Introduction

Although boys and girls have traditionally been encouraged to participate in aerobic activities such as bicycling and swimming,

they have not always been encouraged to participate in resistance training. In recent years a growing body of evidence has

accumulated to indicate that resistance training can be a safe, effective, and beneficial method of conditioning for youth. Research

into the effects of resistance exercise on children and adolescents has increased over the past decade, and the qualified acceptance

of youth strength training by medical and fitness organizations has become almost universal. The American Academy of Pediatrics

(2001), the American College of Sports Medicine (2000), the American Orthopaedic Society of Sports Medicine (1988), and the

National Strength and Conditioning Association (Faigenbaum et al., 1996) support participation in youth resistance training

activities provided the program is appropriately designed and competently supervised. 

Despite earlier concerns regarding the safety and efficacy of youth resistance training, it is now commonplace for boys and girls of

all ages and abilities to resistance train in schools, recreation centers, and sport camps to enhance their health, fitness, and athletic

performance. Regular participation in a resistance training program provides youth with an opportunity to be exposed to safe,

effective, and fun training methods that can be carried over into adulthood. The purpose of this article is to discuss the trainability

of muscular strength in youth, highlight the potential benefits and concerns associated with youth resistance training, and outline

resistance training guidelines for children and adolescents. 

It must be emphasized that the term resistance training refers to a specialized method

of conditioning that involves the progressive use of a wide range of resistive loads and

a variety of training modalities (e.g., free weights [barbells and dumbbells], weight

machines, elastic cords, medicine balls, and body weight) designed to enhance muscle

function, increase muscle size, improve body composition, boost sports performance,

and reduce athletic injuries. While the terms resistance training, strength training, and

weight training are sometimes used synonymously, the term resistance training

encompasses a broader range of training modalities and a wider variety of training

goals. The term resistance training should be distinguished from the competitive

sports of bodybuilding, powerlifting, and weight lifting in which individuals routinely

train at high intensities to maximize muscle size, strength, and power. In this paper the

term children refers to boys and girls who have not yet developed secondary sex

characteristics (approximately up to age 12) and the term adolescent includes boys

and girls between 13 and 18 years of age. For ease of discussion, the term youth is

defined broadly to include children and adolescents.

Trainability of Youth

Although the potential for adolescents to increase their muscular strength in response

to resistance training is well established (Gallagher & DeLorme, 1949), the potential

for children to enhance their muscular strength by resistance training has been

questioned in the past (Vrijens, 1978). The prevailing attitude among some educators,

scientists, and clinicians was that training-induced strength gains before puberty were

not possible due to inadequate levels of circulating androgens. Even though findings

from several research studies supported this contention, methodological limitations

such as a short study duration or low training volume (sets x repetitions x load) may

have influenced the results (Docherty, Wenger, Collis, & Quinney, 1987; Vrijens,

1978). Since muscular strength normally increases throughout childhood and

Series 4, No. 3 Sept. 2003

Youth Resistance Training

Published quarterly by the

President’s Council on

Physical Fitness and Sports

Washington, D.C.

★

Guest Author:

Avery D. Faigenbaum, Ed.D.

Department of Exercise Science

and Physical Education

University of Massachusetts

Boston

★

Co-edited by:

Drs. Charles B. Corbin and

Robert P. Pangrazi,

Arizona State University, and

Dr. Don Franks, 

University of Maryland

President’s Council on Physical Fitness and Sports

ResearchDi est
adolescence, perhaps a more appropriate conclusion from

earlier reports which questioned the trainability of youth is

that training-induced strength gains from a low volume,

short-term training program are not distinguishable from

gains attributable to normal growth and development.

Recent investigations using higher training volumes and

longer training periods provide compelling evidence that

training-induced strength gains are indeed possible during

childhood and adolescence (see reviews by Faigenbaum et al.,

1996; Falk & Tenenbaum, 1996; Guy & Micheli, 2000). A

variety of training modalities and different combinations of

sets and repetitions have provided an adequate stimulus for

strength enhancement in young weight trainers. Strength

gains of roughly 30% to 50% are typically observed in

untrained youth following short-term (8-12 weeks) training

programs. In general, it appears that percentage-based

strength gains made by children and adolescents are similar

to gains made by adults who resistance train. Observations

from coaches, teachers, and health care providers provide

additional evidence that well-designed resistance training

programs can enhance the strength of children and

adolescents beyond what is normally the result of growth and

maturation. 

