COMMERCIAL

STANDARDS

MONTHLY

cy

A Review of Progress in

Commercial Standardization and Simplification

ISSUED BY THE NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS OF THE

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE, WASHINGTON, D.C., U.S.A.

Vol. 6, No. 12 JUNE, 1930

For Bale by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C. Sec page 3 of cover for prices
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

R. P. Lamont, Secretary

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

George K. Burgess, Director

COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY

S. F. Tillman, Editor

DIVISIONS OF THE COMMERCIAL STANDARDIZATION GROUP

DIVISION OF SIMPLIFIED PRACTICE, Edwin W. Ely.

'i'lie division of simplified practice was formed in November,

1921, to provide a clearing house or centralizing agency through

which the manufacturer, distributor, and consumer groups

could meet to discuss their common problems and decide upon

eliminations which would prove of mutual benefit to all con- cerned. The activities of the division are purely cooperative

in character. It orders nothing; it dictates nothing; the ini- tiative must come from business itself. It has no regulatory nor police powers to enforce adherence to the simplified-practice

recommendations that industry develops under the auspices

of the United States Department of Commerce. Its chief function is to serve as a neutral meeting ground for the purpose

of bringing together producers, distributors, and consumers, whose aims are sometimes divergent and possibly antagonistic,

and who would be unwilling to cooperate, except through some

unbiased central agency. Following the approval of the tentative simplified-practice recommendation by a general conference

of all interested elements thereof, the project is then presented

to the entire industry by letter referendum for its approval and

written acceptance, the publication and indorsement of the recommendation on the part of the Department of Commerce

being dependent upon acceptance of the program by at least 80 per cent, by volume, of the manufacturers, distributors, and

users concerned.

BUILDING AND HOUSING DIVISION, J. S. TAYLOR. The division of building and housing cooperates with business, technical, and professional groups in practically all its undertakings on building and housing. Its work to modernize

building codes and to encourage improved standards for the

quality of building construction promotes the practical application of the latest development in design and use of build- ing materials. This division was also formed in 1921. In furthering home ownership, an effort is made to develop an enlarged, steadier, more intelligent, and more discriminating

demand for soundly built dwellings, the largest single class of buildings which the construction industries provide. The

division also cooperates with many business and professional groups in efforts to distribute building activity more evenly

throughout the year, and to secure less fluctuation from year

to year. The work on city planning and zoning has in mind

the broad objective of buildings made more useful because

well located with respect to other buildings, a well-coordinated

street system, and appropriate public works. Good city

planning and zoning likewise encourages stability in land

values and property uses, and thereby contributes to the demand for durable structures.

DIVISION OF SPECIFICATIONS, A. S. McAllister.

The duties of the division of specifications are to promote and

facilitate the use and unification of specifications. In doing so

it carries on activities involving cooperation with technical

societies; trade associations; Federal, State, and municipal

Government specifications making and using agencies; producers,. distributors, and consumers; and testing and research

laboratories. The cooperation with technical societies and

trade associations includes ascertaining the standardization

and specification promoting activities of these organizations,

and bringing to their attention the work being done by the commercial standardization group. The cooperation with

governmental agencies and other consumers includes the bringing of Federal specifications and commercial standards to the attention of the maximum number of producers and the maximum number of users of commodities complying with these

specifications and standards, thereby assisting in broadening

the field of supply. The cooperation with producers involves the compilation and distribution of lists of manufacturers who

have expressed their willingness to certify to purchasers, upon

request, that material supplied by them on contracts based on

certain Federal specifications or commercial standards comply

with the requirements thereof. The cooperation with distributors involves bringing to their attention the benefits to be

derived by them as both buyers and sellers from handling

nationally specified, certified, and labeled commodities. The

division prepares the directories of governmental and nongovernmental testing laboratories; the Directory of Specifications;

and is working on an encyclopedia of specifications, the first volume of which, Standards and Specifications in the WoodUsing Industries, has been issued. It also aids in preparing the Standards Yearbook.

DIVISION OF TRADE STANDARDS, I. J. Fairchild.

The commercial standards unit, now known as division of trade standards, was created on October 1, 1927, for the purpose

of aiding those industrial and commercial groups desiring to establish standards of grades, quality, or measurements for their products or their purchases on a purely voluntary basis. The division functions only at the direct request of the in- dustry concerned. Its procedure is similar to that of the divi- sion of simplified practice, except that at least 65 per cent of the industry, by volume of annual production, must accept

the commercial standard in writing before it is published by

the Department of Commerce. A certification plan is applied on request as a means of increasing the effectiveness of such

standards. Provision is made for regular revision of the standard

through the appointment of a standing committee to consider

periodically any necessity for revision of the standard, in order that it may be kept constantly compatible with progress in the

industry.

Except where otherwise indicated, for further information address

BUREAU OF STANDARDS

WASHINGTON, D. C.
COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY

A Review of Progress in

Commercial Standardization and Simplification

Volume 6 WASHINGTON, D. C., JUNE, 1930 Number 12

CONTENTS

FEATURE ARTICLES

Page

Materials used in the electrical industry 375

Railroads make wide use of standardization 377

Sequence of events leading to the adoption of a Federal

specification 360

Some standardization research affecting land, sea, and air transportation 373

Standard color for machine tools 361 Standardization in sport 362

Standardization in the manufacture of ordnance material 357

Standardization urgently needed in printing industry., 366

Standard time zones 370

The national hydraulic laboratory 367 What is writing ink? 371

SIMPLIFIED PRACTICE NEWS

Masonry opening sizes : 378

Propose simplification for terry towels 376

STANDARDIZATION NEWS

Annular ball bearings 365

A. S. T. M. conducting research on cotton 372

A. S. T. M. organizes subcommittees on hollow building

units 365

Coordination of marine-boiler rules 366

Current activities of the American Standards Association 381

International cooperation on standards for petroleum

products 386

National engineering inspection association formed 366

STANDARDIZATION NEWS—Continued

Progress in the introduction of American lumber standards Progress in safeguarding industrial workers from acci- dents Safety code for automobile brakes Standard for grooved trolley wire for mine service Standardization briefs Standards for refinery equipment

Standards of design for concrete 1 Sodium oxalate as volumetric standard

Specifications for “mattress lumber” drafted

Specifications for steel Tapered shaft ends

Zoning laws in effect in 46 States TRADE STANDARDS NEWS

Boys’ blouses, button-on-waists, shirts, and junior shirts. Foundry patterns of wood

Proposed standardization of colors for sanitary ware The commercial standards service and its value to business RESEARCH NEWS

New material called maizolith made from cornstalks Paper bags as shipping containers Publication on bismuth

FOREIGN NEWS

British standards for switch gear Indian railway standards 1 Standardization of agricultural equipment in Sweden.

.

Standard paper sizes have been adopted abroad

Page

385

374

384

369

379

359 360

359

359

378

360

386

361 382

383

382

383 386

376

369

372

385 384

AN INVITATION TO VISIT THE BUREAU OF STANDARDS

An interesting fact in the growth of the bureau is the steady increase in the number of visitors. From all over the world experts come to see the work in progress in many specialties. Not alone the

experts but in growing numbers many of our people visit the bureau from a public-spirited desire to acquaint themselves with its research work. All visitors, from the newspapermen, who have called the

bureau a “house of wonders,” to the specialists, who use its services, are welcome, for it is their bureau

in a very real sense. They are the owners of the business and its beneficiaries. The annual per capita

cost of 2 cents which the average citizen pays toward the operation of the bureau yields returns sometimes a hundredfold or a thousandfold. How science turns wastes into profits, increases the useful life of materials, adds new efficiencies to industry, advances new arts, such as aviation and radio, by research

and discovery—these are to be seen first-hand in the scientific and technical laboratories of the bureau.

A cordial invitation is extended to all citizens interested in scientific progress to visit the laboratories

of the Bureau of Standards when in Washington. A personally conducted trip is organized at 2.15 p. m.

daily except on holidays. Special trips for groups may be arranged at other times by writing to the

bureau in advance. The bureau’s illustrated Visitor’s Manual may be had for the asking. This lists the work in progress and gives an airplane view of the ensemble and a brief statement of typical discoveries and inventions which have been notable, basic contributions to radio, aviation, and other modern

arts and industries.

George K. Burgess, Director.

116489—30 1 (355)
National Standardizing Bodies

in 21 Countries

Such bodies initiate action only when requested to do so by those concerned

CARRYING on their standardizing activities the national standards

f / committees or associations in the 21 countries in which such organizations

are now functioning follow, with more or less modification, the method of

cooperation developed by the first standardizing body created—the British.

The national body does not initiate standardization, but acts only if, and

when, it finds that the groups concerned are desirous of having the work undertaken. In fact, it is only on the request of a representative technical or trade

organization, or a Government department, that the association acts, and, even

then, before appointing a committee to study any subject it authorizes the holding of a representative conference of all concerned in order to be certain that there

is a consensus of opinion favorable to such work being carried out, and that'it is to fulfill a recognized want. The matter is fully ventilated at such a conference,

and it is on its report, if favorable, that the association takes definite action

by the appointment of what is called a sectional or departmental committee.

The sectional committee in some cases represents a whole industry; at other

times it is representative of materials.

The national bodies keep in touch with each other by correspondence, ex- changing information in regard to new projects, draft standards, and general

tendencies in the national work in the respective countries. The information

interchanged is arranged in regular form on uniform blanks, all by agreement

between the officers of the various bodies. All approved standards are interchanged as a matter of routine, and each national standardizing body acts as a sales agent for the approved standards of the other bodies.

In the order of their organization the national bodies are as follows : Great

Britain, 1901; Holland, 1916; Germany, 1917; United States of America, 1918;

Switzerland, 1918; France, 1918 (reorganized in 1928); Belgium, 1919; Canada,

1919; Austria, 1920; Italy, 1921; Japan, 1921; Hungary, 1921; Australia, 1922

(reorganized in 1929); Sweden, 1922; Czechoslovakia, 1922; Norway, 1923;

Poland, 1924; Finland, 1924; Russia, 1925; Denmark, 1926; and Rumania, 1928.

( 356 )
357

STANDARDIZATION IN THE MANUFACTURE OF ORDNANCE MATERIAL

Army Standardizes Its Manufactures Whenever Possible to Simplify Procedure and Permit Maximum

Production

By Brig. Gen. C. L'H. Ruggles, Ordnance Department, U. 8. Army

The Ordnance Department of the Army is charged

with responsibility for the procurement of military

equipment, including cannon, small arms, and ammunition, required for use by the Military Establishment. Procurement in a broad sense covers the ac- quisition of finished products, not only by purchase,

but by manufacture as well, and, as applied to the

field of manufacture, it embraces all the steps pre- paratory and subsequent to actual production work,

such as research, design, factory planning, inspection,

test. etc. The manufacturing activities of the Ordnance Department are under the supervision of the chief of

manufacture, whose office

is divided into four operating branches. These

four branches, and the application of standardization principles to their

respective activities, may

be set forth as follows:

Gage section.

The standardization of

design on gage blanks for

plain and thread plugs

and ring gages, by the

American Gage Design

Committee, is of immense

economic value to the Ordnance Department. How

much, is rather difficult to estimate, but it is safe to say that the gage production of the country, on ac- count of this standardization, probably will be

doubled, without increase in present facilities, and also,

purchasers will be enabled to buy gages of this class from stock, thereby saving considerable time in waiting for the gages to be made up after the order is placed with the gage manufacturer, which has hitherto been the custom. It may be well to mention here

that about 70 per cent of the gages used in industry

fall in the class stardardized bv the American Gage

Design Committee

Artillery division.

The artillery division is responsible for the procurement of approximate'y 200 major items of ordnance,

including guns and carriages, with their recoil mechanisms and fire-control instruments, accompany vehicles, tractors, and tanks. Considering this wide variation in product, it would appear to be rather difficult to do much in the way of standardization. In fact,

it would seem like attempting to find common ground

for both the jewe'er and the locomotive builder.

However, closer examination of the problem indi- cates that within each subgroup and in many cases between such units a promising field actually exists. While each complete article of ordnance has no direct

counterpart in the civil world, most components

thereof have. For example, a certain combat vehicle

may be a distinctly military article without commercial use. Its bearings, however, are, or should be,

identical with those in anybody’s automobile.

In view of the economic impossibility of building

and storing items of artillery in quantities sufficient for a modern war, rapid large-scale production after

a declaration of hostilities is required by our national

policy. It is obvious that

early manufacture can

only be secured when as many elements as possible are commercial articles

actually in stock, in process, or easily placed in

those conditions. Many

components will, of course, not be of that character.

Even then, however, cer- tain characteristics may be

arranged so as to call for

standard materials, the use

of standard tools, standard treatments, and so on. Subordinate to the above,

but nevertheless important, is the standardization

within the ordnance field

itself. A gun carriage is after all a collection of

wheels, axles, levers, brackets. pieces of angle or channel, and what not. In designing a new carriage for,

possibly, a different caliber of gun it is not necessary

to redraw every detail. In fact, the function of design, production, supply, and maintenance are all simplified by utilizing such parts over and over again.

Whereas the coordination with commercial standards

is secured by constant reference to commercial standards, Federal specifications, and the codes of national

associations, this type of standardization is obtained

by treating each noncommercial component as a sep- arate problem of design, placing it upon a drawing

by itself, and then utilizing that drawing as a standard

in preference to creating a new one. The latter process has not yet proceeded far enough

to make a fair estimate of the savings which can be

effected. Nevertheless, it may be said that in the case of fire-control instruments where approximately 150

distinct optical elements are required, standardization

of lenses, prisms, reticles, etc., will eventually elimi- nate at least half of the present variety.

General manufacturing processes owe a great

deal to the Ordnance Department of the Army.

The science of this interchangeable manufacture that has revolutionized industry, began in

this country in 1798, with the filling of a contract for 10,000 muskets. In 1812 interchangeability had become a normal contract specification of the War Department. Out of this

development naturally came some consideration

for what is known as scientific shop management. The well-known authority, Doctor Taylor, makes.frequent reference to the work of the

Army in this field. He states that the card sys- tem of shop returns, which was a very important

development, was first employed in the shops of

the Frankford Arsenal.
358

In this particular case there is an interesting byproduct of standardization which deserves mention.

Were commercial companies required in time of war

to produce complete instruments, including optical ele- ments, many first-class concerns would be automatically excluded by reason of lack of experience in the

manufacture of the latter. However, by standardizing on selected varieties of optical glass, and on the di- mensions and characteristics of finished elements, the

latter can be fabricated in separate plants under strict technical control and then shipped to the first-mentioned factories for assembly. In no other way is it believed possible to meet the vast requirements which

a real national emergency would entail. Infantry and aircraft armament division.

In the manufacture of spare parts for rifles, machine

guns, revolvers, and pistols it is very essential that

standardized dimensions be used, not only for the

parts themselves, but for the gages used in inspecting

these parts to insure that complete interchangeability

will result. In times of emergency moi'e than one manufacturer will be engaged in the making of arms

and the spare parts for same. A critical situation

would exist if it were not possible to utilize the spare

parts manufactured at one plant in the maintenance

of arms manufactured at this or other plants.

The Ordnance Department has long recognized the

vital relation of standardization of products and manufacturing equipment for efficient production and

maintenance. As early as 1825 steps were taken to develop machinery for the production of interchangeable components of military rifles, and since that time

standardization has been applied to practically all military equipment of a small-arms nature. The Ordnance Department produces caliber .30, cal- iber .45, and caliber .50 ammunition of various types

for the weapons with which the troops are equipped.

There is 1 standard shoulder rifle, caliber .30, M1903,

1 standard Browning automatic pistol, caliber .45, M1911AI, and 1 standard Colt revolver, caliber .45, M1917. There are 2 standard types of automatic rifles, a Browning automatic rifle, caliber .30, M1918, and a Browning machine rifle, caliber .30, M1922. The machine guns consist of 6 standard types; 4 caliber .30 machine guns and 2 caliber .50 machine guns. The

caliber .30 machine guns consist of Browning tank

machine gun, M1919; Browning water-cooled machine gun, M1917 ; Browning aircraft machine gun,

M1918MI; Browning aircraft machine gun, M1919.

The caliber .50 machine gun consists of Browning

water-cooled machine gun, M1921 ; and Browning air- craft machine gun, M1921.

To facilitate the manufacture of these small arms, they are designed to give a maximum interchangeability of component parts. This interchangeability

exists in the automatic rifles and the caliber .30 and

caliber .50 machine guns. The following statistics are given for the guns designed with the maximum of in- terchangeability of components : The total mimber of

components required for the two types of automatic

rifles, namely, the Browning automatic rifle, M1918,

and the Browning machine rifle, M1922, is 244. Of

this number, 206 are the same for both weapons. The

caliber .30 Browning tank machine gun, M1918, and

the Browning machine gun, water-cooled, M1917, have

a total of 397 components. Of this number, 304 are the same for both weapons. The two caliber .30 machine guns, M1922 (water-cooled and air-cooled) have

a total of 612 components, of which 410 are the same

for both weapons.

The standardization of components, as given above, not only facilitates the manufacture of small arms in

respect to manufacturing equipment, but also facili- tates the storage and issue of spare parts. The cost of

production and output per day are also favored by the

adoption of interchangeable components.

Ammunition division.

One of the essential factors in the design of ammunition components is the readiness with which such

designs lend themselves to large production, in a wide

variety, of commercial companies, in the event of an

emergency. Such designs must be carefully scrutinized to insure that dimensions, with their tolerances,

permit of practical machining and that, specifically, close tolerances are not required unless essential to proper functioning of the component. Furthermore,

that parts are dimensioned to insure the type of fit necessary without placing an undue hardship or handicap on the producer by requiring closer fits than are necessary. The experiences of the World War are still suffi- ciently fresh in the minds of the ordnance ammunition

designer so that the stamp of approval is not placed on such designs until considerable thought has been

given to whether or not the components lend themselves to quantity production. Not alone is it sufficient that this material be produced in Government arsenals

by personnel already familiar with such items, but it is hoped to have orders placed with commercial companies to further prove its satisfactoriness for large

production in the event of an emergency.

What, then, is more important than that the design

and the material that goes into it conform to the com- mon standards of commercial production? While

even in time of peace, procurement of ammunition is facilitated by utilizing material that is standard and

readily procurable, by dimensioning details so that

dimensions and thread sizes can be understood and

worked to, and permitting in the manufacture of the

part as much standard tool equipment as possible, such

a procedure becomes of far-reaching importance in the

emergency production of ammunition. At that time

these designs of ammunition, with which the commercial manufacturer is unfamiliar, must go out to many

plants of different kinds of products.

