a

GAO

United States Government Accountability Office

Report to Congressional Committees

August 2004 DEFENSE SPACE 

ACTIVITIES

Additional Actions 

Needed to Implement 

Human Capital 

Strategy and Develop 

Space Personnel

GAO-04-697
www.gao.gov/cgi-bin/getrpt?GAO-04-697.

To view the full product, including the scope 

and methodology, click on the link above. 

For more information, contact Henry L. 

Hinton, Jr. at (202) 512-4300 or 

hintonh@gao.gov. 

Highlights of GAO-04-697, a report to the 

Senate and House Committees on Armed 

Services 

August 2004

DEFENSE SPACE ACTIVITIES 

Additional Actions Needed to Implement 

Human Capital Strategy and Develop 

Space Personnel 

DOD’s space human capital strategy is a significant first step that promotes 

the development and integration of DOD’s space personnel by providing 

strategic goals and objectives; however, DOD does not have a complete 

results-oriented management approach to implement the strategy because it 

does not include an implementation plan that details specific actions, time 

frames, and evaluation measures. The space human capital strategy provides 

general direction for developing and integrating DOD space personnel, and it 

identified key actions needed for implementation. DOD has not completed 

any of these actions. Without an implementation plan, DOD will not be in a 

sound position to effectively monitor and evaluate implementation of the 

strategy and achieve the strategy’s purpose of integrating the services’ space 

personnel into a cohesive DOD total force. 

The military services vary in the extent to which they have identified and 

implemented initiatives to develop and manage their space personnel. The 

Air Force and the Marine Corps have taken significant actions in developing 

and managing their space personnel, including developing space human 

capital strategies and designating organizational focal points. The Air Force, 

which has the largest number of space personnel, approved its space human 

capital strategy in July 2003, and it is implementing its initiatives (see table 

below). The other services are working on similar initiatives and have 

completed some, but many will take years to fully implement. The Army’s 

and the Navy’s actions in developing their space personnel have been limited 

because they do not have clear goals and objectives for developing their 

space personnel or organizational focal points to manage them. Without 

these tools, the Army and the Navy may not be able to determine their 

requirements for space personnel and develop sufficient numbers of space 

personnel with the necessary training, education, and experience to meet 

service and joint needs. 

Air Force Space Personnel Strategy Initiatives 

Initiative Description 

Identification and classification of space 

personnel 

Determine the unique skills that distinguish 

space personnel from personnel in other career 

specialties and identify the space-qualified 

personnel. 

Education and training Institute stronger, technically oriented space 

education and training programs. 

Positions and requirements Identify each space personnel position and 

determine the education, experience, and 

certification requirements for every position. 

Certification Design a certification program to measure 

progress throughout an individual’s career. 

Professional development Issue career development guidance for space 

personnel. 

Management Establish a permanent space professional 

management function. 

Source: GAO’s analysis of information provided by the Air Force Space Command. 

The Department of Defense (DOD) 

relies on space for many critical 

capabilities, and its continued 

success in space operations 

depends on having sufficient spacequalified personnel. Space-qualified 

personnel are needed to develop 

technology, doctrine, and concepts 

and operate complex systems. In 

the National Defense Authorization 

Act for Fiscal Year 2004, Congress 

required DOD to develop a strategy 

for developing and integrating 

national security space personnel. 

DOD completed it in February 

2004. 

Congress also required GAO to 

assess DOD’s space human capital 

strategy and the military services’ 

efforts to develop their space 

personnel. In the first of two 

required reports, GAO assessed 

(1) whether DOD’s space human 

capital strategy and management 

approach promote development 

and integration of the services’ 

space personnel and (2) the extent 

of the services’ initiatives to 

develop and manage their space 

personnel. 

GAO recommends that DOD 

develop an implementation plan for 

its strategy, as well as develop 

strategies and establish focal points 

for managing the services’ space 

personnel. 

In its comments, DOD generally 

concurred with GAO’s report. 
Page i GAO-04-697 Defense Space Activities 

Letter 1

Results in Brief 3

Background 5

DOD Issued a Space Human Capital Strategy but Has No 

Implementation Plan 7

Extent of Services’ Initiatives to Develop Space Cadres Varies 12

Conclusions 20

Recommendations for Executive Action 21

Agency Comments and Our Evaluation 21

Appendix I Scope and Methodology 23 

Appendix II Comments from the Department of Defense 25 

Appendix III GAO Contact and Staff Acknowledgments 28 

Tables 

Table 1: Elements of a Results-Oriented Management Framework 8

Table 2: DOD’s Space Human Capital Resources Strategy 

Objectives 10

Table 3: Air Force Space Cadre Implementation Initiatives 

and Status 14

Contents 

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Page 1 GAO-04-697 Defense Space Activities 

August 11, 2004 

The Honorable John W. Warner 

Chairman 

The Honorable Carl Levin 

Ranking Minority Member 

Committee on Armed Services 

United States Senate 

The Honorable Duncan L. Hunter 

Chairman 

The Honorable Ike Skelton 

Ranking Minority Member 

Committee on Armed Services 

House of Representatives 

The United States increasingly relies on space for many critical military 

and civilian purposes, such as communications and imagery. The 

Department of Defense (DOD) employs space assets to support a wide 

range of military missions, such as intelligence collection, battlefield 

surveillance and management, global command and control, and 

navigation assistance. Recent military operations have demonstrated 

that space capabilities are critical to the success of defense missions, 

such as precision engagement, search and rescue, and close air support. 

Space-qualified personnel, both military and civilian, are needed to 

develop technology, doctrine, and operational concepts for employing 

space assets in the future and to operate complex space systems. In 2001, 

a space commission concluded that DOD did not have a strong military 

space culture, which included focused career development and education 

and training. DOD is responsible for leading efforts to synchronize the 

military services’ space personnel activities and integrating the services’ 

space personnel into a cohesive total force to the maximum extent 

practicable. The services are responsible for developing and maintaining 

space-qualified personnel in sufficient numbers to support their interests 

in space requirements, acquisition, and operations and participate in joint 

activities. 

During the 1990s, Congress was concerned about DOD’s management and 

organization of space activities and chartered a commission to review 

national security space activities. In January 2001, the commission report 

identified some long-standing management challenges including 

United States Government Accountability Office

Washington, DC 20548 
Page 2 GAO-04-697 Defense Space Activities 

developing and maintaining a group of professional personnel, known 

as the space cadre, for leadership roles in all aspects of space-related 

activities. In its report, the commission made recommendations to 

improve DOD’s management and organization of space operations. 

