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ISBN 1-884614-18-3
...the basic premise in problem-oriented policing is 

that the acquisition of knowledge informs practice. 

–Herman Goldstein 
 

 

PROBLEM ANALYSIS IN POLICING

Rachel Boba, PhD 

Director, Crime Mapping Laboratory 

Police Foundation 

March 2003 

Washington, DC 

FPO 

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The Police Foundation is a private, independent, nonprofit 

organization dedicated to supporting innovation and 

improvement in policing. Established in 1970, the foundation 

has conducted seminal research in police behavior, policy, 

and procedure, and works to transfer to local agencies the 

best information about practices for dealing effectively with a

range of important police operational and administrative 

concerns. Motivating all of the foundation’s efforts is the 

goal of efficient, humane policing that operates within the 

framework of democratic principles and the highest ideals of 

the nation. The Police Foundation’s research findings are 

published as an information service. 

This project was supported by Cooperative Agreement 

#2002-CK-WX-0303 by the U.S. Department of Justice, 

Office of Community Oriented Policing Services. Points of 

view or opinions contained in this document are those of the 

author and do not necessarily represent the official position 

or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice or the Police 

Foundation. 

© 2002 by the Police Foundation. All rights, including 

translation into other languages, reserved under the 

Universal Copyright Convention, the Berne Convention for 

the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works and the 

International and Pan American Copyright Conventions. 

Permission to quote readily granted. 

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www.policefoundation.org 

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Table of Contents 

iii Police Foundation 

Table of Contents Page

Foreword............................................................................. v 

Acknowledgements............................................................vii 

Overview............................................................................. 1 

What are the purposes of this report?...................... 1 

What is problem analysis? ....................................... 2 

Why is problem analysis important?......................... 4 

What is the current state of problem analysis 

 within problem solving?......................................... 5 

Why is analysis so challenging?............................... 5 

The report ................................................................ 7 

Problem-Analysis Forum 2002............................................ 8 

Problem Analysis: Discussion and Debate ....................... 11 

Problem analysis and 

 beat-level problem solving ................................... 11 

Problem analysis and crime analysis ..................... 13 

Integrating Problem Analysis into a Police Agency........... 16 

What is a problem analyst?.................................... 16 

What are the knowledge and skills 

 necessary to conduct problem analysis? ............. 17 

Knowledge................................................... 17 

Skills............................................................ 22 

What is the role of problem analysis in a 

 police agency? ..................................................... 28 

Where should problem analysis be placed 

 within the police organization? ............................. 28 

What does a problem analyst need from the 

 organization?........................................................ 31
 

Table of Contents

Problem Analysis in Policing iv

The Advancement of Problem Analysis ............................ 34 

Role of local police................................................. 34 

Role of academia ................................................... 35 

Role of the federal government.............................. 36 

Role of other organizations .................................... 39 

Role of city government ......................................... 41 

Role of the community ........................................... 42 

An Agenda for Advancing Problem Analysis..................... 44 

References ....................................................................... 46 

Resources......................................................................... 47 

Biographies....................................................................... 50 
 

Foreword 

v Police Foundation 

Foreword 

Police departments have traditionally been responsible for crime 

control and prevention strategies. As crime problems have gotten 

more complex and expectations of the police have increased, 

traditional responses are becoming less adequate. The need to 

examine the characteristics and causes of crime and disorder 

problems prior to developing responses to them has been 

recognized by academics and practitioners alike. Because the 

business of police is public safety and not research methodology, 

data issues, and analytical techniques, agencies have struggled with 

conducting analysis themselves and have relied on partnering with 

academics experienced in this type of work. However, academics 

and practitioners often have different agendas for research and 

their partnerships have not always produced results that are 

valuable to both groups. Thus, in order to inform and specifically 

tailor crime control and prevention strategies, analysis of crime 

problems within the police agency by staff trained to do so is 

essential. 

Problem analysis is the process of conducting in-depth, systematic 

analysis and assessment of crime problems at the local level. In a 

police agency, problem analysis is conducted by personnel either 

working within the organization or working very closely with it. 

Within the problem-solving context, police departments are not 

research subjects but are the initiators of action research. 

On the inside cover of this report, Herman Goldstein is quoted: 

“...the basic premise in problem-oriented policing is that the 

acquisition of knowledge informs practice.” Thus, problem 

analysis is the process of acquiring knowledge through review of 

existing work and analysis of a variety of data to examine the 

characteristics and causes of problems in the local context which in 

turn helps to inform the crime control and prevention activities. 

This report documents the issues, guidelines, and 

recommendations made by a group of distinguished academics, 
 

Foreword

Problem Analysis in Policing vi

practitioners, and policy makers convened by the Police 

Foundation in February 2002 to discuss problem analysis. We feel 

it will be a significant contribution to the fields of problem solving 

and police analysis as well as to the Police Foundation’s mission to 

improve and enhance American policing through innovative 

research, technology, training, and communication. 

 

Hubert Williams 

 President 

 Police Foundation 
 

Acknowledgements 

vii Police Foundation 

Acknowledgements 

I would like to thank the participants of the Problem-Analysis 

Forum for their willingness to attend the forum and speak their 

minds about this issue. They are: 

 Professor Ron Clarke, School of Criminal Justice 

Rutgers University, Newark, NJ 

 Pat Drummy, Director of Administrative Services 

San Diego, CA, Police Department 

 Professor John Eck, Division of Criminal Justice 

University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 

 Ed Flynn, Secretary of Public Safety 

State of Massachusetts 

 Ron Glensor, Deputy Chief 

Reno, NV, Police Department 

 Professor Herman Goldstein 

University of Wisconsin Law School, Madison, WI 

 Bob Heimberger, Sergeant 

St. Louis, MO, Metropolitan Police Department 

 Professor Gloria Laycock 

The Jill Dando Institute, University College, London, UK 

 Karin Schmerler, Research Analyst 

Chula Vista, CA, Police Department 

 Michael Scott, Police Consultant 

Savannah, GA 
 

Acknowledgements

Problem Analysis in Policing viii

 Hubert Williams, President 

Police Foundation 

 Dr. Ellen Scrivner, former Deputy Director 

Office of Community Oriented Policing Services 

 Dr. Matthew Scheider, Social Science Analyst 

Office of Community Oriented Policing Services 

 Veh Bezdikian, former Social Science Analyst 

Office of Community Oriented Policing Services 

 Nancy Leach, Social Science Analyst 

Office of Community Oriented Policing Services 

 Debra Stoe, Acting Director of MAPS (Mapping and 

Analysis for Public Safety), National Institute of Justice 

 Mary Velasco, Research Associate 

Police Foundation 

 Erin Lane, Research Associate 

Police Foundation 

 Linda Yoskowitz, Administrative Assistant 

Police Foundation 

I would like to thank Mike Scott, in particular, for his assistance 

with the forum, lending his vast expertise in policing and problem 

solving, and Matthew Scheider for suggesting the forum and for 

his support. I would like to thank the participants for taking time 

to review the report and providing comments and criticism; 

however, the views presented here are my own. Lastly, I would 

like to thank Mary Velasco and Mary Malina of the Police 

Foundation for their impeccable editing skills. 
 

Overview 

1 Police Foundation 

Overview 

What are the purposes of this report? 

The aims of this report are to introduce and define problem 

analysis and to provide guidance on how problem analysis can be 

integrated and institutionalized into modern policing practices. 

This report is not a “how to” guide on conducting problem 

analysis, but is a summary of ideas and recommendations about 

what problem analysis is, what skills and knowledge are necessary 

to conduct it, and how it can be advanced by the police 

community, academia, the federal government, and other 

institutions. The ideas and recommendations in this report come 

primarily from a two-day forum conducted in February 2002 by 

the Police Foundation and the United States Department of 

Justice’s Office of Community Oriented Policing Services (COPS 

Office) in which a group of academics, practitioners, and policy 

makers came together to discuss problem analysis and make 

recommendations for its progress. This report is a culmination of 

the concepts and ideas that were discussed in the forum and 

includes specific, relevant statements made by participants. Some 

of these statements are included as part of the body of the report, 

and some are included in the margins to accompany the text. 

Inclusion of these statements provides a voice to those who 

participated in the forum and also gives the reader a sense of the 

tone of the discussion. 

This report assumes that the reader recognizes that problemoriented policing and problem solving are valuable approaches in 

policing and that the reader knows the fundamental principles of 

these approaches. This report does not define and justify these 

ideas but discusses how they can be improved by the adoption and 

advancement of problem analysis. For a broader discussion of 

problem-oriented policing and specific problem-solving 

components and examples, please see the end of this report for a 

list of resources. 

From the COPS Office 

perspective, this problem 

analysis forum is very 

important because it 

further intensifies our 

prior work and begins to 

link crime mapping, crime 

analysis, and problem 

solving in support of 

critical thinking in 

policing. 

–Ellen Scrivner
 

Overview

Problem Analysis in Policing 2

What is problem analysis? 

In his book, Problem-Oriented Policing (1990, p. 49), Herman 

Goldstein states, “The problem-oriented approach calls for 

developing—preferably within the police agency—the skills, 

procedures, and research techniques to analyze problems and 

evaluate police effectiveness as an integral continuing part of 

management.” In this report, this approach is called problem 

analysis and is defined as: 

An approach/method/process conducted within 

the police agency in which formal criminal justice 

theory, research methods, and comprehensive 

data collection and analysis procedures are used 

in a systematic way to conduct in-depth 

examination of, develop informed responses to, 

and evaluate crime and disorder problems. 

One important point about Goldstein’s statement and this 

definition is that problem analysis is a process that occurs within 

the police agency. Ideally, problem analysis represents a method of 

providing police agencies with the capability to conduct in-depth, 

practical research. Yet, while the ideal is to develop a full problemanalysis capacity within every police agency, in reality, that may 

not be possible or practical. Many agencies, especially smaller 

ones, must draw on outside research skills to aid them in problem 

analysis, and even larger agencies may require some specialized 

expertise from external researchers. What is essential is that police 

agencies develop an internal capacity to use problem analysis to 

inform practice and that this type of research is conducted to 

examine crime and disorder problems, not the police agency itself. 

This means agencies must know when analysis is needed, what 

scope is needed, whether they can conduct the analysis or will need 

outside assistance, how to understand analytical results, and how to 

translate those findings into new practices. 

If problem solving is 

going to be integrated 

effectively in a police 

department, it would help 

if academics approached 

their involvement as a 

way to mentor the people 

within the police 

department to do 

research themselves. 

What we currently see 

are academics who 

conduct research and 

leave only the results of 

the study, not the skills 

and knowledge for the 

agency to conduct 

research themselves. 

–Rachel Boba
 

Overview 

3 Police Foundation 

The following ideas are taken from the forum discussion of 

problem analysis to further clarify this concept: 

Problem analysis is not merely creating maps to see where 

crimes have occurred. It is not merely conducting statistical 

analysis on secondary data to compare levels of incidents 

over time. It is not merely identifying trends and patterns in 

the frequency or magnitude of crime or supporting the 

police function, but it is examining the underlying 

conditions of both the simple and complex problems police 

are tasked to solve. It is not only determining “who done it” 

or even “where done it,” but looking at the why. Problem 

analysis is not one-dimensional nor does it warrant only 

one type of analysis; it is complex and there are often 

several analytical paths that might lead to viable solutions.

Finally, it is not a discrete or static process, but occurs 

within the problem-solving process and changes by the type 

of problem or needs of the organization. 

Problem analysis is broader than crime analysis, as it is 

currently being practiced, in that it not only supports police 

activities but can drive them as well. It is action research in 

that it involves using formalized methods of study with a 

goal of arriving at practical solutions. It is interpretive, 

creative, and innovative as well as open-ended and 

inclusive. That is, it does not presuppose the answers to 

questions or use solely conventional methods and data to 

examine problems. It is theory-based and hypothesisdriven. This does not necessarily mean formalized, 

academic theory, but it can be based on common sense or 

practically informed theory about the way the world works. 

