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United States Department of Commerce

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National Institute of Standards and Technology

NIST Special Publication 908

Third International Green Building

Conference and Exposition'1996

A. H. Fanney, P. R. Svincek, Editors

NIST Special Publication 908

Third International Green Building

Conference and Exposition-1996

A. H. Fanney, P. R. Svincek, Editors

Building and Fire Research Laboratory

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Gaithersburg, MD 20899-0001

November 1996

U.S. Department of Commerce

Michael Kantor, Secretary

Technology Administration

Mary L. Good, Under Secretary for Technology

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Arati Prabhakar, Director
National Institute of Standards U.S. Government Printing Office

and Technology Washington: 1996

Special Publication 908

Natl. Inst. Stand. Technol.

Spec. Publ. 908

228 pages (Nov. 1996)

CODEN: NSPUE2

For sale by the Superintendent

of Documents

U.S. Government Printing Office

Washington, DC 20402
PREFACE

In 1993, building construction and renovation activity exceeded $800 billion, representing 13 percent of the

United States' gross domestic product. The resources required to create, operate, and renovate buildings v^thin

the United States is enormous. As a means of reducing the impact that buildings have on the environment, the building industry is developing and marketing products and processes that are both environmentally and

economically viable.

The primary objective of the Third Annual Green Building Conference and Trade Show is to provide a forum in which the latest information on sustainable practices, materials, and technologies can be presented. The

conference was sponsored by the U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC), the National Institute of Standards and

Technology, the American Institute of Architects, and the San Diego Gas and Electric Company. Cosponsors of

this event were the American Society of Landscape Architects and the American Society of Interior Designers.

Sessions within the conference and corresponding papers within these proceedings focused on the following

topics:

• The role of chief executive officers in bringing green products and services to market.

• A review of the U.S. Green Building Council's Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design Building

Rating System.

• A review of the latest international green building projects including examples of commercial, industrial,

historical, retail, office, academic, and residential projects.

• The selection of sustainable building materials.

• An overview of the latest practices in energy conservation.

• A world overview of solar photovoltaic components and systems.

• Commercial, residential, and legal indoor air quality issues.

• Design tools and resources that are applicable to green buildings including the Internet, 3D design

visualization, computer simulations, and the Department of Energy's energy simulation programs.

• The implications of green buildings on the real estate, financial, and insurance industries.

Keynote addresses were presented by Richard Fedrizzi, USGBC Chairman and Director North American

Operations (NAO) Environmental Marketing for United Technologies/Carrier Corporation, Thomas A. Page,

Chairman of Enova Corporation and San Diego Gas & Electric Company, Gail A. Lindsey, 1997 Chair of the

American Institute of Architects Committee on the Environment, David A. Gottfried, Co-Founder and Vice

Chairman of the USGBC and President of Gottfried Technology, Inc., and Ray C. Anderson, Chairman and CEO

of Interface Inc.

iii
ABSTRACT

This report constitutes the proceedings of the Green Building Conference held in San Diego, CA,

November 17-19, 1996. The primary objective of the Third Annual Green Building Conference and Trade Show

is to provide a forum in which the latest information on sustainable practices, materials, and technologies can be presented. The conference was sponsored by the U.S. Green Building Council, the National Institute of

Standards and Technology, the American Society of Landscape Architects and the San Diego Gas and Electric

Company. Cosponsors of this event were the American Institute of Architects and the American Society of

Interior Designers.

