of opiates on CNS function. Hill and Mikhael’s 1979 report of a 40-

percent impairment rate in a small sample of heroin abusers came from a

controlled study as well, but did not resolve the issue because of failure to

include data on length of abstinence in the heroin abusers. Rounsaville and

associates (1980) compared NP functions in heroin addicts and epileptics.

Eighty percent of the addicts and 86 percent of the epileptics were classified as impaired, but 43 percent of the heroin addicts had abused significant

levels of other drugs, including alcohol and cocaine. In the end, these

results were also confounded by the fact that only 20 of the 72 addicts

were drug free at the time of testing. In a continuation of this investigation

(Rounsaville et al. 1982), the same sample of heroin addicts was compared

with Comprehensive Employee Training Act (CETA) employees: essentially

no differences were found except that heroin abusers performed better than

the controls on simple motor tasks. The fact that both groups performed in

the mildly impaired range suggests that other factors (e.g., educational

deprivation) needed to be considered in assessing these NP data. More recently, Guerra and associates (1987) assessed attention, memory, and verbal

fluency in a controlled, repeated-measures investigation of NP performance

in 93 opiate-dependent individuals. Testing was accomplished prior to and

16
following a l-week detoxification. Initially, the performance of the opiate

abusers was significantly more impaired than that of the socioeconomically

matched controls. At followup, the opiate addicts showed significant

improvement relative to their first testing and, when compared again with

the first evaluation data obtained from controls, were not significantly different. Since the controls were not retested, however, it is not possible to

discern whether the observed recovery was due to practice effects, to the

controlled withdrawal from narcotics, or to some interaction of the two.

In summary, this brief review indicates that a moderately large body of data

has been collected and reported over the past two decades on the relationship between chronic drug abuse and brain disorder. In spite of some excellent efforts, relatively little is known about long-term NP effects that

goes beyond the facts of acute intoxication and withdrawal. Much of what

is known is tentative and confounded by a host of factors that, if not

addressed in future neurodiagnostic investigations, will leave us in the same

position two decades hence. Bearing this in mind, in the next section we

discuss several conceptual issues central to fostering more definitive results

in the future.

CONCEPTUAL ISSUES

Defining CNS Effects: The Notion of Neurobehavioral Phenomena

The alterations that psychoactive drugs can produce can be appreciated, at

least theoretically, at several levels of abstraction. At the most basic level,

there will be biochemical and macromolecular changes, some evanescent,

some more lasting. Some of these changes might translate into reversible

(loss of dendritic spines; fluid shifts; inflammatory changes; demyelination)

or irreversible (cell loss) structural damage. At the macro level there may

be neurological, cognitive, affective, and behavioral alterations, both reversible and irreversible.

Methods for detecting these events are many. When animal models are

used, increasingly precise information can be obtained in the living organism, as, for example, the relating of single-cell recordings, or samplings of

neurotransmitter products from selected brain regions in behaving, drugtreated animals (Kuczenski and Segal 1989). Such designs move beyond

correlations of antemortem behavior and postmortem neuroanatomy, towards

simultaneous, in vivo observations of behavioral and neurophysiological

changes produced by various psychoactive drugs.

With living human beings, such elegant but invasive “brain-behavior” correlative experiments are obviously infeasible. Therefore, we can only infer

CNS effects through indirect measures. Until recently, NP testing, which

samples behavior thought to be particularly dependent on CNS integrity,

represented the most sensitive noninvasive approach to detecting brain

17
dysfunction. With the advent of advanced electrophysiological techniques,

e.g., brain electrical activity mapping (BEAM) and functional neuroradiological methods, e.g., positron emission tomography (PET); single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT), it becomes possible to study physicochemical brain changes in vivo, and to relate these to behavior. These techniques permit the term “neurobehavioral” to embrace drug-related CNS phenomena that might be observed from multiple vantage points, including the

neurologic, psychiatric, radiologic, electrophysiologic, and neuropsychologic.

The Natural History Concept as a Guiding Frame of Reference

In medicine, the temporal evolution of a pathologic phenomenon is known

as its natural history. Although the notion that drug-associated neurobehavioral phenomena occur in the context of a natural history is implicit in most

research, the failure to address this concept explicitly has led in the past to

erroneous (or premature) conclusions regarding issues such as the supposed

“safety” of an agent, or, alternatively, its permanent toxicity. We think that

the design of future research in this area will be better served by a conscious and accurate understanding of what is known of the natural history

of drug-related brain disorder.

Several years ago we proposed a general model in time-line format for the

natural history of brain disorder as related to alcohol and drug abuse (figure

1) (Grant et al. 1980). In this model, the basic epochs of the phenomenon

include, in order, a prenatal period, a preexposure period (birth to first

exposure), a latent period, an occult period, a preclinical period, and a clinical period. These six periods are bracketed by conception and death. During both the prenatal and preexposure periods, the model presumes the individual is both healthy and developmentally normal.

The latent period begins at the time of first exposure to the toxic substance.

Between this first exposure and the observation of the first clinical neurobehavioral signs, the first neurotoxic event occurs (destruction of dopaminergic cells or microinfarcts following amphetamine use). This first toxic

event may occur sooner or later following initiation of use depending on

(1) the toxicity of the substance and (2) the relative amount consumed over

time. Theoretically it is possible that this prodromal (latent, occult, and

preclinical) period could extend indefinitely if a very mildly toxic substance

were used infrequently by the healthy individual, i.e., having no predisposing risk or vulnerability.

Viewing the previously reviewed substance abuse literature in the context of

the natural history model points out that most of what we know now relates

only to the short-term effects of drug abuse, i.e., to drug effects on brain

function during acute intoxication, during the period directly following cessation of use (abstinence), and during the immediate postabstinence phase.

Only with respect to alcoholism have we even begun to appreciate the

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FIGURE 1. Model for the natural history of neurotoxin-induced brain

disorder

KEY: C=conception; B=birth; A(X)=age at first exposure to drug; A(Y)=age at which first irreversible

neuronal changes begin; A(Y’)=age at first positive findings on mast sensitive test; A(Z)=age at

first clinical signs; and D=death.

complexities of long-term effects. Even with alcoholism, much of what has

been reported has come from cross-sectional rather than longitudinal investigations or from a few followup studies from which it may be premature to

generalize.

Without such prospective studies, guided by a natural history framework, we

shall fail to develop information that can be ordered in time, an essential

prerequisite to the testing of causal models.

Reversible and Irreversible Deficits

The natural history model (figure 1) was made intentionally simple for didactic purposes. For instance, it permitted no recovery from CNS-related

substance abuse effects. However, recent studies on the NP sequelae of

alcoholism indicate that there is recovery of some NP function in some

alcoholics with continuing abstinence (abstinence beyond a few weeks). We

have observed that long-term (minimum 18 months) abstinent alcoholics do

not differ on most NP measures from age- and education-matched controls

and that such long-term abstainers are significantly less impaired than recently detoxified alcoholics (Grant et al. 1979; Grant et al. 1984). These

cross-sectional studies are supported by more recent longitudinal data. On

2-year followup evaluation of a sample divided into four groups (continuing

alcoholic drinkers, short- and long-term sober alcoholics, and controls), continuing drinkers were rated as neuropsychologically worse more often than

was the short-term sober group. In the short-term sober group, 16 percent

were rated as improved, while in the continuing drinker group, only 9 percent were so rated. Interestingly, 19 percent of the long-term sober group

(abstinent by then a minimum of 4 years) showed significant improvement.

19
Such data raise the possibility of very long-term, slow recovery (Grant et al.

1987).

Other reports of NP and CT-measured recovery among abstinent alcoholics

(Adams et al. 1980; Carlen et al. 1978; Carlen and Wilkinson 1980,

Wilkinson and Carlen 1980a; Wilkinson and Carlen 1980b; Wilkinson and

Carlen 1983; Wilkinson 1987; Brandt et al. 1983; Fabian and Parsons 1983;

Goldman 1983a; Goldman 1983b; Goldman et al. 1985; Grant et al. 1986;

Grant 1987) and the hint that NP recovery may occur among polydrug users

who maintain abstinence (Grant et al. 1978a) suggest that longer term

recovery may occur for substance abusers as well. These data indicate that

the simple natural history time line originally proposed needs refinement.

Through that refinement process we can determine whether recovery may be

total partial permanent, or temporary.

A Proposed Nosology for Subclinical and Reversible Neurobehavioral

Disorders Associated with Substance Abuse

The cross-sectional and, especially, the longitudinal data on NP recovery in

alcoholism reviewed above indicate that at least some neurobehavioral disturbance is slowly reversible. Since there is no nomenclature in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders (DSM III-R) (American

Psychiatric Association 1987) under which these phenomena are described,

we have proposed for future revisions (DSM IV) criteria along the lines

shown in tables 1 and 2. These criteria, first presented for alcoholism in

Grant et al. (1986) and Grant et al. (1987), will permit the diagnosis of

intermediate duration (slowly reversible) neurobehavioral disorders associated

with substance abuse. Additionally, since some substance-abuse-related

CNS disorders may never reverse fully, yet may stop short of major

impairment typified by the label “dementia,” we recommend a category of

subclinical or subsyndromal neurobehavioral disorder (table 3).

Premorbid Status of Substance Abusers

Do persons who become substance abusers, whether of alcohol or other psychoactive drugs, come from a subsample of the population that would

appear neurobehaviorally abnormal if examined before they were exposed to

the drug? To answer this question would require prospective longitudinal

studies that begin data collection in at-risk samples before substance abuse

begins.

Most neurodiagnostic studies on substance abuse have been cross-sectionally

organized. In cross-sectional NP studies in which premorbid status is

thought to be important but not concurrently evolving, it has been typical to

rely on markers such as educational achievement or history of early childhood risk factors in an attempt to control for these influences. Markers

such as these are better than none at all. These retrospectively obtained

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TABLE 1. Diagnostic criteria for intermediate-duration neurobehavioral

disorder associated with substance abuse

Presumptive Diagnosis

1. Neurobehavioral disorder is evident following prolonged heavy

ingestion of the substance.

2. Disorder is evident as early as the first week of abstinence and

persists for months or even several years after cessation of

substance ingestion.

3. Disorder is not due to other causes of slowly reversible organic

mental disorder (for example, head injury, hypothyroidism).

4. The severity and features of the disorder do not meet the criteria

for delirium or dementia.

Definitive Diagnosis

1. Repeated evaluations show improvement in neurobehavioral disorder

related to abstinence or reduced consumption.

SOURCE: Grant et al. 1986, copyright 1986, American Psychiatric Association.

TABLE 2. Definition of neurobehavioral disorder

A. Subjective sense of reduced intellectual acuity or capacity (more difficult to learn new things, remember, handle more complex information)

or observations by significant others that the individual is more forgetful or has shown other evidence of intellectual decline.

B. One of the following objective signs:

1. Neurocognitive deficit (abstracting ability, perceptual motor skills,

memory below expectations for age- and education-matched controls) observed on structured neuropsychiatric exam or neuropsychological testing.

2. Laboratory evidence of structural or functional brain abnormality

indicated by one or more of the following:

a. computed-tomographic or magnetic-resonance-scan evidence of

abnormally widened sulci or ventricular dilatation compared

with age-matched norms;

b. electroencephalographic evidence of diffuse disturbance (slowing of alpha, increase of theta activity); and

c. abnormalities on dynamic brain imaging (PET, SPECT) compared to age-, education-, and sex-matched norms.

SOURCE: Grant et al. 1986. copyright 1986. American Psychiatric Association.

21
TABLE 3. Diagnostic criteria for subclinical neurobehavioral disorder

associated with substance abuse

Presumptive Diagnosis

1. Neurobehavioral disorder is evident following prolonged heavy consumption of the substance.

2. Disorder is evident a minimum of 1 year after cessation of

consumption.

3. Disorder is not due to other causes of subclinical dementia (late

sequelae of head injury, permanent effects of hypothyroidism).

4. The severity and features of the disorder do not meet the criteria

for delirium or dementia.

Definitive Diagnosis

1. Repeated evaluation shows no significant improvement in neurobehavioral disorder in relation to continuous abstinence beyond

1 year.

SOURCE: Grant et al. 1986, copyright 1986, American Psychiatric Association.

predictors, however, probably cannot have the validity of concurrently

witnessed events.

Thus, in spite of the significant financial and operational challenges, the

birth to earth (more practically, midchildhood to early adulthood) prospective study of persons at risk for substance abuse offers the most convincing

means to answer questions important to the natural history of brain disorder

as it relates to abuse. Key questions related to the predrug-use status of

such individuals, such as whether drug abuse causes brain damage, or brain

damage causes drug abuse, which have obscured the conclusions of earlier

studies, could be answered directly. Even though prospective designs would

be difficult to implement, it is worth the effort to attempt them. The determination of outcomes for different patterns of substance abuse, while

accounting for coexisting factors known to influence brain function, is of

inestimable importance to the development of treatment and prevention.

MEASUREMENT CONSIDERATIONS

Useful, important, and scientifically well-founded theories cannot be evaluated properly when basic measurement factors, on which evaluation of such

theories depends, are ignored. Research on the neuropsychology of substance abuse has sometimes suffered from insufficient concern for the basic

psychometric principles of validity, reliability, sensitivity, and specificity.

22
Although many readers will be well versed in these matters, a brief reminder of these concepts may be useful.

Validity

For our purposes, neurobehavioral strategies chosen to investigate CNS

effects of drugs should demonstrate three forms of validity. First, the procedure should have construct validity, that is, it should be known to measure the ability or property it is thought to measure. For example, the

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI), which might validly

reflect certain aspects of personality, is not a valid measure of attention,

memory, or other NP abilities. Similarly, digit span, though an NP test, is

not a test of memory in the usual sense of the word, since performance on

digit span tends to be unrelated to performance on traditional tests of

memory; furthermore, patients with amnesia tend to perform reasonably well

on digit span.

Second, procedures should also have concurrent validity. If NP tests are

used to infer brain damage, then performance on such tests should correlate

with other, nonpsychometric indicators of brain damage, e.g., other

behavioral measures, neurologic examinations or neuroradiologic findings.

This requirement puts constraints on the overly enthusiastic use of new and

theoretically interesting applications. For example, computer-assisted performance measures might have appeal in developing theories of information

processing. But until they are shown to have concurrent validity, their use

as the sole indicator of CNS disturbance in substance abuse research would

be ill-advised.

Third, the neurobehavioral techniques should have predictive validity. The

term predictive validity has been used in several ways, sometimes with connotations resembling concurrent validity. For this discussion, we prefer to

limit this concept to temporal prediction, that is, the method in question

should be capable of predicting a neurobehaviorally relevant outcome. For

example, poor performance on certain very sensitive NP tests may occur in

the absence of other indicators of CNS disturbance at a particular point in

time. If the test is valid, however, then continued exposure to the same

toxic influence should lead ultimately to abnormality on other indicators,

behavioral, electrophysiologic, or radiologic.

Reliability

Since it is through longitudinal repeated-measures studies that the residual

effects of chronic drug abuse on brain function will be best illuminated, it

is necessary to consider measurement reliability before choosing instruments

for assessment. Reliability in this case refers to a test’s consistency or correlation with itself. Internal reliability refers to the degree to which the

scores for any randomly selected subset of a test’s items would correlate

23
with the score obtained for all the items. Stability, or “test-retest” reliability, refers to the degree to which scores obtained on the same test over a

specified period of time correlate with one another.

High test reliability-stability does not guarantee that a test will be valid, but

low reliability-stability does guarantee low test validity. In general, test-retest reliability decreases as a function of the interval between testings and

increases between early adolescence and adulthood as CNS development

reaches asymptote. Although it is important to consider inter-item reliability

when selecting instruments for research purposes, it is test stability that is

more relevant in the context of repeated-measures research in substance

abuse.

It is important that the time-related variability in performance on a test be

well understood before the test is employed in repeated-measures fashion.

It is not necessary to select measures that do not vary from one point in

time to another, all other factors being equal (most NP tests are subject to

learning by persons who are not afflicted with rapidly progressive degenerative diseases of the CNS or subject to other significant trauma between assessments). It is necessary, however, to understand a test’s properties with

respect to a subject’s ability to learn strategies and tactics for succeeding at

it, after repeated exposures. Repeat performances on tests that are vulnerable to learning are interpretable, but only by taking into account the

expected learning curve.

In repeated-measures studies in which it is desirable to minimize learning

and for which the interest interval is relatively short, alternative forms can

be used to manage the learning curve, so that the specifics of a test are

manipulated but not the strategic concept. Needless to say, alternate forms

must be highly intercorrelated with one another to maintain a clear concept

of what is being measured.

One might also choose a learning saturation model, in which the same or

highly correlated alternate forms are readministered frequently enough at

baseline to bring the learning curve to asymptote before treatment is implemented. If alternate forms are used, scores when asymptote is achieved

must leave room for improvement as a function of treatment (recovery).

Despite such precautions, we find that “practice effect” remains a formidable issue; in one experiment, we noted an effect for time even after a

dozen administrations of a brief battery of tests containing alternate forms

over an 8-week assessment (Huey et al., unpublished data).

Sensitivity and Specificity

The usefulness of valid measures will be circumscribed by their ability to

detect both strong and weak signals (sensitivity) and to detect only those

signals that are relevant, ignoring “noise” (specificity). Tests that are highly

24
sensitive will correctly identify brain dysfunction in most persons who have

it but will, to varying degrees, produce false alarms. Highly specific tests,

which trade off sensitivity for accuracy, may produce misses.

In neuropsychology, sensitivity and specificity are influenced by test difficulty and complexity. Difficulty refers to the demand placed on information processing of a specific type. For example, one can have hard and

easy motor tests, span tests, and discrimination tests. More difficult tests

can be sensitive to subtle dysfunction, but may be less specific.

Complexity refers to the variety of information, or information-processing

strategies, that must be deployed. A problem-solving test, such as the Category test from the HRB is one example. Greater complexity can correlate

positively with higher sensitivity and negatively with specificity. That is,

sensitive tests generally measure abilities that are highly multidetermined, in

the sense that successful performance may require the coordination of several more or less complex mental operations, which in turn may depend upon

the neurobiological resources of several different loci in the brain. Specific

tests often measure more discrete abilities, which are in turn often more

highly localizable in the brain.

General Vs. Specific Indicators

Some NP tests, usually those with high complexity, can be seen to be

“general” indicators of cerebral dysfunction, in the sense that virtually any

form of brain disease, be it generalized or localized, will be reflected in

poorer performance. The Category test is a case in point. Few truly braindamaged persons score well on this test. Tests that are more specific, for

example, word fluency, will tend to reflect left anterior frontal lobe function

and can be normal in brain pathology that does not involve that region.

There is obviously room in the field for the employment of both sensitive

and specific measures, provided that their respective propensities toward

false positive and false negative classification are taken into account. We

would argue, however, that our knowledge regarding the NP consequences

of the abuse of many classes of drugs is relatively limited at this point.

Therefore, we think the field would profit most at the outset from the

employment of sensitive tests that can provide broad parametric coverage

across a wide spectrum of intellectual abilities.

Normative Samples

Except for test development per se, tests with known psychometric

properties, i.e., tests that have proven criterion and predictive validity and

demonstrated reliability across time (for repeated-measures designs) are

preferable to inventing new tests or employing unstudied variations of

existing measures. Adopting well-studied measures, for which age- and

2.5
education-stratified normative data exist, makes sense even when studies

include separately enrolled control groups or when study subjects are used

as their own controls. The existence of norms for behavioral tests allows

the investigator to account for important sources of variation in performance

while affording better opportunities for cross-study comparisons.

Selection of tests and test batteries will depend upon the research questions

to be answered. To diagnose and describe the features of adaptive change

related to drug abuse, a battery that provides broad parametric coverage is

needed. For some hypotheses, however, such as in studies of short-term

memory and learning, this approach may be inappropriate.

Among NP measures, the HRB and the Luria-Nebraska, although not the

only normed test batteries in existence, are probably the two most frequently employed in a variety of clinical research settings. The facts that the

HRB subtest scores have been normed in the past decade (Heaton et al.

1986; Filley et al. 1989; Braff et al., in press), that its whole set of scores

can be rated clinically by trained neuropsychologists (Heaton et al. 1981;

Grant et al. 1978b; Grant et al. 1979; Grant et al. 1982), and that it provides, in the form of the expanded HRB (Grant et al. 1987), coverage of

the spectrum of NP abilities recommend its use. The HRB takes from 5 to

8 hours to administer completely, and this has been seen as a shortcoming

because of concerns about fatigue. We think that subject stress and time of

administration, not to mention increased costs related to increased staff

labor, are valid concerns. However, through an appropriate division of testing sessions into smaller time blocks, the full HRB has been used without

incident even in severely ill COPD patients (Grant et al. 1982), as well as

by multiple drug users (Grant et al. 1978b). The lengthy time it takes to

complete the expanded HRB is offset by the richness of the data it provides, as well as by its common use in many distinct clinical samples.

Comparability across clinical samples is a highly desirable outcome, which

has been achieved too infrequently. When accomplished, however, information can be obtained on brain-behavior relationships, which may be difficult

for any one study to accomplish. Grant et al. (1987) describes results from

merging of HRB data taken from two multicenter studies.

Standardized Methods of Administration

Another consideration related to the selection of measures is the notion of

standardized methods of administration. A test can be valid, reliable, and

sensitive; but if it is administered in a nonstandard manner, the resultant

scores will reflect variance unrelated to the subject’s ability, thereby

confounding interpretation.

A simple examiner-provided prompt during the delayed recall of previously

learned information can change a free-recall memory paradigm into a

recognition paradigm, which tends to be easier than the free recall of

26
information. The speed at which the pages are turned in the booklet version of the Category test can drastically change the number of correct

responses and fail to reflect the subject’s true abstracting ability.

Choosing appropriate tests and assuring their reliable administration can be

challenging to any single laboratory; multicenter studies face the additional

difficulty of establishing interlaboratory reliability. One valuable precaution,

employed in several large multicenter studies (the CNSP, the Nocturnal

Oxygen Therapy Trial, and the Diabetes Control and Complications Trial)

involved the centralized training of neuropsychometrists at the outset. To

maintain consistency, senior neuropsychometrists from coordinating centers

periodically performed site visits at each data collection center to observe

actual testing and to critique examiners. In this way, standardized methods

were established and maintained over the course of the investigations. In

the future, similar vigilance will be required to establish confidence in our

knowledge of cognitive functioning in substance abusers. It will be difficult

to achieve such confidence if different investigators, apparently using the

same tests, turn out to have used different methods of administration or

interpretation.

These psychometric considerations are of obvious but often insufficiently acknowledged importance. Decisions regarding whether to fund future proposals in substance abuse research should in part be based on the degree of

soundness of the psychometric foundations of the measures proposed, as

well as on the commitment by investigators to follow standardized methods

of administration.

CONFOUNDS AND COFACTORS NOT RELATED TO

MEASUREMENT

Figure 2 is a structural model depicting some of the factors that neuropsychologists have wme to understand during the past 30 years as having

influence on NP performance at any point in a subject’s lifetime (Grant

1987). The influence of some of these factors has been demonstrated

empirically, e.g., age and education. Others are as yet only theoretically

associated with brain-behavior relationships, e.g., “constitution,” genetic

endowment. In this model, influences on NP function are multiple, complex, and interactive; any investigation, regardless of design or of clinical

population studied, must control for or at least consider these factors, if

results from such studies are to be unambiguous.

Some factors that will need to be taken into consideration in future research

are demographic in nature, some ate related to the metrics utilized to express drug consumption, and some are associated with unique characteristics

of substance-abusing populations.

27
FIGURE 2. Variables to consider in any causal model of alcoholassociated neuropsychological deficit

Age and Education

Empirical evidence shows that the demographic variables of age and education are, by themselves, strongly predictive of NP performance (Finlayson

et al. 1977; Parsons and Prigatano 1978; Heaton et al. 1986, Filley et al.

1989). Thus, to the extent possible, we must control for these factors in

research. Age and educational status of individuals are also likely to influence whether or not they abuse alcohol or other substances, and at what

level. -l-he existence and level of substance abuse may in turn affect educational achievement and social position, if the abuse begins early enough.

The point is that, while both demographics and substance abuse are related

to NP performance, they are also related to each other, and therefore may

28
relate to NP status directly, indirectly, or interactively, in fairly complex

ways.

The problem of controlling for age or education is not one that is generally

solvable through after-the-fact statistical manipulation. In some earlier

controlled studies of alcoholism, in which nonalcoholics were better educated than alcoholic subjects, analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was

employed in an attempt to rectify the case-control mismatch. The problems

here were, first, that the strict assumptions underlying the appropriate use of

the ANCOVA procedure were sometimes violated; and, second, that

ANCOVA often undercorrects, so that persisting group differences might

still be a function of the wvariate (Adams et al. 1985). An additional

complication arises because the true meaning of the wvariate score, especially in the case of education, may be complex. For instance, are subjects

poorly educated because of (a) attendance at poor schools, (b) lack of financial support for college, (c) absence of opportunity, (d) poor adult models,

(e) poor native intellectual endowment, or (f) early brain insults (Adams

et al. 1985)? There are other cautions for the application of statistical control, but they amount to an admonition that preexisting study and control

group differences along these demographic dimensions are to be avoided.

Multiple Substance Abuse

In Grant and colleagues’ 1978a study of 151 polydrug abusers, correlations

of .3 and above were found for 11 of 15 possible pairs of substance

classes. This indicated that a significant portion of the sample did indeed

use more than one drug at abuse levels. While this is not surprising, given

that multiple substance abusers constituted the target population, similar

findings were noted in a group of medical students whose intensity of drug

use was much lower-i.e., with the possible exception of use of alcohol and

marijuana, those who indicated experience with any other single drug tended

to have experience with numerous other drugs (Rochford et al. 1977).

More recent investigations of the prevalence of multiple vs. single drug

abuse continue to show that most drug abusers employ more than one substance (Mehrabian and Straubinger 1989; Rainone et al. 1987). This means

that, in efforts to understand the neurobehavioral consequences of a particular drug, researchers must be prepared to contend with the additive or interactive effects of other substances. Data must be gathered in a manner conducive to effective use of multivariate approaches.

Quantitation of Drug Use

Multivariate assessment works best with interval or continuous data derived

from estimates of consumption levels that yield nontrivial distributions. To

collect such data, studies need to use structured-interview questionnaires

administered by trained personnel. The collection of categorical data on

drug use (yes-no or low, moderate, or heavy) is a less satisfactory

29
alternative for several reasons. For one thing, the meaning of such classification within, as well as between, studies is usually obscure. In past

reports, alcohol use, for example, has been described categorically; i.e., subjects are designated as heavy, moderate, light, or social drinkers. If these

terms are not operationally defined, e.g., grams or ounces of ethanol consumed in a specified time period, then it becomes difficult to determine

potential dose-effect or quantity-frequency relationships within the study

and difficult to compare findings from different studies.

Whereas yes-no responses can be useful as classification factors in multivariate statistical procedures, they cannot legitimately serve as dependent

variables in the analysis of variance model, because they are not continuous.

Using a yes-no response to create types or subtypes has its place in substance abuse research, but for questions relating to the dose-effect relationship, such lower order data can only create additional cells and increase

degrees of freedom. The often impractical solution to this problem is

enrollment of larger numbers of subjects. Finally, lower order categorical

and ordinal data can always be derived from higher order continuous data,

while the reverse is not true.

Attempting to quantitate consumption from the outset is a better choice even

if it represents only an imperfect estimate of consumption. Clearly, error

will be introduced by forgetting (heightened by drug-induced acute or

chronic cognitive deficit) or motivated distortion. Nevertheless, reports by

alcoholics of their wnsumption indicate that such estimates can be reasonably accurate (Fine et al. 1978; Maisto et al. 1979; Sobel and Sobel 1978;

Rohan 1976). The value of the quantitative approach has also been underscored by successful cross-study comparisons in the alcohol literature

(Adams et al. 1981).

To keep the number of cells in multivariate statistical procedures to a manageable minimum, use of many specific abusable agents can be reduced

through a table of equivalencies into several classes. For example, in the

CNSP, the sedative class included all the barbiturates, methaqualone, ethchlorvynol, methyprylon, glutethimide, all of the benzodiazepines, and

chloral hydrate. All the stimulants were reduced to milligrams of dextroamphetamine. The hallucinogens, even though known to act on the CNS in

different ways, were reduced to occasions of use.

Examples of aspects of drug consumption that should be recorded include

dates of first and last use (which yields duration of use); frequency of use

(per day, per week, per month) during different epochs in a subject’s life;

quantities or dosages typically used; duration of periods of intercurrent

abstinence between first and last use; amount consumed per occasion, per

day, week, or month during the period when use was maximal; and duration

of the peak use period.

30
Types of Preparations and Methods of Ingestion

It may be useful to obtain some notion of preferred drug or drugs and some

notion of the relative priority given by the subject to the various classes of

drugs abused (ranked order of preference vs. ranked order of actual use; or

primary use of pharmaceutically manufactured chemicals vs. primary use of

street or illicitly manufactured substances such as methamphetamine or any

of the so-called “designer” drugs).

It is important to document the route of administration, since there are differential risks to the CNS from different methods of use. The varieties of

ways in which polydrug users from the CNSP reported introducing the

many drugs they used into their bodies were impressive. Oral ingestion of

drugs that came in pill or capsule form was most common, but nonpharmaceutically manufactured methamphetamine, cocaine, heroin, and various

street barbiturates were frequently repotted to have been injected both intravenously and subcutaneously. Of wurse for marijuana, smoking was the

preferred method, but Vietnam veterans reported smoking heroin as well,

when the powdered substance was sprinkled on marijuana or even on ordinary cigarettes. Heroin, crystal methamphetamine, and cocaine were all

reported to have been insufflated. One individual reported manufacturing

his own amphetamine suppositories, and several devotees of hallucinogens

reported introducing LSD, in solution, through eyedrops.

The IV route can add CNS risks secondary to introduction of infectious

agents or impurities into the circulatory system. Currently, the possibility of

infection with HIV, which can result in a dementing disorder, must be considered seriously in the neurobehavioral evaluation of the IV drug user.

In addition, illicitly manufactured drugs may be bound by filler substances

that do not dissolve properly. If injected, such particulate matter may wind

up lodged in the lungs and serve as foci for infection or microemboli to the

CNS. These can cause small structural lesions observable through magnetic

resonance imaging (MRI) scanning. The so-called “rush” associated with

the injection of crystal methamphetamine or cocaine is actually an assault

on the heart and on the cerebral vascular system, which can result in both

microinfarcts and frank, full-blown cerebrovascular accidents. Spasm of

cerebral vessels and small aneurysms have also been associated with IV

amphetamine administration.

Indirect Indicators of Drug Immersion

Amount of drug consumed and frequency of use within a defined time

frame are two benchmarks of drug immersion. Other benchmarks are behaviors whose occurrence can be used to infer the effect of drug use on a

person’s life. These qualities might be referred to as the biosocial concommitants of drug use. Some of these biosocial characteristics have shown

3 1
promise in predicting differences in NP status. For example Carlin and colleagues (1980) classified 79 polydrug-abusing subjects who were part of the

CNSP as either “streetwise” or “straight,” based on whether they appeared

to abuse drugs for self-medication or for recreation. Multivariate analyses

confirmed the presence of two different types of neuropsychologically

impaired polydrug users in the sample. Streetwise subjects abused larger

amounts of most substances, alcohol and heroin in particular. Their NP

impairment was more likely to be related to the amount of alcohol and

heroin reported. Straight subjects abused fewer classes of drugs, but were

more likely to report high levels of CNS depressant use; additionally, they

had significantly greater premorbid and concurrent medical risk scores.

Their NP impairments tended to be related to CNS depressant use. This

study pointed out that the earlier findings of no association between alcohol

abuse and NP impairment in the same sample of polydrug users reported by

Grant et al. (1978a) may have been premature, perhaps because, in the

aggregated sample, the relationship was obscured. The typologies identified

by Carlin and associates point to the broader information base that may be

required to develop better models of neurotoxicity associated with drug

abuse.

Premorbid and Concurrent Medical Risk

The structural model presented in figure 2 points out that NP performance

can be adversely affected, sometimes permanently, by many illnesses and

trauma. Sources of NP morbidity can include perinatal and early childhood

illness or injury, early childhood and latency age learning disability, loss of

consciousness due to head injury or other experience such as near-drowning

or drug overdose at any time, exposure to environmental toxins such as carbon monoxide or petrochemical solvents, and other neurological, hepatic, or

metabolic disease. Major psychiatric illness likewise needs to be taken into

account in studies of substance abuse, because of the high prevalence of

psychopathology among substance abusers and because the negative effect

that serious psychiatric illness can have on NP performance may be difficult

to distinguish from drug effects alone.

That NP impairment in alcoholics may be explained as much by exposure

to such medical events as by the potential direct neurotoxicity of alcohol

has been reported by many groups (De Obaldia and Parsons 1984; Goldstein

et al. 1983; Loberg 1986; Tarter et al. 1984a; Tarter et al. 1984b; Tarter

et al., this volume; Smith and Smith 1977; Ryan and Butters 1984; Rehmstrom et al. 1977; Gilberstadt et al. 1980; Irwin et al. 1989; Butters et al.

1987; Grant et al. 1984; Adams and Grant 1984). NP function in substance

abusers has been shown to be similarly affected by premorbid medical risk

exposure. In 151 polydrug abusers from the CNSP sample (Grant et al.

1978b), 4 medical risk items accounted for 20 percent of the variance in

Halstead’s Impairment Index.

32
It should also be remembered that such neuromedical risk need not be independent of drug abuse. Rather, the drug abuse lifestyle is likely to expose

users to such added risk, e.g., head injury or HIV exposure, further complicating interpretation of NP outcome.

Attrition

Although polydrug-abusing subjects who were not successfully followed up

during the CNSP (Grant et al. 1978a) were neuropsychologically indistinguishable at baseline from those who were successfully reevaluated at 3

months postbaseline, they were less well educated and apt to have abused

larger amounts of sedative hypnotic drugs. Given the finding in this study

of a significant baseline association between abuse of depressants and NP

dysfunction, it is possible that the unfollowed subjects, perhaps having a

less substantial native endowment, as suggested by their lower educational

achievement, would ultimately have diverged from that part of the group

that was followed successfully in terms of the incidence of NP impairment.

The CNSP experience points out that selective attrition wuld influence the

results of any repeated measures investigation. It also points out that attrition is probably an unavoidable fact in substance-abusing samples, for many

reasons. It is well known that this population tends to be very mobile.

Subjects involved in criminal behavior might remain in hiding to avoid

contact with the criminal justice system. Those whose drug use has led to

the development of psychopathological syndromes may become sequestered

in the mental-health-care delivery system.

Clearly, longitudinal studies must be acutely concerned with minimizing

attrition. Crucial to minimizing attrition is budgeting for adequate numbers

of well-trained and properly paid followup workers. Such persons need to

understand the drug use subculture as well as the scientific mission of the

project. They should be able to move about inside the subculture, to keep

track of, contact, and reenroll subjects who are needed for further evaluation. Investigative groups need to request and set aside sufficient funds for

encouraging and rewarding subject compliance with the followup protocol.

Even the wiliest and most accomplished followup workers will fail if they

can do nothing but appeal to the noblest instincts of their subjects to obtain

compliance.

It is useful to think of successful followup as emanating from, first, good

subject retention policies, which seek to maintain contact with subjects so

that they do not get lost; and second, astute subject-locating procedures that

help reestablish contact with persons who, for one reason or another, do get

lost to followup. A specific and detailed set of followup and subject-retention procedures needs to be built in (and budgeted for) in all longitudinal

studies of substance abuse. It can be organized around the principle of

employing the easiest, most efficient retention tactics first, followed by the

33
successively more difficult and time-consuming search tactics. Figure 3

shows a followup tracking algorithm depicted in flowchart style, developed

in our Veterans Administration-based study on alcohol abuse and NP

impairment. The depicted path generally might apply to reestablishing contact with subjects who are already lost rather than to maintaining contact

with subjects whose whereabouts are known. Following such a path systematically and persistently will ultimately yield higher followup rates.

Pursuing followup in any less systematic way will guarantee lower subject

retention and compromise ultimate interpretation of findings.

