United States 

Department of 

Agriculture

Economic 

Research 

Service

Economic 

Information 

Bulletin 

Number 98

August 2012

Agricultural Resources and

Environmental Indicators,

2012 Edition

Craig Osteen, Jessica Gottlieb, and Utpal Vasavada, editors
Economic Research Service 

www.ers.usda.gov

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Resources and Environmental Indicators, 2012. EIB-98, U.S. Department of 

Agriculture, Economic Research Service, August 2012.

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Economic Research Service, USDA	 Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators, 2012 Edition, EIB-98 i

Abstract

Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators, 2012, describes trends in economic, 

structural, resource, and environmental indicators in the agriculture sector, focusing on changes 

since the release of Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators, 2006. These indicators are useful to assess important changes in U.S. agriculture—the industry’s development; its environmental effects; and the implications for economic, social, and environmental 

sustainability. This report tracks key resources, including natural, produced, and management 

resources, that are used in and affected by agricultural production, as well as structural changes 

in farm production and the economic conditions and policies that influence agricultural resource 

use and its environmental impacts. Each chapter provides a concise overview of a specific topic 

with links to sources of additional information.

Authors

Craig Osteen, Jessica Gottlieb, and Utpal Vasavada, editors; Marcel Aillery, Eldon Ball, 

Jayson Beckman, Allison Borchers, Roger Claassen, Kelly Day-Rubenstein, Robert Ebel, Jorge 

Fernandez-Cornejo, Catherine Greene, Paul Heisey, Daniel Hellerstein, Robert Hoppe, Wen 

Huang, Todd Kuethe, Michael Livingston, Cynthia Nickerson, Craig Osteen, Marc Ribaudo, 

Glenn Schaible, and Sun Ling Wang.

Keywords: Agricultural biotechnology, conservation policy, conservation programs, farm 

types, fertilizer use, land use, land values, organic production, pest management, productivity, 

research and development, soil management, water use. 

Agricultural Resources and

Environmental Indicators, 2012
ii Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators, 2012 Edition, EIB-98 Economic Research Service, USDA

Preface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii

Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv

Farm Resources and Land Use

Farm Numbers and Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Major Land Uses in the United States. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Farm Real Estate Values and Cash Rent. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Productivity and Knowledge Resources

Productivity Growth in U.S. Agriculture. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Agricultural Research and Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Biotechnology and Seed Use for Major U.S. Crops. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

Agricultural Production Management

Pest Management... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

Nutrient Management. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

U.S. Irrigated Agriculture: Water Management and Conservation. . . . . . . . . . . 29

Soil Management and Conservation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

Organic Farming Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

Conservation Policies

Conservation Spending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

Conservation Reserve Program: Status and Trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

Working-Lands Conservation Programs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

Contents
Economic Research Service, USDA	 Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators, 2012 Edition, EIB-98 iii

Preface

Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators (AREI), 2012 Edition updates the AREI, 

2006 Edition and describes recent trends in economic, structural, resource, and environmental 

indicators that are useful to assess important changes in U.S. agriculture, its development and 

environmental effects, and the implications for sustainability. AREI, 2012 Edition describes 

programs and policies that affect resource use, conservation, and environmental quality in agriculture. Each chapter provides a concise overview of one or more specific indicators with links 

to sources of additional information. Taken as a whole, the AREI provides a snapshot summary 

of the nexus between policies, production, and natural resource and environmental concerns in 

U.S. agriculture. Four previous versions of the AREI (1994, 1997, 2003, and 2006) are available 

on the ERS website.
iv Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators, 2012 Edition, EIB-98 Economic Research Service, USDA

Summary

Agricultural production depends on endowments such as knowledge, production technologies, 

and management skills, and it influences a wide range of natural resources, including land, water, 

and genetic material. Agricultural resource use depends on the decisions made by the operators 

of the Nation’s 2.2 million farms, which are shaped, in turn, by market conditions, public policies, and the specific characteristics of individual farms and households. When making these 

decisions, farm operators have clear incentives to consider their own and their households’ wellbeing, but incentives to consider more distant impacts are weaker. 

What Is the Issue?

A new focus on social, economic, and environmental sustainability has increased demand for 

indepth information on agricultural production methods, their social and environmental effects, 

and ways to measure them. Consumers are now concerned not just with the cost of food, but 

also with long-term impacts on the environment and agricultural workers. However, there are 

no product- or process-based standards that regulate sustainable agricultural systems throughout 

the supply chain. Concise and accurate information about the current state of, and complex 

interactions between, public policies, economic conditions, farming practices, conservation, 

resources, and the environment can assist public and private decisionmaking. 

What Did the Study Find?

Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators (AREI), 2012 discusses important 

economic, technology, policy, resource use, input use, and land management changes. Some 

changes can enhance while others degrade economic, social, or environmental sustainability. 

Notable findings include:

•	Census data show that the number of U.S. farms varied between 2.1 and 2.2 million since 

1992. In 2009, small farms made up 88 percent of all U.S. farms, but large-scale family and 

nonfamily farms accounted for more than 80 percent of the total value of production. 

•	In 2007, about 51 percent of the 2.3 billion acres in the United States was used for agricultural purposes, including cropping, grazing (in pasture, range, and forests), and farmsteads 

and farm roads. Total cropland acreage in 2007 reached its lowest level since the Major Land 

Use series began in 1945. Over 1959-2007, forest-use land and grassland, pasture, and range 

also decreased, while land in special uses (primarily recreation areas, transportation, and 

national defense) and urban areas increased.

•	From 2000 to 2010, national aggregate farm real estate values appreciated faster than residential values. Traditionally, farmland values were driven largely by the returns from agricultural activities, but today in some regions farmland values are influenced by factors such as 

urban influence and income from hunting leases. As a result, cropland values in these regions 

greatly exceed their implied agricultural use value. 

•	From 1948 to 2009, agricultural output grew 1.63 percent per year while aggregate input use

increased only 0.11 percent annually, so positive growth in the farm sector was mainly due to 

productivity growth (1.52 percent per year).

•	Total agricultural research and development (R&D) funding generally increased since 

2000; private sector funding grew to exceed that of the public sector, which grew slowly and 

sporadically until 2006 before declining. Private sector R&D tends to emphasize marketable 
Economic Research Service, USDA	 Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators, 2012 Edition, EIB-98 v

goods, while public sector R&D tends to emphasize public goods like environmental protection, nutrition, and food safety. 

•	Corn, cotton, and soybean growers have widely adopted genetically engineered herbicidetolerant and insect-resistant seeds since 1996. Despite higher prices for genetically engineered seed than for conventional seeds, U.S. farmers are realizing economic benefits from 

increased crop yields, lower pesticide costs, and/or management time savings. 

•	Real expenditures (2010 US$) and quantities for pesticide active ingredients declined an 

average 2.4 percent and 1.4 percent, respectively, per year during 1996-2007, even though 

expenditures and quantities applied increased from 2006 to 2007. However, herbicide use 

increased, and increasing glyphosate use on herbicide-tolerant crops and reduced diversity of 

weed management practices are associated with increased weed resistance.

•	Commercial fertilizer consumption fell from 23 million short tons in 2004 to 21 million 

short tons in 2010, with high fertilizer prices contributing to the decline. Since 2004, nitrogen 

recovery rates (amount removed by harvested crop/amount applied) on corn and cotton have 

increased, and the shares of planted acreage where application rates exceed 125 percent of the 

crop’s agronomic need have decreased. Phosphate recovery rates are relatively unchanged for 

corn and cotton. Mining phosphate in soybean plantings increased.

•	In recent decades, onfarm irrigation efficiency—the share of applied water that is beneficially 

used by the crop—has increased: from 1984 to 2008, total irrigated acres in the West increased by 

2.1 million acres, while water applied declined by nearly 100,000 acre-feet, reflecting improved 

water-use efficiency, as well as changes in irrigated acreage and regional cropping patterns. 

•	Since 2000, corn, cotton, soybean, and wheat acreage under conservation tillage (mulch, ridge, 

and no till) has increased, which may reduce soil erosion and water pollution but increase pest 

management costs. Over that same time, continuous corn and corn-inclusive rotations increased 

and continuous soybeans decreased due to higher corn prices, with uncertain effects on erosion 

and water pollution. Erosion control structures and conservation buffers are more widely 

used on highly erodible land than on other land, but overall, structures were more widely used 

and buffers less widely used on cotton and wheat than on corn and soybeans. 

•	From 2004 to 2011, organic food sales more than doubled from $11 billion to $25 billion,

accounting for over 3.5 percent of food sales in 2011. In 2008, growers practiced certified 

organic production on less than 1 percent of U.S. cropland and pasture/rangeland, but the 

percentage is higher for fruit/vegetable crops and for dairy production. 

• Federal funding for voluntary programs that encourage land retirement and adoption of 

conservation practices on working lands was $5.5 billion in 2010, higher than at any time

since 1960 (when expressed in 2010 dollars); funding increased nearly tenfold for workingland conservation from 2003 to 2010. Enrollment in the Conservation Reserve Program 

(CRP) peaked at 36.8 million acres in 2007, but the 2008 Farm Act cut maximum enrollment 

to 32 million acres and high crop returns have discouraged new CRP bids, so 29 million acres 

were under 10- to 15-year contracts as of June 2012. Goals of the CRP include soil conservation, improved water and air quality, and enhanced wildlife habitat. Total 2008-12 authorized funding for the Environmental Quality Incentive Program is $7.25 billion; 60 percent is

targeted for resource concerns in poultry and livestock production.
Economic Research Service, USDA	 Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators, 2012 Edition, EIB-98 1

Farm Resources and Land Use

Farm Numbers and Size 

Robert A. Hoppe

Farm Numbers Stabilize

After peaking at 6.8 million farms in 1935, the number of U.S. farms fell sharply until the early 

1970s (fig. 1.1.1). Falling farm numbers during this period reflect growing productivity in agriculture and increased nonfarm employment opportunities. Growing productivity led to excess 

capacity in agriculture, farm consolidation, and the exit of farm operators to work in the nonfarm 

economy. The decline in farm numbers slowed in the 1980s and halted in the 1990s, reflecting 

increases in the number of very small farms whose operators do not depend on farming for their 

livelihood. By 2007, there were about 2.2 million farms. 

Because the amount of farmland did not decrease as much as the number of farms, farms today 

have more acreage, on average. Farms averaged 418 acres in 2007, compared with 155 acres 

in 1935. But averages can be deceiving because of the diversity of today’s farms. Farms range 

from very small retirement and residential farms to large operations with sales in the millions 

of dollars. Part of this diversity stems from the low sales threshold ($1,000) necessary for an

operation to qualify as a farm.

Farm Diversity—Classifying Small and Large Farms

One way to view the diversity of farms is to categorize them into more homogeneous groups. A 

farm classification developed by USDA’s Economic Research Service identifies four groups of 

small family farms (annual sales less than $250,000): retirement, residential/lifestyle, farmingFigure 1.1.1

Farms, land in farms, and average acres per farm, 1850-2007

Most of the decline in the farm count occurred between 1935 and 1974

Source: USDA, ERS, based on census of agriculture data.

Farms (million)1

Acres per farm (hundred acres)1

Land in farms (billion acres)1

Census year2

1The break in the lines after 1974 reflects the introduction of an adjustment to estimates of the farm count and land 

in farms. Beginning in 1978, the data are adjusted to compensate for undercoverage by the census of agriculture.

2Census years are shown for 10-year intervals from 1850 to 1920, with 4- or 5-year intervals starting in 1925. 

1850 70 90 10 25 35 45 54 64 74 82 92 2002

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8
2 Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators, 2012 Edition, EIB-98 Economic Research Service, USDA

occupation/low-sales, and farming-occupation/medium-sales (see box, “Farm Types”). The 

classification also identifies large family farms, very large family farms, and nonfamily farms.

Small farms dominate the farm count, making up 88 percent of all U.S. farms in 2009 (table 

1.1.1). Production, however, is concentrated among large-scale family farms (large and very 

large family farms) as well as nonfamily farms, which together account for more than 80 

percent of the value of production. Very large family farms (annual sales above $500,000) alone

accounted for 56 percent of U.S. farm production in 2009. 

Implications of Farm Size for Government Programs

Medium-sales small farms, large family farms, and very large family farms receive a disproportionate share of commodity program payments relative to their 15-percent share of farms. 

Receipt of commodity program payments depends on past or current production of specific 

commodities covered by farm programs. Since these farms harvest about four-fifths of the land 

in program commodities (largely food and feed grains, oilseeds, and cotton), they receive a 

similar share of commodity program payments. 

However, land-retirement programs—the Conservation Reserve Program, Conservation Reserve 

Enhancement Program, and Wetlands Reserve Program—are targeted at environmentally sensitive land, not the production of commodities. Since small farms account for 62 percent of the 

land owned by farms, they play a large role in natural resource and environmental policy.

Retirement, residential/lifestyle, and low-sales farms together received 69 percent of landretirement payments in 2009. Participating farmers in each of the three groups tend to enroll 

large shares of their land in these programs: 52 percent of the land operated for retirement farms, 

38 percent for residential/lifestyle farms, and 25 percent for low-sales farms. In contrast, enrollment ranges from 5 to 12 percent for participating high-sales, large, and very large farms. 

Farm Types

The farm classification developed by ERS focuses on the “family farm,” or any farm where the majority of the business 

is owned by the operator and individuals related to the operator, including relatives who do not live in the operator’s 

household. The USDA defines a farm as any place that produced and sold—or normally would have produced and 

sold—at least $1,000 of agricultural products during a given year.