It uses hypotheses; that is, it takes a position on what will 

result from informed responses. It is neither entirely 

exploratory nor anecdotal, but includes the examination of 

underlying conditions of crime and disorder problems. It is 

solution- and prevention-oriented (i.e., not superficially 

Problem analysis is 

interpretive in the sense 

that you are divining 

meaning from 

information by talking to 

people and figuring out 

the underlying causes. It 

is thinking critically 

about a problem rather 

than just relying on what 

others say about it. 

–Karin Schmerler 

I think a central idea is 

that problem analysis is 

not one person sitting in a 

room in front of a 

computer conducting 

statistical analysis and 

having results magically 

appear, but rather that 

person and other groups 

of people coming 

together and analyzing 

problems with different 

expertise with respect to 

the problems. 

–Matthew Scheider

...problem analysis is 

really the building of 

knowledge about 

behaviors that the police 

are seeking to affect and 

about the value of 

alternative responses. 

–Herman Goldstein 
 

Overview

Problem Analysis in Policing 4

addressing an issue by analyzing a response after the fact). 

It is an iterative, dynamic process. It is not static, in that 

just one approach, one analysis, and/or one response is 

adequate; rather the process requires a triangulation of 

methods of analysis, response, adjustment of the response 

based on additional analysis, and so on. It is proactive and 

not reactive. It demands partnerships of various agencies 

and communities for analysis and assessment as well as 

response, specifically for access to additional data sources 

and knowledge about a particular problem. Finally, it is 

fundamental to strategic policing because of its larger scope 

and focus on formulating long-term solutions to problems. 

Why is problem analysis important? 

The role of analysis in problem solving is vital because it involves 

the in-depth examination of underlying factors leading to crime 

and disorder problems for which effective responses can be 

developed and through which assessment can be conducted to 

determine the relevance and success of the responses. Public safety 

problems addressed by police agencies are both simple and small 

in scope as well as long-term and chronic. Although admittedly the 

police alone (or even as a lead) cannot provide solutions for major 

societal problems that lead to crime or social disorder, problem 

analysis can inform effective problem-solving practices through 

systematic, thoughtful analysis of all types of problems. This is the 

key to making a significant impact on public safety and disorder. 

Conversely, in a report entitled, Using Analysis for ProblemSolving: A Guidebook for Law Enforcement, Tim Bynum states 

that “responses based upon inadequate or incomplete analyses will 

not address the causes of the problem and are much less likely to 

produce the desired results” (2001, p. 18). 

I would argue that the 

basic premise in problemoriented policing is that 

the acquisition of 

knowledge informs 

practice. But some argue 

that we already have a lot 

of knowledge of use to 

the police. We gather 

intelligence about 

organized crime and 

about terrorism. We 

gather facts about crime. 

We gather statistics for 

traditional crime analysis 

and, in COMPSTAT, to 

achieve greater 

accountability. But none 

of these categories of 

knowledge is what we are 

trying to acquire with 

problem analysis....The 

difference is between 

knowledge about a crime 

or crimes and, much 

more broadly and indepth, knowledge about a 

behavioral problem and 

effectiveness of various 

responses for dealing 

with it. 

–Herman Goldstein
 

Overview 

5 Police Foundation 

What is the current state of problem analysis within 

problem solving? 

In a recent COPS-funded study that reviews the last twenty years 

of problem-oriented policing, author Michael Scott (2000, p. 7) 

discusses how analysis and evaluation within police agencies have 

been the slowest areas to develop, although problem solving and 

problem-oriented policing have blossomed in both concept and 

practice: “Problem analysis remains the aspect of [problemoriented policing] most in need of improvement.” He sees the 

need for an increased focus on these areas to ensure that the 

problem-solving process is practiced effectively. He also states that 

police departments have become very creative and adept at 

developing and carrying out responses to problems, but internal 

knowledge and use of crime analysis and systematic research and 

evaluation have not paralleled this effort. 

Similarly, the national assessment of the COPS-funded “ProblemSolving Partnership” program indicated that analysis was the 

weakest phase of the problem-solving process (Police Executive 

Research Forum, 2000). This same study found that police often 

have difficulty “clearly defining problems, properly using data 

sources, conducting comprehensive analysis, and implementing 

analysis-driven responses” (Bynum, 2001, p. 2). These 

observations from the field showed that police are generally good 

at identifying problems but experience difficulty with problem 

analysis (Bynum, 2001, p. 7). 

Why is analysis so challenging? 

The first and most obvious reason that problem analysis has lagged 

behind responding to problems is that, historically, catching the 

bad guys has been the primary focus of the police, rather than 

analyzing crime and disorder problems. Police officers and 

detectives are trained to respond to one call at a time or to 

investigate one crime at a time. A good detective may link a 

If you ask cops, “Do you 

know about burglars? Do 

you know about robbers? 

Do you know about 

thieves?” They can say 

they know about burglars, 

they know about robbers, 

they know about thieves. 

The difference between 

that and problem analysis 

is whether they know 

about burglary, about 

robbery, about theft. 

–Ron Glensor
 

Overview

Problem Analysis in Policing 6

number of crimes together through a similar perpetrator and/or 

modus operandi but this is still examining the crime on an 

individual level. Thus, policing accumulates and values a different 

kind of knowledge, that is, experiential knowledge. Research 

knowledge has not been accumulated or valued as highly. The key 

is to blend these two types of knowledge as each improves the 

value of the other. 

Conducting systematic analysis requires an additional perspective 

for policing—long-term data analysis from a variety of 

perspectives that is focused on discerning the causes/facilitators of 

specific crime problems, as well as short-term data analysis that is 

focused on immediate trends and series or individual cases. One 

example comes from a problem-solving project that analyzed auto 

theft in the Southwest United States. Both examination of 

longitudinal records management data as well as interviews of auto 

theft detectives were conducted. Detectives were convinced that 

stolen cars were being taken to Mexico. However, analysis of the 

five years of data showed that over eighty-five percent of the 

vehicles were recovered locally. Why were the perceptions of 

detectives not supported by the long-term data? The detectives 

received and investigated less than ten percent of all of the auto 

theft reports because of the lack of evidence on the other ninety 

percent of cases. Their assumptions were based on their 

investigations of individual cases and their personal experiences, 

rather than on all cases over the five-year period. 

Until recently, police agencies had neither the data nor the 

technological resources to analyze large amounts of data. In fact, 

many still do not have crime reports or calls for service in an 

electronic or easily accessible format. This also has hindered the 

incorporation of analysis into policing. In addition, author Tim 

Bynum discussed many more impediments to analysis in police 

agencies in his report entitled, Using Analysis for ProblemSolving: A Guidebook for Law Enforcement. One of the 

impediments he lists is the emphasis by police on rapid response to 

[The police] get it. They 

may not document it well, 

and they may not have a 

deep interest in being able 

to prove what they did 

worked. They just need to 

get it off their plate 

because they absolutely 

live in the now, as do their 

administrators, as do their 

short-tenured political 

leaders and their political 

environment. 

–Ed Flynn
 

Overview 

7 Police Foundation 

problems and the perception that in-depth analysis of these 

problems requires too much time or resources. He also notes the 

police perception that all the information needed has been 

collected and, in some cases, responses are based on hunches, 

experience, or traditional approaches. Lastly, he asserts that there 

is the perception that once analysis is complete, it cannot be 

revisited (Bynum, 2001, p. 15). 

The report 

The perspective this report takes is that analysis is crucial to 

problem solving and, more generally, to more effective policing. 

What follows is a discussion of: 

1) the origin of this report, the Problem-Analysis Forum 2002; 

2) the comparison of problem analysis, beat-level problem 

solving, and crime analysis; 

3) the skills and knowledge needed to conduct problem 

analysis; 

4) the roles that various institutions and agencies within the 

policing community can take to assist in the integration and 

advancement of problem analysis; and 

5) an agenda for advancing problem analysis. 
 

Problem-Analysis Forum 2002

Problem Analysis in Policing 8

Problem-Analysis Forum 2002 

On February 7 and 8, 2002, the Police Foundation’s Crime 

Mapping Laboratory and the COPS Office hosted a ProblemAnalysis Forum. The overall purpose of the forum was to begin a 

dialogue about problem analysis, develop ideas and 

recommendations that will be the basis of future work, and 

accelerate the advancement of problem analysis in the police 

community. 

More specifically, the goals of the two-day forum were to examine 

how problem analysis can best be integrated and institutionalized 

by discussing problem analysis, problem solving, and crime 

analysis; developing recommendations about the skills and 

knowledge necessary to conduct problem analysis; and making 

suggestions on how various entities (e.g., academia and the federal 

government) can assist the advancement of problem analysis in 

policing. 

The following people, with experience in academia, applied 

research, line-level policing, police management, and crime 

analysis, participated in the forum (for their biographies, see the 

end of the report): 

 Dr. Rachel Boba, Director, Crime Mapping Laboratory, 

Police Foundation, Washington, DC 

 Professor Ron Clarke, School of Criminal Justice, Rutgers 

University, Newark, NJ 

 Pat Drummy, Director of Administrative Services, San 

Diego, CA, Police Department 

 Professor John Eck, Division of Criminal Justice, 

University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 

 Ed Flynn, Secretary of Public Safety 

State of Massachusetts 

 Ron Glensor, Deputy Chief, Reno, NV, Police Department 
 

Problem-Analysis Forum 2002 

9 Police Foundation 

 Professor Herman Goldstein, University of Wisconsin Law 

School, Madison, WI 

 Bob Heimberger, Sergeant, St. Louis, MO, Metropolitan 

Police Department 

 Professor Gloria Laycock, The Jill Dando Institute, 

University College, London, UK 

 Karin Schmerler, Research Analyst, Chula Vista, CA, 

Police Department 

 Michael Scott, Police Consultant, Savannah, GA 

Hubert Williams, President of the Police Foundation, and Dr. Ellen 

Scrivner, former deputy director of the COPS Office, introduced 

the forum and participated the first morning. Also representing the 

Police Foundation, the COPS Office, and the National Institute of 

Justice were: 

 Dr. Matthew Scheider, Social Science Analyst, COPS 

Office 

 Veh Bezdikian, former Social Science Analyst, COPS 

Office 

 Nancy Leach, Social Science Analyst, COPS Office 

 Debra Stoe, Acting Director of MAPS (Mapping and 

Analysis for Public Safety), National Institute of Justice 

 Mary Velasco, Research Associate, Police Foundation 

 Erin Lane, Research Associate, Police Foundation 

 Linda Yoskowitz, Administrative Assistant, Police 

Foundation 

The group spent two days discussing many topics surrounding the 

integration of problem analysis in police agencies and the 

institutionalization of problem analysis throughout the police 

profession. The goal was to formulate concrete ideas and 

The potential here is 

substantially beyond just 

another publication for 

the field. It could be the 

seeds for an array of 

developments that, taken 

together, are much 

larger, much greater, and 

much more valuable and 

productive than a single 

publication. 

–Herman Goldstein
 

Problem-Analysis Forum 2002

Problem Analysis in Policing 10

recommendations for the advancement of problem analysis. 

Specifically, the participants discussed: 

 A working definition of problem analysis 

 The distinction between problem analysis and crime 

analysis 

 A model job description and ideal qualifications for a 

problem analyst 

 The education and training that would best prepare an 

individual to conduct problem analysis 

 The integration and institutionalization of a problemanalysis function within a police agency 

 The role of academia in advancing problem analysis in 

policing 

 The role of the federal government in advancing problem 

analysis in policing 

 The role of other organizations in advancing problem 

analysis in policing 

 An agenda for advancing problem analysis 
 

Problem Analysis: Discussion and Debate 

11 Police Foundation 

Problem Analysis: Discussion and Debate 

A working definition of problem analysis was developed by this 

author from the forum discussion: 

An approach/method/process conducted within 

the police agency in which formal criminal 

justice theory, research methods, and 

comprehensive data collection and analysis 

procedures are used in a systematic way to 

conduct in-depth examination of, develop 

informed responses to, and evaluate crime and 

disorder problems. 

The following sections contrast problem analysis with beat-level 

problem solving and crime analysis as well as discuss more 

comprehensively what problem analysis is and, importantly, what 

it is not. 