Keywords: Building Technology; conference; green buildings; photovoltaics; sustainable material;

iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAPERS

New Sustainable Mindset Needed

Diane R. Morrison 1

The Environment Studies Center at Oberlin College

William McDonough, Christopher Hays, Kevin Burke, Charles Rosenblum,

Michael Shaw, David Orr, John Lyle and Brad Masi 5

Patagonia Distribution Center: Valuing Direct and Indirect Benefits

Aidan Stretch , 13

How Rather Than What: Environmentally Responsible Building Design

Raymond J. Cole 15

The Queens Building at de Montfort University, Leicester, UK

C. Alan Short 23

Environmental Responsibility at the Jean-Michel Cousteau Fiji Islands Resort

Richard C. Murphy 37

Ridgehaven Green Building Demonstration Project

Charles Angyal 45

Building Duracell's New Corporate Headquarters-An Environmental Success Story

Glenn R. Machemer 49

Protocol Development for Assessing the Ancillary Beneflts of Green Buildings:

A Case Study Using the MSQA Building

James A. Wise, Judith Heerwagen, David B. Lantrip and Michael Ivanovich 63

Greening the Presidio: A Case Study of the Thoreau Center for Sustainability

Lynn Simon, Marsha Maytum and Tom Sargent 81

Civano Village

John Laswick 99

A Simplified Environmental Screening Method for Building Materials

Alex Wilson and Nadav Malin 101

V
An Overview of Worldwide Development Activity in Building-Integrated

Photovoltaics

Steven Strong 109

Best Sustainable Indoor Air Quality Practices in Commercial Buildings

Hal Levin 135

Improving Indoor Air Quality in Residences - A Systems Approach

Subrato Chandra, David Beal and Andrew Downing 159

Interoperable, Life Cycle Tools for Assuring Building Performance:

An Overview of a New Commercial Building Initiative

Stephen Selkowitz 173

Digital Perspectives in Architecture

Mieczyslaw Boryslawski 185

The NARM Sustainability Model: Dynamic Aids for Ecological Design and

Sustainable Communities

David A. Tice 189

Vertical Integration - The Key to Creating Optimum Real Estate Environments

Kevork M. Derderian 201

The Science and Art of "Daylighting" - Bringing Natures Light Inside

Phillipe C. Dordai 213

vi
NEW SUSTAINABLE MINDSET NEEDED

Diane R. Morrison

Energy Resource Center Manager

Southern California Gas Company

9240 E. Firestone Blvd.

Downey, CA 90241-5388

Abstract. Southern California Gas Company's Energy Resource Center (ERC) is designed with

the dual purpose of being a living model of advanced, energy-efficient and environmentally

sensitive building technology, showcasing innovations in resource-efficient designs, materials

and equipment, and in addition, providing a resource for thousands of businesses throughout

southern California to help them make informed choices about their energy use. The 45,000-

square-foot structure includes an 1 0,000-square-foot exhibit hall that can accommodate groups of

up to 500 people, along with numerous specialty rooms, each of which highlights a different

energy and environmental theme, such as air quality, combustion, clean fuel transportation, etc. The center also provides technical assistance, computerized equipment simulations, state-of-theart audio-visual facilities and air quality and environmental permitting assistance.

Shattering Paradigms

Forget everything you ever thought was true or untrue about constructing and operating

buildings, particularly the large ones where we work. In other words, please read the rest of this

essay with an open mind.

The motivator is twofold: money and piece of mind.

What our society needs to do is begin to view buildings as changeable, and not static, structures on our landscape. Next, we need to really believe that it's possible to improve profits, the

environment and employee productivity. If we can turn that mental comer, we will be well on

our way to understanding and beginning to apply some aspect of "sustainable design."

Our social commentators have coined a phrase for it: "green" building. That was originally

meant to capture the environmental acceptability of certain projects. But in sustainable design it goes further to mean "green," as in money saved from various energy-saving features and

efficiency gains. From the business or facility operator's perspective, sustainable design offers a means of leveraging a firm's resources.

With competitiveness and operating efficiencies being critical elements in all parts of society

today, sustainable design is a tool with potential interest and use for literally everyoneconsumers, businesses, communities and governments. The reason: it provides some meaningful

hope that society will be able to do something about the historic conflict between economic

progress and environmental safeguards.

