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IONOSONDE OBSERVATIONS OF

ARTIFICIALLY PRODUCED

ELECTRON CLOUDS

FIREFLY I960

BY J. W. WRIGHT

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS
THE NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

Functions and Activities

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with these standards; the determination of physical constants and properties of materials; the development of methods and instruments for testing materials, devices, and structures; advisory services to government agencies on scientific and technical problems; invention and development of devices to serve special needs of the Government; and the development of standard practices, codes, and specifications. The work includes basic

and applied research, development, engineering, instrumentation, testing, evaluation, calibration services,

and various consultation and information services. Research projects are also performed for other government

agencies when the work relates to and supplements the basic program of the Bureau or when the Bureau's

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NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

technical ^Ylote

April 1, 1962

IONOSONDE OBSERVATIONS OF ARTIFICIALLY PRODUCED

ELECTRON CLOUDS: FIREFLY I960

By J. W. Wright

The work described here was

conducted with support from the

United States Air Force Cambridge

Research Laboratories under

Contract No. PRO 60 - 599.

NBS Technical Notes are designed to supplement the Bureau's regular publications program. They provide a means for making available scientific data that are of transient or limited interest. Technical Notes may be

listed or referred to in the open literature. They are for sale by the Office of Technical Services, U. S. Department of Commerce, Washington 25, D. C.

DISTRIBUTED BY

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

OFFICE OF TECHNICAL SERVICES

WASHINGTON 25, D. C.

Price $2 . 50

CONTENTS

PAGE

ABSTRACT ii

FOREWORD iii

I. INTRODUCTION 1

Summary Table of i960 Experiments and Results 3

II. CONDITION OF THE IONOSPHERE k

A

.

Solar Activity 8

1

.

General Variations 1959/1960 8

2

.

Solar Flare Effects 10

B. Geomagnetic Activity 12

C

.

Ionization Below the Nighttime F Region 12

D. Sporadic E 15

1

.

Occurrence "by Type 15

2

.

Electron Densities in Sporadic E 19

E

.

Meteoric Influx 20

F. f-plots for Selected Shot Days 22

III. DETAILS OF INDIVIDUAL EXPERIMENTS, FIREFLY i960 32

A . Dawn Electron Clouds 32

Margie (August 13 ; 7^ km) 33

Marie (August 9; 82 km) 36

Lola (August 15 ; 83 km) 36

Zelda (August 25 j 102 km) 39

Peggy (August 16; 103 km) k2

Olive (August 19; 106 km) kf

Jeannie (August 10; 109 km) 50

Susan (August 17; ilk km) 53

Dolly (July 27; 115 km) 56
CONTENTS

(Continued)

PAGE

B. Night Electron Clouds 60

Cathy (July 29; 94 km) 60

Betsy (August 8; 108 km) 61

Amy (July 28; 111km) 64

Ruthy (August 1; 113 km) 67

Gerta (August 6; 1 38 km) 67

C. Trail Electron Clouds (Janet, Hilda) 70

D. High Explosive Detonations (Carry, Arlene) 72

E. ONR Project TP Arc Experiments (Annie, Norma) .. 74

F. Electron Removal (Rena; August 19; 105 km) 76

G. Other Experiments (Linda, Mavis, Francis, Lily,

Hedy, Ida) 80

IV. SUMMARY: POSITION, DRIFT AND GROWTH OF

ELECTRON CLOUDS 83

V. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE PROGRAMS 89

REFERENCES 91

APPENDIX I -- NOTES ON INSTRUMENTATION

A. Characteristics of the Ionosondes, 1959/1960 92

B. Antennas 95

C. Range Accuracies . 95

D. Amplitude/Range vs. Time Recordings 98

APPENDIX 2 -- METHODS FOR DETERMINATION OF CLOUD

POSITION, DRIFT, AND GROWTH FROM IONOSONDE

RANGE DATA 100

APPENDIX 3 -- A SUGGESTION FOR THE STUDY OF ELECTRON

RECOMBINATION IN THE F2 REGION BY THE RELEASE

OF GASES FROM ROCKETS 104
11

IONOSONDE OBSERVATIONS OF ARTIFICIALLY PRODUCED

ELECTRON CLOUDS: FIREFLY I960

by

J. W. Wright

ABSTRACT

Ionospheric soundings obtained at four sites near Eglin

AFB during Firefly I960 are analyzed for Point Electron

Cloud position and movement. The condition of the ionosphere

during these experiments is discussed and compared with conditions during the Firefly 1959 series.

iii

FOREWORD

The July-August i960 series of chemical releases from rockets

in the upper atmosphere was conducted at Eglin Air Force Base, Florida

by the Air Force Cambridge Research Laboratories (GRD) with the support of ARPA. This series and its previous counterpart in SeptemberOctober 1959 3 have a variety of objectives of military significance

in missile and communications work which will not directly concern us

here. However, the experiments have a very considerable scientific

value in studies of the photochemistry and aerodynamics of the upper

atmosphere; progress in these fields is perhaps as important to the

practical objectives noted above as the direct engineering results

themselves.

The National Bureau of Standards has played an increasingly

active role in this program, initially (Smokepuff and Firefly 1959)

>

by providing technical guidance to the U. S. Army Signal Corps in

ionosonde instrumentation. In the current series NBS has been re- sponsible for the development of echo-amplitude recording techniques,

for the refinement of range measuring accuracy, for the operation of

the "central" ionosonde installation (A-k) , and for the analysis of

the resulting data for position and drift information, control data,

and some comparisons of results from the 1959 and 19^0 series. This

report does not -- and could not, with the time and information available — attempt to exhaust even these data-analysis opportunities;

much still remains to be done, particularly in the relation of our results to those of other observers and workers participating in the

program.

NBS participation in the i960 Firefly program has depended

heavily on the combined efforts of members of the Equipment Development Group and The Electron Density Profile Group of the Ionosphere

Research and Propagation Division. Especially to be mentioned are

Mr. E.J. Violette, Mr. J. J. Pitts, and Mr. R. Schumaker, of the

former group, and Mr. G. H. Stonehocker, Mrs. L. Wescott, Mr. S. Opitz,
IV

Mr. D. J. Brown, and Mrs. I. Ford, of the latter group. The assistance of Mr. D. McKinnis in the analysis of the data and in programming the CDC 160^- computer is also gratefully acknowledged.
IONOSONDE OBSERVATIONS OF ARTIFICIALLY PRODUCED

ELECTRON CLOUDS: FIREFLY i960

by

J. W. Wright

I . INTRODUCTION

It is the purpose of this report to describe and discuss some

of the results obtained by the use of conventional ionosphere sounders

(ionosondes) in the observation of effects of the release of chemicals in the upper atmosphere from research rockets. This report is

directed especially to the data collected during "Project Firefly

i960", but comparisons with the results of "Firefly 19^9" liave been

made wherever practical.

By permitting a measurement of the radio distance to ionized

clouds over a wide range of radio frequencies, the ionosonde is a valuable tool for the study of cloud position, drift, and growth.

Additional information on the electron content of such clouds, and

on their radar cross section, results from the variable frequency

nature of these observations. (The latter form the subject of a parallel report from the U. S. Army Signal Corps Radio Propagation

Agency, based upon data from the same installations as used here).

Finally, as the basic tool for ionospheric exploration, the ionosonde gives information on the condition of the ionosphere — on the electron distribution, occurrence of disturbances and "sporadic

E", and on the interaction — if any -- of the chemical cloud with

the ionized medium.
The i960 Firefly series was observed by four model C-^4- ionosondes, located at A-k, Eglin Auxiliary Field- 1, Barin NAS Alabama,

and Tyndall AFB. Florida. The disposition of the stations may be

seen on any of the maps of Section III, showing cloud loci.

This report is organized in 5 sections. We start with a general,

and then specific, discussion of the condition of the ionosphere during the 1959 and i960 Firefly series in Section II, attempting to

relate our conclusions to the observed frequency and height variations of the electron clouds. In Section III there follows a more

detailed discussion of the various experiments comprising Firefly

i960, based upon the ionosonde range and frequency data. A discussion and survey of position and drift results is given in Section IV.

Finally, in Section V some suggestions for future programs are offered.

Appendices at the back of the report describe the instrumentation, our efforts to eliminate range errors, and the methods of

computing position and drift results.
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II. CONDITION OF THE IONOSPHERE

INTRODUCTION

In many ways, the E region is probably the most difficult -- and the most interesting -- region of the ionosphere in which to do

experiments of the kind under discussion here. It is perhaps the

least understood of the three main regions of the ionosphere, and

is almost as difficult to observe accurately as the D region. These

difficulties stem from the relatively low electron densities of the

E region (particularly at night) requiring observations on the medium

and low radio frequencies where radio interference is especially

troublesome; from the high absorption levels for these radio frequencies in this region; and finally, from the great complexity of

the E region itself: it is the seat of the ionospheric "dynamo"

system, of strong winds at highly variable velocity, and of such

poorly understood phenomena as those known collectively as "sporadic

E."

Clearly, any discussion of man-made phenomena in the E region

should proceed from an understanding of the natural E region, or,

failing that, from a knowledge of how E region conditions during

the experiments compare with each other and with what might be

called "average" conditions. Unfortunately, adequate control data

do not exist for the Eglin AFB area, partly because no long series

of observations have been made at that location, partly because

of the previously mentioned difficulties of making nighttime E

region electron density measurements under any circumstances.

In the following sections, we present some data on the observable

(and inferrable) condition of the ionosphere and the solar and geomagnetic conditions affecting it. Clear conclusions regarding the

relation of ionospheric conditions to the chemical release experiments are still not possible, but some indication may be found of

the natural phenomena which should be taken into account In future

experiments.
FIREFLY I960 DAWN ELECTRON CLOUDS

Figure 1: ELECTRON CLOUD CRITICAL FREQUENCIES VS.

TIME, FIREFLY i960 DAWN SERIES. STATION k-k j FIELD-1 ; BARIN FIELD - -j TYNDALL . HATCHED AREAS SHOW THE DURATION AND MAGNITUDE OF SOLAR

FLARES OCCURRING DURING THE EXPERIMENT. VALUES OF

AVERAGE foE ( ) AND INSTANTANEOUS foE ( ) AS INFERRED IN SECTION II C ARE ALSO SHOWN.
FIREFLY 1959 DAWN ELECTRON CLOUDS

1000 1500 2000 SEC0N0S AFTER BURST

FIREFLY ALPHA

OCT. 30,1939 090432 104 km

:\y

7lm/i SW

-t.E

, #>/////#//&!>>

500 1000 I5O0 SECONDS AFTER BURSTZOOO 250O 3000

Figure 2.X ELECTRON CLOUD CRITICAL FREQUENCIES VS TIME,

FIREFLY 1959, DAWN SERIES. STATION k-k j WEAVER

SITE - — . .. HATCHED AREAS SHOW THE DURATION AND

MAGNITUDE OF SOLAR FIARES OCCURRING DURING THE EXPERIMENT. VALUES OF AVERAGE foE ( ) AND INSTANTANEOUS

foE ( ) AS INFERRED IN SECTION II C ARE ALSO SHOWN.
7

FIREFLY 1959/1960 NIGHT ELECTRON CLOUDS

Figure 3 1 ELECTRON CLOUD CRITICAL FREQUENCIES VS TIME,

FIREFLY 1959, I960 NIGHT SERIES. STATION A*4, j FIELD 1 OR WEAVER, -• j BARLN FIELD --.. J TYNDALL . HATCHED AREAS SHOW THE DURATION AND

MAGNITUDE OF SOLAR FLARES OCCURRING DURING THE EXPERIMENT. VALUES OF AVERAGE foE ( —) AND INSTANTANEOUS

foE ( ) AS INFERRED IN SECTION II C ARE ALSO SHOWN.
8

Figures 1, 2, and 3 showing the variation of maximum radio frequency (below 25 Mc) vs time, for each of the 1959* lj60 electron

cloud experiments, are introduced immediately in order to establish

the pertinence of the solar and ionospheric phenomena under discussion. In addition to the cloud critical frequency variations, these

graphs show:

(a) The expected ambient electron densities in comparison

with the average (discussed in Section II A).

(b) The occurrence of solar flares during the experiment

(discussed below).

(c) Annotations on the observed direction and speed of

movement of the clouds.