In April 2003, we reported on the implementation of the commission’s 

recommendations, as required by Congress.1 We recommended that DOD, 

in conjunction with the services, establish a departmentwide space human 

capital strategy with goals, measurable objectives, and timelines to 

develop and maintain a cadre of military and civilian space professionals. 

DOD concurred with our recommendation. 

Additionally, Congress, in the National Defense Authorization Act for 

Fiscal Year 2004, required the Secretary of Defense to develop a strategy 

for DOD to (1) promote the development of space personnel career fields 

within each of the military departments and (2) ensure that the space 

personnel career fields developed by the military departments are 

integrated with each other to the maximum extent practicable.2

 The act 

also required the Secretary of Defense to provide a comprehensive 

assessment of the adequacy of the actions of the Secretary of the Air Force 

to establish a space career field for Air Force officers. DOD provided the 

strategy and assessment to Congress in February 2004. The strategy set 

out goals, objectives, and approaches to develop and integrate DOD’s 

space cadre. The assessment listed actions the Air Force had taken and 

plans to take to improve management of its space cadre and training for its 

space personnel. 

The act also required us to review DOD’s space human capital strategy and 

the status of efforts by the military departments to develop their space 

personnel career fields. The act required us to assess (1) DOD’s strategy 

and the efforts of the military departments for developing the personnel 

required and (2) the effectiveness of DOD’s strategy and the efforts by the 

military departments in developing the personnel required and the 

progress made in integrating the space career fields of the military 

departments. This report responds to the first of these two requirements. 

As agreed with your committees, our objectives for this report were to 

(1) determine whether DOD’s space human capital strategy and 

 1

 U.S. General Accounting Office, Defense Space Activities: Organizational Changes 

Initiated, but Further Management Actions Needed, GAO-03-379 (Washington, D.C.: 

Apr. 18, 2003). 

2

 Pub. L. 108-136, Sec. 547, Nov. 24, 2003. 
Page 3 GAO-04-697 Defense Space Activities 

management approach to implementing the strategy promote the 

development and integration of the military services’ space cadres and 

(2) assess the extent of each of the military services’ initiatives to develop 

and manage their space cadres. To determine if DOD’s strategy and 

approach to implementing it promote the development and integration of 

the military services’ space cadres, we reviewed and analyzed the strategy, 

compared the strategy to the elements of a results-oriented management 

framework, and conducted discussions with DOD and military service 

officials. To assess the extent to which the military services have taken 

initiatives to develop their space cadres, we reviewed and analyzed the 

initiatives of the services. We conducted our review from October 2003 

through June 2004 in accordance with generally accepted government 

auditing standards. (See appendix I for more detailed information on our 

scope and methodology.) 

DOD’s space human capital strategy is a significant first step that 

promotes the development and integration of DOD’s space cadres by 

providing strategic goals and objectives; however, DOD does not have a 

complete management approach for implementing its strategy. DOD’s 

management approach is incomplete because it does not contain the 

principles of a results-oriented management framework, which would 

include a plan that details specific actions, responsibilities, time frames, 

and evaluation measures to implement the strategy. The strategy describes 

long-term goals for space personnel integration and education and 

highlights some key actions that DOD needs to take to develop its space 

personnel programs. The strategy also articulates objectives related to 

leadership, policy, career development, education, training, data 

collection, management, and best practices. DOD has initiated some steps 

to implement its strategy, but it has not completed any of the key actions 

identified in the strategy. However, without a detailed plan that identifies 

key actions, DOD will not be in a sound position to effectively monitor and 

evaluate implementation of the strategy to achieve the strategy’s purpose 

of integrating the services’ space personnel into a cohesive DOD total 

force to the extent practicable. 

The military services vary in the extent to which they have identified and 

implemented initiatives to develop and manage their space cadres. The Air 

Force and the Marine Corps have taken significant actions to develop and 

manage their space cadres; however, the Army’s and Navy’s actions have 

been limited because these two services do not have clear goals and 

objectives for their space cadres or focal points designated to manage the 

cadres. Long-term strategies and effective leadership through a centralized 

Results in Brief 
Page 4 GAO-04-697 Defense Space Activities 

organizational focal point are important tools the military services can use 

to develop and manage their space cadres. The Air Force, which has the 

largest space cadre, approved a strategy for developing, educating, and 

maintaining its space cadre in July 2003 and designated the Commander, 

Air Force Space Command, as the focal point for developing and managing 

its space cadre. The Air Force has begun implementing its strategy, 

including revising training courses and identifying the members of its 

space cadre, and plans to complete implementation of most of its 

initiatives by 2006. The Marine Corps, which has the smallest number of 

space personnel, has developed a strategy and established a centralized 

focal point. It has also identified tasks and milestones to implement its 

strategy and completed many of the tasks outlined in its implementation 

plan. The Army has identified officers with space experience and training 

as members of its space cadre and established specialized education for 

these space officers, but the Army does not have clear goals and objectives 

for the future because it has not developed a space cadre strategy or 

designated a permanent, organizational focal point. The Army does not 

plan to develop a strategy until it decides whether enlisted and civilian 

personnel will be managed as part of its space cadre. Further, the Army 

has not identified a focal point for managing its space cadre that would 

provide leadership on developing and maintaining the required space 

personnel. The Navy is in the process of identifying critical space positions 

and military and civilian personnel who have space training, education, 

and experience to form the basis for its space cadre. The Navy plans to 

develop a strategy for developing and managing its space personnel by 

October 2004 based on its April 2004 space policy. The Navy does not have 

an organizational focal point for space cadre issues because space is seen 

as a function that is integrated across Navy activities. However, without 

strategies and organizational focal points, the Army and the Navy may not 

be able to determine their requirements for space personnel and develop a 

cadre of sufficient numbers of space professionals with the required 

training, education, and experience to meet service and joint 

requirements. 

