Sembar Goru/Ghazij Composite Total Petroleum System, 

Indus and Sulaiman-Kirthar Geologic Provinces,

Pakistan and India

By C.J. Wandrey, B.E. Law, and Haider Ali Shah

U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 2208-C

U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey

Petroleum Systems and Related Geologic 

Studies in Region 8, South Asia

Edited by Craig J. Wandrey
U.S. Department of the Interior

Gale A. Norton, Secretary

U.S. Geological Survey

Charles G. Groat, Director

This publication is only available online at:

http://pubs.usgs.gov/bul/b2208-c/

Posted online May 2004, version 1.0
Foreword

This report describing the petroleum resources within the Sembar-Goru/Ghazij 

Composite Total Petroleum System, Pakistan and India, was prepared as part of the 

World Energy Assessment Project of the U.S. Geological Survey. For this project, the 

world was divided into 8 regions and 937 geologic provinces, which were then ranked 

according to the discovered oil and gas volumes within each (Klett and others, 1997). Of 

these, 76 “priority” provinces (exclusive of the United States and chosen for their high 

ranking) and 26 “boutique” provinces (exclusive of the United States and chosen for their 

anticipated petroleum richness or special regional economic importance) were selected 

for assessment of undiscovered oil and gas resources. The petroleum geology of these 

priority and boutique provinces is described in this series of reports.

The purpose of the World Energy Project is to assess the quantities of oil, gas, and 

natural gas liquids that have the potential to be added to reserves within the next 30 

years. These volumes either reside in undiscovered fields whose sizes exceed the stated 

minimum-field-size cutoff value for the assessment unit (variable, but must be at least 1 

million barrels of oil equivalent) or occur as reserve growth of fields already discovered. 

The total petroleum system constitutes the basic geologic unit of the oil and gas 

assessment. The total petroleum system includes all genetically related petroleum that 

occurs in shows and accumulations (discovered and undiscovered) and that (1) has been 

generated by a pod or by closely related pods of mature source rock, and (2) exists within 

a limited, mappable geologic space, along with the other essential, mappable geologic 

elements (reservoir, seal, and overburden) that control the fundamental processes of 

generation, expulsion, migration, entrapment, and preservation of petroleum. The 

minimum petroleum system is that part of a total petroleum system encompassing 

discovered shows and accumulations along with the geologic space in which the various 

essential elements have been proved by these discoveries.

An assessment unit is a mappable part of a total petroleum system in which 

discovered and undiscovered fields constitute a single, relatively homogeneous population 

such that the chosen methodology of resource assessment based on estimation of the 

number and sizes of undiscovered fields is applicable. A total petroleum system may 

equate to a single assessment unit, or it may be subdivided into two or more assessment 

units if each unit is sufficiently homogeneous in terms of geology, exploration 

considerations, and risk to assess individually.

A graphical depiction of the elements of a total petroleum system is provided in the 

form of an event chart that shows the times of (1) deposition of essential rock units, (2) 

trap formation, (3) generation, migration, and accumulation of hydrocarbons, and (4) 

preservation of hydrocarbons. 

A numeric code identifies each region, province, total petroleum system, and 

assessment unit; these codes are uniform throughout the project and will identify the 

same type of entity in any of the publications. The code is as follows: 

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The codes for the regions and provinces are listed in Klett and others (1997).
Oil and gas reserves quoted in this report are derived from Petroconsultant’s 

Petroleum Exploration and Production database (Petroconsultants, 1996) and other area 

reports from Petroconsultants, Inc., unless otherwise noted.

Figure(s) in this report that show boundaries of the total petroleum system(s), 

assessment units, and pods of active source rocks were compiled using geographicinformation-system (GIS) software. Political boundaries and cartographic representations 

were taken, with permission, from Environmental Systems Research Institute’s ArcWorld 

1:3,000,000 digital coverage (1992), have no political significance, and are displayed 

for general reference only. Oil and gas field centerpoints, shown on these figures, are 

reproduced, with permission, from Petroconsultants (1996). 
Contents

Foreword ....................................................................................................................................................... iii

Abstract.......................................................................................................................................................... 1

Acknowledgments........................................................................................................................................ 1

Introduction ................................................................................................................................................... 1

Regional Geologic History........................................................................................................................... 2

Stratigraphy .......................................................................................................................................... 7

Precambrian and Paleozoic Stratigraphy............................................................................... 7

Mesozoic Stratigraphy............................................................................................................... 7

Cenozoic Stratigraphy` .............................................................................................................. 9

Oil and Gas Exploration and Production ................................................................................................... 9

Sembar-Goru/Ghazij Composite Total Petroleum System.................................................................... 13

Source Rocks ..................................................................................................................................... 13

Reservoirs ........................................................................................................................................... 14

Traps ................................................................................................................................................. 17

Seals ................................................................................................................................................. 18

Overburden Rock ............................................................................................................................... 18

Assessment Units ....................................................................................................................................... 18

Assessment of Undiscovered Oil and Gas ............................................................................................. 19

Summary ...................................................................................................................................................... 21

Selected References.................................................................................................................................. 21

Figures

1. Map showing location of Indus Basin, Sulaiman-Kirthar, and Kohat-Potwar 

geologic provinces ....................................................................................................................... 2

2. Generalized geology of the Sembar-Goru / Ghazij Composite 

Total Petroleum System area...................................................................................................... 3

3. Map showing assessment units for the Sembar-Goru / Ghazij Composite Total 

Petroleum System......................................................................................................................... 4

4. Generalized stratigraphy of the Upper Indus Basin area ...................................................... 5

5.–10. Paleogeographic maps from a perspective of lat 20°S., long 68°E. for the:

5. Middle Jurassic (approximately 166 Ma) ...................................................................... 6

6. Early Cretaceous (approximately 130 Ma)..................................................................... 6

7. Late Cretaceous (approximately 94 Ma)........................................................................ 6

8. Latest Cretaceous (approximately 69 Ma)..................................................................... 6

9. Middle Eocene (approximately 50 Ma) .......................................................................... 7

10. Late Oligocene Epoch (approximately 27 Ma) .............................................................. 7
11. Generalized cross sections showing structure across the Lower, 

Middle, and Upper Indus Basin, foldbelt, and Kohat-Potwar area ...................................... 8

12. Generalized map showing the Sembar-Goru/Ghazij Composite 

Total Petroleum System outline, extent of Sembar Formation, 

thermal maturity contours, and oil and gas field locations ................................................. 10

13. The cumulative number of new field wildcat wells versus 

well completion year is an indication of exploration effort................................................. 11

14. Maturity of exploration indicator plot showing a comparison of 

known oil field sizes grouped by discovery thirds ................................................................ 11

15. Maturity of exploration indicator plot showing a comparison of 

known gas field sizes grouped by age of discovery in thirds ............................................. 12

16. Increased exploration effort (number of new field wildcat wells drilled) 

to find smaller fields (cumulative volume) is an indicator of a mature play ..................... 12

17. Increased exploration effort (number of new field wildcats drilled) 

to find smaller fields (cumulative volume) is an indicator of a mature play ..................... 12

18. The hydrogen-oxygen index plot for Sembar samples in the Sulaiman Foldbelt 

and Badin area of the Lower Indus Basin indicates a gas-prone source rock ............... 14

19. Generalized cross sections showing structure across the Lower Middle 

and Upper Indus Basin, foldbelt, and Kohat-Potwar area with approximate 

0.6-percent vitrinite reflectance equivalent horizon ............................................................ 15

20. Burial history plots for the Shahdapur-1 and the Sakhi-Sarwar-1 wells........................... 16

21. Isoprenoid and carbon isotope ratios show two distinct oil families................................ 16

22. Plot showing lithologic and temporal numeric distribution of productive 

reservoirs in the Sembar-Goru/Gazij Composite Total Petroleum System ....................... 17

23. Sembar-Goru/Ghazij Composite Total Petroleum System generalized events 

chart including parts of the Patala-Nammal TPS of the Kohat Potwar area ................... 18

Tables

1. Estimates of undiscovered oil and gas for the onshore and offshore parts 

of the Sembar-Goru/Ghazij Composite Total Petroleum System ........................................ 20

2. Estimates of undiscovered oil and gas for the portion allocated to the 

Indus Province part of the Sembar-Goru/Ghazij Composite 

Total Petroleum System............................................................................................................. 20

3. Estimates of undiscovered oil and gas for the portion allocated to the 

Sulaiman-Kirthar Province part of the Sembar-Goru/Ghazij Composite 

Total Petroleum System............................................................................................................. 21
Abstract

Geochemical analyses of rock samples and produced oil 

and gas in the Indus Basin have shown that the bulk of the 

hydrocarbons produced in the Indus Basin are derived from 

the Lower Cretaceous Sembar Formation and equivalent rocks. 