FIGURE 3. Followup studies: Subject-tracking flow chart

34
SUMMARY OF CONCEPTUAL AND METHODOLOGICAL ISSUES

Future researchers would do well to think in global concepts about their

work before designing their protocols. The many and complex interacting

subsystems of the brain, appreciated by an increasingly sophisticated array

of neurodiagnostic techniques, can be described in terms of “neurobehavioral” phenomena. An understanding of drug abuse effects in terms of the

natural history model can provide a conceptual base from which to work.

It is possible that neurobehavioral abnormalities found among long-term

chronic substance abusers may be reversible; these questions of reversibility

are legitimate and important, given the data on NP recovery among

alcoholics.

We have attempted to focus on methodological solutions rather than merely

report the many methodological problems that limit current knowledge of

the CNS consequences of substance abuse. Future investigations will fail to

clarify the important issues if the principles of measurement are not borne

in mind by researchers in any neurobehavioral discipline, including neuropsychology. Controlling for a complex array of premorbid and intercurrent

neuromedical, socioeconomic, and demographic influences on neurobehavioral status will make future investigations more difficult. But ignoring the

need to account for these sources of variance would leave us with a confusion of contradictory findings and an inadequate increase in sorely needed

knowledge.

NEW METHODS

Having reviewed the conceptual and methodological issues that seem relevant to investigations of substance abuse effects on cerebral functioning, we

will review a series of neurodiagnostic methods that, to date, have seen

only limited application in substance abuse research. In general, we discuss

them to stimulate interest among researchers and to suggest that several or

all of these methods could be brought together in assessment of the same

sample to shed light on the important links between dynamic and structural

CNS changes and external behavioral deficits.

Methods for Investigating Brain Structure

Methods for appreciating the structure of the human brain in vivo include

CT and MRI. Both methods create digital as well as negative film images

of the brain (and other parts of the body). The digital images are produced

first and may be stored on magnetic tape. The film images are then

produced by the translation of the digitally recorded data. The principle

underlying CT is that different tissue and fluid types have differing x-ray

absorption rates. This absorption rate variation allows for a photographic

reconstruction of those tissues exposed to x-rays. MRI relies on the fact

that, in the presence of a magnetic field, the nuclei of various atoms present

35
in the human body can be made to absorb and emit electromagnetic energy.

These emissions reflect various components of atomic movement after they

are perturbed by radiofrequency waves; such movement depends in turn on

the molecules in which such atoms are located. As different tissues have

different chemical compositions, it is possible to translate digitally recorded

information on changes in atomic movement into film images.

CT is the older, less expensive, and more frequently utilized technology.

Its limitations relative to MRI are that it exposes patients to radiation and

its images lack the resolution of MRI and can be confounded by bone artifact. MRI images are better resolved than CT images, permitting greater

visual discrimination of white and grey matter and of distinct neuroanatomical structures. It is also possible with MRI to obtain brain images in axial,

sagittal, and coronal planes; CT provides only axial images. The major

limitations of MRI are that it is much more costly than CT, patients are

placed in a relatively confined tubelike structure during the procedure,

which may provoke claustrophobic reactions in at-risk persons; and the

equipment produces a knocking sound that some people find disconcerting.

Depending on the number of different planes in the protocol, MRI procedures may take more than an hour to complete.

In the clinical setting, film images from both CT and MRI procedures are

reviewed, usually by trained neuroradiologists, to determine the absence,

presence, nature, and severity of abnormalities and their locations within the

brain. When clinical inspection is incorporated into formal research procedures, ordinal scales rating various tissue and fluid parameters are frequently

applied. Ventricular size, degree of sulcal atrophy in various locations, and,

at times, summary indices such as the ratio of ventricular width to total

brain width are reported. MRI, because of its greater resolution, permits a

greater appreciation for abnormalities in grey vs. white matter and reveals

areas of high signal intensity, sometimes referred to as “UBOs” or unidentified bright objects. Increased resolution also makes the MRI procedure

more sensitive to very small or punctate lesions (small spots) of varying

etiology in parenchymal (functional organ) tissue, which CT might fail to

reveal.

To our knowledge, formal investigations of the stability of these methods in

depicting the structural status of the brain over time do not appear in the

literature. The repeated exposure of healthy persons to the radiation of CT

and the cost of obtaining serial MRIs from such persons impose constraints

on such work. It is well known, however, that even the healthy brain

changes with increasing age, and these changes are consistently reflected in

reports obtained from samples of differing ages.

Of increasing interest has been the development of image-processing computer software for both CT- and MRI-generated data. These algorithms can

produce objective volume estimates of normal and abnormal brain structures

36
and fluid compartments. MRI algorithms, because of the procedure’s greater resolution, can produce tissue data for grey and white matter as well as

distinguish between cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and tissue.

CT- and MRI-imaging studies of substance abusers are desperately needed.

For example, the literature includes many reports of the catastrophic

consequences of amphetamine and cocaine-related cerebrovascular accidents

(Levine et al. 1987; Kaye and Fainstat 1987; Golbe and Merkin 1986;

Chasnoff et al. 1986, Brust and Richter 1977; Schwartz and Cohen 1984;

Mody et al. 1987). These complications include subarachnoid and intracerebral hemorrhage, cerebral ischemia, and stroke. Clinical reports have

revealed such abnormalities in as many as 31 separate cases to date (Jacobs

et al. 1989). In all of these reports, CT provided evidence for various

structural insults to the brain.

Although such catastrophic consequences are important, future investigations

that employ neuroradiological methods ought to focus on substance abusers

who escape these more drastic effects. Investigations should be concerned

initially with describing the presence, absence, and incidence of microinfarcts, microaneurysms, and other small lesions that might reflect infection

or demyelination. A preliminary report by Volkow and colleagues (1988)

points in the direction to be taken. Her group looked in multidisciplinary

fashion at MRI, PET, and clinical neurological data from seven stimulant

abusers. Three of the seven showed white matter hyperintensities suggesting demyelination on MRI; two who had normal brain structure revealed

seventh-cranial-nerve paresthesia on neurological exam; and one other,

normal on MRI, showed abnormal cerebral blood flow on PET examination.

The computer-assisted processing of MRI images, which involves classifying

pixels (graphic image units) based on variations in signal strength, also

offers the possibility of looking for subtle, diffuse changes in white matter.

If a greater incidence of small structural lesions is found in concert with the

abuse of any particular class of substance, other questions regarding the role

that such lesions may play in NP dysfunction and recovery can then be

addressed.

Methods for Studying Dynamic Intracerebral Processes

Regional Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism. Inspection of the physiology of the living brain has become increasingly feasible since the advent

of two highly sophisticated technologies: SPECT and PET. SPECT is able

to measure photon emission from radiolabeled substances. With SPECT,

xenon, krypton, and technetium microsphere inhalation have all been used in

the study of cerebral blood flow (Hill et al. 1982). Parenteral introduction

of 123iodoamphetamine (IMP) and 123iodobenzyl (HIPDM) permits the study

of both flow and uptake. Both amines are lipophilic, move easily across

the blood-brain barrier, and are nearly completely extracted during a single

passage through the brain. IMP is at less than 50 percent peak activity and

37
HIPDM is at 75 percent within 2 minutes of injection. Maximum brain activity continues with both tracers for between 30 and 60 minutes. Peak

activity for IMP is substantially higher than for HIPDM (Holman et al.

1984). The greater utilization of IMP makes its use with the less sensitive

rotating gamma-ray camera more practical. The relatively extended activity

time for IMP and HIPDM allows concurrent behavioral challenges for

studying regional differences in activity, depending on the nature of the

behavioral task.

When SPECT is used, several recording instruments are available, including

a rotating gamma-ray sensitive camera, a multidetecting scanning tomograph,

and an Anger camera, the images from which are subjected to planar scintigraphy. SPECT, utilizing the xenon-inhalation technique, has an acceptable test-retest reliability (Blauenstein et al. 1975; McHenry et al. 1978).

One limitation is that central brain structures are masked to SPECT if multiple external collimeters are used to measure regional flow.

The SPECT methodology has recently been used to assess regional cerebral

blood flow (rCBF) alterations in persons acutely intoxicated on benzodiazepines, alcohol, and marijuana (Mathew et al. 1985; Mathew and Wilson

1986; Mathew et al. 1989) and has been employed in studies of detoxifying

alcoholics (Berglund et al. 1980). The Berglund study found a steady

decrease in the variability of rCBF, a normalization of the expected assymetry of blood flow between right and left hemispheres, and specific right

hemispheric rCBF increases in the superior frontal and parieto-occipital

areas. They also found statistically significant correlations between

improvement on the Trailmaking test and increased blood flow in bilateral

fronto-temporal areas. The Berglund investigation is instructive for its

repeated-measures design, in which both NP and rCBF measures were obtained from each subject at 1, 3, 5, and 7 weeks postabstinence.

PET studies of cerebral blood flow, blood volume, oxygen, and glucose

consumption are often conducted utilizing glucose labeled with isotopes of

carbon (

11C), oxygen (15O), nitrogen (13N), or radiolabeled oxygen by itself.

Brain phannacokinetics are studied using any of a number of molecules

(ligands), which can be labeled with carbon, fluorine (

18F), bromide (76Br),

and other elements that can exist as isotopes (Frackowiak 1986).

With PET, a gamma-sensitive camera transversely collects images of the

positron-labeled material as it flows through the cerebral vascular system,

transports through the blood-brain barrier, and perfuses the CNS tissue,

which metabolizes it. When such labeled molecules, e.g., 18F deoxyglucose,

emit positrons, they collide with electrons, resulting in annihilation and

emission of two gamma particles, at roughly 180-degree angles, at the site

of the collision. The gamma camera, with computer assistance, can reconstruct the location of this event, thereby allowing digitally encoded

38
information on gamma transmission to be translated into an image of the

brain regions involved in uptake of the radiolabeled substance.

PET scanning is considerably more expensive than SPECT, because it

requires a cyclotron in the manufacture of radiolabeled tracers and extensive

technical staff to run the scanner. SPECT is a relatively more available and

less expensive technique. Because they can measure abnormalities in blood

flow and metabolism, PET and SPECT might be more sensitive to certain

early neurophysiological changes related to substance abuse than are MRI

and CT.

The potential of PET for substance abuse research can be appreciated from

a brief look at related neuroscientific applications. Animal studies involving

the rat have examined both acute and chronic effects on glucose metabolism

of amphetamines (Orzi et al. 1983), tricyclic antidepressants and MAO

inhibitors (Gerber et al. 1983), and antipsychotics (McCulloch et al. 1982).

In several controlled human investigations, PET has, among other things,

successfully distinguished between the ratio of frontal to posterior uptake of

deoxyglucose in persons with both schizophrenic and affect disorders vs.

age- and sex-matched controls (Buchsbaum et al. 1982; Buchsbaum et al.

1984; Delisi et al. 1985a; DeLisi et al. 1985b). In the latter case, the

investigation was longitudinal; a group of nine schizophrenics were scanned

twice, with 9 months elapsing between first and second scans. Initially, the

patients had undergone a minimum 2-week neuroleptic washout. At followup, the subjects had all been restored to their medication regimens for a

minimum of 2 weeks. A significant increase in total cortical uptake of

deoxyglucose was noted among the schizophrenics treated with various common neuroleptics at followup, but the “hypofrontal” frontal-posterior ratio

remained unchanged.

Depressivelike symptoms occur following cessation of amphetamine and

cocaine exposure in both animals and humans. This suggests that at least

transient pathophysiological changes might occur in the central nervous subsystems that are thought to be associated with depression (Barrett and White

1980; Carroll and Lac 1987; Kokkinidis and Zacharko 1980; Kokkinidis

et al. 1986; Kokkinidis 1988; Leith and Barrett 1976; Leith and Barrett

1980; Wood and Lal 1987; Woolverton and Kleven 1988; Siegel and

Kuczenski, unpublished data). Current evidence implicates serotonergic,

noradrenergic, and dopaminergic systems in the actions of cocaine and

amphetamine (Barrett and White 1980; Dackis and Gold 1985; Dackis et al.

1985; Goeders and Smith 1983; Kokkinidis 1988; Koob and Bloom 1988;

Pitts and Marwah 1987; Sibley et al. 1982; Wyatt et al. 1988) and suggests

the importance of future PET studies employing appropriate ligands.

Formal PET studies of substance abusers as a diagnostic category and of

stimulant abusers, in particular, are only recently appearing in the literature.

Volkow and associates (1988) reported that rCBF was decreased in the

39
regions of the lateral prefrontal and left anterior temporal cortex of cocaine

abusers. However, Baxter and colleagues (1988), using 18F-6 fluoro-L-dopa

and PET did not find evidence of abnormal flow and metabolism in preliminary studies of nondepressed withdrawing cocaine abusers. In fact,

Baxter’s cocaine abusers were comparable to nonpatient controls and better

than cocaine-nonabusing bipolar and unipolar depressed subjects on measures of rCBF.

One recently proposed longitudinal investigation, to be jointly carried out by

the San Diego and Los Angeles campuses of the University of California

medical schools, will use 18F-6 fluoro-L-dopa to study the uptake of L-dopa

in the brains of stimulant abusers at 2 to 3 days and at 4 to 6 weeks postwithdrawal. Using the ratio of dopa uptake in the striatum vs. the

cerebellum in stimulant abusers and drug-nonusing controls, some light may

be shed on the question of whether presynaptic DA dysfunction, which can

occur in stimulant abuse, remediates with continued abstinence.

The potentially important relationship between NP performance and dynamic

brain processes is beginning to be illuminated by the conjoint use of NP

and PET methods. Chase and associates (1984) repotted significant correlations between performance on the 11 subtests of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale and the uptake of 18F fluorodeoxyglucose in various regions of

the brains of a small mixed sample of elderly normals and Alzheimer’s

disease patients. Although this was a small study, with some limitations

related to the low resolution of the PET images obtained, the crossvalidation of two neurodiagnostic methods is important and can serve as a

model for future research in substance abuse.

Fully exploring the possibility that psychoactive chemicals may permanently

alter receptor number and function or produce other long-standing metabolic

brain changes could be of considerable import in shaping future research

and treatment strategies, as well as in the development of general public

policy regarding drug abuse. For example, if, through longitudinal radiolabeled ligand studies, it was determined that amphetamine abuse permanently reduced the number of functioning DA receptors or damaged the

neurons responsible for DA production, this finding could have a significant

effect on the development of neuropsychopharmacological treatment for drug

abusers. Such studies also have the potential to contribute significantly to

knowledge of the physiometabolic underpinnings of major psychiatric illnesses such as schizophrenia and mood disorders.

Electrophysiology: EEG and Evoked Potentials. Electrophysiological

methods such as BEAM and neurometrics constitute two other means by

which dynamic brain processes may be studied in vivo. They have common

roots in clinical electroencephalography (EEG). With the recent advent

of computer-based data collection and processing, EEG methods have

40
undergone considerable improvement, facilitating a greater understanding of

brain electrical phenomena.

Neurometrics, as developed by Drs. Leslie Prichep and E. Roy John at New

York University (NYU), is a method that estimates the probability that the

quantitative data derived from qualitative features of brain electrical activity

reflect dysfunction. Recordings of the resting EEG and various sensoryevoked potentials are obtained by computer under standardized testing conditions. Computer algorithms extract quantitative features from these

recordings, which are then compared with a normative data base (normative

data in the brain research laboratory at NYU have been obtained from more

than 750 subjects between 6 and 90 years of age), using multivariate statistical procedures. The real-time value of any feature is replaced with an

estimate of the probability that this value in an individual patient might be

found in a healthy, normal functioning person of the same age (Prichep and

John 1986). Such methods lend themselves readily to the creation of elec

trophysiological profiles for clinically identifiable disease states. Recent

attempts at discriminant function classification by Prichep and John resulted

in 77, 72, 80, and 79 percent correct group assignment in normal, primary

depressive, alcoholic, and demented patients all considered simultaneously

(chance correct assignment was 25 percent), based on 11 quantitative indices

features extracted from their neurometric profiles. An independent replication resulted in an even greater total correct classification.

Evoked potential work by Duffy and colleagues at the Children’s Hospital

in Boston has been evolving in roughly the same direction as that of

Prichep and John. Duffy has pioneered in what he refers to as BEAM

(brain electrical activity mapping). Using a statistically based method, he

has developed rules for the diagnosis, from an analysis of topographic maps

of brain electrical activity, of dyslexia in young patients. As with Prichep

and John’s method, there is considerable individual variation in brain electrical output across trials, even in healthy individuals. To develop his own

normal data base, Duffy employed sophisticated statistical algorithms that

sampled mean variance in the same normal subjects across repeated trials,

thereby accumulating substantial knowledge, not only of actual performance,

but of variance across trials in his age-stratified normal sample. An interesting joining of this methodology with pharmaceutical challenge for purposes of testing the validity of BEAM was demonstrated when 13 patients

with known supratentorial (above the tentorium of the cerebellum) brain

lesions were administered IV sodium thiopental and monitored via BEAM

technology. The purpose was to better visualize electrical abnormalities.

Thiopental is known to induce fast background activity across a number of

EEG-sensitive electrical frequencies. When atrophic or space-occupying

lesions are present, alterations in beta activity are noted in the presence of

thiopental. Using the statistical probability mapping procedures developed at

Children’s Hospital, it was possible to demonstrate electrical abnormalities

on the BEAM map that corresponded accurately to the CT-scan-established

41
location of the lesion in question in 12 of the 13 cases. This occurred after

the first injection of thiopental and was replicated on the second injection

(Duffy et al. 1984).

Duffy and his group have also applied BEAM in studies of lecithin’s

effects on the electrophysiology of the brains of Alzheimer’s disease patients (Duffy et al. 1987) and in the aforementioned investigations of

dyslexia (Duffy et al. 1980a; Duffy et al. 1980b; Duffy et al. 1984). The

group at NYU’s brain research laboratory have applied their methods in

studies of normal developmental equations for the electroencephalogram, in

the EEG correlates of various neurological abnormalities in children (John

et al. 1980; John et al. 1983), in the study of quantitative EEG irregularities

among depressives (Prichep et al. 1986), and in investigations of dementia

(Prichep et al. 1983). Others, utilizing the same or similar methods, have

studied cerebral ischemia (Jonkman et al. 1985).

Thus, the past 10 years have produced an increased sensitivity in the EEG

through the application of sophisticated computer-assisted statistical averaging, within-subject sampling methods, and the development of substantial

normative data bases. John et al. (1988) and Duffy et al. (1984) imagine

that the development of complete taxonomies for the electrophysiological

correlates of many psychiatric illnesses is not far in the future.

In research on substance abuse, several applications of computed electrophysiology are apparent. First, as normative data bases evolve, it should be

possible to describe the differential EEG characteristics of different abusable

substances and the time course for changes in electrical activity of the

brain, in relation to withdrawal and abstinence. Second, the patterns of

abnormality, for example regional changes, can be explored. Third, it

should be possible to link electrical and NP studies to examine alterations in

information processing caused by acute intoxication with, withdrawal from,

and longer term phenomena associated with particular drugs. Fourth, electrical, metabolic (PET or SPECT), and NP studies of the same drug users at

various times can elucidate the relationship of drug- or withdrawal-induced

biochemical alterations, electrical activity, and cognitive behavioral

outcomes.

Information Processing and Performance Paradigms. Earlier, we described NP methods of assessing drug abusers. Neuropsychometry is, of

course, only one approach to behavioral assessment. Additional strategies

have evolved under the general rubric of information processing (IP) and

performance paradigms.

IP abilities and performance are thought to underlie higher level and more

complex NP functions. They include measures of the speed and efficiency

or accuracy with which an individual perceives a stimulus, manipulates its

representation in the CNS, and offers response. IP measures are frequently

42
described as being process sensitive rather than outcome sensitive. Performance on most IP tasks is relatively unconfounded by educational and

social background. Constructs that are operationally defined and tested with

such measures include simple and choice reaction time, inspection time,

movement time, simple attention, divided attention, and concentration.

Often, several of these parameters arc assessed within the same procedures

and much of the literature in which such methods are reported is concerned

with the determination of the fundamental psychological abilities associated

with intelligence.

The Hick paradigm (Jensen 1982) is a basic and commonly applied example

of a combined simple and choice reaction-time measure. Whether presented

via computer or by a dedicated reaction-time device, the task samples reaction (or “inspection”) time and movement time. Subjects are presented with

one, three, or five choice conditions. Open squares on a CRT screen for

example, may be used as stimulus lights, and subjects are required to

respond by pressing the appropriate key as quickly as possible after a

square becomes illuminated. Multiple trials are obtained for each choice

condition. At the beginning of each trial, the subject rests a forefinger of

his or her dominant hand on the space bar without depressing it. At random intervals of 1.5 to 2.5 seconds, one of the stimulus squares is illuminated. The subject must first press the space bar and then press the key

directly below the illuminated light. Reaction time is recorded as the number of milliseconds between the onset of stimulus and the instant the subject

presses the space bar. Movement time is the interval between pressing the

space bar and pressing the response key.

The Arrows Test (Larson 1985) is another example of a reaction-time paradigm. Again, a subject facing a CRT is asked to fixate on two small circles placed 1/2 inch apart in the center of the screen. In each trial, one

circle is replaced by an arrow and, depending on the arrow’s direction and

position, the subject must press either a right or left key on the keyboard.

If the arrow points downward, its position (replacing right or left circle)

indicates the appropriate response. A right- or left-pointing arrow, regardless of position, indicates the appropriate response. The position and direction of the arrows are varied randomly. Median response latencies and

comprehensive standard deviations for the differing conditions are typical

scores used in assessing performance.

One common example of an inspection-time paradigm is the Inspection

Time with Lines Test (Saccuzzo et al. 1986). In this test, subjects are

briefly shown two horizontal lines of unequal length, presented in the center

of a CRT screen. Subjects are to select the longer line in the pair on each

trial. A record is kept of accuracy, and subjects are given performance

feedback by the computer. The display of lines is terminated by the superimposition of another line that masks the test item and limits viewing time

(this is termed visual backward masking). The length of the test lines

43
remains constant; therefore, duration of the stimulus is the chief source of

item difficulty. In this particular paradigm, five separate durations are

applied, and 50 trials are administered, with 10 trials per duration. The

purpose is to learn at which duration the subject obtains the maximal number of correct responses, i.e., how much inspection time the brain requires

to respond correctly.

In one example of an application of these strategies to the study of psychoactive drugs, the relationship of monoaminergic overactivity to IP abilities

was examined. Braff and colleagues at the University of California, San

Diego Medical School employed a variation of the visual backward masking

paradigm in an investigation using methylphenidate to induce a monoaminergic surge in nonpsychotic psychiatric inpatients (Braff and Huey 1988).

In this study, a tachistoscope, rather than a computer, controlled duration

and sequence of stimulus presentations. A target was first presented at a

duration long enough for patients to discriminate and report it (critical stimulus duration), in a forced-choice letter identification task. After an interval, a pattern-masking stimulus was presented, which erased or interfered

with the registration of the target in the subject’s brain. As the interstimulus interval increased between target and mask, the target at some point

escaped the disruptive effects of the mask. Methylphenidate was found to

induce schizophrenialike IP dysfunction in this double-blind crossover investigation of nonpsychotic inpatients. Specifically, when treated with methylphenidate, the subjects were impaired on measures of attention and IP,

compared with their performance while treated with oxazepam or placebo.

These findings support the well-documented vulnerability of schizophrenics

to masking even at relatively long interstimulus intervals (Steronko and

Wood 1978; Brody et al. 1980; Braff 1981; Ruff et al. 1985; Saccuzzo

et al. 1986) and the hypothesis that schizophrenia is, at least in part, a

result of a perturbed DA system in the brain.

If we accept that the paradigms described above assess the early IP that

underlies more complex cognitive events such as perception; storage and

retrieval of information; manipulation of concepts; and decision making,

then the importance of including IP measures in studies of the longer term

effects of drug abuse become obvious. Because the alterations in IP noted

in some schizophrenic patients might reflect changes in dopaminergic function, IP techniques are of special interest in studies of drugs that directly or

indirectly affect DA neurones. Such agents include cocaine, the amphetamines, and phencyclidine. Indirect effects on DA function may also be

produced by the opiates and by withdrawal from CNS depressants. The

enduring nature of alteration in fundamental IP clearly requires study.

CONCLUSION

In summarizing this brief review of promising neurodiagnostic methods that

could be applied in studies of substance abuse, we return to our plea for

44
multidisciplinary research. Through multidisciplinary investigations, the

products of brain activity (cognition, measured by NP and IP tests) can perhaps be linked to underlying neurobiological processes (electrophysiology,

blood flow, metabolism) and brain structure. While the multidisciplinary

approach is not the only way to continue to develop an understanding of

substance-abuse.-related brain disorder, it is an approach that does greater

justice to the complexity of brain-behavior relationships than any univariate

strategy. It is an approach that, if implemented properly, can spare us

many of the problems associated with the piecemeal, “two steps forward,

one step back” methods that have often been used in the past, mostly out of

necessity.

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AUTHORS

Robert J. Reed, M.S.

Igor Grant, M.D.

San Diego Veterans Administration

Medical Center and

School of Medicine

University of California, San Diego

La Jolla, CA 92020

56
Use of Complex Behavioral

Baselines to Monitor Residual Drug

Effects in Animals

Merle G. Paule

INTRODUCTION

The behavior of an animal represents the integrated output of the organism.

It is an observable and therefore measurable activity that is generally mediated by the central nervous system (CNS), primarily the brain. Specific behaviors are thought to be associated with specific brain functions. Copulation is thought to subserve the function of reproduction; eating, the function

of feeding; and so on. For the most part, it is yet unclear whether many

specific behaviors and thus many specific brain functions can be correlated

with specific anatomical substrates or specific neurotransmitter systems.

The status of a specific function of the brain can, however, be inferred by

observing specific behaviors that are thought to be associated with the specific function of interest.

Operant techniques are behavioral procedures requiring that subjects operate

(hence the term “operant”) specific manipulanda or instruments in response

to specific environmental conditions or stimuli. These instruments may be

levers, press-plates, keys, etc. Environmental conditions in a given operant

situation can be organized such that the responses or behaviors emitted by

subjects are thought to depend upon rather specific (albeit often poorly

defined) functions of the brain. Examples of such functions include: learning; short- and long-term memory; attention or vigilance; sensory perception

(color, sound, and position discrimination); temporal or time perception;

reproduction; and motivation. Because operant techniques allow the design

of experiments that generate behaviors thought to be indicative of the status

of specific brain functions, such techniques are of tremendous interest to

those studying the functional integrity of the brain. A major drawback to

using operant techniques in the animal laboratory is that it takes time to

train subjects to perform at stable (predictable) levels that are appropriate

for use as behavioral baselines; it is not unusual for training to take several

57
months. Another problem associated with the use of operant techniques is

the difficulty of routinely assessing the large numbers of experimental subjects that are desirable in many experiments. This is less of a problem now

that highly automated systems administer the behavioral tasks and collect

and store the data, often performing calculations or other data manipulations

online.

Some investigators have a strong interest in assessing the functional integrity of the brain by monitoring behaviors generated using operant techniques, and there are other reasons why complex behaviors, in general, may

be useful for studying effects (acute, chronic, residual, or other). Complex

behaviors are thought to be subserved by multiple neurons and thus are

dependent upon the integrity of multiple units. If the function of any of the

units, or neurons, subserving or influencing a particular function is altered,

the behavior dependent upon that function may also be altered. It is presumed that complex behaviors will usually be more sensitive to the effects

of exogenous compounds than are more basic reflex behaviors, since reflex

behaviors are generally subserved by a relatively small number of neurons

(two in the simplest case). With operant behaviors in particular, it is

advantageous to be able to elicit a specific type of complex behavior simply

by putting a trained subject into the appropriate environment. Additionally,

operant behaviors are under the control of the environment, and environmental variables can be strictly controlled; therefore, operant behaviors can

also be controlled. Well-controlled behaviors are generally characterized by

relatively small variabilities, and it has been noted that baselines with little

variability may be more sensitive to experimental manipulation than baselines with great variability (Thompson 1974). For instance, to demonstrate

that a specific manipulation had a significant effect on a behavioral baseline

characterized by a large variability (a standard error of 20 percent of the

mean) the manipulation would have to cause a relatively large effect. On

the other hand, if the baseline data were characterized by a small variability

(standard error of 2 percent of the mean), then a smaller effect could be detected, even if the means were the same for both baselines. In some cases,

extremely stable behavioral baselines (such as those obtained after extensive

repetition over long periods of time) can be some of the most difficult to

affect by a given manipulation. The particular behaviors involved and the

number of observations made (in obtaining both baseline and experimental

data) will also have a profound effect on the ability of a particular behavior

to detect the effect of an experimental manipulation, but this is true for any

experimental measure. Another point in favor of operant behavioral assessment is that the experimenter’s interaction with the subject is minimized,

thus reducing or eliminating a potential source of experimental variability.

Because operant behaviors are not only useful but also interesting and

meaningful, the more operant behaviors measured, the better. The more

operant behaviors measured in the same subject, the better. Further, a

recent approach to operant behavioral analyses in nonhuman primates used a

58
computerized operant test battery or OTB (Paule et al. 1988; Schulze et al.

1988). The OTB consists of five different tasks. Each task is performed

by most experimental subjects, and each task is thought to engender

responding that is dependent upon a different brain function. The specific

functions modeled in these tasks include learning, color and position discrimination, motivation, short-term memory and attention, and time perception. The names of the operant tasks, or schedules, that generate behaviors

thought to depend upon these functions are incremental repeated acquisition

(IRA), conditioned position responding (CPR), progressive ratio (PR),

delayed matching-to-sample (DMTS), and temporal response differentiation

(TRD), respectively. The OTB may be used in complex behavioral studies,

particularly since the advent of computerized task administration and data

manipulation. The operant or behavioral panels used in such studies will

vary according to the type of laboratory animal used and the number, type,

and complexity of behavioral tasks administered to each subject.

STRATEGIES FOR STUDYING THE RESIDUAL EFFECTS OF

DRUGS ON BEHAVIOR IN ANIMALS

There are various strategies for studying the residual effects of drugs on the

behavior of animals, and a description of some of these strategies and examples of studies that have used them may help illustrate the possibilities.

It is important to point out that laboratory-animal scientists have tremendous

advantages over those investigators who strive to conduct studies in human

populations. The laboratory-animal scientists do not have to concern themselves with the tremendous number of known confounding factors present in

human subjects. Such confounding factors include, but are by no means

limited to, socioeconomic status, age, sex, health status, diet, and previous

drug use. The laboratory-animal scientist can rather easily control for these

potentially confounding variables. The epidemiologists and clinicians often

cannot control for these variables, and must rely on relatively sophisticated

statistical procedures to try to factor out confounding variables.

Controlled studies on the residual behavioral effects of drugs in animals

generally seek to answer the question: Is the behavior of a treated animal

somehow different than it was prior to treatment and, if so, is the change a

result of that treatment? Attempts to answer this question usually involve

one of two approaches. In the first, each animal serves as its own control;

in the other, treated animals are compared to untreated animals or those

treated only with placebo or vehicle. The most comprehensive studies will

use both approaches. Because it has usually been assumed that most therapeutic agents and drugs of abuse have reversible effects on behavior when

given acutely, most studies on residual effects have involved the chronic

administration of such compounds, and this discussion will be limited to

studies involving chronic drug exposure. Recent reports, however, have

demonstrated long-lasting behavioral effects of drugs (sensitization to

subsequent drug exposure) in animals receiving very limited exposure to

59
some compounds, such as amphetamine (Kolta et al. 1985a; Kolta et al.

1985b).

For studies that compare treated animals to themselves, it is imperative to

obtain some measure of behavior prior to the initial drug exposure. For

complex operant behaviors, it is essential to establish a behavioral baseline

prior to exposing the animal to the drug. This involves monitoring performance parameters, i.e., accuracy and rate of responding, repeatedly, long

enough to establish predictable (near steady-state) levels of responding.

Once a behavioral baseline has been established, it can be used to determine

the magnitude and direction of subsequent drug effects on that behavior in

that same animal. Paule and Killam (1986) used this strategy to examine

the effects of chronic anticonvulsant administration on operant performance

in the genetically epileptic baboon, Papio papio (Ppa). In these studies,

performance in an incremental repeated acquisition task (IRA) was used as

a model of learning behavior. In this task, subjects were required to

respond on three response levers in a specified order to receive food

reinforcers. The correct sequence of lever presses was changed each test

session so that animals had to acquire a new series of lever presses each

session. At the start of each session, animals were required to press only

two levers in a specific sequence to obtain food. After a criterion of 20

errorless sequences was completed, the task difficulty was incremented such

that the subjects had to complete a three-response series and so on, up to a

sequence requiring five responses or to the animal’s performance limit,

whichever occurred first. An important performance measure was the percentage of the IRA task completed each session. This endpoint is a measure of the response sequence length mastered in a given session and is a

function of both response rate and accuracy. Data obtained for the antiepileptic agents valproic acid (VPA) (figure 1) and ethosuximide (ESX)

(figure 2) demonstrated that performance in the IRA task was sensitive to

disruption by both agents, albeit at very different doses for the two

compounds.

The drugs were given 7 days per week for 2 weeks in ascending doses.

The data points presented are thus 2-week averages of performance in this

task. This experimental design allowed examination of the effects of

increasing doses of the drug during the active administration phase of the

experiment, during the period of acute withdrawal from daily drug administration, and during a prolonged period of recovery from chronic drug

administration. Observation of drug effects on behavior that occur during

active exposure allows for the examination of early treatment effects, if

there are any, and the examination of tolerance development to such effects,

if it occurs. Evidence for active treatment effects were noted during VPA

administration in three of six animals shown in figure 1 (Ppa 136, 131, and

137). The effects began at doses of 15, 30, and 240 mg/kg per day, respectively. Active treatment effects were noted during ESX administration

in four out of four animals shown in figure 2 and began at doses of 15, 30,

60
FIGURE 1. Effects of chronic VPA administration in the baboon on percentage of IRA tasks completed

KEY: *p<.05; **p<.025; ***p<.01; +p<.005; and ++p<.001, two-tailed t tests

NOTE: Data are means (+SEM) of 10 test sessions conducted over 2 consecutive weeks at each dose

of drug or vehicle (0 mg/kg/day). Significance is measured against the control period

immediately preceding the first dose given.

SOURCE: Paule and Killam 1986. copyright 1986, American Society for Pharmacology and

Experimental Therapeutics.

and 60 mg/kg per day (for Ppa 101 and 131, 102, and 128, respectively).

Evidence for tolerance development during VPA treatment was noted in Ppa

131 after an increase in daily dose from 30 to 60 mg/kg as evidenced by a

return of performance to predrug levels at 60 mg/kg per day. Increasing

the dose again to 120 mg/kg per day overcame the tolerance developed by

this animal, as indicated by further decrements in its behavior at this dose.

Evidence for tolerance development to the effects of ESX was noted in two

animals whose performance improved at 30 mg/kg per day after being disrupted by doses of 15 mg/kg per day. This apparent tolerance was also

overcome by the higher dose of 45 mg/kg/day. There appeared to be an

absence of withdrawal effects in five of the six subjects in the VPA study,

as abrupt cessation of daily VPA administration did not cause any additional

adverse effects on this behavior. One animal exhibited a further decrease in

the percentage of task completed during withdrawal (Ppa 137). However, it

appeared that this change was simply a further deterioration of behavior

resulting from the insult associated with the high daily dose of 240 mg/kg

per day, as there were no precipitous changes in behavior that were associated with acute withdrawal. In the ESX study, no subject’s behavior

61
FIGURE 2. Effects of chronic ESX administration in the baboon on percentage of IRA tasks completed

KEY: **p<.025; ***p<.01; +p<.005; and ++p<.001.

NOTE: Data presented as described in figure 1. The break in the abscissa represents 4 weeks during

which the animals were tested while receiving vehicle, but data were not collected. The last

point on the graph thus represents data obtained during weeks 9 and 10 after drug treatment,

during which vehicle was still being given.

SOURCE: Paule and Killam 1986, copyright 1986, American Society for Pharmacology and

Experimental Therapeutics.

significantly worsened during the acute withdrawal phase either, but the

relatively devastating behavioral effects caused by daily ESX treatment persisted for at least 10 weeks following cessation of treatment. For Ppa 101

there was little evidence of any recovery from the behavioral disruption

caused by ESX even 10 weeks after cessation of treatment.