 

Problem analysis and beat-level problem solving 

It is important to begin the discussion of problem analysis by 

distinguishing it from beat-level problem solving and the analysis 

that is used in that context. Problem analysis is different from beatlevel, problem-solving analysis principally in scope and depth. In 

beat-level problem solving, officers typically work to identify and 

resolve small-scale problems. The use of analysis at the beat-level 

is fairly limited. Officers may use some crime counts or simple 

analysis of data but rarely need to conduct an in-depth examination 

of a problem or formally evaluate the response. Often the response 

may not warrant an assessment because the results are readily 

apparent. For example, after some analysis, an officer may 

determine that a trailer park is problematic because residents of 

two neighboring trailers have an ongoing dispute and call the 

police on a regular basis. If the officer responds to this issue 

successfully, the calls for service from the residents will decrease 

I find in a lot of police 

initiatives and a lot of 

problem-solving projects, 

the analysis is really not 

much more than a 

description and a portrait 

of the state of the 

problem. There is not a 

great deal of going 

beyond that to really 

inquire what the 

underlying conditions 

are—forming a 

hypothesis about what is 

causing that problem. 

–Mike Scott
 

Problem Analysis: Discussion and Debate

Problem Analysis in Policing 12

as will the calls from the park itself. Determining whether or not 

this response was successful will be quite obvious. 

In contrast, problem analysis takes a more general approach in 

which analysis is used to investigate, respond to, and assess the 

impact of responses on problems. This is not to say that the 

problems addressed by problem analysis are only large-scale, but 

rather that the analysis used to address complex problems needs to 

be systematic, in-depth, and evaluative. For example, there may be 

a small-scale, yet chronic, homeless problem in a particular 

neighborhood that requires a problem-analysis approach. Where 

beat-level, problem-solving analysis might include a basic analysis 

of calls for service relating to a few individuals, a problem-analysis 

approach might include interviews of the residents and even the 

homeless individuals, as well as data analysis. At the beat-level, 

the initiative may be evaluated by arrests and the apparent absence 

of homeless individuals. However, the problem-analysis approach 

may seek to evaluate residents’ perceptions of the problem as well 

as learn where the homeless individuals relocated in order to 

determine whether they were simply displaced or if the homeless 

problem was, in fact, reduced. 

To illustrate with a large-scale example, someone conducting beatlevel problem solving may identify a graffiti problem in a 

particular neighborhood through analysis of criminal damage 

incidents, work with the community to remove the graffiti, and 

arrest the offenders. An approach using problem analysis would 

investigate a graffiti problem by collecting citywide or regional 

data over a long period of time to determine the various types of 

graffiti (e.g., tagging, gangland markings, etc.) as well as specific 

symbols and messages portrayed in the graffiti. The problemanalysis project may take much longer but would be much more 

comprehensive, addressing a longer-term, larger-scoped problem 

and seeking a long-term solution. Part of this solution may be 

identifying offenders and removing graffiti as the beat-level 

analysis showed to be successful. However, problem analysis may 

In the minds of most 

police who I have worked 

with, and using the 

SARA model as an 

example, analysis is the 

most difficult thing for 

them to do, and they are 

very happy to get it over 

with at the second stage. 

They look at SARA as 

linear, and once it is 

done, they say, “Hey, I 

don’t have to do that 

again. Let’s get on with 

the business of fixing the 

problem.” 

–Ron Glensor

If you consider the crux of 

our business is catching 

bad guys and will always 

be so, then clearly a core 

part of our business is 

always going to be 

analysts who can produce 

information and enable us 

to do something more 

effectively in a classic 

tactical sense. The 

difference then is that 

problem analysis very 

often has not much to do 

with individual crimes or 

series of crimes, but with 

public safety and disorder 

problems. 

–Ed Flynn
 

Problem Analysis: Discussion and Debate 

13 Police Foundation 

also reveal that, in the long term, other responses can be 

successful, such as increasing the natural observation of and 

limiting accessibility to graffiti-prone locations. Thus, the 

distinction in these two examples of beat-level, problem-solving 

analysis and problem analysis is both the scope of the problem as 

well as the level and systematic nature of the analysis and 

evaluation. In addition, a comprehensive problem analysis would 

uncover and/or point to effective responses based on 

criminological theories or disciplines, such as the rational choice 

theory or situational crime prevention. 

Problem analysis and crime analysis 

We assert that problem analysis is different than crime analysis in 

its current practice. In a recent COPS-funded study of 1,358 large 

and small police departments, O’Shea (1999) found that even 

though the departments conduct a wide range of crime analysis, the 

most common type of activity police agencies report is focused on 

short-term pattern and trend identification, or “tactical crime 

analysis,” while less time is spent on “strategic crime analysis” 

such as victim analysis, spatial analysis, program evaluation, and 

long-term, crime forecasting. These results suggest that 

departments are not focusing their crime analysis efforts on the 

problem-solving process or on action research, but have chosen to 

focus on analysis that supports traditional policing practices.

There was much debate over this topic in the forum; however, 

there was consensus that, even though crime analysis and problem 

analysis are interrelated and in an ideal world would be one in the 

same, the current focus of crime analysis warrants distinguishing it 

from problem analysis. Problem analysis is a proactive form of 

analysis in which formal theory, research methods, data collection, 

and statistics are used systematically to examine both simple and 

complex problems as well as to point the way to more strategic 

interventions that address and prevent a whole class of crimes or 

incidents. 
 

Problem Analysis: Discussion and Debate

Problem Analysis in Policing 14

The following statements represent various points of discussion in 

the forum. 

There is much more of a proactive element to 

problem analysis and more of a reactive element 

in crime analysis. 

–Herman Goldstein 

It just occurred to me that crime analysts right 

now are being urged to do more advanced kinds 

of analyses that are not necessarily consistent 

with problem-oriented policing principles, like 

advanced tactical predictive modeling to 

apprehend suspects. How does this fit into either 

a discussion to move a crime analyst away from 

that direction or to merge the responsibilities of a 

crime analyst with problem-oriented policing 

kinds of functions? 

–Veh Bezdikian 

Problem analysis is not only a process but also a 

partnership between the analyst and the police in 

which the analysis is genuinely part of the 

process, not just, “Tell us where the problem is 

and we will do something about it.” 

–Ron Clarke 

I think it is unfortunate that analysis has been 

associated with crime in this context because 

crime analysts are not actually analyzing crime, 

but creating crime stats. There is nothing wrong 

with the chief wanting to know how many 

burglaries there were this week, or asking for a 

graph of the robberies, but it is a very different 

function from problem analysis, and it is not 

“analysis,” it is “blobology.” Blobology is cool 
 

Problem Analysis: Discussion and Debate 

15 Police Foundation 

and people need blobology, but not to muddle the 

two; the problem analysts need the crime data as 

part of a larger process of analysis. 

–Gloria Laycock 

I think that problem analysis should be solutionoriented. It is not just describing the nature of the 

problem, but it is sequentially exploring various 

hypotheses about the problem, which is not 

normally the sort of analysis that crime analysts 

really do. 

–Ron Clarke 

Crime analysis has not addressed questions that 

problem analysis is centered on: “What did you 

mean by this problem? Why do you think it looks 

this way? Why are these solutions particularly 

useful? Even if they are useful, is there any 

reason to believe they would work for any length 

of time?” 

–John Eck 

There are a lot of pitfalls in separating problem 

analysis and crime analysis. I am not sure it is 

feasible or advisable to do this. But saying they 

are one and the same right now in most police 

departments is not accurate. 

–Karin Schmerler 
 

Integrating Problem Analysis into a Police Agency

Problem Analysis in Policing 16

Integrating Problem Analysis into a Police 

Agency 

One of the objectives of the forum and of this document is to 

provide guidance to police agencies on how to integrate problem 

analysis into their organizations. Because organizations differ, 

providing specific guidelines and job descriptions is not as 

important as providing themes and considerations for members of 

an agency to consider when thinking about integrating problem 

analysis. The following section presents a more practical 

discussion of bringing problem analysis into a police agency. It 

includes a discussion of the problem analyst, the knowledge and 

skills needed to conduct problem analysis, the role of problem 

analysis in everyday policing, where problem analysis should be 

based in the organization, and the support an organization can 

provide for problem analysis. 

What is a problem analyst? 

Problem analysis is an approach or a process and could be 

conducted by individuals in a variety of positions within a police 

agency (e.g., crime analysts, police planners, police officers, 

detectives, community service officers, or police managers and 

administrators). Ideally, a police agency would employ a problem 

analyst whose education and training has focused on action 

research and whose function it is to conduct problem analysis. 

However, most agencies in the United States are fairly small and 

do not employ any type of analyst, much less a problem analyst. 

While it is recommended that a specific individual be hired to 

conduct problem analysis, the following discussion applies also to 

external researchers or consultants hired to conduct problem 

analysis within a police agency or existing police personnel who 

have problem analysis as one of several work responsibilities. 

If you have six, seven, or 

ten analysts, you can 

afford to have 

specialists—you will have 

your technical expert, 

your statistical expert. 

But, generally, if you have 

only one or two analysts, 

you are going to have to 

push for someone who 

has a good rounding of all 

those skills. 

–Pat Drummy
 

Integrating Problem Analysis into a Police Agency 

17 Police Foundation 

What are the knowledge and skills necessary to conduct 

problem analysis? 

The following knowledge and skills are important for conducting 

problem analysis and combine both the operational perspective of 

a police agency as well as an analytical perspective. Ideally, an 

individual conducting problem analysis would possess all of these, 

but that is nearly impossible. Thus, what is listed and described 

here provides both a comprehensive picture of the requirements of 

the problem-analysis function as well as guidance to develop a job 

description for a problem analyst or new aspects of current police 

analyst positions. At the end of the report, there is a list of 

resources for the types of knowledge discussed here. It is by no 

means an exhaustive list but is intended to identify material 

particularly relevant to these topics. 

Knowledge 

Knowledge consists of the facts or ideas acquired by study, 

investigation, observation, or experience. To conduct problem 

analysis, it is recommended that the individual have knowledge of 

the following: 

Criminological theory. The knowledge and use of 

criminological theory is important to examining and 

understanding crime and disorder problems. Problem 

analysis does not dictate that an individual know every 

criminological theory in-depth, but s/he should have a 

working knowledge of theories that have contributed the 

most to understanding the local crime and disorder 

problems police agencies face. Theories that focus on the 

criminal event and the opportunity for crime are preferable 

to theories that focus solely on the criminal. Many relevant 

theories are drawn from the specialized fields of 

environmental criminology and situational crime 

prevention (e.g., rational choice theory, routine activity 

It ought to bring home to 

some people that you do 

not just get a cop off the 

street, call him an 

analyst, and say go do it. 

You know, there is a 

body of knowledge and 

understanding that is 

necessary to this 

process. 

–Gloria Laycock
 

Integrating Problem Analysis into a Police Agency

Problem Analysis in Policing 18

theory, crime pattern theory, deterrence theory). Especially 

relevant are theories that explain the clustering of 

crimerepeat victimization, repeat offending, and repeat 

locations (hot spots). 

Literature. In a general sense, the problem analyst should 

be aware of both classic and current research literature 

related to problem-oriented policing, situational crime 

prevention, crime problems, action research, statistics, and 

research methods. However, even though the academic 

literature on policing is quite relevant, oftentimes it is 

inaccessible to practitioners, both in the sense that it is 

physically inaccessible as well as inaccessible in its written 

form (e.g., using research and academic rhetoric). Thus, it 

may require some translation to be useful for practitioners 

and that is an important skill of the problem analyst (see the 

Skills section for further discussion). In addition, many of 

the reports and case studies produced by the federal 

government are important for problem analysis as they 

provide practical examples and evaluations. 

Research methods. The problem analyst should have an 

understanding of basic research design, sampling methods, 

modes of observation (experiment, field research, 

surveying, evaluation), data collection and coding, process 

and impact evaluation, and ethics and politics of social 

research. In the context discussed here, the problem analyst 

is the expert in research methodology within the police 

agency. In addition, problem analysis encompasses more 

than just secondary data analysis, as it may be the case that 

primary data will be collected through surveys or 

observation. 