Mechanisms of Strength Gain

Since children lack adequate levels of circulating androgens

to stimulate increases in muscle hypertrophy, it is believed

that neural adaptations are primarily responsible for traininginduced strength gains during childhood. Several researchers

reported significant gains in muscle strength in children

without concomitant increases in limb circumference, as

compared with age-matched controls (Ozmun, Mikesky, &

Surburg, 1994; Ramsay et al., 1990). The observed traininginduced gains in muscle strength in children have been

attributed to neural adaptations including changes in motor

unit activation and motor unit coordination, recruitment and

firing. Researchers also postulate that intrinsic muscle

adaptations as well as improvements in motor skill

performance and the coordination of the involved muscle

groups could be partly responsible for training-induced

strength gains in children (Ramsay et al., 1990). In a review

of this topic, Sale (1989) noted that untrained children may

have more difficulty activating their muscles compared to

adults and therefore may have more of a potential for an

increase in strength due to neural factors rather than as

increases due to hypertrophic factors. 

It is possible, however, that longer training programs (> 5

months), higher training volumes and more precise measure

techniques (e.g., computerized imaging) may uncover the

potential for training-induced gains in muscle hypertrophy in

children. In fact, two reports involving children have

challenged the suggestion that training-induced gains before

puberty are independent of changes in muscle size (Fukunga,

Funato, & Ikegawa, 1992; Mersch & Stoboy, 1989). Thus it

can not be stated with complete confidence that resistance

2

training will not result in at least some degree of muscle

hypertrophy in children above and beyond growth and

maturation. During adolescence, training-induced strength

gains in boys are associated with an increase in fat free mass

due to hormonal influences (e.g., testosterone) whereas

muscular development in girls is limited by lower levels of

androgens.

Benefits of Youth Resistance Training

In addition to enhancing muscular strength and local

muscular endurance, regular participation in a youth

resistance training program has the potential to influence

several measurable indices of health and fitness. Youth

resistance training programs may help strengthen bone,

facilitate weight control, improve one’s cardiovascular risk

profile, enhance motor skills and sports performance, and

reduce injuries in sports and recreational activities. The

potential benefits of youth strength training are summarized

in table 1.

Health-related Benefits

Although the health benefits of youth resistance training

have not been unequivocally established, a growing body of

evidence suggests that appropriately prescribed and

competently supervised resistance training programs may

have observable health value for boys and girls. Along with

other types of physical activity, regular participation in

resistance training activities has been shown to positively

influence bone mineral density (Morris, Naughton, Gibbs,

Carlson, & Wark, 1997), body composition (Sothern et al.,

2000), cardiorespiratory fitness (Weltman et al., 1986), blood

Table 1.

Potential Benefits of Youth Resistance Training

• Increase muscle strength 

• Increase muscular power 

• Increase local muscular endurance

• Increase bone mineral density

• Increase cardiorespiratory fitness

• Improve blood lipid profile

• Improve body composition 

• Improve motor performance skills

• Enhance sports performance 

• Increase resistance to injury 

• Enhance mental health and well-being 

• Stimulate a more positive attitude towards lifetime 

physical activity
3

lipids (Weltman, Janney, Rians, Strand, & Katch, 1987) and

psychosocial well-being (Holloway, Beuter, & Duda, 1988).

In addition, preparatory conditioning that includes resistance

training may decrease the incidence of some acute and

overuse sports-related injuries in young athletes (Smith,

Andrish, & Micheli, 1993). 

A common misperception related to youth resistance training

is that it will stunt the statural growth of youth or damage the

epiphyseal or growth plates. This myth seems to have come

from an earlier report that suggested that children who

performed heavy labor experienced damage to their

epiphyseal plates which results in significant decreases in

stature (Kato & Ishiko, 1964). However, this study did not

control for other etiological factors such as poor nutrition

that could be responsible for the reported growth arrest.