The source rocks of the Sembar are composed of shales that 

were deposited in shallow marine environments, are of mixed 

type-II and type-III kerogen, with total organic carbon (TOC) 

content ranging from less than 0.5 percent to more than 3.5 

percent; the average TOC of the Sembar is about 1.4 percent. 

Vitrinite reflectance (Ro) values range from immature (< 0.6 

percent Ro) to overmature (>1.35 percent Ro). Thermal generation of hydrocarbons in the Sembar Formation began 65 

to 40 million years ago (mya) during Paleocene to Oligocene 

time. Hydrocarbon expulsion, migration, and entrapment are 

interpreted to have occurred mainly 50 to 15 mya, during 

Eocene to Miocene time, prior to and contemporaneously with 

the development of structural traps in Upper Cretaceous and 

Tertiary reservoirs. The principal reservoirs in the SembarGoru/Ghazij Composite Total Petroleum System are Upper 

Cretaceous through Eocene sandstones and limestones. 

Acknowledgments

Most of the data presented in this report were provided by 

the Oil and Natural Gas Development Corporation (OGDC), 

Islamabad, Pakistan, and Amoco Production Co., Houston, 

Texas. We are especially grateful to Mr. Marten James of 

Amoco for his help in obtaining geologic data from Pakistan. 

Introduction

The area referred to as the Greater Indus Basin in this 

report includes the Lower, Middle, and Upper Indus Basins 

including that part of the Upper Indus Basin defined as the 

Kohat-Potwar Plateau. The Greater Indus Basin extends over 

most of eastern Pakistan and the westernmost parts of India, 

covering an area of about 873,000 square kilometers (km2) 

(fig. 1). The area discussed in this report is defined by the 

expected maximum extent of the Sembar-Goru/Ghazij Composite Total Petroleum System (TPS) (fig. 2) and includes the 

Lower, Middle, and part of the Upper Indus Basin, including 

the southwestern Kohat Plateau, and much of the SulaimanKirthar Geologic Province. The area of the TPS is characterized by the relatively flat flood plain of the Indus Basin to the 

east and the uplifted and folded mountainous areas of Potwar, 

Kohat, Surgar, Sulaiman, and Kirthar on the north and west 

side of the basin (fig. 2). 

Structurally, the area is divided into foldbelt and foreland 

regimes. The foldbelt part of the TPS includes the southwestern Kohat Plateau along the northern boundary and the tightly 

folded Sulaiman and Kirthar Ranges along the western boundary of the Indian plate. The gently westward sloping continental shelf that makes up the foreland extends from the foldbelt 

eastward to the Indian Shield and southward to the 2,000-m 

bathymetric line of the Indus Cone (fig. 2). The foreland is 

subdivided into lower, middle, and upper parts that are separated by the Mari-Kandhot and Sargodha structural highs. 

The Sembar-Goru/Ghazij Composite Total Petroleum 

System (804201) was further divided into two assessment 

units (AU), the Greater Indus Basin Foreland and Foldbelt 

(80420101) and the Indus Fan AU (80420102) (fig. 3). The 

Greater Indus Basin Foreland and Foldbelt AU includes all of 

the foreland, foldbelt, and offshore area within the TPS southward to a water depth of 200 m. The Indus Fan AU is located 

entirely offshore of southeastern Pakistan between the Murray 

Ridge and the Indian border and extends from a water depth of 

200 m (approximate shelf edge) to a water depth of 3,000 m 

(approximate base of the middle portion of the fan). 

Sembar-Goru/Ghazij Composite Total Petroleum System, 

Indus and Sulaiman-Kirthar Geologic Provinces, 

Pakistan and India

By C.J. Wandrey,1 B.E. Law,2 and Haider Ali Shah3

1

 U.S. Geological Survey, Denver, Colorado.

2

 Consultant, Lakewood, Colorado.

3

 Oil and Natural Gas Development Corporation Limited of Pakistan, 

Islamabad, Pakistan.

1
Regional Geologic History

The TPS and AU discussed herein (fig. 3) acquired their 

primary structural and stratigraphic features (fig. 4) from tectonic events associated with plate movements that occurred 

from latest Paleozoic time to the present (figs. 5–10). From 

Permian through Middle Jurassic time, the Indian plate, 

including the continental shelf that is now the greater Indus 

Basin, was located in the southern hemisphere, between the 

African, Antarctic, and Australian plates, making up part of 

southern Gondwana (fig. 5). Basal Permian glacial deposits on 

the southern part of the Indian plate and Lower Permian Tobra 

Formation tillites (fig. 4) in the Kohat-Potwar area (Upper 

Indus Basin) indicate a cool Permian climate (Shah, 1977). 

Following the period of glaciation, the area that is now the 

Upper Indus Basin, Kohat and Potwar Plateaus, and SulaimanKirthar foldbelts became part of a shelf system. The shelf and 

shallow marine stages are reflected in the rocks of the Permian 

Nilawahan and Permian Zaluch Groups. 

In the Triassic, shelf-system strata extended to the Lower 

Indus Basin and are preserved in the Triassic Wulgai Formation and Jurassic Shirinab Group. A carbonate-dominated shelf 

environment persisted at least intermittently on the western 

part of the Indian plate through Late Jurassic, exemplified by 

the interbedded shales and thick limestones of the Springwar 

Formation and as much as 1,400 m of the Middle and Late 

Jurassic Sulaiman Limestone Group, which accumulated on 

the western and northern portions of the plate. Jurassic or 

earlier extensional tectonics and failed rifting along the Indus 

River contributed to a postulated deep-seated shear zone and 

horst-and-graben regime and later, a division of the greater 

Indus Basin into three subbasins at the Mari-Kandhot and 

Sargodha structural highs (fig. 2) (Kemal and others, 1992; 

Zaigham and Mallick, 2000). Late Jurassic rifting also initiated separation of Australia and Antarctica from India.

During Early Cretaceous time the Indian plate drifted 

northward, entering warmer latitudes (fig. 6). On the western 

shelf, marine shales, limestones, and nearshore sandstones 

of the Lower Cretaceous Sembar and Goru Formations were 

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Figure 1. Location of Indus Basin, Sulaiman-Kirthar, and Kohat-Potwar geologic provinces shown in green (8042 and 8026); other assessed 

provinces within region 8 shown in yellow.

2 Petroleum Systems and Related Geologic Studies in Region 8, South Asia 
deposited over a regional erosional surface on the Sulaiman 

Limestone Group. In the Kohat-Potwar area, this erosional 

surface is present at the top of the Samana Suk Limestone 

Formation and is overlain by Lower Cretaceous Chichali Formation sandstones and shales (Shah, 1977; Iqbal and Shah, 

1980). Along the eastern portion of the Indian plate, Rajmohal 

Trap volcanics and the Bolpur and Ghatal Formations were 

deposited. Although the carbonates are recognized primarily 

on the eastern and western shelves today, it is likely that they 

were deposited over much of the northern Indian shelf. This 

shelf environment persisted through Late Cretaceous time 

when regressive sandstones such as the Lumshiwal and Pab 

Formations in the west and Tura Formations in the east were 

deposited. 