We recommend that DOD develop a plan to implement the key actions 

identified in the defensewide space human capital strategy. We also 

recommend that the Army and the Navy develop space human capital 

strategies and establish focal points to develop their space cadres and 

manage their space cadre initiatives. In commenting on a draft of this 

report, DOD generally concurred with the report. 
Page 5 GAO-04-697 Defense Space Activities 

The national security space sector is primarily comprised of military and 

intelligence activities. The U.S. Strategic Command, one of the combatant 

commands, is responsible for establishing overall operational 

requirements for space activities, and the military services are responsible 

for satisfying these requirements to the maximum extent practicable. The 

Air Force is DOD’s primary procurer and operator of space systems and 

spends the largest share of defense space funds. The Air Force Space 

Command is the major component providing space forces for the 

U.S. Strategic Command. The Army controls a defense satellite 

communications system and operates ground mobile terminals. The Army 

Space and Missile Defense Command conducts space operations and 

provides planning, integration, and control and coordination of Army 

forces and capabilities in support of the U.S. Strategic Command. The 

Navy operates several space systems that contribute to surveillance and 

warning and is responsible for acquiring the Mobile User Operations 

System, the next generation ultrahigh frequency satellite communication 

system. The Marine Corps uses space to provide the warfighter with 

intelligence, communications, and position navigation. The National 

Reconnaissance Office designs, procures, and operates space systems 

dedicated to national security activities and depends on personnel from 

each of the services’ space cadres to execute its mission. 

Due to continuing concerns about DOD’s management of space activities, 

in October 1999 Congress chartered a commission—known as the Space 

Commission—to assess the United States’ national security space 

management and organization. In its January 2001 report, the Space 

Commission made recommendations to DOD to improve coordination, 

execution, and oversight of the department’s space activities.3

 One issue 

the Space Commission identified was the need to create and maintain a 

highly trained and experienced cadre of space professionals who could 

master highly complex technology, as well as develop new concepts of 

operations for offensive and defensive space operations. The Space 

Commission noted that the defense space program had benefited from 

world-class scientists, engineers, and operators, but many experienced 

personnel were retiring and the recruitment and retention of spacequalified personnel was a problem. Further, the commission concluded 

that DOD did not have a strong military space culture, which included 

focused career development and education and training. In October 2001, 

 3 Report of the Commission to Assess United States National Security Space Management 

and Organization, Washington, D.C., January 11, 2001. 

Background 
Page 6 GAO-04-697 Defense Space Activities 

the Secretary of Defense issued a memorandum directing the military 

services to draft specific guidance and plans for developing, maintaining, 

and managing a cadre of space-qualified professionals. 

A DOD directive in June 2003 designated the Secretary of the Air 

Force as the DOD Executive Agent for Space, with the Executive Agent 

responsibilities delegated to the Under Secretary of the Air Force.4

The directive stated that the Executive Agent shall develop, coordinate, 

and integrate plans and programs for space systems and the acquisition 

of DOD major space programs to provide operational space force 

capabilities. Further, the directive required the Executive Agent to lead 

efforts to synchronize the services’ space cadre activities and to integrate 

the services’ space personnel into a cohesive joint force to the maximum 

extent practicable. The directive also makes the military services 

responsible for developing and maintaining a cadre of space-qualified 

professionals in sufficient quantities to represent the services’ interests in 

space requirements, acquisition, and operations. 

We have identified strategic human capital management as a 

governmentwide high-risk area and provided tools intended to help federal 

agency leaders manage their people.5

 Specifically, we identified a lack of a 

consistent strategic approach to marshal, manage, and maintain the 

human capital needed to maximize government performance and ensure 

its accountability. In our exposure draft on a model of strategic human 

capital management,6

 we identified four cornerstones of human capital 

planning that have undermined agency effectiveness, which are 

leadership; strategic human capital planning; acquiring, developing, and 

retaining talent; and results-oriented organizational cultures. We also cited 

critical success factors for strategic human capital planning, including 

integration and data-driven human capital decisions. Furthermore, we 

reported that many federal agencies had not put in place a strategic human 

capital planning process for determining critical organizational 

 4

 Section 1.2, DOD Directive 5101.2, DOD Executive Agent for Space, June 3, 2003. 

5

 U.S. General Accounting Office, High-Risk Series: An Update, GAO-01-263

(Washington, D.C.: January 2001). 

6

 U.S. General Accounting Office, A Model of Strategic Human Capital Management, 

GAO-02-373SP (Washington, D.C.: Mar. 15, 2002). 
Page 7 GAO-04-697 Defense Space Activities 

capabilities, identifying gaps in these capabilities and resources needed, 

and designing evaluation methods.7

DOD’s space human capital strategy, which we believe is a significant first 

step, promotes the development and integration of the military services’ 

space cadres; however, DOD has not developed a plan to implement 

actions to achieve the strategy’s goals and objectives. A strategy and a plan 

to implement the strategy are central principles of a results-oriented 

management framework. DOD’s space human capital strategy establishes 

direction for the future, includes goals for integrating the services’ space 

cadres and developing space-qualified personnel, and identifies 

approaches and objectives to meet the strategy’s goals. An implementation 

plan for the strategy could include specific actions, responsibilities, time 

frames, and evaluation measures. DOD has begun to implement some of 

the key actions identified in the strategy. 

A results-oriented management framework provides an approach that 

DOD could use to develop and manage the services’ space cadres, 

including a strategy and a plan to implement the strategy. Sound general 

management tenets, embraced by the Government Performance and 

Results Act of 1993,8

 require agencies to pursue results-oriented 

management, whereby program effectiveness is measured in terms of 

outcomes or impact, rather than outputs, such as activities and processes. 

Management principles and elements can provide DOD and the military 

services with a framework for strategic planning and effectively 

implementing and managing programs. Table 1 describes the framework 

and its principles and elements. 

 7

 U.S. General Accounting Office, Human Capital: Key Principles for Effective Strategic 

Workforce Planning, GAO-04-39 (Washington, D.C.: Dec. 11, 2003). 

8

 Pub. L. 103-62. 

DOD Issued a Space 

Human Capital 

Strategy but Has No 

Implementation Plan 

Management Framework 

Would Include a Strategy 

and an Implementation 

Plan 
Page 8 GAO-04-697 Defense Space Activities 

Table 1: Elements of a Results-Oriented Management Framework 

Principle Critical elements 

Define the program’s overall purpose, 

mission, and intent (i.e., strategy). 

• Long-term goals—typically general in 

nature that lay out what the agency 

wants to accomplish in the next 5 years. 

• Approaches—general methods the 

agency plans to use to accomplish longterm goals. 

• External factors—factors that may 

significantly affect the agency’s ability to 

accomplish goals. 