Small family farms

(gross sales less than $250,000)

Large-scale family farms

(gross sales of $250,000 or more)

Retirement farms. Small farms whose operators report 

they are retired, although they continue to farm on a small 

scale. 

Residential/lifestyle farms. Small farms whose operators 

report a major occupation other than farming. 

Farming-occupation farms. Small family farms whose 

operators report farming as their major occupation. 

•	 Low-sales farms. Gross sales less than $100,000.

•	 Medium-sales farms. Gross sales between $100,000 

and $249,999.

Large family farms. Farms with gross sales between $250,000 and $499,999.

Very large family farms. Farms with gross sales of 

$500,000 or more.

Nonfamily farms

Nonfamily farms. Any farm where the operator and 

persons related to the operator do not own a majority 

of the business.
Economic Research Service, USDA	 Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators, 2012 Edition, EIB-98 3

Because their main job is off-farm, residential/lifestyle operators are limited in the amount 

of time they can spend farming. As a result, residential/lifestyle farmers find land-retirement 

programs attractive, since participation in these programs requires little time. Given their lifecycle position, many retired farmers have land available to put into conservation uses. The 

same forces may also be acting on low-sales operators, who average 59 years of age and may 

be scaling down their operations.

Working-land programs provide technical and financial assistance to farmers using conservation practices on land in production. The distribution of working-land payments between small 

and large-scale family farms is similar to that of commodity program payments, with roughly 

three-fifths of the payments going to large-scale farms. 

References

Hoppe, Robert A., and David E. Banker. 2010. Structure and Finances of U.S. Farms: Family Farm 

Report, 2010 Edition, EIB-66, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Economic Research Service, July.

http://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/eib-economic-information-bulletin/eib66.aspx

Hoppe, Robert A., James M. MacDonald, and Penni Korb. 2010. Small Farms in the United States: 

Persistence Under Pressure, EIB-63, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Economic Research Service, Feb. 

http://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/eib-economic-information-bulletin/eib63.aspx

Table 1.1.1

Distribution of farms, production, land, and Government payments by type of farm, 2009

Type of Government payment

Type of farm Farms

Value of 

production

Farmland 

owned1 Commodity2

Land 

retirement3

Workingland4Total 

payments

Percent of U.S. total

Small family farms:

 Retirement 20.0 1.7 12.7 3.5 33.7 5.2 9.3

 Residential/lifestyle 41.3 4.2 17.5 6.2 21.0 10.6 9.3

 Farming-occupation:

 Low sales 21.3 4.3 19.3 7.0 14.7 8.6 8.6

 Medium sales 5.0 6.8 12.2 11.9 6.4 8.7 10.6

Large-scale farms:

 Large family farms 4.3 12.3 12.9 20.1 5.8 16.0 17.1

 Very large family farms 5.2 56.4 14.7 46.2 8.7 42.9 38.9

Nonfamily farms 2.8 14.3 10.7 5.1 9.6 8.1 6.2

All farms 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

1Includes land owned by the farm. Excludes land owned by nonfarm landlords.

2Includes direct payments, countercyclical payments, loan deficiency payments, marketing loan gains, net value of commodity 

certificates, disaster payments, and Milk Income Loss Contract payments.

3Include the Conservation Reserve Program (CRP), Conservation Reserve Enhancement Program (CREP), and Wetlands Reserve 

Program (WRP). 

4Includes the Environmental Quality Incentive Program (EQIP), Conservation Security Program (CSP), and Conservation 

Stewardship Program (CStP).

Source: USDA, National Agricultural Statistics Service and Economic Research Service, 2009 Agricultural Resource Management 

Survey, Phase III.
4 Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators, 2012 Edition, EIB-98 Economic Research Service, USDA

Farm Resources and Land Use

Major Land Uses in the United States

Cynthia Nickerson

The U.S. land area totals nearly 2.3 billion acres. In 2007, forest uses accounted for the largest 

share of land use (671 million acres, 30 percent), followed by grassland pasture and range (614 

million acres, 27 percent); cropland (408 million acres, 18 percent); special uses including recreation areas, transportation, national defense, and farmsteads (313 million acres, 14 percent); 

miscellaneous other uses (197 million acres, 9 percent); and urban land (61 million acres, 3 

percent). About 51 percent of the land base is used for agricultural purposes, including cropping, grazing (in pasture, range, and forests), and farmsteads/farm roads.

Land Uses Vary by Region and Over Time 

Since ERS’ Major Land Uses (MLU) series began in 1945, forest uses of land have accounted for 

the largest share of the Nation’s land base, due to extensive forests in Alaska. In the conterminous 

48 States, grassland pasture and range represents the largest share of the land base. Land-use 

patterns vary greatly by region, reflecting differences in soils, climate, topography, population, 

and the relative profitability of having land in a particular use. For example, cropland accounts for 

54 percent of all land in the Corn Belt but only 12 percent in the Northeast (fig. 1.2.1). Similarly, 

variation exists among States within a region. Almost two-thirds of North Dakota is cropland, 

versus 41 percent in South Dakota. State-level estimates are available in the ERS Major Land Uses 

data product (http://www.ers.usda.gov/data-products/major-land-uses.aspx). 

Land shifts in and out of uses for a variety of reasons. Changing commodity and timber prices, 

agricultural and natural resource policies and, more recently, bioenergy policies prompt private 

landowners to shift land to uses that maximize returns to land. Land near urban areas is also 

subject to residential, commercial, and industrial development pressure; however, once converted 

to an urban use, land rarely transitions back to less intensive agricultural or forestry uses. 

Total cropland area, forest-use land, and grassland pasture and range declined nearly 11, 8, 

and 3 percent, respectively, over 1959-2007, whereas land in special uses and in urban uses 

increased (fig. 1.2.2). Trends vary by region, however. For example, while cropland used for 

crops (the dominant component of total cropland) increased in the Corn Belt over the last five 

decades, both the Northeast and Southeast have experienced a long-term decline in cropland due 

to urban pressures and a comparative disadvantage in many crops.

In 2007, total cropland area—which includes cropland used for crops, idled cropland, and cropland used for pasture—reached its lowest level since the MLU series began in 1945 (fig. 1.2.3). 

Significant changes in cropland used for crops during this period were largely the result of large 

swings in production levels and in land idled under Federal acreage reduction programs. 

While land use changes occur annually, most land tends to remain in the same land use category 

from year to year. USDA’s National Resources Inventory data reveal that over 2002-07, 96-99 

percent of privately owned crop, pasture/range, and forest land remained in its pre-existing use. 

Over 1982-2007, 78, 86, and 92 percent of cropland, pasture/range, and forest land, respectively, remained in those uses. 
Economic Research Service, USDA	 Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators, 2012 Edition, EIB-98 5

Figure 1.2.1

Major land use shares by State, 2007

Source: See sources in Nickerson et al., 2011.

Pacific

Mountain Northern

Plains

Southern

Plains

Delta

States

Southeast

Appalachia

Corn Belt

Northeast

Lake

 States

Major land use types

Cropland

Pasture/

range

Forest

Special uses, misc., 

and urban land uses

Bolded lines represent

USDA production regions

Far West

Figure 1.2.2

Major uses of U.S. land, 1959-2007

Source: See sources in Nickerson et al., 2011.

Forest-use land

Million acres

1959 64 69 74 78 82 87 92 97 2002 07

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

Cropland

Grassland pasture and range

Miscellaneous other land

Special-use areas

Urban areas
6 Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators, 2012 Edition, EIB-98 Economic Research Service, USDA

Even when cropland acreage appears relatively constant, the mix of crops produced changes in 

response to market forces and policy changes. Historically high prices for corn in recent years 

have contributed to significant increases in land planted to corn, which—at 92.6 million acres in 

2007—was at its highest level in more than 44 years. During this same timespan (1963-2007), 

soybeans and wheat increased to 64.1 and 51.0 million harvested acres (up 124 percent and 5 

percent), while oats declined from 21.3 to 1.5 million acres and sorghum declined from 17 to 7.2 

million acres. At 10.4 million acres in 2007, cotton acreage was at its lowest level since 1963.

References

Nickerson, Cynthia, Robert Ebel, Allison Borchers, and Fernando Carriazo. 2011. Major Uses of Land in 

the United States, 2007, EIB-89, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service.

Nickerson, Cynthia. ERS Data Sets on Major Land Uses. Available at: http://www.ers.usda.gov/dataproducts/major-land-uses.aspx

For more information, see...

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service. 2011. “Land Use, Land Value & Tenure,” 

http://www.ers.usda.gov/topics/farm-economy/land-use,-land-value-tenure.aspx.

Figure 1.2.3

Major uses of U.S. cropland, 1949-2007

Source: See sources in Nickerson et al., 2011.

Million acres

Cropland

Miscellaneous other land

Special-use areas

1949 54 59 64 69 74 78 82 87 92 97 02 07

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

Crop failure

Summer fallow Harvested cropland

Idle cropland

Cropland pasture

Total cropland used for crops

Total cropland

Harvested cropland
Economic Research Service, USDA	 Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators, 2012 Edition, EIB-98 7

Farm Resources and Land Use

Farm Real Estate Values and Cash Rent

Allison Borchers and Todd Kuethe

Farm real estate (all agricultural land and buildings) accounts for the largest share of total farm 

assets, at roughly 84 percent in 2009. Farm real estate values underpin the financial health of 

farm operations and support farm household and community financial well-being. Therefore, 

prevailing farm real estate values play an important role in agricultural policy related to farm 

income and finance, farmland conservation, program payments, and farm ownership and tenure. 

Farm real estate values have increased consistently following the 1980s farm crisis and have 

exhibited above-average growth in recent years (fig. 1.3.1). From 2000 to 2010, national aggregate farm real estate values appreciated at an average of 7 percent annually (4.7 percent in inflation-adjusted terms). In contrast, residential real estate values appreciated 3.2 percent annually 

over the same period, according to the Federal Housing Finance Administration’s housing price 

index. Residential prices famously declined at an average annual rate of 4.4 percent from 2007 

to 2010, while farm real estate values continued to increase at an annual rate of 2.4 percent.

Farm Real Estate Values Exhibit Regional Variation 

Regional variation in farmland values is significant, owing to general economic conditions, the 

health of the local farm economy, public policy, and location-specific characteristics. In the 

Northeast, 2010 farm real estate values were over twice the national average, whereas values in 

the Mountain region were less than half the national average (table 1.3.1). High farm real estate 

values in the Pacific States and Corn Belt are partly a reflection of high-value specialty crops 

and favorable prices for field crops, respectively. In the Mountain region, the predominance of 

cattle ranching results in lower per-acre value of agricultural land.

Figure 1.3.1

National average farm real estate value per acre, 1980-2010

Source: USDA, National Agricultural Statistics Service: inflation adjustment via GDP Implicit Price Deflator.

Dollars

1980 85 90 95 2000 05 10

0

500

1,000

1,500

2,000

2,500

Nominal

Inflation adjusted (2005 $)
8 Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators, 2012 Edition, EIB-98 Economic Research Service, USDA

Farmland Values Often Deviate From 

Agricultural Use Value

Traditionally, farmland values were driven largely by the returns from agricultural activities. 

Cash rental payments are generally considered a measure of agricultural returns to farmland. 

Historically, U.S. cropland has maintained a substantial premium over pastureland due to higher 

per-acre returns, as evidenced by cropland’s higher rental rates (table 1.3.1). 

In many areas today, farmland values are influenced by factors other than agricultural productivity, such as urban influence and natural or rural amenities. The capitalized value of expected 

rents (rental rate divided by 10-year Treasury note) is a broad indicator of the amount of farmland value due to agricultural use. When the ratio of farmland values to capitalized rents exceeds 

1.0, it suggests a deviation between the market value of farmland and its implied agricultural use 

value. In States such as Florida and New Jersey, cropland values greatly exceed their implied 

agricultural use value (fig. 1.3.2). In more rural States such as South Dakota, cropland values 

are mostly determined by agricultural use.

The value differential between cropland and pastureland has been declining in recent years in most 

regions, with the Southeast and Delta States recently seeing pastureland values (but not rents) 

exceeding cropland values. This is attributed, in part, to nonfarm factors such as income from 

hunting leases (Henderson and Moore, 2006) and proximity to urban areas (Flanders et al., 2004) 

increasing farmland values. Income from nonfarm factors decreases the value differential between 

cropland and pasture land values that existed due to differences in agricultural returns. 

Table 1.3.1

Value and cash rent by farm production region, 2010

Farm real estate Cropland Pasture

Value Value Rent Value Rent

---------------------------------$ per acre---------------------------------

Northeast 4,690 5,220 54 3,150 26

Lake States 3,300 3,090 107 1,760 27

Corn Belt 3,680 4,000 152 1,940 30

Northern Plains 1,070 1,390 71 515 16

Appalachia 3,520 3,590 71 3,300 20

Southeast 3,570 3,750 62 4,030 18

Delta 2,230 1,920 84 2,140 16

Southern Plains 1,530 1,430 34 1,340 7

Mountain 911 1,530 75 518 4

Pacific 4,050 5,070 219 1,700 15

48 States 2,140 2,700 102 1,070 11

Source: USDA, National Agricultural Statistics Service.
Economic Research Service, USDA	 Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators, 2012 Edition, EIB-98 9

This article is drawn from...

Flanders, A., F. White, and C. Escalante. 2004. “Equilibrium of Land Values from Agricultural and 

General Economic Factors for Cropland and Pasture Capitalization in Georgia,” Journal of Agribusiness

22:49-60.

Henderson, Jason, and Sean Moore. 2006. “The Capitalization of Wildlife Recreation Income into 

Farmland Values,” Journal of Agricultural and Applied Economics 38(3):597-610, Dec.