1
Simply described, to design and build in a sustainable manner means to carefully recycle and re- use as much of existing buildings as possible, and in the new and remodeled mixture build in

energy-savings and environmental sensitivity, so that with proper maintenance a structure can

cost less in terms of both money and finite resources. The key is recognizing and maximizing

the complex interconnectedness of building materials, techniques, design, natural daylighting and

artificial light, heating, cooling and ventilation systems and the computerized controls linking all of these elements.

Buildings in this context become complex and powerful. They are not just

inanimate objects; they can be shaped and changed on an ongoing basis.

•For consumers, that means buildings can add value in several ways:

(a) adapting to customer and employee needs, (b) stimulating a healthy economy and (c) building

a healthier environment for present and future generations.

•For businesses, who must increasingly squeeze new savings and efficiencies out of their

operations, the techniques of sustainable design can help drive down one of the biggest

portions of their operating costs: energy and staffing to manage its use. •For communities, if planning and political leaders can get in back of sustainable design as a socio-economic tool, it offers the possibility of creating jobs, rejuvenating neighborhoods and

husbanding resources.

•Finally, for governmental leaders, here is a tool waiting to be tried. We have had "enterprise

zones" and other model areas over the past decades, offering hope in renewing areas that had

been written-off as hopeless. Now, there is a realistic way to rebuild aging building stock and

do it responsibly.

Recycling already is one of the fastest growing business segments in the U. S. and other parts of

the industrial world. Good business sense drives it. Technology in terms of lighting and

mechanical systems in buildings continues to improve. It is like a dream come true for both the

builders and the environmentalists.

Architects and builders are getting increasingly more interested in sustainable design because it takes advantage of existing resources and techniques. It also brings together everyone cormected

with the building construction process and adds a couple of new people: environmentalists and

so-called "commissioning agents" to make sure buildings operate as efficiently as they are designed to do.

In southern California, a recent example of this comprehensive approach to energy and

environmental concerns is found in the new Energy Resource Center (ERC), Downey, CA, a

45,000-square-foot energy/environmental education/convocation/demonstration center. The

structure was created from an original, 1950s-vintage utility office structure that was single story

and 35,000 square feet. A middle one-third of the old building was replaced by a two-story

section that contains a main hall and lobby areas, with operating office space placed above it. Everything from the finishes to the glazing to the mechanical equipment is carefully coordinated

to save energy and be environmentally sensitive.

2
The center's architect, Larry Wolff, founder and principal of WLC Architects, Inc., Rancho

Cucamonga, CA, calls it "a premium case study of the adaptive reuse of an existing, underutilized facility. It confirms the feasibility of converting existing building and land developments

into valuable and efficient facilities that begin to solve critical issues for global sustainability."

(Note: Wolffs 1996 master's thesis at California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo,

"An Executive Design Process for Transforming a Client Strategy into a Building Design," used

the ERC as a major case study. It also was selected as Cal Poly, SLO's outstanding thesis for

1996.)

As part of the lessons for energy decision-makers who use the center to follow the ERC's

approach included "source reduction," eliminating the need to use resources or have to recycle

them, in addition to the recycling and re-use of materials.

In its total planning and collaborative approach, the systems and materials applied in the ERC

were aimed at optimizing indoor environmental quality. Detailed efforts were made to minimize

the use of products containing toxics and to make the best use of the fresh air available in energy

efficient ventilation systems. Gases given off by traditional carpet and construction adhesives were kept to absolute minimums.

