NATIONAL INSTITUTES OF HEALTH

i

T E ACHERS GUIDE

U.S. Department of Health and Human Serv i c e s

National Institutes of Health

National Institute on Drug Abuse

O ffice of Science Policy and Communications 

Science Policy Branch

5600 Fishers Lane

Rockville, Maryland 20857
“Mind Over Matter” was produced under contract

No. NO1 DA-3-2401 for the Office of Science Policy

and Communications, National Institutes of H e a l t h .

Cathrine A. Sasek, Ph.D. served as scientific a d v i s o r

and Project Off i c e r. All materials in the “Mind Over

M a t t e r ” series are in the public domain and may

be re p roduced without permission Citation of the

s o u rce is appre c i a t e d .

NIH Publication No. 98-3592

Printed December 1997, Reprinted 1998

Additional copies, as well as other drug re l a t e d

publications, can be obtained through the

National Clearinghouse for Alcohol and Dru g

Abuse Information at 1-800-729-6686.

The U.S. Government does not endorse or favor

any specific commercial product or company.

Trade, pro p r i e t a ry, or company names appearing

in this publication are used only because they are

c o n s i d e red essential in the context of the studies

re p o rted here i n .

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MIND OVER MATTERTEACHERS GUIDE
C o n t e n t s

I n t ro d u c t i o n_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 1

B a c k g round Inform a t i o n

Brain Anatomy _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 2

N e rve Cells and Neuro t r a n s m i s s i o n _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 3

E ffects of Drugs of Abuse on the Brain _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 5

M a r i j u a n a _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 7

O p i a t e s _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 1 1

I n h a l a n t s _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 1 7

H a l l u c i n o g e n s _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 2 1

S t e ro i d s _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 2 5

S t i m u l a n t s_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 2 7

N i c o t i n e _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 3 1

General Unifying Activity _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 3 8

A p p e n d i c i e s

R e s o u rc es _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 3 9

Reading List _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 4 0

F i g u res 1-7 (copyable) _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 4 1

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1

This is the teacher’s guide for the “Mind Over Matter” series.

This exciting new neuroscience education series, developed

by the National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA), a component

of the National Institutes of Health, is designed to encourage

youngsters in grades 5-9 to learn about the biological eff e c t s

of drug abuse on the body and the brain.

The “Mind Over Matter” series includes six colorful, over- s i z e d ,

glossy magazines, each of which is devoted to a specific dru g

or drug group; including stimulants, hallucinogens, inhalants,

marijuana, opiates, and steroids. Each of the magazines

describes the effects of specific drugs or drug types on the

anatomy and physiology of the brain and the body. These educational materials further elaborate on the way in which these

d rug-induced changes affect both behaviors and emotions.

The background information and lesson plans contained in

this guide, when used in combination with the magazines in

the series, will promote an understanding of the physical

reality of drug use, as well as curiosity about neuro s c i e n c e .

The guide suggests a brain anatomy educational activity that

can be used throughout the curriculum (see page 30), as well

as additional activities for each of the six drug topics. 

Of course, you are encouraged to develop your own re l e v a n t

lesson plans.

Note: Full-size versions of Figures 1-7 are located in the back of this guide. 

MIND OVER MATTER TEACHERS GUIDE
2

g 

BRAIN ANATOMY 

The brain consists of several large regions, each

responsible for some of the activities vital for living.

These include the brainstem, cerebellum, limbic 

system, diencephalon, and cerebral cortex (Figure 1 ) .

The brainstem is the part of the brain that connects

the brain and the spinal cord. It controls many

basic functions, such as heart rate, breathing, eating, and sleeping. The brainstem accomplishes

this by directing the spinal cord, other parts of the

brain, and the body to do what is necessary to

maintain these basic functions.

The cerebellum, which re p resents only one-eighth

of the total weight of the brain, coordinates the

b r a i n ’s instructions for skilled repetitive movements

and for maintaining balance and posture. It is a

p rominent stru c t u re located above the brainstem.

On top of the brainstem and buried under the cortex, there is a set of more evolutionarily primitive

brain stru c t u res called the limbic system (Figure 2).

The limbic system stru c t u res are involved in many

of our emotions and motivations, part i c u l a r l y

those that are related to survival, such as fear, 

a n g e r, and emotions related to sexual behavior.

The limbic system is also involved in feelings of

p l e a s u re that are related to our survival, such as

those experienced from eating and sex. Two larg e

limbic system stru c t u res called the amygdala and

hippocampus are also involved in memory. One of

the reasons that drugs of abuse can exert such

p o w e rful control over our behavior is that they act

d i rectly on the more evolutionarily primitive brainstem and limbic stru c t u res, which can override the

c o rtex in controlling our behavior. In effect, they

eliminate the most human part of our brain fro m

its role in controlling our behavior.

The diencephalon, which is also located beneath

the cerebral hemispheres, contains the thalamus

and hypothalamus (Figure 2). The thalamus is

involved in sensory perception and regulation of

motor functions (i.e., movement). It connects

a reas of the cerebral cortex that are involved in

s e n s o ry perception and movement with other

p a rts of the brain and spinal cord that also have a

role in sensation and movement. The hypothalamus

FIGURE 1 This drawing of a brain cut in half demonstrates

some of the major regions of the brain

FIGURE 2 This drawing of a brain cut in half demonstrates some

of the brain’s internal stru c t u res. The amygdala and

hippocampus are actually located deep within the

brain, but are shown as an overlay in the appro x i m a t e

a reas that they are located.
3

The brain is made up of billions of nerve cells.

Ty p i c a l l y, a neuron contains three import a n t

p a rts (Figure 4): a central cell body that dire c t s

all activities of the neuron; dendrites, short fibers

that receive messages from other neurons and

relay them to the cell body; and an axon, a long

single fiber that transmits messages from the

cell body to the dendrites of other neurons or

to body tissues, such as muscles. Although most

n e u rons contain all of the three parts, there is a

wide range of diversity in the shapes and sizes

of neurons as well as their axons and dendrites. 

The transfer of a message from the axon of

one nerve cell to the dendrites of another is

known as neurotransmission. Although axons

and dendrites are located extremely close to

each other, the transmission of a message fro m

an axon to a dendrite does not occur thro u g h

d i rect contact. Instead, communication

between nerve cells occurs mainly through the

release of chemical substances into the space

between the axon and dendrites (Figure 5).

This space is known as the synapse. When

n e u rons communicate, a message, traveling as

an electrical impulse, moves down an axon and

t o w a rd the synapse. There it triggers the

release of molecules called neuro t r a n s m i t t e r s

f rom the axon into the synapse. The neurotransmitters then diffuse across the synapse

and bind to special molecules, called re c e p t o r s ,

that are located within the cell membranes of

the dendrites of the adjacent nerve cell. This, in

t u rn, stimulates or inhibits an electrical

response in the receiving neuro n ’s dendrites.

Thus, the neurotransmitters act as chemical

messengers, carrying information from one

n e u ron to another.

h o rmones, the pituitary gland, body temperature ,

the adrenal glands, and many other vital activities. 

The cerebral cortex, which is divided into right and

left hemispheres, encompasses about two-third s

of the brain mass and lies over and around most

of the remaining stru c t u res of the brain. It is the

most highly developed part of the human brain

and is responsible for thinking, perceiving, and

p roducing and understanding language. It is also

the most recent stru c t u re in the history of brain

evolution. The cerebral cortex can be divided into

a reas that each have a specific function (Figure 3).

For example, there are specific areas involved in

vision, hearing, touch, movement, and smell.

Other areas are critical for thinking and re a s o n i n g .

Although many functions, such as touch, are

found in both the right and left cerebral 

h e m i s p h e res, some functions are found in only one

c e rebral hemisphere. For example, in most people,

language abilities are found in the left hemisphere .

NERVE CELLS AND NEUROT R A N S M I S S I O N

FIGURE 3 This drawing of a brain cut in half demonstrates

the lobes of the cerebral cortex and their functions
4

T h e re are many diff e rent types of neuro t r a n smitters, each of which has a precise role to play

in the functioning of the brain. Generally, each

n e u rotransmitter can only bind to a very specific matching re c e p t o r. There f o re, when a neurotransmitter couples to a re c e p t o r, it is like fitting

a key into a lock. This coupling then starts a

whole cascade of events at both the surface of

the dendrite of the receiving nerve cell and

inside the cell. In this manner, the message carried by the neurotransmitter is received and

p rocessed by the receiving nerve cell. Once this

has occurred, the neurotransmitter is inactivated in one of two ways. It is either broken down

by an enzyme or reabsorbed back into the

n e rve cell that released it. The re a b s o r p t i o n

(also known as re-uptake) is accomplished by

what are known as transporter molecules

( F i g u re 5). Tr a n s p o rter molecules reside in the

cell membranes of the axons that release the

n e u rotransmitters. They pick up specific neurotransmitters from the synapse and carry them

back across the cell membrane and into the

axon. The neurotransmitters are then available

for reuse at a later time.

to the axon. The axons then transmit the messages, which are in the form of electrical

impulses, to other neurons or body tissues.