During Late Cretaceous time the Indian plate continued 

drifting northward toward the Asian plate, the seafloor of the 

Bengal Basin began to form, and flysch accumulated around 

much of the Indian plate (fig. 7). Northward plate movement 

continued during the latest Cretaceous, and a transform fault 

became active along the Ninety-East Ridge (fig. 8). In the 

Assam area, a southeasterly dipping shelf and block faulting 

developed. Rifting between Madagascar and the Seychelles 

initiated formation of Mascarene Basin. Extensional faulting 

occurred or was reactivated as the western part of the Indian 

plate sheared southward relative to the main plate (Kemal 

and others, 1992). Counter-clockwise rotation of the Indian 

plate was initiated, and the Seychelles portion of the Indian 

plate began to break away (Waples and Hegarty, 1999). Latest 

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Figure 2. Generalized geology of the Sembar-Goru/Ghazij Composite Total Petroleum System area modified from (Oil and Natural Gas Development Company, 1997; Wandrey and Law, 1997; Wandrey and others, 2000; and Petroconsultants, 1996).

Sembar-Goru/Ghazij Composite TPS, Indus and Sulaiman-Kirthar Geologic Provinces, Pakistan and India 3
Cretaceous time also brought to western India intense volcanism, expulsion of the Deccan Trap basalts, and further rifting, 

which began and then failed, leaving the Cambay and Kutch 

Grabens just south of the Lower Indus Basin floored with 

the Deccan Trap basalts (Biswas and Deshpande, 1983). The 

rifting event in the Cambay and Kutch areas may be tectonically related to the extensional faulting and shear zone that 

was developing in the southern Indus Basin area (Sarwar, oral 

commun., 2001). 

From Late Cretaceous through middle Paleocene time, 

trap deposits and basal sands continued to accumulate on 

the Assam-Arakan, Indus, Bombay, and Bengal shelves (fig. 

9). Oblique convergence of the Indo-Pakistan plate with the 

Afghan and other microplates resulted in wrench faulting and 

development or reactivation of regional arches such as the 

Jacobabad and Sargodha Highs in the Indus Basin (Kemal and 

others, 1992) (fig. 2). 

The Indian plate continued to move northward at an 

accelerated rate of 15–20 cm/yr. When the eastern edge of the 

plate passed over the Kerguelen hot spot, a chain of islands 

began to form near E 90° longitude (fig. 9). Continued northward movement and counter-clockwise rotation of the Indian 

plate slowly closed the Tethyan Sea along the northern and 

northwestern plate boundaries. The Sulaiman-Kirthar foldbelt 

began to develop as a result of the oblique collision and rotation, with the Sulaiman lobe developing in a thin-skinned roofduplex geometry (Jadoon and others, 1994). Regional uplift 

and rising mountain ranges on the Eurasian plates to the north 

and west created a new sediment source, and the prevailing 

sediment transport direction of south to north was reversed. 

From Eocene through middle Miocene time, carbonate platform buildup occurred intermittently on the shelves around 

much of the Indian plate. A trench formed along the subduction zone as the Indian plate began to slip beneath the Eurasian 

plate (fig. 10). 

The Eurasian plate shed large volumes of sediments 

into the trench as subduction continued. This terrestrial sediment influx from the rapidly rising Himalayan, SulaimanKirthar, Sino-Burman, and Indo-Burman Ranges significantly 

exceeded carbonate buildup rates on late Miocene platforms 

(Roychoudhury and Deshpande, 1982) and smothered carbonate reef formation along the shelf areas. The former shelf 

areas along the collision zones were either subducted or 

became emergent fluvial-deltaic environments. The shelf in 

the greater Indus Basin area tilted downward toward the west 

and northwest. In the Kohat-Potwar geologic province, shallow southwest-northeast-trending anticlines and overturned 

folds developed on multiple detachment surfaces (fig. 11). The 

detachment surfaces as deep as Eocambrian salts developed as 

a result of continued plate convergence, and associated crustal 

shortening of as much as 55 km occurred (Kemal and others, 

1992; Jaswal and others 1997). 

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Figure 3. Map showing Assessment Units for the Sembar-Goru/Ghazij Composite Total Petroleum 

System.

4 Petroleum Systems and Related Geologic Studies in Region 8, South Asia 
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Figure 4. Generalized stratigraphy of the Upper Indus Basin area (modified from OGDC, 1996; Quadri and Quadri, 1996; Kemal, 1992; Raza, 1992; 

Iqbal and Shah, 1980; and Shah, 1977).

Sembar-Goru/Ghazij Composite TPS, Indus and Sulaiman-Kirthar Geologic Provinces, Pakistan and India 5
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Figure 5. Middle Jurassic (approximately 166 Ma). Perspective 

lat 20°S., long 68°E. (modified from Scotese and others, 1988). 

Figure 6. Early Cretaceous (approximately 130 Ma). Perspective 

lat 20°S., long 68°E. (modified from Scotese and others, 1988). 

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Figure 7. Late Cretaceous (approximately 94 Ma). Perspective 

lat 20°S., long 68°E. (modified from Scotese and others, 1988). 

Figure 8. Latest Cretaceous (approximately 69 Ma). Perspective 

lat 20°S., long 68°E. (modified from Scotese and others, 1988). 

6 Petroleum Systems and Related Geologic Studies in Region 8, South Asia 
The proto Indus, Narmada, Ganges, Brahmaputra, 

Megna, Chindwin, and Irrawaddy Rivers developed extensive 

deltas as the Himalayas and other ranges continued to shed 

sediments at a high rate. Today, uplift of the mountain ranges, 

crustal shortening, and subduction of the Indian plate continues, and the growth rate of the Indus, Ganges-Brahmaputra 

(Megna), and Irrawaddy deltas remains high.

Stratigraphy

Precambrian and Paleozoic Stratigraphy

Precambrian and Paleozoic rocks are exposed in the 

Upper Indus Basin/Kohat-Potwar area. In the Middle and 

Lower Indus Basins, Precambrian and Paleozoic rocks have 

been encountered during drilling and observed in outcrop 

only at the easternmost edge of the basin. Precambrian granite 

basement rocks are overlain by the Precambrian-Cambrian, 

closed-basin, sedimentary rocks of the Jehlum Group (fig. 4). 

In the Kohat-Potwar area the Jehlum Group includes the Salt 

Range Formation shales and evaporites and sandstones of the 

Khewra and Kussak Formations (Iqbal and Shah, 1980; Shah, 

1977). Potential source beds and oil shows have been identified within the evaporite sequence, and 3 fields on the Potwar 

Plateau have produced oil from the Khewra Formation (Khan 

and others, 1986; Petroconsultants, 1996). The Middle and 

Lower Indus Basins are floored by the Indian Shield, Nagar 

Parkar Granite, and the younger interbedded slates, quartzites, 

andesites, and rhyolites of the Kirana Group (Iqbal and Shah, 

1980; Shah, 1977). 

Following a basinwide hiatus lasting from Cambrian to 

Permian, the Permian Nilawahan Group was deposited at least 

in the Kohat-Potwar area. The Nilawahan Group consists of 

the Tobra Formation glacial tillites, siltstones, and shales; the 

Dandot Formation alluvial or glacial coarse sandstones and 

shales; the Warchha Formation coarse-grained argillaceous 

sandstones and minor shales; and the sandstones and shales of 

the Sardhai Formation (Shah, 1977; Iqbal and Shah, 1980; and 

Kemal, 1992). Overlying the Nilawahan Group are the shelf 

carbonates of the Middle to Upper Permian Amb and Wargal 

Formation of the Zaluch Group and the marls and coarseningupward sandstones of the Chhidru Formation. The Tobra and 

Wargal Formations have produced oil and gas on the Potwar 

Plateau. 