If we have been fortunate enough in showing the

design in a manner with which he is familiar, in

specifying materials that he can readily procure, and

in having the design so that he can adapt his equipment to producing it, so much sooner will it be possible

to place ammunition in the hands of troops requiring it. Ammunition not of general manufacture.

Ammunition is markedly different from any article of commercial manufacture. In an emergency, when

commercial concerns must produce munitions, the fact

that ammunition differs so much from that which they

are accustomed to producing creates initial difficulties. Every effort is therefore made in the design of am-
359

munition components to permit of the use of commercial or standardized practices in their manufacture.

Standard materials and those of standard shapes and

sizes are so specified wherever possible. Wherever it is practical to do so, standard screws, pins, sheets, and

screw thread sizes are used.

Descriptions of manufacture are prepared for practically all components of ammunition. These are for

the purpose of aiding prospective manufacturers and

to assist them in obtaining early and quick production

of ammunition in an emergency. In these descriptions

particular care is taken to specify machine tools and

practices that are common or standard in the industrial world.

All new methods of manufacture that are developed

and adopted by the industries of the country are carefully studied, with a view' to their utilization in an emergency for the manufacture of ammunition. Thus,

while certain of the standards developed commercially

can not be adopted wholly in every case for ammunition components, every effort is made to incorporate

such standards, or at least to bring the ammunition

components and their methods of fabrication so nearly

like the standards, that little or no confusion would be

encountered if industry was required to manufacture

ammunition.

Meaning of “standard” in munitions.

The interpretation of the word “ standard ” in munitions means a round of ammunition or item of issue

that has passed all the tests and met all of the specifications required by the using branches. In order to have any article adopted as standard by the War Department, such articles must have passed provingground tests, followed by an extended service test, con- ducted by the branch of the service for which the

article is intended, under conditions simiulating as

closely as possible those of actual service in warfare.

The article must also be proven to be capable of

being manufactured economically and expeditiously in

the quantities required during a major emergency. It

will thus be seen that a standard article of ammunition

must meet requirements very similar to an article that

may be considered as a commercial or general standard.

STANDARDS FOR REFINERY EQUIPMENT

Oil Industry to Investigate Possibilities of Standardization

in Refinery Equipment

Possibilities of standardization of refinery equipment are to be investigated by the American Petro- leum Institute, it was decided at a meeting of the

division of refining, held at the institute’s headquarters in New York on May 1. A committee, headed

by Henry Thomas, of the Sun Oil Co., Philadelphia,

Pa., was appointed to consider the project and re- port its findings to the division.

General opinion at the meeting of the refining division was that the new project of standardization of

refining equipment will not have quite as wide an

application as in the producing industry. In that

branch the American Petroleum Institute has been

working with marked success for a number of years.

It was the opinion of the meeting that standardization in the refinery probably will be limited largely

to auxiliary equipment. Crude oils vary so widely

that it probably would be undesirable to attempt any

strict schedule of standardization of distillation equipment such as stills and towers. The field of standardization in the refinery, according to those present at the meeting, could well embrace fittings, piping, control apparatus, and the like. Standard alloys may be developed to resist various

degrees of corrosive action, for example. Standardization of pipe, valves, and fittings for high-pressure

service may also be a field for investigation.

SODIUM OXALATE AS VOLUMETRIC

STANDARD

Bureau of Standards Issues Revised Circular on Latest Standard Sample for Analytical Work

In order to bring up to date the information on the

standardization of solutions by means of sodium

oxalate, the National Bureau of Standards announces

that its Circular No. 40, Sodium Oxalate as a Standard

in Volumetric Analysis, has been revised and reissued

as Circular No, 381. This was done in connection with the analysis of the new lot of sodium oxalate No. 40c, which is to replace

the present sample No. 40b. Some new tests for purity

and data on the effect of rapid titration are given.

This will be of considerable interest to chemists who

make use of these standard samples in their analytical

work. Copies of the revised circular may be obtained

from the Superintendent of Documents, Government

Printing Office, Washington, D. C., at 5 cents each.

SPECIFICATIONS FOR “ MATTRESS LUMBER ” DRAFTED

United States Army Cooperates With Industry in Using

American Standard Lumber for River-Improvement Work

One of the biggest lumber items used by the Army

engineers in river improvement work is mattress lumber, which is woven into “mattresses,” used for the

purpose of preventing stream-bed erosion which would

result in collapse of the river banks.

The engineers were confronted with the problem of

selecting lumber which may be woven without breaking and yet be of sufficient strength for sinking in the

river without damage to the completed mattress. None

of the American lumber standard grades had been

found to be entirely satisfactory for this purpose, and

the use required, therefore, a grade selectable from the

middle commons.

Following several conferences between the Corps of

Engineers, the National Committee on Wood Utilization of the Department of Commerce, and the National

Lumber Manufacturers Association, definite specifications conforming as closely as possible to American

Lumber Standards have been drawn up and approved

by the Corps of Engineers. It is reported that the

subject is one of great importance to lumber manufacturers.
360

SEQUENCE OF EVENTS LEADING TO THE ADOPTION OF A FEDERAL

SPECIFICATION

By Maj. R. W. Voeth, U. S. M. C., Secretary, Federal Specifications Board

When the desirability of a specification for a specific commodity or service arises in the mind of any

member of the Federal service he may refer it to the

respective departmental member on the Federal Specifications Board. Upon motion by the member, the

board considers the item, and, if the facts are not

obvious, canvasses the various departments and establishments to ascertain the volume and the departmental spread of Governmental purchases thereof.

Assuming that tAvo or more departments are materially interested in the item, it is referred to an

appropriate technical committee for the ultimate submission of a suitable tentative Federal specification.

The technical committee is enjoined to develop the best

commercial practice covering the commodity, also to ascertain if there be any specifications extant that

might reasonably serve the Government’s requirements, and to canvass the various departments and

establishments for samples and specifications that are adequately or inadequately serving the Government

at the time.

With the results of these inquiries before the technical committee, the committee endeavors to fit the

Government’s requirements into the commercial pic- ture and to formulate a Federal specification accordingly.

Industry cooperates.

This specification, as agreed upon by the committee,

is circulated to the industry for comment and criticism.

The comment and criticism thus developed is acted

upon, and a tentative Federal specification is recom- mended by the technical committee to the Federal

Specifications Board for circulation to the respective

departments and establishments of the Government for

their comment and criticism.

These comments and criticisms are returned to the

technical committee for further consideration. Comments offered are considered upon their merits, and

after the committee has fully weighed the material

offered, the resultant specification is forwarded to the

Federal Specifications Board with recommendation

that it be adopted as a Federal specification. Favorable action looking to its adoption is taken by the

board at its monthly meeting, and in due course all departments and establishments of the Government

and the commercial world, by mailing lists and trade

journals, are advised of its official adoption as a Federal specification.

Ultimately the specification as adopted is printed,

and in printed form is available to all activities of the

Government and to the public in general. The Federal specifications are a part of the Federal standard

stock catalogue.

Revisions of Federal specifications, which are both

necessary and desirable, are taken up automatically by

the technical committee concerned, in order to keep

the specifications abreast the best current commercial

practice, or they are referred to the committee for suit- able action by the Federal Specifications Board when

necessity for such revision becomes apparent.

As the work of the Federal Specifications Board

progresses, there is to be noted a diminishing of the

diversity in the specification 'requirements of the various departments, which was much in evidence prior

to the establishment of the board.

TAPERED SHAFT ENDS

Proposed Addition to Society of Automotive Engineers

Standard

During the latter part of last year a small tapered

shaft end designated as proposed S. A. E. No. 0, Avas submitted to the aircraft-engine division of the Society of Automotive Engineers for consideration as to

its adoption as an addition to the present S. A. E.

standard on spline-shaft ends.

It Avas stated at the time that this was drawn up that

there are a number of small engines using special ta- pers which could and should logically use this proposed No. 0. While the number of these engines is not large, it is considered advisable to add this shaft

end to the standard in view of the development of

many small engines now being designed for use on

gliders and small 1-place airplanes.

It is likely that a still smaller shaft to be known as No. 00 will be developed to provide a suitable shaft

for engines of 20 horsepower and thereabouts, many

of which are now in development. These engines are

largely of the 2-cylinder opposed type, and it will

probably be advisable to develop the shaft end before

several sizes come into use. Pending this development,

however, the aircraft-engine division has recommended

that the standards committee of the S. A. E. approve

the addition of the No. 0 size to the present specifications. STANDARDS OF DESIGN FOR CONCRETE

A new engineering treatise entitled “ Standards of

Design for Concrete ” has been published by the Bureau of Yards and Docks, of the Navy Department.

This work is the result of an intensive study of past

and current practice in concrete design, and includes

several new developments in this field, which consti- tute distinct improvements over former practice.

“ Standards of Design for Concrete ” has been complimented by some of the high engineering authorities

of the country, and owing to the interest of many

activities of the Government in this type of construction, this publication should prove of great value to engineers, and others interested in concrete design.

The booklet is obtainable from the Superintendent of

Documents, Government Printing Office, at 50 cents per copy.
361

STANDARD COLOR FOR MACHINE TOOLS

Machine Tool Builders and Users Eliminate Confusion of Color by Adopting Gray as the Standard Color

By Eknest F. DuBbul, National Machine Tool Builders’’ Association

The announcement that the machine-tool industry

had adopted a standard color for all machine tools aroused a considerable amount of interest, both as to

tire reasons for this adoption and as to the steps taken

to bring it about. There were pressing reasons for

establishing a standard color for machine tools. Formerly each machine-tool builder had his own idea of a color for his machine tools. In many cases he

thought that a distinctive color would identify his

machine above all others when the machine got into

the user’s shop.

Here the user began to take a hand, because, with

all these multicolored machine tools, his shop pre- sented a polychromatic effect. Larger users then

adopted standard colors of their own, and ordered

the machines they bought to be painted to the user’s own specifications, even specifying the particular

brand of paint to be used. Then the machine-tool

builder’s paint room troubles began.

There was interminable and costly confusion in keeping the different customers’ paints apart, and in

changing the paints in the spraying equipment. Machines would go out painted with the wrong color in

spite of the greatest care on the part of the builder.

Troubles arose in getting small shipments of paint

from the different manufacturers specified by different

users. A paint manufacturer who was not the builder’s regular source of supply would not be very much

interested in an order for one can of paint of a special

color. Making up small orders was a nuisance, and

inevitable delays ensued in getting the paint. Other

difficulties arose from the color not coming out as the

user expected it to come. Shipments delayed.

Shipments of machines were often held up waiting

for a can of paint. This tied up capital in inventories

and caused loss. The writer personally saw a $25,000

machine that had been held up nearly 60 days waiting

for the user’s particular kind of paint to come to the

shop for application. These conditions finally grew

to be so intolerable that something had to be done in

the interest of both machine-tool builders and their customers. Discussion of the situation by the builders developed a strong sentiment in favor of selecting a standard color for machine tools and having all machine-tool builders use this standard color. A committee was appointed to solve the question.

The committee secured samples of the paints used by

leading machine-tool builders and made panels showing all these colors, which were shown at a meeting

of the association. There w

Tere nearly as many colors

as a leading food house has pickles.

The paint manufacturers also liked the idea of a standard color which would permit of quantity production instead of the small-scale production of special colors. In conjunction with a committee of paint

manufacturers, a color was chosen that could be made

of pigments Avhich would not seriously be affected by

alkalies and acids in oils, cutting compounds, etc. The

committee then sent a panel showing this color and

surface to all of the members of the association, to- gether with a wet sample. The members of the asso- ciation were asked to vote on this color and to say if they would use this color as their standard. They

were also asked to paint all of the machines that were

to be exhibited in the association exposition in 1929

with the standard color. All the paint manufacturers

who regularly furnished paint to machine-tool builders were supplied with samples from the association’s

office. Committee’s report accepted.

By an overwhelming mail ballot the committee’s

recommendation was accepted, and when the exposition was held in Cleveland in the fall of 1929, it made

a fine demonstration of the uniformity of color that a user could get.

The next problem was to establish this color standard in practice. Some users continued to ask for the

special colors which they themselves had decided upon

for their own shops. A technique was worked out for

informing the users on this point. Effective suggestions were given to the members of the association, to be used with such customers. These suggestions

pointed out that the user needed two things—first, uniformity of color, and second, a good paint for the purpose—and that these were both provided by the association’s standardization. When these facts were

placed before them nearly all users agreed to have

their machines painted in the uniform standard machine tool gray.

For their own individual reasons a half dozen users

still desire their own special colors to be continued.

But it is now well understood and well demonstrated

that to provide a special color costs somebody some

money, and it is not fair to those who accept the standard color, to furnish special colors to others, unless

they pay the extra cost involved. Therefore, the machine tool builders have very generally adopted the

policy of making an extra charge for painting any

machine with a color which is off standard. The few

usei’s who prefer their own particular color are willing

to pay this extra charge and do so. Most users, however, accept the standard color rather than pay the extra charge for a special color.

BOYS’ BLOUSES, BUTTON-ON WAISTS, SHIRTS,

AND JUNIOR SHIRTS

Following the presentation of certain suggested

changes in the recommended Commercial Standard

for Boys’ Blouses, Button-on Waists, Shirts, and

Junior Shirts on the part of interested manufacturers.

a revised draft dated April 19, 1930, has been circulated to producers, distributors, and users for written

acceptance. The changes involve modifications in the

length measurements for all garments listed as well

as minor changes in some methods of measuring these

garments. Mimeographed copies are available on

request.
362

STANDARDIZATION IN SPORT

Experts Measure Response, Speed, and Strength ; Present Tendency in Modern Sports Toward Recognizing

Physical Types; Standardized Sports Promote Individual Development, Keen Sense, Strong Body,

Alertness, and Eagerness for Action

By Henry D. Hubbard, National Bureau of Standards

Continuing our discussion from last month’s issue of

the Commercial Standards Monthly, we find that

the skill and prowess of various ages or types call for

a natural segregation into age, skill, or weight groups

to restrict each competition to fairly comparable contestants. Field meets for high schools are distinct

from those of colleges. The advantage of weight is at times such that boxers, for example, are strictly standardized into “ weight ” classes.

Activity ratings of 21 athletes compared with rating by Schulte

predicted from experimental and from observational data on

the same 21 athletes

(Horizontal lines indicate perfect prediction.)

Medical advice is usually sought before accepting

players for severe sport and is followed up, in some

cases, by daily inspection during training or during

the active season. With a full knowledge of motor

ability rating (MA) and the achievement quotient

(MAQ) and a study of measured characteristics, pre- diction of specific ability to learn a new sport may be

made with high correlation coefficient. Experimental

predictions of unfitness to learn flying were successfully made by psychomotor tests in 77 per cent of the

cases in a research by Reid for the Royal Air Force

Medical Research Laboratory, as reported by Flack.

Predicted ability was confirmed by an 80 per cent

correlation with actual experience in which neither

trainer nor student knew of the rating. Schulte found

a high correlation (91 per cent) between experimental

prediction and actual sport performance, and an even

higher correlation between observation rating and

actual performance. Astonishingly high correlations are shown graphically for a group of 21 athletes. This article is designed to give a few typical examples of

measurements and the results of correlations merely to

illustrate some trends toward measured control in sport.

Standard motor ability rating.

Motor ability (natural aptitude) is sharply dis- tinguished from skill in games, in strict analogy with

the psychological distinction between intelligence and

knowledge. Scientific correlations bear out the dis- tinction. Intelligence, however, shows low correlation

with success in games. Field events show a high cor- relation with motor ability, increasing with the number of events taken into account. Seventy-five physical educators rated the suitability

of four types of criteria for use in the Brace general

motor ability test, assigning the following (average)

order : Learning new activities' easily (the best cri- terion), 1.76; skill in a variety of activities, 2.02; easy

and graceful form in performance, 2.41; great ability

in some special line (lowest), 3.81. The same educators numerically rated 10 specific

motor activities used to measure and rate general motor ability—-tumbling and stunts (highest), 2.5; dancing, 3.9; track and field sports, 4.0; apparatus exercise, 4.3; basket ball, 5.0; swimming, 5.8; baseball, 6.2;

field hockey, 7.4; socker football, 7.5; gymnastic drill (lowest), 8.7. Fifth-grade pupils can rate each other on motor

ability on the Brace system in about an hour for a large group. The types of activity tested bjr the motor

ability test comprise agility, balance, control, flexi- bility, and strength.

Motor ability ratings show high correlation with the

best aggregate scores of players in a varied set of

athletic events. To offset undue specialization in

sport, the decathlon was devised, in which each contestant is rated on 10 athletic events, the winning score combining the ratings in all 10 sports. On a decathlon test for boys Brace obtained a correlation coefficient of 0.80 with a probable error of only 0.01. This

high correlation was obtained without weighting the

scores. Team members showed about 30 per cent higher on mean scores than the entire student body.

The coefficient was greatest when the largest variety

of events was utilized. The correlation percentage is computed scientifically, and its validity and reliabil-
363

ity are readily measured. If motor ability (MA) rat- ing is divided into the game score rating, the achievement quotient (MAQ) measures the extent to which

the athlete has developed and applied his natural aptitude or ability.

While motor ability ratings do not aid the player’s

action in a given sport, they are used (1) to compute

“accomplishment quotient” (MAQ), (2) to classify

students for programs of individual development,

(3) for the diagnosis of specific disabilities, and (4) to conduct researches in which equated groups are compared for standardized tests. Kogers has a strength test which includes a vital

capacity score. The total strength score is called an

individual’s “SI” (strength index). Strength index norm tables are available for all ages and weights up

to 25 years. The individual’s SI divided by the “ nor- mal SI” gives the physical fitness index (PFI) comparable to an IQ and Brace’s formula (MAQ). The

test is being actively applied in the State of New

York as a method of classifying school children and

adults by measuring strength and physical fitness. Measuring response, speed, and strength.

To-day anthropometry measures length of limb,

height, body proportions, weight, girth of muscles,

lung capacity, strength of muscle, quickness of action, reactance to various stimuli, endurance, heart rhythms,

and blood pressure as affected by activity.