Current observations indicate no evidence of a decrease in

stature in youth who participate in resistance training

programs in controlled environments (Sadres, Eliakim,

Constantini, Lidor, & Falk, 2001).

In all likelihood, if established training guidelines are

followed and if nutritional recommendations (e.g., adequate

calcium) are adhered to, participation in regular physical

activity (including resistance training) will have a favorable

influence on growth at any stage of development but will not

affect the genotypic maximum (Bailey & Martin, 1994). In

fact, the belief that resistance training is harmful to the

immature skeleton of youth weight trainers is not consistent

with current findings suggesting that childhood may be the

period during which the bone-modeling process responds

best to the mechanical loading of physical activities such as

resistance training (Bass, 2000). This potential benefit may

be especially important for young women who are at

increased risk of developing osteoporosis.

Another potential health benefit of youth resistance training

is its influence on body composition. As the number of

overweight children and adolescents in the United States

continues to increase (Styne, 2001), the effects of resistance

training on body composition has received increased

attention. Although aerobic exercise is typically prescribed

for decreasing body fat, several youth resistance training

studies have reported a decrease in fatness among

participants (Faigenbaum, Zaichkowsky, Westcott, Micheli,

& Fehlandt, 1993; Lillegard, Brown, Wilson, Henderson, &

Lewis, 1997; Siegal, Camaione, & Manfredi, 1989). More

recently, researchers observed that resistance training may be

a valuable mode of exercise for treating childhood obesity

(Sothern et al., 2000). It appears that overweight and obese

youth enjoy resistance training because it is not aerobically

taxing and it gives all participants — regardless of body size

— a chance to experience success and feel good about their

performance. Whereas further study is warranted, the first

step in encouraging overweight and obese youth to exercise

may be to increase their confidence in their ability to be

physically active, which in turn may lead to an increase in

physical activity and a decrease in body fat. 

The potential psychosocial benefits (i.e., psychological and

social outcomes) should not be overlooked. It has been

observed that the socialization and mental discipline

exhibited by children and adolescents participating in a

resistance training program are similar to experiences of

youth participating in team sports and other activities

(Faigenbaum, 1995). If age-specific training guidelines are

followed and if the program is supervised by instructors who

appreciate the uniqueness of childhood and adolescence,

favorable changes in selected psychometric measures may be

observed. Although speculative, it is likely that resistance

training will have its greatest impact on youth who begin

with relatively low levels of muscular strength and poor

body attitudes. Keep in mind, however, that excessive

pressure to perform beyond one’s capability can negatively

influence the resistance training experience and can lead to

untoward consequences (Gould, 1993).

Motor Skills and Sports Performance

Since many sports have a significant strength or power

component it is logical to assume that a stronger and more

powerful athlete will perform better. Moreover, if young

athletes gain confidence in their physical abilities they may

be more likely to experience success and less likely to drop

out of sports due to embarrassment, failure or possible injury.

Several studies have demonstrated significant improvements

in the vertical jump, long jump, sprint speed, agility run

time, and medicine ball put in youth following resistance

training (Falk & Mor, 1996; Flanagan et al., 2002; Lillegard

et al., 1997, Weltman et al., 1986). However, others have

reported gains in strength without any improvements in

selected motor performance skills (Faigenbaum et al., 1993).

As previously observed in older populations, it appears that

training adaptations in youth are not only specific to the

movement pattern, but also to the velocity of movement,

contraction type, and contraction force. Consequently,

resistance training programs that include relatively fast speed

movements (e.g., plyometrics) which are specific to the

motor performance test may be more likely to induce

improvements in selected performance measures compared

with programs characterized by less specific exercises.

Plyometric exercises such as hops, jumps, and throws can be

incorporated into a youth resistance training program

provided that the training intensity and volume does not

exceed the abilities of the participants. A note of caution

here; children should develop an adequate base of strength

before participating in a plyometric training program or they

should begin plyometric training with low intensity drills and

gradually progress to higher intensities over time (Faigenbaum

& Chu, 2001).