The axons of many neurons are covered in a

fatty substance known as myelin. Myelin has

several functions. One of its most important is

to increase the rate at which nerve impulses

travel along the axon. The rate of conduction of

a nerve impulse along a heavily myelinated

axon can be as fast as 120 meters/second. In

contrast, a nerve impulse can travel no faster

than about 2 meters/second along an axon

without myelin. The thickness of the myelin

covering on an axon is closely linked to the

function of that axon. For example, axons that

travel a long distance, such as those that

extend from the spinal cord to the foot, generally contain a thick myelin covering to facilitate

faster transmission of the nerve impulse. (Note:

The axons that transmit messages from the

brain or spinal cord to muscles and other body

tissues are what make up the nerves of the

human body. Most of these axons contain a

thick covering of myelin, which accounts for

the whitish appearance of nerves.) 

FIGURE 4 

FIGURE 5
Pleasure, which scientists call reward, is a very powerful

biological force for our survival. If you do something

pleasurable, the brain is wired in such a way that you

tend to do it again. Life-sustaining activities, such as eating, activate a circuit of specialized nerve cells devoted

to producing and regulating pleasure. One important set

of these nerve cells, which uses a chemical neurotransmitter called dopamine, sits at the very top of the brainstem in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) (Figure 6).

These dopamine-containing neurons relay messages

about pleasure through their nerve fibers to nerve cells in

a limbic system structure called the nucleus accumbens.

Still other fibers reach to a related part of the frontal

region of the cerebral cortex. So, the pleasure circuit,

which is known as the mesolimbic dopamine system,

spans the survival-oriented brainstem, the emotional limbic system, and the frontal cerebral cortex. 

All drugs that are addicting can activate the brain’s pleasure circuit. Drug addiction is a biological, pathological

process that alters the way in which the pleasure center,

as well as other parts of the brain, functions. To understand this process, it is necessary to examine the

e ffects of drugs on neurotransmission. Almost all drugs

that change the way the brain works do so by aff e c t i n g

chemical neurotransmission. Some drugs, like heroin

and LSD, mimic the effects of a natural neurotransmitt e r. Others, like PCP, block receptors and thereby prevent neuronal messages from getting through. Still others, like cocaine, interfere with the molecules that are

responsible for transporting neurotransmitters back into

the neurons that released them (Figure 7). Finally, some

drugs, such as methamphetamine, act by causing neurotransmitters to be released in greater amounts than

n o r m a l .

Prolonged drug use changes the brain in fundamental and

long-lasting ways. These long-lasting changes are a major

component of the addictionitself. It is as though there is a

figurative “switch”in the brain that “flips” at some point

during an individual’s drug use. The point at which this

“flip” occurs varies from individual to individual, but the

e ffect of this change is the transformation of a drug

abuser to a drug addict.

FIGURE 6 This drawing of a brain cut in half demonstrates the brain areas and pathways

involved in the pleasure circuit

EFFECTS OF DRUGS OF ABUSE 

ON THE BRAIN

FIGURE 7 When cocaine enters the brain, it blocks the dopamine transporter from pumping dopamine back into the transmitting

neuron, flooding the synapse with dopamine. This intensifies

and prolongs the stimulation of receiving neurons in the

brain's pleasure circuits, causing a cocaine "high."

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THC, the main active ingredient in marijuana, binds to and

activates specific receptors, known as cannabinoid re c e p t o r s .

T h e re are many of these receptors in parts of the brain that

c o n t rol memory, thought, concentration, time and depth perception, and coordinated movement.

By activating these receptors, THC interf e res with the norm a l

functioning of the cerebellum, the part of the brain most

responsible for balance, posture, and coordination of movement. The cerebellum coordinates the muscle movements

o rd e red by the motor cortex. Nerve impulses alert the cerebellum that the motor cortex has directed a part of the body

to perf o rm a certain action. Almost instantly, impulses fro m

that part of the body inform the cerebellum as to how the

action is being carried out. The cerebellum compares the

actual movement with the intended movement and then signals the motor cortex to make any necessary corrections. In

this way, the cerebellum ensures that the body moves

smoothly and eff i c i e n t l y.

The hippocampus, which is involved with memory form ation, also contains many cannabinoid receptors. Studies have

suggested that marijuana activates cannabinoid receptors in

the hippocampus and affects memory by decreasing the

activity of neurons in this area. The effect of marijuana on

l o n g - t e rm memory is less certain, but while someone is

under the influence of marijuana, short - t e rm memory can be

c o m p romised. Furt h e r, re s e a rch studies have shown chro n i c

administration of THC can permanently damage the hippocampus of rats, suggesting that marijuana use can lead to

p e rmanent memory impairm e n t .

Marijuana is the dried leaves

and flowers of the cannabis

plant. Tetrahydrocannabinol

(THC) is the main ingredient in

marijuana that causes people

who use it to experience a

calm euphoria. Marijuana

changes brain messages that

affect sensory perception and

coordination. This can cause

users to see, hear, and feel

stimuli differently and to

exhibit slower reflexes.

BAC KG R O U N D

MECHANISM OF AC T I O N
j 

8

Marijuana also affects receptors in brain are a s

and stru c t u res responsible for sensory perc e ption. Marijuana interf e res with the receiving of

s e n s o ry messages (for example, touch, sight,

hearing, taste, and smell) in the cerebral cort e x .

Various parts of the body send nerve signals to

the thalamus, which then routes these messages to the appropriate areas of the cere b r a l

c o rtex. An area of the sensory cortex, called the

s o m a t o s e n s o ry cortex, receives messages that

it interprets as body sensations such as touch

and temperature. The somatosensory cort e x

lies in the parietal lobe of each hemisphere

along the central fissure, which separates the

f rontal and parietal lobes. Each part of the

s o m a t o s e n s o ry cortex receives and interpre t s

impulses from a specific part of the body. Other

specialized areas of the cere b rum receive the

s e n s o ry impulses related to seeing, hearing,

taste, and smell. Impulses from the eyes travel

along the optic nerve and then are relayed to

the visual cortex in the occipital lobes. Port i o n s

of the temporal lobes receive auditory messages from the ears. The area for taste lies

buried in the lateral fissure, which separates

the frontal and temporal lobes. The center for

smell is on the underside of the frontal lobes.

Marijuana activates cannabinoid receptors in

these various areas of the cere b rum and re s u l t s

in the brain misinterpreting the nerve impulses

f rom the diff e rent sense org a n s .

For many years, it was known that THC acted

on cannabinoid receptors in the brain. It was

hypothesized that since the normal brain produces these receptors, there must also be a

substance produced by the brain itself that acts

on these receptors. Despite years of eff o rt ,

h o w e v e r, the brain’s THC-like substance eluded

scientists, and whether or not such a substance

existed remained a mystery. Finally, in 1992,

scientists discovered a substance produced by

the brain that activates the THC receptors and

has many of the same physiological effects as

THC. The scientists named the substance anandamide, from a Sanskrit word meaning bliss.

The discovery of anandamide opened whole

new avenues of re s e a rch. For instance, since

the brain produces both anandamide and the

cannabinoid receptors to which it binds, it was

thought that anandamide must play a role in

the normal functioning of the brain. Scientists

a re now actively investigating anandamide’s

function in the brain. This re s e a rch will not only

help in gaining a greater understanding of how

marijuana acts in the brain and why it is

abused, but it will also provide new clues about

how the healthy brain works.
9

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The discovery of anandamide may also lead to

a greater understanding of certain health pro blems and ultimately to more effective tre a tments. When made synthetically and given

o r a l l y, THC can be used to treat nausea associated with chemotherapy and stimulate appetite

in AIDS wasting syndrome. It may also be useful for other conditions, including glaucoma.

Now that the brain’s own THC-like substance

has been identified, re s e a rchers may soon be

able to uncover the mechanisms underlying

the therapeutic effects of THC. This could then

lead to the development of more effective and

safer treatments for a variety of conditions.