1

3

THE ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES CENTER AT OBERLIN COLLEGE

Oberlin College

David Orr, Program Chair of Environmental Studies Program

Brad Masi, Oberlin Project Coordinator

William McDonough + Partners

William McDonough, Partner-in-Charge

Christopher Hays, Design Partner

Kevin Burke, Project Manager

Charles Rosenblum, Public Relations Coordinator

California State Polytechnic University, Pomona

John Lyle, Professor and Landscape Architect

Living Technologies

Michael Shaw, Ecological Engineer

Abstract. The Environmental Studies Center will be a highly visible model of ecological design

in a 14,000 square foot, zero emissions facility that meets advanced criteria for energy and

materials efficiency, use of recycled materials, biological and wastewater treatment systems,

solar and wind energy, and ecological landscaping. The Center will promote the development of

collaborative, integrative research projects between different departments on campus and parallel

efforts in the community. This calls for a series of spaces where groups of various sizes and

functions can meet both privately and publicly, a resource center, and display and presentation

space.

The Challenge: Ecological Design and the Environmental Studies Center

"We must create afacility that takes less from the environment, gives more to the people, reveals

the qualities ofour place and empowers us as a community to address proactively today 's environmental challenge.

" David W. Orr

"Living in sustainable architecture is nothing less than an appeal to accept our place in the

world, mediated between human and natural purposes.

" The Hannover Principles-Design for Sustainability. William McDonough

Architects, 1992, p. 11.

As the architects selected to lead the design of the new Environmental Studies Center ("ESC"),

William McDonough + Partners have been challenged by Oberlin College to develop nothing

less than the most inspirational campus building of its time. The ESC, through its synthesis of

building and landscape, serves as a signal of hope for the future of intelligent ecological design.

5
The design for the ESC is both "restorative" and "regenerative". It seeks to move beyond "ecoefficiency" and its emphasis upon minimizing waste and inefficiency. Instead, the project

addresses how fundamental design assumptions must be considered in the future, to begin to restore the environmental stresses brought on by the industrial revolution. To this end, we have

considered how the building can be fecund, like a tree, accruing solar income to the benefit of

living systems. Or how the entire project can act like healthy soil, absorbing water quickly and

releasing it slowly in a healthy state. We seek to eliminate the concept of waste in the ESC, following nature's fundamental principle

that "w£iste equals food".' This principle is applied to all of the ESC's building systems,

incorporating the material typologies of "products ofconsumption '"^^ and "products of

As part of the biological "consumable" nutrient cycle, the overall building fabric is designed to return to the soil safely. The "technical" nutrient cycle includes interior fittings, mechanical

systems, and photovoltaic panels. These "products ofservice''^ are continuously owned and

recycled by the manufacturer, and leased to Oberlin College. This typology enhances the

building's flexibility over time, allowing technical systems to be updated and replaced as technologies change.

The Environmental Studies Center is an urbane addition to the architectural heritage of Oberlin

College, linking environmental conscience with enduring architectural design principles. The

building's form, scale, and proportion make direct reference to the built legacy of the Oberlin

campus. Its response to local climate builds upon the traditions of regional architecture in

northern Ohio.

At its most fundamental level, the Center is a place of wonder and beauty which celebrates the

interaction of human and natural environments. Because we believe that people would rather

spend their day outdoors, the design of the ESC blurs the distinction between indoors and

outdoors. Spaces are filled with daylight and are naturally ventilated. And the light-filled, twostory atrium provides the campus with a winter garden, an interior meeting place warmed by the sun for formal and informal gatherings throughout the year.

The design of the Environmental Studies Center represents a collaborative and cooperative effort on the part of the leading thinkers of the ecological design community, working closely with

Oberlin College. This paper outlines the process of giving form to the highest ideals of

ecological design.

Education and Ecological Literacy

From a variety of indicators measuring emission of greenhouse gases, soil loss, rates of species

extinction, human appropriation of photosynthesis, release of toxins and heavy metals, and

population growth, it is increasingly clear that the quality of the human future is directly related

to our ability to reduce the fossil energy, water, materials, land, and waste absorptive capacity

6
believed to be necessary to a good life. By one estimate, extension of current U.S. lifestyles to

all of the 5.7 billion persons now living on the earth would require the land and resources of two

more earths.