To-day time reactions are intensively studied. We

know what standard responses may be expected and

what deviations may be found. Graphs are plotted

for all types of response to stimuli. Sample response

times to signals are, for a visual signal, 0.175 second;

for an audible signal, 0.125 second ; for a tactile signal,

0.110 second. The dynamometer has thus advanced

the measured control from form to function, and is now used to measui'e the strength for sport and its decrement gradient, fatigue. Such measures may aid

in fixing scientific standards of prescriptive effort,

beyond which it may be dangerous to pass. A graphic schematic analysis (suggested by Schulte)

of the effect of prescribed dosage of bodily exercise is shown. The base is zero action, atrophy ; the vertical

scale is intensity of exercise or its duration. The effect,

favorable or otherwise, is on the horizontal scale, positive or negative. The optimal dosage is about halfway

up the scale, and doubtless varies with age or condition. An increase above the optimal causes rapid

increase in the toxic effect, ending in the lethal dose

shown on the curve at the upper left. Some data for

such study for each individual may be had from the

form of the fatigue curve, the slope of which roughly measures what the individual can stand. Distress is studied by the time required after a standard sport

event to recover normal functioning. Boigey, studying 26 cases (ages 14 to 18 years), found 40 minutes

to 9 hours necessary for return to normal status after

a 100-meter dash and 4 to 9 hours necessaiy for return

to normal after a 3,000 meter run. One group of five in the latter event required 17 hours for complete

return to normal.

Studies are also made of action characteristics in

various sports. Coordinated action is a characteristic

of the individual. The speed changes during a race

are measured. In a typical graphic study by Schulte

116489—30 2

the A’ariation in speed for 60 runners is shown, the

winner finishing in 11.16 seconds. During the first fifth the speed averaged between 5 and 7 meters per

second, rising to 7 to 9.5 meters in the second fifth. The peak occurred in the fourth 20-meter stretch when

10 meters per second was reached. Such studies suggest that a similar characteristic speed-time curve is ascertainable for each racer by which he may run 100

meters in minimum total time, and that similar curves might be made for each different distance run. Recovery from sport effort is another subject of

quantitative experiment and measurement. This vital

point may yet be rated systematically in every type

of sport, so as to standardize permissible severity of

sport activity in full light of measures of individual

fatigue and recovery rates. Such standardization

would minimize overstrain in competitive athletics

while retaining play for its value as “ the most important form of education as a training in intense

and eager application.” (W. S. Franklin opinion.)

INTENSITY

OF

BODILY

EXERCISE

UETHAL DOSAGE ^vOreatly

0 SlightlyI C

\ OPTlUUi!

DISTROPHY

HYPERTROPHY

- EUTR0PHYHYPCTROPHY

ATROPHY

CESSATION OF FUNCTION

FUNCTIONAL PEAK-

‘ -A- *<<&> syy

FUNCTIONAL

INERTIA

CPTI’dAL

Decreasing

Capacity >

THERAPEUTIC DOSAGE

im'IWAL

• -DOSAGE ZERO DOSAGE

DOSAGE

Increasing /

Capacity S

J EFFECT

Negative <——

p

Positive

EFFECT OF EXERCISE (Prescriptive Efficiency)

Intensity of prescribed bodily activity as affecting the bodily

functioning

(Schematic graph adapted from Schulte.) The undoubted value of play is evidenced in the re- sults of the Locust Point experiment designed to gage

the effect of supervised play in its relation to health

and education. The pupils of the Locust Point School

in Baltimore as an experiment, later for practice observation, spent one-third of school hours in class room

and two-thirds on the playground in supervised play.

Health notably improved, absence from illness dropped

to one-half, and educational progress measured by

reading tests was three times faster than under the

old plan. Results so surprising call for study and

fuller confirmatoiy experiments. They are cited as experimental measurements tending to ascertain the

standard effects to be expected with so large a part

of the time spent in bodily activity.

The study of the athlete as a mechanism is not new. Graphic records facilitate dimensional and performance development by standardized activities and controls. Bodily motions are studies quantitatively and

dynamically and yield valuable results for use in

sport. To study technique too rapid for unaided vis- ual analysis high-speed cameras are available, motion pictures being slowed down in screen projection.

Thus Walter Johnson was photographed pitching a

ball, 3,200 pictures being taken per second, these being

slowed down to 1/200 natural speed for study on the

screen. Similar slow movies are made for almost all
364

kinds of sport—golf, diving, racing, polo, tennis, and

form a subject of interest in the analysis of skill. They throw light on the secret of the champion’s skill,

often unknown to the champion himself, and afford

the novice facilities to study masters of play slowed

down in point of time to observable speeds.

For still more intensive motion studies, the photocyclochronograph is used. Light pulses from a small

electric lamp record in three directions a skill motion

the pulses measuring stages, and the dotted light

traces permitting a time-sealed 3-dimensional wire

graph to be made. From Marey to Gilbreth and

(Graph adapted from Hill.)

present-day investigators beautiful demonstrations

have been made of methods of visualizing the spatial

and time relations of bodily movements. Graphic

methods still in their infancy bid fair to perfect highspeed cinematography for making graphic, tangible,

and enduring records of skilled motions, slow or rapid,

to capture the elusive skill of the expert champion for

the world to study, analyze, and assimilate.

To science, man is a biochemical engine, a prime mover in which not expansion, but contraction applies

the power through a great number of lever mechanisms and some 230 perfectly lubricated bearings. Expansion of the muscle after contraction restores the

levers to starting position. Standardization of bodily

movement strikes energy balances and correlates ac- tion and oxygen intake—a relation almost as definite as that between motor power aqd fuel burned. This

has quite revolutionized the standardization of physical measurements in sport, and dietetics and action for

the athlete. Fatigue is measured and correlated in the

individual case with oxygen intake and the respiratory

quotient (C02/02 ). The muscular action, however,

differs in principle from that of a motor, resembling more closely that of a storage battery, receiving en- ergy, storing it as glycogen, then causing a chemical

reaction which shortens the muscle, pulls a lever, and

produces the bodily action.

An athlete really utilizes the energy furnished, it is believed, by converting glycogen into lactic acid. He

may at rest use 200 milliliters of oxygen per minute,

while walking increases the consumption to five times

this amount, say, 1 liter per minute. Blood is pumped

correspondingly faster, the oxygen intake being augmented by quicker and deeper breathing. The increase

in oxygen is used among other purposes for two muscular pumps—the blood pump, or heart; and the air

pump, or lungs—both vital parts of the bodily mechanism. A typical curve of oxygen consumption during

rest, exercise, and recovery is given by Hill.

The oxygen serves to reconvert the lactic acid into

glycogen by a complex reaction but excess of unconverted lactic acid, say above 28 grams, leaks into the

blood stream where it accumulates until it reaches a

critical point forming 0.003 of the muscle weight,

when the muscle fails to respond and collapse occurs. Research shows that the human body is 25 per cent

efficient, about equal to an automobile. By training,

however, the efficiency of the bodily machine may be

raised to 40 per cent. Mechanical aids in sports.

The use of mechanical aids has developed in some

sports as it has in handicraft. These have developed

into mechanisms of great power, subject eventually to technical and commercial standardization as sport

equipment. Motor craft permit phenomenal speed

the motor car, 200 miles an hour; the airplane, 300

miles an hour. Record making is transformed from

personal achievement of skill, speed, or prowess in the

field or air to the laboratory, designing room, and

shop. Mechanisms surpass men or animals as the

amazing nonstop transcontinental runs, mountain races (Pike’s Peak and others), as race-course records show.

Sports with mechanisms test the design and construction and are valuable in perfecting motor craft. Such craft are usually designed to run at whatever

record-breaking speed is needed to win a particular

event, on a particular course—notably the Don’s “ Sil- ver Arrow ” and the Williams plane. The bodily limitations of the athlete do not hold with such mechaOxygen assimilation during rest, action, and recovery

(Graph adapted from Hill.)

nisms. Stabilization of planes in flight is now designed into the aircraft, while the supercharger gives

increased air supply. The latter device may become

standard for automobiles, for sport is a proving

ground for facilities whicb later add speed and effec- tiveness to transport for other purposes.

Mechanisms—airplanes, aquaplanes, motor boats,

and motor cars—which so excel bodily action, furnish

mechanical substitutes for such sports as overstrain

the athlete. Spectators may come to enjoy such mechanical displays as much as those of athletes. In

these new types of sport the athlete controls the mechanism, but the technical interest shifts to the design

of the mechanism with its susceptibility to increase in
365

power, speed, and ease of maneuvering. The designers

vie in skill and science in a technology later to be

generalized for human service.

Effect of modern sports upon player.

An outstanding note in modern sport is the stress on the effect upon the individual player. The therapeutic values of the several sports are matters of com- mon knowledge and are prescribed in medical practice, as are climates, diets, or other therapeutic regimes.

Standards of physique are really standards for the

human personality itself. Equipped with a standard

anthropometric chart and a set of body measures and

functional measurements, the physical director developes his subjects toward standard appropriate

physical type—not one but many—based on scientific and artistic studies of anatomy, physiology, and sport,

comprising measurements of millions of individuals.

The beauty of form demanded in motion pictures is an

asset which calls for rigorous control of weight and

body measurements, through prescriptive regime of

body activity and diet. A trend is discernible away from strict standardized

discipline and coordinated mechanical movements exe- cuted on command. Bukli in Denmark with his nat- uralized programs is an example of a formal move- ment toward this end. Experimental research departments in schools and colleges are also trying out new

ideas in a scientific manner, as in the Detroit schools.

Group needs are studied, specific activities prescribed

for all in place of intensely specialized effort for the

few. The results are tested and correlated witli health

teaching in each grade.

Spontaneous play cultivates effort. Maximum interest demands free play of the powers

in a sport. A maximum of data, observation, and suggestion during training, with a minimum of conscious

attention to formal principles in actual play leaves

only the end to be attained as the single object of en- deavor. Such spontaneous play cultivates the habit

of putting forth supreme effort (without overstrain) —

as the highest gain which sport contributes to the

individual or the world.

The stadium and its sports, the park and its games,

and the playground with its directed play are the

modern assize to measure youth, its skill, speed,

strength, and endurance, and to set measured standards of performance for the body, new standards of

achievement—while measurement plays its part in per- fecting the race of youth for the world of to-morrow.

Shorn of needless risk and invidious features, standardized sports may yet form varied regimes of play

under which each individual may be molded physically, during plastic years of life into an ideal individual—keen of sense, strong of body, perfect in form,

alert, eager for action—the most efficient personality

in each case which science and education can produce.

A. S. T. M. ORGANIZES SUBCOMMITTEES ON

HOLLOW BUILDING UNITS

June Conference of Society to Consider Recommendation of

Interest to Industry

The American Society for Testing Materials committee on hollow masonry building units has organized

its subcommittee structure into five groups, each of

which is detailed to work on specific problems. One

of these subcommittees on concrete masonry units pre- sented for committee discussion tentative specifications

and tests for concrete masonry units; tentative specifications and tests for nonload-bearing concrete masonry units; and tentative standard definitions of

terms relating to concrete masonry units.

The committee has decided to submit to the American Society for Testing Materials at the June meeting,

recommendations to advance to standard the present

tentative specifications and tests for hollow burnedclay fireproofing, partition, and furring tile with such

modifications as would make the classification be based on absorption. Since such units in service are not re- quired to carry load, strength is not to be made a requirement for classification. The tentative revision recommended last year in

the standard specifications for hollow burned-clay

load-bearing wall tile and for standard specifications

for hollow-burned-clay floor tile involving a change

in the absorption requirements will be recommended

for adoption as standard. A further change in the

standard specifications and tests for load-bearing wall

tile consists in setting a higher weight allowance which

would permit the unrestricted use of the standards

where local requirements specify heavier shell and web

thickness than those generally used.

ANNULAR BALL BEARINGS

Proposed Revision of Society of Automotive Engineers

Standards

In 1918 the sectional committee on standardization

of ball bearings was organized by the Society of Automotive Engineers and the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, as joint sponsors under the procedure of the then American Engineering Standards

Committee, now the American Standards Association,

to cooperate with the national standardizing bodies in

several countries abroad toward arriving in so far as possible at international standardization of antifriction bearings, the project at that time relating to the

radial and thrust types. International communications were maintained and resulted in a revised standard for single-row annular-radial ball bearings that was approved for adoption as an American standard

at the annual meeting last January.

The ball and roller bearings division of the S. A. E.

has since then studied the present standards for the

separable (open) type and the angular contact type

of bearings published in the 1930 edition of the S. A. E. Handbook, in order to bring them into line with the new tables for the annular single-row type. The re- visions proposed do not affect the basic bores, outside

diameters, and widths of these bearings for thenranges of sizes, but bring the decimal equivalents of

metric dimensions, the tolerances, corner radii, radius,

and eccentricity-tolerance specifications into conformity with the annular single-row type. The minimum

shoulder-heights have been added in these tables. These proposals are subject to final letter-ballot approval by the aircraft-engine division of the Society of

Automotive Engineers.
366

STANDARDIZATION URGENTLY NEEDED IN PRINTING INDUSTRY

Bargain Buying of Nonstandard Sizes Makes for Expensive Stock

By J. T. Roach, Roach Paper Co., Little Rock, Ark.

Wells in his “Outline of History ” says the invention of paper, rather than the invention of printing,

made modern civilization possible; for, without paper

what would they print on?

Years ago paper manufacturers saw the need of

standardizing on certain grades of paper. In any

process as precarious of exact results as paper making,

it is only through consistent running of a few grades

that real standardization may be attained. Likewise,

standardization is the keynote of successful paper merchandising. It is protection to the merchant and to the printer customer. The printing industry, too, for self-preservation, is swinging into standard grades. The old idea of cut- ting sharp corners defeated itself because it destroyed

standards of value ; and when that happens buyers get

stubborn and lash around like wounded sharks.

The National Bureau of Standards has done good

work in assisting industry in reducing the number of

paper sizes. And the buyers of paper have written a second line to that, by reducing a demand and necessity for too many grades. However, old habits and

customs are hard to overcome, and we still find in

some plants a few sheets of each of the 5,700 varieties,

and not enough of any one kind to print a fair-sized

order. The owner of this cosmopolitan corpse will

doubtless tell you that he makes a lot of money buying ; but go down and have his fortune told by “ Senor

Bradstreet,” and the chances are that the report will

reveal that all this money he has made is still in his

stockroom in the form of unsalable paper. The pres- ent-day distribution methods have eliminated the

necessity for the printer to carry extensive stocks, and

to buy his paper from some distant point.

It is believed that the most expensive stock shelves ever seen are those loaded with paper that is readily

recognized by a paper man as having been bought at a bargain. The general increase in the cost of con- ducting businesses o,f all kinds has brought about in

the paper business the necessity for increases in the

charges for special handling, special packing, and

less-than-mill packages. This alone is doing much in

the way of reducing the number of grades that printers buy. Merchandising is nothing more or less than

orderly and profitable distribution of standardized

lines. (National Printer Journalist, May.)

NATIONAL ENGINEERING INSPECTION

ASSOCIATION FORMED

Association Will Work for Better and More Effective Inspection Methods

In December, 1929, a group of inspecting engineers

and representatives of testing laboratories from all sections of the country met in Detroit, Mich., and

formed a temporary organization among those en- gaged in the practice of testing and supervising the

manufacture and use of various engineering materials

for construction work of Federal, State, and city governments; public service corporations; railroad and

highway construction and maintenance; bridges; office, manufacturing, educational and other building

projects.

At a second meeting, held April 3 and 1, 1930, also

at Detroit, the success of the preliminary gathering was continued and there was concluded the formation

o,f the National Engineering Inspection Association.

The officers elected were Watson Vredenburgh, president of Hildreth and Co. (Inc.), New York, N. Y., as president; J. D. Stoddard, vice president of The

Detroit Testing Laboratory, as vice president; and

B. H. Witherspoon, president of the Pittsburgh Test- ing Laboratory, as secretary-treasurer. The board

of directors include the officers and a representative

from each of the four geographical sections of the

country as follows: Henry Gulick, president of Gulick-Henderson Co., New York, N. Y., for the eastern

section, James H. Herron, president of The James B.

Herron Co., of Cleveland, Ohio, for the mid-western

section; F. B. Porter, president of the Southwestern

Laboratories, Fort Worth, Tex., for the southern sec- tion; and Abbot A. Hanks, president of Abbot A. Hanks (Inc.), San Francisco, Calif., for the western

section.

The association adopted a complete constitution with

by-laws and code of ethics. The object of the association is to promote a proper understanding and cooperation among those engaged in and concerned with engineering inspection; to establish practices which will

prove beneficial to proper service and to develop and

encourage better and more effective inspection methods.

Provisions are made also for constant supervision of

the affairs of the association by the officers and board

of directors as well as arrangements for semiyearlv

general meetings.

COORDINATION OF MARINE-BOILER RULES

At the request of a committee appointed at the suggestion of the Secretary of Commerce to coordinate

marine-boiler rules, the administrative office of the

American Marine Standards Committee is collaborating with representatives of the Steamboat Inspection

Service and the American Bureau of Shipping in the

preparation of a revised draft of rules. Rule 1, comprising 18 sections on specifications for

materials required for the construction of marine

boilers and other pressure containers, piping, etc., has

already been outlined. The preparation of a revised

draft of rule 11, to comprise instructions for design

and construction, will next be taken up.
367

THE NATIONAL HYDRAULIC LABORATORY

Congress Passes Bill Authorizing a National Hydraulic Laboratory to Be Established at the National

Bureau of Standards

By H. N. Eaton, National Bureau of Standards

Since the beginning of the present century there has

gradually come an awakening in the field of hydraulic

engineering comparable to that brought about in aero- dynamics by the introduction of the wind tunnel, by means of which valuable design data applicable to full- sized airplanes can be obtained from tests on smallscale wings, ailerons, etc. We have been slow, however, to recognize that the same principles which apply to air flow and air forces

also apply to the flow of water and that experiments

made on small-scale models of hydraulic structures,

such as spillways, canal locks, and even rivers, would

furnish valuable information as to the conditions

which exist in the full-scale structure, provided the

experiments were carried out with due regard for the

laws governing the transformation of l'esults obtained

in the miniature structure to its prototype in nature. About 1875 a French engineer. Fargue, constructed

a model of a portion of the Garonne River near Bordeaux and made observations as to the scour at bends

which he applied to the actual river. In 1885, Osborne-Reynolds, in England, built a model of the estu- ary of the Mersey River to see if he could explain the course of the tidal currents observed in the actual

estuary. He built the bed of his model estuary of sand,

and, in addition to finding that the currents in the

model did simulate those in nature, he found, to his

surprise, that the sand bed of the model also gradually

took on a form corresponding approximately to the

bed contours of the actual estuary. Osborne-Reynolds

determined the law of similarity which expressed the

relation between the phenomena which occurred in his

model and those in the Mersey, established the limits

within which this law was valid, and hence for the

first time placed model tests of this nature upon a

scientific basis. Hydraulic model tests were next taken up actively in

Germany under the lead of Prof. Hubert Engels, of

Dresden. He attacked actively, by means of smallscale model tests, problems relating to scour around

bridge piers, formation of river beds, the effect on the course of the current of various types of dikes projecting out from the banks of rivers, and many similar

problems. The marked success which followed his

efforts brought about the immediate spread throughout

all of Germany and into other countries of Europe of

the idea of utilizing model tests in the design of

hydraulic structures and for studying the control of

rivers. The laws of similarity applying to such

models were also developed in detail. Little progress made in the United States.