Recent re s e a rch in animals has also suggested

that long-term use of marijuana (THC) produces changes in the limbic system that are

similar to those that occur after long-term use

of other major drugs of abuse such as cocaine,

h e roin, and alcohol. These changes are most

evident during withdrawal from THC. During

withdrawal, there are increases in both the levels of a brain chemical involved in stress and

c e rtain emotions and the activity of neurons in

the amygdala. These same kinds of changes

also occur during withdrawal from other dru g s

of abuse, suggesting that there may be a common

factor in the development of drug dependence. 

The following activities, when used along with

the magazine on marijuana, will help explain to

students how these substances change the

brain and the body.
Read a list of 20 words aloud to the class and then ask students

to write down as many as they can re m e m b e r. Then have

several students stand, in pairs, at various points in the ro o m

and carry on loud conversations while you read a list of 20

new words to the remainder of the class. Ask students to

again write down as many words as they can re m e m b e r.

C o m p a re perf o rmance between the two trials. Mention to the

students that, like the disruptive pairs of students, marijuana

i n t e rf e res with normal information transfer and memory.

Students will identify the areas of the brain and stru c t u re s

responsible for these functions and will be reminded that

marijuana alters neurotransmission in these areas. Students

can also search the Internet and other sources to re s e a rc h

the effects of marijuana on information transfer and m e m o ry

and then pre p a re a brief re p o rt summarizing their findings.

1 0

j 

Explain that the cerebellum is involved in balance, coord i n a t i o n ,

and a variety of other re g u l a t o ry functions. Marijuana aff e c t s

the cerebellum, resulting in impairments in motor behavior.

Students will search the Internet and other sources for more

i n f o rmation about the role and function of the cere b e l l u m

and will make a list of ways in which damage to the cere b e llum would affect their day-to-day behavior.

M A R I J UANA ACTIVITY THREE

✱ The student will understand the eff e c t s

of marijuana on brain stru c t u res which

c o n t rol the five senses, emotions, memo ry, and judgment.

✱ The student will use knowledge of

b r a i n -behavior relationships to determine the possible effects of marijuana

on the ability to perf o rm certain tasks

and occupations.

Review the way in which marijuana use affects brain re g i o n s

and stru c t u res that control the five senses, heart rate,

emotions, memory and judgment. Students then randomly

select (for example, draw from a hat) an occupation and

a re asked to act-out, in front of the class, how marijuana

use might specifically affect the perf o rmance of a person

in that occupation. Examples of occupations can include:

an airline pilot, a professional basketball player, a doctor, a

defense attorn e y, a truck driver, a construction worker, a

w a i t e r / w a i t ress, a politician, etc. Students will identify the

brain regions and stru c t u res affected by marijuana use, and

describe the link between these stru c t u res and behavior.

O B J E C T I V E S

M A R I J UANA ACTIVITY TWO

✱ The student will learn more about the

i m p o rtant role of the cere b e l l u m .

O B J E C T I V E

✱ The student will understand how 

marijuana interf e res with inform a t i o n

transfer and short - t e rm memory.

O B J E C T I V E

M A R I J UANA ACTIVITY ONE
p 

Opiates elicit their powerful effects by activating opiate

receptors that are widely distributed throughout the brain

and body. Once an opiate reaches the brain, it quickly activates

the opiate receptors that are found in many brain re g i o n s

and produces an effect that correlates with the area of the

brain involved. Two important effects produced by opiates,

such as morphine, are pleasure (or re w a rd) and pain re l i e f .

The brain itself also produces substances known as endorphins

that activate the opiate receptors. Research indicates that e n d o rphins are involved in many things, including respiration, nausea, vomiting, pain modulation, and horm o n a l re g u l a t i o n .

When opiates are prescribed by a physician for the tre a t m e n t

of pain and are taken in the prescribed dosage, they are safe

and there is little chance of addiction. However, when opiates

a re abused and taken in excessive doses, addiction can

result. Findings from animal re s e a rch indicate that, like

cocaine and other abused drugs, opiates can also activate the

b r a i n ’s re w a rd system. When a person injects, sniffs, or orally

ingests heroin (or morphine), the drug travels quickly to the

brain through the bloodstream. Once in the brain, the hero i n

is rapidly converted to morphine, which then activates opiate

receptors located throughout the brain, including within the

re w a rd system. (Note: Because of its chemical stru c t u re ,

h e roin penetrates the brain more quickly than other opiates,

which is probably why many addicts prefer heroin.) Wi t h i n

the re w a rd system, the morphine activates opiate re c e p t o r s

in the VTA, nucleus accumbens, and cerebral cortex (refer to

the Introduction for information on the re w a rd system).

R e s e a rch suggests that stimulation of opiate receptors by

morphine results in feelings of re w a rd and activates the pleas u re circuit by causing greater amounts of dopamine to be

released within the nucleus accumbens. This causes an

intense euphoria, or rush, that lasts only briefly and is followed by a few hours of a relaxed, contented state. This

excessive release of dopamine and stimulation of the re w a rd

system can lead to addiction.

Opiates are powerful drugs

derived from the poppy plant that

have been used for centuries to

relieve pain. They include opium,

heroin, morphine, and codeine.

Even centuries after their discovery, opiates are still the most

effective pain relievers available

to physicians for treating pain.

Although heroin has no medicinal

use, other opiates, such as morphine and codeine, are used in the

treatment of pain related to illnesses (for example, cancer) and

medical and dental procedures.

When used as directed by a physician, opiates are safe and generally do not produce addiction. But

opiates also possess very strong

reinforcing properties and can

quickly trigger addiction when

used improperly.

BAC KG R O U N D

MECHANISM OF AC T I O N

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p 

1 2

Opiates also act directly on the re s p i r a t o ry center

in the brainstem, where they cause a slowdown i n

a c t i v i t y. This results in a decrease in bre a t h i n g

rate. Excessive amounts of an opiate, like hero i n ,

can cause the re s p i r a t o ry centers to shut down

b reathing altogether. When someone overd o s e s

on heroin, it is the action of heroin in the brainstem re s p i r a t o ry centers that can cause the person

to stop breathing and die.

As mentioned earlier, the brain itself pro d u c e s

endorphins that have an important role in the

relief or modulation of pain. Sometimes,

though, particularly when pain is severe, the

brain does not produce enough endorphins to

p rovide pain relief. Fort u n a t e l y, opiates, such as

morphine are very powerful pain re l i e v i n g

medications. When used pro p e r l y

under the care of a physician,

opiates can relieve severe

pain without causing

addiction. 

Feelings of pain are produced when specialized

n e rves are activated by trauma to some part of

the body, either through injury or illness. These

specialized nerves, which are located thro u g hout the body, carry the pain message to the

spinal cord. After reaching the spinal cord, the

message is relayed to other neurons, some of

which carry it to the brain. Opiates help to re l i e v e

pain by acting in both the spinal cord and brain.

At the level of the spinal cord, opiates interf e re

with the transmission of the pain messages

between neurons and there f o re prevent them

f rom reaching the brain. This blockade of pain

messages protects a person from experiencing

too much pain. This is known as analgesia.

Opiates also act in the brain to help

relieve pain, but the way in

which they accomplish

this is diff e rent than

in the spinal

c o rd. 
p 

T h e re are several areas in the brain that are

involved in interpreting pain messages and in

subjective responses to pain. These brain re g i o n s

a re what allow a person to know he or she is

experiencing pain and that it is unpleasant.

Opiates also act in these brain regions, but they

d o n ’t block the pain messages themselves.

R a t h e r, they change the subjective experience

of the pain. This is why a person receiving 

morphine for pain may say that they still feel

the pain but that it doesn’t bother them anymore .

Although endorphins are not always adequate

to relieve pain, they are very important for survival. If an animal or person is injured and

needs to escape a harmful situation, it would

be difficult to do so while experiencing severe

pain. However, endorphins that are re l e a s e d

immediately following an injury can pro v i d e

enough pain relief to allow escape from a harm f u l

situation. Later, when it is safe, the endorphin

levels decrease and intense pain may be felt. This

also is important for survival. If the endorphins

continued to blunt the pain, it would be easy to

i g n o re an injury and then not seek medical care .

T h e re are several types of opiate re c e p t o r s ,

including the delta, mu, and kappa re c e p t o r s .