When it is pointed out that the most effective anticonvulsant doses for VPA

and ESX are 7.5 to 30 and 60 or more mg/kg per day, respectively, it

seems clear that the more behaviorally toxic of these two anti-petit-mal

agents is ESX, since it causes rather profound behavioral disruption at doses

well below those considered effective in the treatment of epilepsy. VPA,

on the other hand, disrupted behavior only at doses generally higher than

those considered to be effective in therapy.

62
The main point to be made from these data is that clear residual effects are

detectable in a complex behavior that is thought to model learning. In the

same studies (Paule and Killam 1986), it was found that in Ppa performing

a different operant task (incremental fixed-ratio), neither VPA nor ESX

caused consistent effects on behavior during or after chronic drug treatment.

Thus, there are also clear differences in task sensitivity or susceptibility to

drug effects. The adverse behavioral effects of drug treatment, noted as

decrements in performance of the learning tasks, persisted for at least

6 weeks after the last dose of VPA and for up to 10 weeks and longer

after the last dose of ESX. These residual effects were not likely due to

the continued presence of drug, as neither compound was detectable in

serum 1 week after the last dose. However, as brain levels of drug were

not measured, the possibility that the residual behavioral effects were found

because of the continued presence of these compounds or their metabolites

in target tissue cannot be ruled out.

In studies conducted in exactly the same fashion (Paule and Killam 1980),

the behavioral effects of chronic nordiazepam (NDZP, a major metabolite of

diazepam) administration were examined over a similar time course, again

in Ppa. Figure 3 shows data obtained from one of nine animals performing

the IRA task during these studies. This was the only animal in which the

effect was demonstrated. Were the data from this subject to be included in

a group analysis of the effects of abrupt NDZP withdrawal, it would likely

appear that there was a measurable effect on the group. These data are

shown to demonstrate that individual subjects vary tremendously in their

responses to drug administration and withdrawal. It is important to take

this variation into consideration, as interpretation of group data alone may

be misleading. Details of the exposure for this subject can be found in the

figure legend.

The upward arrow (figure 3) indicates when daily NDZP administration

began, and the downward arrow indicates when daily NDZP administration

stopped. Note that during the exposure period, performance was not much

different, if any, than it had been prior to treatment. However, soon after

cessation of daily NDZP administration, performance in this task decreased

dramatically, and for more than 1 year after the last dose of NDZP (about

50 weeks, shown in figure 3), this animal’s performance never returned to

levels noted prior to or during daily NDZP administration. In this subject,

then, it appeared that acute withdrawal from chronic NDZP administration

profoundly altered a complex behavioral response, and the alteration lasted

for an extended period of time. This behavioral disruption continued long

after that indicated in figure 3, and was unaltered by chronic administration

of other anticonvulsants over wide dose ranges. The animal’s general

appearance during this time was not noticeably different than it was prior to

the start of chronic NDZP administration. Thus, operant techniques demonstrated a rather profound behavioral effect, caused presumably by abrupt

drug withdrawal, that might otherwise have gone completely unnoticed.

63
FIGURE 3. Effects of acute withdrawal from chronic NDZP administration in the baboon on percent of IRA tasks completed

NOTE: Data shown are weekly averages (+SEM) for one animal (Ppa 134) of nine that received the

same treatment regimen. During weeks 5-13, the animal received various doses of NDZP

vehicle (40% propylene glycol, 10% ethanol, 50% water, by volume) or saIine given IM once

per day or no treatment. During weeks 14-23 the animal was invoIved in acute dose-response

studies on naloxone, data not shown. During weeks 24-28 the animal again received either

IM saline injections or NDZP vehicle. Upward arrow indicates the beginning of daily NDZP

administration: once. per day IM injections at doses of 0.125. 0.25, 0.5, 1.0, and 2.0 mg/kg.

Doses were given in ascending order, each dose was given 7 days/wk for 2 weeks. Downward arrow indicates when acute NDZP withdrawal began: vehicle only was given for 4

weeks followed by saline administration for 3 weeks (to week 4.5). For the remainder of the

time shown, the subject also received chronic treatments with various doses of valproic acid

and carbamazepine.

The mechanism underlying this phenomenon is unknown, but its occurrence

is important for a number of reasons. First, such an effect demonstrates

again that complex behaviors may be very useful for detecting long-term or

residual effects of drugs or drug withdrawal. Second, it demonstrates that

acute drug withdrawal may have profound and apparently irreversible effects

on complex behaviors in some subjects. Finally, it demonstrates a very

important experimental reality: not all animals respond in the same manner

to the same experimental manipulations. Eight other animals (one of which

was the affected animal’s half-brother) received essentially the same drug

regimen as did the affected individual, and none of those animals exhibited

the phenomenon just described.

64
The excellent work by Stiglick and Kalant (1982a) on the cannabinoids

demonstrates another approach to examining the residual effects of drugs.

Additional examples of this approach can be found in their other

publications (Stiglick and Kalant 1982b; Stiglick and Kalant 1983; Stiglick

and Kalant 1985; Stiglick et al. 1984). In these studies, laboratory rats

were treated chronically (for 3 or 6 months) with marijuana extract. Two

to three months after the last dose, the animals underwent a variety of complex behavioral assessments; their performance was then compared to that

for rats that had received vehicle only. Animals that had been exposed to

the marijuana extract demonstrated significant alterations in open field

activity and significant deficits in the acquisition of a “time perception”

(differential reinforcement of low-rate responding schedule or DRL) task

(figure 4). After 2 to 3 weeks of training, the marijuana-extract-treated animals were significantly less efficient in responding in the DRL task than

were the controls, irrespective of whether active exposure to the extract

lasted for 6 (figure 4a) or for 3 (figure 4b) months. Likewise, recent

studies by Holson et al. (1989) have demonstrated significant residual

(2 months after the last dose) behavioral effects of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol ( 9-THC) in rats responding to a complex maze after chronic (90 day)

oral administration. Thus, residual effects of cannabinoids have been clearly

demonstrated in rodent models in studies in which no behavioral assessments were made during the active exposure phase of the experiment or for

2 to 4 months after the last treatment.

A study supported by the National Institute on Drug Abuse and conducted

at the National Center for Toxicological Research has been designed specifically to examine the residual behavioral effects of chronic marijuana smoke

exposure. Young male rhesus monkeys are serving as subjects in this

large-scale experiment using complex operant behaviors as baselines for

examining drug effects. An extensive amount of behavioral data have been

gathered in this study and detailed analyses are under way for publication

elsewhere. The experimental design represents a comprehensive approach to

the study of residual behavioral effects of drugs.

As shown, monitoring behaviors prior to, during, and after the active-drugexposure phase of a chronic drug study allows one to obtain data on residual as well as other drug effects (acute effects, tolerance development, withdrawal effects, etc.). However, it may be argued that in subjects allowed to

perform the behaviors of interest during the active exposure phase of an

experiment, tolerance may develop to any behavioral disruption caused by

such treatment. Residual drug effects would then be masked by such tolerance and thus go undetected. For the chronic marijuana smoke study, all

subjects were trained to perform in the operant test battery (OTB) described

earlier for about 1 year. The subjects were then divided into two behavioral groups: one group was behaviorally assessed during the active exposure phase (1 year), while the other group was given cage rest throughout

that period. Behavior was monitored again in the cage-rested group

65
FIGURE 4. Acquisition of DRL. performance by control rats or rats

treated chronically with marijuana extract following either

6 months (a) or 3 months (b) of exposure (extract dose

equivalent to 20 mg tetrahydrocannabinol/kg)

NOTE: Testing began 97 and 113 days after the last treatment for the 6- and 3-month exposures,

respectively. Efficiency is defined as the percent of responses reinforced.

SOURCE: Stiglick and Kalant 1982a, copyright 1982, Springer-Verlag.

66
beginning 2 months after the last exposure to marijuana smoke. Within

both behavior groups, there were four treatment groups: a high-dose marijuana group (1 marijuana cigarette, approximately 2.5 percent 9-THC per

day, 7 days per week); a low-dose marijuana group (1 marijuana cigarette

per day, only on Saturdays and Sundays, with sham exposures Monday

through Friday); an extracted marijuana cigarette group (1 marijuana

cigarette devoid of cannabinoids, 7 days per week); and a sham group

(exposure to the dosing situation only, no smoke any day). Thus there

were a total of eight different experimental cells: four exposure conditions

X two behavioral conditions. It is important to the design that prior to

marijuana exposure, the eight groups used to fill these cells were balanced

with respect to performance in the five operant tasks contained in the OTB.

That is, animals were sorted into groups such that there were no differences

in group averages between measures of performance on each of the five

operant tasks. This preparation prior to beginning active marijuana smoke

exposure assured comparability of performance between experimental cells,

i.e., differences in apparent baseline “abilities” between groups were

eliminated. This experimental design also allowed for the use of the two

different approaches mentioned previously in studying the residual

behavioral effects of drugs: animals served as their own controls and they

were compared to other control animals. Additionally, the behavior of some

subjects was continuously monitored, whereas performance in others was

monitored only long after exposure had ceased.

Preliminary findings from these studies have been reported elsewhere (Paule

et al. 1988; Slikker et al. 1988). Briefly, it was shown that chronic marijuana smoke exposure does have detectable residual effects in some of the

OTB tasks. These residual effects were found in both behavioral groups

and in both the low- and the high-dose groups. Generally, when group

effects were detected, such effects were attributable to only a few, or some

times to one animal within the affected group. In affected animals that

were behaviorally assessed throughout the exposure period, cessation of

exposure was usually accompanied by a gradual return of performance

toward that of sham or placebo animals. In affected animals that were

cage-rested during the chronic exposure and withdrawal periods, noted residual effects did not appear to wane with the passage of time (figure 5).

Thus, both approaches to the behavioral analysis of residual drug effects

were effective.

CONCLUSION

It is clear that well-designed and controlled laboratory animal studies can

specifically examine and detect residual drug effects. Such studies are free

of the large numbers of confounding variables that cannot be controlled, or

in some cases known, in human studies. Additionally, human studies often

suffer from design flaws (Feinstein 1988). The relatively few numbers of

laboratory animal investigations that have been performed specifically to

67
FIGURE 5. Residual effects of chronic marijuana smoke exposure on performance of a conditioned position response (CPR) task in

rhesus monkeys

NOTE: The CPR task required subjects to respond at either a left or a right press-plate depending

upon whether a center press-plate had been illuminated red or yellow (left correct) or blue or

green (right correct). See Schulze et al. (1988) for details of the procedure. This group of

animals was not allowed to perform the task during the active exposure portion of the study.

The mean number of trials completed per session are plotted as ratios of the preexposure or

baseline period. The first vertical line represents the start of 1 year of smoke exposure and

the second vertical line the end of exposure. The data are means for each treatment group

for periods of 4 weeks during which 10 CPR sessions generally occurred. Behavioral testing

was reinstated 2 months after the last exposure; the performance of the sham, placebo, and

low-dose groups was indistinguishable from one another within 5 months (by period #23).

The performance of the high-dose group, however, remained significantly different from all

other groups at this time, primarily because of the continued poor performance of one or two

animals in that group. Additionally, the average performance of the high-dose group, when

collapsed over periods 20-23, was significantly different from that of the sham group

collapsed over the same periods.

assess residual behavioral effects of drugs may reflect the time and cost

associated with these types of studies. Nonetheless, in light of the continuing drug abuse problem, it is becoming increasingly important to conduct

appropriate studies to determine the probable long-term consequences of

drug abuse on complex brain function. The public may then become better

informed and thus better equipped to make decisions concerning drug abuse.

There seems an urgent need to increase the emphasis on laboratory animal

68
studies so that useful information on the consequences of long-term drug

abuse can be obtained in a timely fashion. It should be possible, using

animal studies, to more rapidly identify those drugs with the greatest potential for causing adverse behavioral effects in humans. Examination of the

behavioral effects of compounds with well-defined mechanisms of action,

i.e., specific agonists, antagonists, depletes, and neurotoxicants for the various neurotransmitter systems, may provide valuable information concerning

the participation of specific neurotransmitter systems in specific behaviors.

As many drugs of abuse are known to interact with specific neurotransmitter

systems, e.g., benzodiazepines and the GABA system, it may then be possible to predict which behaviors or classes of behaviors will be adversely,

or otherwise, affected by a specific drug.

REFERENCES

Feinstein, A.R. Scientific standards in epidemiologic studies of the menace

of daily life. Science 242:1257-1263, 1988.

Holson, R.R.; Ali, S.F.; Scallet, A.C.; Slikker, W., Jr.; and Paule, M.G.

Benzodiazepine-like behavioral effects following withdrawal from chronic

delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol administration in rats. Neurotoxicology

10:491-500, 1989.

Kolta, M.G.; Shreve, P.; De Souza, V.; and Uretsky, N.J. Time course of

the development of the enhanced behavioral and biochemical responses to

amphetamine after pretreatment with amphetamine. Neuropharmacology

24(9):823-829, 1985a.

Kolta, M.G.; Shreve, P.; and Uretsky, N.J. Effect of methylphenidate pretreatment on the behavioral and biochemical responses to amphetamine.

Eur J Pharmacol 117:279-282, 1985b.

Paule, M.G., and Killam, E.K. Improvement of repeated acquisition (learning) performance by chronic nordiazepam administration in the epileptic

baboon. The Pharmacologist 22(3):292, 1980.

Paule, M.G., and Killam, E.K. Behavioral toxicity of chronic ethosuximide

and sodium valproate treatment in the epileptic baboon, Papio papio.

J Pharmacol Exp Ther 238(1):32-38, 1986.

Paule, M.G.; McMillan D.E.; Bailey, J.R.; Scallet, A.C.; Ali, S.F.; and

Slikker, W., Jr. The effects of chronic marijuana smoke exposure on

complex behavior in the rhesus monkey. The Pharmacologist 30(3):A115,

1988.

Paule, M.G.; Schulze, G.E.; and Slikker, W., Jr. Complex brain function in

monkeys as a baseline for studying the effects of exogenous compounds.

Neurotoxicology 9(3):463-470, 1988.

Schulze, G.E.; McMillan, D.E.; Bailey, J.R.; Scallet, A.C.; Ali, S.F.;

Slikker, W., Jr.; and Paule, M.G. Acute effects of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) in rhesus monkeys as measured by performance in a

battery of complex operant tests. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 245(1):178-186,

1988.

69
Slikker, W., Jr.; Paule, M.G.; McMillan, D.E.; Bailey, J.R.; Scallet, A.C.;

and Ali, S.F. Assessment of complex behavior in the rhesus monkey:

Effects of chronic marijuana smoke exposure. Abst Soc Neurosci

14(1):327, 1988.

Stiglick, A., and Kalant, H. Residual effects of prolonged cannabis administration on exploration and DRL performance in rats. Psychopharmacology 77:124-128, 1982a.

Stiglick, A., and Kalant, H. Learning impairment in the radial-arm maze

following prolonged cannabis treatment in rats. Psychopharmacology

77:117-123, 1982b.

Stiglick, A., and Kalant, H. Behavioral effects of prolonged administration

of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol in the rat. Psychopharmacology 80:325-

330, 1983.

Stiglick, A., and Kalant, H. Residual effects of chronic cannabis treatment

on behavior in mature rats. Psychopharmacology 85:436-439, 1985.

Stiglick, A.; Llewellyn, M.E.; and Kalant, H. Residual effects of prolonged

cannabis treatment on shuttle-box avoidance in the rat. Psychopharmacology 84:476-479, 1984.

Thompson, D.M. Repeated acquisition of response sequences: Effects of damphetamine and chlorpromazine. Pharmacol Biohem Behav 2:741-746,

1974.

AUTHOR

Merle G. Paule, Ph.D.

Pharmacodynamics Branch

Division of Reproductive and Developmental Toxicology

National Center for Toxicological Research

Jefferson, AR 72079-9502

and

Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Slot 611

Department of Pediatrics, Slot 512

College of Medicine

University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences

4301 West Markham Street

Little Rock, AR 72205

70
Clinical-Behavioral Observations of

the Long-Term Effects of Drug

Abuse

George E. Woody, A. Thomas McLellan, and

Charles P. O’Brien

INTRODUCTION

The topic of the long-term effects of drug abuse is one of the most difficult

areas in substance abuse research to study, but also one of the most interesting and important. Of the many problems to emerge in exploring this

area, one of the first is that of separating acute drug effects and withdrawal

effects from underlying, nondrug conditions. The available studies that have

tried to address this problem typically have many methodological flaws, and

these are discussed in detail by Grant (this volume). One of the most

vexing methodological difficulties is that of finding proper controls. An

ideal study might measure a group of relevant variables before the onset of

drug abuse or dependence in subjects who are matched on a range of variables (perhaps, ideally, twins). Half of these subjects would then become

addicts; the variables would then be measured again at a later time after the

abuse or dependence has ended. Such a design is possible with animals but

probably impossible to even contemplate in humans. Nonetheless, in spite

of the complex methodological problems that are part of studying this difficult area, studies have been done that provide interesting data leading to

future research.

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS

One study that has examined the long-term effects of stimulants, depressants, and opiates is that done by McLellan and colleagues (1979). These

investigators followed a group of patients who were readmitted to the substance abuse units of the Coatesville Veterans Administration Medical

Center at least once every 6 months for a period of 6 years. Because of

their history of repeated admissions, these patients were some of the most

refractory and chronic substance abusers treated at that institution during the

7 1
years from 1972 to 1978, when the study was conducted. All subjects had

a psychiatric interview upon admission and were administered the Minnesota

Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) approximately 2 weeks after hospitalization. This 2-week interval was selected as being sufficient for most

acute drug effects to have disappeared, thus minimizing the chances for

acute effects to interfere with the MMPI scores or psychiatric assessments.

The patients studied were grouped into three categories, based upon the

class of drugs that they used: stimulants (mainly amphetamines), depressants (barbiturates, methaqualone, glutethimide, benzodiazepines), and narcotics (heroin, hydromorphone, methadone).

The findings were very interesting. Demographic variables and MMPI

scores were similar for all subjects at their first admission. They differed

only in the drugs that they typically abused at this early stage in their drugtaking careers. A much different picture emerged over the period of the

study. The stimulant group developed significant increases in schizophreniclike symptoms, especially paranoia. The sedative abusers developed increases in depressive symptoms, cognitive impairment (vocabulary and

abstracting difficulties), and anxiety. The narcotic addicts had elevations in

depression and sociopathy upon admission, and these symptoms remained

unchanged over the 6-year period. These data are summarized in table 1.

The results were interpreted as indicating that prolonged use of stimulants

was associated with the emergence of schizophreniclike symptoms over the

6-year period; depressants were associated with depression; and narcotic

addiction resulted in no new psychiatric symptoms. These psychiatric

effects were specific to the drug of choice and were not due to acute withdrawal effects, as the evaluations were done at least 2 weeks after admission. The tentative conclusions were that the specific drug that was used

may have actually caused the observed psychiatric conditions, but these conclusions must remain tentative due to methodological problems. One of

these problems was that of controls. Since the patients were observed only

after the drug use had started, it was impossible to be certain that the

effects occurred only because of the drug and not because of an underlying,

nondrug condition that would have emerged even in the absence of drug

abuse.

Amphetamine Effects

A second line of clinical data is that of toxicity from long-term amphetamine abuse, as reported by Swedish researchers. Unlike the situation in the

United States, where polydrug use is the norm, amphetamine use in Sweden

has occurred in an almost “pure” form since 1960. This has provided a

better opportunity than that available in the United States for studies of

long-term amphetamine effects. Several observations have been made.

72
TABLE 1. Scores on psychologic tests in 1972 and 1978

Test

Group 1 Group 2

11 Men 14 Men

(Psycho- (Psychostimulants) depressants)

1972 1978 1972 1978

Group 3

26 Men

(Opiates)

1972 1978

SILS

Mean I.Q.

Mean Cognitive

Impairment

101 103 102 94† 104 102

93 94 93 81† 92 91

MMPI*

Validity 52 54 54 51 56 55

General Pathology 64 96† 58 78† 62 66

Hypochondriasis 61 67‡ 61 72‡ 59 61

Depression 55 58 60 94‡ 64 66

Hysteria 60 71 54 58 54 54

Psychopathy 70 76‡ 68 74‡ 72 78

Male-Female** 64 70 60 58 62 62

Paranoia 63 84‡ 57 55 59 61

Psychasthenia 56 57 58 62 58 62

Schizophrenia 66 98‡ 60 63 64 61

Mania 64 87‡ 63 66 65 59

Social Inversion 48 55 55 59 56 58

*MMPI values above 70 indicate severe problem areas.

**Inappropriate gender identification.

†p<.01 by paired t-test.

‡p<.05 by paired t-test.

SOURCE: McLellan et al. 1979, copyright 1979, New England Joumal of Medicine.

First, amphetamine abusers and addicts appear to diminish their use of this

drug markedly after about 10 years; in this way, amphetamine dependence

is more self-limited than other types of addiction, such as opiate dependence. The reason for this decrease in self-administration seems to be

related to the second series of observations, which are that long-term

amphetamine use produces central nervous system (CNS) toxicity.

Two kinds of toxic effects have been reported. One is paranoia with auditory or visual hallucinations. These symptoms are well-known adverse

effects of amphetamine abuse and addiction, which seem to occur more

rapidly and at lower doses after long-term use. This observation is

73
consistent with a kindling effect, as reported by Poet and colleagues (1976).

The second toxic effect is the development of choreoathetosis. This may

result from changes in dopamine receptors, as is seen with prolonged use

of antipsychotic drugs. Choreoathetosis has not been a prominent complication of amphetamine abuse or dependence in America, but it is reportedly a

well-recognized complication of long-term amphetamine use in Sweden

(Lundh and Tunving 1981).

It is uncertain if long-term cocaine abuse will produce effects similar to

those reported from Sweden with amphetamines. The data of Ricaurte and

associates (1980), reporting damage to serotonin and dopamine receptors

after administration of methylene-dioxy-methamphetamine (MDMA) to animals, suggests that long-term cocaine abusers should be studied for the

emergence of similar effects.

Another observation, again from the Scandinavian literature, is that amphetamine abusers and addicts have a death rate of approximately 1 percent per

year, compared to approximately 2 percent per year for opiate addicts. This

is probably due to the respiratory depressant effects that are part of opiate

administration but are not seen with stimulants (Tunving 1988).

Sedative Effects

There is an immense literature about the cognitive impairments and affective

disturbances that are produced by alcohol (Parsons et al. 1987), and a less

extensive but substantial literature on similar problems that are produced by

sedative hypnotics. Most studies of long-term sedative abuse and dependence indicate that the sedative hypnotics cause depression, anxiety, and

cognitive impairment, as indicated in the paper by McLellan and coworkers

discussed earlier and summarized in table 1. Most of these effects diminish

or disappear with prolonged abstinence. A more detailed description of

these effects is included in the chapter by Grant (this volume).

Opiate Effects

Chronic effects of opiates include those that occur during self-administration

and those that are observed in long-term addicts following detoxification.

Effects During Chronic Administration. Several studies have evaluated

the effects of chronic methadone administration; one of the first was that by

Martin and colleagues (1973). These authors examined a range of variables

in six healthy prisoners who were serving Federal sentences for drug-related

crimes in the addiction treatment and research program at Lexington, KY.

Methadone was given for approximately 14 weeks. They found that methadone suppressed normal levels of testosterone, leuteinizing hormone (LH),

and cortisol; produced sedation; decreased blood pressure, pulse, and pupil

size; and caused hemodilution and peripheral edema. These effects were

74
similar to those observed with chronic morphine administration, and the

researchers concluded that methadone’s long-term effects were very similar

to those of morphine.

Kreek (1973) studied a similar range of variables, but the subjects had been

taking methadone chronically for 2 or more years as part of a methadone

treatment program. She found no abnormalities in testosterone, LH, or

cortisol. The only hormonal value that was different from normals among

those she evaluated was prolactin, which rose shortly after receiving the

daily methadone dose and remained elevated for several hours. She interpreted these findings as indicating tolerance to most of the endocrine effects

of methadone. Her work does not contradict that of Martin and associates,

as, in short-term studies, she found effects similar to those of Martin.

Rather, it indicates that a long period of time is necessary for tolerance to

develop to many of the abnormalities that are produced during short-term

administration. Kreek also found that the edema and hemodilution observed

by Martin and coworkers are caused by an increase in secretion of antidiuretic hormone that is caused by methadone and that, with long-term

administration, tolerance also develops to this effect.

The only long-term medical problems observed by Kreek were increased

sweating, observed in 48 percent of long-term methadone patients; constipation, seen in 17 percent; decreased libido, found in 22 percent; and difficulty obtaining an erection in 14 percent. Amenorrhea was usually

observed early in treatment, but menses usually became normal after 4 to

6 months in treatment. Very slight decreases in polymorphonuclear leukocytes and in blood urea nitrogen levels and increases in lymphocytes were

also seen with long-term maintenance treatment. No changes in liver function tests were seen, and vital signs were also within normal limits (Kreek

1973; Kreek and Hartman 1982).

One interesting clinical observation that has been reported occasionally but

consistently is that of an apparent antipsychotic effect from methadone

(McKenna 1982). The data are always clinical anecdotes that typically

occurs as follows. A patient has been treated for months or years and has

been observed to be somewhat impulsive, anxious, or depressed but does

not seem to have a major psychiatric problem other than opiate dependence.

For one reason or another, this patient is detoxified. Shortly before the

detoxification is completed, or several days after the last dose of methadone

is administered, the patient becomes much more anxious. Within hours or

days, a full-blown schizophrenic disorder emerges. This requires psychiatric

hospitalization and antipsychotic medication. In some cases, the patient was

known to have schizophrenia; in other cases, there is no such history. In

retrospect, it appears that the methadone was exerting an antipsychotic effect

and that the emergence of the schizophrenia resulted from the loss of this

effect during the latter stages of detoxification. Methadone can thus be

seen as helping to “stabilize” or suppress schizophrenia in patients who are

75
free of acute symptoms. In this formulation, the removal of the methadone

“unmasks” the underlying schizophrenic process. Another observation along

these same lines is that schizophrenic addicts who are receiving methadone

and antipsychotic medication appear to require less medication than nonaddicted, nonmethadone-maintained schizophrenics (Woody and O’Brien,

unpublished observations).

It is important to emphasize the very anecdotal and clinical nature of these

observations. However, it is equally important to note that the authors have

heard many similar reports and have personally observed several instances

that demonstrate the points discussed above. The apparent antipsychotic

effect of methadone (and other narcotics) may be related to dopamine

blockade. As noted above, methadone elevates prolactin, an effect produced

by neuroleptic medication and caused by blockade of dopamine receptors

(Kreek and Hartman 1982).

Effects Following Detoxification. Dole’s original theory stated that chronic

opiate use caused permanent neurophysiological abnormalities (Dole et al.

1966). These alterations became clinically significant when addicts were

drug free and resulted in a persistent craving for narcotics following detoxification. The abnormalities were postulated to be a significant contributor

to the very high relapse rates following detoxification and other forms of

drug-free treatment. Chronic addicts thus came to need opiates in much the

way that diabetics need insulin, because they were physiologically abnormal

as a result of changes that were produced by years of opiate use. This

theory, along with that of “narcotic blockade” (raising the tolerance with

high doses of methadone so that it is almost impossible to experience narcotic effects from heroin administration) provided much of the justification

for the early experiments with methadone and for explaining its success.

Though this theory is widely quoted and respected, it has never been

proven. Other explanations for relapse have also been proposed and these

include psychosocial (Khantzian 1982, Wurmser 1982) and conditioning factors (Wikler 1973; O’Brien et al. 1984).

Although the results can be considered only tentative, because of the methodological problems mentioned earlier, several recent studies have provided

data that can be interpreted as supportive of Dole’s theory. One is the

work of Kreek (1989) who has shown abnormal responses to metyrapone in

detoxified former heroin addicts. Metyrapone blocks the 11 beta-hydroxylation of the precursor of cortisol and thereby prevents its production by the

adrenal cortex. Normal subjects will have a compensatory rise in ACTH

and beta-endotphin levels following the administration of metyrapone, in

response to the reduced levels of cortisol. Kreek has found that stabilized

methadone-maintained patients have a normal rise in adrenocorticotrophic

hormone (ACTH) and beta-endorphin following metyrapone but that detoxified former heroin addicts have a greatly exaggerated increase in the plasma

levels of beta-endorphin. Kreek’s work is preliminary and continuing, but it

76
suggests that detoxified opiate addicts may have an abnormally increased

hormonal response to stress. This abnormality could be a result of physiological alterations produced by long-term opiate use, and it may contribute

to relapse following detoxification.

A similar finding has resulted from a project that aimed to examine the

relationships between endocrine secretion and affect in opiate addicts during

methadone maintenance, detoxification, and long-term abstinence (Woody et

al. 1988). Comparisons were made between chronic opiate addicts during

four stages of treatment: stabilization on methadone for 3 to 4 months,

termed early maintenance (n=27); stabilized for 2 or more years, termed

long-term maintenance (n=10); successfully detoxified for 2 or more years,

termed long-term drug free (n=15); and normal controls (n=15).

Subjects were males, the average age was 38, and the average number of

years of opiate dependence was 7.5 years. Of the subjects, 68 percent

reported a history of other drug abuse (usually benzodiazepine or amphetamine). Subjects who had serious medical problems, current psychiatric

problems other than opiate dependence, who were currently taking any prescribed medication or illicit substance other than methadone were not

recruited for the study. Long-term abstinence was verified by interview

with an experienced research technician, by urinalysis, and by personnel

who had treated the subjects in an abstinence-oriented group. Most of the

long-term drug-free subjects were graduates of Eagleville, a nearby therapeutic community, and had been engaged in the followup program from that

institution. Controls were recruited from the hospital police force and from

housekeeping. They had no history of substance abuse and were of the

same age and socioeconomic background as the methadone patients and

drug-free group.

All subjects were admitted to the Philadelphia Veterans Administration

Medical Center inpatient ward for testing. The procedures followed on all

testing occasions and for all subjects were identical with one exception.

This was that the methadone-maintained subjects were admitted to the unit

1 or 2 days before testing, to be certain that no other drugs were taken that

would influence the measures of hormones and affect; controls and longterm drug-free subjects reported to the inpatient unit at 8 a.m. on the day of

testing.

Blood samples were obtained by means of a Sigmamotor microflow blood

withdrawal pump through an indwelling nonthrombogenic catheter placed in

the left forearm. The pump, which provides an integrated plasma sample,

was set at 10 ml per hour, and collecting tubes were changed at 30-minute

intervals over the 7-hour period (8:30 a.m. to 3:30 p.m.). A total sample of

approximately 120 ml of blood was taken on each testing occasion. All

blood samples were centrifuged immediately after completion of each

30-minute interval, and the plasma was separated and stored at -25 °C until

77
analyzed. Hormone analyses were done by SmithKline Laboratories, using

standard assays supplied by various companies. Testosterone was analyzed

using the assays of the Diagnostic Products Corporation; prolactin assays

were from Hybritech Corporation; cortisol assays were from Clinical Assays

of Cambridge; and LH assays were from American Biotechnical

Corporation.

All methadone subjects received their daily dose at 10 a.m. A battery of

tests aimed to measure affect was administered between 9:15 and 10 a.m.

and again between 2:30 and 3:15 p.m. These times were chosen to maximize the chances of finding differences before and after receiving the daily

methadone dose. The same battery of measures were administered at identical times to the long-term drug-free subjects and the controls.

Preliminary work done on this project indicated that cortisol and prolactin

were the most variable of the four hormones studied; analyses were performed on all 14 of the 30-minute samples for these substances. The other

hormones were less variable over time; therefore, to conserve costs, the

testostemne analyses were performed on seven of the half-hour samples, and

LH analyses were computed on four of the samples. In both cases, analyses were spaced evenly over the ‘I-hour time period. These multiple

samples provided a profile of each hormone during the testing period. As

the samples were collected directly into a distal tube (attached to the subject’s waist), there was very little disruption, which might have been

reflected in the hormonal analyses, for the patient. Upon completion of the

testing procedure, the patients were discharged from the research ward and

continued on maintenance or other followup treatment.

The hormone levels are seen in figures 1 through 4, and the affect scores,

as measured on the Beck Depression Inventory, the Hopkins Symptom

Checklist-90 (SCL-90), and the Profile of Mood Scales (POMS), are seen in

figures 5 through 9.

Pmlactin levels showed the predictable rise and fall after the daily methadone dose for maintained subjects. There was some indication of tolerance,

as the curve formed by the long-term maintenance subjects was lower than

that of the early maintenance group; however, these differences were not

significant. A similar finding is seen in the higher prolactin levels of the

long-term drug-free group compared to the controls; again, these differences

were not significant. Cortisol levels in the long-term drug-free and control

subjects were almost identical, as seen in figure 2. Significant differences

were evident, however, between long-term drug-free subjects and all other

groups in the measured levels of testosterone and LH.

Significant differences were seen between the long-term drug-free subjects

and all other groups on the SCL-90 anxiety and hostility scores and on the

POMS tension and anger scores. No differences were seen between groups

78
FIGURE 1. Plasma prolactin levels by group

FIGURE 2. Plasma cortisol levels by group

on the Beck, nor were significant differences noted between the morning

and afternoon psychological testing occasions, although there were trends for

all scores to be lower in the afternoon. These differences suggested that

the long-term drug-free subjects may have experienced subtle residual drug

effects on one or more of the neurophysiological systems that regulate

affect.

79
FIGURE 3. Plasma testosterone levels by group

FIGURE 4. Plasma LH levels by group

As noted at the beginning of this chapter, methodological problems limit

any conclusions made from the changes observed above. Among such

problems is the comparability of groups. Those opiate addicts who succeed

in becoming abstinent for 2 or more years may be biologically different,

80
FIGURE 5. Beck Depression Inventory in endocrine subjects

FIGURE 6. SCL-90 data in endocrine subjects: Anxiety

psychologically different, or both from those who remain on methadone and

from nonaddict controls. The fact that the long-term drug-free subjects and

controls were not kept on the inpatient testing unit overnight may have

81
FIGURE 7. SCL-90 data in endocrine subjects: Hostility

FIGURE 8. POMS data in endocrine subjects: Tension

82
FIGURE 9. POMS data in endocrine subjects: Anger

influenced their LH and testosterone levels, along with their scores on the

SCL-90 and the POMS. The fact that the opiate addicts had also abused

other drugs may also be important; the differences observed could be a

function of any number of drug effects and have nothing to do with the

history of long-term opiate dependence.

Nevertheless, it must be noted that both studies (Kreek 1989; Woody et al.

1988) found neuroendocrine differences between the long-term drug-free

opiate addicts and the other groups studied. The elevations in SCL-90

measures of anxiety and hostility and in the POMS ratings of tension and

anger could reflect other aspects of this difference between normals and

people with a history of chronic opiate addiction. These data could be

interpreted as showing that long-term opiate use produces long-term biological alterations that are reflected in disruptions in the secretion of certain

hormones of neurotransmitters that contribute to the regulation of affect,

including anxiety, tension, hostility, and anger. These possible biological

alterations could be related to the mechanisms involved in the antipsychotic

and prolactin-elevating effects of opiates, which help to suppress symptoms

of schizophrenia in addicts who have that disease.

CONCLUSION

The finding of one or more long-term biological alterations produced by

chronic stimulant or opiate dependence would be consistent with the

Swedish clinical reports and the theories of Dole. The methodological

83
problems inherent in studying these issues are formidable, but more biologically focused studies of stimulant and opiate addicts who have had extensive addiction careers that were followed by long-term abstinence may

provide valuable information about these important questions.

REFERENCES

Dole, V.P.; Nyswander, M.; Kreek, M.J. Narcotic blockade. Arch Intern

Med 118:304-309, 1966.

Khantzian, E.J. Psychological (structural) vulnerabilities and the specific

appeal of narcotics. In: Verbey, K., ed. Opioids in mental illness:

Theories, clinical observations, and treatment possibilities. Ann NY Acad

Sci 398:24-32, 1982.

Kreek, M.J. Medical safety and side effects of methadone in tolerant individuals. JAMA 223:665-668, 1973.

