United States 

Department of 

Agriculture 

Forest Service 

Southeastern Forest 

Experiment Station 

GENERAL TECHNICAL 

REPORT SE - 90 

heastern Recre 

Research Con 

SOUTHIEAS'IERN \ RESEARCH 
Papers published in this proceedings received limited editing 

to ensure a consistent format. Authors are responsible for the 

content and accuracy of their individual papers. 

December 1 994 

Southeastern Forest Experiment Station 

P.O. Box 2680 

Asheville, North Carolina 28802 
Southeastern Rmr 

Research Conference 

Volume 15 

February 10-12, 1993 

Helen, Georgia 

H. Ken Cordell (Chair), USDA Forest Service, Athens, GA 

Kathleen Andereck, University of North Carolina at Greensboro 

Howard A. Clonts, Auburn University 

Larry Gustke, North Carolina State University 

Theresa Herrick, Arkansas Technical University 

Barbara McDonald, USDA Forest Service, Athens, GA 

Tommy Swearingen, University of South Alabama 

E.ditcE 

Howard A. Clonts 

Auburn University 

USDA Forest Service 

Southeastern Forest Experiment Station 

December 1994 

for review, bas& on &e m&or's chic@, were considerd as mrrt 

m papers mb~ad 

were &en given fie reviewer 

pprs in ~B v&~Ime were 

toe coaafsded m bvkg 

persevelrance. 

d the ]editor wish to the USDA Forest Semi-, 

E Station, for sponsorship of this Conference aml publication of these s. 

served as manuscript reviewers. Their assis 

Gene Brothers Cary McDonald 

North Carolina State University Clemson University 

Steve Srnutko Joe Roggenbuck 

No& Carolina State University Virginia Tech 

Joseph T. 0'Laz-y 

Purdue University 

Josef Broder 

University of Georgia 

John Adrian 

Ariburn University 

Richad LiGfdkoppler 

National Park Service 

Larry Gustke Jane L;uzar 

North Caroh State University Louisiana State University 

Robert McCleIlan 

Clermon University 

Kevin Gericke 

Virginia Tech 

Walter Cook 

University of Georgia 

Tom ChnuU 

Auburn University 

Page 

Refereed Papers 

Ethic Dae- in Outdoor Participation Patterm 

Among Older Adults by Michael Brown ............................................ 1 

Assessing the Reve~llie-Capture Potential from Recreational 

Fees by R. JeflTeasley, John C. Bergstrom, and H. Km Cordell ........................... 7 

Fuxlctions of Privacy in the Ellicott Rock Wilderness 

by WiUiamR~rlinand WilliamHett ........................................... 19 

Estimating the Local Economic Impact of Lake 

Recreation in Northern California by hrie J. Hawh 

andJ.M.Bowker .......................................................... 29 

Sensitivity of Contingent Value Surpfus Estimates 

to Elicitation Approach: Further Evidence by J.M. Bowker, 

R.A. Souter, and J. R. Ckmmons ............................................... 37 

Recreational BiMmhing in South Carolina: Toward 

Restraint and Replenishment by robe^ L. Janiskee ................................... 45 

Management Conditions and Indicators of Importmce 

in Wikkmess Recreation Experiences by C. Scott Shafer 

andWiUiamE.Hammitr ..................................................... 57 

CoPltributed Papers 

Adirondack Park Residents' Perceptions of Development 

and the Forest Products Imfustry in the Adirondack Park 

by Robert B. Buerger and Thomas E. Pasquarello ............................. 

Public Parks, Recreation, ad Museums' Role in the 

brnational Tourism Ikonomy: Florida as a Case Study 

by Neh SM, CeciZiu KeUer, and Jdut C. Crotts .................................... 77 

Ethnic Differences in Outdoor Participation Patterns 

Among Older Adults 

Michael Brown 

Dmgrapbm have indicated that society is becoming older. Americans have an increased life span of 

). Banme1 and Bmmnel(1982) stated that while life expeetaq 

, thereby causing the elderly to represent an increasing 

people in the U. S. were over the age of sixty-five (Green 1987). 

year 2050, there will be over 50 

population (Green 1987; Waevoss 

e in the nmber of 

SpSdy black elderly population, aged 65 to 74, is projected to increase by 14.9 percent while those over 75 

7.7 percent by the year 2000 (U. S . Census Bureau 1988). Hence, the 

be one of the swiftest growing sepeHts of the powsttion. Fmhemare, 

recreation ad leisure pofasion. To program efieetively, recrdioaa 

siods mwt cornhe to ideate the leisure wicipation pattenas for various grq, arnong them older blacks. 

folder dulls have been stwtied extc?mively, little systematic kvestigation of the leisure 

been deda. 

REVm OF LITERATUR33 AND PROBLEM STATEMENT 

A review of tfie revealed that the majority of the studies that attempted to identlfy 

in leisure activity pattern were conducted in the late 1970's and 1980's - For this reason, of 

the literature is antiquated. 

(1985) have stated seems to be known about black lifestyles generally, and 

. The President's C n on Atnericafls Outdoors (1986) concluded that various sub 

older adults d minorities. Generally, the res 

s for sub-groups such as older blacks presiderzt 

1986). 

Exbmive raearch has fmed on the relatiomkp of social class and leisure Ofudge 1969; Glmke 1956; 

1979, wher~ fewer studies have looked at dhe 

Old Dominion Uni-versity, Depa nt of Health, Physical Education, Recreation, Dance, and Exercise Science. 

1 
Nthough few studies have focufiwf on the 

Mwd (198 1) a low income, urbm s 

&tations the resultds cou 

Kelly (1980) dyzed demogmphics kcIuding and race in refalion to to 

be a si&cmt prdictor with fewer blacks urrd activities such as: 

the reMiomhip of race and chs to 

white3 of sirnilat aetivitiw. C. 

participation. 

class respondents. 

coamtkg &wries on black 

n rerm1t.s from factors such as 

wems are based on subcultural leisure no 

ively either the 

Thus, the studies eoaducted to date are not csnsis differmm in 1eiSw:e 

partic blacks and whites are due to Wcity theories 

asac work, this study explored the outBoor Ider 

adults. 

METHODS 

The data used were taken from the Nationvvide Recreation Survey (NRS 1982-1983). The NRS eoUf3eted 

lekwe bvolvements 

A lebre hvolvemed or rep&oirt? score was g for mh won comisting of 

activities were engaged in d how often (0 days to me (3ays io ym uskg 4 

score was gmewd for each mtiviity. The 

rep&oire score was &m dyd based on 

ion, and gender, table 1. In the leisure cons uea, rmpoadw s@ly 

istentifid barriem from a given kt. 
Table 1-42 on of odmr leisure involv 

Mean involv score for older 

bfack Axxmrim 

Gender 

Fdw 

Malw 

Education 

1st-5th grade 

6th-8th grade 

9th- 12th grade 

1-4 yr. college 

Barriers 

Fdy related reasons 

Not enough information 

Activity place too crowded 

Tramportation problems 

'Significant, p< .05. 

(Note: possible range of scores was 0-88, an 88 would indicate all 22 activities in 25 or more days a 

ye=*) 

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 
Generally, the results support those studies that have iwfic&sd race is a predictor of leisure engagemed in 

some outdoor leisure activ are predicted by race 

it spificdy dficult for about ad utilize different 

rs in the rsreation field, 

t develop more of tm a 

, V.V. 1973. Recreation participation patterns for residents of a leisure village retirement come5 . Doctoral dissertation, Pe-ylvh Stake University. 

1, G.; Bamml, L.B. 1982. Leisure and human behavior. Dubuque, IA: Wm. C. Brown Company Publishers. 

Blackwell, J. 1975. The black community: unity and diversity. New York: Odord University. 

Burdge, R.J. 1969. Levels of occupational prestige and leisure activity. Journal of Leisure Research. 1:262-274. 

Cheek, N.H. ; Field, D.R. ; Burdge, R. J. 1976. Leisure and recreation places. Ann Arbor, MI: Science Publishers. 

Clarke, A. 1956. The use of leisure and its relation to level of occupational prestige. American Sociological Review. 

21:301-307. 

Craig, W. 1972. Recreational activity patterns in a small negro urban comeq: the role of the cultural base. 

Economic Geography. 48: 107- 1 15. 

Edwd, P.K. 198 1. Race, residence, and leisure style: some policy implications. Leisure Sciences. 4:95-112. 

Frazier, E.F. 1962. Black bourgeoisie. New York, NY: Macmillian. 

Gottlieb, D. 1957. The neighborhood tavern and the cocktail lounge: a study of class differences. American Journal 

of Sociology. 62:559-562. 

Green, E.R. 1987. The relationship of use of time, perceived health, financial satisfaction to life satisfaction of 

contisuing care retirement come9 residents. Temple University. Ph.D. dissertation. 

Havighst, R.J. ; Feigenbaum, K. 1959. Leisure and lifestyle. American Journal of Sociology. 64: 396-404. 

Kelly, J.R. 1980. Outdoor rimeation participation: A comive adysis. Leisure Sciences. 3: 129-154. 

Krom, S. 1971. The black middle class. Co , OH: Charles E. Med Mlishg Go. 

, L. 1983. The social org ion of leisure mong Mexicm-herim. Journal of Leime Research. 

15: 164-174. 

, J.W.; Wood, W.K.; hcas, W. 1973 Fall. Red, white, and black in the national parks. North American 

Review. p. 3-7. 

N Recreation Survey. 1982-1983. United States DeweIzt of the Interior. Wwhgon, DC: U.S. 

Government Printing Office. 
Nie, N.H.; HUH, C.H.; , J.G. [and others]. 1975. SPSS second edition. New York: Mcaaw-Hill Bock Co, 

Nie, N.H. [d &m]. 1984. The Statistical Package for the Social Sciences, Version E. New York: Prentice-H&. 

Noe, F.P. 1974. Leisure Ue styles and social class: a trend sis. Sociology and Social Research. 58:286- 294. 

idsnt's Cohsion on Americans Outdoors. 1986. A literature review. Washington, DC: U.S. Government 

Printing mce. 

S , M.B. 1985. Race, class, and leisure activities of urban residents. Journal of Leisure 

Research. 17:40-56. 

U.S. D of Commerce Bureau of the Census. 1988. Statistical Abstract of the United States: Washington, 

DC. 108th ed. 

Was , R.F. 1978. Black under-participation in wildland recreation: alternative explamtions. Leisure Sciences. 

1: 175-189. 

White, T.H. 1975. The relative importance of education and income as predictors in outdoor recreation participation. 

Journal of Leisure Research. 7: 191-199. 

Willie, C .V. 1974. The black family and social class. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry .44:5060. 

Waevoss, H.H.; Powell, A.V. 1984. Continuing care retirement communities: an empirical, financial, and legal 

Bnalysis. Homewood, IL: Richard D. Irwin, he. 

Assessing the Revenue-Capture Potential 

from Rwreational Fees 

R. Jeff Teasley, John C. Bergstrom, H. Ken Cordell 

valuation approach and a " 

public area reereation rev 

suggest that both methods are usefixl for assessing 

altermtive methods for assessing recreation revenue-capture potential is a3nmuraged. 

Keywords: resource economics, public land ~gm, recreation fee valuation of non-rnarkd 

commodities. 

As a r~ult ofincreased recreational d budgets, public reswce mmag 

nal are86 and facilities. Techniques for 

employed into a 

specifidw, 

data collection procedures, and a estimation results overview outlining these techniques. The potential uses and 

general implications of this research are discussedi kt. 

CONCEPTUAL BACKGROUND 

Revenue Capture 

Revenue capture by a resou implies aapkhg funds from conmmers/users. In this 

research we talk about capturing some m recreation users of two National Forests. In most caw, 

are gained by raising the price of site use or instituting a different fec: structure. Heme, revenue 

capture could alternately be termed consumer surplus capture. 

Referring to figure 1, at trip quantity level Q, and price level P,, consumer surplus is equal to the area 

P,ac. Revenues accruing to the agency are equal to the ar* P,cf]r. This area is the rec 

bundhg T (out-of-pocket trave res) and P, (total trip eqnditures). The current site us 

R&ing the site use fee to (&-'I) reduces consmer's surplus to the triangle ISM. A large portion of the lost 

consumer's surplus P2bc2"3 is capturd by the mging ag form of additional revenues 

P2bP,. Note, however, that the agency also loses revenues area edg because of the trip 

to Q,. 

Research Coordinator and Associate Professor, respectively, Department of qgricultural and Applied Ecommics, The University of Georgia, 

and Research Forester, USDA Forest Service, Athens, GA. 
The total revenue meived by h 

site at the higher site use fee is 

P2bgT. Note that the 

inerawe in fees. area is \ 

deadweia loss and is, as the 1 \ 

and \ 

this deadweight loss is 

social weEare comiderations, 

fee will increase revmes at a site. 

can be collected by any 

number of methods. Daily admission 

passes, vehicle admission fees, hotel 

taxes, loeal guide services, and the 

establishment of special fun&s for Figure 1-Increasmg existing fee amounts. maintenance of recreational areas are a 

few possible strategies for revenue 

capture (Loomis and Thomas 1989; 

Price 1990; Walsh 1986). 

In order to assess revenu&captUre potentllal der different , some gwd tools must be 

avail&le for mt trips. Orte 

tool is a bid meh tool is ar site 

hetion, wt 

]estimation Methods 

A CW-based bid probability btion ean be specified gwdy by 
*ix)j uo!ssfmpll uod JlKf 'dm B VBA# 

'pysfa B arf aqs 3yfds B q aqrrl ~AA yzap'x0dse.1 e;q) sdy JO isqmno tq ioj pe~m uo!pab uopmp~ q, 

pfq 3g3ads 8 03 , ou, 30 wX:, d~dw 03 pgs113ia~ ~pz"Odf~~ 

a~~oq5-snomo~oq~~p aq psn u0pxm.b 

&flf~qozd PfQ pmq-MA3 .rZ sq~3m 

8101dxa 01 aqwp aq pm saps IS~AAO~~ o 

3% * WJ ilo1rppa~3a~ qw sm p~od OFF an WmT @Otl 

aSioa0 aq pare &)) wgoaaq3 aq 4~mqms aq arf qse~od pogw~ om a?! ~AA 18a.m dpss q 

rims asvr, wr,mma 

'(~1) m0~3s%~qg paredqs=J, -s UO~EJI=~~ 1- 

JO no~smsfpwp aiom B iod 3q~3 aq moij pnpap saqwn q pho3 aq rn (6) q puyqo ~UA q 
.GSOJ JSM~ Lo~~dxe paw ,,pem@!q, seqmod q!qoq 

$!%ol q3q J~AO q1~ IIIOI-~~ -(SQ~~WJ OI~ JO UO!SS~O ~ql 03 4d v 'mp) L~@gs @so3 SB~ 
Model 

Data B& TRM CW 

Total set 770 768 

(100%) (100%) 

Adjusted set 56 1 682 

(65.2%) (64.3 $6) 

Estimation Results 

The TRM-based site ded function in (2) was estimated using TOBIT analysis. The 

results fit well with cwfficient est signs at fairly high levels of statistical si 

logit fiunction in (1) was estaed using logistic sion. All the estimated coefficients had s 

percent of value6 correctly predicted by this model was 77.3 percent, 

WP values were cdcul&ed from the est 

logit h~tioa d 

each Forest. The 

District. For a more d discussion of estimation rdb see Teasley (1991) and Twley and Bergstroan (1992). 