Fortunately, the knowledge necessary to reduce the environmental impacts of development is growing rapidly in areas such as energy technology, automotive design, industrial ecology,

sustainable agriculture, restoration ecology, ecological engineering, and architectural design. In

other words, we have the tools to develop the ecological design competence necessary to make

things that fit in a world of trees, microbes, rivers, animals, bugs, and small children. Ecological

design is the careful meshing of human purposes with the larger patterns and flows of the natural

world and the study of those patterns and flows to inform human purposes. Ecological design

competence means maximizing resource and energy efficiency, taking advantage of the free

services of nature, recycling wastes, making ecologically smarter things, and educating

ecologically smarter people.

Ecological design requires the ability to comprehend patterns that connect, which means getting

beyond the boxes that we call disciplines to see things in their ecological context. It requires, in

other words, a liberal education, but nearly everywhere the liberal arts have tended to become

more specialized and narrow. Design competence requires the integration of first-hand

experience and practical competence with theoretical knowledge, but the liberal arts have

become more abstract, fragmented, and remote from lived reality. Design competence requires us to be students of the natural world, but the study of nature is being displaced by the effort to engineer nature to fit the economy instead of the other way around.

It is essential that we educate a citizen constituency that supports change and is competent to do

the local work of rebuilding households, farms, institutions, communities, corporations, and

economies that 1) do not emit carbon dioxide or other heat-trapping gases; 2) do not reduce

biological diversity; 3) use energy, materials, and water with high efficiency; and 4) recycle

wastes. In other words, a constituency that is capable of building economies that can be

sustained without further reducing the earth's potential to sustain life. At a minimum this will

require a modification of the skills, aptitudes, abilities, and curriculum by which we have learned

how to industrialize the earth.

This project aims to equip the Environmental Studies Program with resources and capabilities

essential to meet growing student interests and to fulfill our own obligations to equip students

with the know-how and know-why necessary to:

• use energy and materials with great efficiency

• prevent pollution and eliminate waiste

• power civilization on sunshine

• manage forests and soils sustainably

• restore degraded ecologies

• preserve species and entire ecosystems

• stabilize and then reduce population

• develop economies that can be sustained and regenerated within the limits of nature

7
• to do all of these things while preserving cultural diversity and enabling the poor and

disadvantaged to improve their lives

To do so requires understanding how to integrate knowledge from different disciplines and

different cultural traditions, comprehend the way complex systems work, and master the

emerging field of ecological design.

The crisis of the biosphere is symptomatic of a prior crisis of the mind, perception, and heart. It

is not so much a problem in education, but a problem of education.

Building Design and the Oberlin Campus

The Environmental Studies Center (ESC) building design combines the architectural traditions of

the Oberlin campus with a fundamental understanding of natural energy systems. Oberlin'

s

architectural character stems from the consistent qualities of many of its buildings: moderatelyscaled rectangular pavilions which share similar proportions, cornice-lines, and materials. They

are also carefully sited in deference to the campus as a whole. By adhering to these precedents,

the ESC will establish itself architecturally as a member of the Oberlin community. It will

extend the college's architectural fabric of human scale and accessibility.

The building's disposition of spaces comes from an analysis of natural energy flows and the

building's energy needs. The atrium will be the primary organizing feature of the building

because it optimizes the possibilities for air circulation, insulation, and daylighting. The floors

will form a modified U-shape around a central, multi-story space. This basic building form is almost as old as architecture itself. Placement of specific rooms will be related to solar

orientation. The Living Machine, the natural wastewater treatment facility, will have both

southern and eastern exposures to light. Workspaces and classrooms will face south and west

also to take advantage of daylight and heat gain. In the absence of direct sunlight, the northern

face of the building will be shielded from prevailing winds by an amphitheater and earth berm.

The north-facing auditorium will be well-insulated by the amphitheater and berm overhead.