Kreek, M.J. Effects of chronic opioid use. Presented at annual meeting of

the American Society for Alcoholism and Other Drug Dependencies.

Atlanta, GA, 1989.

Kreek, M.J, and Hartman, N. Chronic use of opiates and antipsychotic

drugs: Side effects, effects on endogenous opioids, and toxicity. In:

Verbey, K., ed. Opioids in mental illness: Theories, clinical

observations, and treatment possibilities. Ann NY Acad Sci 398:151-172,

1982.

Lundh, H., and Tunving, K. An extrapyramidal choreiform syndrome

caused by amphetamine addiction. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry

44:728-730, 1981.

Martin, W.R.; Jasinski, D.R.; Haertzen, C.A.; Kay, D.C.; Jones, B.E.;

Mansky, P.A.; and Carpenter, R.W. Methadone—A reevaluation. Arch

Gen Psychiatry 28:286-295, 1973.

McKenna, G. Methadone and opiate drugs: Psychotropic effect and selfmedication. In: Verbey, K., ed. Opioids in mental illness: Theories,

clinical observations, and treatment possibilities. Ann NY Acad Sci

398:44-53, 1982.

McLellan, A.T.; Woody, G.E.; and O’Brien, C.P. Development of psychiatric disorders in drug abusers. N Engl J Med 301:1310-1313, 1979.

O’Brien, C.P.; Childress, A.R.; McLellan, A.T.; Termes, J.; and Ehrma,

R.N. Use of naltrexone to extinguish opioid-conditioned responses.

J Clin Psychiatry 45:53-56, 1984.

Parsons, O.A.; Butters, N.; and Nathan, P.E. Neuropsychology of Alcoholism: Implications for Diagnosis and Treatment. New York: Guilford,

1987.

Post, R.M.; Kotin, J.; and Goodwin, R.R. The effects of cocaine on

depressed patients. Am J Psychiatry 131:511-517, 1976.

Ricautte, G.A.; Schuster, C.R.; and Seiden, L.S. Long-term effects of

repeated methylamphetamine administration on dopamine and serotonin

neurons in the rat brain: A regional study. Brain Res 193:153-163,

1980.

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Tunving, K. Fatal outcome in drug addiction. Acta Psychiatr Scand

77:551-566, 1988.

Wikler, A. Dynamics of drug dependence: Implications of a conditioning

theory for research. Arch Gen Psychiatry 28:611-616, 1973.

Woody, G.E., and O’Brien, C.P. Unpublished clinical observations.

Woody, G.E.; O’Brien, CP.; McLellan, A.T.; Persky, H.; and Amdt, I.A.

Hormonal secretion in methadone-dependent and abstinent subjects. In:

Harris, L.S., ed. Problems of Drug Dependence, 1987. Proceedings of

the 49th Annual Scientific Meeting the Committee on Problems of Drug

Dependence, Inc. National Institute on Drug Abuse Research Monograph

81. DHHS Pub. No. (ADM)88-1564. Washington, DC: Supt. of Docs.,

U.S. Govt. Print. Off., 1988. pp. 216223.

Wurmser, L. The question of specific psychopathology in compulsive drug

use. In: Verbey, K., ed. Opioids in mental illness: Theories, clinical

observations, and treatment possibilities. Ann NY Acad Sci 398:33-43,

1982.

AUTHORS

George E. Woody, M.D.

A. Thomas McClellan, Ph.D.

Charles P. O’Brien, M.D., Ph.D.

Drug Dependence Treatment and Research Center

University of Pennsylvania

and

Philadelphia Veterans Administration Medical Center

39th and Woodland Avenue

Philadelphia, PA 19104

85
Adaptive Behavior in Recovering

Female Phencyclidine/Polysubstance Abusers

Judy Howard, Leila Beckwith, and Carol Rodning

INTRODUCTION

Abuse of phencyclidine hydrochloride (PCP) continues to be a significant

problem in urban areas of the United States. In Los Angeles County, PCP

abuse reached its height in 1983. At that time, 30 percent of PCP abusers

were women of childbearing age whose first use of PCP occurred at

20 years of age (Husson 1984). Currently, PCP abuse has moved from the

south-central region of Los Angeles County to East Los Angeles.

PCP is inexpensive, readily obtainable, and generally used in combination

with other drugs such as marijuana, heroin, and alcohol (Golden et al.

1982). Most recently, it has been used with cocaine and its derivative,

“crack” cocaine. Polysubstance abuse was characteristic of the women in

our study at the University of California, Los Angeles (table 1).

PCP can be injected, inhaled, or taken orally. In behavioral research, the

pharmacological effects of PCP have been compared most often with those

of amphetamines, sympathomimetic stimulants, pentobarbital, or central nervous system depressants (Balster and Baird 1979; Balster and Chait 1978;

Balster and Wessinger 1983). PCP also has its own unique effects. For

instance, adults who have been intoxicated with PCP describe numbness in

their extremities and a feeling of dissociation of their limbs. Awareness of

space is altered so that depth perception and the angles of floors, doors, and

walls appear distorted (Balster 1980). Organization of sensory input-olfaction, temperature, pain, vision, and audition-also is impaired (Pender

1971). In human behavioral studies, high doses of PCP produced disturbing

manifestations, including psychosis, increased irritability, and argumentative

states (Pradhan 1984; Javitt 1987).

86
TABLE 1. Percentage of drug, alcohol, and tobacco use in drug-abusing

and drug-nonabusing mothers

Drug-Abusing Drug-Nonabusing

n=47 n=38

PCP*

Mean Years of Use†

Cocaine*

Mean Years of Use†

Opiate*

IV Drugs†

Marijuana†

Alcohol

Tobacco Cigarettes

100% 0

6.3

42% 0

1.8 -

3% 0

20% 0

20% 0

75% 20%

60% 26%

*From infant toxicology screen.

†From maternal report.

AIM OF THE STUDY

Although this chapter focuses on the mothers’ symptoms and behaviors during use and abstinence, the primary purpose of the study was to identify

specific behavioral changes in the offspring of women who used PCP during pregnancy. Our specific aims were to do the following:

1. Compare PCP-exposed infants with matched groups of drugnonexposed infants for attention regulation, social interaction,

motor patterns, and cognitive development through year 2.

2. Compare PCP-exposed infants being reared in foster homes with

PCP-exposed infants being reared by biologic parent(s) for attention regulation, social interaction, motor patterns, and cognitive

development through year 2.

3. Assess the influence of other significant factors on development at

2 years, including maternal obstetrical problems; other drug, alcohol, and cigarette use; adequacy of prenatal care; neonatal complications; and the adequacy of the rearing environment.

Two groups of PCP-exposed infants were studied: (1) those placed by

court order in foster homes, and (2) those discharged home to their parents

after birth. In addition, a third group of drug-nonexposed infants reared by

their biologic parents was selected. We provided intensive supportive services to caregivers of all subjects—both PCP-exposed and drug-nonexposed

87
infants—to reduce subject attrition, which is a significant problem in this

population, and to promote stability within the caregiving environment.

Table 2 provides a description of the sample population.

TABLE 2. Sample description

Mothers Drug Abusers Drug Nonusers

Recruited at Infant’s Birth

Attrition*

Discharged†

Maintained in Study

Drug Abusers in Recovery

47 38

6% 26%

11% 0

39 28

20% (8 of 39) 0

*Attrition: Mother discontinued participation by own initiative.

†Discharge: Mother’s participation was discontinued by project staff because of safety concems, despite

mother’s desire to continue involvement in the study.

RECOVERING ADDICTS IN STUDY

Among the 47 women in the study who were chronic addicts, there

appeared to be 7 women who had stopped using drugs. These seven

women had abstained from drug use for 1 or 2 years. The nonusing status

of these women has been determined by maternal report to our support staff

and by the staffs observations of the mothers’ behaviors.

In the total addict sample of 47 women, 7 completed drug-treatment programs varying in length from 9 to 18 months and including both residential

and outpatient formats. Seventeen attended but did not complete drugtreatment programs.

Of the seven women who completed drug-treatment programs, five are presently drug free. Of these five drug-free women, three completed 9-month

outpatient drug-treatment programs, one completed a 9-month residential

program, and one completed an 18-month residential program. One woman

attended but did not complete a 9-month outpatient program and is presently

drug free. The seventh woman who is drug free did not attend any drugtreatment program.

The length of drug use in the seven recovering addicts ranged from 5 to

20 years, with a mean of 10.25 years, while a mean of 6.3 years was found

for the entire addict sample. Six of the seven women were polysubstance

abusers, reporting use of as many as five different substances, including

PCP, amphetamines, marijuana, cocaine, heroin, and alcohol. One woman

reported using only PCP.

88
The mean age of the recovering women was 27.3 years, whereas the mean

age for the total addict sample was 27.1 years. Formal education ranged

from 8 to 14 years in the total addict sample, with a mean of 11 years for

the seven drug-free women, compared with a mean of 11.1 years for the

entire drug-using sample. Further maternal subject descriptions can be

found in table 3. All drug-abusing mothers in the study received Aid to

Families with Dependent Children.

TABLE 3. Maternal subject description

Drug Abusers Drug Nonusers

n=47 n=38

Mean Age*

Range

Mean Years Education*

Range

Welfare

Marital Status

Ethnicity

Prenatal Care at Any Time

During Pregnancy

Prenatal Care in First Trimester

Mean Number of Pregnancies*

Mean Number of Deliveries*

27.1

16-37

11.1

8-13

94%

95% single

90% black

75%

22% 63%

5.2 2.4

2.7 1.2

21.9

16-32

12.3

10-16

56%

69% single

97% black

97%

*Groups significantly different, p<.05.

Of particular interest is the fact that, of the women in the total drug-using

sample, the recovering addicts had the longest history of substance abuse.

Furthermore, it is not clear why these seven women were able to abstain

from drug use. Most had family histories of intergenerational substance

abuse, as well as physical abuse or neglect during childhood. Other

mothers in the drug-using sample had more responsive relationships with

their children, better self-esteem, greater self-reflection, and better social

skills; we would have predicted that they were more likely to achieve success in abstaining from substance abuse.

DESCRIPTIVE NARRATIVE OF BEHAVIOR IN THE SEVEN

DRUG-FREE WOMEN

Sexual behavior and responsibility for birth control in the recovering addict

group did not differ from that in the group that continued to abuse drugs.

89
Both the abstaining and substance-abusing mothers had a repeat pregnancy

occurrence of 50 percent after their initial enrollment in our study. Clinically, a number of the women indicated a distaste for physical contact

(including sexual intercourse) and a sensitivity to being touched when high

on drugs. This sensitivity continued after the discontinuation of drug abuse,

but did not appear to alter their sexual and birth-control behavior.

To determine behavioral impairment in these women during substance abuse

and recovery, we administered two measures: (1) the Hopkins Symptom

Checklist (Derogatis 1973); and (2) the Adaptive Skills Inventory (Jones and

Lanyon 1973).

The Hopkins Symptom Checklist, a self-report screening questionnaire designed to detect psychiatric symptoms, was administered to all seven drugfree women. While using drugs, all seven reported somatic symptoms such

as headaches, sweating, trembling, poor appetite, fast heart rate and pounding heart, and little sleep but no fatigue. These somatic symptoms abated

during the recovery phase, when the women reported occasional headaches

differing in intensity and improved appetite with subsequent weight gain.

Symptoms of emotional lability-including crying easily, restlessness, low

frustration tolerance, and unprovoked violence and aggression towards others

(even towards individuals unknown to the subjects)--were present in all

seven women when they were using drugs.

Examples of various women’s responses to items on the questionnaire

included the following:

“I would have violent fights with my boyfriend . . . I had many

injuries and caused many injuries.”

“I would fight anyone who touched me.”

“When high, I would attack people. I was extremely violent.”

“My head would tell me things that were not true or were not there.

It seems someone was always after me.”

“I was on the race track all the time because the PCP told me we

could conquer the world.”

“I didn’t want anything, only drugs, didn’t even want shoes.”

“My son begged me not to smoke. He was afraid I would die and

then I could not take care of him.”

Yet these women reported that, off drugs, their physical violence stopped

and they felt more in control.

90
In summary, while on drugs, the level of symptoms reported by the women

occurred at a level indicative of a psychiatric disorder. During the recovery

period, the women reported 80 percent fewer symptoms.

The Hopkins Symptom Checklist provided useful information about the

types of symptomatology—both somatic and psychological-experienced by

these women on and off drugs. However, it was not sensitive to the continuing difficulties in daily functioning and organization that were apparent

both to the women themselves and to the support staff.

Clinical staff continued to observe behavioral impairments in these women

after the cessation of drug use. These deviant behaviors included an inability or an impaired ability to generalize information, a tendency to be overliteral in interpreting communications, childlike and self-referent responses

in social situations, difficulties with short-term memory, and continuing

problems with getting lost.

Many of these women had difficulty following simple, well-learned instructions on preparing a meal or finding a familiar place. They would report

that they had to “think real hard” before answering questions, often finding

it necessary to repeat words or phrases that had just been expressed to

them. Some of the women reported difficulty distinguishing the time of

day, week, month, or year, as well as difficulty remembering significant

dates such as birthdays. One woman still reported nightmares (but not

flashbacks), and all the women reported sleep difficulties, mostly in terms

of a type of restlessness.

To explore further specifics regarding these women’s behavior, three

vignettes from the Adaptive Skills Inventory were administered. This inventory was designed to study chronic alcoholics’ problems in handling day-today situations. We adapted the vignettes to make them more appropriate to

our population. The three situations presented to these seven mothers were:

(1) A fast-food restaurant serves you the wrong items-what do you do?

(2) A friend betrays your confidence to another friend-what do you do?

and (3) You have a dispute with your significant other-what do you do?

Unlike their responses while on drugs, when off drugs the recovering

addicts indicated that they would use strategies other than physical violence

to resolve each of these problems. Examples of their responses include the

following:

Vignette 1, on-drug response: “I would jump on the person behind

the counter and go off on her. I would make a big scene.”

Vignette 1, off-drug response: “I would ask her to change the

order, maybe curse her out . . . if no response, I would call for the

manager.”

91
Vignette 2, on-drug response: “If I were still using, I would be

throwing bottles and everything at that woman’s house. They would

probably have to call the police.”

Vignette 2, off-drug response: “I would first say, ‘I didn’t say

those things.’ I would not still be her friend.”

Vignette 3, on-drug response: “I’d get high, as usual, after a fight.”

Vignette 3, off-drug response: “I’d probably be glad he left. If he

can’t act right, he needs to leave.”

DISCUSSION

The information learned from these women’s responses is preliminary and

qualitative, yet useful. Even though our research design did not include a

specific study of psychopathology in the mothers of the project infants, it

was apparent to us through our clinical observations that the mothers’ behaviors were deviant both on drugs and off. In addition, extensive interviews with family members indicated that these aberrant behaviors occurred

following substance abuse.

We also found a neurological dysfunction for the infants of many of these

PCP-abusing mothers. Neonatal symptomatology included greater apathy,

jitters, irritability, and abnormalities in muscle tone and reflexes. Behavioral

measurements at 6 and 15 months by the Gesell Developmental Examination showed language impoverishment and a significantly lower developmental quotient. Qualitative analysis of the PCP-exposed children’s play indicated some ataxia; poor abduction and extension of fingers, hands, and

arms, with some intentional tremor. Additional descriptive data are presented in table 4.

TABLE 4. Infant subject description

Drug Exposed Drug Nonexposed

Mean Gestational Age (weeks)

Range

Mean Birthweight* (gm)

Range

Mean Crown-Heel Length* (cm)

Range

Mean Head Circumference (cm)

Range

39.2 39.5

34-42 34-42

2,919.8 3,383.1

1,580-3,970 2,550-4,150

49.4 51.3

41-56 46-54

32.7 33.5

28-36 22-36

*Group significantly different, p<.05.

92
We believe that the problems of life adaptation that, in these women, seem

to coincide with chronic substance abuse require further study. The preconceived psychiatric nosology used to describe and diagnose psychiatric illness did not seem appropriate for understanding the kinds of impairments

we noted in these recovering addicts.

The behavioral descriptions recounted previously were difficult to capture

using existing testing instruments. We had to adapt the few measures that

seemed relevant and then fall back on self-report. Nonetheless, these

measures-inadequate as they were-supported our clinical observations that

recovering addicts have continued difficulties following discontinuation of

drug use.

It is obvious, on the basis of both self-report and our behavioral observations, that these women acted less violently, were less impulsive, and had

more self-control when off drugs. Yet, even though they functioned better

during recovery, they reported residual difficulties with day-to-day functioning, including problems in providing a consistent routine for their children. For example, analysis (when the infants were 3 and 9 months old) of

the interaction of previously drug-exposed infants with their caregiver indicated that mothers who had originally abused PCP and continued to care for

their children were less accepting and sensitive to the needs of the children,

as assessed by the Ainsworth sensitivity scale (Ainsworth et al. 1978). The

interaction of the mothers with their children indicated that many of these

mothers appeared very immature.

Interpretation of the cause for these deviant behaviors is of utmost importance. One obvious etiology would be the effects of environmental deprivation, with subsequent diminution in cognitive abilities. Another etiology

would be chronic brain impairment caused by polysubstance abuse. Such a

model is well documented in reports of the behavioral deterioration seen in

chronic alcoholics.

We understand that recovering addicts must fight a daily battle against the

physical and psychological urge to use drugs. However, this concentration

on abstinence cannot be construed as the sole cause of recovering addicts’

inability to solve problems and function consistently and independently.

This preliminary evidence suggests a residual central nervous system impairment resulting from chronic polysubstance abuse. More strategies are

needed to assess these impairments, as well as to assess behavioral

strengths, if effective treatment programs are to be developed for substanceabusing individuals and their families.

REFERENCES

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93
Balster, R.L. The effects of phencyclidine and three analogues on motor

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Balster, R.L., and Chait, L.D. The effects of phencyclidine on amphetamine

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Balster, R.L, and Wessinger, W.D. Central nervous system depressant

effects of phencyclidine. In: Kamenka, J.M.; Domino, E.F.; and

Geneste, P., eds. Phencyclidine and Related Arylcyclohexymines: Present

and Future Applications. Ann Arbor: NPP Books, 1983.

Derogatis, L.R.; Lipman, R.S.; Covil, L. SCL-90, An outpatient psychiatric

rating scale—preliminary report. Psychopharmacol Bull 9:13-28, 1973.

Golden, N.L; Sokol, R.J.; Martier, S.; and Miller, S.I. A practical method

for identifying angel dust abuse during pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol

142:359-360, 1982.

Husson, B.S. Trends and epidemiology of drug abuse. In: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Alcohol, Drug Abuse, and Mental

Health. Proceedings of Community Epidemiology Work Group. Washington, DC: Supt. of Docs., U.S. Govt. Print. Off., June 1984.

Javitt, D.C. Negative schizophrenic symptomatology and the PCP (phencyclidine) model of schizophrenia. Hillside Journal of Clinical Psychiatry

9(1):12-35, 1987.

Jones, S., and Lanyon, R.I. Relationship between adaptive skills and outcome of alcoholism treatment. J Stud Alcohol 42:521-525, 1983.

Pender, J.W. Dissociative amnesia. JAMA 215:1126-1130, 1971.

Pradhan, S.N. Phencyclidine (PCP): Some human studies. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 8(4):493-501, 1984.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The following staff ensured the success of this research project: Eleanor

Baxter, M.A., Jacquelyn Dickens, M.S.W., Clementine Royston, A.A., and

Sarah Simpson, MA., provided comprehensive early intervention for project

infants, their families, and foster parents. Rachelle Tyler, M.D., performed

health and developmental examinations. The research for the study reported

in this chapter was supported by National Institute on Drug Abuse grant

R01 DA 4139.

AUTHORS

Judy Howard, M.D.

Professor of Clinical Pediatrics

Leila Beckwith, Ph.D.

Professor

94
Carol Rodning, Ph.D.

Assistant Research Professor

Department of Pediatrics

UCLA School of Medicine

23-10 Rehabilitation Center

Los Angeles, CA 90024

95
Long-Term Marijuana Use and

Subsequent Effects on Learning

and Cognitive Functions Related to

School Achievement: Preliminary

Study

Robert I. Block, Sara Farnham, Kathleen Braverman,

Russell Noyes, Jr., and M.M. Ghoneim

INTRODUCTION

Adverse effects of chronic marijuana use on learning, memory, and cognition are of serious concern in view of the widespread use of this drug,

especially as use has extended into progressively younger age groups. Clinical impressions of many observers suggest that chronic marijuana use

impairs cognitive function (National Institute on Drug Abuse 1982). Surprisingly, although acute impairment of memory from single marijuana

doses has been frequently and rigorously demonstrated, experimental studies

of chronic marijuana effects on learning, memory, and cognition have generally been methodologically weak, ambiguous in outcome, or both. Of about

a dozen such studies conducted in the United States and Canada (Entin and

Goldzung 1973; Weckowicz and Janssen 1973) and a similar number elsewhere (Wig and Varma 1977), approximately one-fourth reported that chronic marijuana use adversely affected cognition (Soueif 1971); the rest did not

find such effects.

One crucial requirement for evaluating the performance of chronic marijuana

users is comparison with an appropriately matched group of nonusing subjects. Short of an extremely expensive longitudinal study that follows children over many years, the most desirable procedure is to match groups of

users and nonusers on some measure of intellectual functioning obtained

before the onset of drug use. Only one past study (Culver and King 1974)

followed such a procedure. The absence of chronic marijuana effects in

this study could be due to the minimal criteria set for marijuana use (use at

96
least twice a month for 1 year or more, with no use before entering

college).

In a continuing study, we have been examining cognitive effects of chronic

marijuana use by comparing the performance of marijuana users and nonusers. Scores during the fourth grade of grammar school on the Iowa Tests

of Basic Skills (Hieronymus et al. 1982), standardized tests that have been

administered to almost all grammar school children in Iowa for several decades, have been retrieved for all subjects. These scores will be used to

establish that the marijuana users were comparable to the nonusers in their

intellectual functioning before they began using marijuana. When completed, the study is expected to determine whether chronic marijuana use produces cognitive impairments and, if so, whether these impairments depend

on the frequency of use.

Subjects in the study participated in two test sessions under nondrug conditions. In one session, they were administered the 12th-grade versions of the

Iowa Tests (Iowa Tests of Educational Development), which emphasize

basic, general intellectual abilities and academic skills and effective utilization of previously, i.e., preexperimentally, acquired information in verbal

and mathematical areas. In the other session, subjects were administered

computerized tests that emphasize learning and remembering new information, concept formation, associative processes, semantic memory retrieval

and psychomotor performance. The 12th-grade Iowa Tests were administered to maximally exploit the advantage we had (relative to past studies)

from equating the groups of marijuana users and nonusers on their fourthgrade Iowa Test scores. Iowa Test scores show considerable stability over

time, with substantial correlations between individuals’ scores in 4th and

12th grades obtained 8 years apart (r=.68 before and r=.77 after correction

for attenuation because of dropout from the sample) (Scannell 1958). The

computerized tests were developed with other goals in mind: we favored

(1) tasks that were sensitive to acute effects of marijuana and other drugs in

our preliminary studies (Block and Berchou 1984; Block and Wittenbom

1985); (2) tasks that other investigators had found sensitive to effects of

marijuana, either acutely or (in the limited data available) following chronic

use; and (3) tasks relevant to the skills required in school and work performance. Learning and remembering new information was a major focus be

cause the only two American studies that suggested substantial adverse

effects of chronic marijuana use involved memory tasks (Entin and

Goldzung 1973; Gianutsos and Litwack 1976).

METHOD

Subjects and Screening

Volunteers were recruited through local news media and were paid for participation. During a preliminary screening visit, they provided permission to

97
retrieve their fourth-grade scores on the Iowa Tests of Basic Skills, a urine

sample for drug screening, and information about their medical history,

demographic characteristics, and use of marijuana and other drugs (Johnston

et al. 1981). They were asked to classify their average weekly frequency of

using marijuana or other cannabis products as “not at all,” “less than once,”

“1 to 4 times,” “5 to 6 times,” or “7 or more times” and to indicate the

duration of their use at this frequency. Portions of the Diagnostic Interview

Schedule (DIS) Version III-A (Robins and Helzer 1985), a structured psychiatric screening interview for use by research staff, were administered.

So that their scores on the Iowa Tests could be retrieved, subjects were

restricted to adults (age range 18 to 42 years) who had attended the fourth

grade of grammar school in Iowa between 1956 and 1980. Marijuana users

were restricted to individuals who had used marijuana or other cannabis

products at least weekly for the last 2 years or more. Nonusers were

restricted to individuals who had not used marijuana more than twice in

their lives. Efforts were made to restrict subjects to individuals having

limited experience with drugs other than marijuana, but the initial exclusion

criteria concerning use of other drugs had to be relaxed to avoid rejecting

an excessive percentage of “heavy” marijuana users.

Although the final sample for the study will consist of 144 marijuana users

and 72 nonusers, the present report is based on 102 marijuana users and 89

nonusers who completed the study through January 1989. Since nonusers

were relatively easier to recruit than marijuana users, an extra 17 nonusers

were tested before curtailing their enrollment so that subsequent matching of

groups on fourth-grade Iowa Test scores could be done primarily by dropping excess nonusers. No marijuana users were excluded or dropped based

on their fourth-grade scores. Among the marijuana users, the reported frequency of using marijuana was 1 to 4 times weekly for 41, 5 to 6 times

weekly for 23, and 7 or more times weekly for 38.

Procedure

Subjects were tested in two sessions. They agreed to obtain at least

7 hours sleep on the nights before the sessions and to abstain from caffeine

and nicotine during the sessions, from alcohol on the days of the sessions

and after 6 p.m. on the preceding evenings, and from marijuana and other

drugs for 24 hours before the sessions.

In the first session, which lasted about 3 hours including a rest, the tests of

Vocabulary, Correctness and Appropriateness of Expression, Ability To Do

Quantitative Thinking, and Ability To Interpret Literary Materials from the

Iowa Tests of Educational Development (Level II) were administered along

with the Short Test of Educational Ability (Level 5) a test of general academic ability standardized with the Iowa Tests (Science Research Associates

1981). The tests were administered according to procedures specified in the

98
test manuals (Iowa Testing Programs 1987; Science Research Associates

1974). All were pencil-and-paper tests in multiple-choice format. The

tasks involved were as follows:

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Correctness and Appropriateness of Expression: (a) deciding which of

several alternative versions of a specified portion of a short text best

expressed the idea, made the statement grammatically correct or most

precise, was worded most consistently with the style and tone of the

text, or was correctly punduated or capitalized. The subject could refer

to the text while answering the questions; and (b) picking which of

several words was misspelled.

Ability To Interpret Literary Materials: answering questions assessing

comprehension of a short text. The subject could refer to the text while

answering the questions.

Ability To Do Quantitative Thinking: solving mathematical word problems drawn from practical realistic situations and answering questions

assessing understanding of basic mathematical concepts.

Vocabulary: picking which of several words was the closest synonym

for a specified word.

Short Test of Educational Ability: answering four types of questions

involving vocabulary (as on the Vocabulary test), arithmetic reasoning

(computation), letter series (recognizing the pattern in a specified series

of letters and choosing the next letter in the series), and symbol manipulation (recognizing symbolic quantitative relations, e.g., “If AB=C and

A decreases, does C increase or decrease?“).

In the second session, which lasted about 2.5 hours, computerized learning

and cognitive tests-free and constrained associations, paired-associate

learning, text learning, Buschke’s Selective Reminding Task, concept formation, and psychomotor performance (discriminant reaction time and critical

flicker fusion)-were administered by an Apple II Plus computer system.

Subjects viewed stimuli on a video monitor and other display devices and

responded orally or by pressing buttons. A delayed memory test was then

given.

Two alternate versions of the computerized tests using distinct but comparable stimuli and two equated forms of the 12th-grade Iowa Tests (Forms

X-8 and Y-8) were each used with about half of the marijuana users and

nonusers, as were two different sequences of administration of the tests.

99
Statistical Analyses

For preliminary analyses of the data, the small sample of subjects using

marijuana five to six times weekly was pooled with the subjects using

marijuana seven or more times weekly to form a group of “heavy” marijuana users for comparison with the “light” marijuana users (one to four

times weekly) and nonusers. Differences between these groups on 12thgrade Iowa Test scores were examined by one-way analyses of variance; if

significance was established, between-group differences were then analyzed

by Tukey tests (Winer 1971). Similar analyses were done to examine the

comparability of the groups on fourth-grade Iowa Test scores, age, and

education. Their comparability on categorical demographic characteristics

was checked by chi-square tests. A significance level of p<.05 was used

for all tests.

RESULTS

Comparability of the Groups

Figure 1 shows the subjects’ fourth-grade Iowa Test scores. Before the

onset of drug use, the heavy users, light users, and nonusers were comparable on the Composite score averaged over all tests and on scores for

four of the five individual tests. On one test, Language Skills, the nonusers

performed better than either group of marijuana users. Table 1 shows the

subjects’ demographic characteristics. The heavy users, light users, and

nonusers were comparable with respect to age, education, race, work status,

annual income, and Hollingshead Occupational Scale scores, but not sex.

Most marijuana users were men, while most nonusers were women. The

percentage of men was 80 percent for both heavy users and light users but

only 30 percent for nonusers.

Three heavy marijuana users and three nonusers met criteria on the Diagnostic Interview Schedule for a history of major depressive episodes, but

none was currently depressed. No subjects met criteria on the Diagnostic

Interview Schedule for a history of bipolar disorder or schizophrenia.

Marijuana Use

Heavy and light users reported using marijuana at their indicated frequencies

for averages (means plus or minus standard errors) of 6.5±0.5 years and

6.2±0.7 years, respectively. They started use in similar grades: 9.9±0.3

and 10.0±0.4, respectively. Figure 2 shows frequency distributions for duration of marijuana use and grade of first use. After the study began, a question was added about the number of times subjects smoked marijuana on an

average day. The 27 heavy users who were asked this question reported

smoking marijuana 2.4±0.5 times on an average day.

100
FIGURE 1. Performance of subjects on the Iowa Tests of Basic

Skills during the fourth grade of grammar school

*F=7.7, p<.001 for difference between heavy users, light users, and nonusers in one-way

analysis of variance.

†Differs from nonosers by followup Tukey tests, p<.05.

KEY: 4=fourth grade, 5=fifth grade, etc. VOCAB=Vocabulary, READ=Reading Comprehension,

LANG=Language Skills, MATH=Mathematics Skills, WORK-ST=Work-Study Skills,

COMP=Composite Score.

NOTE: Vertical lines indicate standard errors.

Of the nonusers, 96 percent reportedly never used marijuana, and 4 percent

had tried it once or twice in their lives.

Use of Other Drugs

Figures 3, 4, and 5 show the lifetime experience of the participants with

alcohol and illicit drugs other than marijuana. Data are shown for the

heavy users, light users, and nonusers.

The light marijuana users had limited experience with other illicit drugs,

and the nonusers had virtually none. None of the light users and nonusers

met criteria for a history of dependence on other illicit drugs on the

101
Diagnostic Interview schedule, reported using any such drugs more than

twice in the last month, or showed any other illicit drugs in urine specimens. Except for one light marijuana user, none of the light users and

nonusers met criteria for a history of alcohol dependence on the Diagnostic

Interview Schedule.

TABLE 1. Demographic characteristics of subjects

Characteristics

Heavy Users

(n=61)

Light Users

(n=41)

Nonusers

(n=89)

Age (years, M±SE) 23.9±0.6

Education (years, M±SE) 14.3±0.2

Work Status (percent)

Employed (nonstudents)

Employed (students)

Unemployed*

30 20 16

41 37 47

30 44 37

Annual Income (percent)

Under $15,000

$15,000 to $35,000

82 90 80

18 10 20

Hollingshead Occupational

Scale Score** (percent)

1, 2, or 3

4 or 5

6, 7, 8, or 9

40 37 36

40 2 1 30

21 42 34

Sex (percent)

Men

Women

80

20

Race (percent)

White

Black or Asian

100

0

23.4±0.8

14.5±0.3

80

20

98

2

22.1±0.5

14.1±0.2

30

70

99

1

*All the unemployed subjects were students except for four heavy users and two light users.

**Excludes the unemployed and seven employed students who did not indicate their occupations.

Occupations are scored on a nine-point scale. Lower scores indicate less status.

NOTE: Analyses of variance for age and education and chi-square tests for the categorical

characteristics showed no significant differences among groups except for sex, 2=48.6,

p<.001.

102
FIGURE 2. Frequency distributions for marijuana use histories

NOTE: Years of Use (left) shows how long the heavy and light marijuana users had reportedly been

using marijuana at their indicated frequencies. Grade of First Use (right) shows the school

year during which the heavy and light users first tried marijuana. Grade of first use was not

provided by one heavy user and one light user.

Approximately two-thirds of the heavy marijuana users had no history of

dependence on other illicit drugs, did not report using any such drugs more

than twice in the last month, did not show any in urine specimens, and had

no history of alcohol dependence. The remaining heavy marijuana users did

show one or more (average 1.3) of these characteristics. Stimulants and

psychedelics were the illicit drugs with which heavy marijuana users had

the most other experience; they had considerably less experience with

depressants (figure 3).

103
FIGURE 3. Use of drugs other than marijuana by subjects who were

heavy marijuana users

KEY: Alc=alcohol, Coc=cocaine, Amphet=amphetamines, LSD=lysergic acid diethylamide, Other

Psy=psychedelic drugs other than LSD, Tran=tranquilizers, Other Nar=narcotic drugs other than

heroin, Nitri=amyl or butyl nitrites, Barb=barbituates, Qua=methaqualone (Quaalude),

Heroin=heroin, PCP=phencyclidine.

NOTE: Areas within bars represent the percentages reporting use of that drug the indicated number of

times in their lifetime.

Impairments From Marijuana Use

Figure 6 shows performance on the 12th-grade versions of the Iowa Tests

and the Short Test of Educational Ability. The heavy users, light users,

and nonusers performed comparably on four of the five tests. On the

Expression test, the heavy users performed worse than either the nonusers

or light users. The latter two groups did not differ.

104
FIGURE 4. Use of drugs other than marijuana by subjects who were light

marijuana users

NOTE: Format and abbreviation are the same as in figure 3.

DISCUSSION

If the study were complete and did not involve any measure of intellectual

abilities before the onset of marijuana use or any computerized learning and

cognitive tests, its conclusion would be that light, chronic marijuana use

produces no cognitive impairment while heavy, chronic use produces a

small but statistically significant impairment of verbal expressive skills without concomitant impairment of vocabulary, reading comprehension,

105
FIGURE 5. Use of drugs other than marijuana by subjects who were

nonusers of marijuana

NOTE: Format and abbreviations are the same as in figure 3.

mathematical abilities, or general abilities. There are four main ways this

conclusion must be hedged.

First, more marijuana users must be tested. Also, more male nonusers must

be tested to make the users and nonusers comparable in sex distribution.

These subjects might perform differently than those tested so far.

Second, among the 4th-grade tests, the only one that showed a difference

between groups (Language Skills) was the one most closely related to

Expression, the only 12th-grade test that showed a difference between

106
FIGURE 6. Performance on the 12th-grade versions of the Iowa Tests of

Educational Development (standard scores) and the Short

Test of Educational Ability (quotient score)

*F=6.8, p<.01 for difference between heavy users, light users, and nonusers in one-way

analysis of variance.

*Differs from nonusers and from light users by followup Tukey tests, p<.05.

KEY: VOCAB=Vocabulary, LIT=Ability To Interpret Literary Materials, EXP=Correctness and Appropriateness of Expression, QUAN=Ability To Do Quantitative Thinking, EDUC=Short Test of

Educational Ability.