Thle 2-VVTP values for each forest by model 

M&l 

Item CVM TRM 

National forest George George 

Washington Cherokee Waswn Cherokee 

Dollar value 55.14 55.12 7.72 9.05 

Revenue Capture Potential 

The overall purpose of this research was to provide the Forest Service with 

assessing total revenue capture potentid, and suggest specific fee collection strategies 

some of this revenue. The estimated site hction was used to assess 

admission fw. The estimated bid probaba5 hction was 

vehicle pass. The use of these tshni~es to assess rev 

application to hypothetical. visitor use data for the Warm Springs District of the GW National Forest. 

1. Axmud district vehicle ps--The CW results were first used to estimate ths levels of participartion shown in table 

3. Equation (1) was spified empirically as: 
where 2; is tfie 

*dial for Dkt~ct can the 

=revenue for District. 

fee (see table 3). 

visitkg the distrkt. 

in tabb 4 mggest W Bkttriet reverne woulkt be 

Agk, as an emcis vkitration of 100,880 to a site, CV) d 

reduetiow in nmbr of t~p sIhow131 in T&le 6. N& h 

table 6 that revenue would be 

dol. pd, 

1 96.1 

2 92.5 

5 83.1 

7.5 72.5 

10 70.4 

15 60.5 

25 46.1 

45 28.6 

65 18.4 

85 11.7 

110 5.9 

150 0 
($1 willing to pay fee visiting the district reventle ($) 

FEE 0 P 0 G - REVENUE 

1 96.1 28,571 27,457 

2 925 28,57 1 52,856 

5 83.1 28,57 1 118,712 

7.5 72.5 28,571 155,355 

10 70.4 28,571 201,140 

15 60.5 28,571 259,282 

25 46.1 28,571 329,28 1 

45 28.6 28,571 367,709 

65 18.4 28,571 341,709 

85 11.7 28,571 284,139 

110 5.9 28,571 185,425 

150 0 28,571 0 

Total revenue capture potential for a particular site can then be estimated by: 

REVENUE = FEE x (1 - R) x V, where: 

=revenue for a &L 

FEE=pposed daily artmiasion fee. 

R = percent duction in person visits at each fee level (see table 5). 

V=esthate of current annual person visits to site (or, number of group visits x persons per group). 

Table 5-Example of percent duction in annual trips per daily fee 

levels for the site 

Annual Percentage of 

fee reduction in trips 

amount to site 

dol. 
fes original visitation to 

(9 trips to the site 

site 

IMPLICATIONS 

Clearly, the two revenue capture strategies can produce diffe~g amounts of revenue potential. Using pure 

rule in our GW National 

users out of the . This rew1t may not be desirhle 

especialEy comideMg that a Naiad Forest is pub&c 14. On the oaer 

the Forest DisfTiGt by 71 percent. Visitation objectives d 

enue caplture strategy ,at m. Wicular recreakion site or 

area* 

semitive to the type of fee prryment scheme usd is %lot a suq~shg 

taken ~t]b.out one. 

0- EQ ywfs trips 

My ps rdtsl k an expficit increase in the pfice pr=r txip, t&s in hrm causes retcrdio~sts to djust thps 

downward. 

2ihe dsereeces Mween the Wo mdels my &so be due to peryment vehicle problem. Previsw saut;Ties 

(Demmkde W &e of ppen1. vehiiele m&6f em Suenee valmtion bh'aricor d rmu1ts Wrgstrorm: d StoU 

1989; Row d gllhmhuti 1983; Sehhe d others 1981). hr exmple, slSere& pymed ve&eles my auee 

vqb Ieveb sf lprrotwt biahg w&& ern awt vduw defivsd from contkgent valuation swim, Or, plymeat 

ted in pratest bidnling . 

ide a more neutral of mbg revenuesawre 

lusions can be dram 

. h intermling aspt of the "tkp 
respome model" is that the results (the seco e) can be directly co of 

vel cost studies. The eft e can also produce of elasticity which can 

gers in the pricing of a . to what level they 

e" ratio drops below both methods (TRM and CVM) could make for 

interesting and usefir1 fkture research. 

We gratefully achowledge the coaltn%ution of the personel from the district offices of the Owee district in 

the Cherokee National Forest and the Warm Springs district in the George Wasbgon National Forest. We would 

also like to thank the SE Forest Service Experiment Station for it's contn%utiom: specifically, go to Ms. Karen. 

Zera and Ms. Christine Overdevest for their data collection efforts. 

Bergstrom, John C. 1989. Welfare mwurement concepts for non-marketed resources. The Georgia Agricultural 

Experiment Stations College of Agriculture, University of Georgia. Special Publication No. 53. 

Bergstrom, John C.; Stoll, John R. 1989. Application of experimental economics concepts and precepts to CVM field 

survey procedures. Western Journal of Agricultural Economics. 14(1):98-109. 

byb, Kevin J,; Bishop, Wjchard C. 1988, Welfare mmuremenb using contingent valuation: a 

techniques. American Journal of Agricultural Economics. 70:20-28. 

Bishop, Richard G.; Heberlein, T. A. 1979. Measuring values of extra-market goocls: are indirect measures biased? 

American Journal of Environmental Economics. 61 :926-930. 

Bowker, J.M.; Stoll, John R. 1988. Use of dichotomous choice non-market methocts to value the whooping crane 

resource. American Journal of Agricultural Economics. 70(2): 372-38 1. 

Cameron, Trudy A. 1988. A new paradigm for valuing non-market goods using referendum data: maximum 

likelihood estimation by censored logistic regression. Journal of Environmental Economics and Management. 

15:355-379. 

Cmgs, R.G. ; Brookshire, D .S. ; Schulze, W.D. 1986. Valuing environmental goods: an assessment of the 

contingent valuation method. Totowa, NJ: Rowan and Allanheld. 363 p. 

Hanemann, W. Michael. 1984. Welfare evaluations in contingent valuation experiments with discrete responses. 

American Journal of Agricultural Economics . 66(3): 332-342. 

Loomis, John; Thomas, Michael. 1989. Pricing and revenue capture: converting WTP into state and private revenue. 

Draft presented at the Alaska De-ent of Fish and Gmemwb Mo- Station Workshop. Sept. 

1989. 

Mitchell, Robert Cameron; Carson, Richard T. 1989. Using surveys to value public goods: the eontingt.mt vafuation 

method. John Hopkins University Press, Resources for the Future. 282 p. 

McConnell, K.E. 1990. Models for referendum data: the structure of discrete choice models for contingent vafuation. 

Journal of Envkonmental Economics and Management. 18: 19-34. 
Price, Colin. 1990. Ckging versus exclusion: choice between recreation 

Management. 5(2): 161-175. 

Reiling, Stephen D. ; Boyle, Kevin J. ; Cheng, Hsiang-~; Pmp, Marcia L. 1989. Contingent v 

to control black fies. Nodhmtern Joud of Ag~cdtud and Resowce Economics. 18(2):126- 

134. 

Row, Robert D. ; Chmbut, Laurake G. 1983. Valuing envkomenM comdities: revisited, &ommics. 

59(4):404410. 

Schulze, William D. ; d' Arge, Ralph C. ; Brookshire, David S. 198 1. Valuing envkomental comdities: some 

recent experiments. Economics. 57(2): 151-172. 

Seliar, C. ; Chavas, J.P. ; Stoli, J.R. 1986. Specification of the logit model: the case of valuation of non-mk& goods. 

Journal of Environmental fionomics and Management. 13: 382-390. 

Teasley, R. Jeff. 1991. Revenue capture strategies for nonaomercial use of publicly owed land and water 

resources. Athens: University of Georgia. 128 p. Thesis. 

Teasley, R. Jeff; Bergstrom, John G. 1992. ]Estimating revenue-capture potential associated with public area 

recreation. Faculty Series FS92-15, Agricultural d Applied Economics Dept., University of Georgia, 

Athens, GA. 17 p. 

Walsh, Richard G. 1986. Recreation economic decisions c benefits and costs. State College, PA: Venture 

Publishing, Inc. 346 p. 
Appndix A 

CVM Question 

Suppose a type of pass was offered allowing you (and anyone in your vehicle) to visit any area operated by this 

agency in (focation) for one year. This pass would not cover camping fees. The money from the fee would be used 

these areas in their present condition, but there would be no improvements. If the price of this year's 

pass was $-, would you have bought one? 

- Yes 

If that fee were charged, about how many days would you use the site over the next 12 months? 

- If No then go to reasons below 

We do not visit (location) enough to just* buying a pass 

There are many other areas to visit besides (location) 

We cannot afford to buy the pass 

Question was not clear to me 

I do not believe fees should be charged 

Some other reason (spec*) 

TRM Question 

Suppose the agency managing this site started charging a daily admission fee of $ /person. The money from the 

fee would be used to maintah the site in its present condition, but there would be no improvements. This fee would 

not cover camping fees. Would you continue to use the site? 

Yes 

If that fee were charged, about how many days would you use the site over the next 12 months? 

- days 

If No go to reasons below 

I do not visit this site enough to just* buying a pass 

There are many other sites to visit besides this one 

I cannot afford to buy the pass 

Question was not clear to me 

I do not believe fees should be charged 

Some other reason (spec*) 

Functions of Privacy 

in the Ellieott Rock VVildemms 

William Ruth and William Hammitt 

and Brown (1984) except that actual 

Eficott Rock WMe-s, 

992 for this study . Factor 

hetion in both studies. 

the purpose of emotional release. 

Keywords: solitude, emotional release, personal autonomy, reflective thought, intimacy, pemd 

distm~e. 

INTRODUCTION 

hw 88-577) specifically s is to p~ovidf3 ow-tiw for 

and Brown (1984), with actual wilderness visitors as subjects. Studying 

more confidence in d&rminjng what fbnctioaur privacy serves in the wilderness. 

In 1967, Alan Westin developed a mode1 of privacy -kt* of four ions (as cited in. 

Hammitt and Brown 1984): 

SoGhde - compleb isolation; the from the group d freed from the observation of 

Graduate histant a& Professor, respectively, Department of Pnrks, Recreation, and Tourism, Clemson University, Clemn, SG. 

19 
Intimacy - the aividual is acting as part of a small unit, seeking to achieve a close, persod reMioaship Wwem 

two or more select members. 

Anonymity - the aividuaf is in a public setting but still seeks and achieves freedom from identifieation, sum 

and social roles. 

Reserve - the inctividutll keeps a "mental distance," creates a psychological 

reserves the right not to reveal ce aspects about oneself. 

These four dimensions, accordhg to Westin, serve four basic fiuzctions (cited in 11 and Brom 1984): 

Personat Autonomy - the need to avoid being wholly by others; to s 

dividdty . Emotional Release - provides for respite from the psychological ternions and stresses of social roles in everyday 

society. 

Self-Evaluation - the need to integrate one's experiences into a gful pattern and to exert indiv 

events. 

Limited and Protected Communication - Westin states two aspects: 

1) It provides oppdties needed for sharing confidences and intimacies with those trusted, and 

2) it serves to set necessary boundaries of mental distance in interpersonal situations. 

Many other articles concerned with privacy follow up on Westin's ideas and build on them (Aim 1975; 

Klopfer and Rubenstein 1977; hufer and Wolfe 1977). hufer and Wolft? consider& privacy to be esserztial to the 

development of autonomy. Without sewation from others, people would never be able to develop an dividd 

to choose when to be alone and to choose 

tala3 as: alonenms, c 

hvasion of privacy is d 

hips to W~tin's dm of 

and limited and protected com~cation are evident. 

Klopfer and Rubemteia. focusd on a biological basis for psivtacy. They dehd pdvacy as a regul&ory 

process that serves to selectively control access of exted stimulation to one" self or the flow of info 

others. Privacy operates similar to a cell membrane which is selectively permeable t 

tion of privacy according to Klo ein is to wiWold 

achieving economic, political, s goals that will eo 

(Klopfer and Rubenstein 1977). 

Altman (1975) als sm. Each individual uses vehal and nonverbal cues, environmental social norms to achieve an opthm level 

of interaction that varies with time and situation. 

Motivational Research 

VaJious articles have been concerned with motivatio~ls for recrmtion. Some mention privacy specfidy 

(Connelly 1987; Peterson cited in C . ComeUy (1987;b Sent%& soLitude as a critical factor for c 

satisfaction. La swim foeusing o motivation for the wildemws 

experience (Manfrdo and others 

Other sbdies did not raention pritJacy as a motivation but 

Wmtkrs privacy hctiorn. For exmple, a worbg session at the U~versiv of 

motivatiom for rereation aloq with id= for firafier research. ATtlaou& pri:vac 

nd it was not identad as a mtivation for recrdion by this work-group 

b&urwa some of the item fm the fist of seventwn d Westin" hctisns. For e, the work-group g 

motivatioes such as escape from civ ion d routhe, relax&ion to ml: dlhe tiorz an pemod vafue6, 
and self-ac 198 other instances of overlap with Wwtin's hctions. HoUder 

(1977) and afMf ditional factors including eseape, autonomy, and reflection. 

There is a defrnite relationship between Westh's privacy bctiom aod w 

Even in the suks such as Maafrdo and others (1983) where privacy or sotitude 

factors such as autonomy ad escape were present. Many of the motivation suies 

privscy sup&& the position tW p~vacy is not an end in itself but is used to 

sMy, privacy was viewed in this fashion ad an att e to investigate or c that privacy serves the 

functions described by Westh in a wilderness envkomed. 

EmpGcal Testing 

This suggestion was fotlowed by 

men&. Acc 

The Ellicott Rock Wilderness Visitor Study is a three phase study consistkg of fall, spring, and r 

es. This paper reporls the s use, also bing used as a pilot study 

sequent phase9. An eleven page pestio develo* that addressed gened Mrild 

panem and atlitudes. The quest twenv-eight item scale develops;sd by 

The scale wm prefaced by asking "How for you are these gemr&spec*c hctions of ddernws 

9" Rwpnses were reorded on point Likert scale with 1 =extremely 

Smpling for the pilot-study was conducted during the month of October, 

ems. The Ellicott Rock Wilderness is a small wilderness of appro ly 7,000 acres mostly in the northwest 

corner of South Carolina. Visitors were ktercepted just inside s and asked to participate in the study. 