Data and data integrity. The problem analyst must 

understand the basic types of data and databases as well as 

issues of reliability and validity surrounding data in general 
 

Integrating Problem Analysis into a Police Agency 

19 Police Foundation 

and those issues particular to police data. For example, one 

must know the difference between Uniform Crime Report 

frequencies (i.e., aggregate numbers coded hierarchically) 

reported to the FBI and crime report frequencies (i.e., 

records in a records management system of a police 

agency). 

Technology. The problem analyst need not know how to fix 

a computer but should have basic knowledge about the 

advantages and limits of technology both for data collection 

and analysis.

Statistics. The problem analyst should have knowledge of 

measures of descriptive and inferential statistics as well as 

forecasting. A master’s-level knowledge of social science 

statistics is appropriate (sufficient, for example, to 

understand concepts such as multiple regression analysis), 

and a particular knowledge of cross-sectional and timeseries analysis is recommended. 

 

Geographic information systems (GIS) and spatial 

analysis. Because of the importance of geography and 

crime and the focus of problem solving and crime 

prevention on “places,” the problem analyst must have 

knowledge of geographic information systems technology 

as well as the nature of spatial data and analysis. One must 

understand how a GIS is used and the types of data that are 

necessary and that can potentially be analyzed. Knowledge 

of analysis techniques and their appropriateness and 

practicality in policing is also important. For example, 

single symbol maps are used often in policing. However, in 

a single symbol map, when two incidents occur at the same 

location, the symbols are placed exactly on top of one 

another and thus cannot be distinguished. On a single 

symbol map depicting burglaries, it would be impossible to 

determine the number of incidents (without a list of cases). 
 

Integrating Problem Analysis into a Police Agency

Problem Analysis in Policing 20

Using graduated symbols or more complex methods may 

be more appropriate. It is important for the problem analyst 

to be aware of the capabilities of the technology, the 

various types of spatial data and techniques, as well as their 

relevance and practicality to problem solving and police 

analysis. 

History and current state of policing. It is important that a 

problem analyst working in a police agency understands the 

evolution of policing and its current state. Knowledge of 

policing history as it has evolved over the past century and 

a half is important. Major police research findings 

regarding the effectiveness or ineffectiveness of accepted 

practices such as preventive patrol and rapid response, for 

example, are of particular importance. Although problem 

analysts might not be intimately familiar with the wide 

range of issues that confront police executives and police 

scholars, they should have some general appreciation of 

how policing has evolved and the role of analysis within 

conventional expectations and practices. 

Dynamics and nature of policing. The problem analyst 

should have knowledge of the nature of police 

organizations and police culture and, more specifically, the 

history and nature of the particular agency where s/he is 

employed. The analyst must understand the ways in which 

police officers, detectives, civilians, management, etc. 

interact with one another. In addition, they must understand 

the nature of street policing; that is, how crime and disorder 

are dealt with by line-level officers. 

Policing and the criminal justice system. Related to the 

previous category, this includes a basic understanding—

what might be taught in an introductory criminology 

course—of how police fit into the criminal justice system. 

There needs to be an 

understanding of 

policing, of street 

policing, of crime 

problems, and how they 

operate on the street, 

which I think many 

civilian analysts who 

have not spent a lot of 

time either riding with 

police officers or serving 

as police officers lack. 

There are insights about 

problems that really only 

come from some kind of 

knowledge of what 

happens on the street on 

a daily basis. 

–Mike Scott

It is important to have 

familiarity with the 

dynamics of policing, its 

complexity, and the 

changing nature of the 

police function—what it is 

today and what we think it 

ought to be. It is 

important, too, to have an 

in-depth understanding of 

the police role within the 

criminal justice system, 

the extent to which they 

depend upon it, both the 

use and abuse they make 

of it, and what the 

consequences of all of 

these dynamics 

are....Because you are 

asking the analyst to look 

at a behavioral problem in 

relation to these dynamics 

and to be open to the 

notion that there are 

potentially more effective 

responses than just 

detection and arrest. 

–Herman Goldstein
 

Integrating Problem Analysis into a Police Agency 

21 Police Foundation 

Problem-oriented policing. Problem analysis is a result of 

Herman Goldstein’s concepts of problem-oriented policing 

and problem solving. Thus, the problem analyst should 

have intricate knowledge of these concepts. In addition, the 

analyst should have knowledge of the practical application 

of these concepts including the successes and failures over 

the past twenty years.

Understanding crime problems. Problem analysis requires 

an understanding of crime, disorder, and public safety 

problems. This is not to say that the analyst understands all 

different types of problems. However, over time and 

through literature reviews and practical experience, the 

analyst would develop an understanding of the 

complexities of various public safety and crime problems 

as well as their context in his/her own jurisdiction. 

Urban issues and policies/strategic planning. Because the 

problem analyst will be examining issues in a context much 

broader than policing, knowledge of general aspects of 

local government, such as urban and rural development 

policies, is important, as many crime problems and their 

responses are not just police-centered. The problem analyst 

is seen as a person with a “world view” in the police 

department, having the ability to ask the appropriate people 

outside policing the appropriate questions about a particular 

problem. More specifically, the problem analyst should 

have knowledge of strategic planning in a general sense 

and how it is practiced in his/her agency. It is important 

that the analyst not be the person responsible for strategic 

planning, but rather be informed about the process and 

contribute to its development in an agency. In an agency 

that is practicing problem-oriented policing, the problem 

analyst will be an important contributor to a strategic plan. 

It is important that such a 

person have at least 

some understanding of 

urban issues, urban 

affairs, urban policies, 

forms of regulation, the 

responsibilities of 

different levels of 

government—all of which 

connect with the problem 

that they would be 

examining. 

–Herman Goldstein
 

Integrating Problem Analysis into a Police Agency

Problem Analysis in Policing 22

Skills 

A skill is the ability to use one’s own knowledge effectively in a 

particular situation. The following are skills important to any 

professional, but are described here by how they are important to 

the problem analyst: 

Communication. There are several types of communication 

skills that are important to the problem analysis function. 

The first is interpersonal communication with a variety of 

people both within the police organization and outside of it. 

Inside the police organization, individuals with whom it is 

important to communicate range from officers and 

sergeants to commanders and chiefs, as well as civilian 

employees such as records clerks, volunteers, call takers, 

and dispatchers. This is an important skill for problem 

analysts in that it is often necessary to interview individuals 

to find out more about a problem or to work with them to 

obtain data sources or other information. Additionally, 

communication with others outside the police organization, 

such as citizens, victims of crime, offenders, 

representatives from other police agencies, and academics 

is also important. The individual conducting problem 

analysis is responsible not only for obtaining information 

but may also be responsible for being the intermediary 

between the police and academics or the federal 

government. While it may seem intuitive that analysts need 

to have these skills, they also need support from police 

management to conduct this type of communication. In the 

forum, Pat Drummy provided an example of how 

interpersonal communication is a challenge in a police 

organization: 

We started the crime analysis unit with 

two analysts who we hired to do the work, 

and we also had two officers in the unit. 

The analysts are not the 

experts in street policing, 

officers are. The analysts 

are the experts in theory, 

research, and statistics, 

and each group can 

contribute to problem 

analysis by 

communicating with one 

another. 

–Rachel Boba
 

Integrating Problem Analysis into a Police Agency 

23 Police Foundation 

Because we knew that the officers would 

not talk to analysts, the analysts would 

develop the information, hand it to the 

police officer in the unit, who would walk 

down the corridor into the investigator’s 

office and say, “Here is the information,” 

and the investigator would say, “Well, 

this is very, very interesting. Could you 

give me a little more information?” And 

the officer would say, “Just a second, I 

will get it for you.” And go back to the 

analyst to get it. 

The second type of communication is presentation skills. 

An individual conducting problem analysis must be able to 

present various types of information, such as analysis 

results or an overview of a project, to various types of 

audiences, including police personnel, city government 

officials, community groups, professional groups, etc. 

Developing and making presentations entails deciding what 

information to present and how, and often requires 

political, practical, and ethical considerations. 

The third type of communication is writing skills. The 

problem analyst, more so than the traditional crime analyst, 

will be tasked with writing research proposals and 

comprehensive research reports that include a literature 

review, methodology, and statistical analysis. The analyst 

will also be responsible for executive summaries of the 

research work for particular audiences as well as for taking 

material (e.g., complex research by others) and interpreting 

it for the police audience. 

Another type of communication skill is marketing. This 

includes being an advocate of problem analysis. The police 

community is not 100 percent supportive or knowledgeable 
 

Integrating Problem Analysis into a Police Agency

Problem Analysis in Policing 24

about problem solving and, even in a department that has 

hired an individual to conduct problem analysis, all 

members may not believe in it or understand it. Thus, the 

problem analyst must have marketing skills to explain and 

demonstrate how important problem analysis is and what it 

can do for the department and the community. The 

proactive aspect of marketing is probably the most 

important aspect of this skill, and the analyst should be 

motivated to seek out, talk to, and ask questions of these 

colleagues, rather than wait for them. 

Another type of communication skill is facilitation. In the 

context of developing a problem-solving project, a problem 

analyst may be tasked with bringing a group of relevant 

individuals together to outline the process or discuss an 

issue. Facilitation skills are important in this task and 

include organizing the meeting, being objective, keeping 

the group on task, obtaining consensus on concrete 

outcomes from the meeting, and making sure everyone 

participates and is heard. 

Lastly, one of the most important communication skills is 

listening. It is not enough to examine data, collect new 

data, and conduct a literature review for a project; asking 

and listening to officers, civilian employees, and the 

community about their experiences and perceptions of a 

particular problem or set of problems is important. Much of 

the knowledge that exists in police departments is based on 

experience and can often be anecdotal. However, it is the 

responsibility of the problem analyst to take in a variety of 

experiences and use that information to contribute to a 

comprehensive picture of a problem. 

Literature review skills. An important aspect of problem 

analysis is learning from others’ successes and failures and 

presenting that information to make an argument or to 

I think that, speaking on 

behalf of analysts, there 

is such a pressure on us 

to get out solutions that 

we tend to go through a 

linear process as quick 

as we can just to 

produce analysis so the 

officers can respond. We 

forget the creativity that 

comes from 

brainstorming and critical 

analysis. 

–Pat Drummy
 

Integrating Problem Analysis into a Police Agency 

25 Police Foundation 

inform a research project. Thus, problem analysts need to 

have the ability to synthesize relevant literature about a 

topic for various audiences that might include police 

management, federal government grantors, journals, media, 

and community groups. The problem analyst should also 

have the skills to obtain the relevant literature (e.g., through 

the Internet or through searches of criminal justice 

periodicals databases). 

Critical thinking. Critical thinking is one of the most 

important skills in conducting problem analysis. Critical 

thinking is not knowledge about a problem but is a skill of 

examining and thinking about a problem. It begins with 

questioning what others believe to be fact and realizing that 

there is more than one way of examining a problem. Much 

of what we think about crime problems in policing is based 

on what we know from personal experiences and what we 

find from examining secondary data. Taking such 

information as fact and as representing the problem can be 

flawed. Thus, it is crucial that the problem analyst look at 

everything with a critical and questioning eye. 

Research skills. The problem analyst must have basic 

research skills which include generating hypotheses and 

developing a research methodology to test the hypotheses, 

that is, developing ideas that need testing about a particular 

problem and constructing research and analysis to test them 

appropriately. Knowing the various types of research and 

their components is one thing; applying them appropriately 

is another. This is particularly important because problem 

analysis occurs in a practical context, and much of what is 

learned in formal research methodology courses may need 

to be altered as it may not be realistic or practical. 

Use of technology. Conducting problem analysis requires 

rigorous use of various types of software to collect, code, 

It is not just sitting there 

expecting something to 

hit you in the eye. It’s 

actually proactively 

milking that data...having 

some thoughts in your 

head about what you’re 

looking for. 

–Gloria Laycock
 

Integrating Problem Analysis into a Police Agency

Problem Analysis in Policing 26

and manipulate data as well as conduct analysis. The 

problem analyst should have technical skills and experience 

using word processing, database, and mapping software. 