NOTE: The fourth-grade tests most comparable to VOCAB, UT, EXP, and QUAN are Vocabulary,

Reading Comprehension, Language Skills, and Mathematics Skills, respectively. Vertical lines

indicate standard errors.

groups. Thus, the apparent impairment of the heavy marijuana users on

Expression may disappear when the final groups of subjects, balanced on

fourth-grade test scores, have been formed. The final selection of nonusers

cannot be made until the remaining marijuana users have been enrolled in

the study, since this selection will be determined by a metric matching the

users and nonusers as closely as possible. To avoid leaving the question

completely in limbo at this point, however, a quick selection of nonusers of

the planned final group size (n=72) was made by deleting the extra 17 nonusers who had the highest Language Skills scores, except for those who

were male or above the average age of all subjects (since the marijuana

users were disproportionately male and slightly, albeit nonsignificantly, older

than the nonusers). Reanalyses of the resulting groups showed that these

deletions eliminated the significant differences between heavy users, light

107
users, and nonusers on Language Skills scores without introducing any new

significant differences among groups on other fourth-grade test scores or

demographic characteristics. The mean Language Skills score of the

remaining 72 nonusers was 5.5±0.1. Reanalysis of scores on the 12th-grade

Expression test continued to show a significant difference between groups,

F=4.7, p<.05, the mean Expression score of the remaining nonusers being

24.4±0.5. As before, Tukey tests showed that the heavy users performed

worse than either the nonusers or the light users, while the latter two

groups did not differ from each other. This tentatively suggests that the

apparent impairment of the heavy marijuana users on Expression may persist when the final groups of subjects have been formed.

Although the percentage of women remained lower among the marijuana

users than among the nonusers even after deleting the extra 17 female nonusers, additional analyses suggested that the results were not just artifacts of

sex differences: (1) although women performed slightly better than men on

the 4th-grade Language Skills and 12th-grade Expression tests, neither the

sex difference nor the interaction of sex with groups was significant for

either test; (2) when all women were excluded and only the male heavy

users, light users, and nonusers were analyzed, the groups did not differ on

4th-grade Language Skills scores but continued to show a significant difference on 12th-grade Expression scores, F=3.2, p<.05, despite the small

number of male nonusers tested to date (n=27). For men, the mean scores

for Language Skills were 5.1 for heavy users, 5.3 for light users, and 5.4

for nonusers. The corresponding scores for Expression were 22.2, 24.7, and

24.1, respectively. The corresponding scores for women were 5.1 for heavy

users, 5.2 for light users, and 5.6 for nonusers for Language Skills and

23.8, 26.5, and 24.5 for Expression, respectively.

The third qualifier to the apparent conclusion is that the Iowa Tests generally emphasize utilization of previously (preexperimentally) acquired information and skills, while most of the computerized tests given in the second

test session emphasize learning and remembering new information. One of

the hypotheses of the study is that chronic marijuana use may more adversely affect learning and remembering new information than other cognitive functions, so that the computerized tests may be more sensitive than the

Iowa Tests to adverse effects of marijuana use. Whether this hypothesis

will be supported is unknown, since the results of the computerized tests

have not yet been examined.

Finally, although the heavy marijuana users as a group were much more

experienced with marijuana than with any other illicit drug, individuals who

had experimented with other drugs had to be included to obtain enough

subjects. Before concluding that any impairment shown by the heavy users

was attributable to marijuana, additional analyses examining the possible

contribution of other drug use will be necessary.

108
A “purer” group of exclusive users of marijuana might be obtained by

recruiting in more densely populated areas than Iowa. However, heavy

marijuana use is correlated with use of other drugs throughout the United

States (Johnston 1980; Johnston 1981). Isolating the effects of individual

drugs like marijuana on learning and cognitive function is crucial from a

scientific viewpoint, but the combined effects of using multiple drugs may

be of even greater practical concern. The general approach we have been

using for examining cognitive effects of chronic marijuana use could profitably be applied in examining cognitive effects of chronic use of multiple

drugs. Whatever drug or drugs are under investigation, selecting groups

that are equated for intellectual functioning before the onset of drug use

allows much greater confidence in the conclusions.

NOTES ADDED IN PROOF

When the study described in this chapter was completed, the reported frequency of using marijuana within the final sample of 144 marijuana users

was 7 or more times weekly for 52, 5 to 6 times weekly for 28, and 1 to 4

times weekly for 64. These groups reported using marijuana at their indicated frequencies for means of 6.2, 5.8, and 5.5 years, respectively. To

obtain a group of 72 nonusers for the final analyses who were comparable

to the marijuana users in sex distribution, fourth-grade Iowa Test scores,

and other characteristics, additional male nonusers were tested, and only a

subset of the female nonusers (n=l5) was chosen for inclusion. These

female nonusers were chosen so that the fourth-grade Iowa Test scores, age,

and education were matched for the users and nonusers. Choices were

made without reference to an individual’s scores on the 12th-grade Iowa

Tests. No marijuana users or male nonusers were excluded as part of the

matching process. After matching, there were no significant differences

between groups in fourth-grade Iowa Test scores (Vocabulary, Reading

Comprehension, Language Skills, Mathematics Skills, Work-Study Skills,

and Composite Score). The groups also showed no significant differences

with respect to sex, age, education, work status, annual income, Hollingshead Occupational Scale score, or race. Of the 12th-grade Iowa Tests,

2 subtests, Correctness and Appropriateness of Expression and Ability To

Do Quantitative Thinking, showed significant impairments in heavy marijuana users relative to nonusers. The other tests (Vocabulary, Ability To

Interpret Literary Materials, and Short Test of Educational Ability) did not

show impairments in heavy marijuana users. Less frequent marijuana use

did not produce impairments on any test. Thus, the most important findings

of the study are the impairments observed in verbal expression and mathematical skills following heavy marijuana use.

109
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acquisition and retrieval processes. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 20:233-

241, 1984.

Block, R.I., and Wittenbom, J.R. Marijuana effects on associative processes. Psychopharmacology 85:426-430, 1985.

Culver, C.M., and King, F.W. Neuropsychological assessment of undergraduate marihuana and LSD users. Arch Gen Psychiatry 31:707-711,

1974.

Entin, E.E., and Goldzung, P.J. Residual effects of marihuana usage on

learning and memory. Psycho1 Rec 23:169-178, 1973.

Gianutsos, R., and Litwack, A.R. Chronic marijuana smokers show reduced

coding into long-term storage. Bull Psychonom Soc 7:277-279, 1976.

Hietonymus, A.N.; Lindquist, E.F.; and Hoover, H.D. Manual for School

Administrators, Iowa Tests of Basic Skills. Chicago: Riverside Publishing,

1982.

Iowa Testing Programs. ITED Examiner’s Manual, Directions for Testing,

Iowa Tests of Educational Development, Forms X-8 and Y-8. Iowa City,

IA: University of Iowa, 1987.

Johnston, L.D. The daily marijuana user. Presented at the 1980 meeting of

the National Alcohol and Drug Coalition, Washington, DC, September 18,

1980.

Johnston, L.D. Frequent marijuana use: Correlates, possible effects, and

reasons for using and quitting. Presented at the American Council on

Marijuana Conference, Treating the Marijuana Dependent Person,

Bethesda, MD, May 4, 1981.

Johnston, L.D.; Bachman, J.G.; and O’Malley, P.M. Student Drug Use in

America: 1975-1981. DHHS Pub. No. (ADM)82-1221. Rockville, MD:

National Institute on Drug Abuse, 1981.

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Robins, L.N., and Helzer, J.E. Diagnostic Interview Schedule (DIS) Version

III-A. St. Louis: Washington University School of Medicine, 1985.

Scannell, D.P. Differential Prediction of Academic Success from Achievement Test Scores. Ph.D. thesis. Iowa City, IA: University of Iowa,

1958.

Science Research Associates, Inc. Examiner’s Manual, STEA, Short Test of

Educational Ability, Levels 3-5. Chicago: Science Research Associates,

Inc., 1974.

Science Research Associates, Inc. ITED, Iowa Tests of Educational Development, Forms X5 and Y5, Technical Report Addendum: 1978 Standardization. Chicago: Science Research Associates, Inc., 1981.

Soueif, M.I. The use of cannabis in Egypt: A behavioural study. Bull

Narc 23:17-28, 1971.

Weckowicz, T.E., and Janssen, D.V. Cognitive functions, personality traits,

and social values in heavy marijuana smokers and nonsmoker controls.

J Abnorm Psychol 81:264-269, 1973.

Wig, N.N., and Varma, V.K. Patterns of long-term heavy cannabis use in

north India and its effects on cognitive functions: A preliminary report.

Drug Alcohol Depend 2:211-219, 1977.

110
Winer, B.J. Statistical Principles in Experimental Design. 2d ed. New

York: McGraw-Hill, 1971.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

David A. Frisbie, Ph.D., Iowa Testing Programs, University of Iowa

processed requests for transcripts of fourth-grade scores on the Iowa Tests

of Basic Skills. Dr. Frisbie and others at Iowa Testing Programs, particularly Robert A. Forsyth, Ph.D., and A.N. Hieronymus, Ph.D., provided

advice concerning the Iowa Tests of Basic Skills and Iowa Tests of Educational Development. Ms. Stacy Siegel and Ms. Wendy Walters assisted

with the conduct of the research. James V. Himichs, Ph.D., Department of

Psychology, University of Iowa provided advice concerning the study. The

research was supported in part by U.S. Public Health Service grant

1 R01 DA 03988 from the National Institute on Drug Abuse to the first

author and by grant RR59 from the General Clinical Research Centers

Program, Division of Research Resources, National Institutes of Health to

the Clinical Research Center, University of Iowa.

AUTHORS

Robert I. Block, Ph.D.

Assistant Professor

Department of Anesthesia

Sara Famham, B.A.

Research Assistant

Department of Anesthesia

Kathleen Braverman, B.S., R.N.

Research Assistant

Department of Anesthesia

Russell Noyes, Jr., M.D.

Professor

Department of Psychiatry

M.M. Ghoneim, M.D.

Professor

Department of Anesthesia

University of Iowa

Iowa City, IA 52242

111
Residual Effects of Alcohol

Peter E. Nathan

INTERACTIONS OF RESIDUAL EFFECTS WITH TOLERANCE

AND WITHDRAWAL PROCESSES

Tolerance

Alcohol intoxication refers to the varied behavioral, neurological, and psychological sequelae of alcohol ingestion. The average-sized individual

metabolizes between 7 and 10 grams of alcohol per hour, which corresponds to approximately 1 ounce of 90-proof spirits or 12 ounces of beer

(Becker 1979). As the amount of alcohol ingested exceeds metabolic

capacity, the level of alcohol in the blood increases. For the individual

who has not developed a high degree of tolerance to alcohol, i.e., the social

drinker, the degree of intoxication and the observed impairment correspond

roughly to measured blood alcohol level (BAL: milligrams of alcohol per

100 ml of blood, or mg percent).

After one or hvo drinks, the nontolerant individual experiences only minor

changes in coordination, behavior, or mood. However, as BAL increases

above 100 mg percent (approximately five drinks in 1 hour for a 160-pound

man), most social drinkers begin to demonstrate significant signs of intoxication, including impaired speech, ataxia, mood lability, impaired judgment,

and memory and attention deficits. At dosage levels exceeding 200 mg percent, these symptoms intensify. Marked dysarthria and ataxia are accompanied by extensive impairment of judgment, psychomotor skills, attention

and memory, and mood control. At dosage levels exceeding 300 mg of

alcohol per 100 ml of blood, the anesthetic action of alcohol predominates,

with the possibility of coma, respiratory failure, and death increasing

dramatically at BAI.s between 400 and 700 mg percent.

In most States in the United States, the legal limit of alcohol intoxication

for the operation of an automobile ranges between 80 and 100 mg of alcohol per 100 ml of blood. These alcohol concentrations, however, do not

necessarily correlate with the actual level of impairment observed, especially

for heavy alcohol consumers who have developed a high degree of tolerance

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for alcohol. The final level of intoxication and resultant impairment is a

function not only of BAL but also of the characteristics of the drinker

(Mendelson and Mello 1985), as well as the pattern of consumption, general

health and liver functioning, and presence of other drugs in the blood

(Noble 1984). Characteristics of the drinker that influence intoxication and

impairment include the drinker’s age, weight, prior experience with alcohol,

learned expectations concerning the effects of alcohol (Wilson et al. 1980),

and degree of acquired tolerance for alcohol (Lipscomb and Nathan 1980).

The diagnosis of alcohol intoxication is complicated when tolerance for

alcohol develops. Individuals who have developed a high degree of behavioral tolerance may not evidence the impairments or exhibit the overt signs

of intoxication observed in individuals who drink socially (Mello 1972).

Tolerant individuals have been found to perform quite well at BALs

between 200 and 300 mg percent in tasks requiring psychomotor skills and

good mentation (Mello and Mendelson 1978; Talland et al. 1964).

Laboratory studies of the metabolism of C

14-labeled ethanol have indicated

that, although the chronic ingestion of alcohol results in an increased rate of

metabolism in both alcoholic and nonalcoholic subjects, the general rate of

metabolism does not differentiate the two groups (Mello 1972; Mendelson

1964; Mendelson et al. 1965). These data suggest that tolerance to alcohol

is related to adaptive processes in the central nervous system rather than to

alterations in the rate of metabolism of ethanol (Mendelson 1968).

Despite these findings, important questions concerning the extent to which

tolerance is retained by sober alcoholics remain. Though some have reported “savings” in the rate at which tolerance is reacquired after a period of

sobriety (Shapiro and Nathan 1986), the extent, nature, and prognostic significance of this residual phenomenon in sober alcoholics remains uncertain.

Relevant to this issue are data on the differential abilities of alcoholics and

nonalcoholics to estimate their own BALs. Alcoholics have been found

consistently to be less accurate than nonalcoholics in estimating their BALS

both prior to and following training in internal cue discrimination (Huber

et al. 1976; Lansky et al. 1978; Shapiro et al. 1980). Lipscomb and Nathan

(1980) hypothesized that heightened tolerance in alcoholics may account for

observed differences between alcoholics and nonalcoholics in the ability to

utilize internal cues of intoxication for a variety of purposes, including

moderation of drinking. To test this hypothesis, Lipscomb and Nathan

(1980) grouped nonalcoholic subjects according to differences in body sway

when intoxicated and when sober. Recognized as an extremely sensitive

measure of intoxication, body sway is also viewed as a reliable measure of

tolerance to ethanol (Moskowitz et al. 1974).

In the research by Lipscomb and Nathan, low-tolerance subjects evidenced

marked differences in body sway between sober and intoxicated states;

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high-tolerance individuals showed little difference in body sway between

sober and intoxicated states. Following internal cue training, the lowtolerance subjects were found to be significantly more accurate than the

high-tolerance subjects in their blood-alcohol estimates, a finding suggesting

that increased tolerance may interfere with the utilization of internal intoxication cues.

If the residual effects of heavy alcohol use include the increased potential to

redevelop tolerance more quickly, these data suggest that these effects may

play a role in the heightened risk of heavy drinkers to go on to develop

frank abuse and dependence.

Withdrawal

Alcohol withdrawal delirium—delirium tremens—constitutes one of the most

serious residual effects of alcohol. The onset of this condition is usually

preceded by mild to moderate, essentially normal, withdrawal symptomatology. The more severe symptoms occur within 1 week after the cessation

or reduction of heavy drinking, and, a few days after normal withdrawal,

symptoms have dissipated. The syndrome is characterized by confusion,

disorientation, and a severe tremulous state. The course is variable, with

alternating periods of agitation and calm, punctuated by vivid hallucinations

and illusions and autonomic hyperactivity (fever, sweating, tachycardia, elevated blood pressure and respiration rates, and insomnia) (Victor 1976).

The disorder is usually of short duration, with 15 percent of patients in

remission after 24 hours and over 80 percent in remission in less than

3 days (Victor 1976; Victor and Adams 1953).

Although virtually all alcoholics experience at least some of the generally

benign symptoms of withdrawal, only 5 percent of alcoholics hospitalized

for major withdrawal experience alcohol withdrawal delirium (Victor and

Adams 1953), with an estimated incidence among alcoholics ranging from

1 percent to 15 percent (Gross et al. 1974). Peak incidence of the disorder

is between the ages of 30 and 50, with a decline in frequency after the age

of 60. Improvements in the effective hospital management of the syndrome

have resulted in a significant drop in mortality rates, with estimates ranging

between 5 percent and 50 percent (typically 15 percent) to less than 1 percent (Gross et al. 1974; Pattison 1985).

Gross and his colleagues (1974) found significant differences between

whites and blacks in the age of admission for symptoms of alcohol withdrawal delirium, with blacks on the average 8 years younger than whites.

These age differences may be related to cultural differences in quantity and

frequency of alcohol consumption (Cahalan 1977; Lex 1985). Men are at

higher risk to develop the disorder than women, probably because of both

the higher incidence of alcoholism in men and differences in drinking patterns between men and women (Tracey et al. 1976).

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Data on recurrence rates of delirium tremens are in conflict. Feuerlein

(cited in Gross et al. 1974) has suggested that the recurrence rate is low

and decreases with subsequent episodes, while Gross and his colleagues

(1974) reported a readmission rate for the syndrome of 43 percent. The latter finding suggests a residual effect of chronic alcohol abuse. Exploration

of the mechanism responsible for this residual effect, if it does in fact exist,

might well prove helpful to a fuller understanding of the pathophysiology of

this important syndrome.

RESIDUAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL

Amnestic Disorders

Korsakoff first described the unique amnestic syndrome, which would subsequently bear his name, in 1887. In its acute phase, the syndrome is characterized by mental confusion and disorientation to time, place, or person; in

its chronic stages, the confusional state subsides, and patients again become

alert-but typically apathetic and lacking in spontaneity or self-direction.

As indicated above, the memory function is severely disturbed: there is a

marked deterioration in short-term memory, coupled with varying degrees of

retrograde amnesia (Cermak 1987; Victor 1975). Confabulation is also frequently associated with Korsakoffs syndrome. However, the presence of

confabulation is not required for the diagnosis (Victor 1976). In addition,

these patients evidence deficits in a variety of conceptual and perceptual

functions (Butters and Granholm 1987).

The onset of Korsakoff's syndrome is frequently preceded by an acute episode of Wemicke’s disease, an encephalopathy characterized by ataxia,

ophthalmoplegia, nystagmus, and a global confused state (Victor et al.

1971).

The exact incidence of Korsakoffs syndrome is unknown, but estimates are

that between 1 percent and 3 percent of alcohol-related problems requiring

hospitalization can be traced to the disorder (Dreyfus 1974; Victor et al.

1971). In their classic study of 245 alcoholic patients, Victor and his colleagues (1971) reported age of onset for the disorder to be fairly evenly distributed among the ages of 30 to 70 years. A sex ratio of 1.7 males to

1 female was observed in this sample. However, these sex differences disappeared during the fifth and sixth decades of life.

The rate and extent of recovery from the symptoms of Korsakoff’s syndrome appear to be quite variable. Victor and colleagues (1971) reported

that complete recovery occurred in 21 percent of 104 cases, with remaining

patients showing significant but incomplete recovery (25 percent), slight

improvement (28 percent), or permanent disability (26 percent). Rate of

recovery also varied greatly. It ranged from 9 days to 1 year, with more

rapid and complete improvement in neurological signs typically following

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the administration of adequate thiamine, but slower resolution of cognitivememory impairments (Donovan et al. 1987; Wilson 1987).

Korsakoffs syndrome and Wemicke’s disease have been viewed as two

clinically distinct aspects of the same disease entity, frequently termed the

Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome (Dreyfus 1974; Victor 1975). The etiology

of this collective syndrome has generally been thought to be a profound

deficiency of vitamin B1 (thiamine). A number of lines of evidence implicate the role of a nutritional deficit in the etiology of Korsakoff’s syndrome: (1) acute Wemicke’s disease, malnutrition, and chronic Korsakoffs

syndrome are consistently associated: 85 percent of Victor’s patients

presenting with Wemicke’s disease subsequently exhibited the symptoms of

Korsakoff’s syndrome; (2) some improvement in the syndrome follows the

administration of thiamine and vitamin therapy; (3) the lesions and other

pathological changes that occur in Korsakoff’s syndrome are essentially the

same as those characterizing diseases of known nutritional etiology, e.g.,

Wemicke’s disease (Victor et al. 1971).

Freund (1976) has noted, however, that much of the evidence for the nutritional hypothesis is based on correlational data and does not provide

unequivocal proof of a cause-and-effect relationship. Unlike Wemicke’s

disease, which has been observed in patients suffering severe nutritional

depletion unrelated to alcohol, Korsakoffs syndrome is extremely rare in

cases of vitamin deficiency in the absence of alcohol consumption (Freund

1976). In addition, the response of Korsakoff’s syndrome to thiamine therapy is slow and, in almost 80 percent of cases, incomplete (Victor et al.

1971). Further, the absence of controlled clinical trials makes it difficult to

determine whether the observed changes reflect a response to vitamin therapy or a spontaneous recovery over time. As well, the pathological changes

observed in Korsakoffs syndrome do not appear to be confined to brain

areas characteristic of Wemicke’s disease, e.g., the diencephalic areas

(Butters and Granholm 1987; Freund 1976).

Nonetheless, the balance of evidence implicates a role for nutritional factors

in the pathogenesis of Korsakoff’s syndrome (Victor 1975; Victor et al.

1971). It is well known that chronic alcohol ingestion may result in vitamin deprivation by the displacement of food in the diet. In addition, the

excessive intake of alcohol favors the development of a thiamine-deficient

state by adding carbohydrate calories, which increases the need for thiamine.

Finally, heavy alcohol ingestion impairs the ability of the gut to absorb thiamine and other nutrients (Victor 1975). But, regardless of the exact nature

of the alcohol-nutritional interaction in this syndrome, effective treatment

requires early identification to prevent the establishment of the irreversible

memory deficits that characterize alcohol amnestic disorder (Cermak 1987).

This disorder is a particularly catastrophic consequence of chronic alcoholism for some. What remains unknown, however, is what inclines some

116
chronic alcoholics to develop the disorder and protects others, including

those suffering from marked thiamine deficiency, from it. We also do not

know whether lengthy periods of sobriety, in the midst of a lifetime of

alcohol abuse, protects against or perhaps even sensitizes to the development

of Korsakoff's syndrome. Both unanswered questions demand answers.

Dementia

Sometimes, persons with a history of chronic alcohol consumption develop

dementia and consequent intellectual impairment. The differential diagnosis

of dementia associated with alcoholism requires a history of prolonged and

heavy alcohol use, persistence of dementia for at least 3 weeks after drinking ceases, and the exclusion, by appropriate means, of all other causes of

dementia besides chronic alcohol consumption (Oscar-Berman 1987).

This condition must be differentiated from mild, alcohol-dependence-related

cognitive deficits revealed only by neuropsychological evaluation (these conditions are discussed later in this chapter). Persons given the diagnosis of

dementia associated with alcoholism, by contrast, must demonstrate at least

some impairment in social or occupational functioning. The dementia can

vary in severity from mild impairment in functioning to impairment in general functioning so severe that custodial care is required. Characteristic features of dementia include deterioration in previous intellectual abilities,

short- and long-term memory deficits, and impairment in abstract thinking,

judgment, and impulse control of sufficient magnitude to interfere significantly with work, usual social activities, or relationships with others.

Alcohol abuse likely plays both a direct and an indirect role in the etiology

of this disorder (Victor et al. 1971). Alcohol contributes directly to the

pathogenesis of the disorder through its toxic effects on the brain and indirectly by its interaction with vitamin deficiency, other alcohol-related

diseases, and alcohol-related accidents causing damage to the brain (Freund

1976; Risberg and Berglund 1987).

Although the exact incidence of the disorder is unknown, it has been estimated that between 15 percent and 30 percent of nursing-home patients with

organic brain syndrome are alcoholics whose alcohol-related organicity has

become permanent (Schuckit 1979).

Changes in Social Interaction

Patterns of social interaction associated with alcohol consumption were a

prime focus of the empirical laboratory studies of alcoholic drinking that my

colleagues and I undertook at Boston City Hospital and Rutgers University.

The initial impetus for this research came from data on the behavioral

effects of chronic drinking reported by Mendelson and Mello in 1966.

Their male chronic alcoholic subjects’ social behavior seemed to vary

117
according to three factors: the amount of alcohol they had consumed, the

nature of their drinking and living environments, and the history of their

alcohol abuse. To undertake a detailed experimental analysis of these variables, my coworkers and I planned an around-the-clock comparative examination of the operant-choice behavior of groups of alcoholic and nonalcoholic males, during periods of social interaction and social isolation, crossed

with periods of drinking and abstinence.

Our alcoholic subjects, most of them drawn from Boston’s skid row,

expended almost all of the points they earned for operant work to purchase

alcohol, not to relieve social isolation (Nathan et al. 1970). Moreover,

these men usually chase to remain isolated during nondrinking periods as

well, especially toward the end of the 3-week drinking period.

O’Brien and I (Nathan and O’Brien 1971; Nathan et al. 1971) then directly

compared the social behavior of alcoholic men with that of matched nonalcoholics. The nonalcoholic men turned out to be much more social than

the alcoholic men; they spent many more reinforcement points for socialization before, during, and after periods of drinking than had their alcoholic

peers. In a complementary study of women, Tracey et al. (1976) reported

that female alcoholics in a similar operant-choice situation were more prosocial than the chronic alcoholic men who had been studied earlier.

Studying the drinking and social behavior of alcoholics who seemed largely

comparable to the subjects my colleagues and I had investigated, Bigelow

(1973) and Griffiths and colleagues (1975) reported most of their male

chronically alcoholic subjects to be significantly more sociable on drinking

days than on days when they could not drink. Additional support for the

view that not all chronic alcoholics are social isolates when they are

drinking-that, in fact, alcohol serves very often to increase their social

interaction--came from a study by Thornton and colleagues (1975) in which

alcohol dramatically increased social interaction among groups of alcoholics.

It may be, then, contrary to my own early findings, that chronic alcoholics

may actually become more rather than less isolated interpersonally when

they drink. Among the apparent factors influencing alcohol’s effect on

interpersonal behavior are the likelihood that being with others during drinking periods threatens the continued availability of alcohol (skid-row alcoholics cannot afford to share), whether the person has good social skills to

begin with (many skid-row alcoholics are social isolates, drunk or sober),

and whether social skills were reinforced in the past (middle-class alcoholics

are more likely to value social skills).

Unlike some of the other behaviors that follow alcohol ingestion, the effect

of alcohol-related expectancies on social interaction has not been examined

intensively. Indirect explorations contrasting drug and expectancy effects on

social anxiety, however, indicate that expectancy does play an important

118
role in determining alcohol’s effect on social anxiety (Lipscomb et al. 1980;

Wilson and Abrams 1977; Wilson et al. 1980). These findings suggest that

believing that alcohol relaxes, facilitates communication, and enhances selfesteem is important to alcohol’s role as a social facilitator.

Changes in Cognitive Processes

Chronic alcohol abuse causes deficits in cognitive functioning. In some

instances, these deficits are severe and disabling enough to meet the diagnostic criteria for dementia associated with alcoholism. In others, especially

when accompanied by nutritional deficiency, profound cognitive deficits may

signal Korsakoff's syndrome. Most of the time, though, the deficits in cognitive functioning that accompany chronic alcohol abuse are not severe

enough in and of themselves to justify a separate diagnosis. Instead, for the

most part, these deficits are simply seen as correlates or consequences of a

long period of (generally) abusive drinking.

The well-known deficits associated with alcohol intoxication include balance,

coordination, judgment, and cognitive-perceptual impairments (Jones and

Vega 1971; Jones and Parsons 1975). Less well known is that, although

the social drinker returns to intact cognitive-perceptual functioning shortly

after all alcohol has cleared from the body, the alcoholic or problem drinker

who attains sobriety does not return to normal cognitive functioning for a

longer period of time, depending on such factors as age (Goldman 1982),

alcohol consumption pattern (Sanchez-Craig 1980), and quantity and frequency (Eckhardt et al. 1978). Typical deficits associated with chronic

alcohol abuse affect problem solving, nonverbal abstracting, and perceptualspatial motor performance. Memory and new learning skills may also be

depressed. Finally, although general verbal intelligence often shows no

impairment, linguistic skills of a more demanding nature may be impaired

in chronic alcoholics (Parsons 1987).

An interesting recent series of studies (reviewed by Goldman 1987) revealed

that the most important determinant of recovery from the cognitive deficits

associated with prolonged drinking may be age. Heavy drinkers and alcoholics under the age of 40 generally recover from virtually all cognitive

deficits by 2 to 3 weeks after drinking has ceased, regardless of drinking

history. Alcoholics over 40, by contrast, take much longer to recover functioning and, even after 3 months or more without a drink, may show residual deficits in visual-perceptual functioning. These findings suggest that

certain of the deteriorative processes associated with aging interfere with the

recovery of the cognitive functioning that takes place in younger individuals,

regardless of the quantity of alcohol consumed.

It is interesting to speculate on the role of age in other residual effects of

chronic alcohol abuse. Do the possible residual effects of chronic alcohol

abuse on tolerance and withdrawal, possibly even susceptibility to delirium

119
tremens, vary as a function of age? Do older alcohol abusers maintain

residual effects that younger ones lose? The role of age raises most

interesting questions, which should certainly be explored.

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AUTHOR

Peter E. Nathan, Ph.D.

Center of Alcohol Studies

Rutgers-The State University of

New Jersey

New Brunswick, NJ 08903

123
Hepatic, Nutritional, and Genetic

Influences on Cognitive Process

in Alcoholics

Ralph E. Tarter, Howard Moss, Amelia Arria, and

David Van Thiel

INTRODUCTION

Cognitive science is the study of conscious experience. It encompasses the

study of phenomena ranging from introspection to the mechanisms underlying sensory information processing.

Neuropsychology is concerned with relating cognitive process to brain

organization. When injury to the brain occurs, as, for example, following

chronic use of drugs, it is important to ascertain how the central nervous

system (CNS) pathology affects the structure and operations of cognition.

This information may help better to understand and predict the behavior of

the person.

This discussion addresses three questions. (1) Does chronic substance abuse

disrupt cognitive capacities? (2) What are the potential mechanisms of

action by which drug abuse compromises CNS integrity? (3) Are individuals who are at high risk for substance abuse differentiable from the rest of

the population with respect to cognitive capacities?

EFFECTS OF CHRONIC SUBSTANCE ABUSE ON COGNITION

Alcohol and substance abuse rank among the three most prevalent psychiatric disorders (Myers et al. 1984). Comparatively little is known, however,

regarding the long-term neurobehavioral consequences of chronic drug use.

Sampling and methodologic problems are major mitigating factors in conducting research in this complex problem area. For example, inhalant

abusers, benzodiazepene abusers, and opiate abusers comprise somewhat distinct populations with respect to socioeconomic status, gender, and race.

Hence, generalization with respect to comparative neurotoxicity is difficult

124
because individuals who select a particular drug are not representative of the

population at large. Furthermore, pattern of drug use and underlying motivation for drug use are not the same for all members within a population

using a certain drug. The occasional recreational drug user is quite different from the person who uses drugs for self-medication or the person who

is physically addicted with respect to the acute and cumulative effects of

the substance on the brain. Also, individuals who use one drug preferentially are inclined to use other drugs occasionally, and, not infrequently,

consume two or more drugs conjointly. This behavior, which is generally

referred to as polydrug abuse, makes it difficult to ascertain the neurobehavioral effects of specific drugs in humans.

The acute and chronic effects of drug interaction on cognition are entirely

unknown, hence it is not readily feasible to determine a specific drug effect

on neuropsychological test performance. Thus, although the available evidence implicates the presence of neurobehavioral deficits for users of alcohol, inhalants, benzodiazepenes, as well as certain other drugs having abuse

liability (Tarter and Edwards 1987), it is not possible to relate unequivocally

the neuropsychological sequelae to the effect of the particular drug. To

date, data have not been presented relating such fundamental variables as

frequency, patterns, and quantity of drug use to level of neuropsychologic

test performance.

The research conducted to date has been almost entirely desaiptive. The

findings suggest that the prolonged consumption of certain types of drugs is

associated with decrements in neuropsychologic test performance. However,

the paucity of studies published in which the above-noted factors are controlled mitigates against any general conclusions regarding the mechanisms

underlying the chronic and lasting effects of drugs on cognition. Nonetheless, the available evidence indicates that not all drugs having abuse liability

cause neuropsychologic impairment. For example, there is no convincing

evidence that heroin and marijuana abusers perform deficiently on neuropsychological tests (Parsons and Farr 1981). Where disturbances are

observed, they are reflected by cognitive deficits in both capacity and efficiency and are manifest on tests of attention, memory, visual-motor, and

abstracting processes. The extent to which the structure of cognition in

terms of the representational systems or schemata are disrupted has not been

investigated. From the perspective of neuropsychology, it is not inconceivable that the brain can become pathological to the extent that representational systems are impaired. For example, pervasive cortical atrophy and

ventricular dilation have been described in chronic alcoholics (Ron 1983).

Such profound structural change can be expected to impair brain functioning

such that sensory input cannot be transduced and coded into the representational systems comprising cognition. As yet, no research has been conducted relating the effects of drug abuse to cognitive schemata and brain

integrity using neuropsychologic tests.

125
The empirical evidence accrued regarding the effects of abused drugs on the

brain has focused on processes of cognition rather than on the representational structures of cognitive schemata. By far, the drug most studied has

been alcohol. With respect to the cognitive consequences of alcoholism,

substantial evidence indicates that detoxified alcoholics (sober for up to

1 month) exhibit deficits on tasks measuring abstracting, memory, and

visual-spatial capacities (Tarter and Edwards 1985). These deficits were

found in up to 75 percent of alcoholics drawn from clinical populations.

However, cognitive deficits tend to be absent when neuromedical history is

normal (Grant et al. 1984). The severity of cognitive deficits, when present, is modest compared to that observed in persons with acute neurologic

injury, and these deficits can be grouped into two broad syndromes

(Wilkinson and Carlen 1980). One syndrome presents as an amnesic disorder that in its most severe manifestations qualifies for a WernickeKorsakoff diagnosis. The second syndrome presents as a somewhat benign

dementia. These two neuropsychologic sequelae are not mutually exclusive

inasmuch as there. are overlapping features with respect to manifest cognitive impairment. Investigations have not yet been conducted to delineate

different neuropsychologic syndromes concomitant to drug abuse.

Although a substantial literature has emerged describing the type, severity,

and reversibility of neuropsychologic deficits in alcoholics, remarkably little

research has tried to identify the biological mechanisms that may be etiologically significant. The neurotoxicity of alcohol is well established.

Additionally, chronic alcohol excess is associated with a disruption of multiple biological systems, which, besides the direct neurotoxic effect of alcohol, can induce CNS injury. Research conducted in our laboratory indicates

that liver disease and vitamin-E-absorption disorder may contribute significantly to the cognitive deficits observed in alcoholics. The following brief

discussion examines these two mechanisms potentially underlying the etiology of neurologic pathology concomitant to alcohol abuse.

MECHANISMS UNDERLYING CNS INJURY

Liver Disease

Hepatic injury and dysfunction are common sequelae of chronic alcohol

abuse. Up to 30 percent of alcoholics develop cirrhosis, which, independently of alcohol consumption, is associated with a chronic hepatic encephalopathy (Rehnstrom et al. 1977). This liver-disease-induced neuropsychiatric

disorder is commonly believed to be the consequence of the liver’s failure

to catabolize circulating neurotoxins, particularly nitrogenous substances

(Duffy and Plum 1982). Hepatic encephalopathy caused by conditions other

than alcoholism is commonly associated with the same types of neuropsychologic deficits as is commonly found in alcoholics (Tarter et al. 1988).

As table 1 illustrates, when alcoholics and nonalcoholics are compared, both

groups having biopsy-confirmed cirrhosis, they perform very similarly on

126
most neuropsychologic tests. On tests that measure short-term memory, eye

tracking, and eye-finger coordination, the alcoholics do, however, perform

more poorly, indicating that not all of the CNS disturbance can be ascribed

to the effects of hepatic encephalopathy. The causes of these latter deficits

are not possible to discern; they may reflect the additional toxic impact of

alcohol on the brain or be the consequence of medical and biological factots other than liver disease that are common in alcoholics.