ParCicipts answered a few general 

sent at two week intervals after the first res stablished by D 

Factor analysis with principal compneat extraction and odogod rotation vvas perfomed on the 

privacy scale using four, five, and six factors (eigen-v&es > 1.0 and factor loading eribrion > 0.4). Only tfie 24 

specific privacy functions were factored, to avoid any masking of factor fo-ion by the four general items. Results 

of these analyses were used to substantiate -tin% (1967) four function theory, the Hammitt and Brown (1984) five 

function model, or the results from a field test of the hctions of privacy done in Aust& where six functions were 

discovered (Priest and Bugg 199 1). 
ULTS 

Sevenq-one visitors, '72 percent, respded to the survey. Table 1 shows some gene 

sen respdenb to the Ellicott Rock and tt and Brown studies. The wildemas res 

and more experienced. Also, wildernms users were divided evenly betvveen backpachg and 

only the fitJe factor mdel resulted in el 

item factor4 together and the fwtors eouM not be assigned any overall 

ways this was a subjective iaterpretation since ald three models rmultd in factors 

values, htuitively though, the five factor model had the tightest factors with individual items 

that wem very close in 

Table 1-C 'son of background chacteristics of respdents to Hammitt and Brown and Ellicott 

Rock studies 

Hammitt and Brown Ellicott Rock 

Number of respondents' 106 7 1 

Average age 22 34 

Average years of experience 6.8 10.3 

Activity 100% Backpacking1 48 % Backpacking 

48 % Dayhiking 

Subjects were students with backpacking experience, not actual wilderness users. 

Tables 2-6 compare the five factor model discovered in this study to H tt and Brown's model. Table 2 

shows the items that factored der emotional release, the most important function in both studies. All the items were 

the same except for the addition of "releasing psychological stress" in the wilderness study. This item is defdtely 

related to the ideas of release and tension relief typified by this function. 

Personal autonomy was ded second in. each study, table 3. There were a few item differences. Two 

item that loaded on autonomy in the Hammitt and Brown study ("selfevaluation" and "identifLkg one's inner self") 

did not load in the autonomy factor for the wilderness group. These items appear to be related more to selfevaluation or reflective thought anyway. One additional item associated with personal autonomy ("developent of 

individuality in personal and spiritual concerns") was included under autonomy for the wilderness group, but not for 

the Hammitt and Brown group. 
Table 2-C on of motiod m1rtase ion bm EE& Rock and and Brown privacy 

models 

Factor Itein Factor C 's 

Eiliwtt Rock; 

Resting mind from anxiety and fatigue 0.5727 1.49 

ional release from everyday We 0.8870 1.78 

Disengaging from social roles 0.6855 1.78 

Releasing psychological stress 0.7590 2.23 

Releasinn physical tension 0.6986 2.31 

Hammitt and Brown 

Resting mind fiorm anxiety and fatigue 0.4491 1.59 

Disengaging from social roles 0.5681 1.84 1.95 0.74 

Emotional release from everyday Me 0.7402 1.87 

Reflstive thought was the 

the two studies. There did 

persod and spiria concern" both loaded on this fmtor for Hammitt 

to the Emotional Release and Personal Autonomy factors, respectively. 

evduation that loaded om the vrildemws study d not the 

one's thoughts and fwlings" and "exploring personal concerns." 

Table 3-Comparison of personal autonomy hction from Ellid Rock and Hammitt aod Brown privacy Mm 

models 

Factored Factor Item Fador Cmobach's 

items loadings meam man Alpha 

Ellicott Rock 

Development sense of independence 0.7409 

Madakiq sense of individuality 0.5682 

Expriming a period of personal 

autommy 0.6220 

Development of SviMv in 

personal and spiritual coll~erns 0.6667 

Himmitt and Brown 

Developing sense of individuaiity 0.5088 2.11 

Personal &~)my/seIf-iddg 0.6336 2.21 

sense of avMty 0.6589 2.32 2.32 .81 

&If-ev-on 0.5838 2.35 

Experiming a period of personal 

&mmy 0.7171 2.44 

Idw;fyiqg one's inner self 0.5945 2.50 
88'E SSCP'O S~UQA:, 3-0:, %X!UUW~~ 

OL'Z 9L09'0 snra3no3 ptq~ds 

pm frnros~ed m &-[rmpp?~ 303uauxiop~aa 

18' LL'Z €9'2 886S'O uo?ssa~dap pw aIqnoJ3 ~OJJ 8pa~osa 

65'2 TCZS'O 3st.td ~ql no*I=Y;)IJ~ 

W.2 6828'0 qlsfanoq, s ,auo 8ydno~8aa 

9€'Z S6PL'O SWJJS p3~80joq3tfsd %n;rm~a~ 

uoa(I pw 

L9'E 

96'2 

P8'Z 

LL'Z 

29'2 

EP'Z 

S€'Z 

62'2 

SSSL'O 

8EOL'O 

TPSS'O 

8T19'0 

LLSS'O 

ZPZL.0 

€9TSa0 

OSOS'O 
Factored Factor Item Crombaeh' s 

Ellicott Rock 

Private setting for com~ding 

with. a fw fried 

intbcies with trusted 

ing personal matters with 

-mitt and Brown 

Private setting for commecating 

with a few fiends 0.6064 2.59 2.80 .69 

Table 6-Cornparison of personal distance function from Ellicott Rock and Hammitt and Brown privacy ktion 

models 

Factored Factor Item Factor Crombach's 

item loadings means IL~L~B~. Alpha 

Ellicott Rock; 

Mahtahing desired mental distance 0.7910 2.91 3.05 .81 

Limiting visual and verbal Interaction with 

strangers 0.7950 2.94 

Control information that must be processed 0.6686 2.99 

Limit communication to individuals 

who are not close fried 0.6456 3.41 

Hammitt and Brown 

Wg along with one's thoughts and feelings 0.7164 2.22 

Exploring personal concerns 0.4747 2.28 

Self-evaluation and redirecting goals 0.4840 3.05 2.80 .74 

Mahtahing desired mental distance 0.6350 3.08 

Limiting visual and verbal interaction with 

st rangers 0.4616 3.40 

The factors among the wilderness users appeared stronger than those discovered surveying 

items in each factor conformed very well to the original conceptual mkgs discussed by Westin. 

ad Brown study there were usually unrelated item in each of the factors. Initively, dl the items in each function 

g in the Ellicott Rock study and supported the meaning of the function. This is 

values for the Ellicott Rock factors. This difference may be due to wilderness users 

ea of what privacy means to them. They were older and had mo 

elop ideas about privacy and have more well defined meaniqgs 

factors my also be a result of the fact that this study asked people to respond based on actual wilderness experience 

as opposed to a hnx,th.etical situation in the Hammitt and Brown study. 
One Wicular unexpted Wing was the fact that wildemess users did not consid 

the stud@& group. This may be a function of the wildems saanplsd. Efllieolt Rock is 

easy access. There is a picnic area djacent to one of the major wademess trail beds, thus 

wder into the urildemess and my not even be awme of the fact they are 

pIaee less on pt.livacy than ovennight users. With the ditioa of t 

guy$ Ps such as tEs can be kvestigatcxl, Are there si&c-t 

ovedgha visitom in the lirnp e they assign to priivaey? Other possible Suences on prjivacy hnctians such as 

past exprience, type of activity and amount of privacy desk& in generd em also be iavestigatd. 

It would also be useful in the future to replic&e this s(udy at other wilderness meas to aeemfi to control for 

possale effects of the s size and accwsibility of the Ellicott Rock Wilderness. People should perhaps be allowd 

more open ended response to what functions privacy serves for them. This type of rmponse would allow exploration 

of privacy hctions that have not been considered yet. 

CONCLUSIONS AND MPLICATIONS 

In addition to confirming Hammitt and Brown's five factor mdel, our fdings provide evidence of the 

importance of wilderness as a setting for achieving privacy and thus provides justification for specifically madating 

solitude as a wilderness characteristic in the Wilderness Act. One of the survey questions asked Ellicott Rock 

wilderness users how important privacy was as a motivation for their wilderness visit. On a scale sf 1 to 10 with 1 

" and ten being "very hportant " , the mean response was 6.65, suggesting 

. The privacy furrctions have a mean value of 1.92 to 3.05 (I = extremely 

these wildemess visitors are seeking out privacy and ushg it to restore the 

frorn the pressures of everyday life, and spend intbte time with siC.gnrficmt others. 

gement implication is that there is a need mongst the general pbk for oppo 

achieve privacy. Wdderness ined as a setting for privacy. Since wddemess is not v 

&e Southeast, extra efforts need to intain areas like EUicog Rock where privacy is preservd. Again, 

there is a need for replication of this study to other wilderness areas to discover if the btionts of privacy are 

perhaps even more important in a larger, mare remote wilderness. 

Based on research findings, e that privacy and ssliwe are more complex than they 

may seem. Wildernms users may be seeking a variety of possible outcomes through privacy. Some may ded 

total solitude whereas others may be looking for limited social contacts or sirnply a chance to get away from the stress 

of everyday life. Managers need to take this into account and not only preserve wilderness, but attempt to provide a 

variety of wilderness conditions that will satisfy the divergent privacy needs of wilderness visitors. 

Funding for this study was provided by the United States Forest Service, Surritef- National Forest. Special 

to Cary McDonald for general assistance and review of this manuscript. 

Altmm, I. 1975. The enviroment and social behavior. Monterey, GA: Brooks-Cole. 

Brown, P.J.; Haas, G.E. 1980. Wilderness recreation experiences: the Rawah case. Joud of Leisure Research. 

12:229-241. 
N.A. 1987. Critical factom and their r satisfraction at two c . Joud of 

Leisure Research. 19: 159-173. 

, R. 1980. Motivations for . Joud of Leisure Research. 12:45-54. 

D , D. 1978. Md aml surveys. New York: Joh Wiley and Sons. 

, W.E.; Brom, G.F. 1984. tioris of privw in s environments. Sciences. 6:151-166. 

Header, J.W. 1977. Maivatiod dimamions of the experience. Joud of Leisure Research. 9: 133-14 1. 

Klopfer, P.N.; , D.I. 1977. The concept privacy and its biological basis. Jaud of Social Issues. 3352- 

65. 

Mer, R. S. ; WoIfe, M. 1977. Privacy as a concept and a social issue: a dtidimemional development theory. 

Jounnal of Social Issues. 33:22-42. 

Manfredo, M.J. ; Driver, B.L. ; Brown, P. J. 1983. A test of concepts inherent in experience-based management of 

outdoor recreation areas. Journal of Leisure Research. 15:263-283. 

Pritxt, S. ; Bugg, R. 1991. Functions of privacy in Austdkm wilderness environments. Leisure Sciences. 13:247- 

255. 

We-, J.D. ; Dawson, M.S. ; Roggenbuck, J. W. 1982. Park managers' predictions on the motivations of visitors to 

two national parks areas. Journal of Leisure Research. 14: 1-15. 

Westin, A.F. 1967. Privacy and freedom. New York: Atheneum. 

Estimating the nomic Impact of 

Lake Recreation in Northern California 

Laurie J. Hawks and J.M. Bowler 

this study we examine the relationship h managme of water levels at 

and the economic impact of recreation on the local economy. We combine a 

regression visitation prediction model with an input-output model and an eprt panel to derive 

impact estimates. Our results indicate that the economy is most sensitive to management changes in 

drought years. 

Keywords: Mmgement, economic impact, regression, input-ow, expert panel. 

INTRODUCTION 

Shasta, Trinity, and Wskeytom reservoirs were constructed near Redding, Caomia from 1930-1960. 

ged by the Bureau of part of the Central Vdey Project. Initially, the lakes 

inrigation and fi.d c , state population growth has co&n%&ed to br~d 

downstream. In addition, a significant and perhaps unexpected recreation industry ]bas emerged 

mod the lakes over the past yms. Tourism is now one of the most industries in this mostly 

area. 

The Forest Service and Park Service manage recreation on the lakes, however control of lake levels rests 

with the Bureau of R n. The various demands on reservoir water result in 

the state and between agencies. The intensity of conflicts resulted in recent 

water for endangered species, in-stream uses, and local com~tim. Agricultural water contracts are also to be 

renegotiated to bring the cost of water closer to market values. 

Effective water resource mgement in the face of competing demands necessitates a careful accou* of 

the costs and benefits of altemtive water uses. In many cases, the benefits associated with recreation are often 

overlooked. This study addresses one component of recreation benefits. Specifically, the relationship between the 

management of water levels at Shasta Lake and the economic impact of recreation spending on the local ecowmy k 

examined. Such information is integral to a more complete assessment of water management alternatives. 

ct of recreation and water recreation in particular, can be sipficant to local 

rom and others (1990) demonstwe the large that recreation spending 

state economies in the Southeast. Stoll arzd others (1988) show that recreatiod boating in Texas had a total 

value of over $610 million &ced almost $184 million in income to househ01ds. Other studies 

and others (1988) include of recreatiod boating in Michigan of more than $1 billion spent 

boating with $469 per ysar spent on craft related items and $39 per boatins day. In Rhode Island, between $95-1 10 

million was spent on direct sales related to the boating industry. Marine boating sales in Florida gmeratd $845.3 

million in 198 1. 

The authors are Outdoor Recreation Planner and Social Scientist, respectively, at the USDA Forest Service, Southeastern Forest Exped~ 

Station, Outdoor Recreation and Wilderness Assessment Unit, 320 Green St., Athens, GA 30602. 
itu.re6 on om river and four 

users, d other ovekfit visitors. househoH expdihre per trip o 

for rZay users, d $ t 95 for other ove~& visitors. These valum ape of hater d na&&ers for MG:~ 

activity group. They fod that user expedturm hive siMemt 

DATA AND METHODS 

of Ndionaf Forest resources has a significa effwt on focal wonomim. SuEvan and 

Gilless (19i90) describe how cbgm icl one resource output, thbr 

wono~es. They cornbbe an hpvoutput &el, MPLM, d an econarndfic mde1 to hrmast changes in timber 

related dmtries ad subsequent income d eqloyme& effects on thme mrd scono~m, 

m&hodology to ex ts of recrdion s 

gemed alternatives for with Merent seasonall 

with visitor expenditure patterns and icltegratd quoutput model to 

project total industrial output (TIO) and employment impacts on the local two county economy. The various 

components of our model are presented in figure 1. 

Visitation Model 

Visitation estimates were obtained using two different apmaches. First required the dev of a 

regression model to predict annual visitation. Historical data were provided from the Forest Service and by the 

Bureau of Reclamation. The estimated visitation equation is: 

E:(MRVD)--9815O+Cj.IYEAR+g. IMAY-6.7RECDROP 

(t's) (-5.9) (5.6) (7.5) (-2.4) 

where, MRVD is thousd recreation visitor days, YEAR is a time trend variable, MAY is water level in feet above 

sea level at the beginning of May, and RECDROP is the drop in feet of the water level between May and September. 

%Put ha Recreation Visitor Sumey, developed at the Outdoor Recreation and W~ldemess Assessment Unit. 

30 
Figure 1 .--Components of our model. 
. Belghli ba~~rn provide vddfe bpt do ev 

hpcb sf 

Is wsoer8trsd with 

In thjlpS mer a Delp& group or "expd pegw of locd widen& m pas &sen by &e Shta-TeV Pa&ioneal 

E"orse;t rwrsatiora basrd on expe~enee d ~th. tkte Sb"f.Bbas(ar. 1&e ma d rsrdi~n 

not waifable the reeordd v sess the vddiq of 

for ach dtemtive. 

ement dte-ives were then chosen by the panel for co 

baseline. 'Ib water level mgement altenaatives are presented in table 1. 