Describe detailed implementation actions 

as well as measurements and indicators of 

performance (i.e., performance plan). 

• Performance goals—stated in objective 

measurable form. 

• Resources—a description of the 

resources needed to meet the 

performance goals. 

• Performance indicators—mechanisms to 

measure outcomes of the program. 

• Evaluation plan—means to compare and 

report on program results versus 

performance goals. 

• Corrective actions—a list of actions 

needed to address or revise any unmet 

goals. 

Source: GAO. 

In February 2004, DOD issued its space human capital strategy that 

established direction for the future and included overall goals for 

developing and integrating space personnel. To develop the strategy, the 

DOD Executive Agent for Space established a joint working group 

comprised of representatives from the Office of the Secretary of Defense, 

each of the military services, the National Reconnaissance Office, and 

various other defense organizations. The Office of the Secretary of 

Defense and the military services reviewed the strategy, and the DOD 

Executive Agent for Space approved it. The space human capital strategy’s 

goals flow from the goals in DOD’s Personnel and Readiness Strategic 

Plan,9

 which is the integrated strategic plan that includes the major goals 

that directly support the mission of the Office of the Under Secretary of 

Defense for Personnel and Readiness. Two of these goals include: 

 9

 Department of Defense, Office of the Under Secretary of Defense for Personnel and 

Readiness, Strategic Plan 2001-2006. 

DOD’s Space Human 

Capital Strategy 

Established Direction 

for the Future 
Page 9 GAO-04-697 Defense Space Activities 

(1) integrating active and reserve component military personnel, civilian 

employees, and support contractors into a diverse, cohesive total force 

and (2) providing appropriate education, training, and development of the 

total force to meet mission requirements. 

The six goals for space professional management identified in the space 

human capital strategy are to 

• ensure the services develop space cadres to fulfill their unique mission 

needs; 

• synchronize the services’ space cadre activities to increase efficiency and 

reduce unnecessary redundancies; 

• improve the integration of space capabilities for joint war fighting and 

intelligence; 

• assign the best space professionals to critical positions; 

• increase the number of skilled, educated, and experienced space 

professionals; and 

• identify critical positions and personnel requirements for them. 

The strategy also described approaches designed to accomplish DOD’s 

long-term goals. The approaches provided general direction for 

departmentwide actions in areas identified as key to the long-term success 

of the strategy, such as establishing policy concerning human capital 

development and a professional certification process for space personnel 

and identifying and defining critical positions and education overlaps and 

gaps. In addition, the strategy recognized external factors that should be 

considered departmentwide and by the services in developing 

implementation actions. Such factors include increasing reliance on space 

for critical capabilities in the future, the need for more space-qualified 

people, and the need to develop new systems and technologies to sustain 

the United States as a world leader in space. 

The space human capital strategy also identified objectives necessary to 

achieve the strategy’s goals in the areas of leadership, policy, career 

development, education, training, data collection, management, and best 

practices. The strategy places responsibility for achieving the objectives 

with each service and component. The objectives include, among others, 

promoting the development of a cadre of space professionals within each 

service, enhancing space education and training, creating management 

processes to meet future programmatic needs, and identifying and 

implementing best practices. Table 2 shows the strategy’s objectives. 
Page 10 GAO-04-697 Defense Space Activities 

Table 2: DOD’s Space Human Capital Resources Strategy Objectives 

Category Objectives 

Leadership • Under the leadership of the DOD Executive Agent for Space, 

create a Senior Officer Forum to discuss policy, validate 

requirements, approve space professional development plans, 

and guide the synchronization and integration of the 

department’s space cadre efforts. 

• Promote the development of a cadre of space professionals 

within each of the military departments. 

• Provide guidance on professional development efforts and 

activities. 

Policy • Develop, implement, and assess space professional 

development policies and practices where practicable. 

Education and 

training 

• Establish a common baseline of knowledge and expertise. 

• Enhance space education and training. 

• Eliminate unnecessary redundancies or overlaps in training and 

education. 

• Eliminate critical gaps that may exist in training and education. 

• Establish arrangements for joint use of education and training 

programs. 

Data collection • Collect data on space cadre size, skills, competencies, 

promotion, retention, retirement eligibility, and personnel 

availability, as well as designated space cadre positions, 

requirements to fill positions, vacancies of “critical” positions and 

rate of filling positions with unqualified personnel. 

Management • Create a human capital resources management team. 

• Assess DOD, joint, and component needs, gaps in skills and 

competencies of available personnel, and adequacy of available 

pipeline to fulfill programmed need. 

• Create management process to meet future programmatic needs 

and ensure organizations have the right people, with the right 

skills, doing the right jobs, in the right place, at the right time by 

identifying and selectively manning “critical” billets and 

establishing a baseline certification process. 

• Direct resources and efforts to solve appropriate space 

professional development synchronization and integration issues 

when institutional barriers exist. 

• Develop and coordinate professional development plans and 

integrate the plans into space planning and programming 

documentation. 

Best practices • Identify and implement best practices to the maximum extent 

practicable. 

• Create and execute demonstration programs to test new 

approaches. 

Source: DOD Executive Agent for Space, Space Human Capital Resources Strategy: A Report to the Congressional Defense 

Committees, Arlington, Virginia, February 2004. 
Page 11 GAO-04-697 Defense Space Activities 

DOD has not developed a detailed implementation plan for the key actions 

in its space human capital strategy that could include more specific 

implementing actions, identify responsibilities, set specific time frames 

for completion, and establish performance measures. As previously 

mentioned, a results-oriented management framework would include 

a plan with detailed implementation actions and performance 

measurements, in addition to incorporating performance goals, resources 

needed, performance indicators, and an evaluation process. 

DOD’s strategic approach, as outlined in its strategy, identifies key actions 

to meet the space human capital strategy’s objectives and indicates three 

time phases for implementing the actions. However, DOD has not started 

to develop an implementation plan for its strategy. A DOD official said the 

department plans to complete an implementation plan by November 2004, 

while it is implementing the key actions that have been identified in the 

strategy. Until an implementation plan is developed, the DOD Executive 

Agent for Space plans to hold meetings of the working group that 

developed the strategy to discuss space cadre initiatives and integration 

actions. 