Injury Reduction

In the United States millions of boys and girls participate in

school and community-based programs. But along with this

remarkable interest in youth sport has been a concomitant
4

increase in the number of sports-related injuries due to illprepared and improperly trained young athletes (Outerbridge

& Micheli, 1995). While factors such as growth, improper

footwear, hard playing surfaces, anatomic malalignment of

the legs, and underlying disease states have been implicated

as risk factors for overuse injuries in youth (Micheli, 1983),

the background physical activity level of young athletes must

also be considered. Fewer youth are exposed to physical

education than in the past and sedentary pursuits such as

television viewing and “surfing the internet” continue to

occupy a significant amount of a youngster’s free time

(Dietz, 1990; Morrow & Jackson, 1999). According to the

American College of Sports Medicine, an estimated 50% of

all injuries sustained by youth while playing sports could be

prevented if more emphasis was placed on developing

fundamental fitness abilities prior to sports participation

(Smith, Andrish, & Micheli, 1993).

By enhancing musculoskeletal strength and developing

muscle balance around joints, resistance training may

decrease the incidence of injury in young athletes. Several

studies have reported decreased injury rates in adolescents

who participated in a preseason conditioning program that

included resistance training (Heidt, Swetterman, Carlonas,

Traub, & Tekulve, 2000; Hejna, Rosenberg, Buturusis, &

Krieger, 1982; Hewett, Lindenfeld, Riccobene, & Noyes,

1999) and it seems likely that resistance training could offer

a similar protective effect to children (Faigenbaum &

Micheli, 2000). While the total elimination of sports-related

injuries is an unrealistic goal, encouraging aspiring young

athletes to participate in several weeks of preparatory

conditioning (which includes resistance training) before

sports participation merits consideration. During this time

correctable risk factors such as poor physical condition and

muscle imbalances can be identified and treated by qualified

coaches, teachers, and trainers. Participation in a preseason

conditioning program may be particularly important for

sedentary and overweight youth who may not be prepared to

handle the duration and magnitude of forces that develop

during sports practice and games situations. While

participation in a preseason conditioning program may not

be necessary for very young athletes or youth who plan to

play recreational sports, the need for preseason conditioning

becomes more important as the intensity and competitive

level increase. The National Athletic Trainers Association

(NATA) suggest that high school athletes engage in

conditioning activities at least six weeks before the start of

practice (NATA, 2002).

While resistance training itself has been shown to be safe

and beneficial for youth, care should be taken to assure that

resistance training does not contribute to overtraining. Other

aspects of preparing youth for sports such as practicing

sport-specific skills must also be considered. Practicing skills

adds to the chronic repetitive stress placed on the

musculoskeletal system, and therefore care should be taken

not to simply add resistance training to a youngster’s

workout, but rather to incorporate resistance training into a

well-balanced conditioning program. In some cases, youth

may need to decrease the time they spend practicing sportspecific skills to allow time for preparatory muscle

conditioning. 

Risks and Concerns

One traditional concern associated with youth resistance

training involves the potential for injury to the epiphyseal

plate or growth cartilage. Although epiphyseal plate fractures

have been reported in adolescent weight trainers (Gumbs,

Segal, Halligan, & Lower, 1982; Ryan & Salciccioli, 1976),

these reports were case studies and typically involved

improper lifting techniques or the performance of heavy

loads with inadequate supervision. An epiphyseal plate

fracture has not been reported in any prospective study that

was competently supervised and appropriately designed. If

resistance training programs are conducted by qualified

instructors and are planned with age-specific needs in mind,

the risk of joint injury is negligible. However, if established

training guidelines are not followed, accidents and injuries

are possible (Risser, 1991). Coaches, teachers, and trainers

must be aware of the inherent risk associated with resistance

training and should attempt to decrease this risk by following

established training guidelines. 