A. SOLAR ACTIVITY

1. General Variations, I959/I96O

The graphs of Figure k show the variation of solar, geomagnetic,

and ionospheric activity during both the 1959 and i960 Firefly test

periods. In each graph, the solid line gives the daily value of the

parameter for July-August I960, and the light dotted line gives the

same information for the September-October 1959 period. At the top

and bottom of the graphs, the dates and names of the 1959 and i960

Firefly series, respectively, are indicated.

The Zurich daily sunspot numbers, and the 2800 Mc solar flux

2 -22

(in watts/cm /cps bandwidth x 10 ), are measures of the sun, s activity and are found to relate approximately to the daytime

production of ionization in the lower ionosphere. This is further

indicated by the graphs labeled "Noon foE" and "Noon f-min," which

measure, respectively, the maximum electron density of the E layer

at noon and the approximate level of noon- time D- region absorption.

The values of foE and f-min were taken from observations at Cape

Canaveral, Florida; they are seen to vary in the same general way

as the solar radiation indices.
{ ) FIREFLY 1959 SEPT 1959 OCT 1959

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CATHY

RUTHY GERTA

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BETSY

MARIE

JEANNIE MARGIE

LOLA

PEGGY SUSAN OLIVE 2

_»UJ Wl WI/HW 1

, 10 20

JULY I960

30 I 10 20

AUG I960

30

FIREFLY I960

( ) Figure kl SOLAR, GEOMAGNETIC , AND IONOSPHERIC INDICES

DURING FIREFLY SEPTEMBER, OCTOBER 1959 AND FIREFLY

JULY, AUGUST 19 60.
10

Because of the relatively gradual day-to-day variation in these

solar parameters, they may be taken as an indicator of the relative

ionizing effect of the sun near sunrise, the period of interest for

many of the electron cloud experiments. They do not, however, give

an indication of the nighttime E region electron densities, which

are presumably under the influence of other factors, to be discussed

below. The occurrence of sporadic enhancements of the ionization

(sporadic E) is also ignored for the moment.

It is clear from these graphs that the early part of the 1959

and i960 Firefly series (i.e., through Alpha (1959) and Ruthy (i960)

were in periods of approximately equal solar activity, with the 1959

levels slightly higher than i960. Thus all of the i960 nighttime

clouds, and the dawn cloud Dolly, took place during a relative

minimum of solar ionizing radiation. In 1959 only the night shot

Oboe occurred at a similar level of daytime solar radiation.

The situation is different for the dawn experiments. During

i960, these (except for Dolly, already noted, and Zelda) took place

during a relative maximum of solar ionizing radiation, considerably

above the level for the 1959 series.

2. Solar Flare Effects

The best known effect of solar flares on the ionosphere is the

"Dellinger effect," or short-wave fade-out which results from the

sudden enhancement of solar radiation capable of producing a cor- responding enhancement of ionization in the D -- or absorbing —

regions of the ionosphere. There is a small amount of evidence

that corresponding enhancements of E layer ionization sometimes

occur also.

k
11

Since most of the electron cloud experiments take place at a height above the probable level of maximum ionization enhancement

during a flare, the (dawn) clouds are exposed to the full intensity

of the enhanced radiations. It is therefore interesting to examine

the cloud data for possible effects of flares.

In the graphs of Figures 1, 2, and 3> the maximum radio frequencies reflected by the dawn and night clouds, vs. time from

burst, are shown for all observing stations together, for the 1959

and i960 series. (The curves labeled "foE" are discussed in Section

II C) . Solar flares occuring in or near the observing period are

indicated by the hatched areas extending from the observed onset to

the cessation of the flare. The "importance" (magnitude) of the

flare is shown on the conventional 1- through 3+ scale by the

height of the hatched area.

There appears to be evidence from these graphs for flare enhancements of the cloud electron densities, as evidenced by increases in

the cloud critical frequency from one or more stations during or shortly following an observed flare.

The most suggestive case is that of Peggy (i960), where several

flares of importance 2 occurred during the lifetime of the cloud.

Dolly and Olive (i960), Bravo, Echo and Alpha (1959) also give slight

added support to the idea. There do not appear to be clear-cut

negative cases, except perhaps Betsy (i960).

Thus it is possible that this effect may explain some of the

critical frequency fluctuations observed during the electron cloud

experiments; it would be quite interesting to pursue this hypothesis

further, particularly since little is known about the ionizing

radiation in solar flares.

Nevertheless, it would seem that the general level of solar

activity, which was temporarily higher in the i960 series than in

1959 j cannot account directly for the great differences noted between

1959 an-d i960 Firefly experiments.
12

B. GEOMAGNETIC ACTIVITY

The variation of the daily geomagnetic activity index A , through

the 1959 anc* i960 test periods, is also shown in Figure k.

It is generally considered that values of A exceeding about 30

correspond to magnetically disturbed conditions; this usually is

accompanied by greater nighttime absorptions, which implies an increase over the normal level of ionization in the lower ionosphere.

We will find this expectation confirmed in Section II C, where we

deal more specifically with ionization in the nighttime lower ionosphere.

From Figure 1 we see that Fireflies Alpha (1959) a Susan, Peggy,

and Cathy (i960) occurred on days of comparatively high geomagnetic

activity, and that Oboe, Echo and Bravo (1959) > and Dolly, Amy, and

Gerta (i960), occurred on days that were magnetically quiet.

C. IONIZATION BELOW THE F- REGION AT NIGHT

As noted in the introduction to this section, the comparatively

low electron densities of the nighttime E region are usually not

directly measurable with conventional sounding techniques, except for

sporadic E. Nevertheless, effects resulting from the presence of such

ionization ^o appear on high frequency ionosphere soundings, and may

be used to infer, in a semi-quantitative way, the amount of such

ionization.

In Figure 5 is sketched part of the magnetoionic "ordinary"

(0) and "extraordinary" (x) virtual height curves resulting from the

conventional sweep- frequency sounding of the nighttime ionosphere.
13

X

X

FREQUENCY

Figure 5 • Typical nighttime virtual height

If the bottom of the F

region proceeded to zero electron density suddenly, (i.e., with no tail,

and with no nighttime E

layer) the F region and

X virtual height curves would be similar in shape

throughout; if the F

region N(h) gradient were

large enough, they would

actually be superimposed

curves from the F region, showing retardation of magnetoionic extraordinary compon- at the lower frequencies,

ent near the gyrofrequency due to underlying E ionization.

ed. If, however, the F

This is frequently observregion possesses a "tail," or a low density E region exists, the X; virtual height curve is strongly retarded at frequencies near the frequency of electron gyro-reasonance of the earth's magnetic field (fu ). H

This is at about l.k Mc, at Eglin AFB.

Now it may be shown (Titheridge, 1959) that this retardation,

measured relative to the O-curve (which is unaffected near f„), is

H

to a good approximation a measure of the total electron content in

the lower region.

Unfortunately, this method does not tell where (or whether) this

ionization is localized, nor does it measure its maximum electron

density. Other work (Watts and Brown, 195^-) bas shown that the nighttime E layer is remarkably constant, and often has a peak density

corresponding to 0.5 " 0.8 Mc , and is localized above about 120 km.

It is probable that such a layer accounts for most, if not all, of

the ionization detectable by the method described above.
Ik

Studies of the magnitude of the retardation of the X-curve show

that it also is frequently constant at night (about 30 km above the

0-curve at 2 Mc), and increases rapidly at sunrise. If we assume

this steady nighttime ionization to be contained in a parabolic distribution of semi- thickness 2H (where H is the scale height, about

7 km in the E region), and of peak density corresponding to 0-7 Mc,

then we find that the nighttime X gyro-retardation of 30 km corresponds to a total electron content below the F region, of

N = k/3 Nmax (2H)

10 2 = 1.2 x 10 electrons/cm column,

r k -3

where Nmax =0.62 x 10 cm , corresponding to

foE = 0.7 Mc.

With this figure we can "calibrate" individual measurements of

the X-gyro-retardation in terms of an equivalent Nmax. The values

of foE at night deduced in this way, are shown in Figure 6 (solid line).

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o

1.0

0.5

/

/

/

±

Also shown in Figure 6 (dashed line) is the

average E layer critical

frequency (foE) for the

sunrise period. At about

0^4-10, on the average in

July- August I960, foE

attains the value 1.0 Mc

,

(1.2^ x 10 cm" 3

), or roughly twice the assumed

nighttime value. At this

time, the X gyro- retarda01 02 03 04 05 06 07 tion has also doubled from

CENTRAL STANDARD TIME its nighttime value of

Figure 6 : The deduced ( ) and observed 30 km, thus tending to

( ) average variation of night and dawn

E layer critical frequency. confirm the method of
15

inference. It must be noted that the layer is assumed to be of con- stant thickness, and that no information is given regarding its

height.

The nighttime E layer critical frequencies have been estimated

in this way for each of the Electron Cloud experiments, and the

results (in comparison with the average) appear on the graphs showing

cloud "critical frequency" vs. time. In most cases, the E layer

actually becomes visible in the late sunrise period; these values

have been used wherever possible.

D. SPORADIC E

1 . Occurrence by Type

From its appearance on the ionogram in moderate latitudes,

sporadic E may be easily classified into one of several types. These

types are essentially based upon the observed or inferrable height

range in which the Es exist. The following are the conventional type

designations and a short description of the four types commonly

observed at moderate latitudes:

f-"flat", the common type occurring at night;

l-"low", sporadically reflecting strata below the

daytime E layer (i.e., typically below

110 km);

c-"cusp", a reflecting stratum embedded in the normal

daytime E layer below the level hmaxE;

h-"high", a reflecting stratum embedded in the daytime

E layer above the level hmaxE.

In this section, we shall discuss the frequency of occurrence of

sporadic E expected at Eglin Air Force Base during the two Firefly

series. Since the necessary control data do not exist for the Eglin

area, our conclusions are based upon synoptic data obtained at White

Sands, New Mexico and Cape Canaveral, Florida, the nearest and most

regularly-operated station likely to be representative of conditions

:

at Eglin Air Force Base.
16

Figures 7A, B, C, D, show the diurnal occurrence of the four Es

types in July-August i960 and September-October 1959 expressed as a simple count of occurrences on the quarter-hourly ionograms . (Percent occurrences are difficult to estimate because more than one type

of Es frequently occurs simultaneously). White Sands and Cape Canaveral data are combined on the graphs, making a total of 2kd possible

cases per type, at each hour, on each graph.

In general, the curves indicate distinct diurnal patterns, and

also a significant difference between the Sept ember- October 1959 and

July-August i960 periods. The seasonal variation of Es occurrences

at these latitudes is well known. In all months there is clear

evidence of solar control, giving maximum frequencies of occurrence

in the daytime. In all cases, the extra daytime Es is of the c and

h types but the greatest portion of it is Es-c. That is, most of

the daytime Es occurs within the daytime E layer, but below the

level hmaxE (about 125 km). Es occurring above this height (Es-h)

is relatively insignificant , and does not appear to vary in abundance from month to month as much as the Es at lower levels. Es

occurring at heights below the daytime E layer usually shows a morning and evening maximum; this is probably because the normal E layer

rises at these times, revealing a larger range of heights within

which Es-1 is defined.

The large differences between 1959 and I960, in the occurrence

of Es-f at night, are of great interest here. The reasons for this

seasonal variation in nighttime Es occurrence are not known, but it

appears reasonable to associate it with changes in the amount of

nighttime atmospheric motions, since other evidence, to be discussed

below, does not suggest corresponding seasonal variations in the mean

amount of ionization in the nighttime E region.
17

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S30N3yanooo xiynoH - aaiavno on
18

100

^L I A/TT^AA

00 00 06 18 LOCAL TIME

Figure 8A,B,C,D; PERCENT OF TIME fEs (ALL TYPES) EXCEEDS 3, 5 OR 7 MC, VS. LOCAL TIME OF DAY. DATA TAKEN

FROM CAPE CANAVERAL, GRAND BAHAMA ISLAND, AND WHITE

SANDS FOR 1958, 1959, I960.

00
19

This behavior is perhaps related to the observed motions of

electron clouds during Firefly 1959 and I960. Although no clear

drift patterns were established by either series of clouds, the i960

clouds seemed to drift shorter distances, and in a wider variety of

directions than those of the 1959 series.