Before developing an implementation plan, DOD plans to collect 

information from the services to establish a baseline on their current 

space cadres, according to a DOD official. Some of the information to be 

collected includes size, skills, and competencies of the personnel in the 

services’ space cadres; numbers of space positions and positions that are 

vacant; promotion and retention rates for space personnel; and retirement 

eligibility and personnel availability projections. The strategy indicates 

that collecting this information was one of the key actions in the first 

phase of the strategy’s implementation and was to have been completed by 

April 2004. However, DOD has not requested the information from the 

services because officials had not completely determined what 

information will be collected, how it will be analyzed, and how it will be 

used to develop an implementation plan. 

DOD has begun implementing some actions identified in the strategy as 

key to helping further develop and integrate the services’ space cadres; 

however, DOD had not completed any of these actions by the end of our 

review. Actions currently under way include 

• preparing for an education and training summit; 

• evaluating space cadre best practices; 

• developing policy on human capital development and use; 

DOD Has Not Developed 

an Implementation Plan 

for Its Strategy 
Page 12 GAO-04-697 Defense Space Activities 

• determining the scope, nature, and specialties associated with space 

personnel certification; and 

• issuing a call for demonstration projects. 

DOD plans to complete most of the key actions by November 2004, 

although it has not developed specific plans and milestones for completing 

each action. 

The military services vary in the extent to which they have identified and 

implemented initiatives to develop and manage their space cadres. The 

Air Force and the Marine Corps have completed space human capital 

strategies and established organizational focal points with responsibility 

for managing their space cadres, but the Army and the Navy have not 

completed these important first steps. The services are executing some 

other actions to develop and manage their space cadres, and the actions 

have been implemented to varying extents. Some of the actions include 

determining what types of personnel and specialties to include in their 

space cadres and developing or revising their education and training. Even 

though the services have completed some of these initiatives, many are not 

complete and will require years to fully implement. 

DOD has established the overall direction for space human capital 

development and integration, but the services are responsible for 

defining their unique space cadre goals and objectives, determining the 

implementing actions required, and creating a management structure to be 

responsible for implementation. The Space Commission recommended 

that the Air Force centralize its space cadre management and concluded 

that without a centralized management authority to provide leadership, it 

would be almost impossible to create a space cadre. Even though this 

recommendation was directed to the Air Force, which has the largest 

numbers of space professionals and responsibility for the most varied 

range of space operations, the principle that strong leadership is needed to 

reach space cadre goals also applies to the other military services. 

Extent of Services’ 

Initiatives to Develop 

Space Cadres Varies 
Page 13 GAO-04-697 Defense Space Activities 

The Air Force approved its space cadre strategy in July 2003,10 and it is 

implementing the initiatives it has identified to meet the strategy’s goals. 

The strategy provided guidance on developing and sustaining the Air 

Force’s space cadre. Further, the Air Force developed an implementation 

plan with time lines for completion of certain initiatives. The Air Force 

also designated the Air Force Space Command as the focal point to 

manage Air Force space cadre issues. 

The Air Force’s strategy defined the Air Force’s space cadre as the 

officers, enlisted personnel, reserves, National Guard, and civilians needed 

to research, develop, acquire, operate, employ, and sustain space systems 

in support of national security space objectives. The strategy included 

actions for identifying all space professionals who would make up its 

space cadre; providing focused career development; and defining career 

management roles, responsibilities, and tools. Currently, the Air Force has 

the largest of the services’ space cadres with an estimated 10,000 members 

identified based on their education and experience. The strategy also 

identified planned resources to implement space cadre initiatives through 

fiscal year 2009. For fiscal year 2004, the Air Force Space Command 

received $9.1 million to develop and manage its space cadre. According to 

Command officials, $4.9 million went to the Space Operations School to 

develop new space education courses, and the remainder was designated 

for other space cadre activities. For fiscal year 2009, the funding level is 

planned to increase to about $21 million to fund the planned initiatives, 

especially the efforts related to education and training. 

After the Air Force issued its space cadre strategy, it developed a 

detailed plan to implement the strategy, and it is executing the initiatives 

in accordance with its time lines. This implementation plan focuses on 

six key initiatives, as shown in table 3.11

 10 Air Force Space Command, U.S. Air Force Space Professional Strategy, April 16, 2003. 

11 The Air Force has expanded the concept of its space cadre from the “Air Force officer 

career field for space” to include the total force of officers, enlisted personnel, and 

government civilians. 

Air Force Has Taken 

Actions in Developing Its 

Space Cadre 
Page 14 GAO-04-697 Defense Space Activities 

Table 3: Air Force Space Cadre Implementation Initiatives and Status 

Initiative Status 

Identification and classification of space cadre: Determine 

the unique skills that distinguish space cadre personnel from 

personnel in other career specialties and identify space cadre 

members. 

• Officers and enlisted personnel have been identified. 

• Process of identifying civilians is under way and plan to complete 

by fall 2004. 

• Types and levels of experience of individuals that will be used to 

document and track the combination of skills obtained by each 

space cadre member have been identified, as well as the set of 

skills required to serve in each space position. 

Education and training: Institute stronger, technically oriented 

space education and training programs. 

• Air Force’s Space Operations School has fielded new space 

courses and is developing more to provide a continuum of 

educational courses spread throughout the space professional’s 

career. Many courses are open to all services. 

• Plans for a multi-service National Security Space Institute are 

being developed.a

Positions and requirements: Identify each space cadre 

position and determine the education, experience, and 

certification requirements for every position. 

• A data call has been initiated to identify and validate every space 

position in the Air Force and the requirements to fill that position. 

Estimated to be complete by fall 2004. 

• Information developed will be compiled into space cadre career 

planning guides (see professional development). 

Certification: Design a certification program to measure 

progress throughout an individual’s career. 

• Certification plan is complete for officers and enlisted personnel, 

but it has not been implemented. 

• Civilian certification requirements are under development. 

Professional development: Issue career development 

guidance for space personnel. 

• Career planning guides are being developed for individual space 

personnel, with publication planned in spring 2005. 

Management: Establish a permanent space professional 

management function. 

• The Directorate of Personnel at Air Force Space Command took 

over space professional management in summer 2004. 

• The space professional management office will provide 

continuing management and oversight of the implementation of 

the space cadre initiatives. 

Source: GAO’s analysis of information provided by the Air Force Space Command. 

a

The National Security Space Institute, when established, is intended to be a multi-service resource 

for centralized space power education and training across the national security space community by 

providing advanced space operations curriculum and tactics development programs for mid-career, 

commander-level, and senior-leadership space professionals. 