The problem analyst will not only need these skills in order 

to analyze and present data, but may also be called upon to 

analyze future technology needs of the problem-analysis 

function or the agency as a whole. 

Data. The problem analyst will be working with many 

different types of data sources and data formats. As noted 

earlier, the analyst should have knowledge of the various 

databases and issues of data integrity. In addition, the 

problem analyst should have data manipulation skills which 

include the ability to collect and code primary data, create 

databases, and work with secondary data (e.g., recoding, 

computing and combining variables, and constructing data 

queries). 

Project management. Problem-analysis endeavors can be 

fairly large, complex projects; thus, the problem analyst 

should have organization, time management, and 

supervisory skills to oversee and successfully implement 

these projects. Project management may include organizing 

problem-solving partners, collecting and managing large 

amounts of data, organizing and facilitating meetings, and 

preparing interim and final reports. These tasks can quickly 

become overwhelming if the problem analyst is not skilled 

in project management. 

There are many specific skills and types of knowledge important to 

problem analysis. An overview such as this informs the assertion 

that problem analysis is a more in-depth form of crime analysis as 

it is being practiced today. Although it may be difficult to find one 

person who has all of these skills and knowledge, an individual can 

be hired with some of the skills and knowledge and can work to 

obtain more over time. For example, an agency may hire an 
 

Integrating Problem Analysis into a Police Agency 

27 Police Foundation 

individual with a degree who has formal research and statistical 

training but not practical experience. The knowledge of police 

organizations, crime problems, and police data would be obtained 

once the person began working, provided that person had a 

proactive approach towards being involved, listening, and learning. 

One of the most important skills in this and any case is the 

person’s curiosity and critical thinking ability as these are the skills 

that put the analyst in the position to obtain knowledge they may 

not have and provide the police agency with an alternative 

perspective. 

Overall, it is recommended that a problem analyst come into a 

position with a master’s degree or equivalent level of skills, 

knowledge, and experience, particularly about criminology/social 

science theory, research methods, and statistics. The individual’s 

knowledge and skills should be sufficiently advanced to permit 

him/her to be proficient in performing the basic tasks essential to 

problem analysis. For example, if the extent of an analyst’s 

knowledge is mean and standard deviation, s/he is not going to be 

able to apply these statistics easily. However, if s/he knows much 

more advanced statistics, s/he will know mean and standard 

deviation very well and be able to apply it appropriately. If the 

analyst attempts to apply limited knowledge, it would be difficult 

to determine its proper use and appropriateness to the situation 

without outside assistance. 

An agency could avoid this problem by requiring either a master’s 

degree or a bachelor’s degree with a certain number of years of 

experience. A minimum requirement of a bachelor’s degree is 

recommended. This would help to assure, but may not guarantee, 

that the problem analyst has experience conducting literature 

reviews, constructing and implementing research projects, and has 

adequate theoretical training. Additional testing and a thorough 

interview process for such a position should be combined with 

these minimum requirements. It may be the case that a police 

agency does not have personnel adequate to judge the skills and 

To be an effective 

problem analyst, it is 

necessary to be 

academically and 

scientifically curious, to 

always be wondering 

why things are the way 

they are and how they 

might be made different. 

–Mike Scott
 

Integrating Problem Analysis into a Police Agency

Problem Analysis in Policing 28

knowledge of a potential problem analyst, in which case academics 

and researchers can assist in the selection process. 

What is the role of problem analysis in a police agency? 

Interestingly, there are already positions in policing that require 

many of the skills, knowledge, and organizational support 

described thus far. However, many of these individuals are 

responsible for crime analysis, evaluation and research, strategic 

planning, or grant writing. The problem analyst is distinguished 

from these types of positions in that the problem analyst is linked 

directly to the problem-solving process and the operations of the 

department. 

The fundamental purpose of the problem analyst is to participate in 

the problem-solving activities in the department. Much of what a 

problem analyst does would overlap with many of the duties of 

other positions in a police agency. Ideally, these duties would not 

be included as the primary responsibilities of a problem analyst 

because they would detract from the problem-solving process. For 

example, one may argue that resource allocation should be a 

responsibility of a problem analyst, since often a response to a 

particular problem involves directed patrol. However, it might be 

useful for a problem analyst to help construct a staffing plan that 

would address a particular problem and be part of a response in a 

problem-solving context. It would not be advisable for a problem 

analyst to conduct the resource allocation analysis for the entire 

department, as this duty is not directly relevant to the problemsolving process. 

Where should problem analysis be placed within the 

police organization? 

Based on the necessary skills and knowledge, once an individual is 

selected to conduct problem analysis, where does s/he fit in the 

police organization? There are two considerations in placement. 

The person conducting 

problem analysis should 

participate in weekly staff 

meetings as well as other 

operations activities. 

Because when we’re 

talking policy, when we 

are talking operations, 

we want that person 

sitting there as the expert 

to be able to ask the 

tough questions: “How 

should we be thinking 

about this problem?” 

“What does this relate 

to?” 

–Ron Glensor
 

Integrating Problem Analysis into a Police Agency 

29 Police Foundation 

The first is where to place the problem-analysis function within the 

organizational chart/chain of command, and the second is the 

physical location of the office(s) of the person conducting problem 

analysis. Generally, the problem-analysis function should have a 

relatively prominent position in the organization in both contexts. 

Organizational placement. There was some debate on the 

issue of organizational placement by participants in the 

forum. Some felt that the problem analyst should be 

independent of the chief executive in order to have an 

independent perspective on problems in the community and 

not be tasked with meeting all of the special information 

needs of the chief’s office. Others felt it was critical that the 

function report directly to the chief to give the position 

legitimacy and status, similar to how the chief budget 

officer and the internal affairs commander report directly to 

the chief. This would also provide the problem analyst 

access to the entire police department and the influence 

necessary for making meaningful suggestions to the chief. 

Still others felt that it would not be necessary for the 

problem analyst to report to the chief—only that the analyst 

be able to have periodic contact with the chief, command 

staff, managers, supervisors, patrol officers, crime analysts, 

and other departmental staff. 

It is important that the problem-analysis function have 

prestige within the organization but also have a neutral 

placement. This would prevent problem analysis from 

being focused on one particular area of the department or 

another (e.g., patrol vs. investigations). That is, if this 

function is supervised by a specific division, it may become 

less neutral by doing work for that division only, since the 

person conducting problem analysis reports to the head of 

that division. 
 

Integrating Problem Analysis into a Police Agency

Problem Analysis in Policing 30

Physical placement. The placement of an individual 

conducting problem analysis in a particular office also 

warrants consideration. It is recommended that the office 

provide reasonable access to all areas of the department. 

Access to the chief and upper management as well as to the 

line-level staff is important, although this is when the 

proactive nature of the problem analyst comes into play. 

This person must make an effort to be seen by and work 

with officers, detectives, dispatchers, records clerks, and 

the crime analysts, which means leaving the office and 

approaching them. This will encourage interaction, which 

in time will build a rapport for collaborative research. 

The placement of an individual conducting problem 

analysis will vary by size of an agency. What is appropriate 

in a smaller agency employing one problem analyst might 

be different in a larger agency with a team of problem 

analysts. For example, a senior-level problem analyst might 

supervise a number of problem analysts who are placed in 

decentralized locations. The supervising analyst would then 

be located at central headquarters and assume more 

administrative and managerial tasks. The importance here 

is that the problem-analysis function, however it is 

operationalized, is accessible to senior-level police 

personnel.

There was much discussion about whether the problem 

analyst should be in the same office as the crime analyst or 

police planner. It is recommended that the problem analyst 

be located separately (i.e., in a different office) but close to 

these individuals (e.g., on the same floor or in the same 

building). This recommendation stems from the concern 

that the problem analyst would be drawn into doing tactical 

crime analysis and day-to-day planning work. It is 

important that the problem analyst be free from this type of 

work, but s/he should have a working relationship with the 

It might be helpful to think 

in terms of having two 

offices—one office having 

a label on the door that 

says “Problem Analysis” 

and the other office 

having a label on the door 

that says “Crime 

Analysis,” with an 

understanding that if the 

people in Problem 

Analysis want something 

from the Crime Analysis 

people, they can go down 

the hall and get it to use in 

their analysis and vice 

versa. 

–Herman Goldstein
 

Integrating Problem Analysis into a Police Agency 

31 Police Foundation 

crime analyst and/or police planner since they may need 

information from one another and are both in the analysis 

business. 

What does a problem analyst need from the 

organization? 

As discussed above, the problem-analysis function should have 

access to all levels of the department and requires a high level of 

skills and knowledge. Thus, a problem-analysis position demands a 

salary that is comparable to other professional staff salaries in the 

police agency. Obviously, the actual salary would depend on the 

size and location of the police agency within the United States. 

In addition to hiring an individual with appropriate skills and 

knowledge and paying them an appropriate salary, there are many 

more things a police organization can do to support problem 

analysis. Because problem analysis has not been part of everyday 

police activities, a police organization must make a conscious 

effort to support its integration and acceptance. Most importantly, 

the problem-analysis function must be supported by the 

management of the organization. This support is manifested in 

many ways, but it is grounded in the attitude of the management 

staff and how problem analysis is addressed throughout the 

organization. The problem-analysis function must be spoken of 

with respect and an emphasis on legitimacy and, as discussed 

above, placed in a prominent position in the department. In the 

forum, John Eck goes so far as to say that support by management 

is much more important than placement: 

Where [the problem-analysis function] is located 

in the organization is less important than the 

unambiguous support from the top for the notion 

that it is a viable way of dealing with police 

business. If you have that, it does not matter if the 
 

Integrating Problem Analysis into a Police Agency

Problem Analysis in Policing 32

problem analyst reports directly to the chief or 

other executives. 

The management of a police organization can support problem 

analysis with resources and access. One type of resource that the 

problem-analysis function requires is time. This means time to 

conduct problem analysis free from day-to-day crime analysis 

duties (e.g., preparation of crime counts and monthly reports), 

administrative analysis (e.g., resource allocation), strategic 

planning, and grant writing for the entire police department (i.e., 

writing grants for additional officers). In addition, not only must 

there be time in the day to conduct problem-analysis activities, 

there must be time to analyze, to respond, and to assess. In other 

words, organizations must be patient with problem solving and 

problem analysis. Problem analysis requires thoughtful, often 

multifaceted, analysis of more than Part I crime statistics and may 

even warrant primary data collection, which can take time. In 

addition, time must be allowed for a response to be implemented 

before it is evaluated. Evaluating a response after one, two, or even 

six months can be unproductive depending on the response, since it 

had little time to take effect. With many responses, there is an 

implementation effect and if enough time is not allowed before 

evaluation, the assessment is of the implementation, not of the 

response. 

Another type of support problem analysis requires is adequate 

funding for expenses such as citizen surveys, statistical software, 

short-term consultants to assist with difficult or large projects or 

analyses, or interns/students for data collection. Yet, it is not 

enough to provide the funding for technology or interns as problem 

analysis requires adequate secondary data (i.e., data already 

collected by the agency) and access to it. This does not mean just 

having data available but making a commitment to providing 

reliable, valid data in a timely manner which can require additional 

training and resources. Problem analysts should be provided 

support through access to all levels of the department. This is 

An important point is 

access to data. We 

assume that the analysts 

get data, but it is not true 

in all organizations. Three 

of the agencies around 

my jurisdiction refused to 

participate with us when 

we sat down with them. 

The reason they refused 

is their people didn’t have 

the data. We assumed 

that a lot of these 

agencies are 

computerized or that data 

is already compiled. It is 

simply not. It is on 3-x-5 

cards stored somewhere 

in shoe boxes that 

somebody is going to 

have to go through and 

pull out what they want. 

–Bob Heimberger
 

Integrating Problem Analysis into a Police Agency 

33 Police Foundation 

necessary to approach personnel for interviews for primary data 

collection, to clarify issues, to conduct ride-a-longs, as well as to 

have access to all data and potential data in the department. There 

is often a barrier for civilian analysts when it comes to intelligence 

data, and it is important that the problem analyst also be provided 

with more sensitive data as necessary. This is an example of when 

it may be important for problem analysis to be conducted by a 

member of the police organization, as sharing sensitive data may 

be easier with an employee than with an external researcher. 
 