Nickerson, Cynthia, Mitchell Morehart, Todd Kuethe, Jayson Beckman, Jennifer Ifft, and Ryan Williams. 

2012. Trends in U.S. Farmland Values and Ownership, EIB-92, U.S. Dept of Agriculture, Economic 

Research Service. http://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/eib-economic-information-bulletin/eib92.aspx

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service. 2011. “Land Use, Land Value & Tenure.” 

http://www.ers.usda.gov/topics/farm-economy/land-use,-land-value-tenure.aspx

U.S. Department of Agriculture, National Agricultural Statistics Service. 2010. Land Values and 

Cash Rents 2010 Summary. http://usda.mannlib.cornell.edu/usda/nass/AgriLandVa//2010s/2010/

AgriLandVa-08-04-2010.pdf

Figure 1.3.1

National average farm real estate value per acre, 1980-2010

Source: USDA, National Agricultural Statistics Service: inflation adjustment via GDP Implicit Price Deflator.

Dollars

1.42

0.88

0.84

1.67

0.69

0.56

1.24

0.76

0.62

0.75

0.59

0.68

0.59

1.38

0.95

0.25

0.8

1.54

1.3

0.95

0.78

1.31

4.79

0.77

1.67

1.97

0.72

1.76

3.33

1.45

1.37

1.03

3.48

0.95

2.58

3.54

3.59

8.05

3.89

Rent-to-value ratio

0.25 - 0.69

0.70 - 1.00

1.01 - 2.58

2.59 - 8.05

Figure 1.3.2

Cropland rent-to-value ratio by State, 2010

Source: USDA, National Agricultural Statistics Service. NASS does not publish value or rent estimates for some 

States due to insufficient coverage.
10 Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators, 2012 Edition, EIB-98 Economic Research Service, USDA

Productivity and Knowledge Resources

Productivity Growth in U.S. Agriculture

Eldon Ball and Sun Ling Wang

U.S. agricultural output has nearly tripled since 1948. The level of U.S. farm output in 2009 

was 170 percent above the 1948 level, reflecting an average annual growth rate of 1.63 percent. 

Aggregate input use increased only 0.11 percent annually over the same span, so the positive 

growth in farm sector output was due almost solely to productivity growth (fig. 2.1.1). 

Productivity can be measured by a single factor such as corn production per acre (yield or land 

productivity) or per unit of labor (labor productivity). But such measures can be misleading. For 

example, yields could increase simply because farmers are adding more of other inputs, such as 

chemicals or machinery. USDA’s Economic Research Service produces measures of total factor 

productivity (TFP) that account for the use of all inputs to the production process. 

Under the USDA-ERS TFP measure, annual productivity growth is the difference between 

growth of agricultural output and the growth of all inputs taken together (Ball et al., 1997; Ball 

et al., 2011). Productivity, therefore, measures changes in the efficiency with which inputs are 

transformed into outputs. Inputs are adjusted for changes in quality, such as improvements in 

the efficacy of chemicals and changes in the demographics of the farm workforce. As a result, 

agricultural productivity is driven by innovations in onfarm tasks, changes in the organization and structure of the farm sector, research aimed at improvements in farm production, and 

random events like weather. 

Figure 2.1.1

U.S. agricultural inputs were steady while total factor productivity expanded 

from 1948 to 2009

Source: USDA, Economic Research Service data product, Agricultural Productivity in the United States.

Indices, 1948=1

1948 53 58 63 68 73 78 83 88 93 98 03 08

0

0.50

1.00

1.50

2.00

2.50

3.00

Output

Input

Total factor productivity
Economic Research Service, USDA	 Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators, 2012 Edition, EIB-98 11

Patterns in Output and Productivity Growth

Output growth derives from growth in the use of inputs (capital, land, labor, materials) and total 

factor productivity growth. Input growth has been the main source of economic growth for the 

U.S. economy as a whole and for most sectors. However, in agriculture, productivity growth 

has been the main source of growth in output, while input growth has been of marginal impact. 

Yet, the composition of the input mix changed dramatically. While labor use declined by 78 

percent and land use by 27 percent over 1948-2009, materials (intermediate goods) use grew 

by 140 percent. Nevertheless, TFP growth in U.S. agriculture has been robust, at 1.52 percent 

per year over 1948-2009, a rate exceeding that of most U.S. industries and most other nations’ 

agricultural sectors (Jorgenson et al., 1987; Ball et al., 2010). 

Labor

The record of productivity growth in agriculture is all the more remarkable given labor’s longterm contraction. Over 1948-2009, labor input declined, on average, 2.51 percent each year in 

the agricultural sector, a rate unmatched by any nonfarm sector. The historic decline in farm 

labor—both farmers and farm laborers—occurred as workers sought higher wages and other 

income opportunities in the nonfarm sector. This rate of decline in labor input appears to have 

slowed since the 1970s (table 2.1.1) as average household incomes in the farm and nonfarm 

sectors have converged (Hoppe and Banker, 2010). 

Capital

Capital input in agriculture exhibits a different pattern of growth than labor. During 1973-79, 

U.S. agriculture expanded rapidly, fueled by a growth in exports resulting from increased global 

liquidity, rising incomes, and production shortfalls in other parts of the world. U.S. farm exports 

surged from an average $4.8 billion in 1950-70 to $9.4 billion in 1972 and $17.7 billion in

1973. Exports continued to increase through 1981, when they peaked at $43.3 billion. In addition, domestic forces—including a drop in interest rates and rising inflation—contributed to 

an increase in borrowing for the purchase of land and equipment. For much of the 1970s, real 

interest rates were close to zero and at times negative, reducing the cost of capital. Capital input 

Table 2.1.1

Sources of growth in the U.S. farm sector (average annual growth rates in percent)

1948-

2009

1948-

53

1953-

57

1957-

60

1960-

66

1966-

69

1969-

73

1973-

79

1979-

81

1981-

90

1990-

2000

2000-

07

2007-

09

Output growth 1.63 1.18 0.96 4.03 1.21 2.24 2.65 2.26 1.54 0.96 1.84 0.77 1.88

Sources of growth

Input growth 0.11 1.34 0.28 0.50 0.05 -0.08 0.46 1.64 -1.85 -1.22 0.31 0.14 -1.80

Labor -0.52 -0.81 -1.08 -0.83 -0.81 -0.61 -0.38 -0.19 -0.22 -0.43 -0.34 -0.35 -0.64

Capital 0.02 0.54 0.15 0.03 0.08 0.32 0.14 0.32 0.23 -0.61 -0.21 0.05 0.35

Land -0.08 0.02 -0.17 -0.16 -0.07 -0.22 -0.29 0.00 -0.12 -0.09 0.00 -0.08 -0.12

Materials 0.69 1.58 1.38 1.45 0.85 0.43 0.99 1.50 -1.74 -0.09 0.87 0.52 -1.39

Total factor 

productivity 1.52 -0.16 0.69 3.60 1.16 1.69 1.97 0.76 3.62 2.17 1.64 0.72 5.89
12 Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators, 2012 Edition, EIB-98 Economic Research Service, USDA

in agriculture increased 2 percent per year between 1973 and 1979, adding an average 0.32 

percentage points per year to the output growth (table 2.1.1). The contribution from capital 

growth continued to the 1979-1981 period.

However, the economic environment changed in the early 1980s. Restrictive monetary policy 

by the Federal Reserve pushed interest rates up sharply. The dollar appreciated on foreign 

exchange markets. The average real interest cost on variable-rate debt rose to nearly 16 percent 

in 1981-83. Real interest rates remained high for many years thereafter, as Federal Reserve 

policy grew more stringent due to large fiscal deficits. This mix of fiscal stimulus and monetary 

restraint slowed the growth in export-dependent sectors of the economy, including agriculture. 

Growth in agricultural output slowed to about 0.96 percent per year during 1981-90, versus 2.26 

percent over 1973-79 (table 2.1.1). Capital’s contribution to output growth was negative during 

1981-90; declining capital stocks reduced output growth by -0.61 percentage points per year. 

The real cost of funds generally declined from the mid-2000s, spurring increased investment in 

machinery and equipment. Capital input increased at 0.50 percent per annum, and the contribution of capital input to output growth averaged 0.05 percentage points per year between 2000 

and 2007. Capital input continued to grow over the 2007-2009 period with the contribution to 

output growth averaging 0.35 percentage points. 

Land and Material Inputs

Land’s contribution to growth in agricultural output was negative for all recent time periods 

but 1973-79. Over 1948-2009, the contribution of land to output growth was -0.08 percentage 

points per year. 

The positive growth in materials (including fertilizer, pesticides, fuel, and purchased services) 

reflects the substitution of those inputs for other inputs. Material inputs’ contribution averaged 

0.69 percent per year over 1948-2009. This offsets the negative contributions of labor and land, 

making the contribution of all inputs essentially flat. Among the materials, agricultural chemicals 

grew faster than others at an annual rate of 2.54 percentage points. While labor input declined 

and capital investment slowed in recent years, purchased services, including contract labor and 

machinery custom work services, increased at an annual rate of 2.54 percentage points over 1948-

2009. Material growth was faster and contributed more to output growth before 1979 than after.

Productivity Growth

With an annual growth rate of 1.52 percent per year over 1948-2009, farm sector productivity 

increased by 152 percent over the past 61 years. As a consequence, and in the absence of 

input growth between 1948 and 2009, productivity growth almost single-handedly drove the 

170-percent increase in farm output above its 1948 level. TFP growth can fluctuate considerably from year to year, largely in response to weather events or to changes in input use. In 

2007, producers altered cropping patterns in response to an expansion in demand for corn-based 

ethanol. Farmers increased corn acreage sharply and boosted chemical use without raising 

average corn yields or TFP. 
Economic Research Service, USDA	 Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators, 2012 Edition, EIB-98 13

Long-term agricultural productivity is driven by innovations in animal and crop genetics, chemicals, equipment, and farm organization. Public agricultural research funding, which historically has driven innovation, has been flat in recent years (see chapter, “Agricultural Research 

and Technology Development”), raising concerns about current and future U.S. productivity 

growth. Although there is no evidence of a long-run productivity slowdown in U.S. agriculture, steady investment in agricultural research is essential if agricultural production is to meet 

growing worldwide demand. 

References

Ball, V. Eldon, Jean-Christophe Bureau, Richard Nehring, and Agapi Somwaru. 1997. “Agricultural 

Productivity Revisited,” American Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol. 79, No. 4, pp. 1045-1063.

Ball, V. Eldon, Jean-Pierre Butault, Carlos San Juan, and Ricardo Mora. 2010. “Productivity and 

International Competitiveness of European Union and United States Agriculture,” Agricultural Economics

41, pp. 611-627. 

Ball, Eldon, Sun Ling Wang, and Richard Nehring. 2011. Agricultural Productivity in the United States: 

Data Documentation and Methods. http://www.ers.usda.gov/data-products/agricultural-productivity-inthe-us/documentation-and-methods.aspx

Hoppe, Robert A., and David E. Banker 2010. Structure and Finances of U.S. Farms. U.S. Department of 

Agriculture, Economic Research Service. EIB-66, July. 

Jorgenson, D., F. Gollop, and B. Fraumeni. 1987. Productivity and U.S. Economic Growth. Cambridge, 

MA: Harvard University Press. 

The data are drawn from:

USDA-ERS Data on Agricultural Productivity in the United States, http://www.ers.usda.gov/data-products/agricultural-productivity-in-the-us.aspx
14 Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators, 2012 Edition, EIB-98 Economic Research Service, USDA

Productivity and Knowledge Resources

Agricultural Research and Development

Kelly Day-Rubenstein and Paul Heisey

Agriculture is a science-based industry. Nearly all production improvements are the result of 

research and development (R&D) in the areas of mechanics (e.g., farm equipment), biology 

(e.g., plant varieties and animal breeds), or management (e.g., integrated pest management). 

Likewise, the consumers of agricultural products also depend on scientific reports for information about nutrition, food safety, and environmental quality. 

Much of the science used in agriculture comes from the life sciences. For example, plant varieties 

need resistance to pests and diseases and tolerance to nonbiological stresses such as drought and 

heat. Some stressors can be managed chemically or physically, for example, by controlling pests 

with insecticides or delivering water by irrigation. Even in these cases, the biological basis of the 

plant or pest must be understood. But many stressors can be managed best by utilizing inherent 

resistance in the plant or animal variety. Because pests and diseases evolve, R&D (particularly 

prebreeding and breeding) is continually needed to maintain or improve yields per acre. 

Multiple Institutions Operate in a Complex System

Agriculture has benefited from a unique Federal-State agricultural research and extension 

system, with a history of collaboration with the private sector. The upper portion of the flow 

chart (figure 2.2.1) shows the level of funding by each institution: the private sector leads, 

followed by the Federal Government and the States. The lower portion of the chart shows who 

conducts the research. Federal-level research, funded at about $1.3 billion in 2006, generally

addresses issues of national importance. State-level research received $3.7 billion in 2006 and

may be regionally applicable, though research at academic institutions may be broad in scope. 

Private sector research is nearest to the marketplace, and the private sector spends the most on 

Figure 2.2.1

Funders and performers of U.S. food and agricultural research in 2006

Federal

$3 billion

USDA

$1.3 billion

State Experiment Stations 

and Universities 

$3.7 billion

Industry

$6 billion

States

$1.3 billion

Private Sector

$6.8 billion
Economic Research Service, USDA	 Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators, 2012 Edition, EIB-98 15

research—$6 billion in 2006. The system is characterized by numerous linkages between institutions. For instance, State-level institutions receive funds from several Federal agencies other 

than USDA, and USDA funds State-level institutions through a variety of instruments. The 

private sector and USDA exchange funds or conduct joint research through cooperative agreements, contracts, and trusts. The relationships shown in the figure represent only the major flows 

of funds at a highly aggregated level.