2. Electron Densities in Sporadic E

It is customary to summarize the variation of the maximum vertical incidence reflection frequency of sporadic E (foEs) in terms of

the percent of total time it exceeds certain levels, thus giving a more smoothly varying parameter than the median or mean value. As an example of what might be expected at Eglin Air Force Base during the

i960 Firefly series, we have constructed the graphs shown in Figure

8 A, B, C, D, showing the percent total time foEs exceeds 3> 5> 7 Mc/s

at Cape Canaveral, Grand Bahamas Islands, and White Sands for months

July, August, September, October. The graphs represent averages of

three years' data (1958, 1959, i960)

.

There are clear seasonal variations showing in a higher occur- rence of greater Es electron densities in July-August (i.e. Firefly

i960), than in September-October (Firefly 1959). Diurnally, there

is a late morning and later evening maximum of the greater foEs

values, with the morning values somewhat more common.

The seasonal variation is apparent, leading to lower foEs values

in September-October than in July-August. Again, this is in con- trast to the electron densities attained by artificial electron

clouds in the two periods: in 1959? clouds of generally greater

electron densities were produced. If these observations are related,

it then seems that the factors leading to abundant and high Es electron densities (as in July-August) interfere with the effective production of electron clouds.
20

E. METEORIC INFLUX

Meteors entering the earth's upper atmosphere produce ionization which may be -- and is — detected by much of the same radio

instrumentation as is used to identify artificial electron cloud

effects. For most methods of observation, the distinction between

meteoric ionization and the electron cloud may be difficult to make,

especially if the latter be short-lived, or the rate of the former

be high. It is, therefore, useful to have some information concerning the occurrence of ionization-producing meteors. As will be seen

below, the i960 Firefly series took place during the seasonal max- imum of meteoric activity, and most of the electron cloud experiments occurred during the diurnal maximum.

The height of maximum ionization production for an incoming

meteor is at about 93 km; and the mean length of the trail, for

radio purposes, is about 2^ km (Manning and Eshleman, 19^9)

UJ<

x

_i

LL.

cro

UJK

UJ

10

j L

8 12 CST

16 20

The diurnal occur- rence rate appropriate

to 30 N geographic latitude, and the months of

July and August, is given

in Figure 9> The seasonal

variation of occurrence

rate is given in Figure

nr> 10. These figures, taken

from the work of Hawkins

Figure 9 : Mean diurnal variation of hourly ( l ^&) > express the rate

meteoric influx rate, July-August. of occurrence of meteors

5 2 in a collecting area of about Krkm , at the ionizing altitude, and

observed at a radio frequency of 72 Mc . It is evident from both of

these figures that the i960 Firefly series, and particularly the dawn

electron cloud experiments, have been conducted during the peak in

meteoric activity. In Figure 10, the echoes produced by recognized
21

g

z£

UJ

to

EC3

ina

j2».

cc3

js

z

o

K

O •- 0>a

UJ

01

a. a ^ - 3o

<

w> s= — 1_

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io

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in o in O

ro ro CM CM o

m o

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22

meteor showers have been superimposed on the random influx rate. It

should be noted that these showers, of visual magnitude < 5> negligibly increase the radar echo rate (Brown, et. al, 1956).

F. f- PLOTS FOR SELECTED SHOT DAYS

A succinct and lucid representation of many important features

of a day's ionospheric soundings is afforded by the standard f-plot,

a graph of frequency characteristics vs. time. f-plots were prepared at A-k- for each day of available complete (quarter-hourly) data

during the i960 Firefly series. A group of these are given in Fig- ures 11 through 18, for the following dates:

Figure 11 August 6, i960 (Gerta)

Figure 12 August 8, i960 (Betsy)

Figure 13 August 10, i960 (jeannie)

Figure 1^ August 13, i960 (TP Annie, Norma; Margie)

Figure 15 August 15 , i960 (Lola, Arlene)

Figure 16 August 16, i960 ( Peggy)

Figure 17 August 17, i960 ( Susan, Linda)

Figure 18 August 19, i960 (Olive, Rena).

Each graph shows the quarter-hourly values of a number of frequency parameters (in Mc/s), and the occurrence of sporadic E types.

Starting at the bottom, (for example, in the daytime), the following

data are recorded:

a. Occurrence of Sporadic E, by Type . The four "Es-types"

occurring frequently at these latitudes designated f, 1, c, h, have

been described in Section II D. Occurrence of the various types are noted by small circles on the bottom graph of the f-plot.
23

b. f-roln . The minimum frequency at which echoes can be observed,

represented on the f-plot by lines extending upwards from the base

line (l.O Mc) to the value of f-min. In the daytime, and occasionally

at night, f-min qualitatively indicates the level of absorption in

the D-region. The constant value of 1.6 Mc at night is the result

of broadcast interference.

c. foE . The critical frequency of the normal E layer, represented by small circles.

d. fbEs . The "blanketing frequencies" of the occurring Es

types. This is often a measure of the maximum electron density of an Es stratum, indicating the lowest radio frequency that can penetrate it.

e. foFl . The critical frequency of occurring intermediate

stratifications in the F region.

f. foF2 and fxF2 . The ordinary and extraordinary critical

frequencies of the F2 layer -- usually the highest critical frequencies observed.

In general, reliable values are indicated by o

f s (or x's),

and doubtful values by filled circles. The letter C indicates

loss of data through breakdown or off-time of the equipment. The

above parameters have been identified on the f-plot for August 16 as an example.
2k o

VD

ONH

VDIH

COi <«

F<H Ehs

pm
25 oVD

ON

CO

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31

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32

III. DETAILS OF INDIVIDUAL EXPERIMENTS, FIREFLY i960.

Most of the experiments conducted during Firefly i960 were ex- pected to give effects detectable "by the extensive variety of radio

techniques assembled. Not all of these would be expected to be observable by ionosondes; for example the highly transient ionization in the

high-explosive shots has little chance of detection on ordinary ionograms. The group of experiments aimed at optical study of fineparticle light scattering, and those attempting to isolate rocket ex- haust effects were not expected to have radio effects at all.

Nevertheless, the A-^4- ionosonde (and, on some occasions, one or more of the other ionosondes) obtained observations during each of the

experiments with a view to providing control data should they later

prove useful.

The following sections contain a description of the ionospheric

observations made during each experiment. In most cases the pertinent

A-k ionograms are shown and discussed. The reader is referred again

to Figures 1, 2, 3 at the beginning of the report, which show the

critical frequency variations vs. time for each of the electron cloud

experiments, and to Table 1 at the beginning of this report for a summary of all ionosonde results.

A. Dawn Electron Clouds

The dawn series consisted of nine cesium payloads released at

altitudes between 7^ and 115 km. They are discussed below in the order

of increasing altitude. Negative or doubtful results were obtained for

the two lowest shots, and only Lola (83 km) with a large payload (80 kg)

gave positively identifiable echoes at less than 100 km. This same
33

payload at 7^ km (Margie) was pro"bat>ly not detectable at all. At

greater heights positive results were obtained, in most cases, from all

operating ionosondes.

In the following discussions, times are given in seconds, measured

from burst. Some indication is given of meteoric observations, when it

is felt that this may be of use to other observers.

It should be noted here that Firefly Betsy, launched into the

earth's shadow at 108 km, became solar- illuminated after 500 seconds.

Its behavior after that time is characteristic of a dawn cloud. The

discussion of Betsy is nevertheless included in Section B, with the

night clouds

.

MARGIE

Margie (Burst 0^37:00, August 13 at jk km) was the lowest of the

night series of Point Electron clouds. Tyndall was not operating for

this experiment; Barin Field, with good observing conditions, saw no echo that could be attributed to the cloud. No sporadic E was observed

during the experiment at Barin, Field-lor A-k , except for a few shortlived echoes which were probably meteors.

The echo at A-k attributed to the cloud is seen in Figure 19 A, B,

at Burst and at B + 180. The observed range is 95 km (vs. 8l.^ computed from optical data), possibly suggesting that the cloud was not observed at all. By B + 180, this echo is at 92 km. Just at Burst a meteor is seen (Figure 19 A, at 103 km); considering that Margie was

inferior, at best, to this meteor as a producer of ionization, it is

rather likely that signal enhancements of more than one second at VHF

during Margie, are meteoric.
-::

^—^tfi-ziz^

^LU

Mc/s 8 10 20

Figure 19; FIREFLY MARGIE, AUGUST 13 AT 7^ KM: A-k

I0N0GRAMS AT BURST (A, OV37) AND AT B + 180 (B, Okho)

.
35

-=j- 4

OJ CO

On

I

iCOo

fr «

if
36

At burst , Field-1 observed an echo for 90 seconds at a range of

105 km (vs. computed 103 ).

MARIE

Marie (Burst 0^38:26, August 9 a"t 82 km) was one of two Point

Electron cloud experiments launched to the same level, bat with greatly

different quantities of the same payload: Marie carried l8 kg . while

Lola carried 80 kg.

No echoes were observed at any of the stations, which could be

ascribed to the burst. (Field-1 was, however, not operating).

The ionogram from A-^4- at the time of burst is shown in Figure 20.

Sporadic E with a peak density of 3^ x 10 cm (fxEs = 2.5 mc) is

found at a height of 106 km. There is evidence for considerable

ambient ionization at lower altitudes (cf Section II c), with an inferred

density of about 1. 3 x 10 cm ~. At Barin, Es was at 11^ km.

Meteor echoes were observed at B + 23 ( 124- km slant range) I same

B + 75 (125 km) J

source

B + 100 (158 kin and 123 km (new echo))

B + 280 (131 km);

these may be useful in eliminating spurious signals on other types of

observations

.

LOLA

Lola (Burst 0^38:00, August 15 at 83 km) was a low-altitude Point

Electron Cloud of large payload (80. Kg.). A definite cloud echo was observed at A-k and at Field 1; the A-^ observations are illustrated at

Burst and at B + 30 in Figure 21 A, B The A-k ranges agree exactly

with those computed from the optical burst position. The Field 1 echo

disappeared promptly; the A-k echo persisted for only 270 seconds. The
37

£fl

>00 W

y^r-cr^

!TT

.i

"~

Km <^?i

: t

* '•;

200 - -W""?

•:*;* ii 1 Vi

-v*

- ^; ^V : 4-1- ?-':iUj^MWVr -^ I"" P

LL

Mc/s 8 10 20

Figure 21

t

FIREFLY LOLA, AUGUST 15 AT 83 KM: k-k I0N0- GRAMS AT BURST (A, 0^38:00) AND AT B + 30 (B, 0438:30).
38

following table gives the variation of critical frequency and slant

range during this time:

TIME STATION RANGE "CRITICAL FREQ.

Burst , to + 10 k-k 86 Km 9 .6 mc Field-l 106 6.0 mc

B + 30 k-k 88 3 .6 mc

Ionograms obtained during this experiment show many meteor echoes,

some of which are noted in the table below:

STATION

TIME

(APPROX) RANGE REMARKS

A-><- B + 75 131 Km

k-k B + 210 193 Km

Tyndall B + 210 200 Km

k-\ B + 270 110 Km

k-k B + 300 110 Km

Predicted range,

Lola to Tyndall

140.5 Km

At k-k, a strong echo began at B + 1110 at 75 km, and lasted until

B + 1400 (at 109 km). Similar echoes were simultaneously also seen

by Field-l (112 km) and Barin (108 km). These ranges are consistent

with a reflecting cloud at a position approximately 30.68°N, 86.95°W,

assumed at the same height as Lola's observed cloud. Although there is

every likelihood that this is an Es patch entirely separate from the

artificial electron cloud, it seems worthwhile to record the possibility that this may be a second view of the cloud. If so, it implies a drift speed of 29-7 m/s heading 265°.
39

ZELDA

Zelda (Burst 0830:40, August 25 at 102 km) was a medium large payload (49.5 kg) release into the daytime E region. The A-k ionograms at

B - 60, Burst and B + 810 are shown in Figure 22 A, B, C. A strong

echo vas ohserved at A-k at burst (at 102 km) definitely at a shorter

slant range than predicted (105 km). There was strong, blanketing Es

overhead before and during the experiment, at an altitude of 104.5 km.

At Field-1, this Es was also seen at 104 km; at Tyndall it was at

107 km. At Barin Field, the Es was at 104 km, but the quality of the

records does not permit reliable analysis.

In any case, it appears that a strong Es layer existed just above

the cloud, and that by B + 720 the cloud had risen to the point of

being obscured by this Es -- at least from the point of view of A-k and

Field-1.

In this early period, when the cloud is seen by only A-k- and Barin,

an ambiguity of radio position and drift exists consisting of two

possible paths on either side of the line between these two stations.