The roof shape, with a strong projecting cornice similar to many buildings on the Oberlin

campus, will also have active and passive solar attributes. The three hip roofs will maximize

south-facing surfaces for photovoltaic panels which will be used as a primary energy source. Skylights designed into much of the north-facing slopes will take advantage of the consistency

and lack of glare of northern light.

These variations and innovations in the roof and wall treatments will acknowledge the emerging

technologies and values of sustainable architecture, while making a place for them at Oberlin

College.

8
Building Systems

"Eliminate the concept ofwaste. Evaluate and optimize the full life-cycle ofproducts and

processes, to approach the state ofnatural systems, in which there is no waste.'' William McDonough, The Hannover Principles, p. 5.

Buildings must eliminate waste by adopting the principle that waste equals food and by

optimizing the use of current solar income. Most buildings are designed with no thought of what

becomes of their materials if they require replacement or if the building's useful life ever ends.

In the ESC, all building components and systems are designed to be biodegradable, recyclable or

reusable. Instead of becoming waste, they become raw materials for ecological systems or manufacturing processes. Similarly, the building makes maximum use of current solar income

and natural energy flows, rather than relying upon inefficient mechanical systems. In both cases, the results are ecological and economic savings. Furthermore, these transformations are crucial

in the ultimate development of a net energy surplus and the ability to inhabit buildings

sustainably.

To eliminate material waste, the ESC is being designed as a hybrid of natural and man-made

systems, categorized as either consumables or products ofservice. Consumables are goods or

materials that can be decomposed after their use, becoming nutrients for other living organisms.

At the ESC, the wooden post and beam frame and straw bale insulation will return to the earth if

the building's useful life ever ends. Other building systems, as products of service, are removable, able to be sent back to their manufacturers for refurbishing or recycling. The exterior

wall system is a rain screen of terra cotta panels in aluminum frames which are demountable for

repair or replacement, as are both interior and exterior light shelves and shades. An underfloor

system for displacement air delivery and electrical wiring accommodates changes in these

components without requiring wholesale replacement. Flooring consists of carpet squares that can be removed individually and returned directly to the manufacturer for recycling. All

material, finishes, and systems for the building are being carefully considered, particularly in

terms of embodied energy, life-cycle costs, and toxicity.

Toward the goal of being a net energy exporter, the ESC design maximizes the use of current

solar income through the use of massive walls, a glass membrane, and a thermal storage system.

The building's southern orientation along the east-west axis and its organization around a central

atrium take advantage of passive solar design principles. Extensive southern and eastern glazing

in the atrium promotes maximum radiant thermal gains during the winter. Heat energy collects

in the thermal mass of the atrium's masonry floor and flows through radiant coils to a gravel and

water storage cistern below. This cistern acts as the building's thermal battery, retaining heat or exchanging it with the building's water-source heat pumps. On cloudy winter days, the cistern serves as a heat source to the atrium, reversing the heat flow back to the radiant coils in the

atrium floor.

During the summer, heat gain is minimized by an exterior brise soleil calibrated to block the high

summer sun angles. Any thermal energy that does accrue drives a desiccant dehumidification

9
system, reducing the cooling loads of the building. The atrium also promotes summer cooling by

expelling warm air through operable louvers at its top while bringing in cool air at a lower level.

Energy considerations continue through the design of the roof, which maximizes south-facing

slopes at an optimum angle for photovoltaics. PV's use the sun's energy to produce electricity

without the need for moving parts, extensive depletion of resources, or pollution. They are also

silent. Sunlight on the silicon cell produces electrons, which flow through conducting strips to an inverter, where they are converted from direct to alternating current. The energy flow can be

stored in batteries, used directly to power equipment, or directed onto the grid where it is often

purchased by a local utility.

Applying these concepts to building design, construction and operation insures not only that the

building will be economically effective through its own lifecycle, but also that it will not impose

deferred costs upon future generations.

Landscape

The landscape of the Environmental Studies Center will be a working and learning landscape: a place where students and others learn how nature works and how humans interact with nature.