The Advancement of Problem Analysis

Problem Analysis in Policing 34

The Advancement of Problem Analysis 

Because high-level problem analysis is not being routinely 

practiced by most police agencies, there are not many examples to 

demonstrate its relevance and worth or to use as models for 

integration. Most police agencies do not yet view problem analysis 

as a necessity to police business and they need to be convinced. 

Thus, one of the conclusions by participants of the forum was that 

problem analysis will not be adopted quickly or easily and that a 

collective, concerted effort by various institutions with vested 

interests is necessary. The discussion here focuses on specific ways 

that police, academia, the federal government, nonprofit 

organizations, city government, and the community can contribute 

to the advancement of problem analysis. 

Role of local police 

The previous section discusses how individual agencies can hire 

and support problem analysts within their organizations. More 

generally, local police agencies can contribute to advancing 

problem analysis by adopting problem solving (i.e., begin 

analyzing and assessing problems in addition to responding to 

them) and giving problem analysis a chance to be successful. As an 

endeavor that is new to policing, problem analysis can be 

demanding, may deal with complex issues, and may not prove to 

be immediately successful. Like problem solving and community 

policing more generally, problem analysis is a change in 

perspective that focuses on learning more about a problem from 

what others have done and from spending some time and resources 

investigating it before responding. Hopefully, with the assistance 

of other organizations (discussed below), integrating problem 

analysis into a local police agency will be made easier. These 

organizations can help to provide funding, training, guidance, a 

forum for communication, political support, etc. Ultimately, 

I am increasingly 

convinced if police 

agencies are left to their 

own devices, they are 

not going to do problem 

analysis to any great 

extent...they depend 

very much on external 

pressure. 

–Mike Scott

This is one of those 

chicken-and-egg 

problems; we do not have 

the problem analysts 

because no one has ever 

demanded them. 

–John Eck
 

The Advancement of Problem Analysis 

35 Police Foundation 

however, it is the role of the local police agencies to allow and 

encourage it to happen. 

Role of academia 

Academia can assist in the advancement of problem analysis in 

many ways. The primary roles it can play are as a place for 

problem-analysis training, for conducting and providing guidance 

for problem-analysis projects, and for the development of a body 

of problem-analysis literature. 

Academic institutions, specifically criminology, criminal justice, 

and public policy departments, can offer classes at both the 

undergraduate and graduate levels that focus on problem solving 

and particularly problem analysis. These classes would be taught 

from a practical perspective in that concepts would be defined and 

exemplified through practical examples. They might also include a 

combination of traditional students and police professionals so that 

they might learn from one another. Academic programs could 

provide and encourage fellowships and internships in problem 

analysis, which would provide students the opportunity to apply 

their formal research skills in a practical setting in a limited, 

supervised manner. A partnership between a university and a 

police department in which students work for free to conduct a 

specific research project would benefit all involved—the students, 

the police agency, as well as the university. 

Academics can also advance problem analysis by conducting high 

quality action-research evaluations of problem-solving efforts, 

partnering with agencies to support problem-analysis projects, and 

making presentations of methodology and findings at both 

academic and practitioner-oriented conferences. On an individual 

level, academics can serve as mentors to undergraduate and 

graduate students as well as to practitioners by assisting with 

problem-analysis activities. They can offer ad hoc/free advice to 

problem analysts working in the field as part of their community 

Internships are very 

important for both police 

and students. The police 

departments bring in 

graduate or 

undergraduate students 

who work fairly 

inexpensively and have 

skills in statistics and 

research. On the other 

hand, internships give 

students practical 

experience and show 

them that law 

enforcement analysis is 

a potentially rewarding 

career. 

–Rachel Boba

If you look at the big 

academic organizations, 

like the ASC and the ACJS 

and their conference 

panels, publications in 

Criminology and Justice 

Quarterly, they are not 

going to be about problem 

analysis. If you want to 

write something in this area 

and you want to get it 

published, where are you 

going to do it? 

–John Eck
 

The Advancement of Problem Analysis

Problem Analysis in Policing 36

service requirements. Academics conducting evaluations and 

assisting problem analysts can also publish their work in journals 

or other forums (e.g., government publications or as Internet 

documents) and encourage and help practitioners publish their own 

work. The academic community can contribute by supporting a 

new journal dedicated to problem solving and by encouraging 

current journals to be more receptive to problem-analysis (more 

practically) focused articles. 

Regrettably, because problem analysis is somewhat of a new 

concept, even many academics are not aware of its importance to 

policing and its relevance to degree programs. As a result, the role 

of academia is currently limited by the small number of academics 

qualified to instruct problem-analysis classes, oversee internships, 

and conduct evaluations. Thus, another task of current problemsolving/analysis academics is to encourage other academics to 

learn more about and participate in problem-solving and problemanalysis activities. 

Role of the federal government 

Various agencies within the United States federal government can 

assist in the advancement of problem analysis by challenging the 

police community, encouraging problem analysis, providing 

funding and training, publishing case studies and research, and 

providing examples of innovation. Some of these federal agencies 

relevant to this discussion include components of the Department 

of Justice, such as the Office of Community Oriented Policing 

Services (COPS), National Institute of Justice (NIJ), NIJ’s 

Mapping and Analysis for Public Safety (MAPS) program, NIJ’s 

National Law Enforcement and Corrections Technology Center 

(NLECTC) program, Bureau of Justice Assistance (BJA), Bureau 

of Justice Statistics (BJS), National Criminal Justice Reference 

Service (NCJRS), Justice Technology Information Network 

(JUSTNET), and the Partnership Against Violence Network 

(PAVNET).

Discussions of the 

relationship between 

practitioners and 

academics often start with 

the notion that there is a 

big body of expertise out 

there in academia that is 

capable of being 

immediately helpful to the 

police. The reality is that 

relatively few academics—

a good number around this 

table—have developed the 

capacity to analyze 

problems the police 

confront in that way. We 

need a much larger 

representation in academia 

who are committed to this 

work. The challenge is how 

to increase that number. 

–Herman Goldstein
 

The Advancement of Problem Analysis 

37 Police Foundation 

Federal agencies can challenge the police community to conduct 

problem analysis at all levels. This would be operationalized 

through informal conversations, formal presentations, funding 

opportunities, provisions for technical assistance, as well as 

incorporating problem analysis into a variety of federal programs. 

The federal government could provide funding for a variety of 

endeavors supporting problem analysis. One example is bringing 

together experts in the field to develop a problem-analysis training 

curriculum that would be available for use by nonprofit 

organizations, membership organizations, and academia to train 

current and future problem analysts. In addition, the government 

could conduct such training through some of its established 

training facilities (e.g., Regional Community Policing Institutes). 

Another method of advancement is providing funding for the 

publication of problem-analysis activities. Whether it is through a 

series similar to the Problem-Oriented Guides for Police Series

published by the COPS Office or through the Research in Brief

series published by NIJ, the federal government could help to 

create a library of literature on problem-analysis guidelines and 

examples of research. Important here is synthesizing information 

that is being created by various parties and feeding it back to the 

problem-analysis community. Herman Goldstein addressed this 

point in the forum: 

If one is really committed to reforming police in 

this country, then acquiring and synthesizing the 

type of knowledge we are seeking and 

disseminating it to police departments are a high 

priority. Doing so would enable the police to act 

more intelligently with regard to specific 

problems. It would enable the police to be in a 

better position to describe to the public what they 

can and cannot do. That would equip both the 

police and the public to redefine the whole police 

There needs to be a body 

of knowledge that these 

problem-solver crime 

analysts can go to for a 

little summary of 

everything we need to do.

–Ron Clarke

I think a major role that 

the federal government 

could play in this is trying 

to organize this material. 

Essentially, it is a 

sophisticated library 

function, but it is also a 

synthesis function. 

–John Eck
 

The Advancement of Problem Analysis

Problem Analysis in Policing 38

operation in a way that makes what now often 

seems impossible possible. Being able to act 

honestly and intelligently, based on carefully 

developed knowledge, could help attract more 

people into the field that are challenged by the 

fact that this is a very complicated business; that 

policies and practices are based upon a body of 

knowledge and information that drives decisions. 

Government agencies have historically provided successful case 

studies for others to learn from. Just as important, however, is the 

publication of unsuccessful case studies from which much could be 

gleaned. It is important not only to understand “what works” but 

what does not work and to understand under what conditions 

things do and do not work. 

The success of the Mapping and Analysis for Public Safety 

(MAPS) program (formerly called the Crime Mapping Research 

Center) in advancing crime mapping serves as an excellent 

example for problem analysis. One could imagine a center for 

problem analysis in which a staff of professionals speaks the 

problem-analysis word, sponsors projects, and oversees research 

and reports. Keith Harries’ (1999) book, Mapping Crime: 

Principle and Practice, funded by the National Institute of Justice, 

is an excellent example of a significant contribution to the crimemapping field. While costly to write and publish, it is seen as a 

must read in the crime-mapping community. Putting this much 

funding and commitment towards the advancement of problem 

analysis would jumpstart the movement. The success of the annual 

crime-mapping conference is another example of advancing a 

cause in that it has been successful at bringing together 

practitioners and researchers interested in a common issue. An 

annual conference on problem analysis (or a track within the 

Problem-Oriented Policing Conference co-sponsored by the Police 

Executive Research Forum and the San Diego Police Department) 

in which practitioners and researchers come together to talk about 

In the first two or three 

years that we [MAPS] 

were in existence, four or 

five or six of us spent two 

or three trips a month out 

in the field making 

presentations, talking to 

officers. We created a 

Web page and started the 

“crimemap” listserv. So 

we spent a lot of time 

getting the message out, 

“Hey, this is a tool that 

you could use,” and 

teaching people how to 

use it, making it 

affordable, creating crimemapping packages that 

were free. We paid 

attention to what the 

practitioners were asking 

for, and, as for the 

researchers, we brought 

them to the table as well. 

–Debra Stoe
 

The Advancement of Problem Analysis 

39 Police Foundation 

analysis and assessment techniques and practical examples in 

which problem analysis was used (not just focusing on responses) 

would be invaluable in advancing problem analysis. 

Lastly, there was much discussion about thinking creatively about 

how the federal government can contribute to the advancement of 

problem solving and problem analysis. A suggestion made by 

Gloria Laycock and Ron Clarke seeks to elevate the responsibility 

of the federal government within the problem-solving process by 

advocating a proactive role to address criminogenic products. To 

quote Gloria Laycock: 

...In other words, that cars have proper locks. I 

know there is nothing the police can do about dud 

car locks and there is nothing the police can do or 

the community for that matter about mobile 

phones that are designed so that they still work if 

they pinch them. The federal government’s got to 

take some responsibility for that because they 

have let contracts to these great international 

corporations to market goods which are frankly 

going to cause crime....It is problem solving for 

federal governments. 

Role of other organizations 

Other organizations that can assist in the advancement of problem 

analysis include nonprofit institutions such as the Police 

Foundation, the Institute for Law and Justice, and the Vera 

Institute, and membership organizations such as the International 

Association of Crime Analysts, the Police Executive Research 

Forum, the National Sheriffs’ Association, and the International 

Association of Chiefs of Police. 

Nonprofit and membership organizations can advance problem 

analysis by encouraging problem analysis and promoting problem 

The Police Foundation is 

trying to get police 

departments up-tospeed so that 

designated personnel 

can perform problem 

analysis effectively and 

conduct a level of 

research that will be 

meaningful. 

–Hubert Williams

We need to stimulate 

interest from within the 

crime analysis community 

itself. There has not been 

a lot of focus on getting 

them on board with this 

whole notion of problem 

analysis. Right now, crime 

analysts think differently 

about their jobs because 

greater value is being 

placed in the tactical 

predictive area as 

opposed to helping solve 

problems. 