Both of these are shown on the map of Figure 23 • The predicted burst

position is also shown, and does not agree well with the observed radio

ranges at B + 210, assuming the predicted burst height to be approximately correct. During the first 720 seconds, the data give a drift

speed of 6l m/s heading either 119 or 310 .

At B + 1140 an echo was observed at Tyndall at 109 km slant range

which rapidly moved overhead to 100 km, between B + 17^0 and B + 2700.

It is shown in Figure 22 D at B + 1290. Previous to this, there had

been an Es layer at about 107 km, as has already been noted. The ionogram of Figure 22 D gives evidence of the superposition (in range) of
1+6

-* < o W O m oj - H —-a; S!||

LT\ E> C5

OJ PQO

Eh EhO

W <!H

-co

B

<C o P

>h o -4- HlVO -J- P4 CO Q I O H (P *

goo oj

pq + CO

t5 „ O o m s - O EH O

42

these echoes by the faintly rhythmic oscillation of the Es echo -- the

result of beats between the two nearly superposed echoes as the frequency is varied. This echo was present at Tyndall until the station

abandoned observations at B + 4500.

We may conclude from the above that the heading 119 is more

probable for the cloud drift; this gives an average drift speed over the

entire period (to B + 1740) of 59 m/s, in fairly good agreement with

the value deduced above for the first 720 seconds.

At Barin Field, there is also a sudden appearance of a reflecting layer at 107 km slant range. This is, however, inconsistent with

either heading and position and hence is probably sporadic E.

We conclude with caution that Zelda persisted for at least 4500

seconds and shortly afterwards, dispersed to the point of undetectability at our radio frequencies at a point near Tyndall. It drifted to

this position with a mean speed 59 m/s, mean heading 109°.

PEGGY

Peggy (Burst 0441:50, August 16 at 103 km) was apparently one

of the longest-lived clouds of the present series. Echoes were seen

promptly at burst by all stations except Barin, where the echo first

appeared at B + 360. Figure 24 illustrates the appearance of the echo

at A-4 at Burst and B + 60. From burst through B + 360, the cloud

position and movement as given by the ionosonde data are consistent

with the available optical results. From B + 360 through B + 7050

seconds we deduce the curved path shown on the map of Figure 25.

The total eastward displacement, ignoring irregular motions,

corresponds to a drift speed of only 16. 6 m/s heading 274°. It is

possible that this represents mostly growth of the cloud rather than

actual movement, considering its optical dimensions at B + 360.

Thus the cloud appeared to be nearly overhead at A-4 at B + 840 and

B + 330, at Barin Field at B + 4560, and nearly overhead at Tyndall
400 *

.

'

. /- ' .

* » + *j ^ ^.;

'. - y>,^-xv * , • 4-- ~ £1:^* •-'< y.-. ^^^

i» -aKi-; ;-. - . - ^f a «H^iillilii] ifclr

Figure 2^t FIREFLY PEGGY. AUGUST l6 AT 103 KM: A-k

I0N0GRAMS AT BURST (A, oU+2) AND AT B + 60 (B, Okkl)

,
44
^

SSSSZa>i«C»?
46

at B + 1110. This appearance at (or near) Tyndall deserves further

comment: optically, the cloud was observed to produce an eastward

moving tail (at B + 360), yet our radio data show rather conclusively

that a major part of it later moved to the west, with the abovementioned speed of 16. 6 m/s. Now the optical results show this

"head" of the cloud to be between 105 and 109 km altitude, while the

tail, distended towards Tyndall is at altitudes between 97-98 km,

and perhaps lower. The appearance of a nearly -overhead cloud at

Tyndall at B + 1110 suggests that this lower tail continued its movement eastward at a mean speed of 82 m/s (heading 124°) while the

higher portions of the cloud were transported to thev/est. Our

deductions about the eastern portion of the cloud are based only

upon Tyndall data, and are very tentative regarding speed and

direction. Nevertheless our deduced speed of 82 m/s is not in bad

agreement with the value of 1 1 6 m/s which may be obtained from the

optical data for the first 360 seconds.

Following the development of the normal E layer after sunrise,

remarkable effects were observed at all stations (except Field 1,

where the ionograms are too poor for study). Figures 26 A-F, illustrate the appearance ol the cloud echo after about B + 4000 at A-4,

Tyndall, and at Barin, when the normal E layer critical frequency

was about 2. 5 mc. Note that the cloud echo is strongly retarded near

foE at Tyndall and Barin, but not at A-4. From the multiple echo,

it appears to be overhead at Barin. From the observed ranges to A-4

and Tyndall, we deduce an eastern limit to the cloud at B + 5310, as

shown on the map of Figure 25. We would speculate that the cloud

became embedded in the E layer at an altitude favorable to the

formation of the so-called "cusp" type sporadic E; that the favorable

conditions abundance of ionizable material, combined with unusually

low drift speeds, resulted in an ionized cloud of unusually long life.
It was still observable at Barin at 0707 CST (B + 8670) when the

station unfortunately ceased observations.

OLIVE

Olive (Burst Okkli^O , August 19, i960 at 106 km) was observed

promptly at burst by A-k, Barin Field, and Tyndall; Field-1 was not

operating during this experiment. Figures 27 A, B, show the A-k ionograms obtained just prior to, and at Burst, respectively. There was evidently an E layer of critical frequency 1.1 mc, with "blanketing"

(i.e., totally reflecting) sporadic E of foEs = 1.8 Mc embedded in it

at 120 km. This is a comparatively large amount of ionization in the

lower ionosphere for this time of the morning.

In this case, the configuration Barin Field - A-k - cloud - Tyndall gave a nearly ambiguous and highly erratic cloud motion, when

an attempt was made to solve simultaneously for cloud height and movement using these three stations' data. Much more satisfactory results

were obtained by assuming the cloud height, and then using the stations

in pairs to obtain its movement. The map of Figure 28 shows the trajectories deduced in this manner from the A-k - Tyndall, A-k - Barin, and

Tyndall - Barin combinations assuming a cloud altitude of 106 km. Also

shown on the map is the optical cloud configuration at B + 60, B + 300,

and B + 420 records. Excellent agreement with the optical data is

obtained over this period. It is evident, for example, that the A-k - Barin data are consistent with reflections from the "head" of the loop

until B + 420 seconds, whereupon the main reflection shifted to the

western tail of the loop. In this transition, a split echo was observed

at A-k, the two reflections agreeing excellently with these parts of

the cloud. It would appear that as the main body of the cloud moved

east (heading 108 with a deduced mean speed of ^3 m/s) the western

tail remained fixed, and perhaps actually moved southwestward. The
k&

400

Mc/s

Figure 2fj FIREFLY OLIVE, AUGUST 19 AT 106 KM: A-*4- IONOGRAMS PRIOR TO BURST (A, 0¥H:00) AND AT BURST

(b, oMa:50).
kg So

CQ

O

pS PO o , H + 2 ffl O

Ph ^

Pm

OVO o . * e + 3 tifl £ o * W Eh P <* P? < t> En O <$ Q fi R

e^!> o H H O PMO

>jR C5

p^ s

pq

R . fifcg hWNCO oo

•• o w oo rn m

CM

«3 o

CD OJ B

^^t < . W) EH +

•H <a; P^ o pq
50

optical data show It at a somewhat higher altitude (110 km) than the

eastern part of the cloud (103 km). At B + 2040, the A-4 - Tyndall

data seem definitely to Indicate that the cloud (or the main reflecting

portion of It) turned approximately 90 , and moved in a direction

parallel with the earlier western tail of the cloud. Shortly after

this (B + 2640), A-4 ceased to receive echoes from the cloud; Tyndall,

however, ohserved it continuously until B + 4680 (0600 CST), at a slant

range of 198 km. Assuming no further change of direction, the cloud

motion Is shown on the map. This motion is appropriate to a speed of

54 m/s (between B + 2640 and B + 4680) heading 210°.

JEAMTE

Jeannie (Burst OV36: 4l, August 10 at 109 km) was observed promptly

at burst at all four stations. Position deductions are, however, handicapped by poor data from Field-1, and from the fact that at B + 360 a very strong sporadic E layer appeared at A-4. This is illustrated in

Figure 29, showing (A) the cloud echo at B + 15 with no sporadic E and

(B) the cloud echo at 110-125 km with the sporadic E (below 4 mc) at

109 km. At B + I38O, when both Es and cloud echoes had disappeared, a new Es layer occurred, lasting for only a few minutes.

Burst position and height data from the four stations agree fairly

well out to B + 120. We conclude that the cloud moved almost due south

(heading 177 ) at a speed of 96 m/s, through B + 78O as shown in

Figure 30. Only crude evidence Is given from our data regarding cloud

growth, but characteristic dimensions of 20 and 40 km at B + 480 and

B + 78O are suggested.
51

400

300

200

Tvf^4S3Sfct?§iIs'

400 fti**ir!-y.' ez*y^-j*-

300 5 ?=« *Af";<f* < . _•-' ^ '. ' "'fl*^ Km ii^^^^i--

SSI' ;-', '•».C-'.-'-- .V '., ;, j

"". 200 r-^-^M^.' T-rioo gMiga^^ftg^^

BIfaK»i?tr.v •-•: •

o"

i Mc/s

'TOPI

Figure 29: FIREFLY JEATOJIE, AUGUST 10 AT 109 KM: k-k

TOMOGRAMS AT B + 15 (A, 0^37) AND AT B + 315 (B, 0^2),
52

l ""l"" l

e

o

go

H

S

I

g

O

o

1-1

feo
53

SUSAN

Susan (Burst OMl-3:50, August 17 at 114 km) has the most rapid, con- sistent movement, observed over the greatest distance, with the "best

early position agreement (with optical data) of all the experiments in

this series. Echoes appeared promptly at hurst at all stations; at

Field-1 and Tyndall, they persisted, with systematic increase in range,

for almost equal times -- to about B + 500. At A-k, a weakly ionized

Es layer (estimated Umax = 1.2 x 10 cm ) was observed "before and

after burst at an altitude of 119 km. Only its extraordinary component

shows on the ionogram of Figure 31? at about 2.0 Mc. The slight re- tardation of this Es at lower frequencies is evidence for a considerable quantity of ionization at still lower heights (i.e., below 119 km).

It is thus likely that Susan was launched into an already well ionized

medium.

At Barin Field, the cloud echo disappeared within 30 seconds of

burst, then re-appeared at B + 180 with two components approximately

10 km apart. A-k- also showed a "split" echo from B + 600 to B + 900.

This latter echo was observed first at higher radio frequencies

(> 12 mc) and was the dominant echo out to B + 13 80, when the cloud

was finally lost. From B + I38O the locus of the cloud shown on the

map of Figure 32 was computed assuming constant cloud height of 118 km.

The average drift speed -- remarkably constant within sub-intervals of

the locus — was lV? Ws > heading 230 . There is some evidence for

sunrise effects on Susan similar to those discussed under Peggy, Dolly

and Betsy, but the effects develop too near the last appearance of the

cloud, and too far away for thorough observation. It is interesting to

note that Susan was launched during a period of severe magnetic disturbance . The evidence from the ionogram of Figure 31 and the estimates

discussed in Section II C of nighttime E region ionization, have already

been mentioned. It seems probable that the very large drift speed noted
54

^ il l >u «wpi i n ^-„im4»| m,

.VH*

:

. U *

•*-*

-v ,* r v « * . - •

W"')#-

^i-i

. V.N

,-.-,

B5L

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-

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*:. - Z.I *r¥ i > 4 - i • it.

i-C.-C p*£

Wtyflrfp'

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L »& i > >. *rv

SPJ mr<» llfe^^^fe

in .iiii'iii,!,,,!,!,,, ...J« .,.-, ..-..}.' • . .>. . rA «> H t /». - g »• W»i/f^r

^IlKi^Mi^if^:

W,

".'."•.':-.

rsjrrj.1

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fO o

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-=1-

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55
56

in this case is genuine and is the result of the magnetic storm; E

region drifts are known to increase during the larger magnetic

disturbances.

However, it should "be noted that Susan was the one electron cloud

of the i960 series using the same composition as used in 1959- In

view of the geomagnetic and low-density ionization data referred to

above, it is not clear that proper comparison can be made between

Susan and the 1959 results.