Although many people think of landscape only as decoration, it is, in fact, the medium for all ecological processes. The landscape converts solar energy into useful forms. It processes and

guides water, recycles materials, and provides for the whole array of living creatures. If these

essential but non-decorative fiinctions have been forgotten, it is because they have been

relinquished to industrially-based processes. Fossil-fuels now provide our energy, and concrete

pipes and containers supply our water. Even our food relies upon petro-chemical and fossil-fuel sources. We emphasize the landscape as the medium of life and communicate this idea visually

and experientially. We aim for a deeper beauty that replicates fundamental processes.

The ESC landscape incorporates basic ecological processes in four basic components.

The indigenous landscape. This component is a microcosm of the expansive hardwood forest

that once existed on this land and which remains in places nearby. Through renewal of both

understory and canopy tree species landscape students, faculty, and community members will be

brought in closer contact with their historical and regional landscape.

The aquatic landscape. Many problems with water are caused by the desire to get it quickly into a lake or river or an ocean basin to prevent flooding. Instead, the ESC landscape reverses that course and uses its own rainwater on site. A small wetland will be a visible feature of this

process, one that will also receive water from the building's "Living Machine," the internal first- stage sewage treatment system. Through these elements sewage treatment becomes not a hidden

process that is out of sight somewhere but a visible process that reminds us of nature's cycles and

the need to build biological processes into our human environment.

10
The social landscape. Present use patterns are an important element of the existing landscape;

the ESC landscape design will respect and enhance them. Pedestrian circulation as well as a prominent range of student play and leisure activities give the current landscape its rich social

character. The ESC landscape will reinforce those activities by providing a place that really fits all of them, in a way that the current site does not.

Food growing. Part of the ESC landscape will be devoted to growing food, including vegetables,

herbs, and fruit. It will include a compost area and perhaps a small greenhouse or cold frames

for winter use to extend the season. Growing food in small areas without the use of chemicals,

using only organic fertilizers, will particularly suit the ESC Landscape Project. It will be close to an urban community garden with an emphasis on active participation and education. Our goal is to develop a working landscape where students learn about growing food and fundamental

ecological processes.

By making these various ecological processes visible and social in character, the ESC landscape

will show how nature's workings give form to our envirormient even as it invites them to participate in these processes. People, whether students or members of the larger community,

will want to walk through this landscape and spend time in such a diverse range of life. They

will feel cormected with the earth.

Living Machine

Living Machines are natural wastewater treatment systems which replicate and accelerate the

natural purification processes of ponds and marshes. Diverse communities of bacteria, algae,

microorganisms, numerous species of plants and trees, snails, fish and other living creatures

interact as whole ecologies in tanks and living bio-filters. With the help of sunlight and a managed environment, these organisms thrive on wastewater from which they break dovm and

digest the organic material.

Living Machines offer several exceptional features. Unlike their conventional transportationbased or chemical counterparts. Living Machines are energy efficient and use few if any

chemicals. Yet they produce advanced quality water which is recyclable for non-potable

purposes. Sludge handling and disposal expenses are also significantly lower than for

conventional technologies. In Living Machines, organisms use sludge as food, so most solids are consumed rather than requiring removal. Because Living Machines are mechanically simple and

biologically complex, they are resistant to "shock loads" in the waste stream.

At Oberlin, the Living Machine will process all sewage waste generated from the building while

also acting as a significant pedagogical tool. Students will set-up, monitor and maintain the

Living Machine system. Its accessibility may allow eventual expansion of the technology

throughout the campus, the City of Oberlin Public Works Department, and the Lorain County

Health Department.

11
The Living Machine is seen as a bridge between the architecture and the landscape of the

Environmental Studies Center. The Living Machine is an integral piece of the building as the

third bay of the atrium separated only by a layer of glass. It is also linked physically to the

landscape supplying water to the wetlands. The wetland acts as the last stage of purification for

the wastewater system. As stated previously, the design of the project is derived from an

observation of natural energy flows.