–Veh Bezdikian
 

The Advancement of Problem Analysis

Problem Analysis in Policing 40

analysis through conferences, presentations, research, and 

literature. For example, a membership organization can have 

several slots for problem-analysis workshops, presentations, or 

even an entire track in an annual or regional conference. These 

organizations can also present at national conferences or in local 

jurisdictions. With links to practitioners, professionals, and 

academics, they can serve as an intermediary to bring these groups 

together on problem analysis, fostering communication and 

information/data sharing. They can include problem-analysis 

concepts and articles in their own publications and newsletters and 

assist the government in collecting, synthesizing, and 

disseminating current information. 

A current example is the creation of a new Center for ProblemOriented Policing, the startup for which is being funded by the 

COPS Office. The Center for Problem-Oriented Policing is headed 

by Michael Scott, one of the forum participants, in collaboration 

with Rutgers University, the University at Albany, and the COPS 

Office. Its objectives are to (1) translate research into useful 

information that informs police practice; (2) educate police 

practitioners and researchers in the principles and methods of 

problem-oriented policing; and (3) make knowledge acquisition 

about problem-oriented policing more efficient. 

Other organizations might provide problem-analysis fellowships 

and internships for practitioners as well as for academics who have 

little practical experience. They could assist the federal 

government with implementing its programs, such as the 

development and implementation of problem-analysis training as 

well as conducting evaluations of problem-analysis efforts. 

Nonprofit research and membership organizations can also stake 

out a problem-specific research area which would enable them to 

contribute new and useful knowledge about the effectiveness of 

specific crime problem interventions and also become the experts 

on a particular topic of great concern to the police community. 

One of the first pieces I 

ever wrote on the subject 

of discretion stemmed 

from a lesson I learned 

when I was working with a 

city manager. He was 

being harassed by a 

member of the city council 

to do more about expired 

parking meters. The 

council member came to 

the city manager’s office 

every day with a list of all 

the meters that he had 

noted were expired and 

would say, “Do something 

about this.” 

Pressured by the same 

council member at a 

meeting of the council, the 

city manager offered this 

response, “I can have a 

police force in which we’ll 

have one person 

assigned to each meter 

(provided we can develop 

a system in which we can 

keep that person awake) 

so that when a flag goes 

up, that car will get a 

ticket.” 

The city manager was 

drawing attention to the 

relationship between 

enforcement and 

capacity. It is rare for a 

city administrator or a 

police chief to tell a 

legislative body that they 

have enacted a law that 

cannot, for various 

reasons, be enforced. A 

chief is reluctant to say, 

“I’m not going to do what 

the legislature told me to 

do.” But if an 

administrator is committed 

to analyzing the problem, 

the results of that analysis 

can be used to explain 

more fully the impossibility 

of being committed to full 

enforcement. 

–Herman Goldstein
 

The Advancement of Problem Analysis 

41 Police Foundation 

Finally, because the work of problem analysis and crime analysis 

is so interrelated, the International Association of Crime Analysts 

(IACA) can contribute significantly to this effort. This 

organization, along with others, can seek to set and make public 

standards for problem analysis by expecting more from their 

constituency and by including advanced topics in training classes, 

conferences, articles, etc. The issue of certification of analysts is a 

significant one and this organization can promote certification of 

problem analysts. Looking to the adoption of crime mapping as a 

model, the IACA and its annual conference could be an ideal place 

to bring practitioners and researchers together. 

Role of city government 

City governments can advance problem analysis by participating in 

the problem-solving process and taking a holistic approach to 

public safety, instead of holding the police exclusively responsible 

for addressing public safety problems. The city government can 

provide resources for personnel to conduct problem analysis (e.g., 

a problem-analysis position), and encourage analysis and 

accountability of all the parties involved. City governments can 

also encourage and provide resources for data sharing and data 

integration to enable problem analysis to integrate various data 

sources (both qualitative and quantitative) to examine a problem 

from a variety of perspectives. Three jurisdictions, Seattle, WA, 

Milwaukee, WI, and East Valley, CA, serve as examples through 

their participation in the National Institute of Justice program, 

Community Mapping, Planning, and Analysis for Safety Strategies 

(COMPASS), in which they have instituted a data infrastructure 

and analysis capability for addressing community safety problems 

at the city-level. For more information about the COMPASS 

program, go to the Web site at www.ojp.usdoj.gov/nij/compass. 
 

The Advancement of Problem Analysis

Problem Analysis in Policing 42

Role of the community 

The role of the community and community groups is two-fold. On 

the one hand, they can apply pressure to city governments and 

police departments by demanding information about crime 

problems as well as asking them to be smarter, proactive, and less 

reactive to community safety issues. Communities are beginning to 

expect city governments and police agencies to provide public 

safety information to them. By asking thoughtful questions of the 

police, they will facilitate police efforts to develop thoughtful 

answers to which problem analysis is a natural link. The media, 

too, can request, analyze, and publish useful information for their 

constituencies. 

Many police agencies have begun to provide information to the 

community over the Internet; however, much is lacking in that it is 

simple and incomplete. It is not enough to provide “raw data” to 

individuals who may not understand the nuances of crime data; a 

level of definitions and analysis must also be provided to the 

community. For example, the St. Louis, MO, Metropolitan Police 

Department now provides information to its residents over the 

Internet and, in addition to crime data, it provides a historical 

analysis that allows the citizens to view the data in a smarter and 

more useful way. 

On the other hand, the community can assist in the advancement of 

problem analysis by contributing information through community 

databases and cooperation with the police and problem analysts. 

Individual citizens, as well as community groups, have begun to 

partner with police agencies to respond to various types of 

problems through the problem-solving process. They can also 

partner to assist in data collection (e.g., citizen surveys about 

safety, crime prevention and victimization, pathways children take 

to school, location of drug markets, better reporting). By 
 

The Advancement of Problem Analysis 

43 Police Foundation 

partnering, the community can help the police collect relevant data 

that inform the problem-solving process, and, in turn, the agency 

can provide the analysis results back to the community so they 

both can work together towards a solution. 
 

An Agenda for Advancing Problem Analysis

Problem Analysis in Policing 44

An Agenda for Advancing Problem 

Analysis 

As noted throughout this report, there is work being done to 

advance problem analysis, though much of what is happening is on 

an ad hoc basis. Fully implementing all of these recommendations 

is an ambitious goal. However, if there is a grassroots movement 

of academics, government officials, and analysts interested and 

willing to fulfill these recommendations, we may see a significant 

change in American policing over the next five to ten years. 

Interestingly, the United Kingdom is going through a similar 

phenomenon in that a fairly small group of people are seeking to 

implement new types of analysis in policing. Even though some of 

the issues of policing are different between the two countries, if we 

can look to each other for assistance and cooperation, we may be 

able to have a greater impact. 

Most notably, the COPS Office has begun a comprehensive 

approach towards problem analysis with its publication of the 

Problem-Oriented Guides for Police Series, funding of the Center 

for Problem-Oriented Policing and the 2002 Problem-Analysis 

Forum, as well as other work advancing problem analysis. The 

future of problem analysis lies in the continued and increasing 

support of the COPS Office and in the collaborative work of 

individuals and organizations in this area who promote the idea, 

conduct problem analysis, and advance this emerging discipline. 

An approach that was recommended by the group is that the 

advancement of problem analysis should target police agencies and 

individuals that are predisposed to problem analysis, that is, 

organizations and individuals that are forward-thinking, that value 

research and analysis, and that believe in problem solving as a 

valuable approach to policing. If problem-analysis efforts are 

focused on these agencies and successful examples result, they can 

make up a critical mass of problem-analysis practitioners who can 

It is striking how similar 

the issues are here and 

in the United Kingdom in 

relation to crime 

analysts. Our work in this 

area is partly driven by a 

couple of particular chief 

constables that we have 

who are really keen on 

intelligence-led policing. 

They are calling it 

something different than 

problem analysis, but 

essentially it comes 

down to how you use 

analysts. 

–Gloria Laycock 

If you start out with the 

notion that you are going 

to try to reach the whole 

police establishment in 

this country in its current 

form and convert it, you 

are incredibly naïve. 

Rather, police must be 

given the opportunity, on 

their own initiative, to 

engage in an advanced 

effort in analyzing 

problems. They should be 

encouraged to do so. 

Those who take up the 

opportunity and succeed 

can then, as a cluster of 

either individuals or 

agencies, take the work 

forward, ultimately 

influencing their own 

organization as well as 

others. 

–Herman Goldstein
 

An Agenda for Advancing Problem Analysis 

 Police Foundation 45

demonstrate the value of using problem analysis and serve as role 

models for further integration. A particularly successful agency 

that is a model of problem-analysis integration, as the New York 

City Police Department was to COMPSTAT, can encourage others 

to adopt problem analysis. 

Another approach being implemented by the Police Foundation 

through funding from the COPS Office is the development and 

implementation of a problem-analysis pilot training program. Ten 

analysts from agencies already conducting problem solving will be 

chosen to participate in the pilot training which will be developed 

by the Police Foundation with help from experts in the field. These 

analysts would participate in the training, provide feedback, and 

seek to apply it in their respective agencies. The goal of this 

project is not only to create problem-analysis training curricula that 

can be used by academics and practitioners around the country, but 

also to create a group of motivated analysts who will discuss the 

concepts and issues of problem analysis as well as provide 

successful examples from which others can learn and see its value. 

Advancing problem analysis in policing is challenged by the 

reactive nature of policing and the difficulty of convincing 

practitioners that problem analysis is a worthwhile effort.

However, with a possible increase of crime rates on the horizon, 

the shift of focus to homeland security, and the fierce competition 

for resources, it may be an opportune time to assert and adopt the 

notion of policing “smarter” instead of policing “more.” 

As I said at the POP 

conference when I spoke 

about this, I hope that ten 

or fifteen years from now, 

the first guidelines to 

appear will look obsolete, 

will look elementary, will 

look simplistic. But those 

first guidelines constitute 

a gigantic beginning. 

–Herman Goldstein
 

References

Problem Analysis in Policing 46

References 

Bynum, T. (2001). Using analysis for problem-solving: A 

guidebook for law enforcement. Washington, DC: Office of 

Community Oriented Policing Services. 

Goldstein, H. (1990). Problem-oriented policing. New York: 

McGraw-Hill. 

Harries, K. (1999). Mapping crime: Principle and practice.

Washington, DC: US Department of Justice, Office of 

Justice Programs. 

O’Shea, T. (1999). The crime analysis unit survey (COPS Grant # 

1999-CKWXK002). Washington, DC: Office of 

Community Oriented Policing Services. 

Police Executive Research Forum. (2000). PSP national 

evaluation final report. Washington, DC: Author. 

Scott, M. (2000). Problem-oriented policing: Reflections on the 

first 20 years. Washington, DC: Office of Community 

Oriented Policing Services. 
 

Resources 

47 Police Foundation 

Resources 

Bair, S., Boba, R., Fritz, N., Helms, D., & Hick, S. (Eds.). (2002). 

Advanced crime mapping topics: Results of the first 

invitational advanced crime mapping topics symposium.

Denver, CO: National Law Enforcement Corrections and 

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Police Executive Research Forum. 

Bynum, T. (2001). Using analysis for problem-solving: A 

guidebook for law enforcement. Washington, DC: Office of 

Community Oriented Policing Services. 

Clarke, R.V. (Ed.). (1997). Situational crime prevention: 

Successful case studies (2nd ed.). Albany, NY: Harrow and 

Heston. 

Eck, J.E. & LaVigne, N. (1994). Using research: A primer for law 

enforcement managers. Washington, DC: Police Executive 

Research Forum. 

Eck, J. & Spelman, W. (1987). Problem solving: Problem-oriented 

policing in Newport News. Washington DC: Police 

Executive Research Forum. 

Felson, M. & Clarke, R. (1998). Opportunity makes the thief: 

Practical theory for crime prevention (Police Research 

Series, Paper 98). London: Home Office Policing and 

Reducing Crime Unit. 

Goldstein, H. (1990). Problem-oriented policing. New York: 

McGraw-Hill. 
 

Resources

Problem Analysis in Policing 48

Harries, K. (1999). Mapping crime: Principle and practice.