Each of these three receptors is involved in

c o n t rolling diff e rent brain functions. For example, opiates and endorphins are able to block

pain signals by binding to the mu receptor site. 

The powerful new technology of cloning has

enabled scientists to copy the genes that make

each of these receptors. This in turn is allowing re s e a rchers to conduct laboratory studies

to better understand how opiates act in the

brain and, more specifically, how opiates 

interact with each opiate receptor to pro d u c e

their effects. This information may eventually

lead to more effective treatments for pain and

opiate addiction. 

The following activities, when used along 

with the magazine on opiates, will help explain

to students how these substances change the

brain and the body.

1 
1 4

p 

✱ The student will become more familiar

with neuroscience concepts and term inology associated with the effects of

opiates on the brain.

Students will solve a cro s s w o rd puzzle which re q u i re s

knowledge of the ways in which opiates affect brain 

anatomy and physiology. The puzzle and solution is 

included in the guide.

O B J E C T I V E O P I ATES ACTIVITY THREE

✱ The student will learn the way in which

opiates alter the function of nerve cells.

Remind students that long-term abuse of opiates, such as

h e roin, changes the way nerve cells in the brain work.

These cells become so used to having the heroin pre s e n t

that they need it to work norm a l l y. This, in turn, leads to

addiction. If opiates are taken away from dependent nerv e

cells, these cells become overactive. Eventually, they will

work normally again, but in the meantime, they create a

range of symptoms known as withdrawal. Have students

c reate visual re p resentations of normal nerve cells, dependent nerve cells, overactive nerve cells, and an opiate.

Then have the students use these re p resentations to develop, in comic art format, the process by which opiates

change the normal functioning of neurons. 

Note that opiates are powerful painkillers and are used

medically for treatment of pain. When used properly for

medical purposes, opiates do not produce an intense feeling of pleasure, and patients have little chance of becoming addicted. Have students search the Internet and other

s o u rces for information about pain, pain control, and the

way opiates produce their analgesic effect and then prep a re a brief summary re p o rt .

O B J E C T I V E O P I ATES ACTIVITY ONE

O P I ATES ACTIVITY TWO

✱ The student will learn how opiates produce an analgesic eff e c t .

O B J E C T I V E
1 

p 

ACROSS

1 Space between 

neurons

3 Copy genetic

material to 

produce an 

identical cell

5 Opiates come

from this plant

6 Feeling of euphoria

9 Controls breathing

and heart rate

10 Pleasure neurotransmitter

11 Pain relief

DOWN

1 Opiates act on 

the __________ 

cord and brain

2 Pain reliever 

produced by brain

4 An opiate receptor

6 Another name

for pleasure

7 Ventral 

_________ area

8 Powerful opiate

C R O S S WORD PUZZLE

1

8

9

1 0

1 1

6

3

2

4 5

7
p 

ACROSS

1 Space between 

neurons

3 Copy genetic

material to 

produce an 

identical cell

5 Opiates come

from this plant

6 Feeling of euphoria

9 Controls breathing

and heart rate

10 Pleasure neurotransmitter

11 Pain relief

DOWN

1 Opiates act on 

the __________ 

cord and brain

2 Pain reliever 

produced by brain

4 An opiate receptor

6 Another name

for pleasure

7 Ventral 

_________ area

8 Powerful opiate

C R O S S WORD PUZZLE

1

8

9

1 0

1 1

6

3

2

4 5

7

S Y N A P S E

P

I

N

A

L

O P P Y

R U S

M

B R A I N S T E

D O P A M I N E

A N A L G E S I

C L O N E

N

D

R

P

H

I

N

T

E

G

M

E

N

T

A

L

E

W

A

R

D

H

E

R

O

I

N

1 6
1 

MECHANISM OF AC T I O N

Most inhalants are common household

p roducts that give off mind-altering

chemical fumes when sniffed. These

common products include paint thinner,

f i n g e rnail polish re m o v e r, glues, 

gasoline, cigarette lighter fluid, and

n i t rous oxide. They also include fluorinated hydrocarbons found in aero s o l s ,

such as whipped cream, hair and paint

sprays, and computer cleaners. The

chemical stru c t u re of the various types

of inhalants is diverse, making it diff i c u l t

to generalize about the effects of

inhalants. It is known, however, that the

v a p o rous fumes can change brain chemi s t ry and may be permanently damaging

to the brain and central nervous system. 

Inhalant users are also at risk for

Sudden Sniffing Death (SSD), which can

occur when the inhaled fumes take the

place of oxygen in the lungs and central

n e rvous system. This basically causes

the inhalant user to suffocate. Inhalants

can also lead to death by disrupting the

n o rmal heart rhythm, which can lead to

c a rdiac arrest. Use of inhalants can

cause hepatitis, liver failure, and muscle

weakness. Certain inhalants can also

cause the body to produce fewer of all

types of blood cells, which may result in

l i f e - t h reatening aplastic anemia. 

Inhalants also alter the functioning of

the nervous system. Some of these

e ffects are transient and disappear after

use is discontinued. But inhalant use

can also lead to serious neuro l o g i c a l

p roblems, some of which are irreversible. For example, frequent longt e rm use of certain inhalants can cause

a permanent change or malfunction of

n e rves in the back and legs, called

p o l y n e u ro p a t h y. Inhalants can also act

d i rectly in the brain to cause a variety of

n e u rological problems. For instance,

inhalants can cause abnormalities in

brain areas that are involved in movement (for example, the cerebellum) and

higher cognitive function (for example,

the cerebral cortex). 

Inhalants enter the bloodstream quickly and are then distributed

t h roughout the brain and body. They have direct effects on

both the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and

the peripheral nervous system (nerves throughout the body). 

Using brain imaging techniques, such as magnetic re s o n a n c e

imaging (MRI), re s e a rchers have discovered that there are

marked structural changes in the brains of chronic inhalant

abusers. These changes include a reduction in size in cert a i n

brain areas, including the cerebral cortex, cerebellum, and

brainstem. These changes may account for some of the neurological and behavioral symptoms that long-term inhalant

abusers exhibit (for example, cognitive and motor diff i c u lties). Some of these changes may be due to the eff e c t

inhalants have on myelin, the fatty tissue which insulates and

p rotects axons and helps speed up nerve conduction. When

inhalants enter the brain and body, they are part i c u l a r l y

attracted to fatty tissues. Because myelin is a fat, it quickly

absorbs inhalants, which can then damage or even destro y

the myelin. The deterioration of myelin interf e res with the

rapid flow of messages from one nerve to another. 

Inhalants can also have a profound effect on nerves that are

located throughout the body. The polyneuropathy caused by

some inhalants, as well as other neurological problems, may

be due in part to the effect of the inhalants on the myelin

sheath that covers axons throughout the body. In some

cases, not only is the myelin destroyed, but the axons themselves degenerate.

The following activities, when used along with the magazine

on inhalants, will help explain to students how these substances change the brain and the body.

BAC KG R O U N D
1 8

I n t roduce this activity by reminding students that

inhalants can slow or stop nerve cell activity in some

p a rts of the brain; for example, the frontal lobes (complex problem solving), cerebellum (movement and coordination), and hippocampus (memory). Students will

b reak into small groups and contribute in a ro u n d - ro b i n

fashion to a story about a fictional student who uses

inhalants. The students should be encouraged to include

p roblems (symptoms) in the description that would be

associated with inhalant use, as well as other symptoms

that would not. These stories can then be shared (either

in oral or written form) with the rest of the class, who

will be re q u i red to identify the inhalant-related behavioral components and then describe the brain areas that

a re involved in these behaviors. Students will then

s e a rch the Internet and other sources to obtain inform ation about the way in which activity in the frontal lobes,

c e rebellum, and hippocampus influences behavior, and

p re p a re a re p o rt summarizing their findings.

Review the regions of the brain and stru c t u res affected by

inhaling solvents, gases, and nitrites. Then divide the class

into groups of 4-6, and have each group write a rap music

video about the effects of inhalants on brain areas and

s t ru c t u res, as well as brain-behavior relationships. When

the songs are finished, have each group perf o rm their

music video.

INHALANTS ACTIVITY TWO

✱ The student will understand the eff e c t

of inhalants on brain stru c t u res, physio l o g y, and behavior.

O B J E C T I V E

✱ The student will become more familiar

with the neuroscience concepts and

t e rminology associated with the eff e c t s

of inhalants on the brain and body.

The students will complete the Inhalant Wo rd Find, and 

the teacher will then review the words and have the 

students discuss how the terms relate to inhalant use. 