TABLE 1. Neuropsychologic test results

Test Control

Nonalcoholic Alcoholic

Cirrhotic Cirrhotic F

Token Test

Rey Figure Copy

Rey Figure Delay

Trailmaking A

Trailmaking B

Block Design

Stroop—Color

Stroop—Word

Stroop—Interference

Animal Naming

Symbol Digit

Digit Span Forward

Digit Span Backward

Digit Supraspan

Benton Visual Retention Test

Brown Peterson Memory Test

Finger Tapping—Dominant

Finger Tapping—Nondominant

Grooved Pegboard-Dominant

Grooved Pegboard—

Nondominant

Pursuit Rotor—Dominant

Pursuit Rotor—Nondominant

Static Ataxia—Eyes Open

Lateral

Static Ataxia—Eyes Open

Front-Back

1253 11.53 11.55 1.3

35.84 35.01 35.39 2.5

50.92 49.36 48.42 0.0

28.91 34.61 43.31 3.9*

60.46 81.84 112.22 6.6*

36.51 34.70 31.07 1.6

12.93 15.92 16.52 1.7

8.68 9.32 10.53 2.6

18.46 30.20 30.93 5.5*

24.48 20.33 22.35 1.9

53.52 40.94 39.11 10.9*

7.27 6.24 6.38 3.5*

4.44 4.63 4.29 0.4

2.90 1.83 2.59 2.2

8.21 6.85 6.87 4.2*

41.98 37.31 33.04 3.6*

50.92 49.36 48.42 0.4

47.21 44.73 44.53 1.1

68.96 84.79 95.59 4.0’

77.16 94.42 111.28 2.8

16.98 14.82 13.19 2.9

16.16 14.10 13.52 1.3

4.65 3.28 3.15 0.8

9.59 10.02 11.60 0.5

127
TABLE 1. (Continued)

Nonalcoholic Alcoholic

Test Control Cirrhotic Cirrhotic F

Static Ataxia—Eyes Closed 6.59 4.67 8.56 0.6

Lateral

Static Ataxia—Eyes Closed 14.90 23.50 20.72 1.8

Front-Back

*p<.05

NOTE: Data are group means, adjusted for age and education level. F values represent main effects.

The demonstration that liver disease in alcoholics may underlie certain of

the cognitive deficits has important ramifications. First, it suggests that

effective medical management of the liver disease may ameliorate the cognitive deficits. Preliminary data employing pharmacologic (Conn and Lieberthal 1978) and surgical (Tarter et al. 1988) procedures support this

possibility. Second, because the liver subserves a number of essential

biological functions (nutrition, immune regulation, detoxification, manufacture of plasma proteins), it may be that specific aspects of hepatic disturbance contribute to particular types of cognitive impairment. The biochemical variables listed in table 2, upon factor analysis, reduced into three

categories of liver processes: liver injury, liver dysfunction, and protein

synthesis in the liver. As can be seen in the table, various aspects of liver

disease are differentially associated with different types of cognitive

processes.

In summary, emerging evidence links hepatic disease to neuropsychologic

impairment in alcoholics (Tarter et al. 1986). The extent to which recovery

of cognitive capacity, often seen in alcoholics, is the product of a corresponding improvement in liver status concomitant to sobriety is unknown.

Also, it is unclear whether liver disease consequential to other types of drug

use, either directly from the drug or indirectly by disease resulting from

intravenous self-administration, e.g., hepatitis, underlies the CNS pathology.

The investigations conducted on alcoholics suggest that how liver disease

affects brain functioning may be an important topic for research concerned

with documenting the residual effects of other types of substance abuse on

cognitive capacity.

Nutrition

The water soluble B-complex vitamins are integral to maintaining normal

mental functioning. Chronic and severe intake deficiencies in these vitamins

are associated with an organic brain syndrome (Roe 1979). The best known

of these is a thiamine deficiency, which, in a subset of alcoholics, results in

128
TABLE 2. Linear multiple regression analysis of hepatic injury variable-s

and neuropsychologic test variables adjusted for age

Neuropsychologic Test

Biochemical

Variables*

Percent of

Variance

r Predicted p<

Block Design

Trailmaking Test A

Trailmaking Test B

Symbol Digit Modalities

Animal Naming

Digit Span Forward

Digit Span Backward

Supra Span

Tokens Test

(1) globulin

(2) prothrombin time

(3) ICG clearance

(1) albumin

(2) prothrombin time

(3) ICG clearance

(1) prothrombin time

(1) albumin

(2) prothrombin time

(3) globulin

(4) ICG clearance

(5) ammonia

(1) albumin

(2) prothrombin time

(3) ammonia

(4) globulin

(5) ICG clearance

(1) ICG clearance

(2) albumin

(3) globulin

(4) prothrombin time

(1) albumin

(2) globulin

(3) ammonia

(1) albumin

(2) prothrombin time

(3) ammonia

(4) ICG clearance

(5) globulin

(1) prothrombin time

(2) albumin

(3) ammonia

.37 13.8

.37 12.8

.27 7.0

.47 21.9

.55 29.8

.39 15.0

.38 14.2

.47

.40

21.8

15.6

.05

.05

.05

.0l

.00l

.05

.05

.0l

.05

(4) ICG clearance

*Numbers in parentheses indicate order of variable entry in regression equation.

129
an acute encephalopathy. This is often referred to as Wemicke’s syndrome.

In its chronic state, the Wemicke Korsakoff syndrome is the most profound

neurologic sequela of alcoholism. Other B-complex vitamin deficiencies

have also been shown to induce or exacerbate an organic brain syndrome.

The effects of a fat-soluble vitamin deficiency has been the subject of

research in our laboratory (Arria et al., in press). In one study, we found

that 52 percent of alcoholics met criteria for a vitamin E deficiency. This

may be important for elucidating the neural mechanisms underlying the cognitive deficits in alcoholics. Vitamin E is an antioxidant and, as such, functions to protect membrane phospholipids from peroxidation by free radicals.

The absence of the protective function of vitamin E in alcoholics may catalyze membrane destruction. It is noteworthy that alcohol administration to

animals results in increased membrane permeability; thus one potential

mechanism for CNS injury may relate to cell membrane injury or destruction consequential to a vitamin-E-absorption disorder.

Table 3 summarizes the findings from a recently completed study in our

laboratory on a nonalcoholic sample. The findings demonstrate the potential

importance of vitamin E on psychomotor capacity.

In summary, the residual cognitive deficits associated with chronic alcohol

or drug abuse may be due in part to disturbed nutritional intake or absorption. Inadequate intake of essential nutrients may be intrinsic to the lifestyle of the destitute drug addict; this inadequacy, added to the drug’s

effects on the brain, exacerbates the cognitive impairment. In addition, a

disruption of biological systems regulating absorption of essential nutrients

may contribute to the CNS pathology. Thus, drug abuse may be associated

with persisting cognitive impairment owing to the combined influences of

direct action on the brain, indirect effects of drug use (lifestyle), or

disruption of organ-system integrity (liver, pancreas, heart), and infection.

COGNITIVE DEFICIT PRESAGING SUBSTANCE ABUSE

children of alcoholics and children of drug abusers may manifest neurodevelopmental and cognitive deficits concomitant to either drug teratogenicity or genetic predisposition. Evidence presented in the past several

years suggests that children of alcoholics exhibit cognitive impairments

compared to children of nonalcoholics (Tarter et al., in press). Deficits

have also been reported even when the children of alcoholics were raised

away from their biological alcoholic parents. To date, no circumscribed

cognitive syndrome has been delineated, although from the studies published, it appears that children of alcoholics may be deficient on tasks

measuring planning, verbal memory, and abstracting (Tarter et al. 1989). It

should be emphasized, however, that the results are preliminary and the

presence, type, and severity of cognitive impairment observed are not consistent across all investigations.

130
TABLE 3. Performance scores on neuropsychologic rests for normal

healthy controls, primary biliary cirrhosis (PBC) patients

with vitamin E deficiency, and PBC patients without

vitamin E deficiency

Neuropsychologic Test

PBC

Vitamin E

Deficient

Healthy

Controls

PBC

Vitamin E

Sufficient

Visual-Motor Efficiency

Trailmaking A 36.22±9.4* 26.87±6.7 34.71±11.0

Trailmaking B 98.0±31.8* 57.00±10.3 77.14±32.5

Symbol Digit 39.16±10.1* 55.60±7.2 44.07±6.0

Simple Motor Speed

Finger Tapping 82.94±13.9 84.50±11.2 84.29±8.8

(right and left hands)

Fine Motor Coordination

Grooved Pegboard

Dominant Hand 79.05±10.1* 61.80±8.3 76.67±22.1

Nondominant Hand 87.95±21.7* 65.43±7.3 85.00±22.6*

(t=2.87)

Eye-Hand Coordination

Pursuit Rotor

Dominant Hand 12.64±2.9*

Nondominant Hand 1246±3.5

*p<.01, significantly different from normals.

NOTE Data represent means ± standard deviation.

15.9±2.8 13.43±4.9

15.37±3.1 12.99±5.4

The above findings, albeit tentative, implicate a disruption of CNS integrity

in children predisposed to alcoholism. Indeed, approximately 25 percent of

children of alcoholics become alcoholics themselves (Goodwin 1979). Similarly, a familial and possibly genetic basis for substance abuse has been

documented, suggesting that there may also be cognitive deficits in children

predisposed to drug abuse. One important research question concerns

whether having a cognitive deficit significantly and directly contributes to

the risk for developing a substance abuse disorder. Table 4 summarizes the

key findings from our most recent study contrasting community-dwelling

children of alcoholic (chosen solely on previous alcohol history) and

nonalcoholic men. It can be seen that verbal intellectual capacity,

achievement level on standardized tests of educational attainment, and

certain aspects of short-term memory are deficient in male offspring of

alcoholic fathers. It remains for future research to determine the relative

131
genetic and environmental contributions to these deficits and to ascertain

how the manifest impairments affect outcome in adulthood.

TABLE 4. Sons of alcoholics and nonalcoholics

Alcoholic Normal Men

Offspring Offspring

(Mean) (Mean) F p <

Age 14.29

Grade 7.76

Peabody Individual Achievement

Test

Mathematics 102.31

Reading Recognition 103.88

Reading Comprehension 102.06

Spelling 94.56

General Information 106.56

Total 102.19

Dichotic Listening

Right Ear

Left Ear

29.63 31.67 1.91

29.13 30.04 0.11

Symbol Digit Paired Association

Learning

Number Correct 22.25

Number Correct (delay) 5.94

23.37 1.14

6.37 0.77

Peterson Memory Test

5 Seconds Interpolation

15 Seconds Interpolation

30 Seconds Interpolation

Total Recall

14.06 16.07 1.97

10.31 13.56 5.93

9.88 13.93 7.48

34.25 43.56 7.83

Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test

Standard Score 103.56

14.33

8.07

116.70 14.14

112.93 4.63

115.11 6.73

108.44 13.83

113.96 2.022

116.78 12.4

119.30 8.29

1.19

1.33

—

—

.001

.05

.0l

.001

-

.001

—

—

—

—

.05

.01

.01

.01

DISCUSSION

As society becomes increasingly complex and dependent on technologic

sophistication, it is likely that even subtle cognitive impairment will have

pronounced adverse effects on the individual’s potential for adjustment. The

132
longstanding effects of drugs on the brain pose a major societal problem in

light of current prevalence of drug use. The extent of permanent residual

cognitive sequelae has not been researched, although, based on studies of

alcoholics and polydrug abusers, it would appear that drug users are at

heightened risk of suffering CNS injury both from the substance abused and

from a lifestyle typified by deprivation, neglect of personal well-being, and

traumatic injury. To date, answers to certain important questions are

unavailable. For example: Which drugs have lasting neurotoxic effects?

Which drugs produce CNS injury indirectly by impairing function of other

organ systems? Does cessation of drug use early in life have a delayed

effect on CNS functioning in later life? Does a cognitive deficit from drug

use affect treatment prognosis? Are differential cognitive profiles associated

with different types of drugs? How does cognitive deficit consequential to

drug use relate to behavioral change and psychopathology? These pressing

questions have practical implications for the treatment of substance abusers.

CONCLUSION

The available limited evidence suggests that alcoholism and certain types of

drug abuse are associated with cognitive deficits. The deficits, although not

severe in most cases, are nonetheless significant insofar as safety to self and

others may be concerned. Subtle impairment in psychomotor speed and

coordination may, for example, place the person at great risk when operating power machinery or performing a dangerous job. For this reason, an

important area for future research would be to devise precise assessment

methods to detect subtle CNS disturbance. Neuropsychologic tests using the

precise measurement afforded by microcomputers may thus be useful for

determining whether an individual is fit to perform a certain task. Such

testing may provide a noninvasive method of accruing information about

acute and chronic drug effects on functional capacity, which has direct

ramifications for the safety and health of the individual.

REFERENCES

Arria, A.; Tarter, R.; Warty, V.; and Van Thiel, D. Vitamin E deficiency

and psychomotor dysfunction in adults with primary biliary cirrhosis. Am

J Clin Nutr, in press.

Conn, H., and Lieberthal, M. The Hepatic Coma Syndrome and Lachtulose.

Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins, 1978.

Duffy, T., and Plum, F. Hepatic encephalopathy. In: Arias, L.; Popper,

H.; Schacter, D.; and Shafritz, D., eds. The Liver: Biology and Pathobiology. New York: Raven Press, 1982. pp. 693-715.

Goodwin, D. Alcoholism and heredity. Arch Gen Psychiatry 36:57-61,

1979.

Grant, J.; Adams, K.; and Reed, R. Aging, abstinence, and medical risk

factors in the prediction of neuropsychologic deficit among long-term

alcoholics. Arch Gen Psychiatry 41:710-718, 1984.

133
Myers, J.; Weisman, M.; and Tischler, G. Six month prevalence of psychiatric disorders in three communities. Arch Gen Psychiatry 41:959-967,

1984.

Parsons, O., and Farr, S. The neuropsychology of alcohol and drug abuse.

In: Filskov, S., and Boll, T., eds. Handbook of Clinical Neuropsychology. New York: Wiley, 1981. pp. 320-365.

Rehnstrom, S.; Simert, G.; Hanson, G.; and Vong, J. Chronic hepatic

encephalopathy. A psychometrical study. Scand J Gastroenterol 12:305-

311, 1977.

Roe, D. Alcohol and the Diet. Westport, CT: AVI Publishing Co., 1979.

Ron, M. The alcoholic brain: CT scan and psychological findings.

Psycho1 Med (Suppl 3); 1983.

Tarter, R., and Edwards, K. Neuropsychology of alcoholism. In: Tarter,

R., and Van Thiel, D., eds. Alcohol and the Brain: Chronic Effects.

New York: Plenum Press, 1985.

Tarter, R., and Edwards, K. Brief and comprehensive neuropsychological

assessment of alcoholism and drug abuse. In: Hartlage, L.; Asken, M.;

and Hornsby, L., eds. Essentials of Neuropsychological Assessmenl.

New York: Springer, 1987. pp. 138-162.

Tarter, R.; Edwards, K.; and Van Thiel, D. Hepatic encephalopathy. In:

Goldstein, G., and Tarter, R., eds. Advances in Clinical Neuropsychology.

Vol. 3. New York: Plenum Press, 1986. pp. 243-264.

Tarter, R.; Erb, S.; Biller, P.; Switala, J.; and Van Thiel, D. The quality of

life following liver transplantation. A preliminary report. Gastroenterol

Clin North Am 17:207-217, 1988.

Tarter, R.; Jacob, T.; and Bremer, D. Cognitive status of sons of alcoholic

men. Alcohol: Clin Exp Res 13:232-235, 1989.

Tarter, R.; Moss, H.; and Laird, S. Neuropsychological and neurophysiological characteristics of children of alcoholics. In: Windle, M., and

Searles, J., eds. Children of Alcoholics: A Critical Review of the Literature. New York: Guilford, in press.

Tarter, R.; Van Thiel, D.; and Moss, H. Impact of cirrhosis on the neuropsychologic test performance of alcoholics. Alcohol: Clin Exp Res

12:619-621, 1988.

Wilkinson, D., and Carlen, P. Relationship of neuropsychological test performance to brain morphology in amnesic and non-amnesic chronic alcoholics. Acta Psychiatr Scand 285:89-101, 1980.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Supported by U.S. Public Health Service grants AA 06936, AA 06601, and

1 P50 DA 0560555.

134
AUTHORS

Ralph E. Tarter, Ph.D.

Howard Moss, M.D.

Amelia Arria, B.S.

Department of Psychiatry

University of Pittsburgh Medical School

Pittsburgh, PA 15213

David H. Van Thiel, M.D.

Department of Medicine

University of Pittsburgh Medical School

Pittsburgh, PA 15213

135
Learning and Memory Deficits in

Detoxified Alcoholics

Marlene Oscar-Berman

INTRODUCTION

To begin on common ground, this chapter will define three terms that will

be used frequently: “learning,” “memory,” and “detoxified alcoholics.”

Next, it will relate the concepts of “learning” and “memory” to areas of

brain damage associated with alcohol abuse in detoxified alcoholics.

Similarities between alcoholics and chronologically older nonalcoholic

subjects will be noted, both in terms of neuroanatomical and functional

changes; special attention will be paid to the role of the right hemisphere.

Finally, this chapter will review findings that suggest that learning deficits

may be related to perceptual deficits, which, in turn, may be related to

neocortical damage, and that memory deficits, especially those dependent

upon short-term storage capacity, may be related to damage below the level

of the cortex.

DEFINITIONS OF LEARNING AND MEMORY

The term “learning” usually refers to the processes by which new information is acquired, while “memory” usually refers to the storage of new and

old information for later use (Corsini 1987). Learning is dependent upon

sensory input; it is usually an incremental process that involves practice,

and it usually requires some form of reinforcement. Learning theorists do

not always agree on a definition of learning, although most do agree that it

can be measured operationally in terms of changes in behavior over time

(Bower and Hilgard 1981). Common operational measures of learning are

decreases in errors with practice over time, and decreases in amount of time

taken to perform a specific task.

Memory, in turn, can be dependent upon learning; memories can be stored

for very short periods of time—seconds or even milliseconds, during which

information is encoded and consolidated—or for long periods of time

weeks, years, or a lifetime (Bugelski 1987; Tulving 1985). Conceptually,

136
there is a thin line between learning and memory, and a thin line between

different stages or forms of memory. For example, it’s hard to specify

where short-term memory ends and long-term memory begins.

Table 1 represents one way of looking at human memory, which emphasizes temporal characteristics of the information being processed. Table 1 is

intended to be descriptive only and, therefore, relatively atheoretical.

TABLE 1. Forms of human memory

Sensory

Memory

Immediate Short-Term Long-Term

Memory Memory Memory

Terms Used Iconic/

Acoustic

storage

Primary

memory

Secondary

memory

Tertiary

memory

Durations

Examples

Fractions up to

of a about

second 45 seconds

Subliminal Digit

perception span

Minutes

to years

A new

song

May be

permanent

Your

name

Most of the early learning and memory research in alcoholism centered

around the middle two aspects of memory listed in table 1, that is, primary

and secondary memories, having temporal durations, respectively, of anywhere from several seconds to several years (Talland 1965; Victor et al.

1971). More recently, research on disorders of learning and memory have

emphasized qualitative aspects of the information being acquired and stored

(Mishkin and Applinzeller 1987; Squire and Butters 1984; Tulving 1985).

DETOXIFIED ALCOHOLICS

The term “detoxified alcoholic” has a specific meaning in the majority of

studies to be reviewed in this chapter. Only male subjects have been

employed in the research projects. The study of females brings in a host of

variables that are beyond the scope of the present discussion, e.g., brain

asymmetries are noted to be different in the two genders (Geschwind and

Galaburda 1984). In the studies conducted in our laboratories, the alcoholic

research participants consisted of men over age 20 who had used alcohol in

excessive quantities, generally for at least 7 years, and whose drinking

problems had been severe enough to meet criteria for alcohol abuse and

alcohol dependence according to currently recognized diagnostic criteria

137
such as those of the DSM III (American Psychiatric Association 1980) and

DSM III-R (American Psychiatric Association 1987). To be enrolled in our

studies, alcoholics were required to be dry for at least 4 weeks before

testing and to have no history of significant head injury, seizure disorder,

stroke, or other serious neurological disease; no significant diabetes, heart

disease, or other underlying medical illness; no serious psychiatric disturbance or ongoing psychological disability such as depression; no chronic

polydrug abuse; and no current use of psychotropic medications. A fuller

description of the research project and additional references can be found in

Ellis and Oscar-Berman (1989).

We have also been interested in studying cognitive changes in detoxified

alcoholics who have developed Korsakoff's syndrome, characterized most

dramatically by severe anterograde amnesia or loss of short-term memory

(Oscar-Berman 1980; Talland 1965). The exclusion criteria for our

Korsakoff patients were essentially the same as those for non-Korsakoff

alcoholics, and both alcoholic groups were equated as much as possible for

education and verbal IQ scores. However, whereas the non-Korsakoff alcoholics had clinically normal memory ability (as measured by memory quotients derived from the Wechsler Memory Scale, generally being between 90

and 130), the memory quotients of the Korsakoff patients, by definition,

were abnormally low (usually falling between 60 and 100). That is, one

important requirement for a subject’s inclusion as a Korsakoff patient in our

laboratory, as well as in other laboratories, was that the patient’s memory

quotient be at least 20 points below his verbal IQ score (Squire and Butters

1984). Likewise, an important requirement for inclusion as a non-Korsakoff

alcoholic was that the memory quotient be no more than 15 points below

the verbal IQ score. A dichotomous, nonoverlapping requirement permitted

us to describe group similarities-as well as group differences-with

confidence.

AREAS OF BRAIN DAMAGE ASSOCIATED WITH ALCOHOL

ABUSE

Although not all researchers agree, it can be stated that any brain damage

that may be associated with long-term chronic alcohol abuse is fairly diffuse

and involves the cerebral cortex (Lishman 1981; Wilkinson and Carlen

1982). Wilkinson and Carlen (1982) compared computerized tomography

(CT) scans of non-Korsakoff alcoholics to those of neurological controls

across five age decades. A striking characteristic of the brains of the alcoholics was abnormal ventricular enlargement at the level of the caudate, as

well as sulcal widening in the cerebral cortex. Of special interest was the

fact that the ventricles and sulci became increasingly wider with increasing

age. In the 1950s, Courville described this feature of cerebral atrophy in

the brains of alcoholics and likened it to brain shrinkage that occurs with

normal chronological aging (Courville 1966). That is, alcoholics and normal aging individuals showed fairly uniform cortical atrophy, most

138
prominent over the dorsolateral frontal regions and extending posteriorly into

the superior parietal lobule. From the observed similarities in the brains of

alcoholic and aging individuals sprang the search for parallels in functional

decline associated with alcoholism and aging, and a notion referred to as

the “premature aging hypothesis” (Ryan 1982), which will be discussed in

the following sections. First, however, one more item should be noted

regarding neuroanatomy and alcoholism: if alcoholics have developed

Korsakoff’s syndrome, damage to subcortical areas becomes more and more

prominent. Several of the subcortical areas implicated in the anterograde

amnesia of Korsakoff's syndrome are: (1) diencephalic structures such as

the mammillary bodies of the hypothalamus, and the dorsomedial thalamic

region (Victor et al. 1971); (2) basal forebrain structures such as the

nucleus basalis of Meynert (Arendt et al. 1983); and (3) medial temporal

lobe structures such as the amygdala and hippocampus (Mishkin and

Appenzeller 1987). Interestingly, Wilkinson and Carlen (1982) indicated

that the cortical brain morphology scores of Korsakoff patients were not age

related as they were in non-Korsakoff alcoholics; this suggests that

Korsakoff alcoholics may be “immune” to premature aging. If true, it may

be because Korsakoff patients already have suffered maximal alcohol-related

brain damage, as though a “basement” effect for central nervous system

(CNS) involvement had been reached.

PREMATURE AGING HYPOTHESIS

Researchers began to observe a distinct and important functional similarity

between (non-Korsakoff) alcoholics and chronically older normal controls.

That is, many laboratories reported selective deterioration by alcoholic or

aging individuals in their abilities to solve a variety of nonverbal tasks, in

contrast to their intact abilities on verbal tasks. Notable examples were the

low scores of both groups on the performance subscales of IQ tests, but not

on the verbal IQ subscales; however, there were many, many other examples (Ellis and Oscar-Berman 1989). The observation of similar nonverbal

functional decline, together with the similarity in gross neuroanatomical

findings of the two groups, led to the formulation of the “premature aging

hypothesis” of alcoholism. There actually were two versions of the premature aging hypothesis; the second seems to have held up better under experimental scrutiny than the first. Figure 1 shows the two versions of the

premature aging hypothesis.

According to the first version, labeled the “accelerated aging” hypothesis in

the figure, chronic alcoholism leads to the precocious development of behavioral changes typically associated with advancing age (Noonberg et al.

1985; Ryan 1982; Ryan and Butters 1980). Thus, cognitively and neuroanatomically, alcoholics become old before their time. The second version,

labeled the “age sensitivity” hypothesis in the figure, places the timing of

the changes somewhat differently (Noonberg et al. 1985; Ryan 1982). This

view holds that older brains are more vulnerable to the deleterious

139
FIGURE 1. Two versions of the premature aging hypothesis: Accelerated aging vs. age sensitivity

SOURCE: Ellis and Oscar-Berman 1989, copyright 1989, American Psychological Association.

140
consequences of alcohol abuse than are the brains of younger adults.

Therefore, it would be only after about the middle of the fourth decade—

when the manifestations of normal chronological aging begin to appear—

that alcoholics would begin to show greater impairments than their peers.

As already noted, the age-sensitivity version of the premature aging hypothesis has stood up better than the accelerated-aging version. An example

from a study recently completed in our laboratory is described in the following section (Oscar-Berman and Bonner 1989).

NONMATCHING-TO-SAMPLE (ODDITY) AND

DELAYED NONMATCHING-TO-SAMPLE

This particular study (Oscar-Berman and Bonner 1989) is described in detail

here for several important reasons. First, the results are prototypical for

demonstrating a positive example of the age-sensitivity version of the premature aging hypothesis. Second, the study is distinctive in its capabilities

for eliciting parallel functional deficits along several lines; perceptual processing, attention, learning, and short-term memory all can be assessed in the

same experiment (Oscar-Berman and Bonner 1985). Third, the study exemplifies an approach that is gaining momentum in the search for understanding learning and memory deficits consequent to human brain damage; the

approach simply employs the same behavioral paradigms that have been

used successfully for decades in disclosing specific deficits that result from

brain lesions in animals.

The tasks we employed were nonmatching-to-sample (NMTS) and delayed

nonmatching-to-sample (DNMTS). Figure 2, borrowed from a textbook

chapter on learning and memory in nonhuman primates (Harlow et al.

1971), shows the NMTS task being used with a monkey subject. For the

monkey to earn a reinforcement, it must select the odd stimulus out of the

three presented, thereby solving the problem “correctly.” When the odd one

is selected consistently, the monkey can be said to have learned the “nonmatching” or “oddity” strategy. For monkeys, the reinforcement usually is

a raisin or a peanut. With human subjects performing the version of the

task that we used (Maki and Leith 1973), pennies served as rewards.

The subjects in our study consisted of a total of 59 normal and alcoholic

men, including 13 with alcoholic Korsakoff's syndrome. The normals and

the non-Korsakoff alcoholics were equated for age within three age

brackets: 35 to 45, 46 to 59, and 60 and older. Those six subgroups,

each containing a minimum of seven subjects, formed the basis for one

set of statistical comparisons that we used for assessing the separate contributions of aging and alcoholism to any observed deficits. Because there

was not a sufficient number of Korsakoff patients in each of the three age

brackets to permit a similar comparison (the age range of the 13 Korsakoff alcoholics was between 41 and 71), we matched them with 13

141
FIGURE 2. A monkey performs the NMTS or oddity task

SOURCE: Harlow et al. 1971, copyright 1971, Academic Press, Inc.

non-Korsakoff alcoholics and 13 normals of the same ages for the purpose

of analyzing their data separately.

The experimental apparatus that we used is shown in figure 3. Subjects sat

facing a panel containing three adjacent stimulus keys (also serving as

manipulanda for responses). The stimuli were lights projected through filters from behind onto the stimulus keys, and consisted either of colors (red

or green), or of white lines (oriented vertically or horizontally). It was also

possible to compound the colors with the lines, thereby making red or green

horizontal lines and red or green vertical lines. The sample stimulus was

on the middle key, and the subjects’ choices had to be made by pressing

the right or the left stimulus key, whichever was the odd one of the three.

The apparatus was run with the aid of a computer program that allowed us

to obtain measures of four parameters: learning, attention, processing time,

and short-term memory. Learning was measured simply in terms of the

number of trials that it took each person to make 21 correct choices of the

odd stimulus in a block of 24 trials. There were no statistically significant

group differences by this measure. All groups, including the Korsakoff

alcoholics, were equally capable of learning the simple nonmatching or

oddity strategy.

Attention was manipulated by making the central stimulus simple or complex, thereby requiring the subjects to notice either one stimulus dimension

142
FIGURE 3. A human subject performs the NMTS or oddity task in our

neuropsychology laboratory

NOTE: Colored lights or patterns are projected from behind onto the response panels.

or two stimulus dimensions. When the center stimulus was a simple one, it

varied only in color, or only in line orientation. In that case, subjects

would have to choose either between red and green or between vertical and

horizontal lines. When the center stimulus was complex, however, it contained a combination of one of the colors with one of the line orientations.

143
e.g., red with horizontal, making a stimulus that appeared as red horizontal

lines. In that case, the subjects still would have to make their choice from

a solid red light on one side and a solid green light on the other side (with

no lines in either of them), or they would have to choose between white

horizontal lines on one side and white vertical lines on the other, with color

being irrelevant. We reasoned that subjects with attentional deficits would

perform more poorly on those trials that required them to notice two dimensions to make the correct choice than on trials where they had to notice

only one dimension to make the correct choice. Although we found a

significant main effect of stimulus dimensions, there was no significant

group-by-dimensions interaction, indicating that all subjects, young and old,

alcoholic and nonalcoholic, did better on the simple condition than on the

complex condition. Hence, this particular manipulation of attention turned

out not to distinguish among the groups—probably because two stimulus

dimensions were not difficult enough.

Processing time was varied by randomly presenting the central sample stimulus for five different periods of time: 20, 40, 80, 120, and 500 milliseconds. Thus, if a subject had only 20 milliseconds to look at the sample

stimulus, he had considerably less time to process the information than on a

trial when he had 120 milliseconds. Processing time turned out to be a

very important parameter for distinguishing among the groups.

Figure 4 summarizes the results so far and also serves to introduce the

methods by which short-term memory was measured in the study. In figure

4, results are shown of the group comparisons involving the Korsakoff alcoholics, the non-Korsakoff alcoholics, and the normals. On the left side of

the figure, it is clear that the non-Korsakoff alcoholics were indistinguishable from the normals. The Korsakoff alcoholics, however, were impaired

at all durations of stimulus exposure except 500 milliseconds. Although the

performance of the Korsakoff alcoholics improved as exposure duration

increased, it reached the level of the controls only with the longest exposure

(where the controls were at a ceiling level). On the right side of figure 4,

the same groups were compared, and it remains clear that the Korsakoff

patients continued to perform at lower levels than the other groups. In fact,

the performance of the Korsakoff patients deteriorated, while performance of

the other groups remained fairly steady. Nonetheless, the independent variable was not how long the center stimulus was available but how long was

the delay between the center stimulus going off and the comparison stimuli

coming on, allowing subjects to make a choice. This interstimulus delay

was our measure of short-term memory. The subjects had to remember

during the delay what they saw just before the sample stimulus went off.

The right side of figure 4 actually shows the classic short-term memory

deficit in alcoholic Korsakoff patients (Talland 1965). There were six different interstimulus delays, ranging from 0 to 30 seconds; they were randomly presented across trials and randomly intermixed with the different

stimulus exposures mentioned earlier. For example, on one trial, a subject

144
FIGURE 4. Performance on the DNMTS tasks by alcoholic Korsakoff

patients, non-Korsakoff alcoholics, and normal controls

SOURCE: Oscar-Berman and Bonner 1989, copyright 1989, Psychonomic Society, Inc.

might have been given a red sample for 40 milliseconds, followed 30 seconds later by a choice between a red and a green stimulus (he should, of

course, have chosen green). On another trial, he might have been given a

set of green horizontal lines for 20 milliseconds, followed 12 seconds later

by a choice between horizontal and vertical white lines (he should have

chosen the vertical lines). The rule for correct responding never changed;

only the specific experimental parameters changed. In that sense, the task

actually was measuring two types of memory: memory for the rule of the

task, which always stayed the same, and memory for the information displayed before the delay, which changed on every trial.

In the human memory field, memory for rules would fall under the category

of “procedural” or “semantic” memories, and memory for specific bits of

new information would fall under the category of “declarative” or “episodic” memories (Squire and Butters 1984; Tulving 1985). Results with the

Korsakoff patients, showing intact oddity rule-learning, but impaired shortterm memory, confirmed many findings, published in the last few years,

that semantic or procedural memories are relatively spared in alcoholic

amnesia, but that declarative or episodic memories are especially vulnerable

in these subjects. Reviews may be found in Parsons et al. (1987) and

145
Squire and Butters (1984). What about detoxified alcoholics who did not

have Korsakoff’s syndrome?

Figure 5 shows the results for the comparisons of the six subgroups of agematched non-Korsakoff alcoholics and normals. Figure 5 represents a refined breakdown of the two groups that were not distinguishable in figure 4;

however, since the age range of the non-Korsakoff groups was wider than

that of the Korsakoff alcoholics, the total number of alcoholic and normal

subjects was greater. There was considerable overlap among the six subgroups except under the most difficult processing conditions (the shortest

exposure durations), and under the most stringent demands on short-term

memory (the longest interstimulus delays). Therefore, only the potentially

discriminating data were analyzed. Generally, the older subjects, both the

alcoholics and the normals, showed significant deficits in processing and

significant deficits in short-term memory, although their deficits were not

nearly as dramatic as the ones observed in the Korsakoff patients. There

was also a statistically significant age-by-alcoholism interaction with

processing time and delay interval. Even though figure 5 does not depict it,

this four-way interaction, when teased apart statistically, indicated that when

the experimental conditions placed increased demands upon processing and

memory, the older alcoholics (ages 60 and over) did not perform as well as

their younger counterparts; however, older normals were not significantly

different from younger controls. The reasons that the compounding effect

of alcoholism and aging is not apparent in figure 5 are that the effect was

small and the intergroup comparisons were based on combined data for the

three shortest durations and the three longest delays. Nonetheless, these

results provided some support for the age-sensitivity version of the premature aging hypothesis, which placed emphasis upon the appearance of

alcohol-related deficits in the older age range.

FIGURE 5. Performance on the DNMTS tasks by non-Korsakoff alcoholics

and normal controls in each of three age groups

SOURCE: Oscar-Berman and Bonner 1959, copyright 1989, Psychonomic Society, Inc.

146
To summarize the findings so far: (1) all groups were capable of learning

the simple NMTS strategy; (2) deficits in selective attention did not stand

out in this study, although there is evidence from other studies of reliable

attentional deficits in alcoholism and aging (Oscar-Berman 1980; OscarBerman 1984; Oscar-Berman and Ellis 1987); (3) semantic or procedural

memories in alcoholic and aging groups were not compromised compared to

shorter term declarative or episodic memories, where alcoholic Korsakoff

patients and, to a lesser degree, the older groups showed deficits; (4) alcoholic Korsakoff patients, and—again to a lesser degreed—older subjects with

and without an alcohol history were retarded in perceptual processing ability; and, finally, (5) the added characteristic of alcohol abuse compounded

the effects of aging only in the most difficult experimental conditions (short

stimulus durations and long interstimulus delays), thus lending some support

to the age-sensitivity version of the premature aging hypothesis. These

results emphasized a note of caution expressed by many other investigators:

when studying behavioral phenomena in alcoholics, including attention, percaption, learning, and memory, it is important to consider the contributions

of aging to any observed abnormalities (Grant 1986; Parsons et al. 1987;

Riege 1987; Ryan 1982).