Mesozoic Stratigraphy

Mesozoic rocks in the Indus Basin are generally preserved in the Salt Range and southeast Potwar Basin; however, 

part or all of the Mesozoic stratigraphic section is missing 

from the Kohat Plateau and northwestern Potwar deformed 

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Figure 9. Middle Eocene (approximately 50 Ma). Perspective 

lat 20°S., long 68°E. (modified from Scotese and others, 1988). 

Figure 10. Late Oligocene Epoch (approximately 27 Ma). Perspective 

lat 20°S., long 68°E. (modified from Scotese and others, 1988). 

Sembar-Goru/Ghazij Composite TPS, Indus and Sulaiman-Kirthar Geologic Provinces, Pakistan and India 7
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Figure 11. Generalized cross sections showing structure across the Lower, Middle, and Upper Indus Basin, foldbelt, and Kohat-Potwar area (modified from QMalik and others, 1988; Khadri, 1995; and OGDC, 1996). 
zone (Jaswal and others, 1997). Westward depositional thinning and erosion account for the missing rocks. The Triassic 

Musa Kehl Group Mianwali and Tredian Formations continental, sandstones, shales, and carbonates were deposited 

unconformably on the Permian rocks. Overlying the Tredian 

are shelf carbonates of the Triassic Kingriali Formation. The 

Triassic formations were formerly referred to collectively as 

the Wulgai Formation. The overlying Jurassic rock sequence 

includes the Shirinab or Datta and Shinawari Formations that 

were deposited as nearshore variegated siliciclastics containing some nonmarine sandstone intervals (Khan and others, 

1986). The Datta has produced oil and gas. Overlying these 

nearshore rocks are as much as 900 m of platform carbonates 

of the Samana Suk Formation. The Lower Cretaceous section 

consists of Chichali basinal shales and massive crossbedded 

sandstones of the Lumshiwal Formation (maximum basin 

flooding surface). The Upper Goru, Ranikot, Pab, and Moghal 

Kot siliciclastics, representing Late Cretaceous lowstand 

events, are present southeast of the Salt Range but are not 

reported within the Potwar Basin. 

The Cambrian–early Mesozoic hiatus in the Middle and 

Lower Indus Basin was probably followed by deposition of 

shallow-marine shales and limestones of the Triassic Wulgai 

Formation that are exposed in the Axial belt (Iqbal and Shah, 

1980; Shah, 1977). Jurassic shallow-marine limestones and 

shales of the Shirinab, Chiltan, and Mazar Dirk Formations 

extend over the Lower Indus Basin, Sulaiman-Kirthar geologic 

province, and Axial belt (fig. 4). The top of the Jurassic is 

marked by a basinwide unconformity.

Lower Cretaceous rocks are represented by as much as 

250 m of black shale and siltstone and argillaceous limestone 

of the Sembar Formation and as much as 500 m of limestone, 

interbedded shale, and sandstone of the lower Goru Formation. 

The Sembar is considered to be the primary petroleum source 

rock for most of the Lower and Middle Indus Basins and for 

the Sulaiman-Kirthar geologic province (fig. 2). Lower Goru 

sandstone reservoirs make up the majority of productive reservoirs in the Sembar-Goru/Ghazij Composite TPS (Petroconsultants, 1996). The shelf to shallow-marine environment persisted through most of Late Cretaceous time, represented by 

carbonates of the Parh, shales, sandstones, and limestones of 

the Moghal Kot, and limestones and shales of the Fort Munro/

Pab Formations. The regressive Pab Sandstone represents a 

change to a nearshore environment. Unconformably overlying the Pab are the shallow marine limestones and shales of 

the Upper Cretaceous Moro Formation (Iqbal and Shah, 1980; 

Shah, 1977). 

Cenozoic Stratigraphy

In the Lower Indus Basin and the Sulaiman-Kirthar 

geologic province, fluvial sandstones and estuarine shales 

and limestones make up the Paleocene Ranikot Group. Shallow marine to estuarine limestones and calcareous shales of 

the Eocene Laki Formation and contemporaneous shales and 

sandstones of the Ghazij Formation are conformably overlain 

by interbedded limestones and shales of the Eocene Kirthar 

Formation. The Kirthar was deposited in the Lower Indus 

Basin, Sulaiman-Kirthar geologic province, and Kohat Plateau 

(Iqbal and Shah, 1980; Shah, 1977). Nearshore sandstones 

and shales of the Oligocene Nari Formation and shales of the 

lower Miocene Gaj Formation make up the Momani Group. 

The Miocene to Pliocene clays, sandstones, and conglomerates 

of the Siwalik Group mark a change to nonmarine deposition.

Hangu Formation siliciclastics were deposited first, on 

an erosional surface marking the top of the Cretaceous Lumshiwal. There is a transitional contact between the Hangu and 

the overlying Lockhart Formation carbonate shelf system. The 

contact between the Lockhart and the overlying Patala Formation is also transitional (Shah, 1977; Iqbal and Shah, 1980; and 

Kemal 1992). The Patala and Lockhart have been identified 

as both oil source and reservoir. The overlying Eocene Namal 

and Panoba Formations are shallow-marine to lagoonal shales 

and interbedded limestones with a transitional contact between 

the Patala and the Namal. Overlying the Namal and Panoba 

are marine limestones and shales of the Eocene Sakesar or 

Margala Hill Formations. Although Iqbal and Shah (1980) 

indicated that the probably contemporaneous lower Eocene 

Bahadur Khel Salt is present only in the Kohat Plateau area 

(fig. 5), oil and/or gas production at three fields on the Potwar 

Plateau has been attributed to the Bahadar Khel Salt Formation 

or Bahadur Formation (Petroconsultants, 1996). The Chharat 

Group includes marine shales and interbedded limestones 

in the early Eocene Chorgali Formation, shale in the upper 

Eocene Kohat Formation shale, and shales and carbonates in 

the Oligocene Kirthar Formation. Oligocene rocks are missing 

or not recognized in most of the Upper Indus Basin. Unconformably overlying Eocene rocks are fluvial sandstones, siltstones, and clays of the Miocene to Pliocene Murree Formation, Kamlial Formation, and Rawalpindi Group. The Murree 

Formation contains the youngest reported oil production in the 

Kohat-Potwar geologic province. Fluvial sandstones and conglomerates in the Pliocene and Pleistocene Siwalik Group are 

the youngest rocks in the Kohat-Potwar area.

Oil and Gas Exploration 

and Production

The first oil well drilled in present-day Pakistan was at 

Kundal on the Potwar Plateau in 1866 (fig. 12). The first commercial oil discovery was made in the Greater Indus Basin 

in 1914 when the Attock Oil Company completed a 214-ft 

well on a thrust-faulted anticline near Khaur on the Potwar 

Plateau (Khan and others, 1986) (fig. 12). Early success in 

the Kohat-Potwar geologic province served to focus much of 

the early exploration activity in that area. The Sui field in the 

Sulaiman-Kirthar Foreland geologic province was the first discovery outside of the Kohat-Potwar geologic province and is 

Sembar-Goru/Ghazij Composite TPS, Indus and Sulaiman-Kirthar Geologic Provinces, Pakistan and India 9
the largest gas discovery in Pakistan, with more than 5 trillion 

cubic feet (TCF) of gas reserves. Discovered in 1952, the Sui 

field is a dome-shaped reef structure with an anticlinal surface 

expression. The largest reserves were found in the 625-m-thick 

Eocene Sui Formation Sui Main Limestone Member. The 

Sui Upper Limestone Member and upper Eocene Habib Rahi 

Limestone were also productive. In 1999, Upper Cretaceous 

Pab Sandstone Formation gas production began at Sui field. 