During this time very little progress was made in the United States along these same lines, probably be- cause American hydraulic engineers had but little contact with the European work and failed to familiarize

themselves with European engineering literature. The

remarkable progress made in Europe was first brought

generally to the attention of American engineers

through the efforts of the well-known hydraulic engineer, John R. Freeman.

While visiting the German hydraulic laboratories

several years ago, he was surprised to see the extensive use of model tests which were being made in these

laboratories in connection with the solution of practical hydraulic problems, and he became inspired with

the idea of modernizing American thought and practice in this field. To this end he persuaded the heads

of a number of the European laboratories to write descriptions of their laboratories and the researches

which they were conducting. These descriptions were

compiled and published in German in 1926 with the

cooperation of the Verein Deutsche Ingenieure (Societjr of German Engineers). Later this book was

greatly amplified and was published in English

through the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, under the title of “ Hydraulic Laboratory

Practice.”

Not satisfied with this contribution to the advancement of his profession, Freeman also established

scholarships for the purpose of permitting young

American hydraulic engineers to study hydraulics in

the European laboratories. To date 10 such students

have spent, or are still spending, a year studying

abroad.

The effect of all this, together with the wide publicity which has been given his efforts, has been to awaken the hydraulic engineers in this country to a realization of the possibilities which lie in the application of model tests to the solution of hydraulic problems. Great progress has been made in some of our

engineering colleges. The laboratories at the Worcester Polytechnic Institute and at the State University

of Iowa are actively engaged to their full capacity

with model tests of hydroelectric power projects and

other problems relating to the flow of water over spillways and in open channels. The laboratory at the

Carnegie Institute of Technology is rapidly becoming

increasingly active in this respect, and other college

laboratories are undertaking this type of investigation,

owing to the fact that hydraulic engineers are sending

their problems to propei'ly equipped hydraulic laboratories in rapidly increasing numbers.

Freeman first proposed laboratory.

Freeman was the first to propose a national hydraulic laboratory, but Senator Joseph E. Ransdell,

of Louisiana, had also conceived the same idea at an

early date. As a result of conferences with Freeman,

Senator Ransdell introduced a resolution into the

Sixty-seventh Congress for the purpose of establishing such a laboratory. This failed of passage, and it was not until May, 1930, that the bill establishing such

a laboratory at the National Bureau of Standards at

a cost of $350,000 finally passed the Seventy-first Congress. This bill received the support of nearly the
entire engineering profession. Dozens of prominent

engineers testified in its favor at the hearings or wrote

letters urging the passage of the bill. About 40 engineering societies and associations also supported it. Rarely has there been such widespread interest in any

piece of legislation of this nature. The bill was also actively supported by several Government departments which have a great deal to do

with hydraulic problems; in particular, the Bureau

of Reclamation and the Geological Survey, of the Department of the Interior, and the Bureau of Public

Roads, of the Department of Agriculture. Each of

these departments has hydraulic pi'oblems which are

in urgent need of solution and which can be investigated in the new laboratory. In spite of its immense

construction projects in connection with irrigation

works, the Bureau of Reclamation has never had a hydraulic laboratory in which it could study the problems arising in the design of its structures. Its capable staff of engineers has undoubtedly solved the problems confronting it as well as any other body of engi- neers in the world could have done without the aid of a laboratory, but we have their own testimony that they

could do their work better if they had this valuable aid. For example, in the design of the Boulder Dam,

which will be the highest dam in the world, there are problems for which the engineers can find no precedent. Consequently the proper design of some parts of

the dam will be a matter of opinion before the problems have been studied in the Hydraulic Laboratory,

but after this is done it will be a matter of fact. A

single mistake in the design of such a structure, be- cause of the lack of exact information as to how the

water will flow, might easily cost the Government more than the entire cost of the National Hydraulic

Laboratory.

The Bureau of Public Roads also is interested in

obtaining more accurate information as to the flow of

water in irrigation ditches and its measurement, the

backwater caused by bridge piers and other obstructions in streams, the scour about piers, etc. The Geological Survey is interested mainly in the measurement

of stream flow. Its principal need is more exact information as to the various types of measuring devices,

such as weirs and dam sections of various kinds, cur- rent meters, etc. It needs, in particular, tests of cur- rent meters in flowing water, as can be accomplished

in a large flume.

The above-mentioned departments have conducted

a limited amount of experimental work in existing

laboratories. For some time the Bureau of Public

Roads has conducted investigations at the Colorado

Experiment Station at Fort Collins, Colo., and at the

State University of Iowa. The Bureau of Reclamation is now planning to conduct at Fort Collins some

tests, the results of which are needed immediately.

Several times the Geological Survey has gone to col- lege laboratories to study problems which were urgent.

However, this work was nearly always in connection

with specific engineering problems. There has never been the opportunity to conduct the general studies

which would furnish information needed time after

time in specific problems. There never will be such an opportunity until the National Hydraulic Laboratory is available with an adequate staff to permit such

work to be carried on continuously.

Functions of the laboratory.

The new laboratory will have three principal functions. It will carry out fundamental investigations

relating tof all types of water-flow phenomena. This

will include the accurate determination of flow coeffi- cients, losses of head in various structures, the iaws of

the movement of detritus and silt in rivers and canals

and similar problems. In the second place it will

make model studies of proposed hydraulic structures

to determine the form which is most effective in producing the desired results and which will be the cheapest to build and maintain.

The third function of the laboratory will be to con- duct routine tests on all kinds of hydraulic instruments, meters and accessories, such as water meters, current meters and Venturi meters. At present it is not planned to install equipment for testing hydraulic

turbines and pumps, but if a demand which can not

be met adequately elsewhere arises, an attempt will be

made to satisfy it. The National Bureau of Standards now receives occasional requests for pump or tur- bine tests from individuals who do not wish to have

the test made by any manufacturer of hydraulic

machinery.

The laboratory will probably be engaged principally

with special studies and general investigations for the

Government departments, States and other political

subdivisions, which now have no adequate hydraulic

laboratory facilities. It will not enter into competition with college and commercial hydraulic laboratories, but will rather aim to encourage such laboratories in any way possible. This is in accord with the

general policy of the National Bureau of Standards

not to undertake tests or studies- which can be adequately and conveniently conducted elsewhere.

The laboratory investigations which are required by

hydroelectric companies and other commercial organizations, and which are being undertaken in increasing

numbers every year should be, and undoubtedly will

continue to be, conducted in the laboratories of the

engineering colleges or by the individual companies

themselves, the latter being the case with the Alabama

Power Co. This does not mean, however, that private

individuals or organizations will be precluded from

bringing to the National Hydraulic Laboratory problems which other laboratories are not equipped to handle.

To cost $350,000.

The bill authorizes the expenditure of $350,000 for

the laboratory. There is a tacit understanding that

approximately $300,000 of this amount will be spent on the construction of the building and the balance for

equipment of a permanent nature; pumps, supply

tanks, concrete flumes, a standpipe, etc. It is too early

to say what the general form of the building will be,

but it is certain that a large floor space free of fixed

equipment and supporting columns will be provided

for the construction of models of dams, rivers, and

suHi other structures as will require study from time

to time, and that provision will be made for tests re- quiring vertical extent. For example, it is hoped to
369

include in the equipment a cylindrical standpipe at least 80 feet high and a vertical shaft of this same

height for work on plumbing stacks and similar

problems.

Experience both in Europe and at home has shown

that the most essential consideration in the design of

a hydraulic laboratory is to provide as flexible an ar- rangement and ease of combination of the equipment

as possible. The water used in the tests will be circulated by means of pumps; that is, there will be large,

low-lying concrete supply basins tilled with water

which will then be pumped to higher steel tanks ar- ranged with overflow weirs to maintain constant head.

From these tanks the water will flow by gravity to the

model being tested, will then pass to weighing or measuring tanks and then be returned to the supply

basin.

Several horizontal flumes will be built with plate

glass sides, thus furnishing a clear view into the flowing water so that complicated flow phenomena can be

studied visually and photographically. Photography

plays an important role in the modern hydraulic lab- oratory, since in this way transient phenomena which

are sometimes too rapid for the eye to grasp can be

recorded permanently. Of late the moving-picture camera has come into general use, particularly because

of the possibility of slowing down the phenomena until

rapid fluctuations can be followed with the eye and

understood.

Great savings expected.

A laboratory of this type will inevitably bring about enormous savings in the construction of large hydraulic projects. No longer will the hydraulic en- gineer be obliged to follow slavishly the precedents of

past structures and allow factors of safety far in excess of what would be necessary if he only knew in

advance how the water was going to act. The laboratory experiments will tell him this before he settles upon his final design.

Experience has shown that the saving in initial cost on any one of many large structures has been more

than sufficient to pay the entire cost of construction of

the laboratory in which the work was done. But the

saving in first cost is often only a small part of the

total saving over a period of years when we consider

the efficiency of the structure, the cost of maintenance,

and the effectiveness with which it fulfills its intended

function. Furthermore, there is a long record of ex- pensive structures which have failed of their intended

purpose because the engineers Avho designed them did

not have sufficient information as to how the flowing

water would act. No reasonable and well-informed person could say

that suitable experimental studies, such as will now

be possible in the National Hydraulic Laboratory,

would not have prevented at least a part of these heavy

losses and that the laboratory will not prevent many

such failures in the future.

STANDARD FOR GROOVED TROLLEY WIRE

FOR MINE SERVICE

American Society for Testing Materials Committee Recommends New Specifications

The A. S. T. M. committee on copper wire at a meeting held in New York City on April 19 approved new

specifications for grooved trolley wire for mine service,

which will be recommended to the A. S. T. M. in June

for publication as a tentative standard. The society,

through this committee, began its work on copper wire

with the issue of specifications for hard-drawn wire in 1909. In later years it interested the American Electric Railway Association in the subject of trolley wire,

but progress in standardizing was slow until about five years ago, since which time the matter of trolley wire

for railway service has been brought to joint standardization by the two societies. With the report to be rendered in June there will be

added to the trolley wire standards, specifications for

the very large wire used in mine service. This will

practically complete the work on trolley-wire standardization, since it will bring about uniformity of

quality, and especially of dimension, which is of

considerable importance.

The use of a grooved section of trollej^ wire has

been increasing, and before standardization was ac- complished the manufacturer of the supporting hard- ware had to carry stocks for the considerable number

of different shapes and dimensions of grooved wire

called for by different customers. The standardization

by the American Electric Railway Association and the

American Society for Testing Materials has resulted

in the use of one form of grooved wire in the several

sizes, and the manufacture of a uniform line of supporting hardware has been made possible. With the

work already done and culminating in June, this has

been extended to the one size of wire for which, heretofore, there has been no standardization.

BRITISH STANDARDS FOR SWITCH GEAR

The British Engineering Standards Association has

issued specification No. 195-1929, dealing with switchgear equipments for 3-phase alternating-current

circuits. It is a companion specification to No. 194-

1926, which referred to switch-gear equipment for

direct-current circuits. The new specification has been drawn up with a view to specifying the least amount of apparatus which

will control the machine or circuit and yet avoid fire hazards, discontinuity of supply, and danger to the

operator. Separate schedules, entitled “ Optional

extra equipment,” have, however, been provided. The

necessary apparatus for grounding the neutral point

of a 3-phase system, either solidly or through a

resistor, is scheduled, and certain requirements are

laid down regarding the accessibility of switchboards

for cleaning and examination.

As in the case of specification No. 194, the schedules

are accompanied by a series of diagrams illustrating

each type of circuit for which standard equipment is specified. Incidentally, these diagrams afford an excellent illustration of the manner in which the British

standard symbols for electrical purposes may be

employed on such diagrams.
370

STANDARD TIME ZONES

International Standard Time Zones Adopted in 1884; System Was Legalized in United States in 1918

By R. E. Gould, National Bureau of Standards

From the earliest civilization man has reckoned time

by the apparent motion of the heavenly bodies. The

rotation of the earth on its axis from west to east causes these bodies to “ rise ” in the east and “ set ” in

the west. Consequently points to the east of us have

sunrise before we do, or as we say, their time is faster

than ours; while points to the west have time that is slower than ours. This rotation of the earth upon its axis once in 24

hours gives a time change of 1 hour for every 15° of

longitude; that is, if observations were made on the

transit of the sun across the meridian at points sepa- rated by 15° of longitude, it would be found that the

time of transit at two such points would differ by 1 hour. If the separation of the points of observation were decreased, the difference in time would be decreased in the same proportion. These times would

all be true local times, using the transit of the sun

across the meridian as a standard.

The need of a uniform time began to be felt in the

United States about 1870, and the railroads gradually

adopted a system for use on their roads specifying

definite important centers or junction points at which

changes of one hour should be made. As means of

communication still further developed, it became apparent that some system of international time must be

established.

International congress held in 1884.

In 1884 an international congress was called in

Washington to consider the subject of a world standard of time. The world was divided into zones, each

covering 15° of longitude, the time for each zone being

that of the meridian passing through its approximate

center and the time in adjacent zones differing by one

hour. The meridian passing through the observatory

at Greenwich, England, was chosen as the zero meridian from which all time should be reckoned.

Although there was no definite agreement as to the

adoption of this time by the different nations, the plan was gradually accepted. Some countries, however,

make use of the half-hour variation instead of the full hour because it more nearly agrees with local time.

Thus New Zealand time is liy2 hours faster than

Greenwich time, Hawaiian time is 1U/2 hours sloiver

than Greenwich time, and Indian time is 5 y2 hours

faster than Greenwich time.

A few countries have adopted the local time of some

important city as a standard for the country. Netherlands uses the time of Amsterdam, which is 19 minutes

and 32 seconds faster than Greenwich ; Newfoundland

uses St. Johns time, which is 3 hours and 31 minutes

slower than Greenwich; and Calcutta uses its own

local time, which is 5 hours, 53 minutes, and 21 sec- onds faster than Greenwich, instead of the standard

Indian time, 5 y2 hours faster than Greenwich. Russia, Siberia, and Mexico have recently been divided

into time zones in conformity with the International

Standard time.

Zone map of the world.

The alternate time zones of the world are shown

on a map published by the Hydrographic Office of the

Navy Department, in pink and blue; the half-hour

zones are shown in purple, the countries using the

local time of some city as a standard are shown in

yellow, and those places having no standard time are shown in gray. Among these latter are most of China,

Persia, and Greenland.

The United States, although using the system since

1884, did not legalize it until March 19, 1918, when

Congress directed the Interstate Commerce Commission to establish limits for the various time zones in

this country. Changes in these boundaries have been

made from time to time, in order that the time changes

may occur at such points as to result in a minimum of

inconvenience. The division lines are not straight,

but largely follow the railroads and pass through important cities and junction points. The United States

is divided into four standard time zones, each approximately 15° of longitude in width. All places in each

zone use, instead of their own local time, the time

counted from the transit of the “ mean sun ” across the meridian which passes through the approximate

center of that zone. Designation of zones. These time zones are designated as eastern, central,

mountain, and Pacific, and the time in these zones is reckoned from the seventy-fifth, ninetieth, one hundred and fifth, and one hundred and twentieth meridians west of Greenwich, respectively. The time in the

various zones is slower than Greenwich time by 5, 6, 7, and 8 hours, respectively.

The question of changing from the time of one time

zone to that of an adjacent zone arises in practice

largely in the operation of railroads. Because of the

inconvenience of changing the time by the necessary

amount of one hour at every point where a railroad

crosses one of these boundary lines, the more convenient practice has usually been followed of making

the change at some terminal or division point on the

road, or at some junction point. The result is that

practically the boundaries of the time zones are defined by the lines connecting these points of railroad

time changes. Because of the location of these railroad

junctions or terminals the resulting lines are rather

irregular. A map is now being printed by the Bureau

of Standards showing these boundary lines with ex- tensions into Canada and Mexico. This map is ex- pected to be ready for publication within the near

future.

The spread of radio and other means of rapid communication makes evident the importance of the International Time Zone System.
371

WHAT IS WRITING INK?

Review of Writing Inks in Relation to Federal Specifications; Author Tells Why Some Inks Are Good and

Others Are Not

By C. E. Waters, National Bureau of Standards

Without writing ink, typewriter ribbons, and carbon

paper the modern office would have to get along with

pencils. One is compelled to wonder what would be

selected as the butt for complaints, because anybody

can get a satisfactory pencil without much difficulty.

Twenty-five years of close contact with the analysis

and testing of writing inks and a shorter acquaintance

with typewriter ribbons and carbon paper have shown

that these essential office supplies never quite suit the

user. Complaint is made that the ink is too corrosive, too thick and gummy; the ribbons either give blurred

writing or they are unevenly inked and the fabric cuts through in no time ; the carbon paper gives poor

copies, smudges badly, and does not last long enough.

Is there justification for these complaints?

What is writing ink?

Nowadays most of the writing inks are of the blueblack kind. They are, or should be, clear solutions,

and should not quickly become turbid and deposit

sediment. The writing is blue at first, but in a few

days turns nearly jet black. The blue color is due to a dye, which must be in the ink because without it the

fresh writing would be of a pale, faded-looking color. The change to black is caused by the action of atmospheric oxygen, which converts the easily soluble,

weakly colored ferrous gallotannate and insoluble,

black ferric gallotannate. When writing which has

become black is immersed in water, the dye will bleed

out, together with whatever gallotannate is not firmly i attached to the paper. This soaking ought not wash I out all of the writing nor so blur it that it becomes

illegible.

When a bottle of ink is kept for a long time it becomes first cloudy and then deposits a thick, gummy

sediment, which is largely the insoluble ferric gallo- tannate. If the ink is hermetically sealed in a glass

bulb so that oxygen can not get to it, there will be no

sediment for years; but a cork stopper is not really

air-tight, and oxygen gradually gets into the ink. In

order to slow down the oxidation and to keep the black

compound as long as possible from precipitating, and

thus delay the formation of sediment, the ink must

contain some free acid, usually sulphuric but sometimes hydrochloric.

Early writing fluids. Our ancestors used iron gallotannate ink for about

700 years before discovering the advantage of having

in it a little free acid. What they had was aged before

use and was a muddy suspension of fine particles of

the iron compound in water. To keep these particles

from settling to the bottom too fast, and to hold them

to the paper, a small quantity of a suitable gum was

dissolved in the ink. Clear inks of the present-day

type were first made in the early part of the last century. As quill pens were the writing implements in

those days, this modern kind of ink had to wait a few

decades before “ it corrodes the pen ” could become

the favorite complaint about it. Nowadays any in- crustation of dried-up ink on the pen, as well as any

roughness of the point caused by the solvent action of

the acid, is called corrosion.