COMPARATIVE NEUROPSYCHOLOGY: THE USE OF

COMPARABLE MEASURES OF PERFORMANCE IN BRAINDAMAGED HUMANS AND MONKEYS

The DNMTS task has been very popular for assessing the effects of brain

damage in human and nonhuman primates, and deficits in monkeys have

been reported following damage to brain structures implicated in human

memory disorders. For example, several laboratories reported finding deficits after bilateral damage to diencephalic or medial temporal lobe structures

(Aggleton and Mishkin 1983; Gaffan et al. 1984, Mahut et al. 1982;

Mishkin 1978; Z&-Morgan et al. 1982). Goldman-Rakic and her group

(Witt and Goldman-Rakic 1983) also reported DNMTS deficits in monkeys

with experimentally induced thiamine deficiency—an animal model of

Korsakoff's disease. Although those deficits were associated with brainstem

lesions, the affected brainstem regions are known to project to cortical association regions, which in turn have been found to be important for normal

performance on nonmatching types of tasks (Horel 1978; Lhermitte and

Signoret 1976; Mishkin 1978; Oscar-Berman and Bonner 1985). Surprisingly, regions relatively spared by thiamine deprivation were the diencephalic

and medial temporal areas typically implicated in human amnesia (mammillary bodies of the hypothalamus, dorsomedial thalamic nuclei, hippocampus,

and amygdala). Patients with diffuse cortical atrophy, characteristic of

Alzheimer’s disease, also have demonstrated DNMTS deficits (Albert and

Moss 1984).

Based upon the patterns of results from the nonmatching studies reviewed

so far, it appears that, in alcoholism, widespread cortical damage was

147
responsible for at least some aspects of the observed deficits (especially

those related to processing), while other aspects of the deficits (especially in

short-term memory) were related to subcortical damage. This conclusion is

based upon relative contributions of cortical and subcortical damage, because one does not exist without the other in chronic neurological disease.

DNMTS is only one experimental paradigm successfully employed to disclose human impairments and directly comparable to animal models of cognitive deficits. Many more paradigms are being used with increasing frequency in behavioral neurology (Freedman and Oscar-Berman 1986b; Kish

et al. 1988). For example, delayed-response and delayed-alternation tasks,

which are sensitive to frontal system damage, have been used to differentiate among the dementias of Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s diseases

(Freedman and Oscar-Berman 1986b; Freedman and Oscar-Berman 1986c),

Korsakoff’s syndrome (Freedman and Oscar-Berman 1986a; Oscar-Berman

et al. 1982) and olivopontocerebellar atrophy (El-Awar et al. 1988). Also

used have been tactual discrimination learning tasks (Freedman and OscarBerman 1986b; Freedman and Oscar-Berman 1987). as well as visual and

spatial discrimination learning tasks (Freedman and Oscar-Berman 1989;

Oscar-Berman and Zola-Morgan 1980a; Oscar-Berman and Zola-Morgan

1980b; Squire et al. 1988; Zeaman and House 1963), which are sensitive to

damage in other cortical association regions (including parietal and temporal

cortex). Operant conditioning paradigms and probability learning tasks,

which are sensitive to damage to frontal and limbic system structures, have

been used for many years (Bitterman 1975; Oscar-Berman et al. 1976;

Oscar-Berman et al. 1980). Further, Razran’s 1971 review includes a

description of the work of Ivanov-Smolensky in the 1920s. These and other

paradigms are staple repertoires in the laboratories of experimental and

physiological psychologists, and they have considerable promise for disclosing residual effects of abused drugs.

HEMISPHERIC ASYMMETRIES AND PERCEPTUAL LEARNING

AND MEMORY

Prior to the discussion of NMTS tasks, note was made of a consistent finding of poor performance in alcoholic and aging groups on nonverbal tasks.

Although the topic of nonverbal performance was described as one manifestation of the premature aging hypothesis of alcoholism, the topic has importance for another reason as well. That is, it also may shed light on learning and memory deficits in the same groups. The nonverbal tasks that

alcoholic and aging subjects had trouble with were similar to the kinds of

tasks that patients with damage to the right hemisphere were known to have

trouble with (Goodglass and Kaplan 1979; Kaplan 1988). These observations led, independently, to the “right hemisphere hypothesis” in the alcoholism literature (Parsons 1975). and to the “right hemisphere hypothesis” in

the aging literature (Klisz 1978). These two hypotheses actually erupted

separately, and they were not immediately related lo the premature aging

148
hypothesis, which had derived from observed similarities in structural and

functional decline of alcoholic and aging subjects. The right hemisphere

hypothesis, whether applied to alcoholic or aging individuals, suggested

simply that a disproportionate decline in nonverbal functions was due to a

differential sensitivity of the functions subserved by the right hemisphere, to

the biological onslaught of alcoholism and of aging. The hypothesis was

descriptive rather than explanatory, because no specific mechanisms were

postulated. In our laboratory, we tested the right hemisphere hypothesis

directly, by employing tasks sensitive to functional asymmetries of the two

cerebral hemispheres. As a class, these tasks are referred to as dichotomous

stimulation tasks; they rely upon the simultaneous inputs from two separate

sensory channels on the left and the right sides of the body—the two ears,

the two visual half-fields, or the two hands, for example. Mainly because

of the organization of our nervous system, with language lateralized to the

left half of the brain and nonlanguage lateralized more or less to the right

half of the brain, along with the predominance of crossed connections of the

sensory fields with contralateral brain areas, under dichotomous stimulus

input conditions (with the right and left input channels competing), the right

input channel is superior to the left when verbal stimulus materials are used,

and the left side is superior to the right with nonverbal stimulus materials.

We administered the dichotomous stimulus tests with three different sensory

input modalities (vision, touch, and audition), and we administered them

under a variety of experimental conditions (Ellis and Oscar-Berman 1989;

Oscar-Berman 1988). The majority of the findings from most of our experiments can be summarized as follows: there was some evidence. for certain

changes occurring as a result of alcoholism only in older persons, whose

brains may be increasingly susceptible to the effects of alcohol. However,

the combined effects of alcoholism and aging were not nearly as apparent

as the changes that occurred with aging alone. Furthermore, results did not

support the hypothesis that alcoholism differentially affects right hemisphere

function compared to left hemisphere function.

In reviewing most of the published research conducted in this area over the

last 10 years, including our own, Ellis and Oscar-Berman (1989) concluded

that the similarities between alcoholic and aging subjects extended beyond

the realm of nonverbal tasks. The early emphasis on defective nonverbal

performance appeared to be an artifact of at least two features of the nonverbal tasks employed: perceptual processing demands and demands related

to formulating effective strategies for encoding information into short-term

memory. Most simple verbal tasks, perhaps because they were easily processed, tended to be approached with simple strategies. Nonverbal tasks

used materials that were less familiar than words, required more time to be

processed, and were solved by elaborate strategies. When sufficient

processing time was permitted and when strategies were simplified in one

way or another, alcoholic and aging subjects performed on nonverbal tasks

as well as they could perform on verbal tasks. Their total performance

levels were lower than those of younger subjects, just as they were in the

149
DNMTS tasks, and probably for the same reasons-not because of greater

right than left hemisphere decline. When Korsakoff patients were tested on

dichotomous stimulation tasks, they showed the same asymmetries as everybody else, but their total levels of performance were even lower than

everybody else’s, just as they were in the DNMTS tasks and for the same

reasons.

CONCLUSION

Two general conclusions emerge from these diverse experimental approaches

to assessing learning and memory deficits in detoxified alcoholics. First,

learning deficits may be related to perceptual processing deficits, which in

turn may be related to diffuse neocortical damage associated with long-term

alcohol abuse (sometimes compounded by aging); these deficits are not

greater in the right hemisphere than in the left hemisphere. Second, memory deficits, especially those dependent upon short-term memory capacity,

may be related to damage below the level of the cortex and probably are

not as sensitive to age-related changes as the cortically mediated functions.

TOPICS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH

To go forward with an integrated clinical and research approach to understanding the residual effects of abused drugs on behavior, there must be

interdisciplinary communication and a view toward the future (OscarBerman 1989). This volume contains contributions from representatives of

diverse clinical and laboratory environments, to foster interdisciplinary

communication. With an eye toward the future, six topic areas have been

selected for special consideration; these areas likely would benefit considerably from a continued, cooperative venture between clinicians and

researchers:

1.

2.

3.

Comparative Neuropsychology. By employing sensitive tasks derived

from experimental and physiological psychology, subtle attentional, perceptual, motivational, and learning and memory deficits (especially those

related to damaged neocortical brain regions) may be detected and

described.

Affect, Emotional changes have been reported subsequent to damage of

diverse brain regions thought to be vulnerable in substance abuse, e.g.,

the prefrontal cortex, the right hemisphere, and the limbic system.

Careful study of the topic of affective functions in substance abusers

could shed light on the nature of their cognitive deficits.

Polydrug Abuse. Many abused substances are used concurrently by one

individual. The separate, as well as interactive, contributions of abused

drugs to behavioral changes need clarification.

150
4. Gender Differences. Because there are important gender differences in

brain structure and function, and because males are less variable than

females in hormonal and endocrine influences, more research has

employed male than female subjects. It would be important to explore

the contribution and nature of gender differences in response to abused

substances.

5 . Subtypes. “Alcoholism” is not a unitary concept. Several subtypes of

alcoholics have been described, along with differing etiologies (Parsons

et al. 1987; Vaillant 1983). Childhood hyperactivity and attentional

deficit disorder especially have been implicated in etiology and in outcome. Knowledge of important etiological factors may help to define

vulnerability, intervention, and prognosis.

6. Neurotransmitter and Neuroimmune Systems. The ways in which alcoholism affects neurotransmitter systems and immune systems are not

well known. Likewise, the ways in which most neurological changes

(including those associated with normal aging) are expressed in these

systems are not well known. Clarification of the relationship of neurological changes in alcoholism to changes in neurotransmitters, as well

as to changes in the immune system, would profit from further

investigation.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Supported by the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism

Research Grant AA 007112 and by funds from the U.S. Department of

Veterans' Affairs Medical Research Service.

AUTHOR

Marlene Oscar-Berman, Ph.D.

Division of Psychiatry and Department of Neurology

Boston University School of Medicine

and

Psychology Research Service

Department of Veterans’ Affairs Medical Center

85 East Newton Street

Boston, MA 02118

155
Persisting Neurotoxic

Consequences of Solvent Abuse:

A Developing Animal Model for

Toluene-Induced Neurotoxicity

Gordon T. Pryor

INTRODUCTION

Long-term, heavy users of various psychoactive substances run the potential

risk of irreversible damage to the nervous system. The extent to which

such irreversible damage represents a real threat is, however, debatable. In

fact, clear examples of irreversible dysfunction and pathologic damage to

neural structures that can be unequivocally attributed to the neurotoxic consequences of specific abused substances are relatively rare. The volatile

organic solvents represent a class of abused compounds that engenders especially serious concern (Sharp and Brehm 1977; Sharp and Carroll 1978;

Crider and Rouse 1988).

Intuitively, but perhaps naively, many people have assumed that heavy

exposure to these lipophilic substances would dissolve neural tissue, or at

least some of its constituents. In fact, only a small number of organic solvents have been unequivocally shown to cause neuropathologic damage to

the nervous system in animals and humans, e.g., carbon disulfide, n-hexane,

methyl n-butyl ketone, trichloroethylene (Spencer et al. 1985). Nevertheless,

there is reason for real concern. The lack of definitive proof of the neurotoxicity of the majority of solvents can be attributed more to a lack of systematic and relevant investigation than to substantive negative data proving

that they are innocuous. A case in point is toluene, which is found in a

variety of abused products and that has been ascribed by many clinicians to

be the agent responsible for causing “brain damage” in heavy solvent

abusers.

Toluene is a significant component of many abused solvent products and is

the only pure solvent that frequently has been reported to be inhaled for its

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euphoric effects (Grabski 1961; Knox and Nelson 1966). Also, it has been

demonstrated that primates will self-administer toluene by pressing a lever

to produce the vapors, thus attesting to its rewarding properties (Wood

1978). Among the products reportedly abused for their euphorigenic effects

are glues, cements, and adhesives; paint and lacquer thinners and removers;

spray paints; degreasers and various cleaning fluids; typewriter correction

fluid; gasoline; and toluene. These products are typically mixtures of various solvents formulated for their physicochemical properties. Specific

brands become popular and are used almost exclusively for their euphoric

effects as long as they are available. Toluene is contained in large proportions in the most frequently chosen products, and toluene is the only pure

solvent to be frequently abused. Thus, toluene may be the sought-after

component that most promotes the abuse of product mixtures.

If toluene is the major sought-after euphoriant in abused products, regardless

of its own toxicity, then its presence may promote exposure of the solvent

abuser to other constituents of the product that are unequivocally dangerous

(n-hexane, metals). However, because toluene is a common component of

various products used by heavy solvent abusers who require medical attention-because of neurologic or neurobehavioral symptoms, as well as renal

dysfunction (Streicher et al. 1981)—many clinicians (and toxicologists) have

concluded that toluene is, in fact, responsible. The evidence for this conclusion has been mainly circumstantial.

Toluene has received considerable attention by toxicologists. In reviews by

Hayden and associates (1977) and Benignus (1981a; Benignus 1981b), it has

gotten a surprisingly clean bill of health as a toxicant in general and as a

neurotoxicant in particular. Why then is the notion so strong (as reflected

in frequent literature citations, for example) that toluene is a major neurotoxicant associated with solvent abuse? The remainder of this chapter will

be directed towards examining the evidence for this notion and recounting

our own experience in trying to find the answer experimentally.

OTOTOXICITY OF TOLUENE

Our involvement with the National Institute on Drug Abuse in the area of

solvent abuse began in 1976. This association resulted in some of the most

extensive laboratory investigations conducted to date of the neurotoxicity of

solvents. Toluene was a major focus of these investigations for the reasons

cited above. Nonetheless, using a variety of behavioral and electrophysiologic methods that were designed, developed, and validated for the purpose

of screening potentially neurotoxic substances (Pryor et al. 1983c; Rebert

1983), we were unable to find convincing evidence that toluene caused any

persisting neurobehavioral or electrophysiologic dysfunction in rats (Pryor

et al. 1983a).

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Because of the results of these studies, we began to question whether toluene was really responsible for the neurotoxic consequences of heavy solvent

abuse. In reexamining the clinical literature, it was evident that in most

cases other solvents or other conditions could have been responsible for the

reported dysfunctions. Moreover, it was not clear whether the symptoms

reported were persistent or whether they cleared upon abstention. Finally,

only in a few cases was the chemical composition of the abused products

verified, and polydrug use was a frequent complication.

Nevertheless, there were a few reports that made it difficult to dismiss toluene as a neurotoxicant. Cases in which toluene appeared to be the only

solvent used created the suspicion that our laboratory results with rats may

not have been as definitive as they appeared. Perhaps we were using the

wrong species or the wrong measures (our test battery was designed as a

general screening method). In any event, although we were unable at that

time to induce a persisting neurotoxic syndrome in our animal model, we

were uncomfortable with the conclusion that toluene was totally innocuous.

One of the methods used in the studies cited above was a computerautomated multisensory conditioned avoidance response, in which visual,

auditory, and somatosensory stimuli were used to assess sensorimotor function. It was designed to monitor function in the three sensory modalities in

the same animals so as to detect specific sensory deficits. Because we had

not, in fact, found such specific sensory effects in the many experiments

done with a wide variety of chemicals over some 10 years (Pryor et al.

1983c), we began to question its ability to serve its intended purpose and

set out to systematically examine its validity in this regard. For validation,

we used chemicals or conditions that were known to affect specific sensory

systems. For the auditory system, we used the ototoxic antibiotic kanamycin (Prosen et al. 1980). From human and animal studies, it was known

that this drug caused damage to the hair cells in the cochlea and that the

damage proceeds such that the areas receptive to high frequencies are

affected first, followed by areas associated with decreasing frequency. With

this in mind, and aware of the fact that the auditory sensitivity of the rat is

at much higher frequencies than that of the human (Kelley and Masterton

1977), we used a 20-kHz-tone stimulus in these studies. In all previous

applications, including those to examine the potential neurotoxic effects of

toluene, we had used a 4-kHz tone. The validity of the procedure was

clearly demonstrated by a progressive loss of the ability to perform the

avoidance response to the 20-kHz tone by the rats treated with kanamycin,

without any effect on performance of the avoidance response to the light

and somatosensory shock stimuli.

Subsequently, for reasons unrelated to the solvent studies, we retested, using

the 20-kHz-tone, a group of rats that had been exposed chronically to toluene more than 2 months earlier. Whereas these rats performed the response

to the light and the somatosensory stimulus (low-intensity current to the

158
feet) at levels comparable to those of unexposed controls, they appeared

unable to hear the tone. This serendipitous observation led us to conduct a

series of tests in which the frequency of the tone was varied from 4 to

20 kHz, and estimates of sensitivity at each frequency were obtained by

varying the intensity (Pryor et al. 1983b). The results suggested that the

earlier exposure to toluene had caused a persisting and marked loss of auditory sensitivity that was clearly evident at the higher frequencies (8 kHz

and above) with no apparent loss at 4 kHz, the frequency we had routinely

used in the past. Suspicious of a possible behavioral artifact, we also tested

rats using the brainstem auditory-evoked response (BAER). This procedure

had also been used previously, using a click stimulus with a frequency

spectrum centered around 5 kHz. For these later tests, we used tone pips

of 8, 12, and 16 kHz in addition to the clicks. The results showed clear

evidence of hearing loss that was greatest at the higher frequencies (Rebert

et al. 1983). Moreover, analyses of these results suggested a peripheral

rather than a central locus for the effect.

We then conducted a series of experiments to confirm and characterize the

nature of the toluene-induced hearing loss and the exposure conditions that

caused it (Pryor et al. 1987). The results of this extensive series of experiments indicated that: (1) weanling rats were more sensitive to the effect

than young adults; (2) the hearing loss was frequency dependent; (3) there

was damage to the peripheral receptors (hair cells in the cochlea); (4) the

effect was concentration, duration, and exposure-schedule dependent;

(5) subcutaneous injection of toluene was as effective as inhalation exposure, thereby demonstrating a systemic effect; and (6) related solvents such

as xylenes and styrene were equally as effective or more effective than

toluene, whereas unrelated solvents such as n-hexane, methylene chloride,

and methyl ethyl ketone (MEK) were without effect (unpublished).

This discovery of a toluene-induced hearing loss in rats also led us to reexamine the clinical literature for evidence of a similar effect in humans.

Indeed, hearing loss, although not a frequently reported symptom, was associated with exposure to toluene or toluene-containing substances in both industrial accidents (Biscaldi et al. 1981) and heavy solvent abusers (Ehyai

and Freeman 1983).

THE CLINICAL SYNDROME ASSOCIATED WITH TOLUENE

CONTAINING SOLVENT ABUSE

Reports continued to appear that made it more and more difficult to dismiss

toluene as the agent causing moderate to severe neurologic dysfunction in

heavy solvent abusers. The reports from two groups of investigators were

especially convincing.

Fornazzari and colleagues (1983) described the symptomatology associated

with a fairly large group of solvent abusers in Toronto, Canada. These

159
patients used almost exclusively a specific brand of contact cement that the

authors stated contained primarily toluene. When we analyzed the composition of this cement, however, we found it to be a complex mixture that, in

addition to toluene, contained significant amounts of the known neurotoxicant n-hexane and its reported synergist MEK (Altenkirch et al. 1978).

Nevertheless, the symptomatology described by these investigators did not

fit that expected from these latter solvents, i.e., it did not include a peripheral neuropathy. Instead, the major neurologic symptoms suggested primarily central damage, especially to cerebellar structure controlling motor

coordination. Other prominent symptoms included cognitive dysfunction,

pyramidal tract disorders, and sensory dysfunction, including hearing loss.

Similar results were reported by Rosenberg and coworkers (Hormes et al.

1986, Rosenberg et al. 1988) who had studied a fairly large number of

patients in Denver, CO. In these cases, the product was a specific brand of

spray paint that contained mainly toluene, but also contained significant

amounts of methylene chloride and small amounts of xylenes. The results

of this study were especially important because the investigators took care

to ensure that most patients had been solvent free for several weeks to

months at the time of examination, thus reducing the possibility of residual

acute effects. Moreover, the BAER was used to provide objective evidence

of central involvement, and magnetic resonance imaging of several patients

appeared to indicate brain atrophy.

The common component in the two products from Toronto and Denver was

toluene. Because both were mixtures, unequivocal identification of this

solvent as the causative agent could not be made. Moreover, the possibility

of interactions among the various components and the contribution of other

factors, such as polydrug use, could not be discounted.

The following list presents the clinical signs and symptoms most commonly

reported in patients who have, over a period of time, heavily abused solvents containing toluene.

Short-term memory loss

Emotional instability

Cognitive impairment

Slurred and “scanning” speech

Wide-based ataxic gait

Staggering or stumbling in trying

to walk

Nystagmus

Ocular flutter

Tremor

Optic neuropathy

Unilateral or bilateral hearing

loss

Loss of sense of smell

Diffuse slowing of the EEG

Abnormal or absent BAER

Diffuse cerebral, cerebellar, and

brainstem atrophy

Enlarged ventricles and widening

of cortical sulci, especially in the

frontal or temporal cortex

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When we next had the opportunity to study toluene, we used this list as a

guide to select and develop behavioral tests that might reflect similar signs

and symptoms in rats chronically exposed to toluene. Several of the clinical signs and symptoms form a cluster that neurologists refer to as

“cerebellar ataxia.” Therefore, we chose a series of tests that we thought

would reflect various aspects of motor function that could be measured

objectively:

Forelimb and hindlimb grip strengths;

Rotorod performance;

Gait analysis-stride length, stride width, stride angle; and

Landing hindlimb foot splay.

The tests of grip strength (Meyer et al. 1979) make use of strain gauges to

measure the force required to break the rat’s grip on a bar by both forepaws and hindpaws. These tests are sensitive to the peripheral neuropathy

caused by n-hexane and related hexacarbons (Pryor et al. 1983a). The rotorod test is used to measure the rat’s ability to balance and locomote on a

rotating rod that is incrementally increased in rate of rotation until the rat

falls off. To quantitate the rat’s pattern of walking, its hind feet are linked,

and it is allowed to walk down an alley covered with a blotter to record its

steps (Jolicoeur et al. 1979). The pattern of walking is then analyzed in

terms of the length, width, and angle of the steps taken. Similarly, the rat’s

reflexive response to being dropped from a short height is recorded as the

distance between the hind feet on landing.

In the first experiment in this series, we exposed groups of weanling rats

for 8 hours per day, 7 days per week to toluene (2,000 to 2,600 ppm),

n-hexane (2,000 to 2,600 ppm), or a mixture of toluene, n-hexane, and

MEK (2,000 to 5,200 total ppm in approximately equal amounts).

n-Hexane was included as a positive control because we knew that the exposure schedule would induce a peripheral neuropathy that would be reflected in the measures of grip strength (Pryor et al. 1983a). The mixture was

included as a preliminary test of possible interactions among three of the

components that were found in the contact cement used in Toronto, Canada.

The entire battery of tests was given periodically beginning after 7 weeks of

exposure and for 6 weeks after the exposure ended.

The results clearly indicated that exposure to toluene had caused a persisting

motor syndrome that was different from that caused by exposure to

n-hexane. The expected decreases in grip strength were the major effects

of exposure to n-hexane, whereas this effect was not seen in the rats

exposed to toluene (figure 1). The nature of the toluene-induced syndrome

can be seen in figure 2. The syndrome was characterized by a shortened

161
FIGURE 1. Effect of toluene, n-hexane, or a mixture of tolune, n-hexane,

and MEK on grip strength

NOTE: Values are expressed relative to control means in variance units.

and widened gait and a widened landing foot splay. Such a pattern in the

four-legged rat is at least suggestive of the “wide-based ataxic gait”

162
FIGURE 2. Effect of toluene on a battery of tests of motor coordination

NOTE: Values are expressed relative to control means in variance units.

associated with cerebellar ataxia in humans. Interestingly, the rats exposed

to the mixture first took on some of the characteristics of the rats exposed

to toluene, but the final outcome was a decrease in grip strength as in the

rats exposed to n-hexane (figure 1).

The essential aspects of this experiment have now been replicated several

times under various conditions in our laboratory (manuscripts in preparation), and the development of the syndrome appears to be robust and persisting. We have also looked at the effects of other solvents (methylene

chloride and MEK), both alone and in combination with toluene, on this

battery of tests. Thus, far, only toluene has caused the persisting motor

syndrome just described.

CRITERIA FOR DEFINING A SUBSTANCE AS BEING

NEUROTOXIC

Most, if not all, abused psychoactive substances may impair performance or

result in socially unacceptable behavior because of their acute pharmacologic

effects. Compulsive use may also result in behavior that is morally and

legally unacceptable and may cause a progressive deterioration of family,

work, and social relationships. At this time, the extent to which persisting

163
or permanent damage to the nervous system results from substance abuse is

less clear. Spencer and associates (1985) have suggested the following criteria for defining a substance as the causative agent responsible for persisting nervous system damage:

1. There is a consistent pattern of neurologic dysfunction in humans associated with well-documented exposure to the substance.

2. The syndrome (all or in part) can be mimicked in animals by appropriate exposure to the substance.

3. Neuropathologic “lesions” can be demonstrated in the nervous system or

the peripheral sense organs that satisfactorily account for the dysfunction

in humans and animals.

In their view, “failure to satisfy any of these criteria leaves room for doubt

that the suspect agent is capable of impairing the structure or function of

the nervous system” (Spencer et al., p. 53).

A PARTIAL MODEL OF TOLUENE-INDUCED BRAIN

DYSFUNCTION

If we assume that the motor syndrome in rats caused by exposure to toluene is analogous to the “cerebellar ataxia” observed in humans, then, along

with the demonstration of tolueneinduced hearing loss in rats, we have a

partial animal model of the syndrome associated with human abuse of

toluene-containing solvents. In turn, these results with rats provide some of

the necessary evidence, as defined by the criteria listed in the previous section, that toluene is in fact the toxicant responsible for at least part of the

human syndrome. To the extent that all or most of the signs and symptoms

listed are reflective of the effects of heavy toluene abuse in humans, our

model is still incomplete. However, by designing tests to look specifically

for some of these other dysfunctions, we are optimistic that they can be

demonstrated in our rat model if they are caused by toluene. Regardless of

the outcome of such further research, the results obtained thus far are sufficient to begin attempting to identify the brain structures and mechanisms

involved. Again, clues from the clinical literature will be used to guide this

search. Cerebellar involvement is clearly suggested, but we have not seen

damage to this structure at the light microscopic level in hemotoxylin and

eosin stained sections. The report of Rosenberg and colleagues (1988)

based on magnetic resonance imaging suggests more subtle neuropathologic

lesions involving myelin. Identification of such a locus in our rat model

would provide needed support for this suggestion and would satisfy the final

criterion for identifying toluene as a neurotoxicant.

164
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This research was supported by U.S. Public Health Service contract numbers

271-77-3402, 271-80-3712, and 271-87-3132 from the National Institute on

Drug Abuse (Dr. Charles W. Sharp, Project Officer). Dr. Charles S. Rebert,

as a coinvestigator at SRI, collaborated extensively on these projects and

provided helpful comments to this manuscript.

AUTHOR

Gordon T. Pryor, Ph.D.

Neuroscience Department

SRI International

333 Ravenswood Avenue

Menlo Park, CA 94025

166
Cognitive Deficits in Abstaining

Cocaine Abusers

Ronald I. Herning, Barbara J. Glover, Bonnie Koeppl,

William Weddington, and Jerome H. Jaffe

INTRODUCTION

Cocaine abusers may be cognitively impaired when they abstain from

cocaine. Evidence for possible decrements in cognition comes indirectly

from several sources. The descriptions of psychiatric sequelae occurring in

patients withdrawing from cocaine include sleep loss and depression (Gawin

and Kleber 1986; Baxter 1983). In cocaine nonabusers, attentional deficits

and psychomotor retardation were observed during sleep deprivation and

depression (Weiss and Laties 1962; Thier et al. 1986; Massiouri and

Lesevre 1988). Cognitive alterations may accompany the sleep loss and

depression observed during cocaine withdrawal. In addition, Melamed and

Bleiberg (1986) reported a brief decrement in a maze task and persistent

poor performance on the Paced Auditory Serial Addition test (PSAT) in

patients treated for free-base cocaine abuse. Cocaine abusers had decreased

relative cerebral blood flow in prefrontal cortical areas as compared to

controls (Volkow et al. 1988). Sensitive neurophysiological and cognitive

testing may document other alterations during abstinence. The use of eventrelated potentials (ERPs) coupled with cognitive performance testing has

been one exquisitely sensitive approach (Callaway 1983).

Cognitive and performance deficits during cocaine withdrawal have important applied as well as theoretical implications in treatment and in the workplace. Specific cognitive deficits such as attentional problems or memory

loss may hamper effective psychiatric treatment. Likewise, poor job performance may put the withdrawing user and the public at greater risk of an

accident. Only two studies have investigated the possible cognitive impairment in heavy cocaine abusers (Melamed and Bleiberg 1986; Volkow et al.

1988). These studies were limited to the first 10 days of abstinence and

had no control groups. Further research is clearly indicated.

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The present study investigated cognitive information processing and performance in cocaine abusers before and during inpatient treatment. The

focus was on the first few weeks of treatment. Because psychiatric counseling was the only treatment used in this study, drug-free assessment of

cognitive function was possible. ERP measures as well as behavioral performance indices were used to quantify the possible impairments. The ERP

methodology allows inferences to be made as to which aspects of cognition

may be affected by cocaine abstinence. The study is currently in progress;

data presented are from the patients and control subjects analyzed at the

time of this report.

METHODS

Subjects

Twelve males seeking treatment for cocaine abuse were studied along with

nine controls. No subjects had medical problems. The demographics, selfreported history of cocaine use, and the Addiction Severity Index (ASI) are

presented in table 1. The ASI employment scale is slightly elevated for the

controls. Besides a self-reported history of cocaine abuse that met DSMIIIR criteria, each patient had a urine sample positive for cocaine on an

outpatient visit. All but one subject, who snorted, self-administered cocaine

intravenously. The axis I diagnoses other than substance dependence in

the patient group included one patient with depression. Seven subjects

in the patient group had axis II diagnoses of antisocial personality.

Cognitive Information Processing Tasks

Selected tasks from the Neurophysiological Workload Test Battery (NWTB)

were administered to the subjects. NWTB provides a series of tasks that

can be quickly learned and uses neurophysiologic and performance measures

to assess impairment. The neurophysiologic measures included the amplitude and latency of ERP components elicited by task stimuli. The performance measures included correctness and reaction time as well as specialized measures for visual motor tracking. The tasks and measures are listed

in table 2.

The auditory rare-event-monitoring task is a version of the P300 oddball

task (Squires et al. 1977). The subject counted low-pitched (1,000 Hz)

tones from a random series (a tone/second) of high- (2,000 Hz) and lowpitched tones. The low-pitched tones occurred about 20 percent of the

time. The tones were presented every 2 seconds. After the subject listened

to the series for 4 minutes, he reported his count to the researcher. N100

and P300 components were measured from the rare-tone ERP. The correctness measure was the ratio of the subject’s count over the actual number of

tones presented.

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TABLE 1. Demographic and drug use data for patients and control

subjects (means±SD)

Data

Patients Control Subjects

(n=12) (n=9)

Age

Education

Cocaine Use

Age of First Use

Years Dependent

Amount/Week (grams)

Addiction Severity Index (0-9)

Drug

Alcohol

Medical

Employment

Family and Social

Psychiatric

Legal

27.9±6.3 32.1±4.3

12.1±3.2 11.2±1.9

19.2±5.8 —

3.7±3.0 —

6.7±3.9 —

9.0±0.0 0.0±0.0

0.0±0.0 0.0±0.0

0.0±0.0 0.0±0.0

3.7±2.0 1.10±1.20

4.8±1.2 0.0±0.0

4.6±1.4 0.0±0.0

1.1±1.9 0.0±0.0

TABLE 2. Neurophysiologic workload test battery tasks

Task Measure

Auditory Rare Event Monitoring

Visual Rare Event Monitoring

Sternberg Memory (2 set sizes)

Visual Motor Tracking

N100 and P300 components of

ERP, correctness

Reaction time, correctness

P300 component of ERP,

reaction time

RMS error, edge violations

During the visual rare-event monitoring task, the subject viewed a television

monitor. Two squares and two triangles traveled in random directions

across the screen, periodically flashing. The subject was to press a pushbutton when he observed a square change its direction. A square changed

direction about 80 times during the 5-minute test. Percentage of correct

detections and reaction time were performance measures for this task. Because the change of direction does not produce clear ERP, no ERP measurea were included.

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The Sternberg (1969a; Sternberg 1969b; Sternberg 1975) memory task was

presented on a television monitor. Two- and four-letter sets were used.

For a given test, a two- or four-letter set was presented to the subject for

30 seconds. Single letters were then presented at the rate of one every

3 seconds. The subject pressed a pushbutton with the preferred hand if the

letter was in the set that had been presented or another pushbutton with the

other hand if the letter was not in the memory set. P300 amplitude and

latency were measured from the ERP elicited by the in-set and out-of-set

letters. The performance measure was reaction time.

The visual motor tracking task was also presented on a television monitor.

An inverted “T” moved randomly in the vertical dimension. The subject’s

task was, by using a joystick, to stabilize the inverted “T” between two

horizontal bars in the center of the screen. Root Mean Square (RMS) error

and edge violations measures of tracking performance were calculated.

ERP Recording and Measurement

The electroencephalogram (EEG) was recorded from C2 referred to A, with

Grass, Model 7P511, amplifier using a half-amplitude bandpass from .1 to

100 Hz with a notch filter at 60 Hz. The electrocularogram (EOG) was

also recorded and used for monitoring eye movement artifacts. Sensor

Medics silver/silver chloride electrodes were used at all sites. Electrode

impedances were below 3 Kohm. The NWTB averaged the raw single trial

ERPs according to stimulus type (rare/frequent, in-set/out-of-set, etc.) and

determined the amplitude and latency for the P300 component of the averaged ERP waveforms. The measurements were reviewed by a researcher

and corrected if necessary. The researcher also manually measured the

amplitude and latency of N100 in the auditory event-monitoring task.

Testing Procedure

On an outpatient visit to the Addiction Research Center, the subject was

given an explanation of each NWTB task and then allowed to practice on

each task. After each practice, the subject performed that task, and the

EEG was recorded.

The subject was admitted to the inpatient research ward before 11 a.m. on

the first inpatient day (day 1). The first inpatient day ranged from the first

to the fourth day after the outpatient-test day. The inpatient tests were

administered on day 1, day 2, day 3, day 4, about day 7, about day 14, and

about day 21. All cognitive testing and EEG recording were performed

while the subject sat in a comfortable reclining chair in an electrically

shielded, sound-attenuated chamber. The auditory stimuli were delivered

through earphones, and visual stimuli were presented on a video monitor

1 meter from the subject’s face. The subject’s behavioral responses were

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obtained from a verbal response, pushbutton(s), or a handheld joystick,

depending on the task.

Statistical Considerations

Difference scores, calculated by subtracting the outpatient score from each

inpatient day, were used to control for possible baseline differences between

the patients and control subjects. Limited missing data were approximated

using the guidelines and procedures described by Winer (1962), so univariate analysis of variance could be performed. To ease the interpretability

and to reduce the number of post hoc comparisons made, the simple effect

and simple interaction procedures described by Winer (1962) were used to

interpret significant higher order interactions. In these procedures, higher

order interactions are reduced into multiple simple effects or simple interactions at individual levels of another factor, and Tukey type A post hoc

comparisons are made only when significant simple effects or interactions

are observed. A .05 probability level was chosen for statistical significance.

RESULTS

Auditory Rare-Event-Monitoring Task

No significant differences between the patient and control group were

observed for N100 amplitude and latency of the target tone ERP or correctness in this task. There was a slight tendency for N100 latency for the

patients to increase on day 14 and day 21. Perhaps with testing after day

21 this difference might continue to increase and become significant. N100

amplitude, likewise, did not differ between groups over the course of the

hospital stay.

P300 latency was significantly increased compared to the latency of the

control subjects (group by time interaction: F(6,114)=2.18, p<.05). The

post hoc comparisons tests indicated that the increase was statistically

significant only on treatment day 1 (figure 1). P300 amplitude did not

change over the course of the treatment period for the patient or control

group.

Visual Rare-Event-Monitoring Task

No significant differences between the patients and the control subjects for

reaction time and correctness were found. The mean for reaction time is

plotted in figure 2.