Although exploratory wells had been previously drilled in the 

Middle and Lower Indus Basins, the discovery of the Sui field 

accelerated exploration efforts (fig. 13) in the 1950’s. 

More discoveries followed in that area with the Zin gas 

field in 1954, the Uch gas field in 1955, and the Mari gas field 

in 1957. Exploration activity increased again in the 1980’s, 

when identification of a tilted fault block in the Lower Indus 

Basin led to the discovery of a series of oil fields. Although 

there have been significant oil discoveries in the Lower Indus 

Basin, it remains a gas-prone province. Gas discoveries that 

are attributed to the Sembar-Goru/Ghazij TPS have been made 

in Eocene, Paleocene, and Lower Cretaceous rocks on the 

Mari-Kandhot High in the Rajasthan Province of India. The 

Cambrian oil discoveries in Rajasthan, however, are beyond 

the extent of Sembar deposition and are either sourced by 

updip hydrocarbon migration from the Sembar or more likely 

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Figure 12. Generalized map showing the Sembar-Goru/Ghazij Composite Total Petroleum System outline, 

extent of Sembar Formation, thermal maturity contours, and oil and gas field locations (OGDC, 1995; Quadri 

and Quadri 1998a; and Petroconsultants, 1996). 

10 Petroleum Systems and Related Geologic Studies in Region 8, South Asia 
by proximal older Mesozoic and early Paleozoic rocks. 

The grown oil and gas field sizes were ranked by date of 

discovery and grouped in thirds to standardize and increment 

time in the context of exploration maturity for comparative 

purposes (figs. 14 and 15). Figure 14 shows a normal discovery history where the largest oil fields were found during the 

first third of the discovery history and there is no crossover of 

discovery third curves. Figure 15 shows the largest gas fields 

discovered during the first third of the discovery history, but 

there is significant crossover of the second and third third 

curves. This crossover may indicate discovery of a new play, 

a better understanding of the play, or improved exploration 

and engineering techniques. The assessed area appears to be 

mature for oil exploration, and the oil fields that have been 

found represent a relatively homogeneous population in terms 

of trap type and size range. The gas discoveries indicate a less 

mature and more heterogeneous population. Cumulative oil 

and gas volume versus new-field wildcat well plots (figs. 16 

and 17) both indicate that the exploration effort required to 

find the same volume of oil or gas has increased. Figures 16 

and 17 indicate a mature assessment unit (AU). While the oil 

and gas plays of the onshore Lower Indus Basin and MariKandkot High are relatively well understood, recent significant 

additions to field reserves have been attained by recompleting existing wells and completing new wells in reservoirs 

that were previously bypassed or not penetrated. Additional 

gas potential in this area may be found in deeper, relatively 

untested, Jurassic shelf carbonates and in shallow-water depths 

Figure 13 - The cumulative number of new field wildcat wells versus well completion year plot is an indication of

exploration effort. Based on Petroconsultants well and field data (Petroconsultants, 1996).

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000

DRILLING-COMPLETION YEAR

CUM. NEW-FIELD WILDCAT WELLS (No.)

Figure 13. The cumulative number of new-field wildcat wells versus well-completion year is an 

indication of exploration effort. Based on Petroconsultants well and field data (Petroconsultants, 

1996). 

Figure 14 - Maturity of exploration indicator plot showing a caomparison of

known oil field sizes grouped by discovery thirds. Based on Petroconsultants

field data (Petroconsultants, 1996)

1

10

100

0 2 4 6 8

OIL-FIELD RANK BY SIZE

KNOWN OIL-FIELD SIZ

E

(MMBO)

First third of fields

discovered

Second third of fields

discovered

Third third of fields

discovered

100,000

Figure 14. Maturity of exploration indicator plot showing a comparison of known oil field sizes 

grouped by discovery thirds. Based on Petroconsultants field data (Petroconsultants, 1996). 

Sembar-Goru/Ghazij Composite TPS, Indus and Sulaiman-Kirthar Geologic Provinces, Pakistan and India 11
Figure 15 - Maturity of exploration indicator plot showing a comparison of known gas field sizes grouped by age of 

discovery in thirds. Based on Petroconsultants field data (Petroconsultants, 1996).

1

10

100

1,000

10,000

100,000

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

GAS-FIELD RANK BY SIZE

KNOWN GAS-FIELD SIZE (BCFG)

Figure 15. Maturity of exploration indicator plot showing a comparison of known gas field sizes 

grouped by age of discovery in thirds. Based on Petroconsultants field data (Petroconsultants, 

1996). 

Figure 16 - Increased exploration effort (number of new field wildcat wells drilled) to find smaller fields (cumulative

volume) is an indicator of a mature play. Based on Petroconsultants well and field data (Petroconsultants, 1996).

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

0 50 100 150 200 250 300

CUM. NEW-FIELD WILDCAT WELLS (No.)

CUM. KNOWN OIL VOLUME (MMBO)

Figure 16. Increased exploration effort (number of new field wildcat wells drilled) to find smaller fields (cumulative volume) is 

an indicator of a mature play. Based on Petroconsultants well and field data (Petroconsultants, 1996). 

(less than 200 m) of the offshore portion of the Indus Fan. In 

the shallow offshore area, there have been several uneconomic 

or marginal gas tests, and seismic work has been done; but 

most of the area has not been drilled (fig. 12).

Exploration of the Sulaiman-Kirthar Foldbelt has been 

successful, but limited due to geographic and cultural challenges and the complex geology of the area. The foldbelt is 

still in the early stages of exploration, with many structures 

and play concepts remaining to be tested. Recent advances in 

exploration and production technology are making exploration 

efforts in the Sulaiman-Kirthar Foldbelt more economically 

feasible. 

The Indus Fan, which developed on the edge of the 

Indian continental crust and adjacent oceanic crust, like other 

large deltas of the world, may hold substantial opportunity 

for further discoveries in Eocene through Pliocene siltstones 

and sandstones of the fan facies, filled channels, interchannel ridges, turbidites, and mud diapirs. No wells have been 

drilled in water deeper than 200 m, but a few (approximately 

10) wells have been drilled in water depths of less than 200 

12 Petroleum Systems and Related Geologic Studies in Region 8, South Asia 
m, on structures. Gas discoveries in shallow water have been 

made in Miocene and Pliocene rocks (fig. 12). In the adjacent 

Indian offshore waters of Kutch, oil and gas were discovered 

in the KD 1 well. The Indus Fan from a water depth of 200 

m (approximate shelf edge) to 3,000 m (approximate base of 

the middle portion of the fan) will most likely prove to be gas 

prone.

Sembar-Goru/Ghazij Composite 

Total Petroleum System

The Sembar-Goru/Ghazij Composite Total Petroleum 

System (TPS) as defined for this assessment, is a north-south 

elongated area extending from the Potwar-Kohat geologic 

province in the north to the 2,000 m bathymetric contour in 

the Arabian Sea (fig. 3). The west boundary coincides with the 

axial belt and western edge of the Indian plate and the eastern 

boundary extends into India on the Indian Shield (fig. 12). 

Geochemical analyses of potential source rocks and produced 

oil and gas have demonstrated that the Lower Cretaceous 

Sembar Formation is the most likely source of oil and gas for 

most of the producing fields in the Indus Basin. 