According to the Air Force Space Command, the Air Force plans to 

implement most of these initiatives by 2006. Initiatives related to the 

development of a National Security Space Institute will likely not be 

completed by 2006 because, in addition to developing curriculum and 

organizational structure issues, the Institute will require funding and 

facilities. 

Appointed by the Secretary of the Air Force in July 2003, the Commander, 

Air Force Space Command, is the focal point for managing career 
Page 15 GAO-04-697 Defense Space Activities 

development, education, and training for the Air Force space cadre. To 

assist in executing this responsibility, the Commander established a Space 

Professional Task Force within the Command to develop and implement 

initiatives and coordinate them with the national security space 

community. According to the Commander, the centralized management 

function with the authority to develop and implement Air Force policy 

governing career development of Air Force space personnel has enabled 

the Command to move forward with implementation activities and fully 

integrate the Air Force’s strategy with the Air Force’s overall force 

development program. 

The Marine Corps has initiated actions to develop its space cadre and has 

many tasks to implement its initiatives either completed or under way. 

Although the Marine Corps’ space cadre is the smallest of the services with 

61 active and reserve officers who were identified based on their 

education and experience, the Marine Corps has a space cadre strategy to 

develop and manage its space cadre and has an implementation plan to 

track initiatives. The space cadre strategy was issued as a part of the DOD 

space human capital strategy in February 2004. To implement its strategy, 

the Marine Corps has identified key tasks and established milestones for 

completion, and it is implementing them. In addition, the Marine Corps has 

identified a focal point in Headquarters, U.S. Marine Corps, to manage its 

space cadre. There is no Marine Corps funding specifically for actions to 

develop its space cadre. Furthermore, the Marine Corps does not 

anticipate a need for any such funding, according to a Marine Corps 

official. 

The Marine Corps’ strategy specifies 10 objectives for developing and 

maintaining space professionals: 

• establish an identifiable cadre of space-qualified enlisted and civilian 

marines; 

• create and staff additional space personnel positions in the operating 

forces; 

• create and staff additional space positions at national security space 

organizations; 

• improve space operations professional military education for all Marine 

Corps officers; 

• focus the graduate education of Marine Corps space operations students 

to support Marine Corps needs; 

• leverage interservice space training to ensure the development and 

proficiency of the space cadre; 

Marine Corps Developed 

Space Cadre Strategy and 

Is Implementing It 
Page 16 GAO-04-697 Defense Space Activities 

• develop a management process through which interested officers can be 

assigned to multiple space-related positions during their careers and still 

compete for promotion with their peers; 

• develop a process and structure for space professionals in the Marine 

Corps reserves through which they can support operations, training, and 

exercises through augmentation and mobilization; 

• fully participate in the DOD Executive Agent for Space’s efforts to create a 

space cadre; and 

• incorporate appropriate space professional certification processes into the 

management of the Marine Corps’ space cadre. 

The Marine Corps has identified actions to reach these objectives and 

developed an implementation plan with milestones to monitor the 

completion of these actions. For example, the Marine Corps established a 

space cadre working group to address issues associated with the 

identification, training, and assignment of space cadre officers. The Marine 

Corps also contracted a study to obtain data to help manage Marine Corps 

space personnel positions, determine space cadre requirements, and 

assess other services’ training and education opportunities. According to 

the Marine Corps’ strategy, the Marine Corps has started integrating joint 

doctrine for space operations into its professional military education 

programs and has coordinated with the Naval Postgraduate School to 

create Marine Corps-specific space systems courses. 

The Marine Corps has designated the Deputy Commandant for Plans, 

Policies, and Operations within the Headquarters, U.S. Marine Corps, as 

the management focal point for space cadre activities. A general officer 

within this office has overall responsibility for space matters. The focal 

point for the space cadre is responsible for coordinating and tracking 

actions to implement the strategy. 

The Army has taken some actions to develop its space cadre, but it does 

not have clear goals and objectives for the future because it has not 

developed a space cadre strategy or identified a focal point to manage its 

space cadre. Until it adopts a strategy that encompasses a total force of 

officers, enlisted personnel, and civilians, the Army may not be able to 

develop sufficient numbers of qualified space personnel to satisfy 

requirements within the Army and in joint organizations. However, 

according to Army officials, the Army does not intend to issue a strategy 

until it decides whether its space cadre should include space officers, 

enlisted personnel, and civilians because the strategy would be different 

if the cadre is expanded beyond space operations officers. 

Army Has Taken Some 

Actions to Develop Its 

Space Cadre, but It Does 

Not Have a Strategy or 

Focal Point 
Page 17 GAO-04-697 Defense Space Activities 

In 1999, the Army created a career path for its space operations officers 

and issued career development guidance for them.12 The Army considers 

these officers, currently numbering about 148 on active duty, to be its 

space cadre.13 The Army’s intent in creating the career path was to provide 

space expertise and capabilities to develop space doctrine, training, 

personnel, and facilities where they are needed throughout DOD in 

support of military operations. Since 1999, the Army has developed a 

specialized training course to provide space operations officers with the 

essential skills needed to plan and conduct space operations. However, it 

has not determined the critical positions for space officers or the number 

of officers needed to enable it to effectively accomplish its goals of 

supporting Army and DOD-wide operations. Thus, the Army may be 

training too many or too few space operations officers, and space 

operations officers may not be placed in the most critical positions to 

support Army interests in space. 

The Army is considering whether to expand its definition of its space 

cadre to include other personnel beyond the space operations officers. 

The Army is conducting two studies that Army officials said would provide 

a basis for this decision. In 2001, the Army began a 5-year study to help it 

determine whether enlisted personnel should be added to its space cadre 

and, if so, how this would be accomplished. The study is intended to 

determine how to recruit, train, and develop enlisted space personnel and 

to assess the possibility of creating a space career management field for 

them. In June 2004, the Army began a separate 15-month study to provide 

additional information that would help it decide whether to expand its 

space cadre definition. A decision on whether to expand the cadre to 

include additional personnel is not expected until 2005. 