The post-office lobby pen is held up as a horrible

example of what a corrosive ink can do, though the

condition of the pen is a reflection upon the users rather than the fault of the ink. If the pens were wiped on a blotter after use there would be no complaints about corrosion. The stationer and the druggist sell almost identical ink, though theirs may contain a little more acid than the ink in the lobby. The

same ink put up in a different bottle and appropriately

labeled becomes fountain-pen ink. What makes this so much better than the ink furnished by Uncle Sam ? We think it so because we think it so. How much acid should be in writing ink is a matter

for dispute. Both manufacturer and user want the

ink to stay clear as long as possible, but not to have

it so acid that it will roughen steel pens. The Federal

specifications for record and copying ink (No. 163)

and for writing ink (No. 164), represent attempts to compromise between excessive sedimentation and too much corrosiveness.

Permanence of writing ink.

The experience of centuries has shown that iron gallotannate inks have excellent permanence, though they

are by no means perfect in that respect. The writing

will eventually fade, especially if it is much exposed

to bright light and to dampness, but as long as the

paper holds together it is possible to partially restore the writing. The gallic and tannic acids in the ink

may be completely oxidized to water and carbon

dioxide long after the dye has disappeared, but the

iron will remain behind as streaks of rusty iron oxide.

By appropriate chemical treatment it is possible to change these pale particles of iron oxide into more

intensely colored compounds of iron. Most written matter is not worth keeping for many

years so it suffices to have ink which is of good color

and easy to use. Records should be written with ink

of such a concentration that there will be plenty of

black iron gallotannate on the paper. The more of

this, the slower the fading and the better the chance

of restoring the writing by chemical treatment. That

is why the record and copying ink of the specification is about twice as concentrated as the writing ink.

It is less fluid than the writing ink, contains more acid,

dissolves steel pens, and has in it more solid matter

which forms deposits in inkwells and fountain pens

that are not cleaned often enough ; yet it has been

voted an excellent ink by users who did not know all these things about it. The experiment has been tried.
372

Other kinds of writing ink.

It is possible to make writing ink with other metals

than iron, but they have not come into general use. For making colored inks dyes are employed, the one

conspicuous exception being the use of soluble Prussian blue in the so-called acid-proof inks. This color- ing matter, which is not a dye, is not attacked by acids

which will not also easily destroy paper, but it is decomposed by alkaline solutions. Soap and water dili- gently applied will usually erase writing with prussian

blue. Because this color does not turn black, and

bright blue writing is not popular, a black dye is sometimes dissolved along with the prussian blue. This

combination makes a dark blue ink of surprising per- manence. The convenience of ink powders and tablets is a strong point in their favor, but as they are composed

of dye they are not acceptable to the Government for

making record ink. The writing does not quickly fade nor can it be washed out easily, but when it goes nothing is left behind that can be colored by chemical treat- ment. The specification for writing ink mentions

powders and tablets in a spirit of optimism, hoping

that somebody will succeed in making a mixture that

meets all of the requirements. The great obstacle in the way to success is the necessity of having free acid

A. S. T. M. CONDUCTING RESEARCH ON

COTTON

New Test for Tear Resistance Has Been Developed

The subcommittee on cotton of the American Society for Testing Materials committee on textile materials has been conducting important research work

on the factors influencing the strength and length of cotton fibers, according to the society. Preliminary

work on strength testing methods has been conducted

and the committee has expressed the belief that the

present tentative methods of testing cotton fibers should be withdrawn as it is further believed the work

in progress will lead to more acceptable procedures.

A new test for tear resistance has been developed

and will be added to the tentative test methods for

certain light and medium cotton fabrics. Revisions

in the standard tolerances and test methods for tire fabrics other than cord fabrics and also for cord tire fabrics, have been agreed upon for immediate

adoption to conform with the standard practices now

followed by the tire and fabric manufacturers. Specifications for electrical cotton tape are also being

studied and experiments with new type jaws used

in testing hose and belt duck are being conducted.

The subcommittee on rayon is cooperating with the

Bureau Internationale pour la Standardization cles Fibres Artificielles, Basle, Switzerland, looking to- ward the harmonization of the methods of testing

rayon. This section is also planning a study of rayon

fabrics.

The subcommittee on methods and machines has

developed, in cooperation with the other subcommittees, revisions in the tentative methods for identification of textile fibers, a method of measuring tear resist- ance as a tentative revision of the standard method of

in the ink. No satisfactory substitute for sulphuric or hydrochloric acid has been found. There is no such

difficulty with concentrated ink, which is a commercial

success when properly made.

Blue-black and red inks are tested in comparison

with standard inks made according to formulas given

in the respective specifications. Delivery samples must

be as good in every essential as the standard, though

the specifications do not require the manufacturer to use the pure materials called for by the formulas. The

wording on this point is perfectly clear, yet it is often

misread.

From one point of view, carbon is the best ink-making material because no amount of exposure to light

and no treatment with chemicals, short of destroying

the paper, will bleach or dissolve it. In fact, its weakness is that it can not be dissolved, and yield a solution

which can be used as ink. Yet thei'e are carbon inks.

They are suspensions of carbon in water that contains

other substances to keep the black from rapidly set- tling out, and to hold it to the paper. Black drawing

ink is the best known of this kind, but there are a few

manufacturers ivho make carbon writing ink.

(In a forthcoming issue of the Commercial Standards Monthly the author will present the second part

of his article, which will deal with typewriter rib- bons.)

testing woven textile fabrics, and a tentative revision

of the standard specifications for textile testing machines involving the use of pins in the jaws of textile machines to bring the jaws into alignment at the time

of inserting the test specimen. This section is also making a comprehensive study of abrasion of textiles.

INDIAN RAILWAY STANDARDS

Railway Board Has Approved 132 Specifications to Date A few years ago the Indian Railway Board set up

a stores standardization committee in connection with

the reorganization of the stores department of the

Indian State Railways. Since its inception, according

to a dispatch received recently from Charles B. Spofford, jr., American trade commisisoner at Calcutta,

India, the committee has held three meetings and 132

specifications have been drafted and approved by the

railway board. These specifications cover a large proportion of the items in common use by Indian rail- ways.

The specifications, designated as Indian railway

standard specifications, will be issued in pamphlet or

loose-leaf form, indexed and dated, and catalogues

will be issued periodically to insure that railways re- tain up-to-date publications only. The committee’s

recommendations have been incorporated in the rail- way board’s specifications for rolling stock. According to the dispatch from the American trade

commissioner, the lack of standard designs and speeifiations for automatic air-brake fittings has caused

considerable inconvenience. The subject is under in- vestigation at present and it is expected that the neces- sary drawings and specifications will be completed

during 1930.
373

SOME STANDARDIZATION RESEARCH AFFECTING LAND, SEA, AND AIR

TRANSPORTATION

Development and Improvement of Devices Result from Research Activities of National Bureau of

Standards

By Henry D. Hubbard, National Bureau of Standards

It is said that “man can only move things.” He

does far more. He controls such movement in direction, force, and time; whether directing a radiobeacon,

sending a flood of light on a distant ship, speeding a projectile to a target on the horizon, routing a cargo

to China.

By land, sea, and air, transport is a vastly complex

enterprise for moving things, energy, persons, ideas, or scenes—interlocking, as in train schedules; seasonal,

as on icebound waters, or shooting lumber on freshet

stream ; elsewhere independent, as in pleasure and sport

craft—plane, boat, car. With its new three-dimensional freedom, transport exhibits interesting types of

standards.

Science is so fertile in useful application that, under

the Department of Commerce, the National Bureau of

Standards early became active in research to promote

progress in transport—touching rails, bridges, signals,

aircraft, motors, brakes, elevators, safety codes, control

instruments, headlights, radiobeacons, balloon fabric,

telephony, track scales, traffic control, and the like. In these and many other subjects the bureau cooperates

with Government agencies, transportation experts, or industry.

Research in transport.

Research and standardization touch all aspects of

transport—ways, aids, timing, the car, the power

which drives it and the brakes which check it, the

signals and controls that guide it, the pilot in com- mand, the cargo, time and rate schedules—a thousand

and one items from the standard transverse profile

of a 4-track roadbed to the controlled climate in the latest parlor coaches. Of these the bureau engages

in researches for which its special facilities are adapted

or which are most urgently pressing for investigation.

The Bureau of Standards, by its research and test- ing, aids transport at vital points; for example, materials of construction. To stimulate interest and give

needed data, the bureau compiled and published the

foreign specifications for railway materials. Its early

investigation of structural columns gave a classic ref- erence basis for railroad bridge engineering. The

bureau’s later tests of bridge members, which con- firmed the adequacy of strength built into structures,

such as the Hudson River and Delaware River

Bridges, gave valuable data on load-carrying capacity

and yield. Such bridges are important links in highways and railways.

The bureau has made many studies on railway materials and on the causes of accidents. When alarmists

used to say that the wreck was the first real test of the

failed rail, the bureau, with other agencies, were devising and demonstrating ways to improve the quality of

rail steel and steel rails.

Pyrometer used in tests. During the experimental researches on steel rails and how to make them safe, the bureau used the pyrometer to measure temperatures of steel rails passing

through the rolls, thus opening a new era in rail production. Its report on sink-head ingots and the Hadfield method showed that by standardized procedure

sound rails could be produced. It found that the right

finishing temperature in rail making was vital to good

quality. At that time rails were being finished at 1,615° F., or over, although a critical temperature was known to exist at 1,300° F. The bureau then recom- mended rolling to lower temperatures nearer this criti- cal point.

Advance in the welding art recently made is evi- dent from the bureau tests of welded street railway

rails subjected to impact and tensile tests. Many of

the rails broke not at the weld but elsewhere. Tests of

welded joints in steel tubing are referred to later The bureau duplicated the failure of cast-iron car wheels found to be caused by unequal heating and ex- pansion along the wheel radius on prolonged braking—a beautiful example of scientific detective work,

giving data on cast-iron wheel behavior and information of service in the design of improved car wheels.

Specifications for aircraft materials.

During the World War the bureau joined in pre- paring international specifications for aircraft materials to assure the use of effective materials as to safety and durability. Many aircraft materials re- searches might be recited. The bureau published a complete monograph on duralumin and other light

alloys, making accessible new and compiled data on

such alloys. To prevent its corrosion (a real hazard)

the bureau recommended coating it w7 ith pure aluminum. This now7 adds life to that remarkable alloy

which has had such revolutionary applications in air- craft construction.

In designing aircraft the engineer must know the

properties of his materials. The bureau is besought

for accurate numerical data on such materials. Its researches include, among others, an experimental

check on the dura umin girders of the airship Shenandoah to make sure of their strength; further study

after this airship was wrecked to detect any possible

weakening during service showed no decrease in

strength; experimental development of test methods

and devices for measuring the repeated stress characteristics furnished specific data for designers; tests in tension and compression combined both for sheet and

tubing of duralumin; investigation of the strength of

welded joints of steel tubing to determine whether air- worthiness certification should be accorded by the Department of Commerce; experimental findings showing conditions necessary for strong welded joints.
374

Metals subject to alternating stresses are tested in small strips supported on air jets at nodal points and

by air jets made to bend back and forth 450 times

a second, or less, giving for some specimens hundreds

of millions of cycles of bending. From such tests may

be determined the fatigue limits or conditions which

the designer must have in mind. Much work on materials is done in cooperation with the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, which will publish

the results on welding of steel-tubing joints.

Sponsor preparation of code.

The bureau was sponsor for the preparation of the

aeronautical code for aircraft construction, mainte- nance of flying fields, and the operation of aircraft. In

this work 33 engineers and aircraft technicians cooperated, devoting four years to the work. In the bureau’s wind tunnels the lift and drift of airplane

models and parts are measured to ascertain the effect of shape on air resistance and behavior. Work is in active progress to standardize the conditions of operation and experimentation in wind tunnels.

A recent success was the bureau’s research which now reduces the thunderous roar in an airplane cabin

to the relative quiet of a Pullman coach, so that ordinary conversation is now made possible with the construction recommended and demonstrated in actual

plane construction.

Aviation requires radio not only for the radiobeacon, but to maintain two-way telephony with the

ground, to receive and send messages concerning

flight conditions as affected by the weather. Successful radio rests on accurate measurement and mainte- nance of radio-frequency (cycles per second). The

bureau aids by broadcast programs of frequency signals standardized with high accuracy. These permit

local standardization of wave meters everywhere

within range by direct comparison with the official signals.

The bureau’s altitude laboratory, with its controlled

climate, variable at will (the first of its kind) was

built to test motors and predict their performance at

all altitudes encountered in flight. The low pressure

and temperature of the upper air are produced in an

air-tight chamber to duplicate the conditions at all flight altitudes. The bureau’s research program has

been comprehensive. Here were studied motor characteristics with respect to lubrication, carburetion, ignition, and power production. The volume of results on the supercharger (forced-air feed) gave this device

a firm hold in aircraft motors.

Its great success, adding 50 per cent to the power

available for high flight, led to its adoption in racing

cars. Here the results were so good that their use in

ordinary automobiles is forecast. Before an airship

leaves the ground the presumptive performance can

here be measured for the motors at all expected flight

levels. In motor research fundamentals were at- tacked experimentally. When the spark ping was

found to be the weak point which limited the air-life of an aircraft motor, the bureau focussed on the

problem.

Research on motors.

Intensive research was directed on all phases of design, construction, and operation of the spark plug.

A new formula for spark-plug porcelain was devised

to avoid cracking under the temperature changes in

service. The results at once entered commercial practice to the permanent gain of aviation.

The Bureau also determined the best fuel-to-air ratio

for motors, the best compression ratio, how the explosion proceeds, and what can be learned of interest in

motor design. Bureau research showed that only a. tenth or less of the fuel energy actually reaches the

driving wheels, and suggested means to increase the

efficiency. Novel methods were applied. These have

been adopted by the industry.

The Bureau of Standards makes the official tests of

commercial airplane motors—an endurance run of 50

hours, as required for the issuance of airworthiness

certificates by the Dejjartment of Commerce. Improved power plant design of new types of motors has

resulted from the tests, technical criticism, and advice

to the makers of aircraft power plants.

PROGRESS IN SAFEGUARDING INDUSTRIAL

WORKERS FROM ACCIDENTS

Employers Converted to Principle of Conserving Efficiency of Labor, State Official Reports

Managers of industry in earlier days paid little at- tention to the safety conditions of their workers, says

F. M. Wilcox, chairman of the Industrial Commission

of Wisconsin, in a recent issue of the United States Daily. The few existing safety directors were given

little consideration by employers and no cooperation

by employees. They were merely tolerated, and were

looked upon as strange sorts of individuals. And in those days few statistics were kept of plant accidents or the degree of disability.

Men and machinery were of the same class. They

were considered by those in command as instruments

of production. In the old system, manufacturers ex- ercised special care as to the condition of a machine.

So long as it was efficiently productive it remained in

use. Likewise, the worker’s service was engaged only

so long as he registered normal production.

Too little consideration had been paid to the preser- vation of that human instrument at its highest effi- ciency. Realizing that this attitude retarded civiliza- tion, that to progress there must be increasing recognition of the prime importance of human relations, some

steps were taken toward their advancement.

The establishment of workers’ compensation laws

aided in the development of accident prevention, and

assisted in promoting the employees’ general welfare.

It also created among the employers a personal interest

in safety conditions and processes in the plant. Today records of some of their large plant units, rated

as among the more hazardous types of machinery, re- veal that they have operated for many years without

a single lost-time accident. They have learned the

necessity for cooperation among employer and employee, the regard and enforcement of protective rules

and practices, and the continuous application of safety

devices and mechanical guards.
375

MATERIALS USED IN THE ELECTRICAL INDUSTRY

Research Conducted in Bureau of Standards on Insulators, Conductors, and Magnetic Materials

By E. C. Crittenden, National Bureau of Standards

Electric power is essential ancl all pervasive in our modern life. Electric energy from central stations

not only serves 19,000,000 homes in this country, but

supplies the driving force for half our industries,

and its share of the industrial load is rapidly in- creasing.

Nearly a billion dollars a year goes into the enlargement and improvement of facilities for providing this

service. The central station industry is therefore a large buyer and user of machinery and materials.

Examples of work.

As examples of current work affecting the power

industry directly, although not classed as electrical, one may cite studies of the properties of steam, the

behavior of metals at high temperatures, the per- formance of bearings and lubricants, and the corrosion

of metals under various conditions. The electrical industry is, however, specially concerned with materials of three kinds—that is, electrical conductors,

electrical insulators, and magnetic materials.

Magnetic testing apparatus to determine the loss of energy in steel when used in an alternating magnetic field

Its responsibilities for rendering satisfactory service

also give it an active interest in the equipment used

by its customers and in the materials and methods

used in making such equipment.

Furthermore the leaders of this industry have recognized that its rapid practical development in our generation is based upon the knowledge accumulated by

workers of the past; believing that further development will likewise depend upon systematic study of its problems, they have supported scientific research to supplement practical experience.

Since the electrical power industry has such broad

interests its contacts with the Bureau of Standards

are correspondingly varied.

Standardization of conductors.

Practically the only electrical conductors used are copper and aluminum. The bureau has made exhaustive investigations of the properties of these materials,

and compilations of data on them have been issued

as Circulars Nos. 73 and 346, entitled, respectively,

“ Copper ” and “ Light Metals and Alloys.”

For copper as commercially supplied, a standard

value of conductivity, based largely upon the bureau’s

results, was adopted some years ago by the International Electrotechnical Commission, and is now used

throughout the world. With regard to aluminum,

negotiations for a world-wide standard have not been

concluded, but a standard conductivity based on the
bureau’s values has been adopted by the American

Institute of Electrical Engineers and approved by

the American Standards Association for use in this

country.

Conductivity of materials and methods of measuring it are now so well standardized that the chief

service required of the bureau is to check the accuracy

of tests made in commercial practice. This is done, on

request, by making precise measurements on standard

rods or sample wires for comparison with the results obtained at industrial plants and testing laboratories.

Magnetic materials not standardized.

Magnetic materials (iron and steel) are not susceptible of standardization in the sense that conductors

are, because they vary widely in composition and be- cause their properties are affected so much by heat

treatment and mechanical working. The bureau’s re- searches on these materials have, therefore, been largely

directed toward the establishment of reliable methods

for finding what the magnetic characteristics of a given lot of material are. Through cooperation with

the American Society for Testing Materials, standard

methods of measurement have been established.

As in the case of conductors, tests of magnetic materials are made by the bureau as a check on those

made in commercial laboratories. A description of

the methods used has been published in a bureau cir- cular on “ Magnetic Testing.”