It is also important to keep in mind that youth should not

resistance train on their own without guidance from qualified

teachers and coaches. Training without supervision and

instruction can result in injury and overtraining. Further,

teachers and coaches should be careful to match the

resistance training program to the needs, interests, and

abilities of each participant. A structured resistance training

program for a high school athlete would be inappropriate for

a young child who should be given an opportunity to

experience the mere enjoyment of different types of

resistance exercise. In any case, it is always better to

underestimate the physical abilities of participants rather

than overestimate them and risk negative consequences (e.g.,

dropout or injury). With qualified instruction, gradual

training progression, and knowledge of the developmental

uniqueness of children and adolescents, youth can get

stronger, feel good about their performance, and have fun.

Youth Resistance Training Guidelines

Resistance training can be recommended to children and

adolescents as one part of a well-rounded physical activity

program that also includes games and activities designed to

enhance cardiorespiratory fitness, flexibility, agility, and

balance. The following guidelines should be considered by

those who are interested in helping children and adolescents

participate in resistance training programs.

1. Adapt the program to the participant’s developmental

level. Although there is no minimal age requirement for

participation in a youth resistance training program, first

exposure to resistance training activities may be informal.

For children beginning resistance training, it is important to
choose activities that match abilities. For example, body

weight calisthenics and exercises with elastic cords or

lightweight medicine balls are often appropriate for young

resistance trainers. During this time children are unable to

delay gratification in pursuit of some future benefit like

strong bones. Adherence to more formal training programs

requires emotional maturity and the ability to follow

directions. These are characteristics possessed by most, but

not all children, by the middle elementary school years.

Abstract, rather than concrete thinking, begins to emerge in

the upper elementary school years and at this time

participants are more likely to see the benefits of a more

comprehensive resistance training program. By adolescence,

interest in resistance training may be greater and the ability

to tolerate more structured training programs with more

advanced exercises may be higher. 

2. Instruction by qualified professionals is essential. Youth

resistance training programs should be conducted by

qualified instructors, teachers, and coaches who understand

the fundamental principles of resistance exercise and the

uniqueness of childhood and adolescence. Close supervision,

age-appropriate instruction, and a safe exercise environment

are paramount. A pre-training medical exam is not required

for apparently healthy youth; however, professionals should

refer participants with known or suspected health problems

to their health-care provider before beginning a resistance

training program.

3. Start gradually and progressively increase overload. It

has been recommended that children and adolescents

resistance train two or three days per week on

nonconsecutive days and perform 1 to 3 sets of 6 to 15

repetitions on a variety of exercises that focus on the major

muscle groups (Faigenbaum et al., 1996). However, when

beginning a resistance training program, performing a single

set of 10 to 15 repetitions per exercise twice per week will

not only allow for positive changes in muscle function, but

will also provide an opportunity for participants to gain

confidence in their abilities before progressing to more

advanced levels (Faigenbaum, Westcott, Loud, & Long,

1999). Table 2 highlights general youth resistance training

guidelines.

Over time, continual gains can be made by gradually

increasing the resistance, the number of repetitions, or the

number of sets. On average, a 5% to 10% increase in training

load (typically 2 to 5 pounds) is appropriate for most

exercises. Once the desired number of repetitions can be

performed, the weight can be gradually increased, and the

repetitions can be decreased to allow for continual gains.

This does not mean that every workout needs to be more

intense that the previous session, but over time the demand

placed upon one’s body should be gradually increased. 

4. Adherence to sound training principles is critical.

Appropriate overload, gradual progression, and adequate

recovery between exercise sessions are important

considerations. Too often, the volume and intensity of

resistance training exceeds a participant’s capabilities and the

rest periods are too short for adequate recovery. This

approach may be particularly hazardous for young children

because it not only increases the risk of injury, but it may

undermine enjoyment of the resistance training experience.

Although it may be tempting to follow a college resistance

training program or a workout described in a fitness

magazine, each participant must be treated as an individual

and therefore the training intensity, volume, and progression

needs to be carefully prescribed.

5. Proper technique should be taught and reinforced.

Although some participants might want to see how much

weight they can lift on the first day of the program, their

interest and enthusiasm in resistance training should be

redirected toward developing proper form and exercise

technique (i.e., controlled movements and proper breathing).