The Army has not designated a permanent organizational focal point to 

develop and manage its space cadre. According to Army officials, the 

Army has to decide whether to expand its space cadre before it can 

designate a permanent management focal point because these decisions 

have implications as to which organization should have overall 

responsibility. Currently, three different organizations have various 

responsibilities for Army space cadre issues. Operations and Plans within 

Army headquarters has broad responsibility for policy, strategy, force 

 12 Department of the Army Pamphlet 600-3, Chapter 41, October 1998. 

13 In addition to the space cadre’s officers, the Army has identified another 593 officers who 

have some space experience, but they are not considered part of the Army’s space cadre. 
Page 18 GAO-04-697 Defense Space Activities 

management, and planning. Two other organizations have management 

responsibilities for the space operations officers that comprise the current 

Army space cadre: Army Space and Missile Defense Command provides 

personnel oversight for the space operations officers and Army Human 

Resources Command manages space operations officer assignments. 

According to Army officials, management of space personnel has not been 

centralized because the Army is a user of space and has integrated its 

space capabilities into various Army branches. As a result, no single office 

is charged with providing leadership on space issues and ensuring that the 

Army’s space initiatives are having the desired results. 

The Navy has initiated steps in identifying and developing its space cadre 

and has designated an advisor for space cadre issues. However, actions 

have been limited because it has not developed a space human capital 

strategy to provide direction and guidance for Navy actions. In addition, 

the Navy has not provided centralized leadership to develop the strategy 

and oversee implementation because it does not have a permanent 

management focal point. 

The Navy has taken some actions to strengthen space cadre management, 

including providing funding for the space cadre advisor, an assistant 

advisor, and contract support in the fiscal year 2005 budget. In addition, 

the Navy has issued guidance requiring personnel placement officials to 

coordinate with the space cadre advisor before assigning space cadre 

personnel to increase the likelihood that they can be placed in appropriate 

positions to effectively use and develop their space expertise. The Navy 

has also developed guidance that directs promotion boards to consider 

space experience when assessing candidates for promotion. Also, senior 

Navy leaders are engaged in space cadre activities, according to DOD 

officials. Currently, the Navy has designated 711 active duty officers and 

about 300 officer and enlisted reserve members as its space cadre, based 

on their previous education and experience in space activities. Space 

cadre members serve in positions throughout the different functional 

areas in the Navy, such as surface warfare and naval aviation. The Navy 

has not identified active duty enlisted and civilians with space education 

and experience, although it is in the process of identifying such personnel. 

The Navy has not completed a strategy for developing and managing its 

space cadre, even though the requirement for a strategy has been 

Navy Has Initiated Steps in 

Developing Its Space 

Cadre, but It Has No 

Strategy or Focal Point 
Page 19 GAO-04-697 Defense Space Activities 

recognized in official guidance. In March 2002, the Navy issued a 

memorandum requiring the development of a space cadre strategy to guide 

the Navy in identifying its space requirements.14 A Navy official said that it 

was not possible to complete a space cadre strategy without an overall 

Navy space policy that revised roles and responsibilities for space in the 

Navy. The Navy published its space policy in April 2004, which reiterated 

the need for a strategy for developing and managing Navy space 

personnel.15 With the policy in place, the Navy plans to complete its 

strategy by October 2004, according to Navy officials. 

Lacking a strategy, the Navy has not identified what key actions are 

needed to build its space cadre, how it intends to implement these actions, 

and when it expects the key actions to be completed. For example, 

the Navy has not determined the critical positions it needs to fill with 

space-qualified personnel, the numbers of personnel it has that should be 

in its space cadre to meet future needs for Navy and joint operations, or 

the funding required to implement any planned actions. Further, without 

an implementation plan that specifies actions, assigns responsibility, 

provides performance measures, and identifies resources needed, the 

Navy may not be able to develop and manage its space cadre so that it can 

effectively participate in Navy and joint space programs. 

The Navy also lacks a permanent organizational focal point to develop and 

manage its space cadre and provide centralized leadership on space issues 

and ensure that the Navy’s space initiatives are implemented and having 

the desired results. Further, the Navy views space as integrated 

throughout Navy operations and has not created a separate career field for 

space personnel. In 2002, the Navy appointed a space cadre advisor to 

enhance career planning and management of space cadre members; 

however, the position is advisory to members of the space cadre or others 

interested in working in space issues. Although the space cadre advisor 

plans to draft the Navy’s space cadre strategy, the advisor has had no 

official responsibility for identifying or implementing actions needed to 

ensure the development and management of space professionals to meet 

DOD’s future space requirements because the position has not been 

funded. For example, the space cadre advisor reports to two different 

offices in the Chief of Naval Operations on various space cadre issues. 

 14 Under Secretary of the Navy memorandum to the Navy and the Marine Corps on Naval 

Space Panel Implementation Planning, March 13, 2002. 

15 Secretary of the Navy Instruction 5400.39c, April 6, 2004. 
Page 20 GAO-04-697 Defense Space Activities 

The United States’ increasing reliance on space-based technologies for the 

success of military operations highlights DOD’s need to develop and 

maintain a cadre of space professionals who are well educated, motivated, 

and skilled in the demands of space activities. Although DOD has issued a 

space human capital strategy, the department does not have a plan that 

explains how it intends to achieve the goals in its strategy. Without such 

an implementation plan, developed jointly by the DOD Executive Agent for 

Space and the military services, DOD will not be in a sound position to 

effectively monitor and evaluate implementation of the strategy. Further, 

without clear performance measures, DOD and the services would be 

unable to assess whether actions intended to meet departmentwide goals 

and objectives are effective. Therefore, it is not clear that DOD can 

achieve the strategy’s purpose of integrating the services’ space personnel, 

to the extent practicable, into an integrated total force of well-qualified 

military and civilian personnel. Failure to achieve this could jeopardize 

U.S. primacy in this critical and evolving national security area. 

The military services’ efforts to implement initiatives to develop their 

space cadres vary and not all initiatives are linked to service strategies and 

integrated with DOD’s overall strategy. Further, some of the initiatives are 

not fully developed and will require several years to complete. Because the 

Army and the Navy lack a strategy to provide direction and focus for their 

efforts to develop their space cadres and provide a basis to assess the 

progress of their initiatives, it is unclear whether they will have sufficient 

numbers of space-qualified professionals to meet future requirements in 

joint and service space planning, programming, acquisition, and 

operations. Furthermore, without an organizational focal point with 

responsibilities for managing and coordinating space cadre efforts, the 

Army and the Navy may not have the ability to develop and retain the 

appropriate number of personnel with the right skills to meet both their 

needs and the joint requirements of the national security space 

community. Until the Army and the Navy develop strategies synchronized 

with the department’s overall strategy and establish a management 

approach to implementing their strategies, they may not be able to support 

the department’s strategic goals and objectives and thus may undermine 

efforts to strengthen this important mission area. 