Source Rocks 

While the Sembar has been identified as the primary 

source rock for much of the Greater Indus Basin, there are 

other known and potential source rocks. Rock units containing known or potential source rocks include the Salt Range 

Formation “Eocambrian” shales, Permian Dandot and Tredian 

Formations, Triassic Wulgai Formation, Jurassic Datta Formation, Paleocene Patala Formation, Eocene Ghazij Formation, 

and lower Miocene shales. Of all the possible source rocks in 

the Indus Basin, however, the Sembar is the most likely source 

for the largest portion of the produced oil and gas in the Indus 

foreland. In the Kohat-Potwar geologic province the Paleocene 

Patala Shale is the primary source rock for most, if not all of 

the province. In the offshore areas of the Indus geologic province, Miocene rocks are postulated to be good hydrocarbon 

sources, with the Sembar contributing in the shelf area. 

The Lower Cretaceous Sembar Formation consists 

mainly of shale with subordinate amounts of siltstone and 

sandstone. The Sembar was deposited over most of the 

Greater Indus Basin in marine environments and ranges in 

thickness from 0 to more than 260 m (Iqbal and Shah, 1980). 

Rock-eval pyrolysis analyses of 10 samples from the Jandran-1 well in the Sulaiman Range of the foldbelt, indicate 

an average total organic carbon content (TOC) of 1.10 percent. The TOC values from the Sembar in two Badin area 

wells in the foreland portion of the Lower Indus Basin have 

TOC’s ranging from 0.5 to 3.5 percent and averaging about 

1.4 percent. A cross-plot of pyrolysis data on a modified vanKreveln diagram (fig. 18) indicates that the organic matter in 

the Sembar is mainly type-III kerogen, capable of generating 

gas; however, additional proprietary data indicate the presence 

of type-II kerogen as well as type-III kerogen. With respect 

to the oil window (0.6–1.3 percent vitrinite reflectance), the 

Sembar ranges from thermally immature to overmature (fig. 

12). The Sembar is more thermally mature in the western, 

more deeply buried part of the shelf and becomes shallower 

and less mature toward the eastern edge of the Indus Basin 

(figs. 19 and 20).

Conclusive geochemical data supporting a Sembar source 

for most of the produced oil and gas in the Indus Basin are 

lacking; however, limited available geochemical and thermal 

data favor a Sembar source. To date, the only oil-productive 

Figure 17 - Increased exploration effort (number of new field wildcats drilled) to find smaller fields (cumulative volume) is 

an indicator of a mature play. Based on Petroconsultants well and field data (Petroconsultants, 1996).

0

10,000

20,000

30,000

40,000

50,000

60,000

0 50 100 150 200 250 300

CUM. NEW-FIELD WILDCAT WELLS (No.)

CUM. KNOWN GAS VOLUME (BCFG)

Figure 17. Increased exploration effort (number of new-field wildcats drilled) to find smaller fields (cumulative 

volume) is an indicator of a mature play. Based on Petroconsultants well and field data (Petroconsultants, 1996). 

Sembar-Goru/Ghazij Composite TPS, Indus and Sulaiman-Kirthar Geologic Provinces, Pakistan and India 13
regions in the Greater Indus Basin are the Potwar Plateau in 

the north and the Badin area in the Lower Indus Basin. Crossplots of the carbon isotope ratios and the isoprenoid ratios of 

produced oils in these two regions are distinctly different (fig. 

21), indicating two different source rocks. 

Gas content varies throughout the basin with CO2 ranging 

from < 1 percent to > 70 percent, nitrogen < 1 percent to > 80 

percent, and H2S < 0.1 percent to > 13 percent (IHS Energy 

Group, 2001). 

Reservoirs

Productive reservoirs in the Sembar-Goru/Ghazij Composite TPS include the Cambrian Jodhpur Formation; Jurassic 

Chiltan, Samana Suk, and Shinawari Formations; Cretaceous 

Sembar, Goru, Lumshiwal, Moghal Kot, Parh, and Pab Formations; Paleocene Dungan Formation and Ranikot Group; and 

the Eocene Sui, Kirthar, Sakesar, Bandah, Khuiala, Nammal, 

and Ghazij Formations (fig. 11). The principal reservoirs are 

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Figure 18. The hydrogen-oxygen index plot for Sembar samples in the Sulaiman Foldbelt and Badin 

area of the Lower Indus Basin indicates a gas-prone source rock.

14 Petroleum Systems and Related Geologic Studies in Region 8, South Asia 
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Figure 19. Generalized cross sections showing structure across the Lower Middle and Upper Indus Basin, foldbelt, and Kohat-Potwar area with approximate tance equivalent horizon (modified from Quadri and Shuaib, 1986; Malik and others, 1988; Khadri, 1995; and OGDC, 1995).
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Figure 20. Burial history plots for the Shahdapur-1 and the Sakhi-Sarwar-1 wells. 

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Figure 21. Isoprenoid and carbon isotope ratios show two distinct oil families, the Badin block oils of the Lower Indus Basin and the oils of the 

Potwar Plateau. 

16 Petroleum Systems and Related Geologic Studies in Region 8, South Asia 
deltaic and shallow-marine sandstones in the lower part of the 

Goru in the Lower Indus Basin and the Lumshiwal Formation in the Middle Indus Basin and limestones in the Eocene 

Ghazij and equivalent stratigraphic units (fig. 22). Potential 

reservoirs are as thick as 400 m. Sandstone porosities are as 

high as 30 percent, but more commonly range from about 12 

to 16 percent; and limestone porosities range from 9 to 16 

percent. The permeability of these reservoirs ranges from 1 to 

> 2,000 millidarcies (mD). Reservoir quality generally diminishes in a westward direction but reservoir thickness increases. 

Because of the progressive eastward erosion and truncation of 

Cretaceous rocks, the Cretaceous reservoirs all have erosional 

updip limits, whereas Tertiary reservoirs extend farther east 

overlying progressively older rocks. 

Traps

All production in the Indus Basin is from structural traps. 

No stratigraphic accumulations have been identified, although 

the giant Sui gas field is a dome-shaped reef structure (possibly 

an algal mound) expressed on the surface as an anticline. The 

variety of structural traps includes anticlines, thrust-faulted 

anticlines, and tilted fault blocks. The anticlines and thrusted 

anticlines occur in the foreland portions of the Greater Indus 

Basin as a consequence of compression related to collision 

of the Indian and Eurasian plates. The tilted fault traps in the 

Lower Indus Basin are a product of extension related to rifting and the formation of horst and graben structures. The 

temporal relationships among trap formation and hydrocarbon 

generation, expulsion, migration, and entrapment are variable 

throughout the Greater Indus Basin. In the foreland portion, 

formation of structural traps predate hydrocarbon generation, 

especially in the Lower Indus Basin. In the Middle and Upper 

Indus Basins, traps may also have formed prior to hydrocarbon 

generation, although the temporal relationships between trap 

formation and hydrocarbon generation are not as distinct as in 

the Lower Indus Basin. The structural deformation in the foldbelt region is generally contemporaneous with hydrocarbon 

generation, suggesting that some of the hydrocarbons generated 

from the Sembar probably leaked to the surface prior to trap 

formation. Burial history reconstructions based on data from 

the Sakhi-Sarwar no. 1 well (fig. 20), located in the foreland 

part of the Middle Indus Basin, and the Shahdapur no. 1 well, 

located in the foreland part of Lower Indus Basin, indicate that 

hydrocarbon generation began 40 and 65 Ma, respectively (fig. 

23). The main differences in the hydrocarbon generation times 

between these wells are due to large differences in the thermal 

gradients; the present-day thermal gradient in the Sakhi-Sarwar 

well is 2.6°C/km as opposed to 3.3°C/km in the Shahdapur 

Figure 22 - Plot showing the lithologic and temporal numeric distribution of productive reservoirs in the Sembar-Goru/Gazij

Composite Total Petroleum System based on the 2001 IHS Energy Probe Database (IHSEnergy Group, 2001)..