Research on electrical insulating materials.

Electrical insulating materials are even more diverse

and uncertain in character than magnetic materials.

They include solids, liquids, and even gases, and the

properties desired depend largely on the place and the

purpose for which the insulator is intended.

Standard methods of testing have been established

for some properties, especially “ dielectric strength ”

(the ability to withstand high voltages), but the bureau’s work on insulators is largely research directed

toward finding out why the materials behave as they

do, since this is the first step toward making them

better. This research at present consists chiefly of a study of rubber and rubber compounds and of very

pure liquid insulating materials. The latter project

is supported directly by a group of central station

companies on the ground that the knowledge gained

may eventually help in explaining what actually happens in practical insulating materials when they deteriorate with age and fail in service. In the further development of electrical power the

improvement of insulators is a key problem. Consequently, various technical and commercial organizations have committees Avorking on this subject, and the

bureau is represented on many of them.

As a special lAroblem the bureau has recently made

a comj>arison of American mica Avith the imported

material now generally used. This shows that the

foreign product has no advantage in dielectric

strength. Measurements of other properties are being

made. It appears probable that the only advantage

of the imported mica are better preparation and established reputation, so that reliable technical data may

give the foundation for a new American industry.

PUBLICATION ON BISMUTH

Bureau of Standards Publication on Bismuth Suggests Possible New Uses for Product Which Is Now Largely a Waste Product

The three chemical elements, arsenic, antimony, and

bismuth, form a subgroup of the periodic system in

which bismuth is the heaviest element, has the highest

atomic weight, and in many respects is the most “ metallic.” Bismuth can not be classed as an abundant

element, although there is annually a very considerable production, chiefly as a by-product in the refin- ing of other metals. Nevertheless, bismuth has A

r ery

few uses at present. The by-product production of

large quantities of a relatively useless metal is obviously a challenge to metallurgical research.

In a new publication of the Bureau of Standards,

Circular No. 382, the metallurgical literature of bis- muth is reviewed and existing information, particularly concerning the properties and the relatively few

uses of bismuth, is compiled and classified. The occurrence and distribution of bismuth, its re- covery from ores and from by-products in the purification of other metals, methods of refining, statistics

o,f production and price ranges are all considered

briefly. Physical properties and uses are discussed,

as well as nearly 30 binary alloy systems containing

bismuth. The low melting points of several of these

alloys are of particular interest, several of them melting at temperatures considerably beloAv the boiling

point of water. A selected and classified bibliography

is appended.

Copies of this publication may be obtained from

the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., at 10 cents each.

PROPOSE SIMPLIFICATION FOR TERRY

TOWELS

A simplification program of Avide interest is one

recently proposed for terry toAvels, generally knoAvn

as Turkish toAvels. Towels of this description are made in a Avide variety of widths and lengths, and

manufacturers believe that many sizes could be eliminated with benefit to all concerned.

Manufacturers representing 90 per cent of production of terry towels and representatives of the Cotton

Textile Institute and of the division of simplified

practice of the Bureau of Standards, met at Pinehurst,

N. C., on May 6, in conjunction Avith the annual meeting of the American Cotton Manufacturers Association, to discuss the need for simplification and to take

the initial steps in the development of a simplified

schedule of sizes. The conference was of the unani- mous opinion that the simplification program should

be limited to widths and lengths of terry towels. A

committee was appointed to cooperate with the Cotton

Textile Institute and the division of simplified practice in collecting the necessary information for pre- paring the schedule which will be presented for approval by the industry.
37 / RAILROADS MAKE WIDE USE OF STANDARDIZATION

Roads Find it Promotes Efficiency, Economy, and Safety, and Enables Them to Reduce Inventories;

Carriers Continually Engaged in Research

In the early days of the American railroads, cars were confined to the roads for which they were built

and to which they belonged, and in their design each

railroad was a law unto itself. The inconvenience of

transshipping freight when carried long distances soon made it necessary to run cars over more roads than

one, and, as the demand for carrying freight further

without breaking bulk increased, some improvement was necessary in order to carry it without unloading,

and as rapidly as possible. It was soon found that difficulties were constantly

occurring in regard to the repairs of cars moved over

other roads, and that they were often delayed when far

away from home, by not having the right kind of materials on hand to replace broken parts. The master

car builders of the various railroads formed an organization, one of the objects of which was to standardize

parts of cars which are apt to fail in regular service,

thus making it possible for cars to be repaired whenever any failure of part occurred, without any undue

delay to the car or to the shipment. This work is novi

carried on by the American Railway Association.

Standardization of parts.

At present the various parts of cars are so well standardized that the same wheels, axles, couplers, journal

bearings, brake shoes, brake heads, and a multitude of

other parts are common to all freight cars, and the delays to cars on account of awaiting material from the car owner to make repairs, are reduced to a minimum.

As an indication of what has been accomplished in the direction of standardization of detailed parts of

cars, the following is presented

1882 1926 Axles different kinds 56 1 (6 different sizes.) Journal boxes do 58 1 (6 different sizes.) Couplers do 26 1 (2 different sizes.) Brake shoes do 20 1 Brake heads do 27 1 Adoption of safety equipment.

The parts enumerated above are only a few of those

used in the repairs of cars, but if all were named, it would increase the list to enormous proportions.

Among the more important developments made by the

association may be mentioned the adoption, in 1887,

of the automatic coupler for cars, thus doing away

with the link and pin coupler and the necessity for

going between cars to couple them together. At the

present time the automatic coupler is the universal

standard of all railroads in the country.

Another important development was the adoption

in 1888 of the automatic air brake as the standard of

the association. To-day practically every car in the

country is equipped with this device. Following its adoption, a code of instructions for the proper operation of the air brake was prepared and generally dis- tributed among railway employees.

Standardization of complete cars. Since all of these parts of cars have been standardized, the next move was the standardization of the

complete car. The American Railway Association has

had committees on standard cars for about 12 years. The work of these committees was utilized in designing the 100,000 cars built by the United States Railroad Administration, and continuing that work the

association has adopted standard box cars of singlesheathed, steel-framed design. Many thousands of

these cars have been constructed, and practically all cars of this type being ordered or contemplated at the

present time are to this design.

The American Railway Association has also pre- pared designs for an all-steel box car, of which many

thousands have been built. Designs for doublesheathecl box cars having wood outside sheathing and

complete steel frame have likewise been adopted and

a considerable number of such cars have been built. Designs have been adopted covering 50 and 70 ton hopper cars of all-steel construction. Although these

designs were adopted only about a year ago, several

thousand cars have already been built. A standard

design of steel-frame stock cars has been adopted and

a considerable number of such cars have been built. Each of these designs already prepared or in the

process of preparation utilizes to the utmost degree the same parts and details of construction. In so far as the ordinary parts common to all cars are concerned,

these standards are the same as are now used on exist- ing cars; viz, wheels, axles, couplers, air brakes, hand

brakes, brake beams, brake shoes, etc. It is expected

that, through the normal retirement and purchase of

equipment, within the next few years, a large portion

of the car equipment of the country will be standardized. It is this high degree of standardization in

equipment reached by the railroads that, in a large measure, is making possible the present splendid per- formance in the expeditious handling of freight for

the American public.

Loading of commodities.

In 1896 the railroads adopted a code of rules governing the loading of lumber, logs, stones, etc., and the

loading and carrying of structural materials, plates,

rails, girders, etc., on open cars. These rules have

been revised annually to take care of additional commodities and to take advantage of improvements in

cars, loading methods, etc. At the present time there are rules governing the

loading of lumber and forest products, steel and steel mill products, mining cars, engines, boilers, machinery,

derricks, concrete culvert pipes, brick, stone, tile, auto- mobiles, trailers, and tractors. These rules have been

adopted by the hearty cooperation and assistance of

the shippers, and conferences are held annually with

each group of shippers affected. This standardization

of practice has been instrumental in the expeditious

handling of freight from shipper to consignee without

damage to the commodities carried or the cars used.

Tank-car specifications.

No other country in the world ships liquid commodities in bulk to anything like the extent of this
378

practice in the United States and Canada. Many of

the commodities handled in tank cars by the railroads

are very dangerous, such as gasoline, acids, liquified

chlorine, and sulphur dioxide. In 1903 specifications

for tank cars were adopted, and at the present time all tank cars used and constructed in this country are in accordance with these specifications as revised from

time to time. By the use of these specifications, to- gether with the regulations of the Bureau of Explosives and the Interstate Commerce Commission governing the handling of explosives and dangerous

commodities, a tremendous volume of liquid freight is handled safely, cheaply, and expeditiously. During

the past year, a committee in charge of these specifications has prepared designs for tank cars for the shipment of the following additional commodities in bulk

:

Ethyl chloride, propane, dinitro-chloro-benzol, sulphur

dioxide, and anhydrous ammonia.

This committee is continually arranging for service tests of various devices used on tank cars where it is thought the devices offered show promise, such ar- rangements being made with the approval of the Interstate Commerce Commission. The practice of

shipping commodities in bulk with resultant savings

to industries and the public is becoming more prevalent each year, and the association is called upon continually to provide specifications for the shipment of new commodities in this manner.

Research.

The railroads, in order to provide transportation

which will be adequate to the needs of the country at the least expense and with the greatest safety, are continually engaged in research in connection with

the various phases of transportation. A large portion of this research is cooperative, and under the di- rection of the American Railway Association. The

majority of the railroads, and all larger ones, maintain laboratories, and engineers of tests are continually making researches on their own account, but the

results of such research are given to all of the rail- roads through the committees of the association.

At the present time a test of air brakes is being con- ducted under the direction of, and at the expense of,

the American Railway Association. This investigation is in the interest of promoting safety of the public and commodities handled by the railroads.

Research has also been undertaken on the subject

of draft gears which absorb the shocks between cars

in trains. A test machine has been designed and is located at Purdue University, where a complete program of research is being carried out to develop the

most satisfactory draft gear, which will give a maximum of protection to the railroad cars and commodities carried.

The question of train line connectors which will au- tomatically couple the air, steam, and signal hose

between cars without the necessity of workmen going

between the cars for this purpose is also being studied

by a special research organization of the association.

Other committees of the association are investigating

in various railroad laboratories, materials for use in

construction and x-epair of railway equipment to in- sure the greatest safety ; autogenous welding ; and

wheels for cars and locomotives.

Realizing that the steam locomotive represents a

lax-ge investment in money and should be utilized to the utmost, the association has a joint committee making a very thorough study of this problem. Surveys

are being made on the important railroads to determine what practices will insure the maximum utiliza- tion of such locomotives and thus obtain the most

from the money invested. The preliminary reports

from this committee have already, had a very pronounced effect on the operation of the railroads ixx the

United States and Canada.

SPECIFICATIONS FOR STEEL

American Society for Testing Materials Proposes Several Revisions

The A. S. T. M. committee on steel has specifieatioxxs for an intermediate grade of structural steel under development, and revisions of the requirement

for rivets of the structural steel specifications are under consideration. Proposed specifications for austentic steel castings were approved to be recommended

for publication as tentative. Specifications wei'e re- ceived for open-hearth ix*on plates of flange quality for

boilers. Consideration will be given to the development of specifications for alloy-steel boiler plate as well as to inci-easing the tensile requirements of boiler

rivet steel. The committee is giving consideration to the development of specifications for alloy-steel castings for

high-temperature service. Revisions of the standard

specifications for alloy-steel bolting material for lxightemperatui’e service are in prospect in respect to the

l’equirements for material for the larger sizes. Specifications are now in process of development for various

types of pipe that are not at present covered in the

American Society for Testiixg Materials specifications,

including fusion and resistance- welded pipe, hammerwelded pipe, electric arc-welded pipe, and fabricated

and riveted pipe of all kiixds. The subcommittee on steel for welding, of this committee, rather than to develop new specifications for

steel for welding, has pi'esented a list of current specifications of the society covering material that is con- sidered suitable for fusion welding including the va- rious structural steel specifications, the boiler steel specifications, and the permanent specifications for

plates for forge welding.

MASONRY OPENING SIZES

The initial efforts of the committee on masom*y

opening sizes will be confined to the development of

masoni'y opening sizes for metal windows, as a result

of the action taken at a meeting of this committee held on May 19 at the Bui’eau of Standards. The meeting

approved the appointment of a subcommittee, composed of manufacturers of steel and copper and bronze

windows, to draft a tentative simplified practice recom- mendation covering masonry openings for metal windows. This will be presented to a general conference

of all interested elements of the industry for approval.

The division of simplified practice of the bureau will

assist the committee in calling this conference.
379

STANDARDIZATION BRIEFS

The thirty-mik'd annual meeting of the American

Society for Testing Materials will be held at Chalfonte-Haddon Hall, Atlantic City, N. J., June 23 to

27. The A. S. T. M. bulletin states that a wellrounded program is provided with a number of miscellaneous materials represented. According to the

bulletin, in recent years the A. S. T. M. committee on

correlation of research has reported upon the current

research projects being carried on by the several standing committees. Similarly, a committee on standards

has been organized, one of the functions of which is to review the standardization activities of the society. It is planned that these reviews be made yearly after

the annual meeting, so as to include in them whatever

actions are taken at the meeting, in respect to standards or in the initiation of new research projects. The

results of these reviews will be issued early in the

fall of each year.

The Philippine Hardwood Export Association has

officially adopted the standard grading rules of the

National Hardwood Lumber Association of the United

States, according to information received from G. C. Howard, American trade commissioner at Manila.

Discussion of drastic revisions designed to simplify

and standardize the Nation’s criminal code featured

the meeting of the American Institute of Law in

Washington on May 9. It was stated during the con- ference that conflicting codes of the various States and complexities of existing laws made it difficult for courts to function efficientfy and swiftly.

The work of the Army and Navy in standardization

of aircraft instruments, accessories, and power-plant

items, has resulted in their becoming recognized authorities and the standards adopted are being used to an increasing extent by commercial aviation interest,

according to Rear Admiral William A. Moffett, chief

of the Bureau of Aeronautics. Navy Department. Several years ago the Army and Navy recognized the need

for standardization within the aeronautical industry,

particularly on material specifications, the result being an annual conference. The need for standardization

has been so urgent that the conferences have extended

their standardization activities to include not only

material specifications, but standards for instruments,

accessories, and power-plant items.

It was stated at the annual meeting of the National

Committee on Wood Utilization, held at the Department of Commerce on May 2, that investigations and

tests are being made to develop more concrete and defi- nite information regarding fire retardant processes. The new method of testing fire retardant wood developed by the Forest Products Laboratory has opened

the way toward establishing standard tests of various

fire retardant chemicals.

Proposed metric spark-plugs for automobile specifications have been recommended to the standards committee of the Society of Automotive Engineers for

approval as an S. A. E. standard. Several changes

have been recommended by the lighting division of

the S. A. E. in the automobile headlighting specifications of the society. These proposed changes are subject to final approval by letter-ballot of the lighting

division.

Distribution of the new standard-newspaper data

form, prepared by the American Association of Advertising Agencies, began on May 1, according to the

magazine Editor and Publisher—The Fourth Estate. The standard form is designed to present a complete

picture of the kind of newspaper published, including

the history and management of the publication, the

editoi'ial policy, news services, and syndicate material

used, departments published and the editors in charge,

respective amounts of news and advertising matter

carried, merchandizing and promotion work done, and

radio station, if any.

The American Gear Manufacturers’ Association at

its fourteenth annual meeting, held in Cincinnati,

Ohio, on May 1 to 3, accepted the report of the wormgear committee, in which suggested standards for

worm gear nomenclature were proposed.

To provide a series of flat-head clevis pins for use

in various aircraft standard fittings, a specification

has been approved by the aircraft division with the

recommendation that it be approved by the standards

committee of the Society of Automotive Engineers as an S. A. E. standard.

The printed booklets on simplified practice recom- mendations Nos. 109-29, for refrigerator ice compartments, 110-29, soft fiber (jute) twine, and 93-29, paper

shipping tags, are now available for purchase, at 10

cents per copy, from the Superintendent of Documents,

Government Printing Office.

Owing to the fact that the ball hexagon bolts and

nuts as covered in the present S. A. E. standard of the

1930 edition of the S. A. E. handbook, are obsolete

and no longer in use, the aircraft division of the

Society of Automotive Engineers has recommended

the cancellation of these specifications.

A permanent committee on standardization of supplies, composed of the insular purchasing agent, the

director of public works, and the director of the bu- reau of science, has been created in the Philippine

Islands. The same officials compose the committee on motor transportation. These committees standardize

only supplies and motor vehicles for Government use.
380

With a view to simplifying the sizes and capacities

of cup-shaped ice cream containers, the simplified

practice committee of the International Association

of Ice Cream Manufacturers has instituted a variety

survey of present practices. The final report will serve as a basis for a simplified practice recommendation for the information and guidance of all interests.

Following adoption by the Society of Automotive

Engineers of the standard for round unslottedi head

bolts in February, 1929, it was suggested to the screw- threads division of the S. A. E. that a standard be

adopted for the round unslotted-head bolt having an

oval or diamond section neck under the head. It was

indicated that this type of bolt is especially applicable

in automobile work, particularly where the bolt goes

through wood. Proposed specifications were later referred to the screw-thread division for approval,

and that division has now recommended that they be

adopted by the society as an S. A. E. standard.

There is a definite need for standardization of sizes of small-dimension lumber stock within the various

consuming industries, F. E. Colesworthy, of the

National Association of Purchasing Agents, told the

annual meeting of the National Wood Utilization

Committee. He further pointed out the need for

knowledge by the consumer of those sizes which are standard. This statement was followed by an expression from Harry B. Krausz, that the standardization

of sizes would permit the producer to operate on a balanced schedule, and thus keep his manufacturing

personnel intact during the entire year. A variety survey covering cottage cheese jars is being made jointly by the Glass Container Association

of America and the International Association of Milk

Dealers, to ascertain, through questionnaires mailed

to all interests, those sizes of jars which satisfy the

maximum demand. The final report will serve as a

basis for recommendations to the entire industry.

Constructive modifications and general approval of

the final program will depend upon the action of a

general conference of all interests and affirmative re- plies to a letter referendum.

The aircraft division of the Society of Automotive

Engineers has recommended the inclusion of a 5-inch

size of plain pulley corresponding to the one of similar size in the series of antifriction bearings. A se- ries of antifriction bearing pulleys similar to the

present series of plain-bearing nonmetallic pulleys is recommended for approval as an S. A. E. standard.

The Food Service Equipment Association, formed

in April, 1930, by a group interested in supplies and

equipment for hotels, restaurants, and institutions, has

appointed a committee on simplification and standardization to make a study of existing variety of food

service equipment. Among the items in this field that

have been tentatively suggested for simplification are steam tables (size of opening), baking equipment,

cooking utensils, and serving trays.