A copy of the Wo rd Find and the Wo rd Find Solution is

included in the guide.

O B J E C T I V E INHALANTS ACTIVITY THREE

✱ The student will learn the effects 

of inhalant use on brain-behavior 

re l a t i o n s h i p s .

O B J E C T I V E INHALANTS ACTIVITY ONE
1 

WORD SEARCH

A A L A D G Y M A N Y

Z U X I I M P A M A V

S D B F N Z J L R C P

B N O X A I S O P R B

A F L J L K O W A E W

T E Y K A I B Y V B E

D V N K N D V B S E Q

B G U K C E L L R L S

T X R F L Y P L M U X

I E O R F U M E S M F

D T P F W O K R Y O N

J R A X F A C E C P R

C O T F Y I L A Z U Y

T C H L X I N B T D I

E H Y H N X V S T E C

U E O R L N Q O H A G

H J P W H M G R O E S

C S E G T N N E U L G

Amygdala

Axon

Cell

Cerebellum

Cortex

Fumes

Glue

Inhalant

Kidney

Liver

Myelin

Polyneuropathy

Sniff

Vapor
WORD SEARCH

Amygdala

Axon

Cell

Cerebellum

Cortex

Fumes

Glue

Inhalant

Kidney

Liver

Myelin

Polyneuropathy

Sniff

Vapor

A A L A D G Y M A N Y

Z U X I I M P A M A V

S D B F N Z J L R C P

B N O X A I S O P R B

A F L J L K O W A E W

T E Y K A I B Y V B E

D V N K N D V B S E Q

B G U K C E L L R L S

T X R F L Y P L M U X

I E O R F U M E S M F

D T P F W O K R Y O N

J R A X F A C E C P R

C O T F Y I L A Z U Y

T C H L X I N B T D I

E H Y H N X V S T E C

U E O R L N Q O H A G

H J P W H M G R O E S

C S E G T N N E U L G

2 0
2 

g 

LSD binds to and activates a specific receptor for the neurotransmitter serotonin. Norm a l l y, serotonin binds to and activates its receptors and then is taken back up into the neuro n

that released it. In contrast, LSD binds very tightly to the

s e rotonin re c e p t o r, causing a greater than normal activation

of the re c e p t o r. Because serotonin has a role in many of the

b r a i n ’s functions, activation of its receptors by LSD pro d u c e s

w i d e s p read effects, including rapid emotional swings, and

a l t e red perceptions, and if taken in a large enough dose,

delusions and visual hallucinations.

MDMA, which is similar in stru c t u re to methamphetamine,

causes serotonin to be released from neurons in gre a t e r

amounts than normal. Once released, this serotonin can

excessively activate serotonin receptors. Scientists have also

shown that MDMA causes excess dopamine to be re l e a s e d

f rom dopamine-containing neurons. Particularly alarming is

re s e a rch in animals that has demonstrated that MDMA can

damage and destroy serotonin containing neurons. MDMA

can cause hallucinations, confusion, depression, sleep pro blems, drug craving, severe anxiety, and paranoia.

P C P, which is not a true hallucinogen, can affect many neurotransmitter systems. It interf e res with the functioning of the

n e u rotransmitter glutamate, which is found in neuro n s

t h roughout the brain. Like many other drugs, it also causes

dopamine to be released from neurons into the synapse. At

low to moderate doses, PCP causes altered perception of

body image, but rarely produces visual hallucinations. PCP

can also cause effects that mimic the primary symptoms of

s c h i z o p h renia, such as delusions and mental turmoil. People

who use PCP for long periods of time have memory loss and

speech diff i c u l t i e s .

The following activities, when used along with the magazine

on hallucinogens, will help explain to students how these

substances change the brain and the body.

MECHANISM OF AC T I O N

Hallucinogens are drugs which cause

a l t e red states of perception and feeling

and which can produce flashbacks.

They include natural substances, such

as mescaline and psilocybin that come

f rom plants (cactus and mushro o m s ) ,

and chemically manufactured ones,

such as LSD and MDMA (ecstasy). LSD

is manufactured from lysergic acid,

which is found in ergot, a fungus that

g rows on rye and other grains. MDMA is

a synthetic mind-altering drug with hallucinogenic pro p e rties. Although not a

t rue hallucinogen in the pharm a c o l o g ical sense, PCP causes many of the same

e ffects as hallucinogens and so is often

included with this group of dru g s .

Hallucinogens have powerful mindaltering effects. They can change how

the brain perceives time, everyday re a l it y, and the surrounding enviro n m e n t .

They affect regions and stru c t u res in the

brain that are responsible for coord i n ation, thought processes, hearing, and

sight. They can cause people who use

them to hear voices, see images, and

feel sensations that do not exist.

R e s e a rchers are not certain that brain

c h e m i s t ry permanently changes fro m

hallucinogen use, but some people who

use them appear to develop chro n i c

mental disorders. PCP and MDMA are

both addicting; whereas LSD, psilocybin, and mescaline are not.

R e s e a rch has provided many clues

about how hallucinogens act in the

brain to cause their powerful eff e c t s .

H o w e v e r, because there are diff e re n t

types of hallucinogens and their eff e c t s

a re so widespread, there is still much

that is unknown. The following paragraphs describe some of what is known

about this diverse group of dru g s .

BAC KG R O U N D
2 2

g 

✱ The student will learn that 

hallucinogens cause other sensory 

m i s p e rc e p t i o n s .

O B J E C T I V E HALLUCINOGENS ACTIVITY TWO

Fill one bowl with warm water, another with cold water,

and a third with water at room temperature. First, have the

students place the fingers of one hand in the warm water.

Wait 60 seconds. Then have them place their fingers in the

room temperature water and describe the temperature of

the water (feels cool). Then have the students place their

fingers of the other hand in the cold water. Wait 60 seconds. Then have them place their fingers in the room temp e r a t u re water and describe the temperature of the water

(feels hot). Remind students that hallucinogens can aff e c t

the way we perceive re a l i t y. 

Have students draw a bull’s-eye onto a sheet of unru l e d

white paper. Make a small “X” at the center of another

sheet of paper. Now, have the students stare at the bull’s -

eye for about 20 seconds and then quickly shift their focus

to the “X.” Students will find that an after-image of the

b u l l ’s-eye will appear. Explain that after-images are a class

of optical illusions, which have some similarity to hallucinations. Have students search the Internet and other sourc e s

for information about drug-induced hallucinations and prep a re a re p o rt summarizing their findings.

✱ The student will learn vocabulary and

facts associated with hallucinogens.

O B J E C T I V E

I n s t ruct the students to complete the Hallucinogen Wo rd

Puzzle. The puzzle and solution to the puzzle are included 

in the guide.

HALLUCINOGENS ACTIVITY THREE

✱ The student will learn how hallucinogens cause visual misperception and

h a l l u c i n a t i o n s .

O B J E C T I V E HALLUCINOGENS ACTIVITY ONE
2 

g 

____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____

LSD binds tig htly to and activates the receptor for what ne u ro t ra ns m i t t e r ?

____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____

What drug comes from a cactus plant?

____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____

What is another name for MDMA?

____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____

Neurotransmitters attach to what molecules in the cell membrane?

____ ____ ____ ____

What is another name for LSD?

____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____

Changes in what brain structure affect breathing and heart rate?

1

2

3

4

5

6

What might result if you use eit her 

Answer each question, below then correctly arrange the

boxed letters to solve the riddle at the bottom of the page.

WORD PUZZLE
2 4

g 

____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____

LSD binds tig htly to and activates the receptor for what ne u ro t ra ns m i t t e r ?

____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____

What drug comes from a cactus plant?

____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____

What is another name for MDMA?

____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____

Neurotransmitters attach to what molecules in the cell membrane?

____ ____ ____ ____

What is another name for LSD?

____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____

Changes in what brain structure affect breathing and heart rate?

1

2

3

4

5

6

What might result if you use eit her 

Answer each question, below then correctly arrange the

boxed letters to solve the riddle at the bottom of the page.

WORD PUZZLE

A B A D T R I P

S E R O T O N I N

M E S C A L I N E

E C S T A C Y

R E C E P T O R S

A C I D

B R A I N S T E M
Anabolic steroids are taken either orally in pill form or by injection. After steroids enter the bloodstream, they are distributed

to organs (including muscle) throughout the body. After re a c hing these organs, the steroids surround individual cells in the

o rgan and then pass through the cell membranes to enter the

cytoplasm of the cells. Once in the cytoplasm, the steroids bind

to specific receptors and then enter the nucleus of the cells. The

s t e ro i d - receptor complex is then able to alter the functioning of

the genetic material and stimulate the production of new proteins. It is these proteins that carry out the effects of the stero i d s .