Table l-Lake Level Characteristics 

WZ is wdlter level in f& below full. 

SA is surfme area reduction in percent. 

BR k tbe nmbr of boat open. at Phat w&er level. 

06 activities to be expa & each Me level 

rn were mkd $0 co 

1, pe&&s felt, the mdel wm not 
Table 2-Expert panel activity percentage est 

DROUGHT NOmROUGHT 

* Percent of total visitation 

Economic Impacts 

otal use is reported per visitor day, which is one person on site for 12 hours. 

est n a per trip basis, hence a conversion factor was necessary to combine total 

Survey data showed that the average number of days on site for Shasta Lake visitors is six days. Therefore, Shasta 

Me visitor days were divided by 12 to convert to trips. 

Ara on-sit0 stratifid iture Sodon and trip profiles was 

the rsr-ion season of 1992. Trip and vipemt expendiIhues were 

ion was combined with the IMPL 

), total incorne 0, value added 

per trip basis. 

ere calculated for each activity group. 

use by activity group. Finally, aggregate ' 

ement alternatives are derived. In. this study the major purpose is to 

supported by recreation spending under dif%erent mgemd alternatives and conditions, heme the v 

d differences are reported. 

The total economic effect of expenditures related to recreational visits is the sum of direct, indimct, and 

induced effects. Typically, the total effects are between 112 to 2 times more fban the amount which the recdonists 

origindy spent in the local economy. As is typical of most wom~c impact studies, made within an 

impact area only by nonresidents are used for analysis. These expeditures represent outside money flowing into the 

impact area. It is assumed that without the recreat e revenue dollars would not flow into the local 

economy. Thus, for this study only nonresident are considered. Sixty-five percmt of those sampled on 

site were &om outside the two-county region. 
DROUGHT NONDROUGHT 

Table 4-MPLAN I0 Results 

DROUGHT NONDROUGHT 

FD is final ded in millions of dollars. 

TI0 is total industrial output in dons of dollars. 

TI is total income in millions of dollars. 

VA is value added in millions of dollars. 

EM is employment in full-time equivalents. 

RESULTS 

Resu1b for ouwt measures d eqloymed are repodcxl in table 4, wMe prcatage cbangw from 

lPle respective melines me rep&& in table 5. In general, the rauIb show abat total sigrufcd 

to Sh(a anrl T~V earnties from nomesided visihtlion wsociatd wi& rwreation at leveh 

to substantially affe~ti visitatiaa ad therefore economic irmpcb. 
During drou$bt cortditiom the dserences in feasible es are fru more pronounced, h 

fact there is up to a 3 between the Basehe, which represents an average 

&awdo\~n from pt ing essentially no drawdom during a drougfit year. In 

It should be noted that the expert pel felt the results wre, in general, more pronounced during a drought 

our mdels Sicate. W&her this is emotiod or inttlaitive is a gd question. It my in faet repregent a 

valid assessment of the limitations of our linear models, both the visitation and the inpt-output mdel. 

Table 5-IMPLAN I0 Results 

FD is final ded percent change from the BASE. 

TI0 is total industrial output percent change from the BASE. 

TI is total income percent change from the BASE. 

VA is value added percent change from the BASE. 

EM is employment percent change from the BASE. 

REFERENCES 

Bergstrom, J.C.; Cordell, H.K.; Watson, A.E.; Ashley, G.A. 1990. Economic impacts of state parks on 

state economies in the South. Southern Journal of Agricultural Economics. 22:69-78. 

Fritschen, J.A. 1988. Measuring the economic impacts of recreation at Corps of Engineers water resource projects. 

In: McDonald, Cary D., ed. Southeastern Recreation Research Conference Proceedings, 1988 February 17- 

19; Asheville, NC. Athens, GA: University of Georgia, Institute for Behavioral Research. Vol. 10. 

Singg, R.N.; Webb, B.R. 1979. Use of Delphi methodology to assess goals and social impacts of a watershed 

project. Water Resources Bulletin. 15(1): 136- 143. 

Stoll, J.R. ; Bergstrom, J.C. ; Jones, L.L. 1988. Recreational boating and its economic impact in Texas. Leisure 

Sciences. 10(1):5 1-67. 

Sullivan, J. ; GUess, J.K. 1990. Hybrid EconometricfInput-Output Modeling of the Cumulative Economic Impact of 

National Forest Harvest Levels. Forest Science. 36(4): 863-877. 

Wagner, T.P. ; Ortolano, L. 1975. Analysis of new techniques for public involvement in water planning. Water 

Resources Bulletin. 1 1 :329-344. 

Sensitivity of Contingent Value Surplus 

to Elicitation Approach: &&her Evidence 

J.M. Bowker, R.A. Souter, and J.R. Clemmons 

estimates are not invariant to elicitation technique ad that 

elicitation apprwh in applied benefit-mst dysis shdd 

caution. 

Kq~~ords: CV, dichto~x1w choice, , logit, 

fer institution. GV 

values for ddemess use d presenration 

(Code11 and 1Bergstrom 1993;Sellar and 

Duffield and Battenon 199 1 ; Peterson and &em 1992), d public aerobic classes Waarville 1991). 

Criticknzrs of CV genedy 

1992). pitcbu and Cmorr 1989) 

presemation, (Stevens aad otbem 1991 

metric to species presefvation. 

potentially Matd due to two 

The first two authors are a Social Scientist and a Mathemti4 Statistician at the South~aetenn Forest 

Service, 320 Green St., Athens, dA 30605. The third author is a Computer Rogra-r at the 
ddition, Samples and others (1986) have shown that sequencing of quwtiom aa led to value 

measures and that in the case of vvildlife, values for individuali specief, when exceed re gregate 

values. 

Biases Euwli other problem must be weigbd ag 

aerent distributional biases, or worse, as 

canted, "true soaorrzists crsn never how the 'tme" 

4. " Additiody , fw wmld wpe preferences d 

Aaeqs at valiclalion of the CV tecbqe generally consist of convergent v&diq expe ' 

sLudies be bn limited to the issues s lw), (2) across efici~ioa 

procsdures @yle d Bishop 1988), (3) co e ob~d via dkwt 

others liS90; Sellar ad others 1985; Smith 

siunulad mrk&s involvhg cash trans 

h&sch 1992; Kealy ad others 1m). to a collwtion of c esults generdy suggest that 

when com~d to direct or shulated via CV are very 

reasonable, supporting convergent validity. 

In spite of favorable published Wings (Boyle and Bishop 1988; hmis lw), basic quest' 

the appropriateness of elicitation aproaches eqloyd within the CV m&d. Most studies select o 

elicitat ion, either (OE), payment cad (PC), or dichotomous choice PC). A benefit of using only one 

elicitation m&hd d statistical efficiency for a given sarnple size, w&ch is desktilble given Wtd budgets 

and the expeme of collecting survey data. A potential hger of using only one elkihtion m&hd is tW eficited 

vdues my be incotlgmerat across procdures afxf a level sf prmision my be represent& w&ch is &ifjicidy hi&. 

This occurrence my be problemic because there are no complhg reasons, theoretical or empirical, to seleet any 

one ekitration procedure as the most valid or accurate. 

DATA AND METHODS 

sis were obtained via surveys conducted duMg the reereation seasoras of 1991 and 

1992 at mskeytovvn-Shasta-Trinity Natiod Reereation Pareas Cr"JST). Dichotomous choice 

1991, while the lakes were in severe drought condition, using a rdom s of on-site visitors. h addition to a 

nmbr of other questiom, respondenrts were asked in a faee-to-face o mwer either yes or m to the 

following question aimed at eliciting household eeono~c surplus obbed thou& uskg WST: 

for a moment about the total amount of money spent duMg the last 12 month to visit WST. The 

"momt of monney" is the total mount you spent on all trips to WST in the last 12 modb including this 

trip. If the total mount you had to spend on all trips to WST last ym had besn $ D higher, for 

because of higher price of gasoline or other expenses, would you still have come? 

The $D amount ranged from $1 to $250 in the follo kcremenh: $ 1,2, 5, 7.5, 10, 15, 10, 15, 25,45, 65, 85, 

110, 150, 250. A fofiow-uy, qestion was asked to ldentlfgr protest bidders. A toaaZ of 167 

w&ch 3 were identsed as protest bids and del&sd. h additiod 14 sunreys we= mwab 

(13 of w&ch were for the ipacome question). The usable s 

hause the DC amroach is based on YESlPaO responses, no&= b r-potlse modeling (logit or 

probit) is used to est e divichral economic suqlus (I3 s is two-stage. First, the inverse 
of the distribution hction for , based on the pobab~q of 

The logit model is specified as, 

(Bowker and Stoll 1988; H 1984 ). Confidence intervals medim may be est 

using (1) differential, (2) bootstmp, or (3) Monte Carlo tecfiques 

Payment card data w survey distributed on-site in 1992. Site conditions such as 

weather and water levels duhg identid. In th survey, respndeaifs were shown picbes 

of water levels correspoding to tions and asked to: 

Consider the water levels as shown and descrii on page X. Consider also your estimated annual 

total household expenses to use WST during a drougfit year, for le gasoline, travel expenses, 

boat or cabin rentals and all other expenses. Please circle the closest to the ' YOU 

would pay in dditional expmes in a drought year to contlinue using WST- $ 0 2 5 10 . . . . 1,000, 

In all, 33 mows, rmghg from $0 to $1 ,OC)o were listed. As with the DC qestion, a follow-up question was mked 

to identlfy protest bidders. Obs . dwmd as protest bids, less 5 percent of the smple, were deletsd. A 

total of 11 1 usable observations 

With the PC, WTP is obtained by directly asking indiv to indicate on a payment card their WTI? in the 

form of additiod annual incu ontinue to use WST. In this case, WTP (or a t thereof) 

is modeled directly using least (OLS)(Cameron and Huppert 1989) as a linear 

socioeconomic and site variables, where, INC, QUAI,, and u are as described above. 

From this specification, conditional mean and median WTP measures can be directly obtained. Confidence 

intervals for the mean may be obtained by conventional procedures using either the sample or regression standard 

error. Conover (1980) provides a nonp8fametric procedure to estimate a confidence interval for the median. 

RESULTS 

Data for the payment card method indicate a sample mean WTP of $15.67, and sample standad error of 

22.76. In this case, two empirical specifications are used; the first with WTP as the dependent variable, arrd the 

second using the natural logarithm of WTP as the dependent variable, Table 1. The covariates for both sprtcifications 

are income and a Likert-type quality index. Signs on the explanatofy variable coefficients for both specifications are 

as expected; however, only the coefficient on the is sigdicant. These findings are consist@& 

with other cross-sectiod studies in that income to be an insiwcmt factor in exp WTP. Also 

consistent with a number of other cross-sectional studies is the low R~ indicating relatively poor predictive power. 
QU fi 

Dependent CONST (Site 

4.76 ,134 8.34 11 1 

t's (-. 79) (1 -50) (3 

t's (-.56) (0.26) (5.20) 

willingness to pay 2 log of willingness to pay 

Incorporating the regression starxfard error from the WTP model, the 95 percent confidence interval for 

mmn WTP at the mean of the regressors is [-27.07, 58.411. A well known property of the semi-logaritkc 

specification is that the antilog of the mean LNWTP provides an estimate of the median WTP. Using the regression 

stadad error for the LNWTP model, the 95 percent confidence interval for dian WTP at the mean of the 

regressors is [0, 1341. 

The estimated MLE logit regression equation from the dichotomous choice approach is presented in table 2. 

the model predicts responses correctly on 94 percent of the observdions, the McFarlden It2 ~DR~) 

in the model is siNicant at the 10 

that over $0 percent of the respdents 

le across the rmge of WTP amounts. 

The sign on the offer amouslt variable, $13, is theoretically correct but statistically iasignificd while income is 

insi&cd and qwhty is significant at the 5 percent level. 

DEP $D QUfi 

(Dependent CONST (offer INC (Site 

pww 10.21 0.0047 0.163 -1.26 0.10 6.38 150 

ranges of offer mounts 

(1984), the parmder 

WTP of $790.23. A 

95- prcent coddeme ktemal for the 

amroach is [$315.88, 14151.951, 

Our Wllngs show the DC WTP est to be subsatially hgher than those @;b&d via PG. Md, 95 

pepeea coddenice htervds for the: ma WTP out sf Ithe ttvr ;-&cibation approaches do not htersect. ms would 

to Ibe sufieieat evidence to refe~e the Itiypthesis t& WTP,== WTP,,, Our resuits run contraq to the fdhgs 

aml Boyle anzd Bisbop (1988), by showLng thal CV can be qite sensitive to elicilration ve&cle 

our sdy my be aa mody, we see no rwon why our results are my more m EPlfifxt of a skgle 

strmge cme th the findhgs of either brnirs (I 9"90) or Boy ie and Bislhop (1988). 
recrdion values and benefits should comder 

loss of statistied effiGiency ass=&& with splittkg the 

lhrvo or =re eGcitaei011 prwedure selleetion criteria are baskally ad hoe, we 

tugue W selection of a shgle 1~01bch conveys a level of pwision and ae~ura~y wkch is &*cay high. 

were wed only with PC. 

policy dsision processes such as appfisd 

nrs my emerge depeading 

mis 1987) and used in the 

ly . Clearly, peoples ' preferences 

in a money ~TiG is subje~t to error, However, incongruence o 

to corroborate much of the criticism that the CV 

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Recreational Billfishing in South Carolina: 

Toward Restraint and Replenishment 

Robert L. Janiskee 

Atlantic marlin and sailfish populations are declining rapidly, 

due to commercial tuna longlining. Provisions of the Magniuson Act 

illfish Plan have slowed, but not stopped, the decline of bWsh in 

America's 200-mile EEZ. To help protect bWsh stocks, recreational anglers are 

operating under new regulations and ethical su. In South Carolina, where 

billfishing has surged in popularity, tournament organizers and sports fishermen 

have strongly supported the use of catch-and-release methods and related 

conservation measures. About 80 percent of the billfish caught today are 

released. Survival of billfishing in South Caroh and elsewhere hinges on a 

multifaceted campaign to eliminate overfishing and place billfish management on 

a more scientific footing. Further reduction of the longliner by-kill is especially 

, but rescuing the billfish stocks also depends on the intensification of 

billfish research efforts, the promotion of catch-and-release methods, the revision 

of minimum-size restrictions, the enforcement of no-sale provisions, and related 

measures. 

Keywords: marlin, sailfish, catch-and-release, tag-and-release, brnish 

t , saltwater fishing. 

INTRODUCTION 

Most recreational fish stocks off the Southeastern coast have been overexploited d xnany are in a state of 

decline (SFI 1992a). Alarmed at this trend, fisheries managers have implemented various policies and programs to 

ease pressure on the remaining stocks (NMFS 199 la, 199 lb). These measures have already had a sigmficant impact 

on the character and @ty of marine recreational fishing, and more changes are sure to come. This paper is set in 

the context of the campaign to halt the decline of bmsh populations off the Southeastern coast and elsewhere in the 

Atlantic. It focuses most particularly on South Carolina, a state in which billfishing has become a popular recreational 

activity arxi tournament sport. Its purpose is to identrfy and discuss trends shaping the future of billfishing in South 

Carolina. 