A significant treatment-day main effect was observed (F(6,96)=2.61, p>.02).

That is, reaction time increased for both groups over the hospital stay. This

increase is seen in figure 2. The percent correct detections in this task also

increased over time, but no differences were observed between groups on

this measure.

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FIGURE 1. P300 latency for the auditory rare-event-monitoring task

plotted as difference scores

*Significant difference between means using the Tukey (A) procedure.

FIGURE 2. Reaction times for the visual rare-event-monitoring task

plotted as difference scores

NOTE: No significant differences were found on this task.

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Sternberg Memory Task

The Sternberg memory task was performed with two set sizes (two-letter

and four-letter memory load). The main effect for group factor was significant for reaction time (F(1,19)=4.591, p>.05). The means averaged over all

treatment days and experimental conditions are shown in figure 3.

FIGURE 3. Difference scores on the Sternberg memory task over test

sessions for each condition

NOTE: In all comparisons, the differences between groups are significant.

The performance of the patients worsened over the course of treatment

compared to the control subjects. A significant time group by day by set

size by response type (in- or out-of-memory set) was also significant for

reaction time (F(6,114)=3.207, p>.01). The increased reaction time was

observed over all conditions for the patients. The controls were faster over

the hospital stay for all conditions except set size 2 when the probe letter

was not the letter to be remembered. The time courses to these effects are

plotted in figure 4 and figure 5. No significant changes were observed for

P300 amplitude or latency on this task.

Visual Motor-Tracking Task

Neither tracking measure, RMS error or Edge Violations, was altered over

the course of treatment.

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FIGURE 4. Time course of the in-set reaction time difference scores on

the Sternberg memory task over test days

*Significant differences between means using the Tukey(A) procedure.

CONCLUSION

Specific cognitive decrements were observed when cocaine abusers abstained

from cocaine. The decrement occurred at two different stages in the stimulus information-processing chain. A delay in stimulus evaluation as judged

by P300 latency occurred on the first treatment day. The patients also had

slowed reaction time on the Sternberg memory task for as long as they

174
FIGURE 5. Time course of the out-of-set reaction time difference scores

on the Sternberg memory task over test days

*Significant differences between means using the Tukey(A) procedure.

were tested. The time course of other measures was similar for both the

patients and the control subjects. We did not test all aspects of cognition

or performance in this study. Although the tasks were simple and the

patients were not pushed to the limit of their performance capacity, deficits

during cocaine abstinence were clearly observed.

175
In the present investigation we demonstrated that P300 latency was longer

for abstinent cocaine abusers than for control subjects on the first treatment

day. This increase in latency cannot be attributed to the more direct effects

of stimulant drug administration. For example, acute intravenous and oral

doses of cocaine reduce P300 amplitude but do not change latency (Heming

et al. 1985). Methylphenidate decreases rather than increases P300 amplitude in drug nonusers (Brumaghim et al. 1987). One experimental manipulation that will produce delays in the P300 is the increase in stimulus

complexity, which suggests that cognitive evoked potential latency may be a

measure of stimulus evaluation time (Callaway 1983).

Persistent P300 latency delays can also be observed in dementia (Polich

et al. 1986) and may be related to poor stimulus processing. The delays of

P300 latency we observed appear to be more transient but may also reflect

both brain impairment and corresponding deficit stimulus processing.

The time of last cocaine use before admission was not consistent across all

patients. The time and the amount of cocaine use before admission needs

to be verified against plasma levels of cocaine and its metabolites. However, the increase in P300 latency was large and very significant in spite of

possible variability in time and amount.

The reaction-time delays observed in the Sternberg task might have been a

result of clinical depression. There is evidence that reaction time can be

delayed in depressed patients (Thier et al. 1986; Massiouri and Lesevre

1988), and depression appears to be observed with both cocaine abuse and

abstinence (Gawin and Kleber 1986).

We suggest that depression did not act as a confound in this study. Severe

depression was not observed in our patient group. First, only one patient

was clinically depressed at admission, and Beck depression test scores were

relatively low for the patient group during treatment. Second, both the patients and the control subjects differed on reaction time on the Sternberg

memory task, but not on the visual rate-event-monitoring task. Third, on

the Sternberg task there was a memory load; the subjects had to search recent memory before responding. No memory component was involved in

the visual rare-event monitoring task. Also, the subjects were more impaired on the four-letter rather than the two-letter set as would be expected

if short-term memory, instead of reaction time, was impaired.

The short-term memory deficit persisted over the period we tested the

patients, with no improvement over 3 or 4 weeks. The Paced Auditory

Addition Task used by Melamed and Bleiberg (1986) to evaluate cognition

in free-base abusers also required short-term memory, and they found that

performance deficits persisted over the 10 days of drug-free treatment.

They had no outpatient test session, as we had. We presume our subjects

used cocaine the day they came for the outpatient test, and on that day they

176
seemed less impaired than when they first entered treatment. How long the

short-term memory deficit continues after the last dose of cocaine remains

unclear.

At least three major interpretations of the memory decrement during abstinence are possible. This preliminary study cannot conclusively support any

single explanation. The memory decrement may result from (1) a long-term

readjustment in several neurotransmitter systems, (2) an unmasking of a

residual functional neurological alteration produced by cocaine use, or

(3) an unmasking of a preexisting constitutional cognitive alteration in the

patients. Treatment of cocaine abusers with dopaminergic agonists such as

bromocriptine or antidepressant drugs has become popular as an attempt to

restore receptor balance, as well as to prevent the craving and depression

associated with cocaine abstinence. Although similar to the first explanation, residual neurological alterations of a reversible nature are based on

cocaine effects on plasma membranes and blood flow in the brain. Other

transmitter systems may be affected. Finally, 7 of 12 subjects had a

DSM-IIIR diagnosis of antisocial personality. We have reported that

aggressive adolescent males have sensory and cognitive alteration throughout

the auditory information-processing system (Heming et al. 1989). Abstinence from cocaine may unmask this deficit. Because not all subjects had

the antisocial personality diagnosis, we favor the second explanation-that

is, the memory decrement may be due to more generalized persistent functional neurophysiological alteration unmasked by cocaine abstinence. Such

a decrement in cognitive function may be a contributing factor in relapse.

REFERENCES

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abrupt cessation of cocaine use. Am J Psychiatry 140:1525-1526, 1983.

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M.G. Does methylphenidate affect information processing? Findings

from two studies on performance and P3b latency. Psychophysiology

24:361-373, 1987.

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diagnosis in cocaine abusers. Arch Gen Psychiatry 43:107-113, 1986.

Heming, R.I.; Hickey, J.E.; Pickworth, W.B.; and Jaffe, J.H. Auditory

event-related potentials in adolescents at risk for drug abuse. Biol

Psychiatry 25:598-609, 1989.

Heming, R.I.; Jones, R.T.; Hooker, W.D.; and Tulunay, EC. Information

processing components of the auditory event related potential are reduced

by cocaine. Psychopharmacology 87:178-185, 1985.

Massiouri, F.E., and Lesevre, N. Attention impairment and psychomotor

retardation in depressed patients: An event related potential study.

Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 70:46-55, 1988.

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Melamed, J.I., and Bleiberg, J. Neuropsychological deficits in freebase

cocaine abusers after cessation of use. Presented at the annual meeting of

the American Psychiatric Association, Washington, DC, August 1986.

Polich, J.; Ehlers, C.L; Otis, S.; Mandell, A.J.; and Bloom, F.E. P300

latency reflects the degree of cognitive decline in dementing illness.

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Squires, K.; Donchin, W.; Heming, R.I.; and McCarthy, G. On the influence of task relevance and stimulus probability on ERP components.

Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 42:1-14, 1977.

Sternberg, S. The discovery of processing stages: Extensions of Donders’

method. Acta Psychologica 30:276-315, 1969a.

Sternberg, S. Memory-scanning: Mental processes revealed by reaction

time experiments. American Scientist 57:421-457, 1969b.

Sternberg, S. Memory scanning: New findings and current controversies.

Q J Exp Psychol 27:1-32, 1975.

Thier, P.; Axmann, D.; and Giedke, H. Slow brain potentials and psychomotor retardation in depression. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol

63:570-581, 1986.

Volkow, N.D.; Mullani, N.; Gould, K.L.; Alder, S.; and Krajewski, K.

Cerebral blood flow in chronic cocaine users: A study with positron

emission tomography. Br J Psychiatry 57:641-648, 1988.

Weiss, B., and Laties, V.G. Enhancement of human performance by

caffeine and the amphetamines. Pharmacol Rev 14:1-36, 1962.

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McGraw-Hill, 1962.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

Technical collaborative contributions were made by members of the TriServices Joint Working Group on Drug-Dependent Degradation in Military

Performance. The views, opinions, and findings contained in this report are

those of the authors and should not be construed as an official position of

the Joint Working Group.

AUTHORS

Ronald I. Heming, Ph.D.

Barbara J. Glover, R.N.

Bonnie Koeppl, M.S.

William Weddington, M.D.

Jerome H. Jaffe, M.D.

Cognitive Studies and Human Performance Laboratory

Addiction Research Center

National Institute on Drug Abuse

Baltimore, MD 21224

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Abstinence Symptomatology and

Neuropsychological Impairment in

Chronic Cocaine Abusers

Stephanie S. O'Malley and Frank H. Gawin

INTRODUCTION

As recently as 1980, cocaine was believed to be a relatively safe nonaddicting drug (Gvinspoon and Bakalar 1980). The lessons of previous stimulant

epidemics in the 1890s, 1920s, 1950s and 1960s had been forgotten, and

new users were aware only of the short-term positive mood effects of

cocaine use. As a result, millions of people experimented with cocaine,

and, by 1986, approximately 3 million were estimated to abuse cocaine

regularly (Adams et al. 1986). Because the time period between initial

stimulant use and the development of dependence is 2 to 5 years (Gawin

and Kleber 1985), published reports of adverse consequences from cocaine

abuse did not appear for several years (Gawin and Ellinwood 1988).

Although a number of acute complications of stimulant abuse have been

identified (Gold et al. 1985; Creglar and Mark 1986), this chapter reviews

the evidence for adverse residual effects of cocaine use on affective and

neuropsychological functioning.

ABUSE PATTERNS AND NEUROADAPTATION

An examination of potential residual effects of cocaine requires that patterns

of abuse be considered. After initial experimentation and repeated episodes

of cocaine use with higher doses, a shift from controlled to uncontrolled

cocaine abuse takes place over the course of several years. Clinical consensus indicates that it is not until this shift has occurred that cocaine produces

noticeable clinical consequences (Seigel 1982; Gawin and Kleber 1985;

Ellinwood and Petrie 1977; Kleber and Gawin 1984).

The clinical hallmark of this shift is that use of cocaine in extended binges

develops, during which abusers become unable to cease use until all supplies are exhausted. During binges, cocaine addicts have no interest in sex,

179
nourishment, sleep, safety, survival, money, morality, loved ones, or responsibilities. After the binge, they frequently go for 1/2 day to 5 days without

any cocaine use (Gawin and Kleber 1986).

Abusers average one to three binges per week, lasting from 8 to 24 hours

each. During binges, cocaine boluses are readministered every 15 minutes

as users attempt to recreate the rush of cocaine euphoria (Seigel 1982;

Gawin and Kleber 1986). This means that repeated insults to the brain’s

homeostatic mechanisms take place. In this context, it is likely that adaptation to cocaine’s acute effects on mood takes place, with chronic clinical

consequences (Gawin and Ellinwood 1988, Gawin and Ellinwood 1989). In

addition, neuropsychological impairment may occur as a result of chronic

hyper- or hypostimulation of specific brain regions, or by hemodynamic

insults associated with cocaine use.

NEUROADAPTATION IN BRAIN REWARD SYSTEMS

Gross physiological withdrawal symptoms do not occur in cocaine dependence. Nonetheless, there is substantial consistency in the preclinical data

indicating that cocaine causes adaptation in brain systems that regulate

psychological processes. These data are fully reviewed and referenced else

where (Gawin and Ellinwood 1988). Briefly, chronic stimulant exposure in

animals causes subsensitivity of mesolimbic and mesocortical dopaminergic

projections in animals. These projections are involved in reward. This subsensitivity provides an apparent parallel to the reward subsensitivity described by cocaine abusers, which is clinically termed anhedonia. Further,

chronic cocaine administration produces multiple receptor alterations in these

same systems. These receptor alterations, the decreases in sensitivity of

reward systems, and the clinical withdrawal symptoms of anhedonia are all

reversed by treatment with tricyclic antidepressants. In addition, behavioral

depression after high-dose stimulants in animals parallels the time course for

withdrawal anhedonia in humans. Multiple alterations in neurotransmitter

concentrations, turnover, and metabolism also occur in animals and are paralleled by alterations in peripheral indices of central transmitter function in

humans.

These data have led to the hypothesis that cocaine produces a true “physiological” addiction as a consequence of chronic, high-dose use, but one

whose expression is “psychological.” The clinical description of these

psychological consequences is consistent among investigators (Gawin and

Ellinwood 1988; Seigel 1982; Ellinwood and Petrie 1977; Gawin and Kleber

1986), but the symptom displays are often subtle, requiring development of

precise instruments and methods for symptom assessment. Thus, the withdrawal consequences of cocaine have been only partially studied and verified by laboratory or hospital evaluations in humans.

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ABSTINENCE SYMPTOMS

Gawin and Kleber (1986) have described a triphasic cocaine abstinence pattern that delineates the emotional consequences of long-term cocaine use.

This pattern includes crash, withdrawal, and extinction phases. Figure 1

outlines the phases of abstinence following a cocaine binge.

FIGURE 1. Phases following a cocaine binge

NOTE: Duration and intensity of symptoms vary depending on binge characteristics and coexisting

psychiatric diagnoses.

SOURCE: Gawin and Kleber 1986 copyright 1986, American Medical Association.

Phase I: “Crash”

A “crash” of mood and energy immediately follows a cocaine binge.

Cocaine craving, depression, agitation, and anxiety intensify. Within 1 to

4 hours, cocaine craving is replaced by desire for sleep. Sedatives, opiates,

anxiolytics, or alcohol may be taken to induce sleep. Prolonged sleep may

be punctuated by massive eating episodes. Hypersomnolence can last several days, followed by mood normalization.

Clinical recovery from the crash is, in part, accomplished by sleep, nutrition, and replacement of neurotransmitters depleted by the prior binge.

Usual management is nutrition and rest, along with observation for possible

suicide. The crash is similar to the acute withdrawal of the alcohol

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hangover, rather than chronic withdrawal, in that it is minimally associated

with cravings for the abused substance.

Crash symptoms resemble neurovegetative symptoms in major depression;

therefore, assessments for psychiatric disorders or severity of chronic abstinence symptoms are delayed until crash symptoms have abated. Generally,

sleep normalization and 1 to 3 days of confirmed abstinence assure that

acute postuse symptoms have ended (Gawin and Kleber 1986).

Phase II: “Withdrawal”

A protracted dysphoric syndrome, including inactivity, listlessness, boredom,

and pleasurelessness (anhedonia) occurs 1 to 5 days following the crash.

These symptoms are less dramatic than the extreme depression during the

crash and were not recognized by early observers. They are not as unremitting or severe as major mood disorders, but this pleasureless existence

amplifies stimulant craving and leads to resumption of use. This withdrawal phase parallels withdrawal from other abused substances, except for

its lack of gross physiological changes.

Clinicians observe that anhedonic symptoms abate within 1 to 10 weeks of

sustained abstinence. Predisposing psychiatric disorders may prolong and

amplify these withdrawal symptoms.

Phase III: “Extinction”

Months or even years after resolution of withdrawal, occasional periods of

“conditioned” cocaine craving can occur, lasting only hours. Conditioned

cocaine cravings result from objects or events (cues) that in the past had

been paired with cocaine intoxication and that evoke associations to cocaine

euphoria. Cues can be specific persons, locations, events, mild alcohol

intoxication, interpersonal conflicts, adverse mood states previously soothed

by cocaine, or the sight of objects linked to abuse (money, white powder,

glass pipes, mirrors, syringes, single-edged razor blades, among many

others) (Gawin and Ellinwood 1989). If the person does not yield to craving, the desire will abate; it diminishes on each subsequent exposure and

gradually becomes extinct.

NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL IMPAIRMENT

The possibility that cocaine abuse may also result in cognitive dysfunction

is suggested by case reports of cocaine-induced intracranial hemorrhage and

cerebral vasculitis (Kaye and Fainstat 1987; Tuchman et al. 1987; Levine

et al. 1987). These vascular consequences are probably related to the

vasoconstrictor properties of cocaine, in which both cardiac output and

peripheral resistance are increased, resulting in transient hypertension.

Neuropsychological impairment may also result from overstimulation of

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dopaminergic pathways and subsequent hypoexcitability of these areas when

cocaine administration is discontinued (Bauer 1989).

Research involving acute administration of cocaine and similar drugs (e.g.,

methylphenidate) suggests that cocaine’s actions on the central nervous

system (CNS) improve vigilance and motor functions (Fischman and Shuster

1980; Coons et al. 1981). Overstimulation of these functions with chronic

cocaine administration, however, may potentially result in disrupted attention

and impaired motor skills. Given that cocaine’s actions involve the mesolimbic system, it is also likely that memory may be affected as well.

Despite the potential clinical significance of this issue, there are few controlled studies of the neuropsychological consequences of chronic cocaine

use. In one study, O’Malley and colleagues (1988) compared 20 recently

abstinent cocaine abusers with 20 age- and education-matched controls using

the Wechsler Adult Category test, the Finger Oscillation test, and the

Neuropsychological Screening Battery (NSB) (Heaton et al., in press;

Franklin et al., in press). The cocaine abusers reported using, on average,

447.15 grams of cocaine over approximately 4 years. Their mean age and

educational level were 27.6 (SD=7.17) and 13.2 (SD=1.61) years, respectively. Individuals were excluded who had a history of intravenous drug

use, dependence on alcohol or drugs other than cocaine, significant head

trauma, developmental problems, major medical disorders, a psychotic illness, or current use of medications that might affect the CNS.

On the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Revised (WAIS-R), the cocaine

abusers scored significantly lower than controls on the arithmetic subtest

only. The results for the remaining neuropsychological measures are presented in table 1. As can be seen, cocaine abusers did worse on the

Symbol Digit Modalities test, a measure of verbal forgetting (Story

Memory), the Halstead Category test, and the summary score of the NSB.

Mean scores for the cocaine abusers on the Symbol Digit Modalities test

and the NSB summary measure were in the mild impairment range. These

findings suggest that recent abstinence from cocaine is associated with problems in concentration, memory, and nonverbal problem solving and abstracting ability. One unexpected finding was higher oral fluency scores for the

cocaine abusers. Perhaps the most striking result was that 50 percent of the

cocaine abusers scored in the impairment range on the NSB summary score,

in contrast to only 15 percent of the controls. Briefer periods of abstinence

were related to poorer arithmetic performance and tended to be associated

with greater impairment on the NSB summary measure and with more

errors on the Halstead Category test.

In a second study, O’Malley and associates (1989) continued to examine the

issue of residual effects of cocaine in a larger sample of cocaine abusers,

using a more extensive neuropsychological assessment battery. Although

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TABLE 1. Cocaine abusers and normals compared on neuropsychological

measures

Measure

Cocaine Ss Control Ss

M SD M SD t p

Impairment Indexa

Aural Comprehensionb

Commandsb

Oral Fluencyb

Written Fluencyb

Confrontation Namingb

Sentence Repetitionb

Trails A

a

Trails B

a

Symbol Digitb

Story Learningb

Story Memorya

Figure Copyb

Figure Learningb

Figure Memorya

Numerical Attention

Timeb

Errorsb

5.80 4.34 2.70 4.04 2.34 .02

11.80 .41 11.70 .57 6 4 .53

22.20 2.09 22.30 1.49 -.17 .86

14.85 5.07 11.15 2.85 2.84 .008

11.85 3.56 12.50 3.71 -.57 .56

17.85 2.06 17.90 .41 -.08 .94

4.65 .67 4.80 .41 -.85 4 0

25.90 6.00 22.00 9.68 1.53 .14

59.05 26.50 49.55 23.76 1.19 .24

51.10 10.10 65.05 11.17 -2.66 .01

6.35 4.17 7.06 3.25 -.60 .55

10.20 9.32 4.80 6.14 2.16 .04

17.35 2.60 16.85 2.58 .61 .55

14.00 4.64 15.25 2.94 -1.02 .31

3.25 8.11 5.35 6.71 -.89 .38

157.20 31.49 146.85 25.97 1.12 .27

3.90 2.94 3.80 3.16 .10 .92

Reading Comprehensiona11.60 .68 11.85 .49 -1.33 .19

Category Test Errorsb40.60 22.74 25.80 15.90 -.08 .94

Finger Tapping

Dominanta53.90 6.59 55.76 4.43 -.99 .33

Nondominanta48.70 7.34 49.83 5.80 -.54 .59

aHigher scores indicate poorer performance.

bLower scores indicate poorer performancc.

NOTE: There was no evidence of speech articulation problems in any of the cocaine or control

subjects. All subjects received a perfect score.

the first study was conducted with inpatients who were newly abstinent

(mean=23 days), this investigation studied 25 outpatients who had accrued

an average of 135 days of abstinence. The subjects were cocaine abusers

(mean age=28.4 years) who had been interviewed with the Schedule for

Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia as part of a diagnostic study. Based

on this interview, subjects with a lifetime or current history of drug or

184
alcohol abuse other than cocaine or stimulants were excluded from participating. The remaining exclusion criteria were similar to those used by

Adamse and colleagues (1988). Of the sample, 74 percent primarily

smoked free-base cocaine; the remainder were intranasal users. On average,

the sample had used a total of 522.7 grams of cocaine over 46.9 months.

They were predominantly male (60 percent) and Caucasian (60 percent),

with a mean educational level of 13.5 years (SD=1.7).

Cocaine abusers were compared with 25 age-, education-, sex-, and racematched normal controls using the extended Halstead-Reitan Battery (Reitan

1986). Tests comprising this battery include the WAIS—R, category test,

trail-making test, tactual performance test (TPT, time, memory, and location), rhythm test, speech-sounds perception, aphasia examination, sensory

perceptual examination, finger-tapping test, grip-strength dynamometer,

grooved pegboard test, and the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory.

Heaton’s adaptation of the Wechsler Memory scale was used to assess

learning and memory for verbal and figural information (Heaton et al.

1978).

For data analysis, the various neuropsychological tests were classified

according to the ability area tapped by the measure. The skill areas included measures of: (1) verbal skills, (2) abstraction and cognitive flexibility,

(3) complex psychomotor skills, (4) learning and incidental memory,

(5) memory, (6) attention and speed of information processing, (7) simple

motor skills, and (8) simple sensory skills. The tests comprising each

ability area are presented in table 2.

Multivariate analyses of variance were then used to compare the cocaine

abusers and controls on these eight areas and on a group of summary measures, including Verbal IQ, Performance IQ, and the Average Impairment

Rating. The areas in which the cocaine abusers performed more poorly

than controls included complex cognitive motor skills, simple motor skills,

and the summary measures. When individual tests were examined, the

analyses revealed that the cocaine abusers performed more poorly on the

following tests of cognitive-motor and simple motor skills: spatial relations,

grooved pegboard, grip strength, and spatial relations. With regard to

memory, the cocaine abusers showed a deficit in retaining nonverbal material. None of the individual summary scores discriminated between the two

groups, although the multivariate analysis was significant. With the exception of grip strength and spatial relations, the cocaine abusers’ scores were

in the normal range on all tests.

ABSTINENCE AND RECOVERY OF FUNCTION

An extensive body of research on neuropsychological changes associated

with alcohol abuse suggests that significant cognitive impairment is evident

in recently detoxified alcoholics, but that slow recovery of function occurs

185
TABLE 2. Ability areas and specific neuropsychological tests used to

compare cocaine and normal subjects

Ability Area Tests

Summary Measures

Verbal Skills

Abstraction and Cognitive

Flexibility

Attention and Speed of

Information Processing

Learning and Incidental

Memory

Memory

Complex Psychomotor Skills

Simple Motor Skills

Simple Sensory

Verbal I.Q.; Performance I.Q.; Average

Impairment Rating

Vocabulary; Information; Comprehension;

Similarities; Aphasia Errors

Category Errors; Trail B

Rhythm Test; Digit Span; Arithmetic;

Picture Completion; Speech Sounds

Story Learning; Figure Memory;

TPT—Memory; TPT—Location

Story Memory; Figure Memory

TPT—Minutes per block; Digit Symbol;

Picture Arrangement; Block Design;

Object Assembly; Spatial Relations

Finger Tapping; Grip Strength; Grooved

Pegboard

Perceptual Errors

with long-term abstinence (Grant 1987). The findings from our research

suggest that a similar process may conceivably occur with cocaine abuse.

In our study of recently abstinent cocaine abusers (O’Malley et al. 1988),

length of abstinence correlated with performance on tests that discriminated

cocaine abusers from normals. In addition, 50 percent of the cocaine

abusers were found to be in the mildly impaired range in contrast to

15 percent of controls. In contrast, when we studied a sample of cocaine

abusers who had been abstinent almost 4 months on average, their neuropsychological tests scores, although poorer than controls, were generally in

the normal range. The patterns of impairment noted in the two studies suggest that disruptions in attention may recover more rapidly and that motor

impairment may be more persistent.

The question of recoverability of function would be best addressed using a

longitudinal design in which subjects are tested shortly after achieving abstinence and at several intervals over time. In an initial examination of this

186
question, Cummings and associates (1988) tested a group of 30 male cocaine addicts upon admission to an inpatient unit and 2 weeks later with the

Peterson Short-Term Verbal Learning Test, the WAIS—R digit span, a

digit-symbol substitution test, and a choice-reaction-time test. Preliminary

results indicated that subjects’ performance improved from baseline on digits

backwards and on the 30-second trial of the Peterson Short-Term Learning

Test. The contribution of practice effects to this improvement cannot be

ruled out, however, in the absence of a control group. Using a different

methodology, Volkow and colleagues (1988) failed to End improvement in

cerebral blood-flow abnormalities when subjects were tested shortly after

admission to treatment and 10 days later. The time between testings in

both studies was relatively short and further research is needed to address

whether significant improvement would occur with extended abstinence.

REMAINING QUESTIONS AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS FOR

RESEARCH

Although our research reveals poorer performance by cocaine abusers, the

degree of impairment is not as striking as that seen with alcoholics. Before

minimizing the long-term effects of cocaine on cognitive functioning, however, a number of caveats should be made. First, it is important to note

that current studies of cocaine abusers have used relatively young subjects

who had abused cocaine for approximately 4 to 7 years on average. In

studies demonstrating cognitive dysfunction in alcoholics, subjects are generally older with longer histories of abuse (Parsons and Farr 1981). As the

population of long-term cocaine abusers increases, future research addressing

whether more significant changes result from extended periods of abuse will

be needed.

Perhaps a more important caution is that our samples of cocaine abusers

were highly selective and consisted of subjects whose only abused substance

was cocaine. This pattern of single-substance abuse is not typical of the

majority of drug abusers. Cocaine abusers are often dependent on alcohol.

Another subgroup combines cocaine and heroin in a “speedball” to produce

a more tempered high. The preliminary results of a large diagnostic study

of 300 treatment-seeking cocaine abusers (Rounsaville, personal communication) indicated that 61.7 percent met lifetime research diagnostic criteria for

alcohol abuse or dependence. Given that alcohol dependence has been

shown to be associated with substantial neuropsychological impairment, it is

likely that cocaine abusers who also abuse alcohol or other drugs may be at

particular risk for cognitive dysfunction. While studies of relatively “pure”

cocaine abusers allow clearer inferences about the role of cocaine in any

observed impairments, additional studies of cocaine abusers who also abuse

other substances are required.

Although the evidence for residual effects of cocaine on cognitive and emotional functioning is accruing, much of our knowledge remains anecdotal.

187
In addition, the time course and nature of recovery of cognitive functioning

following cocaine withdrawal can only be inferred from the current crosssectional studies. At this juncture, longitudinal studies are needed in which

abstinence symptomatology is assessed at specific time periods after cocaine

use is discontinued. In research on cognitive functioning, traditional neuropsychological test batteries could be augmented with tests concentrating on

specific areas hypothesized to be affected by cocaine. The existing research

suggests that processes involved with vigilance, memory, and motor functioning may be particularly important.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Support was provided by National Institute on Drug Abuse Center grant

P50 04060 and DA 05348 and by the National Institute on Alcoholism and

Alcohol Abuse grant AA 07080.

AUTHORS

Stephanie S. O’Malley, Ph.D.

Department of Psychiatry

School of Medicine

Yale University

285 Orchard Street

New Haven, CT 06511

Frank H. Gawin, M.D.

Department of Psychiatry

University of California

Los Angeles, CA

190
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76 PROBLEMS OF DRUG DEPENDENCE, 1986. PROCEEDINGS OF

THE 48TH ANNUAL SCIENTIFIC MEETING, THE COMMITTEE ON

PROBLEMS OF DRUG DEPENDENCE, INC. Louis S. Harris, Ph.D., ed.

GPO Stock #017-024-01316-1 $16 NCADI out of stock

NTIS PB #88-208111/AS $53

77 ADOLESCENT DRUG ABUSE: ANALYSES OF TREATMENT

RESEARCH. Elizabeth R. Rahdert, Ph.D., and John Grabowski, Ph.D., eds.

GPO Stock #017-024-01348-0 $4 NTIS PB #89-125488/AS $23

78 THE ROLE OF NEUROPLASTICITY IN THE RESPONSE TO DRUGS.

David P. Friedman, Ph.D., and Doris H. Clouet, Ph.D., eds.

GPO Stock #017-024-01330-7 $6 NTIS PB #88-245683/AS $31

79 STRUCTURE-ACTIVITY RELATIONSHIPS OF THE CANNABINOIDS.

Rao S. Rapaka, Ph.D., and Alexandros Makriyannis, Ph.D., eds.

GPO Stock #017-024-01331-5 $6 NTIS PB #89-109201/AS $31

80 NEEDLE SHARING AMONG INTRAVENOUS DRUG ABUSERS:

NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVES. Robert J. Battjes,

D.S.W.. and Roy W. Pickens, Ph.D., eds.

GPO Stock #017-024-0134.5-5 $5.50 NTIS PB #88-236138/AS $31

81 PROBLEMS OF DRUG DEPENDENCE, 1987. PROCEEDINGS OF

THE 49TH ANNUAL SCIENTIFIC MEETING, THE COMMITTEE ON

PROBLEMS OF DRUG DEPENDENCE, INC. Louis S. Harris, Ph.D., ed.

GPO Stock #017-024-01354-4 $17 NTIS PB #89-109227/AS

Contact NTIS for price

82 OPIOIDS IN THE HIPPOCAMPUS. Jacqueline F. McGinty, Ph.D., and

David P. Friedman, Ph.D., eds.

GPO Stock #017-024-01344-7 $4.25 NTIS PB #88-245691/AS $23

83 HEALTH HAZARDS OF NITRITE INHALANTS. Harry W. Haverkos,

M.D., and John A. Dougherty, Ph.D., eds.

GPO Stock #017-024-01351-0 $3.25 NTIS PB #89-125496/AS $23

84 LEARNING FACTORS IN SUBSTANCE ABUSE. Barbara A. Ray,

Ph.D., ed.

GPO Stock #017-024-01353-6 $6 NTIS PB #89-125504/AS $31

85 EPIDEMIOLOGY OF INHALANT ABUSE: AN UPDATE. Raquel A.

Crider, Ph.D., and Beatrice A. Rouse, Ph.D., eds.

GPO Stock #017-024-01360-9 $5.50 NTIS PB #89-123178/AS $31

86 COMPULSORY TREATMENT OF DRUG ABUSE: RESEARCH AND

CLINICAL PRACTICE. Carl G. Leukefeld, D.S.W., and Frank M. Tims,

Ph.D., eds.

GPO Stock #017-024-01352-8 $7.50 NTIS PB #89-151997/AS $31

196
87 OPIOID PEPTIDES: AN UPDATE. Rao S. Rapaka, Ph.D., and Bhola N.

Dhawan, M.D., eds.

GPO Stock #017-024-01366-8 $7 NTIS PB #89-158430/AS $45

88 MECHANISMS OF COCAINE ABUSE AND TOXICITY. Doris H.

Clouet, Ph.D.; Khursheed Asghar, Ph.D.; and Roger M. Brown, Ph.D., eds.

GPO Stock #017-024-01359-5 $11 NTIS PB #89-125512/AS $39

89 BIOLOGICAL VULNERABILITY TO DRUG ABUSE. Roy W. Pickens,

Ph.D., and Dace S. Svikis, B.A., eds.

GPO Stock #017-022-01054-2 $5 NTIS PB #89-125520/AS $23

90 PROBLEMS OF DRUG DEPENDENCE, 1988. PROCEEDINGS OF

THE SOTH ANNUAL SCIENTIFIC MEETING. THE COMMITTEE ON

PROBLEMS OF DRUG DEPENDENCE, INC. Louis S. Harris, Ph.D., ed.

GPO Stock #017-024-01362-5 $17

91 DRUGS IN THE WORKPLACE: RESEARCH AND EVALUATION

DATA. Steven W. Gost. Ph.D., and J. Michael Walsh, Ph.D., eds.

GPO Stock #017-024-01384-6 $10 NTIS PB #90-147257/AS $39

92 TESTING FOR ABUSE LIABILITY OF DRUGS IN HUMANS.

Marian W. Fischman. Ph.D., and Nancy K. Mello, Ph.D., eds.

GPO Stock #017-024-01379-0 $12 NTIS PB #90-148933/AS $45

93 AIDS AND INTRAVENOUS DRUG USE: FUTURE DIRECTIONS FOR

COMMUNITY-BASED PREVENTION RESEARCH. C.G. Leukefeld, D.S.W.;

R.J. Battjes, D.S.W.; and Z. Amsel. Ph.D., eds.

GPO Stock #017-024-01388-9 $10 NTIS PB #90-148941/AS $39

94 PHARMACOLOGY AND TOXICOLOGY OF AMPHETAMINE AND

RELATED DESIGNER DRUGS. Khursheed Asghar, Ph.D., and Errol

De Sousa, Ph.D.. eds.

GPO Stock #017-024-01386-2 $11 NTIS PB #90-148958/AS $39

IN PRESS:

95 PROBLEMS OF DRUG DEPENDENCE, 1989. PROCEEDINGS OF

THE 51ST ANNUAL SCIENTIFIC MEETING. THE COMMITTEE ON

PROBLEMS OF DRUG DEPENDENCE, INC. Louis S. Harris, Ph.D., ed.

96 DRUGS OF ABUSE: CHEMISTRY, PHARMACOLOGY, IMMUNOLOGY, AND AIDS. Phuong Thi Kim Pham, Ph.D., and Kenner Rice, Ph.D.,

eds.

97 NEUROBIOLOGY OF DRUG ABUSE: LEARNING AND MEMORY.

Lynda Erinoff, ed.

98 THE COLLECTION AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA FROM

HIDDEN POPULATIONS. Elizabeth Y. Lambert, M.S.. ed.

197
99 RESEARCH FINDINGS ON SMOKING OF ABUSED SUBSTANCES.

C. Nora Chiang, Ph.D., and Richard L. Hawks, Ph.D., eds.

100 DRUGS IN THE WORKPLACE: RESEARCH AND EVALUATION

DATA. VOL. II. Steven W. Gost, Ph.D., and J. Michael Walsh, Ph.D., eds.

101 RESIDUAL EFFECTS OF ABUSED DRUGS ON BEHAVIOR. John W.

Spencer, Ph.D., and John J. Boren, Ph.D., eds.

102 ANABOLIC STEROID ABUSE. Geraline C. Lin, Ph.D., Lynda Erinoff,

Ph.D., eds.

103 DRUGS AND VIOLENCE: CAUSES, CORRELATES, AND CONSEQUENCES. Mario De La Rosa, Ph.D.; Elizabeth Y. Lambert, M.S.; and

Bernard Gropper, Ph.D., eds.

198
DHHS Publication No. (ADM)91-1719

Alcohol, Drug Abuse, and Mental Health Administration

Printed 1990