The types of proteins and the effects vary depending on the

specific organ involved. Steroids are able to alter the functioning of many organs, including the liver, kidneys, heart, and

brain. They can also have a profound effect on re p ro d u c t i v e

o rgans and hormones. 

Many of the effects of steroids are brought about through their

actions in the brain. Once steroids enter the brain, they are distributed to many regions, including the hypothalamus and limbic system. When a person takes steroids, the functioning of

n e u rons in both of these areas is altered, resulting in a change

in the types of messages that are transmitted by the neuro n s .

Since the hypothalamus has a major role in maintaining norm a l

h o rmone levels, disrupting its normal functioning also disru p t s

the body’s hormones. This can result in many problems, including a reduction in normal testosterone production in males and

loss of the monthly period in females.

S i m i l a r l y, steroids can also disrupt the functioning of neuro n s

in the limbic system. The limbic system is involved in many

things, including learning, memory, and regulation of moods.

Studies in animals have shown that steroids can impair learning and memory. They can also promote overly-aggre s s i v e

behavior and mood swings. People who take anabolic stero i d s

can exhibit violent behavior, impairment of judgment, and even

psychotic symptoms. 

Other effects of taking anabolic steroids include changes in

male and female sexual characteristics, stunted growth, and an

i n c rease in the amount of harmful cholesterol in the body.

Anabolic steroids can also influence the growth of facial and

chest hair and a cause a deepening of the voice.

The following activities, when used along with the magazine on

anabolic steroids, will help explain to students how these substances change the brain and the body.

Anabolic steroids are chemicals that

are similar to the male sex hormone

testosterone and are used by an

increasing number of young people to

enhance their muscle size. While ana -

bolic steroids are quite successful at

building muscle, they can damage

many body organs, including the liver,

kidneys, and heart. They may also trigger dependency in users, particularly

when taken in the large doses that

have been known to be used by many

bodybuilders and athletes.

BAC KG R O U N D

MECHANISM OF AC T I O N

2 
2 6

✱ The student will understand that

s t e roids have a direct effect on the limbic system, which has a large role in

the expression of emotions.

Ask students to imagine a time where they experienced,

v e ry suddenly, either intense rage or aggre s s i v e n e s s .

Those who would like to can share some of these experiences with the class. Reinforce that the limbic system was

likely involved in these reactions and that steroid use

d i rectly increases the likelihood of such episodes. Mention

that neuroscientists have long known about the import a n t

role the limbic system plays in emotions and have conducted animal re s e a rch in which stimulating certain limbic system stru c t u res produces a rage reaction in a norm a l l y

docile animal, while stimulating other stru c t u res makes a

n o rmally vicious animal calm and relaxed. Have students

conduct re s e a rch using the Internet and other sources to

l e a rn more about the role of the limbic system.

Indicate that steroids affect the function of several neurotransmitters, adding that each neurotransmitter communicates diff e rent types of messages. For example, glutamate

communicates excitement, acetylcholine tells the heart to

beat slower and commands memory circuits to store or

remember thoughts, serotonin controls emotions and

mood, and dopamine affects feelings of pleasure. Students

will select a neurotransmitter and search the Internet and

other sources for additional information. They will pre p a re

a brief re p o rt summarizing their findings and create a

comic art rendition of their neuro t r a n s m i t t e r.

O B J E C T I V E STEROIDS ACTIVITY ONE

STEROIDS ACTIVITY TWO

✱ The student will learn more about the 

functions of key neurotransmitters 

including serotonin, glutamate, 

dopamine, and acetylcholine.

O B J E C T I V E

Remind students that despite their dangerous side eff e c t s ,

anabolic steroids are used by some high school, college,

and professional athletes to give them the “edge” they feel

they need to out perf o rm the competition. Discuss with the

students the short- and long-term dangers associated with

the use of steroids for enhancing perf o rmance. A useful

example for this discussion might be Lyle Alzado, a form e r

p rofessional football star who died from cancer attributed

to steroid use.

STEROIDS ACTIVITY THREE

✱ The student will learn about the 

p e rf o rmance enhancing effects of

s t e roids, and the medical risk factors.

O B J E C T I V E
Cocaine acts on the pleasure circuit to prevent re a b s o r p t i o n

of the neurotransmitter dopamine after its release from nerv e

cells. Norm a l l y, neurons that are part of the pleasure circ u i t

release dopamine, which then crosses the synapse to stimulate another neuron in the pleasure circuit. Once this has

been accomplished, the dopamine is picked up by a transp o rter molecule and carried back into the original neuro n .

H o w e v e r, because cocaine binds to the dopamine transport e r

molecule, it prevents the reabsorption of dopamine. This

causes a build up of dopamine in the synapse, which re s u l t s

in strong feelings of pleasure and even euphoria. The excess

dopamine that accumulates in the synapse causes the neurons that have dopamine receptors to decrease the number

of receptors they make. This is called down regulation. When

cocaine is no longer taken and dopamine levels re t u rn to

their normal (i.e., lower) concentration, the smaller number

of dopamine receptors that are available for the neuro t r a n smitter to bind to is insufficient to fully activate nerve cells.

This results in a drug “craving,” which is a way of telling the

addict to get the level of dopamine back up by taking

cocaine. Cocaine also binds to the transporters for other neurotransmitters, including serotonin and norepinephrine, and

blocks their re-uptake. Scientists are still unsure about the eff e c t s

of cocaine’s interaction with these other neuro t r a n s m i t t e r s .

Cocaine has also been found to specifically affect the pref rontal cortex and amygdala, which are involved in aspects of

m e m o ry and learning. The amygdala has been linked to

emotional aspects of memory. Researchers believe that a

neural network involving these brain regions reacts to environmental cues and activates memories, and this triggers

biochemical changes that result in cocaine craving.

Stimulant drugs such as cocaine,

“crack,” amphetamines, and caffeine are substances that speed

up activity in the brain and spinal

cord. This, in turn, can cause the

heart to beat faster and blood

pressure and metabolism to

increase. Stimulants often influence a person to be more talkative

and anxious and to experience

feelings of exhilaration.

Use of cocaine and other stimu -

lants can cause someone’s heart

to beat abnormally fast and at an

unsteady rate. Use of these drugs

also narrows blood vessels,

reducing the flow of blood and

oxygen to the heart, which results

in “starving” the heart muscle.

Even professional athletes whose

bodies are well-conditioned have

succumbed to cocaine’s ability to

cause heart failure. Researchers

currently have no way to detect

who may be more susceptible to

these effects.

BAC KG R O U N D

MECHANISM OF AC T I O N

2 
Amphetamines, such as methamphetamine, also

act on the pleasure circuit by altering the levels of

certain neurotransmitters present in the synapse,

but the mechanism is different from that of

cocaine. Chemically, methamphetamine is closely

related to amphetamine, but it has greater effects on

the brain. Methamphetamine is also chemically similar to dopamine and another neurotransmitter, norepinephrine. It produces its effects by causing

dopamine and norepinephrine to be released into

the synapse in several areas of the brain, including

the nucleus accumbens, prefrontal cortex, and the

striatum, a brain area involved in movement.

S p e c i f i c a l l y, methamphetamine enters nerve terminals by passing directly through nerve cell membranes. It is also carried into the nerve terminals by

transporter molecules that normally carry

dopamine or norepinephrine from the synapse

back into the nerve terminal. Once in the nerve terminal, methamphetamine enters dopamine and

norepinephrine containing vesicles and causes the

release of these neurotransmitters. Excess

dopamine and norepinephrine would normally be

chewed up by enzymes in the cell, however,

methamphetamine blocks this breakdown. T h e

excess neurotransmitters are then carried by transporter molecules out of the neuron and into the

synapse. Once in the synapse, the high concentrations of dopamine causes feelings of pleasure and

euphoria. The excess norepinephrine may be

responsible for the alertness and anti-fatigue

e ffects of methamphetamine.

Methamphetamine can also affect the brain in

other ways. For example it can cause cerebral

edema, brain hemorrhage, paranoia, and hallucinations. Some of methamphetamine’s effects on

the brain may be long-lasting and even permanent.