DOLLY

Dolly (Burst 0^21:46, July 27, i960, at 115 km) was the highest

dawn release of the i960 series. Echoes were seen at burst at all

stations. Figure 33 A, B shows the ionograms at A-h at B + 1560. For

the first 660 sec, good agreement is obtained with the available

optical data regarding position and drift (see Figure $h) . A consistent

drift pattern is followed by the cloud until B + 2400, giving a mean

drift for this period of ^5 m/s heading 332 .

It is clear from the first 600 seconds of optical data, that the

cloud grows to considerable dimensions. This is confirmed in the ionosonde data in two ways, both of which will require more study: the

echoes are frequently observed to "split," components of the echo

separated as much as 50 km in range being not uncommon; and, using data

from three stations at a time, it is quite difficult to obtain timeconsistent changes in position. It is possible that the cloud attains

a size exceeding the distance between our stations (typically 100 km)

and that our reflections came from changing portions of the cloud as time proceeds.

This happens in a dramatic way at about B + 2^00: a new echo

appears at all stations at higher frequencies and greater ranges.
57

fi & aaidVfJs^Sifii % Mm&i

TZrtK&W mmim

Km '.V;J >--4-\- ?

:'*^fp<3—ftj~

200'

100

Figure 33: FIREFLY DOLLY, JULY 27 AT 115 KM: A-4

ionograms at b + 15 (a, 0^21:1+5) am) at b + 1560

(b, 0^8:30).

59
6o

Tri angulation places this atapoint west of Barin roughly over

Motile, Alabama, where it appears to remain for nearly one hour until

B + 6000 seconds. At sunrise the development of the normal E layer

occults this cloud before its electron density has decayed to negligible

values

.

B . Wight Electron Clouds

Five launching s to altitudes between tyh and 138 km comprised the

i960 Firefly night series; all used identical payloads . They are discussed below in the order of increasing height . Note that Firefly

Betsy is included in the present discussion^ although throughout all

but the first 520 seconds of its life, it was a sunlit dawn cloud.

Definite ionosonde echoes were observed for all night clouds,

although equipment malfunction resulted in a very regrettable loss of

data in several cases

.

Movement of the night clouds was difficult to deduce because of

the short lifetime of these clouds at the outlying stations. The drift

results are summarized on a single map, Figure 35-

CATHY

Cathy (Burst 0232:45, July 29 at 9k km) was at the lowest burst

altitude of the night series of Point Electron Clouds. It was not observed at sites A-k and Barin Field, because of equipment malfunction.

However, echoes were observed from the Field-1 and Tyndall sites which

may be attributable to the clouds.

At Tyndall, a faint echo appeared at burst between 16-17 mc and

142 km range (computed range at burst, 136 km) which by B + 300 was at
6l

139 km. The echo was folio-wed until B + 78O at lUl km slant range.

At Fiel&-1 the echo ^^eared promptly at burst , and at 1^9 km

range (computed range 1^2 km)j it dropped rapidly in range , "being

found at 11^ km by B + 1200. By B + 1680, this echo was at 105 km

range, then faded out by B + I98O.

Assuming a negligihle change in the height of the cloud, the above

data are consistent with a velocity 51 m/s heading 330 . This was deduced supposing the cloud motion not to have been in the direction of

Tyndall and assuming that at B + 1680 it had reached its closest

approach to FIeld-1.

BETSY

Betsy (Burst 0^16:^1, August 8 at 108 km) was launched at a time

when the earth' s shadow was at 123 km; for the first 500 seconds the

cloud was not illuminated by sunlight.

A fairly consistent and simple behavior was given by the ionosonde

data for the position and drift of Betsy throughout the period B to

B + 2580. A-k- ionograms at burst and at B + 2^0 are shown in

Figure 36 A, B. Note the extraordinary component of a dense Es layer

at 9^- km, which was present before burst. Burst positions and altitudes agree farily well with the optical data out to B + 5^0. However,

a curious behavior is noted at later times. The optical data available

at this writing show the cloud greatly distended at B + 3^0 through

B + 720. Our radio data are consistent with northeasterly movement of

the northeastern half of this distended cloud, as shown on the map of

Figure 37- It would appear that at no time did we observe reflections

from the southwestern portion of the cloud. Our data give a mean

speed of 3^ m/s, heading 88 through B + 2580 shortly after which all

stations ceased to observe simple echoes from the cloud.
62

Mc/s

Figure 36} FIREFLY BETSY, AUGUST 8 AT 108 KM: A-k IOTTOGRAMS AT BURST (A, Okl6) AND AT B + 2^0

(b, oteo).

6k

It would appear that after B + 2580 (0500), as the normal daytime

E layer formed, the cloud "became Imbedded in it. A-^ (at a range of

173 km) and Tyndall (119 km) both observed a strong reflection from a layer well inside a retarding E layer. It was apparently localized to

the east, as it disappeared rapidly from view at A-k at B + 3750 (0519)

but was quite strong at Tyndall by B + 38^0 (0520) when the station

ceased observation.

AMY

Amy (Burst 0232:V?, July 28 at 111 km) was launched in the presence

of intense Es at a level of 100 km. The cloud echo was seen immediately

to frequencies above 25 Mc at A-^-. However, the cloud echo dropped in

range and frequency was soon lost in the Es. Figure 38 A, B illustrates

the appearance of the echo at burst and at O307 (B + 20^0)

.

Barin Field did not observe an echo until B + ^+20. This is one of

several unexplained instances of delayed appearance of cloud echoes at

Barin. During the short period of detection (until B + 720 ), the echo

dropped in range. Tyndall, unfortunately, was not observing until

B + 2280; no echoes were observed that could be positively attributed

to the cloud.

Field-1 observed two cloud echoes at burst (ranges l66 and 135 km)

(computed range to Field-1 162 km). The second echo soon disappeared,

and the cloud dropped in range until B + 1320, where the range began to

increase again. With only this information it is necessary to assume a constant cloud height to infer the bearing and speed (Figure 35).

Values of 87 m/sec and 350 are found. The speed is probably over- estimated, since the early Fleld-1 ranges do not change in a uniform

manner.
65

400

Figure 38: FIREFLY AMY, JULY 28 AT 111 KM: A-k I0N0GRAMA

AT BURST (A, 0232:^5) AND AT B + 20^0 (B, O307)

.
66

Figure 39 : FIREFLY RUTHY, AUGUST 1 AT 113 KM: k-k

IONOGRAMS AT BURST (A, 0232:30) AND AT B + 8kO

(B, 02Vf)-
67

RUTHY

Ruthy (Burst 0232:30, August 1 at 113 km) -was launched, like Amy,

in the presence of intense Es. Figure 39 A, B shows the appearance of

the echo at k-k, at hurst and at B + QhO . At Tyndall and at Field-1,

the echo was seen promptly at hurst, over a wide range of frequencies

to 25 Mc at Field-1, "but only at high frequencies and very faintly at

Tyndall. It is suggested that the reason for Tyndall' s faint echo

ohserved only at high frequencies, is that it was occulted by the intense Es patch which must have been nearly overhead at the burst position, covering a wide area to the north and west.

At Barin Field the echo did not appear until B + ^-20 and even

then was apparently not a direct reflection from the cloud, since it

is inconsistent with the (more reasonable) cloud position deduced from

the other stations.

Good agreement with the optical data is obtained on position and

altitude (113 km from our data) at B + 60 (see Figure 35)- Cloud position could be determined out to B + 8l0, giving a drift measurement of

8l m/sec heading 229 .

GERTA

Gerta (Burst 0303:00, August 6 at 13 8 km) was the highest of the

night series of Point Electron clouds. Unfortunately, Field-1 was not

operating for this experiment; Barin and Tyndall observed the cloud at

only 180 and ^0, respectively, with a second Barin appearance at

B + 720s (at 168 km range). A-k , on the other hand, observed the cloud

continuously until B + 1920. See Figure k0 A, B showing the appearance

of the echo at hurst and at B + 8^-0. The absence of Field-1 data makes
68

400|

Figure kO : FIREFLY GERTA, AUGUST 6 AT 138 KM: k-k

I0N0GRAMS AT BURST (A, O3O3) AMD AT B + 840 (B, 0317:^5).
69

it impossible to determine radio position data, since the Tyndall —

A— 4- -- Cloud -- Barin Field deployment leads to an indeterminate problem.

However, one may conclude from the A-^- range data (Figure ^l) that

Gerta had a negligible component of motion radial to A-k and that,

therefore, it was moving in a heading roughly either 78 or 258 from

its optical burst position. The heading 78 would carry the cloud towards Tyndall (which saw the cloud only at burst), while 258 would

carry it only slightly toward Barin Field (which saw the cloud only

momentarily at B + 270 ) . At B + 270 Barin1 s range agrees with the

cloud still in its burst position.

200 -

i UJo

<

<

_l

150

100 1

500 1000 1500

SECONDS FROM BURST

Figure jj-1 : Firefly Gerta range vs time data observed at station A-^f.

2000
70

The second appearance of the echo at Barin at B + 720, is consistent with motion of the cloud in the heading 258 and then at position

29°57'30"N, 86°50' west, with a characteristic dimension of 13 km. Its

motion to this position after B + 270s would imply a speed of drift of

Qk m/sec, assuming horizontal motion (see Figure 35)

•

C . Trail Electron Clouds

JANET

Janet (Burst 0^19:30, July 26 at 119 km) had a payload of l6 kg.

This was an attempt to produce a trail electron cloud "by the gradual

release of payload.

The k-k ionogram of Figure k-2 A depicts the condition of the ionosphere at the time of release. Es at 112 km, with a peak density of

3»6 x 10 cm (to 7 Mc) was present before and throughout the experiment. While there is a very weak echo at the predicted range (135 km),

it is not considered probable that this is the result of the electron

cloud. Figure k-2 B is a range vs. time observation at 2.0 Mc, covering

a period of about 15 seconds immediately prior to the time of launch

(0^17) • Within this period three separate reflections occurred at this

same range, presumahly due to meteors or sporadic E, suggesting that

the weak echo indicated in Figure k-2 A has a similar origin.

HILDA

Hilda (Burst 0^25:30, August 1 at 126 km) was the higher of the

two trail (slow- release) electron cloud experiments. No echoes were

observed at any of the sites, that could be attributed to the cloud.
71

400

,**3^>«X*C«*l«<k*lil«fc***„«0!t<iVAV Ui3U»£^ M>

1 00

< v

,!77^|il£*Fp^^

15 SECONDS

Figure k2 j FIREFLY JANET AND HILDA, TRAIL ELECTRON

CLOUDS. JANET: k-k IONOGRAM AT RELEASE (A, 01+19:30; RECORD TIME IS TWO HOURS SLOW). (B) HEIGHT VS TIME SEQUENCE AT 2.0 MC PRIOR TO RELEASE OF JANET, ILLUSTRA- TING SEVERAL ECHOES SIMILAR TO "JANET" ECHO ON IONO- GRAM A. HILDA: k-k IONOGRAM AT BURST, 0^25-
72

Figure k-2 C shows the A-k ionogram at the time B + 30 and illustrates an important point; there Is strong Es at 106 km overhead (or

nearly so), which, while not ""blanketing" the F region, is sufficiently

"dense" to give strong multiple echoes. Considering the comparatively

low electron densities expected in a gradual release, it seems inadvisable to attempt such an experiment In the presence of such Es

layers, particularly when the release is planned for an altitude ex- ceeding 100 km- In the present case this Es was observed from Tyndall,

Field-1 and Barin, In addition to A-^-j It appears that it covered a large area to the south and west of A-k. We would suggest that this

Es may be responsible for reports of signal enhancement during this

experiment

.

D. High Explosive Detonations

CARRY

Carry (Burst 0^03:27, July 18 at 129 km) was an early morning detonation of high explosive (19 kg). At and before burst, the A-k ionograms showed intense sporadic-E at 100 km (foEs = 2.1 Mc), with many

scattered reflections*.

No echo was observed that could be attributed to the detonation.

Only the A-k Ionosonde was operating for this experiment.

It may be useful to recall here the suggestion of Clark (1957), that

when ionogram sporadic E echoes showed such scattered reflections, it

correlated well with extremely high drift speeds in the E region

(100 - 300 m/sec.)-
73

400 I

- ,c

Figure ^3A: FIREFLY ARLENE, HIGH EXPLOSIVE DETONATION AT 104 KM: A-k IONOGRAM AT DETONATION (A, 19^5:30).