Paleocene �andstone

Eocene sandstone

Miocene sandstone

Cretaceous sandstone

Eocene carbonate

Jurassic sandstone

Jurassic carbonate

Cretaceous carbonate

Paleocene carbonate

Figure 22. Plot showing lithologic and temporal numeric distribution of productive reservoirs 

in the Sembar-Goru/Gazij Composite Total Petroleum System, based on the 2001 IHS Energy 

Probe Database (IHS Energy Group, 2001).

Sembar-Goru/Ghazij Composite TPS, Indus and Sulaiman-Kirthar Geologic Provinces, Pakistan and India 17
well. We interpret the critical moments for these wells at about 

15 and 50 Ma, respectively. Based on these reconstructions, trap 

formation may have postdated the start of hydrocarbon generation in the foreland portion of the Indus Basin. 

Seals

The known seals in the system are composed of shales 

that are interbedded with and overlying the reservoirs. In 

producing fields, thin shale beds of variable thickness are 

effective seals. Additional seals that may be effective include 

impermeable seals above truncation traps, faults, and updip 

facies changes. 

Overburden Rock

The rocks overlying the Sembar are composed of sandstone, siltstone, shale, limestone, and conglomerate. The 

maximum thickness of these overlying rocks is estimated to 

be as much as 8,500 m in the Sulaiman foredeep area (fig. 

11). In the foredeep areas immediately adjacent to the front 

of the foldbelt parts of the Indus Basin, the overburden thickness ranges from 2,500 m to 6,000 m. East of the foredeep, 

overburden rocks thin as Cretaceous and Paleocene rocks are 

progressively truncated.

Assessment Units

The Greater Indus Basin Foreland and Foldbelt Assessment Unit (AU) is located in eastern Pakistan and westernmost 

India (fig. 3). It is primarily a gas-prone onshore AU developed parallel to, and involving obliquely converging, continental plate boundaries. The tightly folded rocks of the Sulaiman 

and Kirthar ranges make up the western portion of the AU, 

and the eastern portion is a remnant continental shelf dipping 

gently to the west. This AU includes Jurassic through Miocene 

source rocks and reservoirs. These rocks include carbonates 

and shales of shelf environments and sandstones, shales, and 

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Figure 23. Sembar-Goru/Ghazij Composite Total Petroleum System generalized events chart including parts of the Patala-Nammal TPS of the 

Kohat Potwar area.

18 Petroleum Systems and Related Geologic Studies in Region 8, South Asia 
coals of deltaic and fluvial facies. 

Although the Lower Cretaceous Sembar Formation 

appears to be the major source of hydrocarbons, there are 

many other potential source rocks that may be important in 

different parts of the basin and foldbelt. Other potential source 

rocks are the Permian Dandot, Triassic Wulgai, and Paleocene 

Patala Formations. Total organic carbon content ranges from 

0.5 percent to > 3.5 percent with an average of 1.4 percent. 

The organic carbon is composed of type-II and type-III kerogens. Vitrinite reflectance values range from 0.3 percent to > 

1.6 percent where sampled. The Lower Cretaceous Sembar 

may be overmature offshore. Hydrocarbon generation occurred 

at least two different times in the basin; first at the beginning 

of the Paleocene and again, in late Miocene and Pliocene. 

Migration is primarily vertical and updip into adjacent 

reservoirs and through extensional faults associated with plate 

collision. Reservoir rocks are carbonates and sandstones of the 

Permian Tobra and Wargal, Lower Cretaceous Sembar, Goru, 

and Lumshiwal, Upper Cretaceous Pab, Paleocene Nammal, 

and Eocene Ghazij Formations. Porosity ranges from 9 percent to 30 percent, more commonly ranging from 12 percent 

to 16 percent. While almost all fields discovered to date are 

structural features such as anticlines and tilted fault blocks, the 

Sui gas field appears to be a reeflike stratigraphic trap. Stratigraphic traps are also likely to have formed in the deltaic and 

alluvial sequences. Seals include interbedded shales and the 

thick shales and clays of the Miocene-Pliocene Siwalik Group 

and fault truncations.

The Indus Fan assessment unit is located offshore of 

southeastern Pakistan between the Murray Ridge and the 

Pakistan-Indian border from a water depth of 200 m (approximate shelf edge) to 3,000 m (approximate base of the middle 

portion of the fan) (fig. 3). It is a gas-prone offshore fan developed on the edge of the Indian continental crust and adjacent 

oceanic crust. No wells have been drilled in water deeper 

than 200 m, but wells have been drilled in water less than 

200 m deep on structures located with seismic data. This AU 

includes Eocene through Pliocene rocks of the upper part of 

the Sembar-Goru/Ghazij Composite TPS. These rocks include 

siltstones, sandstones, and mudstones of the fan facies.

Source rocks are postulated to be primarily Oligocene, 

Miocene, and Pliocene mudstones of the delta slope. Total 

organic carbon content ranges from 0.5 percent to > 3.5 percent, with an average of 1.4 percent where sampled onshore. 

Organic mater is composed of type-II and type-III kerogens. 

Although this AU is assumed to be charged primarily by 

Oligocene and younger source rocks, there may be some contribution from Upper Cretaceous source rocks near the shelf 

edge. Maturation most likely occurred in late Miocene and 

Pliocene with generation continuing today.

Migration pathways are presumed to be vertical and 

updip into adjacent reservoirs and along fault planes associated with fan development. Reservoir rocks are Miocene 

through Pliocene siltstones and sandstones. Reservoirs include 

filled channels, interchannel ridges, and turbidites. Seals 

include interbedded mudstones and fault truncations. 

The composite Petroleum System Events Chart for the 

Sembar-Goru/Ghazij Composite TPS (fig. 23) includes all recognized potential source and reservoir rocks within the areal 

extent of the Sembar-Goru/Ghazij Composite TPS.

Assessment of Undiscovered 

Oil and Gas

Based on data current to 1996, provided by Petroconsultants International Data Corp., the Indus geologic province 

was ranked 87th in cumulative production and reserves of oil 

and gas (Klett and others, 1997), including U.S. geologic provinces. This categorized the Indus geologic province as a priority geologic province for the USGS World Petroleum Assessment 2000 (U.S. Geological Survey World Energy Assessment 

Team, 2000). Known petroleum volumes are 0.2 billion barrels 

of oil (BBO) of oil and 19.6 trillion cubic feet of gas (TCFG), 

for a total of 3.5 billion barrels of oil equivalent (BBOE) 

including natural gas liquids (Petroconsultants International 

Data Corp., 1996). This volume is approximately 0.1 percent 

of the world’s estimated total volume of petroleum, excluding 

the United States In the Indus and Sulaiman-Kirthar geologic 

provinces 93 oil and gas fields had been discovered by 1996 

(Petroconsultants, 1996) and 124 by 2001 (IHS Energy Group, 

2001). 

Previous estimates of undiscovered oil and gas in this 

region include those by Kingston (1986) and Masters and 

others (1998). Kingston estimated the mode of remaining 

undiscovered petroleum resources in the region at 0.2 BBO 

and 16.5 TCFG. The 1993 assessment (Masters and others, 

1998) estimate of mean undiscovered petroleum resources 

in the region, both onshore and offshore combined, was 0.23 

BBO and 29 TCFG. The methodology used in those assessments employed analogs from well-known productive regions 

of the world and relied heavily on volumetric considerations. 

The areas assessed by Masters and others (1998) are difficult 

to compare with the current assessment because it is unknown 

whether the Sulaiman-Kirthar foldbelt was included in their 

assessment. It is also unclear how much of the shelf and fan 

was considered in the Kingston (1986) and Masters and others 

(1998) assessments. 