Private Sector Research Increases, While Public Research 

Remains Stagnant

Over the past 40 years, agricultural R&D has increased, and funding now totals about $11

billion per year. Figure 2.2.2 shows the trends in funding for different sectors from 1970-2009. 

Historically, public institutions played a direct role in developing new technologies and encouraging their commercialization and adoption by farmers. Advances in the biological sciences, 

beginning with hybridization in the 1930s, and expanded intellectual property rights protection 

have stimulated private sector efforts in R&D. These now exceed public sector efforts, although 

private sector funding has been more variable. Since about 1980, public sector agricultural 

research funding has been stagnant for long periods of time. Over the long run, Federal funding 

of research in many different areas has fluctuated in real terms, with only health-related research 

showing a steady increase over 50 years or more. From 1990 to the mid-2000s, Federal funding 

of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) and the National Science Foundation (NSF) grew 

much more rapidly than Federal funding of agricultural research or many other research areas. 

Public research funding is dependent on many factors, including general budgetary conditions, 

perceived national (or State-level) needs, and the degree to which the users of research can 

influence appropriations. Political support for agricultural research may relate to the perceived 

importance of agriculture. At present, the share of production agriculture in U.S. Gross Domestic 

Product has shrunk to just over 2 percent.

Figure 2.2.2

Real agricultural research and development (R&D) funding, 1970-2009

1970 75 80 85 90 95 2000 05 10

0

 2

 4

 6

 8

 10

 12

Public R&D funding

Private R&D funding

Total agricultural R&D

Billion 2006 US$ (research deflator)

Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service. 2012. “Agricultural Research Funding 

in the Public and Private Sectors,” data product, http://www.ers.usda.gov/data-products/agricultural-researchfunding-in-the-public-and-private-sectors.aspx
16 Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators, 2012 Edition, EIB-98 Economic Research Service, USDA

Private and Public R&D Emphases Differ, Despite Some 

Overlap

Although there is some overlap between broad private and public R&D themes, in many ways 

public and private research are complementary rather than competitive. Little incentive exists 

for private firms to pursue public-goods research because the results benefit society as a whole, 

rather than the specific innovator. Thus, the private sector focuses mainly on R&D related to 

marketable goods. The food industry accounts for the largest category of private R&D (though 

this may also include marketing research). Advances in research in biology, microbiology, and 

computing created new technological opportunities for private companies. For example, gene 

transfer technologies enable researchers to tailor crops for specific uses, such as resistance to 

disease, pests, herbicides, or harsh environmental conditions. Crop seed is now the second 

largest category of private sector research. The share of crop seed research as a proportion 

of all private sector research has grown at the same time the share of agricultural chemicals 

research has fallen. Agricultural chemicals and farm machinery have obvious marketable qualities. Biological advances have allowed for combined crop seed and agricultural chemical technologies, such as herbicide-resistant varieties.

The change in focus in the private sector allows more public resources to be devoted to more 

fundamental technology research on scientific problems. The two largest categories, plant and 

animal R&D, account for more than half of total public agricultural research. Much of the 

research within the plant and animal categories addresses basic biological research or research 

with limited appropriability. Public research has also increased in applied areas with publicgood characteristics, such as environmental protection and nutrition and food safety. Almost 20 

percent of total funding is spent on natural resource and environmental R&D, and its importance 

has grown over time. Public research generally operates on a longer timeframe as well, which 

allows it to address problems with little probability of short-term payoff. Although USDA patents 

and licenses technologies that are near to the marketplace, such intellectual property rights are 

used primarily as a means of transferring technologies and encouraging their development. 

Figure 2.2.3

U.S. private agricultural research and development (R&D) by industry, 2007

Million 2006 US$ (research deflator)

Source: Fuglie et al., 2011.

Food industry

Animal genetics

Animal nutrition

Animal health (farm only)

Farm machinery

Fertilizers

Crop seed

Agricultural chemicals

0 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 3,000
Economic Research Service, USDA Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators, 2012 Edition, EIB-98 17

References

Fuglie, Keith O., P. Heisey, J. L. King, C. E. Pray, K. Day-Rubenstein, D. Schimmelpfennig, S. L. 

Wang and R. Karmarkar-Deshmukh. 2011. Research Investments and Market Structure in the Food 

Processing, Agricultural Input, and Biofuel Industries Worldwide, ERR-130, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, 

Economic Research Service, Dec.

Fuglie, Keith and P. W. Heisey. 2007. Economic Returns to Public Agricultural Research, EB-10, 

U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Economic Research Service, Sept.

Fuglie, Keith, Nicole Ballenger, Kelly Day, Cassandra Klotz, Michael Ollinger, John Reilly, Utpal 

Vasavada, and Jet Yee. 1996. Agricultural Research and Development: Public and Private Investments 

Under Alternative Markets and Institutions, AER-735, May.

Schimmelpfennig, David, and Paul Heisey. 2009. U.S. Public Agricultural Research: Changes in Funding 

Sources and Shifts in Emphasis, 1980-2005, EIB-45, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Economic Research 

Service, March.

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service. 2012. “Agricultural Science Policy,” topic 

page. http://www.ers.usda.gov/topics/farm-economy/agricultural-science-policy.aspx

Figure 2.2.4

Public agricultural research, 2009

Million 2006 US$

Source: USDA Current Research Information System, Funding Summaries 

(http://cris.csrees.usda.gov/fsummaries.html), as adapted by ERS.

Family & community

Nutrition, food safety

Economics & markets

Food processing, delivery

Engineering

Animals

Plants

Natural resources

0 1,000 2,000 3,000
18 Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators, 2012 Edition, EIB-98 Economic Research Service, USDA

Productivity and Knowledge Resources

Biotechnology and Seed Use for Major U.S. Crops

Jorge Fernandez-Cornejo

Genetically Engineered Crops Have Expanded Rapidly 

U.S. farmers have embraced genetically engineered (GE) seeds for soybeans, cotton, and corn 

since their commercial introduction over 15 years ago (fig. 2.3.1). GE seeds have genes that 

provide specific traits such as herbicide tolerance (HT) and insect resistance. HT crops tolerate 

potent herbicides, allowing adopters of these varieties to control pervasive weeds more effectively. Insect-resistant (Bt) crops contain genes from the soil bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis

that produces a protein toxic to specific insects, protecting the plant over its entire life. 

Although other traits are being developed (including virus and fungus resistance; cold and 

drought resistance; and enhanced protein, oil, or vitamin content), crops with HT and Bt traits 

are the most prominent GE crops currently on the market. While other crop varieties have been 

developed (e.g., HT canola, HT sugar beets, and HT alfalfa), corn, cotton, and soybeans make 

up the bulk of the acres planted to GE crops. By 2011, U.S. farmers were using HT soybeans 

on 94 percent of all planted soybean acres. HT cotton occupied 73 percent of cotton acreage, 

and HT corn accounted for 72 percent of corn acreage in 2011. Adoption of Bt crops has also 

expanded rapidly; Bt cotton reached 75 percent of planted cotton acreage in 2011, and Bt corn 

use grew from about 1 percent of corn acreage in 1996 to 65 percent in 2011. Including varieties 

with either HT and/or Bt traits, GE crops accounted for 88 percent of all planted corn acres in 

2011, 94 percent of soybean acres, and 90 percent of cotton acres.

Figure 2.3.1

Adoption of genetically engineered crops in the U.S., 1996-2011

Percent

Data for each crop category include varieties with both HT and Bt (stacked) traits.

Source: USDA-ERS (2011), using USDA-NASS data. 

1996 97 98 99 2000 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

HT soybeans

HT cotton

Bt cotton Bt corn

HT corn
Economic Research Service, USDA	 Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators, 2012 Edition, EIB-98 19

Benefits of GE Seeds Outweigh Added Cost for Most U.S. 

Farmers

Despite the higher prices for GE seed compared to conventional seed (figs. 2.3.2-2.3.3), U.S. 

farmers are realizing economic benefits from increased crop yields, and/or lower pesticide 

costs, and management time savings. The impacts of GE crops vary with the crop, technology, 

pest infestation levels, and other factors. For example, Bt crops may lead to yield gains and/or 

lower insecticide costs, while HT crops lead to savings in management time. Moreover, farmers 

adopting the HT varieties for corn, cotton, and soybeans often substitute glyphosate for more 

toxic herbicides. 

HT crops also facilitate the adoption of conservation tillage. By enabling more crop residue to 

be safely left in the field, conservation tillage reduces soil erosion by wind and water, increases 

water retention, and reduces soil degradation and water and chemical runoff. 

Despite its net benefits, however, consumer concerns may have limited acceptance of GE crops, 

particularly in Europe. In addition, farmers’ reliance on glyphosate has recently led to the evolution of weed resistance to this herbicide, reducing the effectiveness of the weed-management 

tool. On the other hand, insect resistance to Bt crops has been limited and of “little economic 

and agronomic significance” (National Research Council, 2010).

Figure 2.3.2

Prices of genetically engineered seed versus non-GE seed for corn, 2001-10

$ (2007) per bag (80,000 kernels)

Source: USDA/NASS, Agricultural Prices Summary (annual); USDA/NASS, Quick Stats. 

2001 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

 GE corn

 Non-GE corn
20 Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators, 2012 Edition, EIB-98 Economic Research Service, USDA

References

Fernandez-Cornejo, J., and M. Caswell. 2006. The First Decade of Genetically Engineered Crops in the 

United States, EIB-11, Economic Research Service, U.S. Dept of Agriculture, April. http://www.ers.usda.

gov/publications/eib-economic-information-bulletin/eib11.aspx/

Fernandez-Cornejo, J., with contributions from A. Mishra, R. Nehring, C. Hendricks, A. Gregory, and M. 

Southern. 2007. Off-Farm Income, Technology Adoption and Farm Economic Performance, ERR-36, 

Economic Research Service, U.S. Dept of Agriculture, Feb. http://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/erreconomic-research-report/err36.aspx

National Research Council (NRC). 2010. The Impact of Genetically Engineered Crops on Farm 

Sustainability in the United States. Washington DC: The National Academies Press. April.

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service. 2011. “Adoption of Genetically Engineered 

Crops in the U.S.” http://www.ers.usda.gov/data-products/adoption-of-genetically-engineered-crops-inthe-us.aspx.

Figure 2.3.3

Prices of genetically engineered seed versus non-GE seed for soybeans, 2001-10

$ (2007) per bushel

Source: USDA/NASS, Agricultural Prices Summary (annual); USDA/NASS, Quick Stats. 

2001 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

 GE soybeans 

 Non-GE soybeans 
Economic Research Service, USDA	 Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators, 2012 Edition, EIB-98 21

Agricultural Production Management

Pest Management

Mike Livingston and Craig Osteen

U.S. crop producers use a variety of practices to reduce yield losses to pests, such as scouting 

fields to determine whether and when pesticide applications might be required. Genetically 

engineered insect-resistant (Bt) and herbicide-tolerant (HT) crops are also available for conventional producers. Producers of certified organic crops are much more reliant on production 

practices that bypass synthetic chemicals, such as crop rotation, adjustments to planting and 

harvesting dates, and the use of beneficial organisms. Many such methods are also widely practiced by conventional producers.

Pesticides

According to U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Pesticides Industry Sales and 

Usage reports, U.S. agricultural producers spent $7.87 billion on 684 million pounds of pesticide active ingredient in 2007, 7.2 percent and 6.4 percent more than was spent and applied in 

2006. However, real expenditures (in 2010 dollars) and quantities declined 2.4 percent and 1.4 

percent, respectively, per year during 1996-2007, on average. During this period, herbicides and 

plant growth regulators accounted for 63 percent of both expenditures and quantities applied, 

insecticides and miticides for 21 percent of expenditures and 11 percent of quantity, fungicides 

for 10 percent and 7 percent, and other chemicals (e.g., nematicides, fumigants, and rodenticides) for 7 percent of expenditures and 20 percent of quantities applied. U.S. corn, cotton, fall 

potatoes, soybeans, and wheat accounted for nearly two-thirds of pesticide quantities applied.

In this chapter, we examine pesticide use and management practices for these five crops more 

closely, using detailed Agricultural Resource Management Survey (ARMS) data. Total pesticide use on these crops was stable during 1982-2010, increasing in some years and declining 

in others, with an average annual increase of 0.2 percent (fig. 3.1.1).1 Herbicide and insecticide 

quantities applied declined 0.2 percent and 3.9 percent per year, while fungicide and otherchemical (e.g., desiccants, growth regulators, and vine killers) quantities increased 3.3 and 6.0 

percent (O’Donoghue et al., 2011; Osteen and Livingston, 2006).

Changes in the use of pesticides during this period are due to several factors, including the 

widespread adoption of genetically engineered crops, the expiration of the glyphosate patent in 

2000, the availability of new compounds with lower application rates, boll-weevil eradication, 

and changes in pesticide prices, which increased slowly compared to the prices of other inputs 

such as fertilizer (fig. 3.1.2).

Of the five crops, 53 percent of the pesticide total was applied to corn in 1982, followed by 

soybeans (28 percent), cotton (9.6 percent), fall potatoes (4.8 percent), and wheat (4.5 percent). 