Conclusions 
Page 21 GAO-04-697 Defense Space Activities 

We recommend that the Secretary of Defense take the following 

five actions: 

• Direct the DOD Executive Agent for Space, in conjunction with the 

military services, to develop an implementation plan for the DOD space 

human capital strategy. The plan should include performance goals, 

milestones, resources needed, performance indicators, and an evaluation 

process. 

• Direct the Secretary of the Army to develop a strategy for the Army’s 

space cadre that incorporates long-term goals and approaches and is 

consistent with the DOD space human capital resources strategy. 

• Direct the Secretary of the Army to establish a permanent organizational 

focal point for developing and managing the Army’s space cadre. 

• Direct the Secretary of the Navy to develop a strategy for the U.S. Navy’s 

space cadre that incorporates the Navy’s long-term goals and approaches 

and is consistent with the DOD space human capital resources strategy. 

• Direct the Secretary of the Navy to establish a permanent organizational 

focal point in the U.S. Navy for developing and managing the service’s 

space cadre. 

In commenting on a draft of this report, DOD generally agreed with our 

report and our recommendations. DOD’s comments are reprinted in their 

entirety in appendix II. DOD also provided technical comments that we 

have incorporated as appropriate. 

DOD partially concurred with our recommendation for the Army to 

establish a permanent organizational focal point for developing and 

managing the Army’s space cadre. DOD stated that two different entities 

are involved with managing the Army’s space cadre and the Army is in the 

process of determining whether a single organization will manage its space 

cadre. During our review, Army officials had differing views on the need to 

establish a single organizational focal point. They told us that the Army 

wants to decide whether to expand its space cadre beyond military 

officers before it designates management responsibilities for the space 

cadre. We believe that the Army should establish a single organizational 

focal point to develop its space cadre in a timely manner. This would help 

the Army to develop and retain the appropriate number of personnel with 

the right skills to meet Army and joint needs. 

We are sending copies of this report to interested congressional 

committees; the Secretary of Defense; the DOD Executive Agent for 

Recommendations for 

Executive Action 

Agency Comments 

and Our Evaluation 
Page 22 GAO-04-697 Defense Space Activities 

Space; the Secretaries of the Army, the Navy, and the Air Force; and the 

Commandant of the Marine Corps. We will also make copies available to 

others upon request. In addition, this report will be available at no charge 

on the GAO Web site at http://www.gao.gov. 

If you or your staffs have any questions, please contact me at 

(202) 512-4300. Key contributors to this report are listed in appendix III. 

Henry L. Hinton, Jr. 

Managing Director, Defense 

Capabilities and Management 
Appendix I: Scope and Methodology 

Page 23 GAO-04-697 Defense Space Activities 

To determine whether the Department of Defense’s (DOD) space human 

capital strategy and management approach to implementing the strategy 

promote the development and integration of the military services’ space 

cadres, we reviewed and analyzed the strategy and compared it to other 

human capital strategies, the human capital models in our prior reports, 

and the management principles contained in the Government Performance 

and Results Act of 1993. We discussed the strategy and its implementation 

with officials in the Office of the Under Secretary of Defense for Personnel 

and Readiness and the Assistant Secretary of Defense for Networks and 

Information Integration. We also discussed the strategy and its 

implementation with DOD’s Executive Agent for Space and the officials 

from his office who led the development of the strategy. We assessed the 

actions taken to date to implement the strategy. We also discussed 

whether the strategy would effectively integrate the services’ efforts with 

officials in each of the military services and at the National 

Reconnaissance Office. Specifically, for the military services, we 

interviewed officials and gathered information at the Air Force Space 

Command, Peterson Air Force Base, Colorado; the Army Office of the 

Deputy Chief of Staff for Operations and Plans, Arlington, Virginia; the 

Army Space and Missile Defense Command, Arlington, Virginia; the Navy 

Space Cadre Advisor, Arlington, Virginia; and the Office of Plans, Policies, 

and Operations, Headquarters, U.S. Marine Corps, Arlington, Virginia. 

To assess the extent to which the military services have planned and 

implemented actions to develop and manage their space cadres, we 

analyzed documentation on strategies, initiatives, and other implementing 

actions at each service and discussed them with service officials. 

Locations visited to accomplish this objective were the Air Force Space 

Command, Peterson Air Force Base, Colorado; the Air Force Space 

Operations School, Colorado Springs, Colorado; the Army Office of the 

Deputy Chief of Staff for Operations and Plans, Arlington, Virginia; the 

Army Space and Missile Defense Command, Arlington, Virginia; the Army 

Force Development and Integration Center, Colorado Springs, Colorado; 

the Navy Space Cadre Advisor, Arlington, Virginia; and the Office of Plans, 

Policies, and Operations, Headquarters, U.S. Marine Corps, Arlington, 

Virginia. We also met with officials from the National Reconnaissance 

Office, but we did not assess its workforce plan because military 

personnel assigned to the office are drawn from the space cadres of the 

military services. 

Appendix I: Scope and Methodology 
Appendix I: Scope and Methodology 

Page 24 GAO-04-697 Defense Space Activities 

We conducted our review from October 2003 through June 2004 in 

accordance with generally accepted government auditing standards. We 

did not test for data reliability because we did not use DOD generated data 

in our analysis of DOD’s management approach. 
Appendix II: Comments from the Department 

of Defense 

Page 25 GAO-04-697 Defense Space Activities 

Appendix II: Comments from the Department 

of Defense 
Appendix II: Comments from the Department 

of Defense 

Page 26 GAO-04-697 Defense Space Activities 

Note: Page numbers in 

the draft report may differ 

from those in this report. 
Appendix II: Comments from the Department 

of Defense 

Page 27 GAO-04-697 Defense Space Activities 
Appendix III: GAO Contact and Staff 

Acknowledgments 

Page 28 GAO-04-697 Defense Space Activities 

Margaret G. Morgan (202) 512-8975 

In addition to the individual named above, Alan M. Byroade, John E. Clary, 

Raymond J. Decker, Linda S. Keefer, Renee S. McElveen, and Kimberly C. 

Seay also made key contributions to this report. 

Appendix III: GAO Contact and Staff 

Acknowledgments 

GAO Contact 

Acknowledgments 

(350453) 
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