Washington, DC: US Department of Justice, Office of 

Justice Programs. 

Kennedy, D. (1999). Research for problem-solving and the new 

collaborations. In Viewing crime and justice from a 

collaborative perspective: Plenary papers of the 1998 

conference on criminal justice research and evaluation (pp. 

1-8). Washington, DC: US Department of Justice, National 

Institute of Justice. 

LaVigne, N. & Wartell, J. (Eds.). (1998, 2000). Crime mapping 

case studies: Successes in the field (Vols. 1-2). 

Washington, DC: Police Executive Research Forum. 

Maxfield, M. & Babbie, E. (1998). Research methods for criminal 

justice and criminology. Belmont, CA: West and 

Wadsworth. 

Pawson, R. & Tilley, N. (1997). Realistic evaluation. London: 

Sage Publications. 

Read, T. & Tilley, N. (2000). Not rocket science? Problem-solving 

and crime reduction (Crime Reduction Research Series, 

Paper 6). London: Home Office Policing and Reducing 

Crime Unit. 

Reuland, M.M. (Ed.). (1997). Information management and crime 

analysis: Practitioner’s recipes for success. Washington, 

DC: Police Executive Research Forum. 

Sampson, R. & Scott, M. (2000). Tackling crime and other safety 

problems: Case studies in problem solving. Washington, 

DC: Office of Community Oriented Services. 
 

Resources 

49 Police Foundation 

Scott, M. (2000). Problem-oriented policing: Reflections on the 

first 20 years. Washington, DC: Office of Community 

Oriented Policing Services. 

Spelman, W. (1987). Beyond bean-counting: New approaches for 

managing crime data. Washington, DC: Police Executive 

Research Forum. 

Tilley, N. & Laycock, G. (2002). Working out what to do: 

Evidence-based crime reduction (Crime Reduction 

Research Series, Paper 11). London: Home Office Policing 

and Reducing Crime Unit. 

Weisburd, D. & McEwen, T. (Eds.). (1998). Crime mapping and 

crime prevention: Vol. 8. Crime prevention studies. New 

York: Criminal Justice Press. 

Weisburd, D. (1998). Statistics in criminal justice. Belmont, CA: 

West/Wadsworth. 
 

Biographies

Problem Analysis in Policing 50

Biographies 

Dr. Rachel Boba 

Director of the Police Foundation Crime Mapping 

Laboratory 

Dr. Boba was a senior level crime analyst at the Tempe, Arizona, 

Police Department for five years before joining the Police 

Foundation in Washington, DC. She currently directs the work of 

the Crime Mapping Laboratory that includes crime analysis, crime 

mapping, and problem-analysis training and technical assistance, 

as well as the publication of the quarterly newsletter, Crime 

Mapping News. In addition, she has managed many projects at the 

Police Foundation and is currently the project director for both a 

school safety mapping project as well as the East Valley 

COMPASS research partner project. She teaches two graduate 

courses on crime mapping and applied data analysis at the 

University of Maryland at College Park. She holds a PhD and an 

MA in sociology from Arizona State University and a BA magna 

cum laude from California Lutheran University. 

Professor Ron Clarke 

School of Criminal Justice, Rutgers University 

Professor Clarke was Dean of the School of Criminal Justice at 

Rutgers University for more than ten years, and before that was 

head of the Home Office Research and Planning Unit (the British 

government’s criminological department). While at the Home 

Office, he played a significant part in the development of 

situational crime prevention and in the launching of the British 

Crime Survey. He is editor of Crime Prevention Studies and the 

author of more than 160 books and articles. His most recent book 

is Situational Crime Prevention: Successful Case Studies; the 

second edition was published in 1997. 
 

Biographies 

51 Police Foundation 

Pat Drummy 

Director of Administrative Services, San Diego, CA, 

Police Department 

Mr. Drummy has been with the San Diego, CA, Police Department 

since 1975. He began his tenure as an administrative analyst in the 

Research and Analysis Unit. He has advanced to hold positions as 

a senior administrative analyst, supervising management analyst, 

and the Police 911 manager. He has worked in the Crime Analysis 

Unit as well as supervised it. He has overseen numerous grants and 

currently directs operations related to police personnel, 911, crime 

analysis, and information services and grants. He has published 

Crime Analysis in a Community Policing Environment (1996) 

through the COPS Office and Information Management and Crime 

Analysis (1997) through the Police Executive Research Forum. He 

has a BS in finance from San Diego State University. 

Professor John Eck 

Division of Criminal Justice, University of Cincinnati 

Professor Eck has conducted research into police operations since 

1977 and served as the Research Director for the Police Executive 

Research Forum (PERF). At PERF, he spearheaded the 

development of problem-oriented policing throughout the U.S. He 

was also the Evaluation Coordinator for Law Enforcement at the 

Washington/Baltimore High Intensity Drug Trafficking Area, and 

a consultant to the London Metropolitan Police, Royal Canadian 

Mounted Police, Police Foundation, and other organizations. Dr. 

Eck has written on criminal investigations, drug markets and 

control, crime mapping, and crime places. He is a member of the 

National Academy of Science panel assessing police research and 

policy. He teaches police effectiveness, research methods, and 

policy analysis. Professor Eck earned a PhD in criminology from 

the University of Maryland in 1994. 
 

Biographies

Problem Analysis in Policing 52

Ed Flynn 

Secretary of Public Safety, State of Massachusetts 

Secretary Flynn, formerly chief of police in Arlington County VA, 

began his career in the Jersey City Police Department, where he 

was promoted from patrol officer through the ranks to sergeant, 

lieutenant, captain, and inspector. He has been the chief of police 

in Braintree, MA, where he was credited with modernizing the 

department and Chelsea, MA, where he helped lead the city out of 

state-imposed receivership to designation as an “All American 

City.” Chief Flynn is a member of the board of directors for the 

Police Executive Research Forum and the national bipartisan anticrime organization, Fight Crime: Invest in Kids. He is also a 

member of the Administration of Justice Advisory Committee at 

George Mason University. Chief Flynn holds a BA in history from 

LaSalle University in Philadelphia, a master’s degree in criminal 

justice from John Jay College of Criminal Justice in New York; 

and he has completed all course work in the PhD program in 

criminal justice from the City University of New York. He is a 

graduate of the FBI National Academy and the National Executive 

Institute and was a National Institute of Justice Pickett Fellow at 

Harvard’s Kennedy School of Government. 

Ron Glensor 

Deputy Chief, Reno, NV, Police Department 

Chief Glensor has commanded the department’s patrol, 

administration, and detective divisions. He is recognized 

internationally for his work in community policing and has 

provided assistance to more than 500 agencies throughout the 

United States, Canada, Australia, and the United Kingdom. He is a 

featured speaker at conferences on the implementation of 

community-oriented policing, strategic planning, customer service, 

crime prevention, and research. In 1994, he was awarded a 

fellowship at the Police Executive Research Forum in Washington, 

DC, where he was responsible for the development of training in 

community policing. He has coauthored the books, Community 

Policing and Problem Solving: Strategies and Practices, Police 
 

Biographies 

53 Police Foundation 

Supervision, and Policing Communities: Understanding Crime and 

Solving Problems. His awards include the Alumni Association’s 

Outstanding Achievement Award from the University of Nevada 

and the Police Executive Research Forum’s Gary P. Hayes 

Leadership Award. He has a master’s in public administration and 

a doctorate in political science from the University of Nevada, 

Reno. 

Professor Herman Goldstein 

University of Wisconsin Law School 

Professor Goldstein’s work has focused primarily on the challenge 

in trying to develop a form of policing that is effective but also 

committed to maintaining and extending democratic values. He set 

out in 1954 working in city management but was subsequently 

drawn into policing when he spent two years observing the on-thestreet operations of the police in Wisconsin and Michigan as a 

researcher with the American Bar Foundation Survey of the 

Administration of Criminal Justice. From 1960 to 1964, he was 

executive assistant to O.W. Wilson, the architect of the 

professional model of policing. His earliest writings explored the 

discretion exercised by the police, the policymaking role of police 

administrators, and the political accountability of the police. He 

has also written on the police function, police relationships with 

minorities, the control of police conduct, and police corruption. He 

is the author of Problem-Oriented Policing (1990) which spelled 

out a radically new way of conceptualizing the police function that 

is designed to increase police effectiveness while at the same time 

refining the use of police authority. The concept has been adopted, 

in various forms, in a large number of police agencies in the 

United States and abroad. His most recent publications have dealt 

with development of the concept and relating it to other 

contemporary developments, such as community policing. 

Goldstein has been a consultant to numerous national and local 

groups, including the President’s Commission on Law 

Enforcement and Administration of Justice, the National Advisory 

Commission on Civil Disorders, the National Institute of Justice, 
 

Biographies

Problem Analysis in Policing 54

New York City’s Knapp Commission, the Police Foundation, and 

the Police Executive Research Forum. He has also worked with 

numerous police agencies on specific problems and in developing 

innovative programs, including police in the United Kingdom, 

Chile, Israel, The Netherlands, and Australia. 

Bob Heimberger 

Sergeant, St. Louis, MO, Metropolitan Police Department 

Biography not available. 

Professor Gloria Laycock 

The Jill Dando Institute, University College London, UK 

Professor Laycock has worked in the Home Office for over 30 

years, of which almost 20 years has been spent on research and 

development in the policing and crime prevention fields. She 

established and headed the Home Office Police Research Group 

and edited its publications on policing and crime prevention for 

seven years. She has extensive experience in the United States and 

has acted as a consultant on policing and crime prevention in North 

America, Australia, Israel, South Africa, and Europe. Most 

recently, she was awarded an International Visiting Fellowship by 

the U.S. Department of Justice. She returned in April 2001 from a 

four-month consultancy at the Australian Institute of Criminology 

in Canberra to become Director of the Jill Dando Institute of Crime 

Science at the University College London (UCL). She graduated in 

psychology from UCL in 1968 and completed her PhD at UCL in 

1977. 

Karin Schmerler 

Research Analyst, Chula Vista, CA, Police Department 

Ms. Schmerler has worked on several citywide problem-solving 

projects, including initiatives on auto theft, budget motels, traffic 

collisions, and beer theft at convenience stores. She was a social 

science analyst at the COPS Office and a research associate at the 

Police Executive Research Forum. She is an author of ProblemSolving Tips: A Guide to Reducing Crime and Disorder through 
 

Biographies 

55 Police Foundation 

Problem-Solving Partnerships, and a coauthor of Primary Data 

Collection: A Problem Solving Necessity. She received her BA in 

public policy studies from Duke University in 1986.

Michael Scott 

Police Consultant, Savannah, GA 

Mr. Scott is a principal member of the project team developing the 

Problem Oriented Guides for Police series published by the COPS 

Office and is co-founding the Center for Problem-Oriented 

Policing. He was chief of police in Lauderhill, FL; special assistant 

to the chief of police in the St. Louis Metropolitan, MO, Police 

Department; director of administration in the Ft. Pierce, FL, Police 

Department; and legal assistant to the police commissioner in the 

New York City Police Department; and was a police officer in the 

Madison, WI, Police Department. He was a senior researcher at the 

Police Executive Research Forum and is a judge for the Herman 

Goldstein Award for Excellence in Problem-Oriented Policing. He 

has written Problem-Oriented Policing: Reflections on the First 20 

Years; several of the Problem-Oriented Guides for Police; and has 

co-authored, with Rana Sampson, Tackling Crime and other 

Public-Safety Problems: Case Studies in Problem Solving; and coauthored, with William Geller, Deadly Force: What We Know. A 

Practitioner’s Desk Reference to Police-Involved Shootings in the 

United States. He has a bachelor’s degree from the University of 

Wisconsin-Madison and a law degree from Harvard Law School. 

...the basic premise in problem-oriented policing is 

that the acquisition of knowledge informs practice. 

–Herman Goldstein 
1201 Connecticut Avenue, NW 

Washington, DC 20036-2636 

(202) 833-1460 

Fax: (202) 659-9149 

E-mail: pfinfo@policefoundation.org 

www.policefoundation.org 

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