B. FIREFLY LINDA: A-k IONOGRAM AT B + 120 (B, 20^7).

C. FIREFLY MAVIS: A-k IONOGRAM AT B +15 (c, Okl'^tk'y) , ON JULY 29, i960.
74

ARLENE

Arlene was an evening (1945:34, August 15) detonation of l8 kg. of

high explosive at an altitude of 104 km. The ionogram from the A-4 site

depicting the condition of the ionosphere at this time is shown in

Figure 43 A. A layer of Es existed throughout this test at 95 km and

about 3 x 10 cm~3 maximum electron density (1-55 Mcj only the magnetoionic extraordinary component shows on the ionogram) . No echo attributable to the detonation was observed at this or any of the ionosonde

sites.

E. ONR Project TP Arc Experiments

During the Firefly i960 series, two Electron Arc payloads were launched as part of ONR Project TEEPHIE. Shots TP Annie and TP Norma

f were launched at 0119 an(3- 0347, respectively, on August 13; the arc was ignited l44 sec later; the intended altitude was 120 km. Optical re- sults, however, suggest that TP Annie may have failed to ignite, and

that the maximum altitude reached by TP Norma (which was optically observed to ignite) was only 97 km.

Ionogram sequences from the NBS site A-4 for both TP experiments

are found in Figure 44, showing conditions during and after (?) ignition of the arcs.

TP Annie t Comparing Figure 44 A (at 0121:00, before ignition), no

echo at the predicted range can be found. However, Figures 44 C

(at 0423, 1+120), an echo is observed at 96 km, to 2.4 mc/s. It is

only faintly visible at 0124 (1+180).

TP Norma: Shows a similar echo before the ignition time at 0349:00

(Figure 44 F) . This echo is at 92 - 100 km slant range, and implies an
75

wo a

300; Km

200 i

100 !

0'

isgi^i >;ii ...Xzz&yj /~ ; ;iti: .;. . iPi^ffJSff^.- s^

-.•!i--;s. i*_. . Is

I 4 5 6 8 10 TP ANNIE

15 20

HES^S!^li;i^-,:.:.:DjB

g^ I l'> mmJft;.^

2 3 4 5 6 TP NORMA

Figure 44 : ELECTRON ARC EXPERIMENTS S A, B, C, D, IONO- GRAMS FROM A-4. TP ANNIE, AUGUST 13 AT 0121x24.

A-012H00 AT 1-24; B-012H30 AT 1+6; C-0123, AT 1+120; D-0124 AT 1+180. TP NORMA, AUGUST 13 AT 0349:24.

E-0348:30 AT 1-54; F-0349tOO AT IGNITION; G-0350 AT

1+60; H-0353 AT 1+240. NOTE IONOSONDE SWEEPS ARE OF 30 SECONDS DURATION.
76

electron density of 6 x 10 cm"^ (2.5 Mc). It vas still visible at

I + 60 and I + 2^0 (Figures hk G at 0350; and kk H at 0353 , respectively)

On the latter ionogram, the echo has moved out in range to 105 km; it vas not seen later.

Our timing is accurate to probably - i second, thereby making it

rather doubtful that the echoes discussed above for TP Norma can be

associated with the arc — unless it should prove to have ignited prematurely. Furthermore, available evidence seems to be that TP Annie

did not ignite at all — yet we saw an echo at I + 120 very similar in

appearance to the TP Norma observations. Since, in both cases, meteoric

ionization could have been responsible for our observed echoes, we can- not conclude with certainty from ionosonde data that either of these

electron production experiments was successful.

F . RENAs Electron Removal Experiment

Rena (Electron Removal; burst 1356i40, August 19 at 105 km) was an

experiment designed to test the efficiency of sulphur hexafluoride

(ik Kg) as a "remover" of electrons in the E region, in competition with

the daytime photoionization and photodetachment processes. It was hoped to produce a detectable decrease in E region electron densities,

which could be observed by the ionosonde as either a decrease in foE,

or a redistribution or change in shape of the E layer. It is clear

that nothing dramatic happened, but it is not improbable that the

release had a detectable effect

.

Ionograms from A-k before (-70 seconds) at, and after (+ 390

seconds) burst are shown in Figure 45 A, B, C. This was not a simple

E region at this time; ultimately the following important levels should

be noted*

a. The "normal" daytime E layer extending to altitudes presumably below 100 km in a fairly simple way.
77

^GC

** j ->

Figure k5 l FIREFLY RENA, AUGUST 19 ELECTRON REMOVAL AT 105 KM: k-h IONOGRAMS AT B-70 (A, 1355»15), AT BURST

(B, 1356:45). AND AT B + 390 (C, 1^+03:00).
78

Q

_lyz<

00

a. < —

(9

II <

rr E

inoo

LjJ troo

LU<

UJ I L \ — 1 Q

_lLU

LUX

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=3< 4J1J* — i — ** i

UJ - Hm — *

*•

—

V*

UJo h - tw _

^> f - . - : —T—

III ,1

r i H

C5W o fe • O CQ

CT> O

— S fe 9

CO o g o H O

En CQ s 3g IDo §s in° > _ o *o

<0

CD si^ o H fo S otT EH _ w H H- * so ° com o => 5 O gg °o 3< 5 g s

en >H

W

m ^ EH

PH

Ph VO H

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<D p£] s B

w)

W

H Cm P^ n

(OW) A0N3n03HJ
79

"b. A sporadic E stratum at 100 km, and at a level immediately

"below -which the E layer electron density is about 8.1 x

k _3

10 cm . The Es stratum had an electron density of ahout

k _3

10.1 x 10 x cm J

.

c. A "ledge" or minor stratification in the E layer at approximately 108 (true height) km, where N = 1.7 x 10 cm" .

d. The "peak" of the E region at 113 km with a maximum electron

density of 2 x 10y cm J

.

The time variation of the frequency characteristics of these

records from B - lVfO to B + 1530 is shown in Figure k-6 for all of the

stations. The solid line labeled fobEs shows the time variation of the

peak density of the sporadic E described in (b) above. This quantity

is measured by the lowest ordinary-wave frequency to penetrate the Es

into the E region above it . The curve labeled fxEs measures the extraordinary wave critical frequency of this same Es layer; ideally, fobEs

and fxEs should measure the same thing, viz , the electron density of

the Es layer.

The curve labeled foE refers to the peak density of the E region

(d), above. Similar graphs for Field-1, Tyndall, and Barin are also

shown. Unfortunately, data at these stations are not sufficiently detailed to give the complete picture comparable to A-k.

For some minutes prior to burst (note the scale change at 1352),

these parameters are fairly stable. At burst there is a definite detectable drop in fxEs, corresponding to a drop in electron density of

the Es layer of 28%. The drop is rather permanent. Unfortunately, the

expected drop in fobEs, which should also measure the electron density

of this layer, does not occur. On the other hand, these frequencies

are not related in the expected magnetoionic way in the first place.

(At B - 30; fxEs = k.80 Mc; this should give foEs 14-.03, whereas a value
80

of 3.6O Mc is observed for fobEsj similar discrepancies exist throughout the sequence.) At the same time, a rise in the height of this Es

layer is noted, as may be seen by careful comparison of Figures ^5 k,

and C (B - 70 and B + 390 respectively). This also is consistent with

a decrease in electron density at or below this level.

Finally, a comment must be made concerning the new Es stratum

appearing within 60 seconds of Burst, and represented in Figure k-6 by

the line labeled "fEs - new layer." It may also be seen in Figure 45 C

(B + 390), at a range of 111 km. This appears to be a turbulent Es

stratum embedded at or near the level of the E layer peak. It is not

known what, if any, relation this may bear to the electron removal

experiment

.

G. Other Experiments

LMDA

Linda (Burst 20^5, August 17 at 133 km) was an evening release of

2|i cobalt powder. While no ionosonde echoes were expected from this

release, it is of interest to note that an echo was observed at k-k at

the predicted range and time. Figure ^3 B shows the ionogram obtained

at B + 120 (20V7) . The Es at 112 km was present sporadically for some time before the launching. At burst a weak echo at 138 km appeared

(predicted range to A-10 for Linda); it remained with about the same appearance through 2050, and by 2053 increased in range, then disappeared.

No similar behavior was detected at any of the other ionosonde sites;

at Field 1, the next-nearest location, the ionograms were too poor to

permit reliable judgment.

MA.VIS

Mavis (Burst 0^15:32, July 29 at 115 km) was a release of 3.2 kg.

of 0.03^ Al powder. The ionogram for site k-k- at B + 15 (0415:45)-,
81

is shown in Figure k$ C. There was no sporadic E at this time. By the

technique discussed Section II C the quantity of ionization below the

F region is found to "be somewhat larger than average. There was no

echo attributable to the release observed at any of the ionosonde sites

FRANCES

Frances (Burst 04o8j20, July Ik at lk$ km) was a release of 7-7 kg.

of aluminum oxide powder. At and prior to burst there was some sporadic

E at 130 km (foEs = 1-95 Mc), with evidence (Section II C) for ionization of lower density at lower heights. At A-^, no echo could be as- cribed to this cloud; the other ionosonde stations were not operating.

LILY

Lily (Burst C405 :l6, July 21 at 151 km) released 8.1 kg. of 2\i

aluminum oxide. No observations were obtained at A-^ due to equipment

malfunction; the other ionosonde stations were not operating.

HEDY

Hedy (Burst 0^12:^7, July 22 at 109 km) was a release of 18 kg. of

cadmium sulphide. Prior to burst A-k ionograms showed weak sporadic E

near the predicted range (115 km), erratic in occurrence. At B + 15

this sporadic E became somewhat enhanced with fEs = 2.5 Mc. At B + 28

a rather strong echo was observed at 132 km and 15 Mc; by B + ^3 this

had disappeared — it was probably a meteor. The other ionosonde

stations were not operating at this time.
82

IDA

Ida (Burst 1932t30, July 20 at 130 km), was a release of 10 kg. of

kerosene. A-k ionograms showed sporadic E of the "sharply bounded"

partially reflecting type fEs = 3*^ Mc, at 100 km. No echoes were

observed that could "be related to the hurst . The other ionosonde

stations were not operating.
83

IV. SUMMARY

POSITION, DRIFT ATCD GROWTH OF ELECTRON CLOUDS

A. Practical Considerations

Initially, it was hoped that the use of four ionosondes would permit a precise radio location and tracking of the electron clouds, and

perhaps also give unambiguous first-order estimates of the clouds 1 size.

We still believe these hopes to he realizable, although our attempts

recorded here have been far short of our goals. On the whole, the

determinations of drift have compared well with optical data (for details, see discussions of individual experiments in Section III), and

have given reasonable values of cloud speed. However, the attempts to

determine cloud height or radius from range data (see Appendix 2, re- garding methods) have been rather unsatisfactory except at burst, in a few notable cases. This is attributed to three main factors:

a. errors in range calibrations at the three outlying sites

(see Appendix 1, Part C),

b. a weak station deployment, consisting of Barin, A-k and

Tyndall (and often the clouds) on nearly the same straight line, with Field-1 too nearby. This leads to singularities and near-singularities aggravated by the effect of

small range errors,

c. the considerable growth and assymetry of the clouds, rendering any "spherical" assumptions ineffective.

The inverse (and in a practical sense, useless) process of deriving

the cloud slant-ranges to the ionosondes from optical position data, has

given very encouraging results for properly calibrated ionosondes: the

mean "range-error" so computed for A-^l- (eleven experiments) was 0.5^ km.

Thus the problems lie more with the station-cloud geometry than with • the instrumentation.
COCOA

ObOO

10 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

~~

1

1~

Figure_j£7l FIREFLY 1959 CLOUD LOCI SUMMARY, AS DEDUCED

AT NBS FROM WEAVER AND A-^ IONOSONDES ASSUMING BURST

HEIGHT THROUGHOUT.
85
86

ui>i *ihoi3h isana anoio
87

B. Summary of Drift Results

Maps summarizing the drift of eight Point Electron clouds in 1959 > and eleven in i960, are shown, in Figures ^8 and k-9 , respectively. In

both cases, a definite preference for the south-west quadrant is apparent, "but this is brought out more clearly in Figure 50, shoving the

north-south and east-west components of the drift vs. cloud height at

hurst . Where the cloud vas observed to divide into two differentlymoving parts, at apparently differing altitudes, both are shown. It

must be noted that past experience has suggested that the clouds rise by

a few kilometers in their first few minutes; thus it is possible that

this diagram should be interpreted at somewhat greater heights than shown.