Research with laboratory animals has demonstrated that exposure to a single, high-dose of methamphetamine or prolonged exposure at low doses

destroys up to fifty percent of the dopamine-producing neurons in certain parts of the brain.

Studies are currently underway to study the longterm effects of chronic methamphetamine abuse in

humans. Although the damage of chronic methamphetamine abuse may not be immediately apparent

in humans, scientists believe that the progressive

decrease in numbers of dopamine-producing neurons may lead to symptoms of Parkinson’s disease. 

Methamphetamine also has widespread effects on

other parts of the body. It can cause high blood

pressure, arrhythmias, chest pain, shortness of

breath, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. It can also

increase body temperature which can be lethal in

overdose situations. 

The following activities, when used along with t h e

magazine on stimulants, will help explain to s t u d e n t s

how these substances change the brain and the

b o d y.
2 

Remind students that cocaine activates the brain’s pleas u re center, which involves the brainstem, limbic system,

and frontal cortex. Students will then produce colorful diagrams of the system, labeling important parts, and pro v i d e

a brief written description of the diff e rent stru c t u re s .

Describe how cocaine ultimately reduces pleasure by

i n t e rfering with dopamine re-uptake. Students will be

assigned to groups and will first script and then act-out this

p rocess. They will then p e rf o rm their skits with students

assuming roles such as neurons, cocaine, transport e r s ,

receptors, dopamine, pleasure, and addiction.

COCAINE ACTIVITY TWO

✱ The student will learn the way in which

dopamine is related to the sensation

of pleasure .

✱ The student will learn how stimulants 

i n t e rf e re with dopamine re - u p t a k e .

O B J E C T I V E S

Divide the students into three groups (cocaine, amphetamines, and caffeine), and assign each group the task of

re s e a rching their assigned drug in order to develop a “Did

You Know” poster for each type of drug. Encourage each

g roup to discover some “surprising” information to include

on their poster, and ask that each poster contain a minimum of 10 new and/or unusual facts. Students will use the

local public library, the Internet, other multimedia materials,

and any other sources to obtain this information. They will

then work together to develop the graphics and text.

Display the finished posters.

COCAINE ACTIVITY THREE

✱ The student will learn and share interesting and unusual information about

the effects of cocaine, amphetamines,

and caffeine on the brain and behavior. 

O B J E C T I V E

✱ The student will learn that cocaine

a ffects neurotransmission in the

mesolimbic dopamine system, sometimes re f e rred to as the pleasure center.

O B J E C T I V E COCAINE ACTIVITY ONE

N i c o t i n e

3 1

Tobacco, which comes primarily

f rom the plant nicotiana tabacum,

has been used for centuries. It

can be smoked, chewed, or

s n i ffed. The first description of

addiction to tobacco is contained

in a re p o rt from the New World in

which Spanish soldiers said that

they could not stop smoking. 

When nicotine was isolated

from tobacco leaves in 1828, 

scientists began studying its

effects in the brain and body.

This research eventually

showed that, although tobacco

contains thousands of chemicals,

the main ingredient that acts in

the brain and produces addiction is nicotine. More recent

research has shown that the

addiction produced by 

nicotine is extremely powerful

and is at least as strong as

addictions to other drugs such 

as heroin and cocaine. 

Some of the effects of nicotine

include changes in respiration

and blood pressure, constriction

of arteries, and increased 

alertness. Many of these effects

are produced through its 

action on both the central and

peripheral nervous system.

BAC KG R O U N D

MECHANISM OF AC T I O N

Nicotine readily enters the body. When tobacco is smoked,

nicotine enters the bloodstream through the lungs. When it 

is sniffed or chewed, nicotine passes through the mucous

membranes of the mouth or nose to enter the bloodstre a m .

Nicotine can also enter the bloodstream by passing thro u g h

the skin. Regardless of how nicotine reaches the bloodstre a m ,

once there, it is distributed throughout the body and brain

w h e re it activates specific types of receptors known as 

c h o l i n e rgic receptors. 

C h o l i n e rgic receptors are present in many brain stru c t u re s ,

as well as in muscles, adrenal glands, the heart, and other

body organs. These receptors are normally activated by 

the neurotransmitter acetylcholine, which is produced in 

the brain, and by neurons in the peripheral nervous system.

Acetylcholine and its receptors are involved in many activities,

including respiration, maintenance of heart rate, memory,

a l e rtness, and muscle movement. 

Because the chemical stru c t u re of nicotine is similar to that

of acetylcholine's, it is also able to activate cholinergic 

receptors. But unlike acetylcholine, when nicotine enters 

the brain and activates cholinergic receptors, it can disru p t

the normal functioning of the brain. 

Regular nicotine use causes changes in both the number of

c h o l i n e rgic receptors and the sensitivity of these receptors 

to nicotine and acetylcholine. Some of these changes may 

be responsible for the development of tolerance to nicotine.

Once tolerance has developed, a nicotine user must re g u l a r l y

supply the brain with nicotine in order to maintain norm a l

brain functioning. If nicotine levels drop, the nicotine user

will begin to feel uncomfortable withdrawal symptoms. 
N i c o t i n e

3 2

R e c e n t l y, re s e a rch has shown that nicotine also

stimulates the release of the neuro t r a n s m i t t e r

dopamine in the brain's pleasure circuit. Using

m i c rodialysis, a technique that allows minute

quantities of neurotransmitters to be measure d

in precise brain areas, re s e a rchers have discove red that nicotine causes an increase in the

release of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens.

This release of dopamine is similar to that seen

for other drugs of abuse, such as heroin and

cocaine, and is thought to underlie the pleasurable sensations experienced by many smokers.

Other re s e a rch is providing even more clues as

to how nicotine may exert its effects in the

brain. Cholinergic receptors are relatively larg e

s t ru c t u res that consist of several components

known as subunits. One of these subunits, 

the ß (beta) subunit, has recently been implicated as having a role in nicotine addiction. Using

highly sophisticated bioengineering technologies, scientists were able to produce a

new strain of mice in which the gene

that produces the ß subunit was

missing. Without the gene for 

the ß subunit, these mice, which are known 

as "knockout" mice because a particular gene

has been knocked out, were unable to pro d u c e

any ß subunits. What re s e a rchers found when

they examined these knockout mice was that 

in contrast to mice who had an intact re c e p t o r,

mice without the ß subunit would not selfadminister nicotine. These studies demonstrate

that the ß subunit plays a critical role in mediating the pleasurable effects of nicotine. The

results also provide scientists with valuable

new information about how nicotine acts in 

the brain, information that may eventually 

lead to better treatments for nicotine addiction.

However nicotine may not be the only psychoactive ingredient in tobacco. Using advanced

brain imaging technology, it is possible to actually see what tobacco smoking is doing to the

brain of an awake and behaving human being.

Using one type of brain imaging, positron emiss i o n tomography (PET), scientists discovere d

that cigarette smoking causes a dramatic

d e c rease in the levels of an import a n t

enzyme that breaks down dopamine. 
N i c o t i n e

3 3

The decrease in this enzyme, known as

monoamine-oxidase-A (MAO-A), results in an

i n c rease in dopamine levels. Import a n t l y, this

p a rticular effect is not caused by nicotine but

by some additional, unknown compound in

c i g a rette smoke. Nicotine itself does not alter

MAO-A levels; it affects dopamine thro u g h

other mechanisms. Thus, there may be multiple routes by which smoking alters the neurotransmitter dopamine to ultimately pro d u c e

feelings of pleasure and re w a rd. 

That nicotine is a highly addictive drug can

clearly be seen when one considers the vast

number of people who continue to use tobacco

p roducts despite their well known harmful 

and even lethal effects. In fact, at least 90% 

of smokers would like to quit, but each year

fewer than 10% who try are actually successful.

But, while nicotine may produce addiction to

tobacco products, it is the thousands of other

chemicals in tobacco that are responsible for its

many adverse health effects. 

Smoking either cigarettes or cigars can cause

re s p i r a t o ry problems, lung cancer, emphysema,

h e a rt problems, and peripheral vascular disease.

In fact, smoking is the largest preventable cause

of pre m a t u re death and disability. Cigare t t e

smoking kills at least 400,000 people in the

United States each year and makes countless

others ill, including those who are exposed to

secondhand smoke. The use of smokeless

tobacco is also associated with 

serious health problems. 