Five pelagic game fish in the Atlantic are classified as billfish; blue marlin (Makaira nign'cans), white marlin 

(Tetraptuw a&&), sailfish (Istiuphow plalyptew), broadbill swordfish (Xiphiar gfadiw), and longbill spearfish 

(Tetrqturus pfluegen). Other fish may be fim to catch and delicious to eat, but the bwshes are the best of trophies 

e they are big, beautiful, powerful, scarce, and hard. to catch. 

Atlantic bmhing has become very popular. The first billfish to be taken by rod and reel in the Atlantic was 

probably a sailfish caught off Miami around the turn of the century (P~ce and others 1990). 

Associate Professor, Department of Geography, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC. 
late 1970s, 

8) Mthough art4 

&em very ofterr. For (J 

s to c&eh a wEte 

SOU'I'X CAROLINA BKLRSmG 

Caroh's offshore waters have large amounts of prime billfish habitat [n.d.]). In 1991, a 

taken by at last 157 different boats operating off the South Carolina coast 

as abundant off South Carolina as they are o 

, Hawaii's Kom Coast, or Australia's Great 

reless for a season or two despite considerable effort ad expense. 

th Caroh sdtwder scene Wia Ohe lade 196Qs. The key rmon is 

t tmvel50 or CiO da out to sea ts catch. billfish. %or to the late 

or so, iEtEZd few anglerns hew tM exceuent 

1970~~ Izowevm, oEshore fishing bgm to 

developen& had wg:unrsr% by W the. 

were s&hg host 100 

kvmive, bashg is w, longer a " 
The Bashing Mmtnteture 

An elhratt: basbg Smtructure bas evolved in South Carolina over 0s. The 

basbg fleet, inehidhg eo rcial boats available for charter, now inchrdes seve vasels operat@ out 

a dozen differ@& ports are based in wet 

but some are based in facilitiehi offer a fiiff 

e, and v&ow mncaary services. 

BWshing is an expensive sport, which helps to explain 

1990). Boats of modest size cost mom 

ad repairs cost of dollars per year. Wet slip rentals run 

ineluding electricity, and the &el, ice, bait, and incidentals 

Even charter excursions cost in the neighborhood of $500 

The Billfish Catch 

resource stocks for South Carolina's recreational billfishery are s h and marlin. The sailfish 

anrf commonly caught billfish species in the Atlantic, and this is also true of South Carolina's 

offshore waters. At least 155 were caught in 1991. Most were small, weieg only about 30 to 40 .The 

NMFS considers sailfish to be only "derately" exploited, whereas both species of xnarh are fully exploited and 

swodfish are overexploited (SH 199%). 

is the most paizd fish h the Atlantic, and probhly the most prestigious 

Mature ones co weigh 250 pods or more, d the state record fish is a 752-pder (The 

State "Catch Shatters Mmh Rwoadw July 7, 1993, 36). Regdless of she, blue art: esteemed for their 

beauty and. grace, sheer power, ad awe-hphg aerial were 68ught-dreleased or tag-and-released by anglers operating out of 

r than blue marlin, white marlin average about 50 to 60 pounds at 

in smaller numbers, p-y because their migration route keeps most of them beyond the reach of South Carob 

boats. Only 38 were caught in 1991. 

Swordfish and spearfish are rarely caught by sportfishennen off South Carob. Swordfish seldom take 

trolled baits, and come to the surface only at night. Spearfish are so scarce that none was taken by rod and reel off 

South Carolina until 1986. No sportcaught landings of swordfish or spearfish were reported in South Carolina during 

1991. 

Billfish Habitat 

bill&& habitat miles of contined shelf lying off the South Cmb 

coast. Blue marlins are solitary predators that live, hunt, and migrate on the shelf far out in the open Atlantic. In. the 

spring they are most often found 50 to 70 miles offshore in the upwelling waters above ru 

100-fathom curve and at the western edge of the Gulf Stream @-& [n.d.]). Sailfish, 

and gregariow, are usually found closer to shore. By late summer they may be caught in only 15-30 fathom. 
Season and Methods 

prese~ in Sod Caroh's ogsbre 

waters only from early sp~g to mid fall. The early as March, but 

Oetobr . 

Bashing tactics reffect the habitat pattern of the fish. Natural baits or artificial 

are trolled in arms where upwefliqgs, current fronb, steep dropoffs, 

Men a bash is hooked, an angler fi 

tome-, is one of several variables that can influence the CPUE (catch-per-et-effort) (Browder and Prince 

1990). 

OTHER PELAGIC GAME F'ISH 

Since few billfish are caught, more common pelagic game fish provide an important source of lively action, 

rizes. BWshing boats comody catches of dolph (dorado), 

. For every billfish that tournament caught in 199 1 they landed about 

these incidental fish, mostly dolphin and tuna (SCWRI) 1992b). 

THE OVERFISHING PROBLEM 

Atlantic bWsh stocks have been subjected to substantial overfishing (SAFMC 1988). By the late 19708, 

marlin and swordfish were exhibiting the classic tics of overexploited populations--i.e., steeply dec 

numbers subjected to increasing fishing intensity. This was mostly attribu&le to the 

ental catches account for about 90 percent of all billfish 

vessel reels out d later hauls back 20 to 60 miles of ho 

rigs (vertical dropper lines) are suspeded at intervals of about 200 feet. The s 

albacore sets is about 170 meters, and the "deep longlining" sets for bigey 

yellowfin tuna ad albacore, are at about 300 meters depth (Cons 

indisc ely , longlines set for tuna and swordfish incidentally 

1970s, U.S. fishery gers realized that strict regulations would be needed to rescue the Atlantic billfishes 

(SAFMC 1988). 

CONSERVATION MEASUW 

e selientifSlc howlstfgr?. sf 

arf3 in the o&g, Of tfie e~st* 

rduce .Ihe longher by-M, asad 

encourage the eateh-arnd-reled~~e approach to recreational b~shing. 
qs~llfq JO 3ua3~ad OL 3nq ~0~67 am1 aq Aq '3%~ q -w?d JuarmmJnoJ VM lo uo?qfdaoxi -8 03 qwq pq 03 

tCPrJs~a~n~3~01 on sf q MON *mv A~J sf %qsmq m~ $on s? qmp aql no qsy ptmp %ug~~s pq rmnq SXWM~ 

aAq mmqods ~IUJ, .pail snon~?dsno3 iaq101fl) s? %qs~jll~q asrraja~-pu~?-q3p3 $0 &pqndod %ipm& aq,~ 

'(8867 3YVflS f 0667 r13w4"O f 6861 ~FJ* aq ~OJJ maql flnf~omar poq~ 'a~p JO 

pap 'qs~llfq p ampi 03 anoz apt-002 aq q3~~ 8'~fwado uawaqsg ~3iam03 w~fnbai puw c(pa$a3xa q3p3Xq 

vS?l;rr, W3g 0)raW aq3) SJaPM 'S'n V maw qsmq 9?3WIlV $0 aps QW sp!qoJ mid qsW8 "am 

~0?3WJSl JOJqsyllfq !33A.IQSaJ (Wid q~tJllf8) Td IU~~@%-X qSIm8 8867 S,~U~UXU~AO~ p8Pc)J aq,L 

-8867 q mid quama%~yy qswg aql pa~o~ddtj 3nama~o% pap3 aql ~pm 'iatla~oq 

Ap3~3adsao?3~1&ai no?phlasao:, ou aiaM aiau .sum ep-002 "s'n eq 

mq JOJ POJrJa gqsy WO3 p3vJ A~fl~~qns 33V UO~~BM a91T. "ZzE 

anxasaoa p awlda~ 03pa1~frh. 

PO?%~J ~q%?j: -~~3=0:, *s.n q p"rmo= rapq ap-wz 2" yzga :, e~rm13xa 3~ paqqwr~a 13v A~d;fsca mM 9L6T Jo 3DV 

~naara%mx pmtl uo?pnrasao=) heqs?d aosndwm aq3 jo e%~ssrrd aq " 

393naf3s pfrh.03 ssa~3oJfl: mots q? pat3 ma~qoid qstmfq JO uo?p~ap?saos paprlaq s,~y331 U~AD 
of g 

e Or 

ewbm me mvq away 

aggregaeurei* scohg appromh and aow award bm poh for 

Conversation 1986a)- 

Tagging Programs 

Tags vhw species of fish for research 

since 1974. Kits supplied by the Marim Resourcss D 

7,000 sdtwter fish in 1991, and about 600 recaptures were 

4 facswing angler surveys were among the =.or reas 

Mwgement Act. law required saltwater fishe 

fisheries stamp beginning in 1992. 

Of the 237 billfish tW South. Carolina anglers relmed in 1991, 172 wem ta$ged for We kbq saidia & 

relatsd scisnlific rm 

ke Fish Tagging 

tagged, with one NMFS tag &uad one TBF tag. 

ale= do ldge dorsal tags in 

f-1 tM &ey bve 6uIxOusd them. If tfiey want w 

Tagging Program (Scott and others 1991). 

The Govemr 's Cup B 

e 1980~ at least 808 

~8ge~g & atom@ wa 

cm py all eqnses for seved seasons (Evlaiolo 1990). 
Mdia attention ancB the prwtige of the comwitors fisbg will have a subswa 

hpct on nontou bashing has played a very positive role in 

even served as the orth Carrob' s rwdly 

hclement weather. Tau 

sash. More 

Series ales that damplay aggregrate-weight scoring (one po 

' In 1991 less th 

by Series fishemen were acquired by bhging 

criticize fellow anglers who needlessly kill billfish. 

THE BILLFISH CATCH RATE 

a"he 1991. ra&w for billfish hookups and catches in South Caroh were the highs 

ere more arger, 4 the catch we for sctilfish was at the swod higlaest lev 

ks my s it not statisticdy valid evidence tht comervation anmure8 are 

dwtkg bush ppulatiom. Bush aggling success in a IIparticular locale varies from season to season, reflstity: 

local levels o other vrariables, Local catch rates such as those in South Caroh provide no reliable 

basis for infe f the bush poplatiom at large, and the weight of the evidence still points to a broad 

decline in Atlantic billfish populations. 

CONCLUSIONS 

context, the travails of the billfishery reflect the broader causes and 

ement of renewable resources like trees and fertile soil. First there is overexploitat 

and its accompye robber baron ethic. Then there is the growing awareness of critically depleted 

, and dismal long-term prospects. Finally, there is the ret 

ement and a transition to scient ifnu sustained y 

fits and resource conservation 

If sport billfishing is to sunrive, comervation efforts must be &em%d. It is highly si@c& ehat ICCAT 

hbeguntotakeb 

rmreatiod use oo a p 

ruld regulations des 

eaforesd, ditiod proktive must be adopted to 

bbviod dispositions o 

be modified. Mmures that 

incMe &&her curbs on the long 

intern%& research eEorts, better 

sanctuaries and hatcheries. 

Further r&ction of the longliner by-kill is a high priorie rfjquirement, The conservation 

by tecrdiod anglers such as those in. South Carolina c 
to detroy the brding stock. It 

w&ers, since the byc&h there still 

wief;tK; 200- 

seieratfie study. 

Since bash are hifly mitgdory, comem&io 

gratifyLng to see that billfish tou in are mw promding catch-d-relwe and mre 

comtk are adopting bag lets we Mexico's one-fish limit) or no-sale regulations for bash. 

aucatbg the he~cari public about the billfish ftnoblem is mother of the 

Although the billfishes have b&era ed to the hehcm public as gourmet 

eat swordfish aad other pporl conservation eEoRs, 

these fish are sin tapid d 

d sailfish from 

It my be worthwMe to establish biLlfish sanc some ate85 51s a of deviiafing &kg 

prwsure. The Sod Atldic Fishery Magement Come mdd c%le idea s 

ffbigbt enaeompass hut one-mh of the oc w&ers sff the southeastern c kn diseussrxl ody in 

the context of repleflishg reef fish stocks;, d it is not clm whder smc d& bnefit bill.i;ish or other 

migratory species. 

Regardless of actioos on tfm comenr&ioa front, the billfish OR ehe state's cosist me mely ts be subjwtsd 

to even grder mghg gramre muhe 1988; Rosser projectd a 4 to 10 md 

r&@ for South Cmh sdt wELter mgligg. This groWIb o some degree, Izcs 

elopenb hve ptentidy severe 

pe~eh prwws fordoom most propsds for I~c='"N comtmcisn or 

f fuel. Bonoznic reeerasiom, Mation, 

busLness derfuction dowmcm, charter fee wedation, teehaologicd b ghs ia boat and mobr dwign, possble 

he1 mishg emergencies, md related developenb can redefine or ferasbaty of the sport. Bash 

mglers are diffucult to deter, since they tend to be duenjt, enthusiastic, and pmistent even in the face of low catch 

rates (Maiolo 1990). Nevedeless, like everyone else, they live in a world of finite limits. 

L. 1989. Trends in the fisheries for bfishw in the Atlantic Oeeao. h Stmiud, 

the Rature of bashes: Research and 

Conservation, Inc: 17-29. 
Broder, Joan A. ; Phce, Eric D. 1 W. S of re~reational iEishg success for blue 

19'92-1986, In: Stroud, &hard H., d. 

s and byond--Part 2: Contributsd papers. 

8 August 1-5; Kailua-Kom, HI. 

Conservation, Inc: 2 15-229. 

Assessing the sWs of stocks of . In: Strod, Ric 

future of bmshes: Researc ond--Part 1 : Fishery 

ement. Procesdings, 2nd Bilfish Sympsim; 1988 

, HI. Mavine Fisheries Management 13. S : National Coalition for 

Marine Conservation, Inc: 153- 164. 

Graefe, , James M. 1985. Coastal fishing toumenb: A review of participaat characteristics, motives 

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2; 1985 February 24-27; Myrtle Beach, SC. Atlanta, GA: USDI, National Park Service, Southeast Regiod 

Office: 43-57. Vol. 2--Concurrent sessions. 

Hamrnond, Donald L. [n.d.] A guide to saltwater fishing in South Carolina. @rochure]. Charleston, SC: 

Recreational Fisheries, Marine Resources Division, South Carolina Wildlife and Marine Resources 

Department. 

hrk, Pete. 1988. Anmcertain hture. South Carolina Wildlife. 35(4) (July-August):12-15. 

hrie, Pete. 1989. Magnuson Act. South Carolina Wildlife. 36(4) (July-August): 12- 15. 

Laurie, Pete. 1990. The Governor's Cup. South Carolina Wildlife. 37(3)(May-June):3845. 

Laurie, Pete. 1992. Crisis off our coast? South Carolina Wildlife. 39(5)(September-October):44-49. 

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ed. Planning the future of billfishes: Research and management in the 90s and beyond--Part 2: Contributed 

papers. Proceedings, 2nd International Billfish Symposium; 1988 August 1-5; Kailua-Kona, HI. Marine 

, GA: National Coalition for Marine Conservation, Inc: 237-244. 