In some cases it may be appropriate to use an unloaded

barbell or a long wooded stick when teaching youth how to

perform multi-joint free weight exercises. 

5

Table 2.

Youth Resistance Training Guidelines

• Provide qualified instruction and supervision

• Ensure the exercise environment is safe and free of 

hazards

• Teach youth the benefits and risks associated with 

strength training

• Begin each session with a 5 to 10 minute warm-up 

period

• Start with one light set of 10 to 15 repetitions on a 

variety of exercises 

• Include exercises to strengthen the lower back and 

abdominals 

• Progress to 2 or 3 sets of 6 to 15 repetitions depending 

on needs and goals

• Increase the resistance gradually as strength improves

• Focus on the correct exercise technique instead of the 

amount of weight lifted

• Strength train two to three times per week on 

nonconsecutive days

• Listen carefully to each child’s concerns and answer

any questions

• When necessary, adults spotters should be nearby in 

the event of a failed repetition

• Focus on participation with lots of movement and 

positive reinforcement

• Keep the program fresh and challenging by 

systematically varying the training program
needs and abilities in order to optimize gains, prevent

boredom, and reduce the stress from overtraining. Detailed

information on designing youth resistance training programs

is available elsewhere (Faigenbaum & Westcott, 2000).

Summary

Participation in a resistance training program, along with

other types of physical activity, gives children and

adolescents yet another opportunity to improve their health

and quality of life. Scientific evidence indicates that youth

resistance training programs are no more risky than other

sports and activities in which children and adolescents

regularly participate. Medical and fitness organizations now

support participation in well-designed and properly

instructed youth resistance training programs. Regular

participation in a youth resistance training program can

favorably influence selected health- and fitness-related

measures for all youth and can improve the preparedness of

aspiring young athletes for the demands of sports practice

and competition. 

Parents, teachers, and coaches should realize that resistance

training is a specialized method of conditioning that can

offer many benefits, but at the same time can result in injury

if age-appropriate training guidelines are not followed. When

conducted by competent instructors who possess a sound

understanding of resistance training principles and

developmental needs of children and adolescents, resistance

training can have many benefits and lead to a lifelong

interest in physical activity. We now have the evidence to

recommend participation in youth resistance training

activities as part of a well-rounded physical activity program.

6

6. Emphasize intrinsic enjoyment. When working with

youth it is important to focus on intrinsic factors such as skill

improvement, personal successes, and having fun. The use of

personalized workout logs can help to focus each

participant’s attention on his or her own improvement. 

7. Incorporate variety into the training program. Adding

new exercises, changing the training mode, and varying the

number of sets and repetitions can help to keep the program

fresh and challenging. Incorporating calisthenics, elastic

cords, and medicine balls into the resistance training

program can be effective, beneficial, and fun. 

8. Consider multiple goals. When working with boys and

girls, it is important to remember that the goal of the

program should not be limited to increasing muscle strength.

Teaching youth about their bodies, promoting safe training

procedures, and providing a stimulating program that gives

participants a more positive attitude towards resistance

training and physical activity are equally important.

9. Listen to children and teach them to listen to their

bodies. Regardless of the strength or size of a child, adult

training guidelines and training philosophies (i.e., “no pain,

no gain”) should not be imposed on young resistance

trainers. Adults need to listen to each participant’s concerns,

monitor progress, and understand the physical and

psychological uniqueness of children and adolescents. Some

youth with poor levels of fitness may not be able to tolerate

the same amount of exercise some of their peers in the same

training program can tolerate. This is where the art and

science of developing a resistance training program comes

into play because the principles of training specificity and

progressive overload need to be balanced with individual
7

Please Post

President’s Council on Physical Fitness & Sports

200 Independence Avenue, S.W., Washington, DC 20201

(202) 690-9000 • FAX (202) 690-5211

“Despite previous concerns, a wealth

of scientific evidence indicates that

resistance training can be an enjoyable,

beneficial, and healthy experience

for children and adolescents provided that

established training guidelines are followed

and qualified instruction is available.”

Avery D. Faigenbaum, Ed.D.

Department of Exercise Science

and Physical Education

University of Massachusetts

Boston
8

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