Chewing tobacco can cause cancers of the oral

c a v i t y, pharynx, larynx, and esophagus. It also

causes damage to gums that may lead to the

loss of teeth. Although popular among sport s

f i g u res, smokeless tobacco can also re d u c e

physical perf o rmance. 
3 4

N i c o t i n e

✱ The student will become more familiar

with the neuroscience concepts and

t e rminology associated with the eff e c t s

of nicotine and tobacco products on the

brain and body. 

The students will complete the Nicotine Wo rd Find, and the

teacher will then review the words and have the students

discuss how the terms relate to tobacco use. A copy of the

Wo rd Find and Wo rd Find Solution is included in the guide.

O B J E C T I V E

N I C OTINE ACTIVITY TWO

✱ The student will learn that cigare t t e

smoke contains molecules that are

deposited along the entire re s p i r a t o ry

tract, including the lungs. These molecules not only turn the lungs and other

p a rts of the re s p i r a t o ry system black,

but they also cause cancers and other

re s p i r a t o ry illnesses. 

O B J E C T I V E

✱ The student will understand that nicotine is a highly addictive drug and that

once someone has become addicted, 

it is very difficult to stop smoking, 

even in the face of serious health 

c o n s e q u e n c e s .

O B J E C T I V E

N I C OTINE ACTIVITY ONE

The students will call local hospitals to obtain the names of

physicians who provide treatment to people trying to stop

their use of tobacco products. The students will then compose a letter to one or more of these physicians inviting them

to come and speak to the class on the difficulties associated with quitting smoking or the use of other tobacco pro ducts. Prior to the visit by the physician, the students will

p re p a re a list of questions that they would like to ask. These

questions might include the following: 1) How many people

succeed the first or even second time they try to stop smoking?

2) How many people try repeatedly to quit smoking without

success? 3) Do people still smoke even when they have a

l i f e - t h reatening illness, such as heart disease or lung cancer? 

The students will conduct the following experiment: 

Materials needed: cigarette, transparent plastic syringe, 

cotton balls, matches or lighter

Fill the syringe with the cotton balls. Insert the end of the

syringe onto the filter of the cigarette. Light the cigare t t e

and pull back the plunger to draw smoke into the barrel of

the syringe. Have the students watch the cotton balls turn

black as the smoke particles are deposited. Discuss with

the students what they have observed. Students might consider what the effects of smoking several cigarettes a day

for many years would have on the lungs if only one cigarette can turn a cotton ball black.

N I C OTINE ACTIVITY THREE
N i c o t i n e

3 5

WORD SEARCH

A Z W S A M E S Y H P M E

R O T P E C E R Q Y I N P

R E S L O L J G T R I E N

L R Z W A R T M O O T R K

O X Q A D E I H P R Z O R 

O Q A R W O C C A B O T N

D S E D E L D G M R F R O

T X P T C C L V N J B N T

R N E I M A R T E Y I S C

E C Q W O Z C D O P M M I

A D D R Y C T A R E N I D

M O T K Z Q P O N A T T D

N E T T E R A G I C W T A

G E U N I C O T I N E E L

A L S G N I K O M S I R R

B N I A R B U O D L P U M

S Y G H Y U I J I K I A I

E M P H Y S E M A

N E U R OT R A N S M I T T E R

C I GA R

D O PA M I N E

A D D I C T I O N

R E WA R D

S M O K I N G

W I T H D R AWA L

C I GA R E T T E

C A N C E R

D R U G

AC E T Y L C H O L I N E

B R A I N

B L O O D S T R E A M

R E C E P TO R

N I C OT I N E

TO BAC C O
3 6

N i c o t i n eWORD SEARCH

E M P H Y S E M A

N E U R OT R A N S M I T T E R

C I GA R

D O PA M I N E

A D D I C T I O N

R E WA R D

S M O K I N G

W I T H D R AWA L

C I GA R E T T E

C A N C E R

D R U G

AC E T Y L C H O L I N E

B R A I N

B L O O D S T R E A M

R E C E P TO R

N I C OT I N E

TO BAC C O

A Z W S A M E S Y H P M E

R O T P E C E R Q Y I N P

R E S L O L J G T R I E N

L R Z W A R T M O O T R K

O X Q A D E I H P R Z O R 

O Q A R W O C C A B O T N

D S E D E L D G M R F R O

T X P T C C L V N J B N T

R N E I M A R T E Y I S C

E C Q W O Z C D O P M M I

A D D R Y C T A R E N I D

M O T K Z Q P O N A T T D

N E T T E R A G I C W T A

G E U N I C O T I N E E L

A L S G N I K O M S I R R

B N I A R B U O D L P U M

S Y G H Y U I J I K I A I

38 

✱ The student will learn the names of 

the lobes, cortical areas, and stru c t u re s

in the brain.

✱ The student will learn the specific 

brain areas and stru c t u res affected

by drug use.

O B J E C T I V E S UNIFYING AC T I V I T Y

Students will use re f e rence materials to create three brain

maps: one which shows the diff e rent regions of the brain,

one which shows the areas within the cortex, and one

which displays diff e rent brain stru c t u res. For all of the

d rugs discussed, students will “mark” their maps (for

example, using stickers or colored markers) to specify the

a reas affected by substance use. [Note: If materials such

as molding clay or plaster are available, have groups of

students also create three-dimensional brain models, and

use small, separate strands of Christmas lights to “mark”

the areas affected by drug use.]
Internet Sites

National Institute on Drug Abuse

301-443-6245

http://www.nida.nih.org

National Clearinghouse for Alcohol and Drug Information

1-800-729-6686 or 1-800-487-4889 (TDD)

http://www.health.org

Office of Science Education 

National Institutes of Health

301-402-2828

Society for Neuroscience 

Education Program

202-462-6688

http://www.sfn.org

National Institute on Drug Abuse

http://www.nida.nih.gov

This site contains information on drugs of abuse, NIDA 

publications and communications, agency events, and links

to other drug-related Internet sites.

National Families in Action Online

http://www.emory.edu

This site includes the latest scientific information about the

effects of drugs on the brain and body, and allows the visitor to ask neuroscience experts questions about drugs.

National Clearinghouse for Alcohol and Drug Information

http://www.health.org

This site includes information on publications, calendars,

and related Internet sites, as well as “For Kids Only” materials including games, “really cool” links, and an “Are you

Curious? Ask US!” page that allows visitors to ask experts

questions about drugs. 

Snapshots of Medicine and Health

National Institutes of Health

http://ohrm.od.nih.gov

This site includes information about people involved in biomedical sciences, the latest developments in biomedicine,

interactive learning exercises, and links to other sites that

focus on biomedicine, science, and education.

Neuroscience for Kids

http://weber.u.washington.edu/~chudler/neuroscience.html

This site includes answers to commonly-asked questions

about the brain and neuroscience, with information on brain

and spinal cord anatomy and physiology, neurotransmission,

and the effects of specific drugs on the nervous system.

Dana Alliance for Brain Initiatives

http://www.dana.org/brainweb

This site includes resources for people interested in brain

diseases and disorders, with specific sections devoted to

alcohol and drug abuse.

Society for Neuroscience Brain Briefings

http://www.sfn.org/briefings

This site provides access to Society for Neuroscience publications covering topics such as addiction, opiate receptors,

and the effects of various drugs on the brain and behavior.

MedWeb

http://www.gen.emory.edu/medweb

This site includes extensive lists of Internet resources 

and links to Internet sites devoted to neuroscience and

drugs of abuse.

Cornell University Medical College

http://neuro.med.cornell.edu

This site includes extensive lists of Internet resources 

and links to Internet sites devoted to neuroscience and

drugs of abuse.

Neurosciences on the Internet

http://www.neuroguide.com

This site includes information on basic neurosciences,

including recent journal articles that discuss drugs of abuse.

Bill Nye the Science Guy (Episode 34)

http://nyelabs.kcts.org

This site presents information from Episode 34 – The Brain.

It includes brain facts and hands-on activities.

Wisconsin/Michigan State Brain Collections

http://www.neurophys.wisc.edu

This site includes a visual tour of photos and 

brain sections of mammalian brains, with 

related information on brain anatomy,

brain functions, and neuroanatomy.

3 
g L i s t

40

Brain Facts: A primer on the

Brain and Nervous System,

Society for Neuroscience, 1993.

How your Brain Works, by

Anne D. Novitt-Morino, M.D., ZiffDavis Press, 1995.

Explorations in Neuroscience

for Children and Adults, Baylor

College of Medicine, WOW

Publications, Inc., 1997.





Figure 6


NIH

PUBLICATION NO.

98-3592

PRINTED DECEMBER 1997