Corn’s share declined to 43 percent in 2010, while fall potatoes’ share increased to 20 percent 

(because of large increases in the application of other chemicals, particularly vine killers such 

as sulfuric acid). Herbicides accounted for the largest share of pesticides applied throughout 

1982-2010, while the other-chemicals category increased most in share. Corn accounted for the 

1These estimates do not include sulfur, oils, and unconventional pesticides.
22 Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators, 2012 Edition, EIB-98 Economic Research Service, USDA

majority of herbicide and insecticide use until the early 1990s, after which cotton accounted for 

the majority of insecticide use due to boll-weevil eradication efforts. The majority of fungicides 

and other chemicals were applied to fall potatoes.

Management Practices

ARMS data on pest management practices first became available in 1996 and indicate that fields 

were scouted for weed control on the majority of acres planted to corn, cotton, soybeans, and 

winter wheat, and that weed scouting intensity increased during 1996-2007 (fig. 3.1.3). With the 

Figure 3.1.1

Pesticide active ingredients applied to corn, cotton, fall potatoes, soybeans, 

and wheat, 1982-2010

Million pounds active ingredient

Source: O’Donoghue et al., 2011; Osteen and Livingston, 2006. 

1982 84 86 88 90 92 94 96 98 2000 02 04 06 08 10

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

Herbicides

Insecticides

Fungicides

Other chemicals

Figure 3.1.2

Price indices for seed, fertilizer, pesticides, fuels, wages, and crops, 

1982-2010 

Average annual price indices (1982 = 1.0)

Source: USDA, NASS, 2012.

1982 84 86 88 90 92 94 96 98 2000 02 04 06 08 10

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

4.0

Seed

Fertilizer

Pesticides

Fuels

Wages

Crops
Economic Research Service, USDA	 Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators, 2012 Edition, EIB-98 23

widespread adoption of herbicide-tolerant (HT) corn, cotton, and soybeans during 1996-2007, 

the use of post-emergence herbicides increased, particularly for soybeans, while the use of preemergence herbicides first declined and then leveled off, for corn and cotton, and increased for 

soybeans. The percentage of winter-wheat acres receiving pre-emergence herbicides increased 

slowly and steadily during this period, while the percentage of acres receiving post-emergence 

herbicides declined and then increased somewhat. 

The share of planted acres on which pesticides are rotated to slow resistance trended downward 

during 1996-2007, particularly for soybeans. This trend—along with the widespread adoption 

of HT crops and the popularity of glyphosate—might help explain why glyphosate resistance is 

an emerging problem facing producers of corn, cotton, and soybeans.

Figure 3.1.3

Planted acres under selected pest management practices, 1996-2010

Scouted for weed control

Source: USDA, Economic Research Service and National Agricultural Statistics Service, Agricultural Resource Management Survey. 

1996 98 2000 02 04 06 08 10

0

20

40

60

80

100

1996 98 2000 02 04 06 08 10

0

20

40

60

80

100

1996 98 2000 02 04 06 08 10

0

20

40

60

80

100

1996 98 2000 02 04 06 08 10

0

20

40

60

80

100

Percent

Applied pre-emergence herbicides

Percent

Rotated pesticides to slow resistance evolution

Percent

Applied post-emergence herbicides

Percent

Corn Cotton Soybeans Winter wheat
24 Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators, 2012 Edition, EIB-98 Economic Research Service, USDA

Changes in insect management practices are less apparent. Fields were scouted for insect control 

on the majority of planted acres, and the only discernible change over 1996-2007 occurred in 

soybeans, where the share of planted acres scouted increased slightly, perhaps because of the 

recent introduction of the soybean aphid.

References

O’Donoghue, Erik J., Bob Hoppe, David Banker, Robert Ebel, Keith Fuglie, Penni Korb, Michael J. 

Livingston, Cynthia Nickerson, and Carmen Sandretto. 2011. The Changing Organization of U.S. 

Farming. EIB-88, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service, Dec. 

http://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/eib-economic-information-bulletin/eib88.aspx.

Osteen, C., and M. Livingston. 2006. “Pest Management Practices,” pp. 107-116, in K. Wiebe and 

N. Gollehon, eds. Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators, EIB-16, Economic Research 

Service, July. http://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/eib-economic-information-bulletin/eib16.aspx.

U.S. Department of Agriculture. 2012. Quick Stats, National Agricultural Statistics Service. 

http://quickstats.nass.usda.gov/. 

For more information, see...

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service. 2012. “Chemical Inputs,” 

http://www.ers.usda.gov/topics/farm-practices-management/chemical-inputs.aspx.
Economic Research Service, USDA	 Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators, 2012 Edition, EIB-98 25

Agricultural Production Management

Nutrient Management

Wen Huang and Jayson Beckman

Nitrogen, phosphate, and potash are essential in the production of crops used for food, feed, 

fiber, and biofuel. Applied annually, most of these nutrients are absorbed by the crops, but 

when applied in excess, they can be lost to the environment through volatilization into the air, 

leaching into ground water, emission from soil to air, or runoff into surface water. These losses 

can be reduced by adoption of best management practices (BMPs) that match nutrient supply 

for crop needs, minimize nutrient losses, and enhance plants’ capability to uptake nutrients. 

U.S. farmers have used BMPs (such as soil testing for nitrogen and timing nitrogen application) 

to reduce fertilizer costs, increase profitability, protect the environment, and conserve natural 

resources. This chapter examines the trends of plant nutrient use and nutrient use efficiency—

nutrient recovery rate and share of planted acres with excess nutrient use—for major U.S. crops.

Nutrient consumption has been volatile since 2004. Commercial fertilizer consumption 

increased rapidly before 1982 as more acreage was devoted to high-yield crop varieties and 

hybrids that responded favorably to more intensive fertilizer use. As global demand for grains 

grew, nutrient consumption peaked at 24 million tons in 1981. When grain demand dropped in 

1983, Government payment-in-kind programs idled record acres and reduced nutrient consumption to 18 million tons. Nutrient use then moved steadily upward, largely due to an increase in 

corn plantings. (Corn, on average, uses the most fertilizer of all crops.) Beginning in 2004, fertilizer consumption was volatile due to highly variable corn plantings and volatile fertilizer prices 

in the biofuels era. Record fertilizer prices in 2009 reduced consumption to 18 million tons, a 

24-percent decline from 2004. As fertilizer prices declined in 2010, consumption rebounded to 

21 million tons. 

Figure 3.2.1

Fertilizer use in U.S. agriculture, 1960-2010

Short tons (million)

Source: USDA, Economic Research Service, using data from Association of American Plant Food Control Officials 

and The Fertilizer Institute.

1960 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 2000 05 10

0

5

10

15

20

25

Nitrogen (N)

Phosphate P2

O5

Potash (K2O)

Total
26 Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators, 2012 Edition, EIB-98 Economic Research Service, USDA

Nitrogen fertilizer use has increased more rapidly than phosphate and potash due to the development of seed varieties with more favorable yield responses to nitrogenous fertilizers. Corn—

with many planted acres under intensive fertilizer application—accounted for around 46 percent 

of the U.S. fertilizer consumption in 2010. 

Farmers are improving nutrient recovery rates for most crops. Nutrient recovery rate is the 

ratio of the amount of nutrient in the harvested crop to the amount of nutrient applied. Partial 

recovery occurs when the amount applied exceeds the amount removed. For corn, nitrogen 

recovery efficiency increased from 73 percent in 1987 to 81 percent 2010, while phosphate 

recovery hovered near 100 percent. For soybeans, phosphate recovery is above 100 percent, 

Figure 3.2.2

Crops' nitrogen recovery rates

Percent of nitrogen applied

Recovery efficiency is the average of recovery efficiencies from each observation. A 100-percent recovery is 

achieved when the amount of nitrogen removed from a field is equal to the amount of nitrogen applied to the field.

Source: USDA, Economic Research Service's calculation using individual observations from ARMS survey. 

▲

▲ ▲ ▲

▲ ▲

1996 98 2000 02 04 06 08 10

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

110

Corn

Winter wheat

Cotton

Figure 3.2.3

Crops' phosphate recovery rates 

Percent of phosphate applied

Recovery efficiency is the average of recovery efficiencies from each observations. A 100-percent recovery is 

achieved when the amount of phostphate removed from a field is equal to the amount of phosphate applied to the 

field. Efficiency above 100 percent indicates more phosphate is removed than applied. 

Source: USDA, Economic Research Service's calculation using individual observations from ARMS survey. 

1996 98 2000 02 04 06 08 10

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

Corn

Winter wheat

Cotton

Soybeans
Economic Research Service, USDA	 Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators, 2012 Edition, EIB-98 27

suggesting that phosphates are actually mined from the soil. Continued plant mining of phosphate may reduce soil productivity in the long run.

Farmers are reducing planted acres with excess nutrient use for most crops. For corn, 

the share of planted acres with excess nitrogen applied (above 25 percent of the crop’s needs) 

declined from 59 percent in 1996 to 47 percent in 2010, while the share of acres with excess 

phosphate declined from 43 percent in 1996 to 31 percent in 2010. Other crops also exhibit 

either declining or unchanged shares of planted acres with excess use of nitrogen or phosphate. 

Yield increase is the major factor in improving nutrient use efficiency in corn in recent years. 

Higher yields result in more nutrients being removed from the soil, thus reducing nutrient 

losses. Yields (and efficiency) have benefited from increased crop rotation (corn planted after 

soybeans), soil testing for nitrogen, use of GE seeds to reduce pest damage, increase in seeding 

rate, and adoption of precision technology (such as yield monitors and soil map).

Figure 3.2.4

Planted acres receiving nitrogen above 25 percent of crop's agronomic need

Percent of planted acres

Source: USDA, Economic Research Service's calculation using individual observations from ARMS survey. 

1996 98 2000 02 04 06 08 10

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

Corn

Winter wheat

Cotton

Figure 3.2.5

Planted acres receiving phosphate above 25 percent of crop's agronomic need

Percent of planted acres

Source: USDA, Economic Research Service's calculation using individual observations from ARMS survey. 

1996 98 2000 02 04 06 08 10

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Corn

Winter wheat

Cotton

Soybeans
28 Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators, 2012 Edition, EIB-98 Economic Research Service, USDA

References

Huang, Wen-yuan. 2007. Impact of Rising Natural Gas Prices on U.S. Ammonia Supply. WRS-0702, 

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service, Aug. 

Huang, Wen-yuan. 2009. Factors Contributing to the Recent Increase in U.S. Fertilizer Prices, 2002-08. 

AR-33, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service, Feb. http://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/ar-agricultural-resources-situation-and-outlook/ar-33.aspx

Huang, Wen-yuan. 1997. “Nutrient Management,” Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators, 

1996-97. Agricultural Handbook 712, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service, July. 

http://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/ah-agricultural-handbook/ah712.aspx 

Taylor, Harold. 1997. “Nutrients,” Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators, 1996-97. 

Agricultural Handbook 712, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service, July. 

http://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/ah-agricultural-handbook/ah712.aspx

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service. 2012. “U.S. Fertilizer Use and Price.” 

http://www.ers.usda.gov/data-products/fertilizer-use-and-price.aspx

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service. 2012. “ARMS Financial and Crop 

Production Practices.” http://www.ers.usda.gov/data-products/arms-farm-financial-and-crop-productionpractices.aspx
Economic Research Service, USDA	 Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators, 2012 Edition, EIB-98 29

Agricultural Production Management

U.S. Irrigated Agriculture: 

Water Management and Conservation

Glenn D. Schaible and Marcel P. Aillery

Irrigated agriculture makes a significant contribution to the value of U.S. agricultural production, but also accounts for the largest share of the Nation’s consumptive water use. In 2007, 

irrigated farms accounted for 55 percent ($78.3 billion) of the total value of crop sales while

also supporting the livestock and poultry sectors through irrigated production of animal forage 

and feed crops. Roughly 57 million acres—or 7.5 percent of all U.S. cropland and pastureland—were irrigated in 2007, nearly three-quarters of it in the 17 Western States.1 From 2002 

to 2007, irrigated acres increased by nearly 1.3 million acres across the United States, with 

Nebraska accounting for nearly a million additional acres. However, in recent decades irrigation has continued to expand in the humid Eastern United States.2 USDA’s Farm & Ranch 

Irrigation Survey (FRIS) reports that in 2008, irrigated agriculture applied 91.2 million acre-feet 

of water,3 over four-fifths of it in the West. The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), which monitors water use by economic sector, estimates that irrigated agriculture accounted for 37 percent 

of the Nation’s freshwater withdrawals in 2005. Agriculture, however, represents 80-90 percent 

of U.S. consumptive water use.4

Challenges for Agriculture 

Under a Changing Water Environment

Population and economic growth, Native American water-right claims, and water quality/environmental priorities are increasing the demand for water resources. Expansion of the U.S. energy 

sector is also expected to increase regional demands for water. Climate change is projected to 

shrink water supplies through reduced snowpack, warming temperatures, and shifting precipitation patterns and cause water demand to increase across much of the West. These trends place 

added pressure on existing water allocations, heightening the importance of water conservation 

for a sustainable irrigated agriculture sector. 

The future of irrigated agriculture will be influenced by the ability of producers to improve 

onfarm water management for crop production. Enhanced water-use efficiency can be achieved 

through both upgrades in physical water application systems and improved water-management 

practices. In addition, complementary water resource management at the farm and watershed 

levels—for example, use of conserved water rights, groundwater and surface-water withdrawal 

restrictions, drought water banks, and option water markets—can encourage producers to reduce 

crop consumptive use while facilitating the reallocation of water to higher valued uses. 

1Washington, Oregon, California, Idaho, Nevada, Arizona, Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, Utah, New Mexico, 

North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas.