Meyer, Philip A. 1989. Socioeconomic trends in recreational billfish fisheries. In: Stroud, Richard H., ed. Planning 

the future of billfishes: Research and management in the 90s and beyond--Part 1 : Fishery and stock 

synopses, data needs awl management. Proceedings, 2nd International Billfish Symposium; 1988 August 1-5; 

Kdua-Kona, HI. Marine Fisheries Management 13. Savannah, GA: National Coalition for Marine 

Conservation, Inc: 103- 108. 

National Marine Fisheries Service. 1991a. Status of fishery resources off the Southeastern United States for 199 1. 

NOAA Tec~cal Memo NMFS-SEFSC-306. Miami, FL: NMFS. 

National Marine Fisheries Service. 1991b. Strategic plan for the conservation and wise use of America's living 

marine resources. Miami, FL: NMFS. 

Orbach, Michael K. 1990. Policy and ement frameworks for highly migratory species under the Magrruson 

Fishery Conservation and Management Act: The case of billfishes. In: Stroud, Richard H., ed, Planning the 

future of billfishes: Research and management in the 90s and beyond--Part 2: Contributed papers. 

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SC: Clemson U~veffiity . 10 p. 

Marine Fisheries M-gem& 13. Savannah, GA: National Coalition for Consewation, h. : 11-14. 

Saltwater Convensation. 1986a. An alternative to aggregate weight 

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; Bayley , Robert 13. ; 7iashir0, Joseph [and &em]. 1991. Goop+ative 

nctvvsl&er 1990. NOAA Technical Mem S-SEFC-295. 

Fisheries Service, Southeast Fisheries Center. 22 p. 

. 1989. Develiopent in the 

Marine Conservation, Inc: 271-28 1. 

South At Lhery Mmgetne& Council. 1988. Fis 

ry impact review, and initial regulatory 

SC: SWC. 72 p., appendices. 

of Parks, Recreation, and Tourism 1n.d.J 

guide. Columbia, SC: SCDPRT. 137 p. 

. I 

report. Cftarleston, SC: Mm of Fis 

Sou& Garoliga WilWe and Res 

series. [IBmhw] Charles 
Sport Fishing Institute. 1 . Southeast marine fisheries continue dournward slide. Sport Fishing Institute Bulletin. 

439(0ctober):2-3. 

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, James A. 1989. Directions: The Governor's Cup. South Carolina Wildlife. 36(2):54. 

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0;all):23-25. 

Management Conditions and Indicators of Impo*n~ 

in Wilderness Rwretation 

G. Scott Shafer and Willim E. Hammitt 

ildernss management plans often lack specific objectives for 

identqiqg and monitoring resodwe conditions of ts. 

The Wademess Act of 1964 was used as a conceptual 

indicator items to measure conditions of concern to recreational users of 

wuemws. Visitors to the Cohutta Wilderness felt fbat item relating to litter 

d damaged vegetation were of highest concern while mger contact was of low 

concern. Respes to indicator items were factor analyzed to determine if 

groups of indicators existed for a type of condition (domain). Such condition 

domains can provide flexibility in selecting indicators based on user perceptions 

for the measurement d monitoring of conditions embodied in the Wilderness 

Act. 

INTRODUCTION 

ement plans include specific objectives which are directed toward monitoring 

Wilderness Act. The Wilderness Act 

recr~tion exist in wlktemess areas. Wildernws ers and the resear~h co have called for the 

Merigliano 1W; Reed ad others 1990; Watson 1990). Conditions of conc 

identifisd in recent sbdies (Roggenbuek 4 others 1993; Watfon and Cole 

to work towad identifykg coditiom which are of concern which may be indic&ors of 

can be monitored. The Wilderness Act provides a basis for 

wilderness chacter. Measuring 

can help detehe the role that such resource/use conditions play in dderness recreation. 

With the advent of wilderness planning and monitohg systems, such as the Forest Service's Litnib of 

Acceptable Chmge (LAC) (Stankey and others 1985), came the need for the developea and iqterpraon of 

condition descriptors which may influence visitor experiences. The LAC system inchdes step which rapire the 

identification of conditions of concern in wilderness, selecting indicators for those conditions and developing 

s s which can be used to monitor the conditions. LAC calls for the use of broad categories of concern or 

"factors" to guide the selection of indicators. Factors are used in LAC to serve as sipntficant conditions for which 

measurable indicators can be chosen. 

Graduate Assisuint and Professor, respectively, in Parks, Recreation, and Tourism Management, Clemson University, Clemn, SC 29634. 
The Mdtidimemional Wildernms Experience 

Coqlicctting the question of dent*@ sensitive resourceiuse coditiom ad irpcficators of change are the 

to exist in wildern~s recreation expriences. A number of reswchers have looked 

ess reereiation ( Brown and Haas 1980; Hendee and others 1968; Ross 

ck 1978). Fbxfiogs in such rwach have show revtsdly that tbere 

tience in wildernss. Diroemiam such as the experience of sabre, 

escape from stlei*, adventure, 4 education have all been asswid with wifdemess reereation, Res~ch has 

bn blpM in descnbk the recr&iod experience in multi-dheflsiod te but has providscf little guiclance in 

how to tie such dhensions to specific caditiom in wilderness, 

Wilderness Ilescriptors 

The Wildemas Act provides broad descriptors which can be co as experience dbemiom and 

the ide~ificcttion of conditions and thus indicators of The descriptors of 

and "solitude," for example, are used in the Act and ch set wilderness apart from 

places @edw and others 1990). Other descriptors used in the Act relate compnents of a recreatiod 

experience (dhensions) influenced by speczic attributes. Descriptors such as "priraitive" and 

"uncohed, " as; well as p guide the selection of conditions of concern and their 

related indicators. Desc and often dacult to measure with a single rapme to a 

, for exmgle, is offrsn thought of In te of encomters with others in the wdderness. 

73) revdedl that different types of encountem, according to where d wbo was encomtered, 

on the wademess recreational exprience. Tn more rwent research, Roggenbuck d others 

(11%3) report eongirically develo* groups of encomter aicators. As w ' s work, location of encomters 

was shown. to be of concern. Ifmtividual Lndlcalsrs such as people seen in more 

auentid to the recreational experience tban pple seen dong the trail. &en 

(1985)) have aicated that solitude rnay be more apropriately view& as a component of wilrlerness privacy; privacy 

bekg a concept which allows for a more brod kterpruion of solibde as it applies to wifiderness seetkgs. A 

descriFor such as "solitudIe" then represents a complex condition in the wilderness enviroment. It is a codition 

which bas a number of indicators or attributes differentially affecting irwlividual experiences. 

The purpose of this paper is to use the descriptors of "mahrrd, " "solitude," "primitive, " ad "mco~med" as 

guides to developkg measur&le indicators of the wilderness recrmtion expel.lence. These four descriptors are 

e for as outlinedl in the Wilderness Act of 19M. It is hoped that the use of 

these descriptors as conce ides will add to current g on the methocts used in the selection of dicators 

by incorporating a link to definition of wilderness. It is pstulised here that wilderness condition do 

exist which may ions of a wilderness recreation experience. If condition domains re1 

descriptors exist, then it may be possible to better understand what g recreatiorzists attaGh to the descriptors 

and select indicators for monitohg which are sipficant to the experience. 

METHODS 

First, item were developed to measure specific coditions hlievd to reprasent dheflsioas of naturalness, 

ivenws and unco&ement. me level of concern that recratiod users held for 35 item develo+ 

to represent conditions was measured by asbg respdents to a seven point Lkert type scale from "not at all 

coneemed" (1) to "extremely concerned" (7). This aproach providd meas ncern users held for specific 

coditions, such as "nuber of directiod sip placed in the wilderness by ," an item designed to mwure 

tive conditions in wilderness. 
of these descripSors. 

The Cob WMe 

a om hcwr driive sou emms is the largmt 

dso hold a broad mge of concern for the codition ressurceluse item behg 

(Luw d ohm 1971). 

s ak the pr(~1~cnW trd LU26B the 

er, and the tM, if requird, ta 

Descniptive remrlts of the level of concern rwreationists held for the 35 vvildemess condition items are 

Sd in T&le 1. As witkr preview 

1892; Young lw), rdts imtic 

e were &we of grdwt concern Trail and Jacks 

iPB are of most concern to rwrsationists (e.g. S 

were also of huigh concern to 

re forest pesenlt in an 

recreationists were two %tern related to mger 
low in level of coneern related to dishes one might travel from 

and distances from t&ds to c 

Table 1-Level of concern Coho Wilderness recreatio~sts hold for dderness conditions" 

Meam level of S 

Condition item concern deviatian 

The mount of litter found in campsites 6.64 0.84 

The mount of litter seen along the trail 6.58 0.88 

The number of trees or other vegetation damaged by previous users 6.41 0.98 

The mount of noise heard in the area which comes from outside the 

wildems 5.83 1.31 

The mount of fully mature forest in the wilderness area 5.66 1.41 

Observing a naturai ecosystem at work 5.62 1.41 

The mount of solitude your group experiences 5.54 1.24 

The mount of noise heard in the area which comes from other wilderness 

visitors 5.52 1.43 

The number of different species of wildlife you see 5.33 1.38 

The number of areas in the wilderness that are very remote 5.24 1.58 

The distance between your cmpsite and the campsite of others 5.21 1.44 

Seeing specific types of wildlife 5.07 1.48 

The mout of light visible at night which comes from outside the 

wilderness 

The level of trail maintenance 4.94 1.56 

The number of groups that pass within sight of your camp 4.89 1.53 

An area in the wilderness which is left completely primitive (no trails, 

bridges) 

Having a portion of the wilderness where camping location is uncohed 4.78 1.57 

Having trail markers placed by mgement (blazes, cairns, posts) 4.77 1.84 
The total amo- of time that your h in an area without seeing or 

anyone else 4.71 1.67 

The amount of restriction on where you may travel in 

the area 4.67 1.78 

The r of pennane-nt stmctures placed by 

wilderness 

Seeing an unusual type of plant 4.57 1.78 

The amount of restriction management places on where you may camp in 

the area 4.57 1.78 

The level of difficulty required to obtain an overnight permit 4.52 1.91 

The number of vehicles you see at the trailhead 4.48 1.69 

The number of fire rings fod in a campsite 4.47 1.75 

The number of days in a row you are able to stay in the wildemess on a 

given trip 

The number of signs designating locations in the wilderness 4.39 1.69 

The number of groups you pass during the day while traveling 4.27 1.65 

Having signs placed by wilderness managers which state regulations about 

wilderness 4.13 1.85 

The amount of wilderness which does not have trails in it 4.04 1.85 

The distance of campsites fiom trailhd 3.94 1.73 

The number of rangers you see in the area 3.70 1.85 

The amount of ranger contact in the back country to check your permit 

andlor explain regulations about use 3.65 1.90 

' Mean values based on the response format: 1 = not at all to 7 = extremely concerned. 

Determining Conditions Dimensions 

Selecting condition indicators of s e to wilderness recreatio~b, as proposed 

system discussed above, involves an ders of conditions which reflect the mltaimmio 

wildems recreation. ld use results such as those included in Table 1 to select a group of recreatiod 

aicaors, for which s be developed and monitow Wlmnted, based 

concern. This method encourage the selection of dicators and related s 

part of the overall rwreation experience eoggenbuck and others 1993). Such an 

account the different orienmions of recreationists toward the ideal of wilderness 

conditions influence recreational experiences. 
sis was conduetsd to det if broad co exist& which may be related to 

dhensional aspects of the expedence. Fact ysis was co 5 codition item. Factor analysis 

allows underlying prwesses to be interpreted from a large group of variables. This serves to simplify the data by 

30 or 40 variat>les to 5 or 10 faetors. The resulting faetors, k this caase, were comiderd EtrolPd codition 

specific ~icators (~ividd items). 

sis wa coductd usk pPirreiple compraents extrctction with 

is 1988). Selecting an app erpret'ation was aid& 

e explainrd by each fator alue sereen plots. A 

e six factors or eoditli 

on nsspdem"eve1 of concern for condition aiciator in wilderness. Gronbaelbfs alphrn wa 0.91 for the 35 item 

scale indicating a reiiable mwure. AIpha values for the fstors ranged between 0.70 and 0.85 indicating 

relaively strong reghifie for each of the six condition d well. 

relate to concepts embodied in the Wikderness ems of the fist 

Wilderness. Second in level of concern (between "concernedw arrd "very 

atedl to a "nabral features and processes" codition in wilderness. This 

seen, the presence of mbre forests asld other specific plant life. 

nly descriibsdi as "soEtude, " 

y other visitors, dismces bdweer; occupied cmpsites, nunober of 

, nmbr of veLcfes dlt the Ira&, and the without sming or 

s level of concern wm given a ma value of 496, or 

96F by four item relating to 

co&ementU o ~ght place on the resreatiod expefience. Item 

aacern levels for ing location, travel routes, arrrE rq e 

respdents were less ccaneernscl with the cohement codition tban that of soGt-Ende, the me811 value Sicatsd they 

were "conc~med, " F item ddkg with coditions related to 

travel in ddernws. " beltllg defmd by two item 

W dealt vvith havhg arw with no trail seems to measure a level of 

wildernms where even the most trditiod travel feature, trds, me not present. The sixth 

hteqreted as one of " gement aided travel," and was defmed by items related to the 

rs and signage conv ations and replations. These last two conditional do 

si*cant!y different levels of concern from the other four domrtins but do not difier from each other. Gohutta 

recreatioGts as a whole aped to be "somewhat concerned" with these travel related conditions. 

DISCUSSION 

Results of this study indicate that Cohutta Wilderness r~reationists perceive conditions to exist in a format 

which rtzflwts descrifiors embodiied in the WiIderness Act. The "~LUTXLII hpcts" domin can be iaterpreted as 

reiating to concepts in tbe de&tion of wilderness which refers to ive, -rat enviroment 

witb "the +ht of 's work substantially esses" domin has long 

 PI used in describing wadems and is defmd here by item wkch represent aicators of the flora 4 

preseet in the dderness. The presence 

hdtab @end- and others 1990). 

has been seen as one of the key att 

es be-twwn parties and noise levels dl of which measure concern for the presence of o&ers. 

s and. solitude are mentionedl specifically in the legal definition of wilderness and have long 

been seen as ' -gem@& goals. 
of litter in ites 0.76 6.64 

of litter seen dong the trail .83 6.58 

The vegetation damaged 

by pivlvious users .63 6.41 

The amount of My mature forest in the wilderness 

am% 

Obseming a natural ecosystem at work 

The number of diffmnt species of H.itdlife you see 

seeing specific types of wildwe 

The amount of solitude your group experiences 

The amount of noise heard in the area which comes 

from other wilderness visitors 

Thedis~betweero.yourcampsiteatldthe 

campsites of others in the area 

The number of group that pass within sight of 

Your camp 

The tdal amount of tbeyouil.party has in tht! area 

without swing or baring anyone else 

of vehie1es you see at a t .61 4.48 

The of groups you pass during the day while braveh .67 4.27 
Thle 2-Wilderness comfition for Cohutta Wilderness reer&io~sts-Continued 

Mean cornern CO-m 

arid Items Item loading for item for factor' 

Havbg a portion of the wGdemas where cmphg 

location is wohed 0.63 4.78 

The 

where you may travel in the area .59 4.67 

The amount of restktion -gem@& places on 

where you may camp in the area .82 4.57 

The level of difficulty required to obtain an overnight 

pennit .52 4.52 

ve travel: 

An area in the wilderness which is left completely 

primitive (no trails, bridges) 

The mount of the wilderness which does not have 

trails in it 

Having trail markers placed by management (blazes, 

cairns, posts) 

The ruunber of signs designating locations in 

wilderness 

Having signs placed by managers which state 

regulations about wilderness .68 4.13 

Different superscripts indicate sigdicantly different means at the 0.05 level using paired t-Tests. 