In any event, it is interesting to note the definite change in eastwest drift taking place at (apparently) 1C4 km. A value of -7*3 m/s/km

is deduced for the east-west height gradient of drift, from this diagram.

The north-south component appears to be in quadrature with the east-west

component, as would be expected of a drift vector rotating with height

.

Maximum drift speeds occur at an average height of about 110 km and

appear definitely to decrease above and below this level; the latter

judgment is based entirely on the 1959 data ignoring the two results at

relatively high altitudes. There does not seem to be any significant

difference between 1959 and. i960 data, in this diagram; in fact, both

series are constructive in defining the patterns discussed above.

C. Comment on Growth and Persistence of Electron Clouds

Although we did not find the cloud size to be a directly-computable

quantity in the work reported here, there is abundant evidence to show

that many of the sunlit clouds reached a very considerable size indeed,

and that they have lifetimes exceeding by more than a factor of two the

most persistent clouds reported in Firefly 1959*
88

Consider the following Point Electron clouds:

Altitude Observed Duration

Zelda 102 > ^500 seconds

Peggy 103 876O

Susan 114 6000

Dolly 115 6000

Each of these clouds were observed long after the development of

the daytime E region; they then appeared as a "sporadic E" stratum em- bedded in the E layer. In most cases, these strata appeared to drift

out of the field of view of the stations, rather than to disappear

through a simple decay process. With stations located still farther

from the clouds they undoubtedly could have been traced much longer.

Unfortunately, however, the predominant motions were often to the south

and east, emphasizing the need for stations located on shipboard in the

Gulf of Mexico.
89

V. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE PROGRAMS

A. Firefly Launching

s

1. The expected potentialities of the trail releases do not seem

to have been realized, yet the method is perhaps the only way of rapidly

producing clouds of large size in the desired location. With somewhat

better feeling for the prevailing wind speeds and directions it might

be possible to produce a "sheet" cloud.

2. Point Electron cloud experiments should be more "controlled" in

their relation to existing sporadic E. While in a sense, Es interferes

with the observations, it seems that Es can give special properties of

movement and persistence to artificially produced clouds.

3. Daytime launchings to heights above the maximum of the daytime

E layer can give information about a valley minimum below the F region.

This is of considerable interest since the region cannot be directly

observed by conventional radio techniques.

k. Point Electron clouds in the F region should expand rapidly in

a vertical direction due to diffusion, but the earth's magnetic field

will tend to contain them laterally. Valuable Information on the Fregion itself, on long distance communications potentialities, and on similar ICBM F region effects would be anticipated.

5. The potentialities of the electron removal experiments must be

explored. Although results of the recent Rena experiment are not impressive, it is likely that something was accomplished. Now more aware

of the magnitude of effect to expect it is probable that more definitive

results could be obtained, even -with payloads no larger than Rena* s. Again different effects in the presence or absence of sporadic E might

be expected.
90

6. The possibilities of F-region electron removal have been

discussed in detail by Van Zandt; his -unpublished suggestions are

contained here as Appendix III to this report.

B. Inst rument at ion

1. One of the powerful techniques of radio geophysics is the

spaced-receiver method of measuring upper atmosphere drifts. It is our opinion that such Instrumentation should be a part of future Firefly

programs. Equipment designed to operate on several frequencies simultaneously -would offer the following opportunities:

a. direct observation of cloud drift

b. comparison with drifts in the ambient ionization

c

.

determination of drift height gradient in the

ambient (i.e., at closely spaced frequencies).

d. prediction of cloud motions, from drift observations in advance of the launching.

2. Improved ionosonde range determination equipment under development in this laboratory should permit range measurements to within

0.5 km or better. We suggest that this may greatly improve the

possibility of determining cloud growth with time.

3« An improved station deployment is strongly suggested. The

great need is for observations at a point 100 - 200 km off-shore from

the Burst point . This should be supplemented with another instrument

farther inland. The possibility of synchronization of the ionosondes

should be explored as a means of giving additional independent range

measurements at various aspect angles to the clouds.
91

4. It is considered that some improvement in the ability of

ionosondes to track electron clouds at the longer ranges might be

realized by the use of a somewhat more complex antenna system.

For example , an azimuthal distribution of horizontal rhombic antennas

clustered about the conventional vertical delta should permit the

selection of an antenna appropriate to a cloud in any visible location.

REFERENCES

Manning, L. A. and Eshlemann, V. R. , Proc. IRE 47_, p. 186, 1959.

Hawkins, G. S. , Interim Report No. 12, Harvard College Observatory,

May 1956.

Brown, L. C. ; Bullough, K. ; Evans, S. and Kaiser, T. R. , Proc.

Phys. Soc. B, 69_, pp. 83-97, 1956.

Clark, C. , Tech. Report No. 24, Radio Prop. Lab. , Stanford Univ. , Sept. 1957.

Titheridge, J. E. , J. Atmosph. Terr. Phys. 17, p. 110, Dec. 1959.

Watts, J. M. , Brown, J. N; J. Geophys. Res. 59, p. 71, 1954.
92

APPENDIX I

NOTES ON INSTRUMENTATION

By

J. W. Wright

E. J. Violette

G. H. Stonehocker

J. J. Pitts

In the course of the i960 Firefly launchings, it rapidly "became

clear that a great difference existed "between electron clouds of the

1959 aQ(i i960 series. The maximum radio reflection frequencies attained

in 1959 "were generally larger for a longer time than in i960, and the

cloud motions were somewhat more uniformly to the south and west.

Possible reasons for these discrepancies have been discussed in this

report but the true reasons are not yet known. It has been suggested

that the differences between ionosonde installations in the two years

might contain part of the answer. We will now examine this question,

and simultaneously note a few of the characteristics of the ionosondes.

A. Characteristics of the C-^- Ionosondes

The following gives the important characteristics of the C-h ionosondes and antennas and in the table following an indication wherever

the 1959 and i960 installations were thought to differ:

Typical C-k Characteristics

Transmitter

1. Frequency range* 1-25 Mc (logarithmic variation)

2. Sweep time? 15 or 30 seconds

3 • Pulse recurrence frequency: 60 cps

k. Pulse lengthj 50u.s
93

5- Pulse shape rise time from 10$ to 90$ point; 10 usee

6. Peak pulse power at: 2 Mc - 18 kilowatts

10 Mc - 13 kilowatts

20 Mc - 9 kilowatts

Receiver

1. Total amplification: 13 db

2. Total receiver "bandwidth at 3 dh points: 20 kc

Miscellaneous

1. Height marker accuracy:

2. Timing accuracy:

3 • Height zero accuracy

within:

k. Estimated maximum precision of range

scaling:

Estimated overall range

accuracy:

± .02 km

± 1 second

± 0.2 km (see this Appendix,

Section c)

± 0.5 km (favorable signal/noise

conditions)

± 1.0 km

Antennae

1. Transmitting antenna: Delta; 130 ft. long "by 70 ft. high.

2. Receiving antenna: same as above, oriented at 90°.

Recording Mode

Display

Film

Height Range

Range Markers

5" CRT Pll

35 nun. Linagraph Ortho

approximately 500 km total

50 km

A-scan (amplitude recordings)

Height Range approximately 180 km total

Range Markers 50 km
9k

VARIANTS IN C-k CHARACTERISTICS

DURING FIREFLY 1959/1960

1959 i960

SITE WEAVER Ark A-k FIELD 1

RARIN

FIELD TYTTOALL

Ownership Sig.C Sig.C NBS AFCRL Sig.C AFCRL

Operation Sig.C Sig.C NBS Sig.C Sig.C Sig.C

Latitude 30° 23'

3kn N

30°lK)»

39"

30°2i|-*

13"

29°58»

02"

Longitude 86°3V

k2*M

86°21*

12n 87°38*

11"

85°28*

28"

Transmitter

power

2 Mc

10 Mc

20 Mc

some- what

less

than

I960

some- what

less

than

I960

28 kw

17 kw

11.5 kw

18 kw

13 kw

9 kw

18 kw

13 kw

9 kw

18 kw

13 kw

9 kw

Receiver

bandwidth >25 kc >25 kc 20 kc 20 kc 20 kc 20 kc

Transmitting antenna

base height

feet

130 x 70 approx

190

«

changed

130*

200 by Qk 130 x 70 130 x 70 130 x 70

Receiving

antenna

130 x 70 see Sig

Cs Rpt

150 by 8^ 130 x 70 130 x 70 130 x 70

Transmitting ant.

orientation

kf off

mag

.

north

V? east

of mag

north

30°W of

mag

north

prob.

west of

mag.

north

k5 east

of mag

north

k5° of

mag.

north
95

B. Antennas

As can "be seen from the table above , there is a real difference

between the k-k antenna system in 1959 and 19^0. The k-k antenna in

i960 was larger, and was oriented slightly differently than in 1959*

This was done in order to improve its performance at low frequencies

and (for the low frequencies) at lower radiation angles, so that weakly,

ionized clouds could be followed for longer periods. This undoubtedly

changed the high-frequency radiation patterns, probably causing them to

split, at some frequencies, into many small lobes at all angles. However, while this is undesirable for vertical sounding, it can only be

of benefit to the cloud detection problem as it increases, rather than

decreases, the radiation at low angles.

Perhaps a more weighty argument against the "instrumental" interpretation of the 1959/1960 discrepancies is that in i960 the other three

sites used exactly the same antenna size and orientation as A-^- and

Weaver in 1959 • Field-1 especially, was located and operated in a manner

similar to Weaver. It is thus concluded that the 1959/19^0 differences

cannot be ascribed to the ionosonde antennas.

C Range Accuracies*

Accurate range measurements with an ionosonde depend upon the

following considerations?

We are, unfortunately, not in a position to discuss fully the calibration of equipment at the three Signal Corps stations. NBS engineers

visited each of these stations at various times to instruct Signal Corps

personnel in calibration procedures, but — as will be seen below —

it seems clear that the prescribed calibrations were not always followed.

The discussion following perbains therefore to the NBS k-k site, where

equipment calibrations were done in advance of each experiment

.
96

a. accuracy of the range marker interval

h. accuracy of the zero-point

c

.

allowance for pulse delay in receiver and transmitter

d. rise time of the echo, signal

e. faithfulness of the film recording

f

.

linearity of the range scale

The range marker interval (usually 50 km) was crystal-controlled

and compared with WVj discrepancies of at most one cycle (out of 3 kc)

were found. Non linearity (e) may he overcome "by careful scaling, hut

in fact the C-^ range scale is quite linear and seldom gives any trouble.

Item (c) (and to some extent d) may be compensated for "by proper positioning of the ground zero-point. A method was developed expressly for the

Firefly program* which greatly reduces the magnitude of this factor.

The transmitted pulse (greatly reduced in amplitude to simulate an

echo signal and obtained at the receiver video output) is displayed on

one trace of a dual "beam oscilloscope. The range markers are displayed

on the other trace expanded to show 0-75 km per centimeter. A careful

adjustment of the transmitted pulse delay permits the alignment of the

outgoing pulse, compensated for receiver and transmitter delays, to

within 0.15 km. This assures that the zero of the range scale coincides

with the zero range marker to within this accuracy for echoes of ordinary amplitudes.

The remaining factors are the faithfulness of the film recording

and the rise time of the echo signal: to what extent does the film image

represent the output of the receiver, after all the other difficulties

have "been eliminated, and how effective are weak echoes compared to

strong echoes in this regard? The "A- scan" recordings described in

By E. J. Violette of the NBS Equipment Development Group.
w 2

UJen

U I I |

I I

I I |

I I I TYNDALL

BARIN

0_

l I I I |

I I

I I |

I I M

97

Section D provide an answer to this question. Here, the conventional

ionogram recording is supplemented with a sequence of range vs amplitude

recordings on 35 nun film. Using these recordings, the true position of

the leading edge of the returning echo may he compared with that re- corded on the ionogram. No significant error of the latter method of

recording has been detected. Furthermore, echoes capable of "breaking"

the A-scan range scale, appear on the ionogram without significant

sacrifice of height accuracy. These findings were confirmed on a number

of occasions at A-k when many multiple echoes of sporadic E were observed. In most cases, accurate agreement was obtained, even where the

echoes became fairly weak.