2Since 1998, irrigated acres in the 31 Eastern States have increased by nearly 20 percent. As of 2007, 2 Eastern States—Arkansas and Florida—were among the 12 leading irrigation States, accounting for about 8 and 3 

percent, respectively, of U.S. irrigated acres.

3An acre-foot represents the volume of water needed to cover 1 acre at a depth of 1 foot, equivalent to 325,851 

gallons. 

4Consumptive water use, as defined by the U.S. Geological Survey, is the portion of water withdrawn that is 

evaporated, transpired, incorporated into products or crops, consumed by humans or livestock, or otherwise 

removed from the immediate water environment.
30 Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators, 2012 Edition, EIB-98 Economic Research Service, USDA

Onfarm Irrigation Efficiency: 

Opportunities for Continued Improvement 

Water-use efficiency gains provide many farm-level benefits, including enhanced productivity 

of applied water; improved efficiency of production inputs for labor, energy, or chemicals; and 

higher farm returns. The potential for water savings at a watershed scale will depend, however, 

on local hydrologic factors and net changes in crop consumptive use. Whether or not improved 

water-use efficiency eases basin-level water-supply constraints, onfarm water conservation 

may contribute to farmer and societal welfare, improved fish and wildlife habitat, and reduced 

ecosystem and human health risks associated with environmental degradation. 

In recent decades, onfarm irrigation efficiency—the share of applied water that is beneficially 

used by the crop—has increased. FRIS survey data reveal a marked shift to more efficient 

irrigation application systems, reducing average per-acre applied water rates across crops and 

regions. While an important concern across U.S. irrigated agriculture, irrigation efficiency is 

of particular importance across the arid Western States, where water demand for agriculture is 

greatest and where competing water demands and shifting water regimes under climate change 

are projected to place additional strain on available water supplies for agriculture. In 1984, 

gravity systems—which used roughly 54 percent more water per acre than pressurized systems, 

on average—accounted for more than 70 percent of all water applied for crop agriculture in the 

17 Western States. By 2008, gravity systems applied less than half of all irrigation water, while 

water used with pressure systems accounted for 52 percent of water applied (fig. 3.3.1). 

At the same time, continued efficiency advances were achieved with both gravity and pressure 

systems. By 2008, fewer acre-feet of water were required to irrigate a greater number of acres, 

reflecting improved water-use efficiency, as well as changes in irrigated acreage distributions 

and regional cropping patterns. From 1984 to 2008, total irrigated acres in the West increased 

by 2.1 million acres, while water applied declined by nearly 100,000 acre-feet. In 2008, applied 

water rates in the region averaged 2.4 acre-feet per acre for gravity systems and 1.4 acre-feet 

for pressure systems.5

While substantial technological innovation has already occurred in U.S. irrigated agriculture, 

additional water-use efficiency gains are achievable. Figure 3.3.2 shows changes, from 1994 to 

2008, in the share of Western irrigated acres using more efficient irrigation systems (as defined 

in the figure’s legend). More than half of irrigated cropland acres in the West continue to be 

irrigated with more traditional, less efficient application systems, for both gravity and pressure irrigation systems. Continued investment in irrigation efficiency will depend on adoption 

incentives at the farm level, including factors that influence investment returns (e.g., crop value, 

water/energy, and system upgrade costs), access to capital, and production risk.

Private and Public Investment in Irrigation Improvements

Irrigators continue to make significant capital investments in irrigation equipment and infrastructure. Approximately $2.15 billion was spent on irrigation systems (beyond expenditures

for maintenance and repair) across U.S. farms in 2008. Nearly three-fourths of these capital 

investments were on land in the West, where the vast majority of irrigated land is located. About 

5Application rates may vary significantly across subregions based on crops grown, consumptive water 

requirements, water costs for surface and groundwater sources, local water-use regulations, and other 

factors.
Economic Research Service, USDA	 Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators, 2012 Edition, EIB-98 31

52 percent of on-farm expenditures in the West were driven by replacement of existing equipment and machinery; upgrades in irrigation facilities and equipment (where water conservation 

was identified as the primary purpose) accounted for 17 percent. Investment in new equipment 

accounted for nearly 31 percent of all investment expenditures. 

Figure 3.3.1

Trends in irrigated acres and water applied, Western States, 1984-2008

Million

Source: USDA, National Agricultural Statistics Service, Farm & Ranch Irrigation Surveys 

(1984, 1988, 1994, 1998, 2003, and 2008). 

0

20

40

60

80

1984 1988 1994 1998 2003 2008

Irrigated acres

(gravity) 

Irrigated acres-pressure

(sprinkler & drip/trickle) 

Total water use (acre-feet) 

Gravity irrigation (acre-feet) 

Pressure irrigation (acre-feet) 

 

Figure 3.3.2

Efficient irrigation (as a percent of total irrigated acres), by system type, 

for 17 Western States, 1994-2008

Percent

Source: USDA, National Agricultural Statistics Service, Farm & Ranch Irrigation Surveys (1994-2008).

Traditional irrigation includes 

systems other than those defined 

above for more efficient 

gravity/sprinkler irrigation (largely 

including high-pressure sprinkler and 

unlined furrow and flood systems 

without field borders).

More efficient pressure-sprinkler 

irrigation includes acres irrigated 

using either drip/trickle systems or 

lower pressure sprinkler systems 

[pressure per square inch (PSI) < 30].

More efficient gravity irrigation 

includes furrow irrigated acres using 

above- or below-ground pipe, or a 

lined open-ditch field water-delivery 

system, plus acres in flood irrigation 

(between borders or within basins) on 

farms using laser-leveling and pipe or 

lined open-ditch field water-delivery 

1994 1998 2003 2008 systems. 

0

20

40

60

80

100

Efficient gravity-irrigated acres

Efficient sprinkler & drip/trickle-irrigated acres

Remaining irrigated acres
32 Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators, 2012 Edition, EIB-98 Economic Research Service, USDA

The majority of U.S. irrigation investment is financed privately; fewer than 10 percent of farms 

reporting irrigation improvements in 2003 or 2008 received public cost-share assistance. Over 

half of the farms receiving public assistance for irrigation investments made use of USDA’s 

Environmental Quality Incentives Program (EQIP), though these farms represented less than 5 

percent of all irrigated farms that made irrigation investments in 2003 or 2008. However, EQIP 

funding has had an important cumulative impact on irrigation investments. Nationally, irrigation practices accounted for roughly a quarter of total EQIP cost-share funding obligations ($5.7

billion) from 2004 to 2010. 

The magnitude of public irrigation investment under EQIP varies across the United States 

(fig. 3.3.3), reflecting, in part, the relative importance of irrigation to the regional agricultural 

economy, as well as Federal program funding guidelines and State contract-ranking criteria. 

In the Western States, funding of irrigation practices as a share of total EQIP outlays (2004-

10) ranged from 13 percent for the Northern Plains to 58 percent for the Southern Mountain 

States. Irrigation practices account for a relatively small share of program expenditures in the 

Corn Belt, Lake States, Appalachia, and Northeast regions. Since 2004, however, EQIP funding 

shares for irrigation practices have generally increased in the Eastern States, in contrast with 

declining funding shares for irrigation practices across the West.

Reference

Schaible, Glenn, and Marcel Aillery, 2012. Water Conservation in Irrigated Agriculture: Trends and 

Challenges in the Face of Emerging Demands. EIB-99. USDA, Economic Research Service.

Figure 3.3.3

EQIP funding of irrigation practices by region, 2004-10

$ million

Source: USDA, Natural Resources Conservation Service, EQIP data 2004-10.

NE AP SE LK CB DL NP SP NM SM NW CA

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

Non-irrigation

Irrigation

NE = Northeast (CT, DE, MA, MD, 

ME, NH, NJ, NY, PA, RI, VT)

AP = Appalachia

(KY, NC, TN, VA, WV)

SE = Southeast (AL, FL, GA, SC)

LK = Lake States (MI, MN, WI)

CB = Cornbelt (IL, IN, IA, MO, OH)

DL = Delta (AR, LA, MS)

NP = N. Plains (KS, ND, NE, SD)

SP = S. Plains (OK, TX)

NM = N. Mountain (ID, MT, WY)

SM = S. Mountain

(AZ, CO, NV, NM, UT)

NW = Northwest (OR, WA)

CA = California
Economic Research Service, USDA	 Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators, 2012 Edition, EIB-98 33

Agricultural Production Management

Soil Management and Conservation

Robert Ebel

Soil quality, also referred to as soil health, is a function of inherent chemical, physical, and 

biological characteristics of the soil and management choices leading to dynamic changes in 

soil properties and processes. While soil characteristics such as texture and distance to bedrock 

may not be easily or quickly altered, farm management strategies for crop residue management, 

crop rotations, and soil conservation structures can improve or maintain dynamic soil quality, 

mitigate environmental damage, and raise economic returns. Soil quality reflects the capacity 

of soil to facilitate nutrient cycling; regulate water flow; maintain physical stability; neutralize 

environmental pollutants; and provide habitat, food, and fiber.

No-till Drives Increase in Conservation Tillage

The amount and type of tillage used in crop residue management systems has become a critical 

issue for farm managers and policymakers alike as fuel prices rise, air quality issues continue to 

gain attention, crop mixes requiring increased soil moisture increase in acreage, and the carbon 

sequestration potential of agricultural soils gains policy relevance. “No-till” farming has seen 

increases in acreage across all major crops. Conservation tillage that maintains residue cover 

provides environmental benefits and improves both agronomic and economic efficiency. The 

reduction in fuel and labor expenditures due to fewer tillage passes over the field can boost farm 

profits. Additionally, farms using crop residue management retain more moisture by trapping 

snow, decreasing water evaporation from the top layer of soil, and improving water infiltration 

to plant root systems. Environmental benefits include reduced soil erosion and water pollution 

Figure 3.4.1

Conservation tillage for major crops, 1996-2010

Percent of planted acres leaving > 30 percent residue

Note: Solid lines connect annual observations; dotted lines connect sporadic observation of tillage practices 

for specific crops. 

Source: USDA, Economic Research Service and National Agricultural Statistics Service, 

Agricultural Resource Management Survey, various years. 

1996 98 2000 02 04 06 08 10

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Corn

Wheat

Soybeans

Cotton
34 Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators, 2012 Edition, EIB-98 Economic Research Service, USDA

(via reduced sediment, fertilizer, and pesticide runoff), and improved air quality (as soil particulates do not become airborne). Reductions in tillage may, however, be associated with increased 

pest management costs in some climates and crops. 

The choice of tillage system varies widely across U.S. regions. The Northern Plains region 

(which includes the Dakotas, Nebraska, and Kansas) has the highest rate of conservation tillage 

for corn (64 percent in 2010), and high rates of adoption for wheat and soybeans as well. Soybean 

growers have had the highest rates of conservation tillage—only the Delta region (Louisiana, 

Mississippi, Alabama) had adoption rates below 70 percent in 2006. Across all crops, rates of 

conservation tillage in Southern States lag Northern rates because of differing agronomic conditions in the South, including agricultural pest problems and post-harvest residue composition of 

dominant crops.

Corn-Soybeans and Continuous Cropping Remain 

Dominant Cropping Patterns

The choice to rotate crops—which helps to cycle nutrients, break pest cycles, and maintain or 

improve soil quality—is contingent on the relative rates of return for candidate crops. Rotations 

may consist of strictly spring-planted crops, or may involve fall-planted crops or cover crops. 

The most common rotation, corn and soybeans, demonstrates several of the major agronomic 

and environmental advantages to crop rotation. By alternating a nitrogen-dependent grain (corn) 

with a nitrogen-fixing legume (soybeans), nitrogen fertilizer needs are reduced. Yields have 

been shown to increase for grain-legume rotations irrespective of fertilizer rates. Weeds, insects, 

and disease are disrupted by crop rotation, which allows farmers to save on pesticide application 

and costs. Rotating closely grown crops, such as small grains, with row crops increases vegetative cover and can reduce soil losses due to water and wind erosion, thereby reducing nutrient 

and pesticide runoff into waterways. Crop rotations that include legumes, row crops, and small 

grains are most effective at disrupting weed, insect, and disease cycles.

Market factors—including relative commodity prices and input prices—greatly affect crop 

rotation decisions. The past decade has seen increased corn grain prices in addition to higher 

commercial fertilizer prices. High corn prices could lead to more continuous corn, while a 

desire to contain fertilizer expenses could encourage rotation of crops that require less fertilizer. 

Table 3.4.1

Tillage categories as defined by residue remaining after planting

Residue and tillage management

Conventional tillage Reduced tillage

Conservation tillage

Mulch till Ridge till No till

<15 percent residue 

cover remaining

15-30 percent residue cover 

remaining

30 percent or greater of the soil surface covered by 

residue after planting.

Moldboard plow or other 

intensive tillage used 

such as chisel or disc. 

Cultivation and/or herbicides for weed control.

No use of moldboard plow and 

intensity of tillage reduced. 

Cultivation and/or herbicides 

for weed control.

Soil is disturbed prior to 

planting, using 

less intensive 

tillage tools. 

Cultivation and/

or herbicide for 

weed control.

Only ridges are 

tilled. Residue 

left on surface 

between ridges. 

The ridge is the 

seedbed.

No tillage performed. Weed 

control typically 

accomplished 

primarily with 

herbicides.
Economic Research Service, USDA	 Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators, 2012 Edition, EIB-98 35

Agricultural Resource Management Survey (ARMS) results for corn and soybeans indicate a 

small increase in corn in rotation and continuous corn over the past decade. 