The last three codition domains which 

trds d b~dger; dehe coditisa d 

bive recreation is ofiten 

Roggeabuck rurct others f 1993) note that it is ddemas to mo~tor a varjiq of 

conctitiom given tb dserent g.pes of conditions pile dhemions sf a ddemws 

expr?ienice. me papose bre has been to dete 

exper?ience but w&ch dso reflset the broad poficy directives: of the Wilderness Act, Codition 
" are dl of conce 

r of users in aa area 

envlirome&, d of 

. As Roggenbuck and othem (1993) po 

have less to do with use, (i.e. liaer, veg-ion 

As with the Roggenbuck and others say (1993), 

were of gr&est concern to the Cohutta rwreationists reported on here. 

Beyod nmbrs of users d fie& bebviar, there are other comfitions w~ch may aueme ths perceived 

ty of the envkoment rand &w of the wit.demas expAence. gem and their bebvior my also be 

tmvel, there is a 

levels than behvior. 

the momt of restrict 

for a dimensiod visitor expnence, 

Orher @li.catiom hvolved. pKcy based. deckism. Hig- 

(1992) d MitcheB (1992) regiod pbicy for de&ehg caditiom sf 

concern in ddemas d the s s nesded to monitor them. this is a coqlidd issure, em aJadQhe 

wademess system could knefit set of condition oprative at the died level, to help guide 

the selection of dicaors. The of coditions are monitored my be more 

approphtely dictated by local or regional concerns. Such a process would provide a link to system wide pEcy 

while allowing flexiiility in ing "on the grod." This study suggests th& the use of condition 

contrain indicator items based on wilderness descriptors may help to address both the multidimensional mahrre of the 

wilderness experience and to meet policy based objectives of wilderness managers. 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

This research was supported by funds provided by the Intermountain Research Station, Forest Service, U.S. 

Department of Agriculture, and the College of Forest and Recreation Resources, Clemson University. 

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12(3): 229-24 1. 

Cole, D.N. 1990. Wilderness -gem@&: Has it come of age? Jou~ of Soil and Wer Conservation. 45(3):360- 

364. 

Dillxnan, D. A. 1978. Mail and telephone surveys. New York: Jobn Wiley and Sons. 325 p. 

Graefe, A.R.; Vaske, J.J.; Kuss, F.R. 1984. Social carrying capacity: An integration and 

of research. Leisure Sciences. 6:395-43 1. 

Hammitt, W.E. 1982. Cognitive domains of wilderness solitude. &vkom& and Behavior. 14(4):478-493. 
H M.A. 1989. CoMtive d of ddemess privacy: A field test ad further 

sure Sciences. 1 1 :293-301. 

, W.R.; Mmlow, L. C.F. 1968. Wadern= in the Pacific No~hwmt: 

erislics, values, ad eferencm. Res, Pap. P Portland, OR: U.S. 

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545 p. 

ler, B., eds. Prmdings 

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76-78. 

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the Mission Mountain Primitive Area. Res. Pap. INT-109. Ogden, UT: U.S. I) of Agriculture, 

Forrsst Service, Memountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 44 p. 

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hmeedings from the conference on ing America's enduring wadenzess resource; 1989 Sept. 1 1-17; 

St.Pau1, MN: University of Minnwota Extension Service, Tourism Center: 170-175. 

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the conference on mging hedcai's enduring wikdemess resource; 1989 Sept . 1 1 - 17. St. Paul, MN: 

University of Minnesota Extension Service, Tourism Center: 205-209. 

want wdderness mgement s 

dings from the workshop on 

ement, 1990; April 10-11, Ft. Coh, CO. Gen. Tech. Rep. PMW-305. Portland, OR: 

riculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station: 

79-83. 

Norusis, M.J. 1988. . Chicago: SPSS Inc. 527 p. 

Reed, P. ; Ham G. ; Barn, F. 1990. Magement principles for a 1990's wilderness revolution. In: Lime, David 

.W., ed. Proceedings from the conference on ging America's enduring wilderness resource; 1989 

September 1 1-17. St. Paul; MN: University of Minnesota Extension Service, Tourism Center: 250-256. 

Roggenbuck, J. W. ; W , D.R.; Watson, A.E. 1993, De acceptable coditions in wilderness. 

bviromentaf Mmgement . 17(2): 187- 197. 

, B.B. ; Ulehla, Z.J. 1977. Psychological rewd valu- associ&d with wilderness use: a hction 

reinforcement approach. hvkoment d khvior. 9(1):44-65. 

Seheyer, R. ; Roggenbuck, J.W. 1978. The influence of expe~ence expeetations on crowdkg perceptions and 

swid-psychological cwing capcitim . bisure Sciencess . l(4): 373-394. 

, G.H. 1973. Vkitor perception of wildemms recreation kg capciv. Res. Pap. INT-142. Ogden, 

UT: U.S. D of Agriculture, Forest Service d Range Expehent Station. 61 p. 
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lei- and =neation: the . State College, PA: 

497-516. 

Watson, A.E. 1990, Why is it to mo&tor social codtiom in 

hmscKiings &om th 

St. Paul, MN: Unive 

Watson, A.E. ; Cole, D.N. 1993. LAC indicators: of progress ad list 

LAC Ideas Book. Wawn, DC: U.S. Agriculture, Fomt 

Watson, AX.; W , D.R.; Roggenbuek, J.W. 1992. Visitor ckbristics amt for three N&d 

Fomt wildemwsw in the South. Res. Pap. INT-455. Ogden, UT: U.S. I) 

Service ad Range Experiment Station. 27 p. 

Young, J.M. 1990. Ident social indicators and stamtards 

Wilderness using e social judgment approach. B 

and State University. 21 1 p. Thesis. 

Adirondack Park Residents' Perceptions of Development 

and the Forest Products Industry in the 

Adirondack Park1 

Robert B. Buerger and Thomas E. Pasquare110 

ring the summer of 1989,330 Adiromtack park residents 

questio- regarding their perceptions of the effeGts of 

recreation development and the forest products industry on the Adirondack Park. 

The results indicate that park residents perceive negative mvit0nm.d effects 

occurring from growing recreation developent while viewing the forest products 

industry as important in protecting the cWer of the park. 

INTRODUCTION 

The Adirondack Park, located in northern New York, combines private (60 percent) and public (40 percent) 

lands in a unique six million acre preserve that is approximately the size of the state of Vermont or Massachusetts--an 

n acres larger than Yellowstone, Yosemite, Granrt Canyon, and Everglades Natiod Parks 

combined. 

Within the Park's boundaries are 2,300 lakes and ponds, 1,200 miles of river, 30,000 miles of brooks and 

streams, 43 state camp grods, 2,000 miles of hiking trails, 42 peaks over 4,000 feet in elevation, numerous theme 

parks, "upscalew shopping districts ad other tourist attractions, and, often overlooked amidst this physical inventory, 

er of a million permanent and seasonal residents. Several million visitors each year make the park one 

of the premier recreation areas in the nation (Liroff and Davis 1981). 

The nearly 2.5 million acres of Forest Preserve @ublic) lands are protected by one of the strongest pieces of 

wilderness legislation ever passed (1894) in the United States, ad lie side by side with the approximately 1.1 million 

acres privately owned by the forest products indust$ (Smith 1990). In recent years, industrial timberland holdings 

in the Adkondacks have been the target of corporate speculators; the hll value of such land has not been reflected in 

's stock. Thus, a buyer with little interest in forest products can purchase a co for the 

price of the company's stock, break: it into its various compone&s, such as processing plants and timberlads, d sell 

them separately for short-term gain. Under these circumstances, industrial forest lads in the Adiro&cks could be 

far sale with increasing frequency in the near hture (Empire State Forest Products Association 1990). "The 

f~aancial pressures on tiaiberland-o*g firms force them to view their forest laads as "profit centers. " They must 

Robea E. Buerger is Associate Professor in the Departrnent of Health, Physical Education, and Reemtion at the Usiverait)r of Noah Camh 

at wfmington, Urilmington, NC. Thomas E. Paquarello is Associate Professof in the Departrnent of Political Science at the State Usiveraity 

of New York College at Cortland, Cortland, NY. 

'This work is the result of research sjmnsored by the State University of New York Research Foundation and the State 

University of New York College at Cortlmd Faculty Research Program. 

*?he lands of the state, now owned or hereafter acquired, con&tuting the forest preserve as now fmed by law, shall forever be kept ae wild 

forest Ms. They shalt not be leased, sold or exchanged, or taken by any corporation, public or private, nor shall the timber thereon be mld, 

removed, or destroyed. "-Article XIV of the New York State Constitution. 
n 

lifestyle of the park's rw 

Adiro&ch in the Twenq-First Gentu+y 1990). 

Much of the forest p"o$uc~s 

Uork SlaLe Governor 

entehg a new pried. in the 

pent that my thden the 

kondacb in the Twq-Fh 

The cmtinud development of the dtedion of ths Paflk's 

orce on No*= Fomt 

The recently released Report of the Governor's Task Force on the Forest Product's 

State (1989) concluded that: "Many publics have an davorable perception of forest 

public support is essential to the continud existence of fo 

fiurther development. " In an era when foresters and enviro 

of the cowry, the fate of the forest products 

the industry in the 21st century. 

RESEARCH QUESTIONS 

To better understand how park residents perceive the forest products industry amf the of c 

land use on the Adirondack Park the following research questions were developed. 

1. Wbat are the perceptions of Adirondack Park residents tow& the from comemial recreation and 

tourism development on environmental d lifestyle within the Adirondack Park? 

2. Wbat are the perceptions of Adirondack Park residents towards the forest prhcts try lW within thtt. 

Adirondack park? 

METHODS 

With the help of the Adirondack Park Agency, the New York S 

rmidents ;in five general ditrnemiom: demogmp&cs, mrdion, devel 
RESULTS 

Respondents averaged 55 y of age, 14.2 years of schooling, ad 10 months of residence in the park each 

year. The household income was $30,000. Most of the respodenb were mde ad most had lived in the 

park for all or most of their adult Me. My 8 percent of the respondeds rented their home, 

id. T'he demogmpkc results from the non-respcmse telephone survey were 

Adirodck Park ~estioee present an interesting insight into residenb' perceptions 

ry as it relates to changing ld use within the Adirondack Park. In reviewing the results, 

residents' rwponses can be discussed from two perspectives: (1) residents' perceptions of the envkonmed of 

park natural rmources and (2) residents' perceptions of the forest products industry within the Adirondack Park. 

ENVDROmNTa QUALITY 

Based on both the New York State Governor's Office (Commission on the Adirondacks in the Twenty-First 

989) and the media's 1988, 1989; huer 1988; Gallagher 1987; Kuntsler 1989) portrayal of the rapid 

omrnercial recreation developmeot, park residents were questioned about the 

rate of development and associated impacts of such development. From the data collected, park residents can be 

development within the Adirondack park occurring too fast, having a negative impact on 

live outside the park are largely respons&le for chges resulting from developmed. 

table 1 shows that by a wide margin, mpondents felt the rate of development within the park 

percent reprted it is WCU too ~icMy). In com~son, only 7.8 prcent of subjects felt that 

slowly. As a result o ed rate of development, an overwhe 

(72.7 preent) of those who respondsd perceivedl the " " of the Adirodck Park is chgkg, 

3 rep* the effect Adirondack Park residents believe e in "character* is having on the park. As can be 

sea, 63.9 percent of the respondents perceive enviromental conditions within the Adirondack Park as declining. In 

on, 6.7 percent of subjects see environmental conditions improving. Interestingly, a similar percentage (7.8 

percent) of respondents also thought the rate of development was too slow, table 1. 

Table l-Adirondlack Park residents' perceptions of the rate of development within the Adirondack Park (n = 324) 

Perception of development Frequency Percent 

Too fast 190 58.6 

About right 86 26.5 

Too slow 25 7.8 

Don't know 23 .-.zJ. 

Total 324 100.0 
Disagree 43 13.1 

Don't know A.2 3.6 

Tdal 330 100.0 

Perception of condition Frequency Pereeant 

moving 22 6.7 

About same 96 29.4 

Dm- 63.9 

Total 327 100.0 

asked who is responsible for increased dev 

believe pple who live outside the park 

develope& rwpomllb 

who live oubide the . However, ths +ority (64.9 

Uorkers who live outside the Adirondack Park have tso mch eontrol over wbat ha~rpens in tlhs pk, tables 4 and 5. 

Table 6MkoAek Park residents' prcefiion of vvho is respomble for mw dev 

People outside pk 182 56.2 

People inside park 36 11.1 

hideIoutsidrt U16 

Total 324 100.0 
Table 5-Adkoaidack Park residents' perception of the =out of control New Yorkers who live 

Adirondack Park have over what happew in the park (n = 328) 

Too much 213 64-9 

No opinion 33. XU. 

One argument often used to offset concern over enviror.unental and quahty of Me changes due to increased 

development is the economic benefit that will be gained by local residents prmady due to the creation of new jobs. 

When residents sampled were asked whether jobs created by development are worth the changes they cause in the 

Adirondack park, almost three to one (64.9 percent to 26.4 percent) responded that they felt jobs were not worth the 

associated changes, table 6. 

Table 6-Adirondack Park residents' perception of whether jobs created by development are worth the changes they 

cause to the Adirondack Park (n = 322) 

Perception towards jobs Frequency Percent 

~obb worth changes 85 26.4 

Jobs not worth changes 209 64.9 

Don't know 28 -82 

Total 322 100.0 

Forest Products Industry 

The forest products industry historically has been a major component of the Adiromtack regional eeomazy. 

The question of perceived importance of such an industry in a period of economic growth from the tourism and 

commercial recreation sector would seem important in dersaing changing land use within the Adirondack Park. 