It is therefore con- cluded that within the

range accuracies attempted (± 0.5 km), and with

the generally good s/w

ratios obtaining at A-^-,

there did not exist significant range errors at

that station due to instrumental effects. However, there is evidence

that these accuracies can- not be claimed for the

other stations during

1959 and i960. The histogram of the adjacent

figure shows the distribution of "range-errors,"

defined as the observed

burst slant range to the

cloud minus the range

computed from optical

data, for each of the

FIELD I

RANGE ERRORS

I960

4

en 2

UJ

</> 2

4

1 1 rrrTTTT| iiii MM J

1 TTTJ-I ' 'I — WEAVER i

_

_

- vm m dl —

— A-4

-

X_l_1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

, iffli 1 J Hi 1 1 1 'P? •10 km

RANGE ERRORS

1959

10
98

ionosonde stations. Obviously, there was a great difference "between

the stations, with systematic errors at Tyndall and Field-1 and possibly

Barin Field — but not at k-k. It is also clear that the errors are

not distance-dependent . It has unfortunately not been possible to

take these errors into account for the position and drift results re- ported here. They would have only minor effect on the drift data, but

might have permitted more conclusive results on cloud altitude and

growth

.

The average of the errors shown in the figure, for each station

are} A-^J 0.5^ km (11 observations j Barin Field} 0.12 km (k observations);

Field-It 6.1 km (9 observations )j and Tyndall} 5-8 km (9 observations).

D. Amplitude/Range vs. Time Recordings

Despite the very "broad frequency range of this equipment (25il),

and the resulting considerable variations in its radiated power throughout this spectrum, it was felt that continuous recordings of echo amplitude vs tims, when interpreted separately at selected frequencies,

might "be a useful extension of the ionosonde technique. Such recordings

would reduce effects of definite rise-time of the pulse a possible source

of error in range determinations. (See Section C.) They would also permit a study of the echo pulse shape, should that prove useful.

Accordingly, a device was developed* by which the range vs amplitude information could be recorded on a separate oscilloscope.

By Mr. J. J. Pitts, WBS Equipment Development Group.
99

The pulse generator of the C4 recorder operating at a PRF of

60 pps was used to trigger a pulse divider, the output of which was

adjustable from 1 pps to 6 pps. (3 pps was selected as the optimum

rate). The pulse divider then triggered the external oscilloscope while

a 35 mm camera exposed film at the rate of 55 ft/min. The external

oscilloscope was connected to the last IF stage of the C^- receiver,

ahead of any differentiation. The measured dynamic range of the rec eiver was approximately 70 db. Indications are that the receiver re- sponse is linear over most of the dynamic range (about 56 db) . Precise

linearity measurements have not performed.

Megacycle frequency markers were provided by an argon lamp which

was flashed by a one-shot multivibrator, an integral part of the pulse

divider unit . The C^- frequency marker unit supplied the negative pulse

needed to trip this multivibrator. A standard IBM printime unit was

used to identify each frame once during each sweep. Height markers from

the C^ recorder were injected into the amplitude measurements by means

of an algebraic oscilloscope preamplifier.

Vertical incidence stations located on Tyndall Air Force Base,

Barin Field, and Eglin Field-1 were operated by U. S. Signal Corps

personnel. These three stations were supplied with complete NBS amplitude measuring equipment and technical assistance for putting this

equipment into operation. Similar recordings were of course made also

at A-k.

These recordings were employed when necessary to confirm range

measurements used in this report. They were also analyzed for amplitude vs time vs frequency data by the U. S. Army Signal Corps, and form

the basis for a parallel report from the Signal Corps Radio Propagation

Agency on radar cross sections.
100

APPENDIX II

METHODS FOR DETERMINATION OF CLOUD POSITION, DRIFT,

AND GROWTH FROM IONOSONDE RANGE DATA.

by

D. E. McKinnis

Given ranges from four ionosondes, it is in principle possible

to derive four numbers descriptive of the cloud: its three spatial

coordinates (latitude, longitude, and height) and one number related

to the size, necessarily the radius.

To derive the relations for four stations, we select one of the

stations as the origin of a set of rectangular coordinates. The

equations relating cloud radius r ; ranges R ; station locations x , y . j and the cloud coordinates x 3 y, h are:

(R. + r ) 2 = (x-x,)

2

+ (y-Yi)

2 + h2

i = 0,1,2,3 (1)

or, subtracting the relation for station 0,

(Ri -R ) r + XjX + yjy = a, i -1,2,3 (2)

where a. =

l

°i = k,(R

2 -Ri

2 +

*i

2

+

yi

2

> ( 3)

This system of equations has a solution if the determinant of the

coefficients of the left-hand side does not vanish. The altitude is

given by

2 2 2 2 h = Ro -x - y,

2 (k)
101

Given only three ranges, no cloud size determination is possible,

and the relations will be like (l) with r = 0, whence

X:X + y:y =a

b)

as before. This system has a solution unless the three stations lie

in a straight line. Given two ranges, the position is not determined

unless further data is given. We may specify an estimated cloud

height to determine the position, but as can be seen physically, this

solution is two-valued; the two solutions will be equidistant from

the line joining the locations from which the ranges are measured.

The relations are found from

X , X ~»- y, y

= a ) as before.

Substituting this into (<!+), we get

x

2 (x,

2 + y,

2 )- Px,x-y

2 (R

2 -h2 )-- (6)

r ^ ^ 2 ,-,2 2 2 where P = R Q - R, +X| +y,

The solutions to this quadratic are

2(x,

2

+y|

2 )x = x

( P±y[4(x* + y

|

2 )(R

2 -h 2

) - P

2

] '2 (7a)

and 2(x,

2 + y,

2 )y =y,P±x, J4(x,

2 + y^MR, 2 " h

2

) -P

2

] \ (7b)

This solution will not exist if the estimated height is so great

that the two ranges in contact cannot reach it.

If data is available from only one station, it can be used with

other (e.g., optical) data on geographic position to determine the

cloud height.

A multipurpose program was prepared for the NBS CDOl60^ computer. The program was designed to accept data from one, two, three

or four (or more) stations and provide the following information:
102

d.

e.

Four or more stations:

1. cloud size given: program computes position and

height for all possible sets of three ranges and the

average position and height for these sets.

2. cloud size not given : program computes position,

height and cloud radius for all possible sets of

four ranges, and the average position, height, and

radius for these sets.

Three stations ; program computes height and position for

any assumed value of cloud radius.

Two stations : height and radius of cloud given: program

computes the two possible positions of the cloud.

One station : position and range given: program computes

cloud height.

Cloud height and position given : program computes ranges

to all specified stations.

When the configuration of three or four stations is near a con- figuration for which no solutions exist, the computed cloud parameters will be sensitive to small errors in the range determinations.

During Firefly i960 stations at Barin and Tyndall and site A-k- were

in fact within 25 of a straight line; the computed positions will

be highly uncertain in a direction normal to this line.

In practice, we found that reasonable values of cloud size

seldom could be deduced from the four-ionosonde data of i960 Firefly.

The cloud radius when it was computed was erratic and often negative.

This is the effect of the markedly non-spherical shape rapidly assumed

by the clouds, and because the radius depends so delicately on the

range information. Given a sphere resting on four stilts based on

a plane, it is easy to picture a sphere of much different size

"almost" resting on the same four stilts, making the computed size
103

very sensitive to small errors in range determination. On the

other hand the considerable sizes attained by the clouds made it

impossible to determine their heights accurately (in the threestation problem) if the cloud radii were assumed negligible.

There has not been adequate time to make full use of the present computer program in the examination of cloud size or height

by trial and error. In future work we hope to deal with a more

ideal deployment of stations, and to make a more elaborate study

of the geometric problem.
104

APPENDIX III

A SUGGESTION FOR THE STUDY OF ELECTRON RECOMBINATION

IN THE F2 REGION BY THE RELEASE OF GASES FROM ROCKETS

by

Thomas E. Van Zandt

National Bureau of Standards

Boulder Laboratories

Boulder, Colorado

January 20, i960
105

A SUGGESTION FOR THE STUDY OF ELECTRON RECOMBINATION

IN THE F2 REGION BY THE RELEASE OF GASES FROM ROCKETS

In the F region of the ionosphere, recombination of electrons is

thought to be limited by the reactions 1 atom-ion exchange,

+

+ XY -* X0

+

+ Y, (la)

followed by dissociative recombination

XO + e -* X + , (lb)

Where XY is a molecule, probably either 02 or N2. X and are excited states: The 0* emits the 63OOA airglow observed from the F region.

2

Although ionospheric research shows that these reactions are qualitatively correct, some important problems remain: the identity of XY is open

to conjecture, the densities of O2 and N2 are unknown, and determinations

of the rate coefficients differ within a range of ten. The experiment

proposed here is intended to resolve at least partially these uncertainties.

Solution of the rate equations for reactions (la) and (lb) with

the assumptions that the densities of XY and X0+ are independent of

time leads to a rate of loss of electrons L(h,t) given byl

rfx. +\ «exN ( h ) adrn ( h > t ) , u N

, . L(h ' t} = aexN(h )+ adr n(h, t )

* «< h .*>. (2)

where aex is the rate coefficient for dissociative recombination,

OLfc is the rate coefficient for atom-ion exchange,

N(h) is the number density of XY,

n(h,t) is the number density of electrons.

In the Fl layer aexN(h)»a(jr n ( h > t ) and >

L(h,t) = adrn(h,t) 2

. (3)

In the F2 layer, aexN(h)«o:(j rn(h, t) and,

L(h,t) °= aexN(h)n(h,t). (k)
106

Thus in the F2 layer the rate of recombination is proportional to the

density N(h) of XY, which is probably either 2 or N2

. The transition

between (3) and (k) is uncertain and variable, but probably lies near

250 km.

It is evident that in the F2 region L,(h,t) can be increased by

releasing XY from a rocket. The amount necessary for an appreciable

effect can be estimated by comparison with the existing densities.

At 300 km, the total atmospheric density is3 on the order of 0.1 kg/km3.

Of this, only a few percent is 2 and the fraction of N2 may be as large

as 90 percent or as small as one percent. In any case, it is evident

that 10 kg of XY would be sufficient to double the density of XY in a volume of from 100 to 10,000 km3, depending on the original density of

XY.

In view of the uncertainty of the identity of XY, two or more ex- periments might be necessary.

The first release should be of 2 at ^-250 km at night. If Op is

XY the effects would be as follows. A visible red flash of the 63OOA

line of would rapidly decay as the densities of 2 and of the electrons decreased. The time and space variation of the 63OOA and also

the 5577A emission would be observed by monochromatic photometers long

after they become invisible to the eye. Another photometer should

observe the uncontaminated airglow not too far away. Most of the quantitative results of the experiment would be derived from a comparison of

the observed 63OOA emission with the theoretical emission based on reac- tion (l) and the rates of diffusion of 02 and electrons.

The rapid recombination of electrons in the contaminated region

will result in a hole in the bottom of the ionosphere (which is near

25O km at night). The hole will grow outward as the 2 diffuses. Also

it will grow upward as the electrons diffuse downward along the magnetic lines of force and recombine in the contaminated volume. These

effects should be observed with one or more ionosondes, one of which

should be as nearly as possible directly beneath the release (e.g., an airborne ionosonde). The hole will appear as an additional trace.

Observation of its geometry and growth will be important to theories

of the ionosphere.

If the hole grows upward long enough, the F layer along these

lines of force will be emptied of electrons, forming a hole through

the ionosphere. By measuring the increased cosmic noise intensity

through the hole we could both gain information on the cosmic noise

intensity at frequencies which are ordinarily reflected by the ionosphere and at the same time deduce the upward progress of the hole.
107

A hole made at night could not begin to fill until the 0g had been

dispersed. Then it would fill by horizontal diffusion of electrons at

the lowest heights (about 2^0 km). In fact, the hole might last until

sunrise. A hole made in the daytime would fill more rapidly by photoionization.

If 02 caused no effect this would in itself be an important result,

and would impel us to a release of No. The observations and the nature

of the deductions would be the same.
108

References

1. J. A. Ratcliffe, "The formation of the ionospheric layers F-l and

F-2", JATP 8, 260-9 (1956).

2. J. W. Chamberlain, "Oxygen red lines in the airglow. I. Twilight

and night excitation processes", AP. J. 127, 5

14--66 pp 62-65 ( 19^8)

.

3. E.g., G. F. Schilling and T. E. Sterne, "Densities and temperatures

of the upper atmosphere inferred from satellite observations", JGR

6k, 1-k (1959).

S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

Luther H. Hodges, Secretary

NATIONAL BUREAU OK STANDARDS

A. V. Astin, Director

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