Conservation Structures Help To Minimize Erosion 

Conservation programs such as the Environmental Quality Incentives Program and the 

Conservation Stewardship Program help farmers to implement best management practices, 

Figure 3.4.2 

Cropping patterns for major crops, 1996-2010

Percent of planted acres 

Percent of planted acres 

1996 97 98 99 2000 01 05 10

0

20

40

60

80

100

Corn-Corn

Corn-Soybeans

Corn-Other crops

Corn-Fallow

1996 97 98 2000 04 09

0

20

40

60

80

100

Wheat-Small grains

Wheat-Soybeans

Wheat-Other crops

Wheat-Fallow

1996 97 98 99 2000 02 06

0

20

40

60

80

100

Soybeans-Soybeans

Soybeans-Corn

Soybeans-Other crops

Soybeans-Fallow

1997 98 99 2000 03 07

0

20

40

60

80

100

Cotton-Cotton

Cotton-Small grains

Cotton-Other crops

Cotton-Fallow

Crop rotations for U.S. corn

Percent of planted acres 

Percent of planted acres 

Crop rotations for U.S. wheat

Crop rotations for U.S. soybeans Crop rotations for U.S. cotton

Source: USDA, Economic Research Service and National Agricultural Statistics Service, Agricultural Resource Management Survey.
36 Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators, 2012 Edition, EIB-98 Economic Research Service, USDA

including the installation of soil conservation structures and vegetative measures. 

Conservation structures are especially useful and encouraged on land that USDA’s Natural 

Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) considers highly erodible land (HEL). NRCS estimates 

that over 27 percent of U.S. cropland was highly erodible in 2007. 

Structures and vegetation such as terraces, grassed waterways, grade stabilization structures, 

filter strips, and riparian buffers can reduce soil erosion and sedimentation and chemical runoff 

in local waterways. Filter strips and riparian buffers are rows of vegetation planted next to 

waterways in order to trap surface runoff from agricultural fields. Terraces and other grade 

stabilization structures are earthen structures that transform long sloping fields into a series of 

more moderately sloped fields, thus slowing the movement of sediment. Grassed waterways are 

areas of permanent vegetation placed where surface water flow concentrates.

References

Horowitz, J., R. Ebel, and K. Ueda. 2010. “No-Till” Farming Is a Growing Practice, EIB-70, 

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service, http://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/eibeconomic-information-bulletin/eib70.aspx

Sandretto, C., and J. Payne. 2006. “Soil Management and Conservation,” Agricultural Resources and 

Environmental Indicators, K. Wiebe and N. Gollehon, eds. EIB-16, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 

Economic Research Service, July. http://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/eib-economic-informationbulletin/eib16.aspx

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service. 2012. “Chemical Inputs.” 

http://www.ers.usda.gov/topics/farm-practices-management/chemical-inputs.aspx

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service. Agricultural Resource Management Survey 

data, http://www.ers.usda.gov/data-products/arms-farm-financial-and-crop-production-practices.aspx

Figure 3.4.3 

Conservation structure use among major crops, 2006-2010

Percent of planted acres 

Source: USDA, Economic Research Service and National Agricultural Statistics Service, 

Agricultural Resource Management Survey.

Corn

(2010)

Soybeans

(2006)

Wheat

(2009)

Cotton

 (2007)

Corn

(2010)

Soybeans

(2006)

Wheat

 (2009)

Cotton

 (2007)

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Highly erodible land (HEL)

Non-HEL

All land

Erosion control structures Conservation buffers
Economic Research Service, USDA	 Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators, 2012 Edition, EIB-98 37

Agricultural Production Management

Organic Farming Systems

Catherine Greene and Robert Ebel

The organic label is the most prominent food eco-label in the United States. In 2000, USDA 

published national organic standards that reflected decades of private-sector development. 

USDA’s national regulatory program is designed to facilitate interstate trade, reduce consumer 

fraud, and provide consumer assurance that all organic products sold in the United States meet 

a high national standard. All organic growers, processors, and distributors are required to meet 

the national standard and be certified by a USDA-accredited State or private group unless they 

sell less than $5,000 annually in organic products.

USDA regulations define organic farming as an ecological production system that fosters 

resource cycling, promotes ecological balance, and conserves biodiversity. Organic farmers are 

required to avoid most synthetic chemicals and must adopt practices that maintain or improve 

soil conditions and minimize erosion. Organic production systems can be used to increase 

farm income, as well as reduce pesticide residues in water and food, reduce nutrient pollution, improve soil tilth and organic matter, lower energy use, reduce greenhouse emissions, and 

enhance biodiversity (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2010; Greene et al., 

2009; Ribaudo et al., 2008).

In 2005, USDA began to include targeted oversamples of organic producers in its Agricultural 

Resource Management Survey (ARMS), which collects detailed information about farmers’ 

production practices, as well as costs and returns in major farm sectors. Some of the differences 

in practices and characteristics of organic and conventional production systems are apparent 

from survey responses by soybean, wheat, apple, and corn producers (fig. 3.5.1).

Consumer Demand Drives Growth in the Organic Sector

Organic food salesin the United States have increased from approximately $11 billion in 2004 to

an estimated $25 billion in 2011 (fig. 3.5.2). Market penetration has also grown steadily; organic

food products accounted for more than 3.5 percent of total U.S. food sales in 2011. Although the 

annual growth rate for organic food sales fell from the double-digit range in 2008 as the U.S. 

economy slowed, it still far outpaces the annual growth rate in all food sales (Nutrition Business 

Journal, 2012).

Adoption of Organic Systems Is Highest for Specialty Crops

U.S. producers dedicated approximately 4.8 million acres of farmland—2.7 million acres of 

cropland and 2.1 million acres of rangeland and pasture—to organic production systems in 

2008 (latest year for which data are available). Top States for certified organic cropland include 

California, Wisconsin, North Dakota, Texas, and Minnesota (fig. 3.5.3). Top States for certified organic pasture and rangeland are Wyoming, New Mexico, Texas, California, and South 

Dakota. Overall, the adoption of organic farming systems is low—only about 0.7 percent of all 

U.S. cropland and 0.5 percent of all U.S. pasture was certified organic in 2008. 
38 Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators, 2012 Edition, EIB-98 Economic Research Service, USDA

Figure 3.5.2

Organic food sales in the United States, 2004-2013 

* 2011-13 estimates or projections. Source: Nutrition Business Journal.

U.S. sales ($ billion)

Annual growth (percent)

2004 05 06 07 08 09 10 11* 12* 13*

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

Figure 3.5.1 

U.S. organic and conventional operations: selected characteristics and practices

Source: USDA, Economic Research Service and National Agricultural Statistics Service, based on data from the 

Agricultural Resource Management Survey.

Corn

Soybeans

Wheat

Apples

Corn

Soybeans

Wheat

Apples

Corn

Soybeans

Wheat

Apples

Corn

Soybeans

Wheat

Apples

Corn

Soybeans

Wheat

Apples

Corn

Soybeans

Wheat

Apples

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Percent of conventional planted

acres using practice

Percent of organic planted acres

using practice

Use manure

Use 

compost

Adjust 

plant/

harvest

date to

control 

pests

Conservation

program

participation

Federal

crop

insurance Ownership of land
Economic Research Service, USDA	 Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators, 2012 Edition, EIB-98 39

Still, many U.S. producers are embracing organic farming in order to lower input costs, conserve 

nonrenewable resources, capture high-value markets, and boost farm income. While only a 

small percentage of the top U.S. field crops—corn (0.2 percent), soybeans (0.2 percent), and 

wheat (0.7 percent)—were certified organic in 2008, nearly 9 percent of U.S. vegetable crop 

acres and 3 percent of U.S. fruit and tree nut acres were grown under certified organic farming 

systems. Markets for organic vegetables, fruits, and herbs have been developing for decades 

in the United States, and fresh produce is still the top-selling organic category in retail sales. 

Organic livestock was beginning to catch up with produce in 2008, with 2.7 percent of U.S. 

dairy cows and 1.5 percent of layer hens managed under certified organic systems.

Obstacles to adoption by farmers include high managerial costs and risks of shifting to a new 

way of farming and limited knowledge of organic farming and marketing systems. According 

to Lynn Clarkson, a top organic grain broker, specific obstacles to adoption in organic grain 

production include the 3-year lag due to the organic transition period requirement, fewer organic 

marketing outlets, the need for onfarm storage, the lack of third-party contractors for organic 

pest and nutrient management, heavy managerial requirements, fear of criticism from neighFigure 3.5.3

Organic operations accounted for less than 1 percent of total crop acreage in 2008

Number of certified

organic operations

(U.S. total 12,941)

4 - 100

101 - 300

301 - 550

551 - 1,000

1,001 - 2,887

#1 (CA)

720,491

#2 (WY)

660,076

#3 (TX)

450,707

#4 (NM)

359,310

#5 (WI)

224,965

Size of pie symbol = Total organic acres for State

(top 10 States labeled)

Pasture and range share Cropland share

U.S. total organic acres: 4,815,959

Crops: 2,655,382

Pasture and range: 2,160,577

#7 (MT)

215,248

#6 (ND)

216,567

#8 (SD)

196,835

#9 (NE)

183,032

#10 (NY)

170,125

Source: USDA, Economic Research Service, based on information from USDA-accredited certifiers.
40 Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators, 2012 Edition, EIB-98 Economic Research Service, USDA

bors, unknown risks, lack of government infrastructure support, and subsidies for ethanol that 

increase demand for conventional grain supplies (Clarkson, 2007). 

Producers also face many challenges once they have shifted to organic production. Respondents 

to USDA’s 2005 organic dairy producer survey indicated that certification paperwork and 

compliance costs were the most challenging aspect of organic milk production, followed 

by finding new organic sources of feed and dairy replacements, higher costs of production, 

and maintaining animal health (McBride and Greene, 2009). In the produce sector, a recent 

California study of small and mid-sized organic farmers, producing mostly fruit and vegetables, 

found that more than 80 percent reported marketing challenges—having too much or too little 

volume, obtaining organic price premiums, locating and accessing markets, handling competition, and accessing information on pricing (Cantor and Strochlic, 2009).

References

Cantor, Alida, and Ron Strochlic. 2009. Breaking Down Market Barriers for Small and Mid-Sized Organic 

Growers. California Institute for Rural Studies. Nov. 

Clarkson, Lynn. 2007. “Review of economic impacts of production, processing, and marketing of 

organic agricultural products.” Statement of the President of Clarkson Grain Co., Inc., Subcommittee 

on Horticulture and Organic Agriculture—Public Hearing. 110th Congress 2007-2008, Witness Opening 

Statements, House Committee on Agriculture, April 18.

Greene, C., C. Dimitri, B. Lin, W. McBride, L. Oberholtzer, and T. Smith. 2009. Emerging Issues in the 

U.S. Organic Industry. EIB-55. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service, June. 

McBride, W.D., and C. Greene. 2009. Characteristics, Costs, and Issues for Organic Dairy Farming. 

ERR-82. Nov.

Nutrition Business Journal (NBJ). 2012. U.S. organic food sales – chart 22. Penton Media, Inc. 

Ribaudo, M., L. Hansen, D Hellerstein, and C. Greene. 2008. The Use of Markets To Increase Private 

Investment in Environmental Stewardship. ERR-64. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research 

Service, Sept.

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Marketing Service. 2000. “National Organic Program; 

Final Rule, 7 CFR Part 205,” Federal Register, Dec. 21, www.usda.gov/nop

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service. 2009. Data sets: Organic Production. 

http://www.ers.usda.gov/data-products/organic-production.aspx

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service. 2011. Data sets: ARMS Farm Financial 

and Crop Production Practices. http://www.ers.usda.gov/data-products/arms-farm-financial-and-cropproduction-practices.aspx

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health, National Cancer Institute. 

2010. Reducing Environmental Cancer Risk: What We Can Do Now, President’s Cancer Panel, 2008-09 

Annual Report, April.

For more information, see...

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service. 2012. “Organic Agriculture.” 

http://www.ers.usda.gov/topics/natural-resources-environment/organic-agriculture.aspx
Economic Research Service, USDA	 Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators, 2012 Edition, EIB-98 41

Conservation Policies

Conservation Spending

Roger Claassen

Some farming practices can degrade natural resources and the environment. Runoff and 

leaching of sediment, nutrients, and pesticides, for example, can impair water quality. Other 

practices can preserve and enhance our natural heritage and provide substantial benefits through 

careful management of agricultural land. Enhancing wildlife habitat on agricultural land—for 

example, by providing nesting habitat for migratory birds—can help increase wildlife populations. USDA’s conservation programs help agricultural producers improve their environmental 

performance in many ways, including soil quality, water quality, air quality, wildlife habitat, 

and greenhouse gas emissions. 

A Portfolio of Incentives

The USDA conservation effort relies mainly on voluntary incentive programs to address natural 

resource issues. This approach can avoid the inherent difficulties in regulating nonpoint sources 

of pollution and can minimize economic harm to farmers by offering a range of incentives and 

assistance programs: 

•	Land retirement programs generally compensate contract holders for removing land from 

agricultural production for a period of 10 or more years and, in some cases, permanently. 

Retired land must be planted to buffers, grass or trees, or restored to wetland condition.

• Working-land programs provide technical and financial assistance to farmers who install or 

maintain conservation practices that support crop and livestock production. Common practices include nutrient management, conservation tillage, field-edge filter strips, and fences to 

exclude livestock from streams.

• Agricultural land preservation programs purchase rights to certain land uses, such as housing 

or other development, to maintain land in agricultural use. 

• USDA provides, through Conservation Technical Assistance, ongoing technical assistance 

to agricultural producers who seek to improve the environmental performance of their farms.