To provide uniformity in dimensions, strength, and

streamline it has been considered desirable to develop a standard for streamline tie rods. A variable bend test for these rods was originally proposed for inclusion,

but was held in abeyance pending the action of the

forthcoming conference of the Society of Automotive

Engineers. The aircraft division of the society has

recommended the approval of the proposed specification on streamline tie rods as an S. A. E. standard.

A general conference on simplification of abrasive

grain sizes was held at the Bureau of Standards on May 8. The recommendation, which was approved,

provides for a list of standard sizes for abrasive grains.

The recommendation is to become effective September 1, 1930. The conference authoi'ized the appointment of a standing committee, to be composed of

three manufacturers of abrasive grains and three users of the commodity. The duties of this committee will

be to take care of revisions, to keep the recommendation abreast of the current trend in the industry. An

additional committee, to be made up of two manufacturers of grains, two manufacturers of abrasives, and

two users of abrasives, was also appointed to make a study during the coming year of screens and screen- ing practices as applied to abrasive materials.

In order that the present series of spline shaft ends

and hubs be completed to provide dimensions for

shafts and hubs for the larger sizes of engine, it is proposed to adopt new shaft end and hub dimensions

to be known as S. A. E. No. 50, which are similar to those used at present on the shaft end for geared

Hornet engines. The proposed dimensions for this new size have been recommended for approval as an

addition to the present S. A. E. standard on spline

shaft ends and hubs by the aircraft-engine division

of the Society of Automotive Engineers.

Although for some time specifications have existed

providing for standard spline shaft ends and hubs,

thereby making these parts interchangeable, there has

been no interchangeability of cones and nuts from one

size of standard shaft end to another. It has been felt for some time by various engine manufacturers that

standardization of these parts would be of considerable value, and the matter was submitted to the air- craft-engine division of the Society of Automotive

Engineers for consideration. As a result, a series of

propeller-hub cones and nuts have been developed for

the complete series of the S. A. E. spline shaft ends

and hubs. The division recommended that the specifications be adopted as an S. A. E. standard.

A general conference of representative manufacturers, distributors, and users of bell bottom screw

jacks, held in Chicago on May 20, unanimously ap- proved a simplified practice recommendation covering

this product. The action of this conference, which was held under the auspices of the division of simplified practice of the Bureau of Standards, will re- sult in reducing the number of sizes of this type of

jack from 78 to 38. The recommendation, subject

to the approval of the industry by signed acceptance,

is to be effective from October 1, 1930.
381

CURRENT ACTIVITIES OF THE AMERICAN STANDARDS ASSOCIATION

Standards for Domestic Refrigerators, Grand Stands, Fuel Oils, Safety Codes for Woodworking Plants,

Slotted Head Proportions, Safety Code for Explosives in Coal Mines, Spindle Noses and Chucks, and

Pressure and Vacuum Gauges

A final draft of the test code for domestic refrigerators has been prepared by a subcommittee of the A. S. A. technical committee on the standardization of domestic refrigerators, and will shortly be submitted

for approval. One of the important changes from

previous draft of the code involves having tests run

at room temperatures of 75° instead of 80° F.

The A. S. A. has approved the joint request of the

department of labor and industry of the State of

Pennsylvania, the Belmont Iron Works, and the

Wayne Iron Works, for the establishment of a national safety code for the construction of grand stands.

The seriousness of the accident situation may be

judged from the fact that one of the foremost casualty

insurance companies has refused for more than 10

years to insure wooden grand stands, the most common

type of temporary grand stand. The increased interest in athletics is one of the reasons given for the need

for a national safety code.

The work of the A. S. A. technical committee on the

standardization of fuel oil, under the sponsorship of

the American Society for Testing Materials, has been

started with the appointment of two subcommittees to develop specifications for domestic and industrial fuel

oil and for Diesel fuel oil. The subcommittee on domestic and industrial fuel oils will review the existing

Federal specification as a basis for the development of

the proposed American standard. The scope of the

committee’s work has been defined as follows : “ The

preparation of specifications for fuel oil, including

domestic, industrial, and Diesel fuels and excluding

oils with a flash point below approximately 100° F.

tag. closed cup, oil burned in wick burners, and oil for gas-making purposes.”

A revision of the safety code for woodworking

plants has been approved as American tentative standard by the A. S. A. The revised code permits higher

limiting speeds for circular saws than were permitted

in the previous edition of the code. The higher speeds

are made possible by the use of alloy steels. The

standard was prepared and revised under the sponsorship of the International Association of Industi’ial Accident Boards and Commissions, and the National

Bureau of Casualty and Surety Underwriters.

The American standard for slotted-head proportions has just been approved by the American Standards Association. The standard developed under the

sponsorship of the American Society of Mechanical

Engineers and the Society of Automotive Engineers

covers head dimensions for machine screws, cap screws, and wood screws, and gives tables of the types of head

and length of each size regularly carried in stock.

Approval of the code for the use of explosives in bituminous coal mines as American recommended

practice, has been given by the A. S. A. The code was developed under the sponsorship of the Mine

Inspectors Institute, and includes sections on (1) suit- ability of types of explosives and appliances for use

in bituminous coal mines; (2) handling and storing

explosives on surface; (3) transportation, handling,

and storage underground; and (4) methods and pre- cautions for charging and firing, including inspection.

Hundreds of fatalities result annually from the improper handling and use of explosives in mining and

it is believed that the widespi'ead adoption of this

code will materially decrease the number of such

fatalities

Drafts of the proposed American standards for

spindle noses and for chucks have been prepared by

subcommittees of the A. S. A. technical committee on

the standardization of small tools and machine tool

elements, and are available for review through the

A. S. A. office. The drafts include 29 prints showing

the dimensions of the proposed spindle noses and

chucks. The committees propose “ that there be three

types of each size of spindle nose, and that all standard chucks for a given size of spindle nose be interchangeable on each of the three types. This will

allow a wider use of chucks made in accordance with

the pi’oposed standards.”

The establishment of a national standard for pres- sure and vacuum gauges was requested by a general

conference of manufacturers and users of such gauges,

held under the auspices of the A. S. A. on May 15. The conference was held at the request of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, which wished

to learn whether industry generally favored national

standai’dization in this field. If the action of the con- ference is approved by the A. S. A., the preparation

of the standard will be undertaken by a technical

committee in the near future.

Specifications for pressure and vacuum gauges have

been developed by a number of organizations, including the United States Navy Department. One of the

functions of the technical committee will be to correlate existing specifications in the development of a national standard. Accuracy for pressure and vacuum

gauges is needed not only for more certain control of

industrial processes but also to insure safety of life and property. For example, a gauge may indicate zero pressure while there is still sufficient pressure to consti- tute a serious hazard if a boiler or tank is opened.

Pressure and vacuum gauges are important to almost

every industry in some phase of its operation. Some

of the industries to which they are of special concern

are rubber, chemical, automobile, railways, oil and

compressed gas, power plants, and farm machinery.
382

THE COMMERCIAL STANDARDS SERVICE AND ITS VALUE TO BUSINESS

New Booklet of Bureau of Standards Sets Forth Functions of Division of Trade Standards

A 34-page booklet, bearing the above title and designated CSO-30 has recently been received from the

Government Printer and is now available for distribution by the division of trade standards.

This publication describes the services which are

available on request to industry through the division

of trade standards, and, in addition, covers many other

interesting aspects of the standardization movement*

among which are chapters on the background and

origin of commercial standards and their necessity, scope, purpose, and application.

Fourteen examples of commercial standards are

briefly described, supplemented by the benefits and

economies which may be effected through the establishment of well-known standards as common denominators for every-day trade.

For those who prefer the question and answer style

for a quick grasp of the main features of commercial

standards, a classified set of 33 brief questions and

pithy answers covering the most important elements,

should prove useful. The pamphlet describes briefly the evolution and

definition of standards with particular emphasis on

the value of voluntary standards. Under the heading

“ Economic necessity ” the booklet states : Any analysis of our economic situation is bound to reveal cer- tain facts and obvious trends in the commerce of 1930. With increased leisure our people are devoting more

time and attention to careful and judicious expenditure. There is more shopping around for greater

values and better bargains, not only among the women

who buy for the individual family, but among the

professional purchasing agents who contract for the

materials used and fabricated by our large industrial

organizations and institutions. With greater purchasing power, increased travel, and speedier means of

communication our people are demanding higher

quality and are looking for some dependable guide to aid their judgment. Every known article possessing

outstanding or unusual quality is enjoying a large

demand.

FOUNDRY PATTERNS OF WOOD

Commercial Standard for Color Markings Now in Printed

Form

A pamphlet entitled “ Foundry Patterns of Wood,”

Commercial Standard CS19-30, has been released for

distribution. It covers the color markings recom- mended as standard by the producers and users for

foundry patterns and core boxes of wood construction

in order that there may be no misunderstanding as regards the intention of the pattern maker.

(a) Surfaces to be left unfinished are to be painted

black.

(b) Surfaces to be machined are to be painted

red.

In the present perplexing market of novelties and

color the consumer buyers, and even the professional

purchasing agents are reporting it increasingly diffi- cult to distinguish between items of real merit and

inferior products built for appearance only. It is natural, therefore, that the consumer buyer and the

purchasing agent are both seeking authoritative and

dependable criteria of quality, and are welcoming

certificates from reputable producers that the quality

of the goods equals or exceeds the commercial standard

specification.

Among the producers, competition was never keener.

In the ever widening arena of strife for a share of the

consumer’s dollar, companies are merging and individual producers are forming associations to wage the

contest of industry against industry as being more

significant than the private battle of producer against

producer. The alert trade association seeks a means

of assuring purchasers of the inherent quality of the

proffered goods. Individual trade-marks and trade

association labels are helpful, but frequently are not

sufficient to satisfy the skepticism of the modern purchaser who demands to be shown, with laboratory

analyses and methods of test, the quality of goods delivered. In general, it may be said that the producers

are experts in their own commodity field, but seldom

is the consumer given the full benefit of this knowledge. Usually the producers as a group could, if they

would, inform the consumer as to the grade or quality

best suited to his needs with far greater accuracy and

confidence than the consumer could possibly muster

from any other source. Under present conditions this

group knowledge is suppressed and the tendency is all too frequent to give the buyer merely what he asks for. The “ Fundamental purpose ” is depicted as follows

:

The chef purpose of the work is to catch and to hold from

present or future retrogression commercial progress toward

ideals of commodity quality and performance by encouraging

the voluntary establishment of commercial standards as a basis

for marketing. It is unthinkable that the consumer will will- ingly relinquish nationally recognized means and methods of checking the quality and value of the goods he buys. Therefore, it is hoped that the commercial standard will act as a

ratchet in the advance of sound merchandising methods.

( c ) Seats of and for loose pieces are to be marked

by red stripes on a yellow background.

(d) Core prints and seats for loose core prints are

to be painted yellow.

( e ) Stop-offs are to be indicated by diagonal black

stripes on a yellow base. Some variations in shades of above colors are permissible within reasonable limitations. The colors

may be obtained by mixing suitable inexpensive pigments with varnish or shellac to produce the type of

coating desired.

The commercial standard became effective for new

production February 10, 1930. Copies of the pamphlet

may be obtained from the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., at 10 cents per copy.
383

PROPOSED STANDARDIZATION OF COLORS FOR SANITARY WARE

Industry Has Requested Cooperation of the Bureau of Standards in Promulgation of Commercial Standard

Recent trends of the times indicate a growing ap- preciation and use of color in interior decoration even

in the bathroom and kitchen. It has brought opportunities for the plumber, architect, and interior decorator, and it has also brought problems to the manufacturers of colored sanitary ware. There are three kinds of sanitary ware—vitreous

china, porcelain (all-clay), and enameled iron. The

probability of difference in shade arises when one manufacturer supplies the vitreous china lavatory and

another supplies the enameled bath. This fact is forcibly emphasized in a display of available color

samples assembled by the National Bureau of Standards, where 101 different shades are shown. Very

often after fixtures are set, because of this wide diversity of colors, and lack of color harmony, they are

rejected by the owner at a considerable expense to the

contractor, wholesaler, and manufacturer. As a result of this rather chaotic condition the division of trade

standards, Bureau of Standards, received a request

to cooperate with an advisory committee of the manufacturers in attempting a solution of some of their

problems.

Requirements of standardization.

A solution of these problems involves much more

than the elimination of many existing shades of color. The following points are necessary in the successful

coordination of individual color ranges in vitreous

china, enameled sanitary ware, and allied products:

The colors must be (1) desirable, (2) economically

produced, (3) easily reproduced, and (I) suitable to enameled cast iron, vitreous china, porcelain, wood

seats, etc. In the standardization of colors for sanitary ware it should be borne in mind that an absolute match of

shades is neither possible nor necessary, but the shades

should as nearly match as the differences in the character of materials, lighting conditions, and manufacturing processes permit.

Proposed standard colors.

In a survey of colors used in the production of sanitary ware, green was found to be the most popular

color with orchid a close second. Blue was third,

while ivory, light brown or buff, and black were about

equal in popularity. As a result of this survey these

six colors were selected by the advisory committee of

manufacturers of sanitary ware as recommended

standard colors for sanitary ware, and given the fol- lowing designations

SC10, green. I SC40, blue. SC20, orchid. SG40, light brown or buff. SC30, ivory. | SC60, black. Other recommendations of the committee.

It is the recommendation of the committee that all colored ware be considered as special rather than

regular, since the trouble involved and the time lost m preparation results in increased cost of production.

The development of individual colors for special

pieces, for instance, drinking fountains, and the

matching of colors for special work will not come

within the scope of standardization of colors for

sanitary ware. The elimination of secrecy in connection with the

production of color in the glazes and enamels is sug- gested by the advisory committee. A thorough understanding among the manufacturers that there is no

need for secrecy in such matters would materially benefit the trade. With this idea in mind the committee

has filed with the division of trade standards the

formulas, firing temperatures, and other information

needed to produce the standard colors as selected by

the committee.

The distribution of the standard colors is to be

under the supervision of the Bureau of Standards. A

general conference to be held in the near future will

afford an opportunity for producers, distributors, and

users to comment on the proposed standard colors for

sanitary ware. NEW MATERIAL CALLED MAIZOLITH MADE

FROM CORNSTALKS

Bureau of Standards Finds Maizolith Valuable as Electrical Insulator and for Other Industrial Purposes

A new material has recently been made from cornstalks and corncobs by the National Bureau of Standards and Iowa State College in their experimental

plant at Ames, Iowa. This material has properties

which may make it of value in various industries. The

new material, which has been named maizolith (pronounced maze-o-lith) ranges in color from tan to a deep

ebony. It machines readily, and may be given a high

polish. Tests on maizolith show that it has a volume

resistivity of 3,000,000,000 ohms per cubic centimeter,

a tensile strength of about 7,000 pounds per square

inch, and a compressive strength of about 17,000

pounds per square inch.

In addition to use in electrical insulating work,

maizolith might be employed to make the following

articles: Noiseless gears, bushings, washers, refillable fuses, rings, disks, handles, knobs, levers, pinions,

wheels, castoi’s, rollei’S, and bearings.

The process used in making the new material is a comparatively simple one. Cornstalks or corncobs

are first reduced to fairly small pieces in a shredding

machine. The shredded particles are cooked with a solution of caustic soda. The pulp is then washed and

beaten to a jell in a paper mill beating engine and

Jordan refiner. The jell is boiled to remove air bubbles, placed in a mold, and allowed to dry at about

158° F. On drying, the jell shrinks to about one- fourth its original size and becomes the hard, dense

material previously described. Details of the process

of manufacture will be found in Bureau of Standards Miscellaneous Publication 108, obtainable from

the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., at a price of 5 cents

each.
384

SAFETY CODE FOR AUTOMOBILE BRAKES

American Standard Safety Code for Automobile Brakes Issued in Printed Form by National Bureau of

Standards

Miscellaneous publication No. 107, which has just

been issued by the National Bureau of Standards, contains the safety code for automobile brakes and brake

testing, recently approved as an American standard by

the American Standards Association. The essential

requirements for performance of all passenger-carrying motor vehicles of whatever weight, and for all other motor vehicles of less than 6,000 pounds gross

weight, are given as follows:

On a dry, hard, level road, free from loose material,

the foot brake shall be capable of stopping the vehicle

from a speed of 20 miles per hour within a distance

of 50 feet, or at a rate which corresponds to such per- formance. Under these conditions the hand brake

shall be capable of stopping the vehicle within 75 feet. For the 2-year period following the adoption of the

code, motor trucks (as defined in the code) weighing more than 6,000 pounds gross, operating either singly

of in combination, shall be capable of stopping (under

the same conditions as previously expressed) within a distance of 50 feet upon application of both foot and

hand brake, and within a distance of 75 feet upon the

application of either the foot or hand brake. Subsequent to the 2-year period following the adoption of

the code the requirements for all vehicles shall be the same as required above for passenger-carrying

vehicles.

The code prescribes that the method of testing shall be by the use of instruments suitable for the purpose

which shall be approved after examination by an un- prejudiced engineering authority of recognized standing. In matters of dispute concerning either the

method of test or testing instruments, the National

Bureau of Standards will act as referee when called

upon to do so. Introduction of 4-wheel brakes.

Following the introduction of 4-wheel brakes into

this country, the interest in automobile brakes was

STANDARD PAPER SIZES HAVE BEEN

ADOPTED ABROAD

Standard Paper Sizes Adopted by 13 Countries, of Which 12 Use the Metric System

During the year 1929 European printers and paper makers have made progress toward standardization of paper, as regards sizes and quality. Less progress has been made in England than as on the Continent, where the standardization of paper sizes occupies a great deal of attention.

A questionnaire issued by the German standards

committee indicated that in 13 out of 20 countries

circularized standard paper sizes have been introduced ; of these 13 countries, 12 have adopted a metric

system of simple progressive sizes. The committee is engaged in formulating standards for the size of letter

greatly increased. Before this time comparatively

little attention was paid to legislation on the subject,

and requirements were generally expressed in such

indefinite terms as “ the brakes shall be good and sufficient.” The usual thing for Americans to do in such

a case, where a deficiency is realized, is to propose that

“there should be a law about it.” That was the reac- tion in this instance, and it looked as though much ill- advised or hastily considered legislation might be enacted. This was particularly likely because of the

lack of experimental data on which to base such legislation.

Such was the situation in late 1923 when the Bureau

of Standards and the American Automobile Association jointly sponsored the organization of a committee,

formed from representative organizations throughout

the country, to study the problem. Road tests were made of all manner of motor vehicles, trucks, busses,

and pleasure vehicles, in order to determine how

quickly they could stop. Various cities were visited

during the tests, including New York, Philadelphia,

and Baltimore, in addition to Washington. A large

number of motor trucks were tested in the vicinity of

Cincinnati, Ohio.