Residents questioned about the forest products try located within the park responded positively c 

t of the industry and its level of activ the park. When asked about the effect the forest 

industry has on the Adkobck Park, 42.2 percent of those believe the forest prodhucts 

ekt on the park. In commson, only 28.9 percent of res viewed the effect to be 

Simifarly , reside& felt the forest products awtry should "keep prhtion levels the samew (55.2 prcent) or 

"increslse production levels" (15.5 percent). Only 23.6 percent of those who e the prhction level 

should be decreased, table 8. respondents felt so strongly about role that the forest 

products industry plays in the ark that 73.6 percent believe New hould provide the forest 

try with kcentives (tax incentives, technical assistance, subsidies, etc.) to keep their 

My 11.8 percent of the sample disagreed with the idea of incentives, table 9, 
Table 7-Adkohck Park residents' prception of the effect of the forest products dustry on Park 

fn = 3251 

Neg&ive effsct 94 28.9 

Positive effect 137 42.2 

No opinion 1ZS 17.8 

Table 8-Adirondack Park residents' perception of the forest products industry production level in the Adironclack 

Park In = 3305 

Resided 's perceptions Frequency Percent 

hcrease production 51 15.5 

Decrease production 78 23.6 

Keep n same 182 55.2 

No opinion 19 -52 

Table 9-Adirondack Park residents' perceptions towards whether New York State should provide the forest products 

industry with incentives to keep their land in production (n = 330) 

Should provide incentives Frequency Percent 

Agree 243 73.6 

Neutral 35 10.6 

Disagree 39 11.8 

DISCUSSION 

As a result of the pest of Adirodck residents regarding dev 

reereation and tourism), it seems 

the park. Conversely, the fores o the protection of both the 

and enviromental f the park. Of those respding, 

industy while 12. have jobs in the reereationltouris 

ennpfoyment bias would not seem to be a factor in subject responses. A closer look at the results suggwt some 

fu&er insight into Adirodck Park residents' perceptions. Reside&' respmes indicate they do not have control 
a developend perspective and that potentid 

suggest those Living 

n of envkomenM 

than economjc 

Since most of the new developent within the park is tourism and comercial recreation related, it can be 

s that much of residents ' c over developent is related to changes in the visual and social 

envmmed as opposed to actual n of the physical enviroment (air pollution, water contamination, etc.). 

character of the park as viewed by residents may be associated with increased crowding, 

(from natural scenery to vacation homes, tourism supported businesses, etc.), and changing 

(mraVtraditisnal to seasodrecreatioaal). Associated economic growth (i.e., jobs) does not 

appear to offset residents' negative view of herwed development. 

The forest producb industry controls over one million acres, nearly a third of all private lands within the 

A&o&ck Park. From the data collected, it seem that park residents view the forest products industry as important 

in protecting the character of the park. Residents may believe that if forest products dustry lands go out of 

production, these lands would then be sold for commercial development. As previous results have shown, residents 

belicjve increased developent is changing the ter of the Adkodck Park, Table 2. Consequently, paurk 

rest products industry through state incentives as a way of protecting the 

for new development. Logically , park residents believe (62.2 percent) 

that if forest product lands are going out of production, the State of New York should buy them so these lands could 

be added to the Forest Preserve, thus protecting them from development. 

CONCLUSIONS 

The present societal concern for environmental protection bas led to a simplistic view by the public 

regarding management of natural resources. That view assumes industries that are consumptive in nature with regard 

ral resources degrade the environment ad need to be curtailed. On the other had, industries that 

focus on non-eonsmpive enjoyment of natural resource are positive and the associated growth of such industrim 

should be promotd. The results of this study of changing land use in the Adkondack park would indicate that the 

reverse would be true. Specificdy , that the forest products industry is viewed positively by residents even though in 

the short-tern it is comumptive ia nature. Conversely, the public perceives the growth of the commercial recreation 

as having major negative impcts on both quality of life and the park's mhral envkoment. 

arity with the hpct of the forest products industry would seero much more acceptatale to park 

au?d type cbge associatd with tourism 

creation of the Adirondack Park was a d 

OOk. T&yfs view by park refidents of role the forest 

g tbe enviromentaI an$ social quafity of the region 

the indmtry in. tfae Adironctack Park. This public perception is illustrated in the strong support for 

the forest prducts inrIustry even when it would require public expewlitures to contkue present levels of 

activity. 

As ~s study suggests, those charged with f forest rmources both in the 

sectors nd to be aware of pblic sentiment regard ement policies. Lack of d 

well result in rnidite~ted ducatiod efforts, public cohsion, and at the extreme, coact betwwn 

ers dUCld the public. Perhaps the worst &s@e from a ement perspective with regard to worbg 
s for sale. Sywuse Herald brim. D 18:Cl. 

ervation and devel e Herald American. March 12:01. 

, P. 1988. Lad wars. Adirondack Lge. Nov/Dw:37-43, 85-88. 

Cohsion on the mondaclm in the Twenty-First Century. 1989. Adirondack Park update. Albany, NY. 24 p. 

Cohsion on the Adirondacks in the Twenty-First Century. 1990. The Adironclack Park in the twenty-first century. 

Asbany, w. 96 p' 

Dmm, J. 1990. Demographic and economic chcteristics of the Adirondack Park. The Adironclack Park in the 

Twenty-First Century: Technical Reports. AIbany, NY. The Commission on the Adirondaclm in the TwentyFirst C-. 2: 10-28. 

Empire State Forest Products Association. 1990. New York forest policy . Albany, NY. 56 p. 

Gallagher, J. 1987. Developers dash into wilderness. The Saratogian. May 31:Al. 

Geisler, C. ; Jws-, R. ; Kenny, S. [and others]. 1985. Adirondack wner survey: Rural Sociology 

145. Ifhaea, NY: Cornell University. 39 p. 

Govemr's Task Force on Fortu~t try. 1989. Capturing the potential of New York's forests. Albany, NY. Office 

of the Governor. 22 p. 

Govmr's Task Force on Northern Forest Lands. 1990. The northern forest lands: strategy for their firture. Rutland, 

VT: U.S. Forest Service. 206 p. 

K-ler, J. 1989. For sale: hands of pristine Adirondack acres. The New York Thes Magazine. June 18:22-25, 

30-33. 

Litoff, R.; Davis, G. 1981. Protecting open space: land use control in the Adirondack Park. Cambridge, MA: 

*el' CO. 

Seh, D. 1990. Forest res of the AdirO]odacks. The Adironclack Park in the TweaJty-Fbt C 

Reports. Albany, NY: The Commission on the Adirondacks in the Twenty-First Century. 1:546-587. 
Public Parks, Recreation, and Museums' Role in the 

International Tourism Economy: Florida as a Case Study 

Neha Shah, Cecilia Keller, and John C. Crotts 

INmWATIONAL TOURISM AND THE U.S. ECONOMY 

Deficit, long a big word in discussions of U.S. tourism and the balance of trade, has disappeared hm the 

industry vocabulary. For the third straight year, the U.S. earned more from international visitors than U.S. travelers 

spent abroad, table 1. In 199 1, approximately 16.1 million overseas visitors came to the U. S. and spent $64.4 billion 

and created a tourism surplus of $16.8 billion. In 1991, international receipts put tourism ahead of agricultural goods 

($40.1 billion) and chemicals ($36 billion) as an export generator. 

Tourism is Florida's number one industry generating $28 billion in revenue. In 1991, Florih received 41 

million visitors which included 5.9 million visitors from overseas markets. This number of overseas arrivals represent 

an increase of 13 percent over 1990. Canada was the largest source of international visitors to Florida with 2,349,500 

visitors in 1991, followed by residents of the United Kingdom with 879,175 visits, and Germany with 383,628 

visitors. 

Table 1-Balance of payment in the tourism sector 1984-91 (in $ billions) 

Expenditures 

Year Foreign visitor receipts overseas Balance 

Source: United States Travel and Tourism Association, 1992. 

Neal Shah and Cecilia Keller are graduate students, John C. Crotta is Assistant Professor and Director, Center for Tourism Research asxi 

Development, Dept. of Recreation, Parks, and Tourism, University of Horida. 
The pup= of this paper is to describe Florida as a tourism destination and the role o 

mwum in the Floridsi and U.S. tourism econo~es. More 

public recreation agencies aad a state's tourism mrketing organilations. 

mdersore the imp c reereation. agencies in Florida's and the U.S. 

inkrnational data is &am the United States Tmvel md TouGsrm 

eQ the "The Srrrvey sf Irtkmatioml tair TmveIiers. * The gurney b kn conducte*d 

eantkuowly each month at nrsdsdy selected ~vrts ad mdody selecu whdaledl Rights 

visitors pfior to laving the cowtry. The U~vemity of Florida the USmA's sunrey 

rwpndenQ whose visits to the U.S. included a stay in Florida. iw are exeluded in Qhe 

an travel to Florida is estimted though Statistics Canada's "In Sumey . " The survey is 

stered by telephone to mdody selected households in b&, mked to describe their 

trips within the previous 2 month periods. halyzed are ,444 meets who 

reported visits to Florida in 199 1. 

IVHY IS FLORIDA'S INTEMATIONAL TOURISM ECONOMY SO STRONG? 

There are three factors that drive the international tourism market to Florida. First, the U.S. dollar for 

the last mveral years has been relatively weak against the foreip cuf-fencies of Europe and Asia's mpplier 

nations. This situation d the rest of tbg, corntry a bmgain as coqmed to other 

destinations. Payment night is not musual for a modest room in Italy, Fmce, 

Hotel and motel room in Orlsundo averaged $67.26 a night in 1991 (Flo~da Depa&ment of 

Many Europeans find that it is actually cheaper to vacation in Floida thm in the Medite 

Saond, Florida's year-round warn weather plays a siMficant role in why foreimem chmse: Flofiba. 

Picture the foggy, draw days of London weather or the Arctic chill of Canacfa juxtaposed against a 75 degree 

Fahrenheit (23 C")winr day in Florida. 

Finally, international tourists prefer destinations that have a wide range of places to see and ~gs to do. 

In addition to visiting major theme parks such as Walt Disney World, Sea World, etc., interntiom1 visitors can 

be found in such diverse locations as the Florida Everglades, state parks, and wildlife presewes. According to the 

Florida Division of Tourism (1992), European. holiday visitors are beco more adventuresome in their choice 

of Florih destinations, often heading off to more remote resorts arad attractions across the state. Many are 

looking for new and different experiences since they are typically high rept visitors to the state and U.S. (mean 

of 4.6 visits to the U.S. in the past 5 years). 

THE SELLING OF INTERNATIONAL TRAVEL TO FLORIDA 

One would be naive to think of Florida as a single travel entity co of Orlando theme parks and 

nearby hches. Rather, Florida is a multitude of destinations raaghg parks ad wildlife 

presemes in the sou& to the fresh water springs in the north. nough m iqressive 21.4 perwnt of all 

htematiomai visitors to Florida visited aa amusment park (12.7 prcent visiLe8 Walt Dimey World) in 1991, 9.1 

percent visit& a natioml or state park in Floridtr, 8.9 peacent visiM a bistor?icaf sib, and 5.5 percent visited a 

meum or art gallery. Florida" estioml, stale, md local parks me bcrmhgly bhg recod& ras ran i 

compnent of the state's eonornic development strategies emhmi&g tourism. 

international travel to Florida i rative 

, and a varieq of other 

. the decision to visit 

the area has been mde, restaurants, lodging establisbents, and otlaer pr-ivate businesses benefit from the 
agers are illquip* and ill-at to be associated with tourism businesses 

fwus has been protection rather than promotion. Nevertheless, have 

and promoted tourism in such a way that the creation of parks is seen mie 

development. 

EMHMCING PUBLIC P S, WCmATION, AND MUSEUMS' ROLE 

IN TOUMSM DEVELOPMEK 

The task of defining and analyzing markets underlies most, if not all, of the strategic decisions tourism 

mrketing organizations must make in order to c effectively in the international tourism arena. In the 

Florida experience, the following statistics provi -line direction for understanding international demand for 

public parks and cultural opportunities in the state (table 2). In 1991, international demand for Florida's historic 

, parks, museums and art galleries came primarily from English speaking countries. Nearly all were on 

vacations, spent more than a week on their U.S. trip and contributed much to Florida's and the U.S. economy. 

Within a tourism marketing context, protecting and enhancing the product is a means of ensuring future success 

in a tourism development strategy. 

SmNGTI-IEN'ING THE PAIRTNERSHIP BETWEEN PUBLIC RECREATION 

AND TOURISM MARKETING 0RGANIZ;ATIONS 

Creating a partnership among public park wagers and business persons is needed to ensure that 

strategies are defined to guide tourism development in an appropriate and sustainable manner. The effort goes 

beyond simply being a form of good public relations. Instead, input from parks and natural resource managers 

can provide "a balance to the short term objectives of the busioess sector, and possibly encourage greater variation 

flavor in future projects" (Murphy 1985). Some business leaders may understand this approach as 

putting the "resource first, tourists second. " However, research suggests that the desired experiences of visitors 

are to interact with pristine natural and cultural resources (Jenkins 1988). Therefore, such a mechanism may be a 

case of "resource first, tourist first. " 

Strategies for tourism development espoused by such partnerships in Florida attempt to draw upon the 

unique character of the host community. These strategies bring the type of economic development that provides 

recreation and conservation benefits rather than imposing an extra burden on residents; furthermore, they enhance 

social and environmental landscape. 

Positive elements of a tourism development strategy cited in the literature include (Cox 1985; Pigram 

1992): 

+ development of the community's sense of place, reflected in architectural style and sensitivity to the 

unique heritage and enviroment; 

+ preservation, protection, and ehancement of the quality of the natural and cultural resources which 

are the basis of the community's tourism appeal; 

+ fostehg development of additional visitor attractions with roots in the comuGty which 

eoqliment the local attributes; 

+ development of visitor services that enhance the local heritage and quality of life; and 

+ endorsement of growth where and when it improves things, rather than where it is destwtive or 

the carrying capacity of the natural environment nor the limits of the social enviroment, 

beyond which the quality of community life is adversely affected. 

All these elements of a sustainable tourism development plan must not be considered a barrier to 

economic development but a resource and opportunity. Similar elements have been echoed in tourism 

development strategies in Australia, Canada and New Zealand. The new era of enviromental concern in the U.S. 
their unique social and 

Visit historic State/federal park Mmumlast 

Selected variables Units places visitors gallery visitors 

num. 

nurn. 

Wei@ted totals 

Ov visitors nm. 322,068 

Canadian visitors num. 256,500 

Total estimated 

visitors num. 578,568 

Residence of visitor 

Canada - Ontario 

United agdorn Pet- 21.4 17.9 6.1 

Pemt on vacation 

Overseas visitors Ft 

Canadian visitors Ft 

Median nights in U. S. 

Overseas visitors nm. 8 

Canadian visitors num. 14-16 

Mean expenditures for 

overseas visitors per travel 

P=W*P do1 . 1,693 

Median expenditures for 

an es~mm are visitor estinratai; due to different methdologies and 

of the response categories. 



The Forest Service, U.S. Department of 

Agriculture, is dedicated to the principle of 

multiple use management of the Nation's 

forest resources for sustained yields of wood, water, forage, 

wildlife, and recreation. Through forestry research, 

cooperation with the States and private forest owners, 

and management of the National Forests and National 

Grasslands, it strives-as directed by Congress-to provide 

increasingly greater service to a growing Nation. 

The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) 

Forest Service is a diverse organization comini t ted to equal 

opportunity in employme~~t and program delivery. USDA 

prohibits discrimination on the basis of race, color, national 

origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political affiliation 

and familial status. Persons believing they have been 

discriminated against should contact the Secretary, U .S. 

Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC 20250, or call 

202-720-7327 (voice), or 202-720-1127 (TDD).