Environmental compliance is a notable exception to the largely voluntary nature of U.S. agrienvironmental programs. Under highly erodible land conservation provisions (often referred 

to as “Sodbuster” for land not cropped before 1985 and “Conservation Compliance” for 

land cropped before 1985), farmers who crop highly erodible land must apply an approved 

soil conservation system or risk losing nearly all agriculture-related farm program benefits, 

including commodity, conservation, and disaster payments. Under wetland conservation (often 

referred to as “Swampbuster”), producers must refrain from draining wetlands or face the loss 

of most agriculture-related program benefits. 
42 Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators, 2012 Edition, EIB-98 Economic Research Service, USDA

Conservation Spending Has Been Rising

Through USDA, the Federal Government invested more than $5.5 billion in voluntary agricultural conservation incentives in fiscal year (FY) 2010 (table 4.1.1). Land retirement captured the 

largest share of conservation spending (46 percent in FY2010), although funding for workingland programs was substantial (35 percent). Most of the remaining expenditures were for 

Conservation Technical Assistance (14 percent) and agricultural land preservation (5 percent). 

Since the mid-1980s, USDA conservation program spending has been on the rise (fig. 4.1.1). 

In 1986, with the beginning of the Conservation Reserve Program (CRP), USDA conservation spending was dramatically increased. For the next 17 years, until 2003, land retirement 

Table 4.1.1

Funding for major conservation programs, 2007-10

Program and program type 2007 2008 2009 2010

Budget authority ($ million)

Land retirement programs

Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) 1,948 1,991 1,934 1,884

Emergency Forestry Conservation Reserve Program 10 8

Voluntary Public Access 0 12

Wetland Reserve Program (WRP) 248 183 436 630

Subtotal—land retirement 2,196 2,174 2,380 2,534

Working land programs

Environmental Quality Incentives Program (EQIP) 993 1,200 1,067 1,174

Agricultural Water Enhancement Program 60 60 73 72

Conservation Security Program* (CSP) 382 317 276 222

Conservation Stewardship Program** 0 0 9 390

Wildlife Habitat Incentives Program (WHIP) 42 85 85 83

Subtotal—working land 1,477 1,662 1,510 1,941

Agricultural land preservation

Farm and Ranch Land Protection Program (FPP) 73 96 121 150

Grassland Reserve Program (GRP) 13 3 48 100

Subtotal—land preservation 86 99 169 250

Other programs

Healthy Forest Reserve Program 2 2 10 8

Chesapeake Bay Watershed 0 0 23 43

Agricultural Management Program 5 7 15 15

Subtotal—other programs 7 9 48 66

Conservation Technical Assistance 627 712 730 762

Total, major conservation programs 4,393 4,656 4,837 5,553

*Discontinued by the 2008 Farm Act, although some funding continues because multi-year contracts are still

 active.

**Created by the 2008 Farm Act.

Source: ERS analysis of USDA, Office of Budget and Program Analysis (OBPA) data.
Economic Research Service, USDA	 Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators, 2012 Edition, EIB-98 43

dominated USDA conservation spending. During this period, about 90 percent of USDA 

conservation payments made directly to farmers went for land retirement. Beginning in 2003, 

conservation spending took another leap, largely because of a dramatic increase in funding 

for working-land conservation programs. Most of the new money went to the Environmental 

Quality Incentives Program (EQIP) and the Conservation Security Program (CSP; superseded 

by the Conservation Stewardship Program). Between 2003 and 2010, working-land program 

funding grew nearly tenfold. 

With the growth of conservation programs over the past 25 years, conservation spending for 

fiscal year 2010—expressed in constant dollars—was higher than at any time since 1960. In 

1960 at the height of the Soil Bank program (a large land retirement program initiated in 1956), 

conservation program funding was almost $5.8 billion in 2010 dollars.

It is not clear that conservation spending will continue to rise in the future. The Food, 

Conservation, and Energy Act of 2008 reduced the CRP acreage cap to 32 million acres, 

slowing spending in that program. If the demand for major commodities (e.g., corn, soybeans, 

and wheat) continues to be strong and market prices for these commodities continue to be well 

above historic levels, farmers may be unwilling to enroll land in CRP unless annual payments 

are increased to match the profits from crop production. Under such a scenario, CRP expenditures could jump or the program’s acreage could shrink.

For more information, see...

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service. 2012. “Conservation Programs.” 

http://www.ers.usda.gov/topics/natural-resources-environment/conservation-programs.aspx

Figure 4.1.1

Trends in USDA conservation expenditures, 1983-2010*

*Constant (2010) dollars.

See full names of programs (EQIP, etc.) in table 4.1.1, p. 42.

Source: ERS analysis of USDA Office of Budget and Policy Analysis (OBPA) data.

$ Billion 

1983 88 93 98 03 08

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

Conservation Technical Assistance (CTA)

Land retirement (CRP and WRP)

Working lands conservation

 (EQIP and predecessors,

 CSP, and WHIP)

Ag land preservation

(FPP and GRP)
44 Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators, 2012 Edition, EIB-98 Economic Research Service, USDA

Conservation Policies

Conservation Reserve Program:

Status and Trends

Daniel Hellerstein

Now over 25 years old, as of June 2012 the Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) removes 

over 29 million acres of environmentally sensitive farmland from crop production under 10- 

to 15-year contracts. Over time, the program’s size and goals have changed, from its early 

emphasis on limiting crop production and soil erosion to one that now considers a broad set of 

conservation goals including wildlife, soil, water, and air quality. Driven by improvements in 

conservation practices and changes in legislative mandates, commodity markets, and environmental concerns, the CRP continues to evolve.

The 2008 Farm Act capped the program at 32 million acres, down from a peak enrollment of 

36.8 million acres in 2007. The required reduction was achieved by limiting 2009 contract 

extension offers to only 1.5 million of the 4.3 million expiring acres, yielding extensions on 1.1 

million acres. High commodity prices also may be affecting program enrollment. CRP rental 

rates are based on county average cropland rental rates that, while updated periodically, may not 

reflect farmers’ long-term expectations. For example, between 2006 and 2011, net farm income 

increased by about 80 percent while the cropland rental rates used by the program rose by about 

40 percent.

As program acres shrank, in the 2010 and 2011 general signups a higher-than-usual proportion of offers were accepted into the CRP—75 percent and 86 percent of offers respectively 

Figure 4.2.1

While total enrollment in the CRP has contracted since 2007, acreage addressing 

high-priority environmental concerns has expanded through continuous signups

1

CPA = Conservation Priority Areas identified as being in need of protection.

2

EBI = Environmental Benefits Index used to rank offers.

3

REX = Re-enrollment and Extension Program allowed farmers with contracts expiring between 2007 and 2010 

to either re-enroll their lands or extend their contracts for up to 5 years. About 82 percent, or 28 million acres, 

were approved for re-enrollment or extension.

Source: USDA, Economic Research Service.

Million acres

1991 

first CPAs

established1

1987 program start

1997 

continuous

CRP

starts

1998 

major 

program 

signups 

use EBI2

2006

REX3

2009

32-millionacre cap

Continuous CRP acres

$ Billion 

1987 89 91 93 95 97 99 01 03 05 07 09 11

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

CRP acres

Annual program

outlays
Economic Research Service, USDA	 Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators, 2012 Edition, EIB-98 45

(compared with an acceptance rates ranging between 48 and 74 percent in the signups between 

1997 and 2006). A high share of offered acres were re-enrollments (over 85 percent in 2011), 

suggesting that the pool of landowners interested in the CRP may be shrinking. Furthermore, 

enrollment seems to be shifting toward less productive land, with rental payments for newly 

accepted general signup acres basically constant between 2006 and 2011. 

As the total acreage enrolled via CRP’s general signups has declined, “continuous signups”—

including land in one of the many State-Federal conservation partnerships under the 

Conservation Reserve Enhancement Program (CREP)—have increased. This acreage, which is 

targeted to address high-priority environmental concerns and is subject to more stringent eligibility requirements, grew from 3.7 million acres in 2007 to over 5.3 million acres in June 2012. 

Further growth in continuous signups is likely as targeted conservation practices and sites are 

identified. For example, about three-fourths of the 850,000 continuous signup acres allocated 

to the 2008 State Acres for Wildlife Enhancement initiative have been enrolled. New initiatives 

continue to emerge, such as the Louisiana Coastal Prairie CREP and expansion of Nebraska’s 

Platte-Republican CREP, as high valued conservation opportunities are developed.

Figure 4.2.2

CRP acres in 2007, and percent change 2007 to 2012

Percent change in CRP

acreage: 2007-2012

10 or less increase

0 to 6 decrease

6 to 12 decrease

12 to 20 decrease

Greater than 20 decrease

Insufficient data

2007 CRP acreage by State

> 2,400k

1,300k to 2,400k

600k - 1,300k

150k - 600k

< 150k
46 Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators, 2012 Edition, EIB-98 Economic Research Service, USDA

References

Hellerstein, Daniel, and Scott Malcolm. 2011. The Influence of Rising Commodity Prices on the 

Conservation Reserve Program. ERR-110, USDA, Economic Research Service, Feb. 

http://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/err-economic-research-report/err110.aspx.

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Farm Service Agency. 2011. Conservation Reserve Program Statistics, 

http://www.fsa.usda.gov/FSA/webapp?area=home&subject=copr&topic=rns

For more information, see...

Hellerstein, Daniel. 2012. “Recent Conservation Reserve Program Enhancements Signal Changing 

Priorities,” Amber Waves, Vol. 10, Issue 1, (March). 
Economic Research Service, USDA	 Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators, 2012 Edition, EIB-98 47

Conservation Policies

Working-Lands Conservation Programs

Marc Ribaudo

With each of the last two Farm Acts, Congress has directed an increasing proportion of conservation funding toward programs that assist producers in implementing conservation activities on 

working lands (lands that are in active agricultural production). Much of the 17-percent increase 

in conservation funding authorized by the 2008 Farm Act goes toward two working-lands 

programs—the Environmental Quality Incentives Program and the Conservation Stewardship 

Program. These programs provide producers with financial and technical assistance for implementing and managing a wide range of conservation practices for crop, livestock, and forest 

production. 

Two Different Program Designs Are Used

The Environmental Quality Incentives Program (EQIP) is the largest working-lands program 

in terms of funding and acreage. Established in 1996, EQIP’s principal objective is to (1) 

promote production and environmental quality as compatible goals, (2) optimize environmental 

benefits, and (3) help farmers and ranchers meet Federal, State, and local regulatory requirements. Financial assistance is in the form of a cost share. Farmers seeking to participate in EQIP 

complete an application indicating which land on the farm will be enrolled, which resource 

concerns will be addressed, and what practices will be used. Contract selections are made at the 

State or local level. Total authorized funding for 2008-12 is $7.25 billion, 60 percent of which is

targeted to natural resource concerns related to poultry and livestock production. The remainder 

is directed toward practices that address conservation priorities on working cropland. In 2010, 

EQIP obligated $839 million to treat 13 million acres of land.

The goal of the Conservation Stewardship Program (CSP) is to encourage producers to address 

resource concerns in a comprehensive manner by (1) undertaking additional conservation 

activities, and (2) improving, maintaining, and managing existing conservation activities. To 

participate in CSP, farmers and ranchers must, at minimum, have already addressed at least 

one resource concern throughout their farm, and agree to address at least one additional priority 

resource concern during the 5-year contract term. CSP pays participants for conservation performance—the higher the performance, the higher the payment. Performance is measured with the 

Conservation Measurement Tool. Using a point-based scoring system, the environmental benefits associated with each activity are assessed. Additional activities receive a higher payment rate 

than existing activities. This creates an incentive for landowners to provide more conservation 

than a simple cost-share might. The 2008 Farm Act directs the U.S. Secretary of Agriculture to 

enroll 12.77 million acres per year into CSP at an average cost of $18 per acre, or about $230

million per year. In 2010, CSP obligated $320 million to enroll 25 million acres of land.

Multiple Resource Concerns Are Addressed

Working-lands programs address multiple resource concerns on farms, including air quality 

(odor, gaseous emissions), livestock and poultry (manure), fish and wildlife habitat, plant condition (forage quality, noxious and invasive plants), soil condition (organic matter, compaction, 

salinity), soil erosion, water quality, and water quantity (drainage, irrigation). Water quality, 
48 Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators, 2012 Edition, EIB-98 Economic Research Service, USDA

plant condition, and water quantity received the largest shares of financial assistance in the 

EQIP program (fig. 4.3.1). (Similar data are not available for CSP.)

Resource concerns addressed through EQIP vary widely across regions, driven largely by 

climate and predominant types of agriculture (fig. 4.3.2). Water quantity is a major issue in 

regions where irrigated crops are common: the Basin and Range, Mississippi Portal, Fruitful 

Rim, and Prairie Gateway regions. Water quality and soil erosion are major concerns in the 

Heartland, Mississippi Portal, Southern Seaboard, and Northern Crescent regions. 

Figure 4.3.1

Distribution of EQIP contract obligations by resource concern, 2008-10

Air quality (6%)

Domestic animals (10%)

Fish and wildlife (10%)

Plant condition (18%)

Soil condition (7%) Soil erosion (13%)

Water quality (20%)

Water quantity

(16%)

Source: USDA, Natural Resources Conservation Service contract data, 2008-10.

Figure 4.3.2

Distribution of EQIP contract obligations by resource concern and region, 2008-10

Source: USDA, Natural Resources Conservation Service contract data, 2008-10.

0

20

40

60

80

100

Percent

Basin 

Range

S. SeaboardFruitful

Rim

E.

Uplands

Prairie

GW

N. Great

Plains

HeartlandMiss.

Portal

N.

Crescent