The U.S. Geological Survey World Energy Assessment 

(2000) incorporates the petroleum system concept as defined 

by Magoon and Dow (1994). The TPS used for the geologic 

basis of the 2000 assessment in the Indus Basin, SulaimanKirthar, and part of the Kohat-Potwar geologic provinces is 

the Sembar-Goru/Ghazij Composite TPS. Table 1 shows the 

estimated ranges of assessed undiscovered oil and gas volumes 

allocated by AU and the totals for the Sembar-Goru/Ghazij 

Composite TPS. No estimate was made for oil in the Indus 

Fan AU. Tables 2 and 3 show the estimated ranges of assessed 

undiscovered oil and gas volumes allocated by geologic province and AU and the totals for the geologic provinces.

Sembar-Goru/Ghazij Composite TPS, Indus and Sulaiman-Kirthar Geologic Provinces, Pakistan and India 19
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Table 1. Estimates of undiscovered oil and gas for the onshore and offshore parts of the Sembar-Goru/Ghazij Composite Total Petroleum 

System.

[MMBO, million barrels of oil. BCFG, billion cubic feet of gas. MMBNGL, million barrels of natural gas liquids. MFS, minimum field size assessed (MMBO or 

BCFG). Prob., probability (including both geologic and accessibility probabilities) of at least one field equal to or greater than the MFS. Results shown are fully 

risked estimates. For gas fields, all liquids are included under the NGL natural gas liquids) category. F95 represents a 95-percent chance of at least the amount 

tabulated. Other fractiles are defined similarly. Fractiles are additive under the assumption of perfect positive correlation. Shading indicates not applicable]

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Table 2. Estimates of undiscovered oil and gas for the portion allocated to the Indus Province part of the Sembar-Goru/Ghazij Composite Total 

Petroleum System.

[MMBO, million barrels of oil. BCFG, billion cubic feet of gas. MMBNGL, million barrels of natural gas liquids. MFS, minimum field size assessed (MMBO or 

BCFG). Prob., probability (including both geologic and accessibility probabilities) of at least one field equal to or greater than the MFS. Results shown are fully 

risked estimates. For gas fields, all liquids are included under the NGL natural gas liquids) category. F95 represents a 95-percent chance of at least the amount 

tabulated. Other fractiles are defined similarly. Fractiles are additive under the assumption of perfect positive correlation. Shading indicates not applicable]

20 Petroleum Systems and Related Geologic Studies in Region 8, South Asia 
Summary

The Sembar-Goru/Ghazij Composite Total Petroleum 

System in the Greater Indus Basin of Pakistan and India is low 

to moderately well explored. All of the necessary attributes for 

petroleum generation, expulsion, migration, entrapment, and 

preservation are present. The system has favorable characteristics for additional hydrocarbon discoveries using existing 

and new play concepts. While this report focuses on a composite TPS, that composite TPS could be further subdivided 

into numerous smaller petroleum systems with other primary 

source rocks such as the Permian Dandot Formation, Triassic Wulgai Formation, Paleocene Patala Shale, Eocene Ghazij 

Formation, and Miocene shales.

Selected References

Ahmad, S., Alam, Z., and Khan, A.R., 1996, Petroleum exploration and 

production activities in Pakistan: Pakistan Petroleum Information 

Service, 72 p. 

Biswas, S.K., and Deshpande, S.V., 1983, Geology and hydrocarbon 

prospects of Kutch, Saurashtra, and Narmada basins: Petroleum 

Asia Journal, v. 6, no. 4, p. 111–126.

Drewes, Harald,1995, tectonics of the Potwar Plateau Region and the 

development of syntaxes, Punjab, Pakistan: U.S. Geological Survey 

Bulletin 2126, 25 p.

Environmental Systems Research Institute Inc., 1992, ArcWorld 1:3M 

digital database: Environmental Systems Research Institute, Inc. 

(ESRI), available from ESRI, Redlands, CA, scale: 1:3,000,000.

Government of Pakistan, 2001, Privatisation Commission, Finance 

Division, Government of Pakistan Web page [//www.gop-sale.com].

IHS Energy Group, [formerly Petroconsultants], 2001, Probe 4.0 

Petroleum exploration and production database: [includes data 

current as of September 2001], IHS Energy Group; database 

available from IHS Energy Group, 15 Inverness Way East, D205, 

Englewood, CO 80112, U.S.A.

IHS Energy Group [formerly Petroconsultants], 1996, Petroleum 

Exploration and Production Database: Petroconsultants, Inc., P.O. 

Box 740619, 6600 Sands Point Drive, Houston TX 77274-0619, USA 

or Petroconsultants, Inc., P.O. Box 152, 24 Chemin de la Marie, 1258 

Perly, Geneva, Switzerland. 

Iqbal, M.W.A., and Shah, S.M.I., 1980, A guide to the stratigraphy 

of Pakistan, Geological Survey of Pakistan Records: Geological 

Survey of Pakistan, Quetta, v. 53, p. 34.

Jadoon, Ishtiaq A.K., Lawrence, Robert D., and Lillie, Robert J., 1994, 

Seismic data, geometry, evolution, and shortening in the active 

Sulaiman Fold-and-Thrust Belt of Pakistan, southwest of the 

Himalayas: American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, 

v. 78, no. 5, p. 758–774.

Jaswal, T.M., Lillie, R.J., and Lawrence, R.D., 1997, Structure and 

evolution of the northern Potwar deformed zone, Pakistan: 

American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, v. 81, no. 2, 

p. 308–328.

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Table 3. Estimates of undiscovered oil and gas for the portion allocated to the Sulaiman-Kirthar Province part of the Sembar-Goru/Ghazij 

Composite Total Petroleum System.

[MMBO, million barrels of oil. BCFG, billion cubic feet of gas. MMBNGL, million barrels of natural gas liquids. MFS, minimum field size assessed (MMBO or 

BCFG). Prob., probability (including both geologic and accessibility probabilities) of at least one field equal to or greater than the MFS. Results shown are fully 

risked estimates. For gas fields, all liquids are included under the NGL natural gas liquids) category. F95 represents a 95-percent chance of at least the amount 

tabulated. Other fractiles are defined similarly. Fractiles are additive under the assumption of perfect positive correlation. Shading indicates not applicable]

Sembar-Goru/Ghazij Composite TPS, Indus and Sulaiman-Kirthar Geologic Provinces, Pakistan and India 21
Johnson, E.A., Warwick, P.D., Roberts, S.B. and Khan, I.H., 1999, 

Lithofacies, depositional environments, and regional stratigraphy 

of the lower Eocene Ghazij Formation, Baluchistan, Pakistan: U.S. 

Geological Survey Professional Paper 1599, 76 p.

Kemal, A., 1992, Geology and new trends for hydrocarbon exploration 

in Pakistan, in Ahmed, G., Kemal, A., Zaman, A.S.H., and Humayon, 

M., eds., New directions and strategies for accelerating petroleum 

exploration and production in Pakistan: Proceedings, international 

petroleum seminar, Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Resources, 

Islamabad, Pakistan, November, 22–24, 1991, p. 16–57.

Kemal, A., Balkwill, H.R., and Stoakes, F.A., 1992, Indus Basin 

hydrocarbon plays, in Ahmed,G., Kemal, A., Zaman, A.S.H., and 

Humayon, M., eds., New directions and strategies for accelerating 

petroleum exploration and production in Pakistan: Proceedings 

of an international petroleum seminar, Ministry of Petroleum and 

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Manuscript approved for publication March 17, 2004

Published in the Central Region, Denver, Colorado

Editing, Mary A. Kidd

Page layout, photocomposition, Richard W. Scott, Jr.

Section 508 compliance, David G. Walters

Webmaster, Tracy A. Pinto

Graphics by the authors

Sembar-Goru/Ghazij Composite TPS, Indus and Sulaiman-Kirthar Geologic Provinces, Pakistan and India 23