The average performance of brakes did not differ

greatly for the various cities, nor did the average per- formance in any of the cities differ greatly from that

of a large number of tests furnished the experimenters

by the authorities of the State of Massachusetts.

The result of the work of the committee is the pres- ent code which has been approved by the American

Standards Association, under whose auspices the committee was constituted. Copies of this publication may

be obtained from the Superintendent of Documents,

Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., at 5

cents each.

sheets, printing forms for commercial letters, envelopes, and window envelopes; also catalogue sizes. In Great Britain a certain amount of standardization has been carried out by the federation of master

printers, which has adopted a definite nomenclature,

with 11 sizes of writing papers and 8 for printing

papers. The sizes of paper and envelopes used by His

Majesty’s Stationery Office have been fixed, and the

Post Office is working as closely as possible to the continental system adopted by the Postal Union Congress. But there is no general standardization yet,

and the paper maker supplies his customer with any

size desired. Standards of durability have also advanced, particularly as a result of the work of the

Library Association, and a series of standard grades

is likely to appear soon. (R. J. Politzer in The Inland

Printer for May.)
385

PROGRESS IN THE INTRODUCTION OF AMERICAN LUMBER STANDARDS

Central and Consulting Committees on Lumber Standards Review Progress in Standardization and Grade

Marking

The central committee on lumber standards closed

its Chicago meeting of April 22 with expressions of

satisfaction and gratification on the remarkable progress being made in the manufacture, distribution,

specification, and use of American standard lumber,

which also bears the trade and grade marks of the

National Lumber Manufacturers’ Association. In

carload shipments it is identified by properly executed

car tally cards.

Commenting on the fact that sound practical national standards for softwood lumber are now completed and have recently been published by the Department of Commerce, W. E. Hawley, presiding at the conference, complimented the lumber industry

“ on its continued interest in standardization of its products, and its desire better to serve the consuming

public by offering a standardized product and its many savings and accompanying benefits.” He fur- ther stated that “ the decision to continue this organization of the lumber trade demonstrates the willing- ness of the industry to maintain the interest and benefits o.f lumber standardization inaugurated with the

encouragement of President Hoover, when Secretary

of Commerce, more than eight years ago.”

Among the other important subjects acted upon

by practically the full membership of the central committee on lumber standards and the consulting committee were moldings and the moisture content specifications which is now a part of the grading specifications of the Southern Pine Association.

Lumber seasoning.

In accordance with the provisions of the American

lumber standards, that manufacturers’ associations

shall develop lumber-seasoning and moisture-content

specifications, in accordance with their own conditions

and the requirements of the users of their products,

the Southern Pine Association filed for the approval

of the central committee the moisture-content specifications incorporated in the current edition of its grading rules for yard lumber. The central and consulting committees approved the specifications as in ac- cordance with the above-mentioned provisions of the

standards.

Commercial standards.

The advisability of designating the present American lumber standards as “ commercial standards ” in- stead of a “ simplified practice recommendation ” was

thoroughly discussed by the joint meeting. The meeting was of the opinion that no change should be made

that would in any way effect the continued use of the

term, “American lumber standards.” It not only has

become well established in the trade, but also has merchandizing value. Primarily, for this reason, the

meeting deemed it inadvisable to redesignate the simplified practice recommendation as a commercial standard at this time, though it did suggest that this subject be given further thought.

Furtherance of standardization.

In a report of the present status of application of

the provisions of the American lumber standards, the

secretary of the committee advised that now fully 90

per cent of all softwood lumber produced and graded

under the rules of the recognized softwood lumber

manufacturers associations was American standard

lumber. In the grade, trade, or species marking of

lumber manufacturers associations have made rapid

progress in the past several years. Each recognized

association of softwood manufacturers has now

adopted as association policy, which members thereof

have put into practice, grade-marked lumber, esti- mated at 8,000,000,000 feet in softwoods, including considerable hardwood lumber, available annually. It involves every species and item of yard lumber, in- cluding hardwood flooring, softwood factory, and shop

lumber, softwood structural material, shingles, and

lath. The closest approach to the adoption of a brand or

insignia denoting American standard lumber is that

adopted by the National Lumber Manufacturers Association, consisting of a tree-mark which, when used in

conjunction with marks denoting the grade and degree

of dryness, and an association trade-mark, guarantees

such lumber to be American standard and to conform

to such other specifications as are marked on each piece

by the licensed manufacturer. Grade-marked and

tree-marked lumber is also available in many species

and items.

STANDARDIZATION OF AGRICULTURAL

EQUIPMENT IN SWEDEN

Association to Push Standardization in Agriculture

The Swedish Technical Agricultural Association

(Jordbruksteknisha Foreningen) proposes to conduct

a vigorous campaign, in connection with the forthcoming agricultural convention to be held at Stockholm

this year, in favor of standardization in Swedish agriculture, according to the Bulletin of the International

Management Institute.

The association is to create on the exhibition ground

a model farm, comprising all farm buildings completely furnished and fitted with electrical and mechanical equipment sufficient for a farm of 40 hectares (100

acres). This will afford an excellent opportunity of

demonstrating the value of standardization, both by

arranging a special standardization exhibition in one

of the buildings and by exhibiting the standardized

parts of the appliances belonging to the model farm.
386

PAPER BAGS AS SHIPPING CONTAINERS

Tests Show That Certain Kinds of Paper Bags Are Suitable for Shipping Purposes

Paper bags are being widely used as shipping containers, since they possess the desirable features of

strength, nonsifting of contents, water and vermin

resistance, and economy. The most common type is the multiple-wall bag, composed of kraft paper made

water resistant by rosin sizing and having a self- closing valve through which the material is introduced. This type of bag is in extensive use for cement

and other similar materials, and has proved economical not only in respect to its cost but also in respect to breakage and protection of the contents. There is considerable interest in the possibility of

extending the use of bags of this type to other materials which must be well protected from moisture.

Difficulties have been experienced with substances

which absorb water readily, such as quicklime and

sugar. In long shipments or in storage, quicklime

absorbs sufficient moisture from the air to burst, the

bag through the swelling of the lime. From the same

cause, sugar sometimes becomes so lumpy as to have

its sales value considerably decreased. On the other

hand, in many chemical preparations and food products the avoidance of loss of moisture is desired. For

these purposes the ordinary type of bag has proved

unsatisfactory as it is not sufficiently impervious to

air.Recent tests of sheathing papers indicated that there are papers availaWe which are sufficiently impervious

.to air and which have the other necessary qualifications

for bag use, such as strength, flexibility, Avater resist- ance, and lack of odor. The results of tests of these

papers were reported in the Bureau of Standards

ZONING LAWS IN EFFECT IN 46 STATES

Thirty Years of Steady Progress in the Development of Zoning Legislation

Municipal regulation by districts, of use, height, and

area of buildings had been provided for in zoning laws

passed in 46 of the States at the close of the 1929

legislative session. In addition, the State of Washington iDermits cities of the first class to zone under their

home-rule charters, and a special enactment of the

Vermont Legislature permits zoning in one municipality. In several of the States the county and toAvn- ship governing bodies also are empoAvered to enact such legislation.

The development of zoning legislation in the United

States has occurred within a period of 30 years, and

the most rapid development has occurred since 1923,

in which year a standard State zoning enabling act was prepared by the advisory committee on city planning and zoning and issued as Bureau of Standards

publication BH5. The recommendations set forth in this publication have been used in whole or large part

by the legislatures of 35 States in the enactment of 54

zoning laws.

Copies of the mimeographed report may be obtained

by Avriting to the division of building and housing,

Journal of Research, Vol. 3, No. 1, July, 1929. (R. P. 85, price 5 cents, from the Superintendent of

Documents, Government Printing Office.) Two of

these papers appear to be particularly suitable. One,

designated in the publication as 2 L, is made of three

plies of oiled kraft paper cemented together with two

layers of asphalt. The other, designated 8 L, is made

of tAvo plies of kraft paper with an inner layer of zinc

foil, all cemented together Avith asphalt. Paper of the

latter type costs about tAvice as much as that of the

type first mentioned, but is practically impervious

to air. Other considerations of importance are strength and means of sealing the bags so as to have air-tight joints. Tests of the air-tightness of bags could be made by

exposing bags filled with quicklime or other hygroscopic material to a moisture-saturated atmosphere.

For testing walls and ends an impervious container

filled with hygroscopic material and provided Avith an open end and means for fastening on a diaphragm of

the material to be tested could be used.

Change of weight per unit time would gnu the

desired measurement rapidly. Strength could be determined by the “ drop test ” which is commonly ap- plied by dropping filled bags until they burst and

noting the number of drops the bag withstands. There

should be no difficulty in meeting all strength requirements, as papers reinforced by textile fabrics are available if required. Research along the lines indicated

would no doubt result in the developlment of more sat- isfactory containers for a wide variety of materials.

Bureau of Standards, Avhile copies of the standard

State zoning enabling act may be obtained from the

Superintendent of Documents, Government PrintingOffice, Washington, D. C., at 5 cents each.

INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION ON STANDARDS FOR PETROLEUM PRODUCTS

Arrangements have recently been completed whereby

the American Society for Testing Materials enters into

formal cooperative relations Avith the German Society

for Testing Materials, in the consideration of methods

of tests for petroleum products and lubricants. Exchange of minutes, reports, and similar papers has

already begun, and discussions are taking place rela- tive to the conversion of viscosities measured with

different instruments.

With respect to viscosity tests cooperative work is being planned between the National Bureau of Standards, the National Physical Laboratory of Great Britain, and the Physikalisch-Technische Reichsanstalt of

Germany, in the determination of absolute and kinematic viscosities, through interchange of samples and

comparison of test results. o
SCIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL, AND COMMERCIAL

PERIODICAL PUBLICATIONS ISSUED BY THE

national BUREAU of standards

BUREAU OF STANDARDS

JOURNAL OF RESEARCH

The new Journal describes the bureau’s re- search results in science and technology. The

union of science and its applications in one

journal shortens the lag between discovery

and application.

All engaged in industry and commerce should

have available for current use and permanent

reference, the Bureau of Standards Journal of

Research.

Early in its firSt year the Journal developed a

liSt of paid subscribers double the anticipated

maximum.

This Journal is full of interest to executives

and technicians controlling industries and

commercial enterprises. It enables them bet- ter to promote efficiency by determining the

scientific measured controls of process through

experimental and theoretical research.

Issued monthly

Subscription price, $2.75 per year

TECHNICAL NEWS BULLETIN

The Bureau of Standards periodical with a WAR RECORD! Started during the dark

days of 1917 to keep the Army and Navy and

other branches of the Government informed

of progress in scientific war research at the

bureau. Upon urgent request this publication was continued and expanded to serve the

Government, science, and industry.

The TECHNICAL NEWS BULLETIN will

keep you informed of current progress in the

scientific and technical work of the bureau’s

laboratories, and gives each month a liSt of

the publications of the bureau. A complete

cross index is published with the December

issue.

You can not afford to be without the TECHNICAL NEWS BULLETIN. Every article is short and to the point. The busiest executive can afford the time to read it.

COMMERCIAL STANDARDS

MONTHLY

Issued monthly

Subscription price, 25 cents per year

STANDARDS YEARBOOK

FOR 1930

This new governmental periodical is a review

of progress in commercial simplification and

standardisation. It is the only journal of its kind. It covers the national movement initiated by President Hoover for the reduction

of needless sizes and varieties of products and

the promotion of voluntary commercial

Standardisation by industry.

The Secretary of Commerce in the firSt issue

of this new journal said: “Certain Standards,

such as those used for weights and measures,

* * * have been fixed by legislative enactment. Mandatory Standards of this character, however, are few in number when compared with the large and steadily growing

volume of Standards developed by industry

and commerce and voluntarily maintained.

* * * The activities of the Commercial

Standardisation Group of the Bureau of

Standards are concerned with Standards

adopted by voluntary agreement.”

Subscription price, $1 per year

The new Standards Yearbook for 1930 is the

fourth annual issue ofa publication devoted to the great and growing field of Standardisation

in its broad aspects. It gives a summary of

progress.

Standardisation is a world-wide movement.

It covers all industries. It is part of the application of scientific methods to industry. Its achievements are of interest and concern to business men and manufacturers as well as to engineers. To the technician it is full of

example of methods and results of suggeStive

and Stimulating value. To business men it discloses trends which deeply concern their

interest.

NOW READY Price, 75c. ORDER AT ONCE

“Standardization is becoming an aspect of all well- ordered activity rather than an incidental

activity supplemental to others."

To obtain regularly the above-described monthly periodicals send your order, with remittance, addressed: Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. Foreign prices (countries other

than the United States and its possessions, Canada, Mexico, Newfoundland, Cuba, and Republic of Panama) are: Journal, $3.75; Bulletin, $0.40; Monthly, $1.25; Yearbook, $0.90
“* * * this department * * * is devoted solely to aiding and fostering the development of higher standards of living and comfort of our people * * * its ideals are clear: That by cooperation and not by compulsion it should seek to assist in maintaining and giving the impulse of progress to commerce and industry in a nation whose successful economic life underlies advancement in every other field.” —President Hoover, at the laying of the corner stone of the new building

of the U. S. Department of Commerce, June 10, 1929.

THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

R. P. LAMONT, Secretary of Commerce

AERONAUTICS BRANCH, Clarence M. Young, Assistant Secretary of Commerce for Aeronautics. Establishment of civil airways and maintenance of aids to air navigation; inspection and registration of aircraft and licensing

of pilots; enforcement of air traffic rules; investigation of acci- dents; encouragement of municipal air ports; fostering of air commerce; scientific research in aeronautics; and dissemination of information relating to commercial aeronautics. (Some

of these functions are performed by special divisions of the Lighthouse Service, the Bureau of Standards, and the Coast and Geodetic Survey.)

BUREAU OF THE CENSUS, William M. Steuart, Director. Taking censuses of population, mines and quarries, water

transportation, and religious bodies every 10 years; censuses of agriculture and electrical public utilities every 5 years; and a census of manufactures every 2 years. Compilation of statistics of wealth, public debt and taxation, including financial statistics of local governments, every 10 years; annual compilation of financial statistics of State and municipal governments

Compilation of statistics of marriage, divorce, births, deaths,

and penal and other institutions annually, and of death rates in

cities and automobile accidents weekly.

Compilation quarterly or monthly of statistics on cotton, wool, leather, and other industries; annually of forest products;

and publication monthly of Survey of Current Business. BUREAU OF FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC COMMERCE,

William L. Cooper, Director. The collection of timely information concerning world market

conditions and openings for American products in foreign countries, through commercial attaches, trade commissioners, and

consular officers, and its distribution through weekly Commerce

Reports, bulletins, confidential circulars, the news and trade

press, and district and cooperative offices in 65 cities. The

maintenance of commodity, technical, and regional divisions to afford special service to American exporters and manufacturers. The compilation and distribution of lists of possible buyers

and agents for American products in all parts of the world and

publication of weekly lists of specific sales opportunities abroad. The publicity of statistics on imports and exports. The study of the processes of domestic trade and commerce. BUREAU OF STANDARDS, George K. Burgess, Director. Custody, development, and construction of standards of measurement, quality, performance, or practice; comparison of standards used by scientific or other institutions; determination

of physical constants and properties of materials; researches and tests on materials and processes; and publication of scientific and technical bulletins reporting results of researches and

fundamental technical data. Collection and dissemination of information concerning

building codes and the planning and construction of houses. Establishment of simplified commercial practices through

cooperation with business organizations in order to reduce the wastes resulting from excessive variety in commodities.

BUREAU OF MINES, Scott Turner, Director. Technical investigations in the mining, preparation, and

utilization of minerals, including the study of mine hazards and

safety methods and of improved methods in the production

and use of minerals. Testing of Government fuels and management of the Govern- ment Fuel Yard at Washington.

Research on helium and operation ©f-plants producing it.

BUREAU OF MINES—Continued.

Studies in the economics and marketing of minerals and col- lection of statistics on mineral resources and mine accidents. The dissemination of results of technical and economic

researches in bulletins, technical papers, mineral resources series, miners’ circulars, and miscellaneous publications.

BUREAU OF FISHERIES, Henry O’Malley, Commissioner

The propagation and distribution of food fish and shellfish,

in order to prevent the depletion of the fisheries; investigations

to promote conservation of fishery resources; the development

of commercial fisheries and agriculture; study of fishery methods, improvements in merchandising, and collection of fishery

statistics; administration of Alaska fisheries and fur seals; and

the protection of sponges off the coast of Florida. BUREAU OF LIGHTHOUSES, George R. Putnam, Commissioner. Maintenance of lighthouses and other aids to water navigation. Establishment and maintenance of aids to navigation

along civil airways. Publication of Light Lists, Buoy Lists, and

Notices to Mariners.

COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY, R. S. Patton, Director

Survey of the coasts of the United States and publication of charts for the navigation of the adjacent waters, including

Alaska, the Philippine Islands, Hawaii, Porto Rico, the Virgin

Islands, and the Canal Zone; interior control surveys; magnetic surveys; tide and current observations; and seismological

investigations. Publication of results through charts, coast pilots, tide tables, current tables, and special publications.

BUREAU OF NAVIGATION, Arthur J. Tyrer, Commissioner

Superintendence of commercial marine and merchant seamen.

Supervision of registering, enrolling, licensing, numbering,

etc., of vessels under the United States flag, and the annual

publication of a list of such vessels. Enforcement of the navigation and steamboat inspection laws,

including imposition of fees, fines, tonnage taxes, etc. STEAMBOAT INSPECTION SERVICE, Dickerson N. Hoover, Supervising Inspector General. The inspection of merchant vessels, including boilers, hulls, and life-saving equipment, licensing of officers of vessels, certi- fication of able seamen and lifeboat men, and the investigation

of violations of steamboat inspection laws. UNITED STATES PATENT OFFICE, Thomas E. Robertson,

Commissioner.

The granting of patents and the registration of trade-marks,

prints, and labels after technical examination and judicial

proceedings.

Maintenance of library with public search room, containing

copies of foreign and United States patents and trade-marks. Recording bills of sale, assignments, etc., relating to patents

and trade-marks. Furnishing copies of records pertaining to patents. Publication of the weekly Official Gazette, showing the patents and trade-marks issued. RADIO DIVISION, W. D. Terrell, Chief. Inspection of radio stations on ships; inspection of radio

stations on shore, including broadcasting stations; licensing radio operators; assigning station call letters; enforcing the terms of the International Radiotelegraphic Convention; and

examining and settling international radio accounts.

U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1930