Conclusion

The challenge of the Environmental Studies Center arises from the recognition that we live in a profound historical moment. We have created a culture of waste which cannot be sustained. Our

situation is daunting and alarming, but we view it above all as an opportunity to develop models

embodying higher goals and principles, including those ofjustice and ecological sustainability.

Our building is both a prototype and a pioneer. The process of giving form to the building

program at Oberlin has coalesced and enhanced many of the constituencies and ideas necessary

for the remaking of our relationship to the natural world. Upon completion this project will

stimulate the thinking of those who learn within it and inspire others to use it as a model for their

own institutions and communities.

Endnotes

' This idea was first articulated by William McDonough in The Hannover Principles, which

were developed as design principles for the World's Fair for the year 2000.

Waste Equals Food, Product ofConsumption, Product ofService : These terms have been

defined by William McDonough and German ecological chemist Michael Braungart, and

acknowledge that ownership of a great majority of manufactured objects is not beneficial when it

is merely the use of those objects which we desire. Given appropriate economic incentives, we

would prefer not to be responsible for the repair and disposal of these objects at the end of their

useful lives.

^ The "Products ofService " typology has already been incorporated by a number of industries,

altering their method of production; in particular. Interface, Inc. has adopted this thinking in their

"Evergreen Lease" for access floors and carpets.

12
PATAGONIA DISTRIBUTION CENTER:

Valuing Direct and Indirect Benefits

USGBC Conference, Concurrent Case Studies

November 18, 1996, 2.00 pm

Aidan Stretch, RIBA, Consultant

Abstract

Sustainable development solutions create both economic and environmental value. In this sense they

are similar to the total quality movement, which proved that it is possible to improve quality and

reduce costs, in other words achieve the seemingly impossible. Sustainable development solutions

extend our definition of quality to include social and environmental value, as well as economic

value, while capitalizing on increased efficiency and productivity.

Green buildings are a good example of sustainable development practices at work. Through the

design of a buildings systems, material use, waste stream and energy consumption a green building

minimizes its affects on the environment. Many green buildings cost significantly less to operate

and maintain than conventional buildings, allowing financial resources to be reallocated. Businesses

are fast realizing that this approach not only has environmental benefits but also improves their

effectiveness and competitive advantage.

However, this is only half the story. Recent studies by the Rocky mountain Institute indicate that

these operational savings are insignificant in comparison to the potential savings from increased

productivity. Improving indoor air quality, occupant comfort, day lighting and energy efficiency has

realized a 10-15 percent increase in productivity of employees and staff. Because on average, wages

and salaries make up 70 percent of an organizations operating costs, providing a quality work

environment through green buildings is an easy choice. These productivity gains could have a

significant impact on a company's bottom line. A rule of thumb suggests a factor 5 relationship, that

is a 1 percent increase in productivity translates into a 5 percent increase in operating income for a company. Similarly, a 5 percent increase in productivity translates into a 25 percent increase in

operating income. Other studies show similar results for sales in retail outlets.

These facts explain why many nationally and internationally recognized businesses are embracing

the concept of green buildings. AT&T, WalMart, Sony, Herman Miller, Bank of America and the

Gap are just a sample from an ever increasing list. The challenge then for the industry and

professions is to capture the value from green developments in the design, planning, engineering,

construction, assessment and financing aspects of real estate. Clearly, each profession requires new

tools to realize a competitive advantage.

Two recently completed facilities illustrate how economic and environmental value is created

through design, planning and engineering. These green buildings are also an example of how

enlightened clients can practice environmental stewardship and good business at the same time.

13
The NW Federal Credit Union Branch & Office Headquarters is a 40,000-square-foot building

located in Seattle. The site planning and organization allows for most of the existing trees to be

retained. The

building is narrow in plan in the north-south direction and elongated in the east-west direction. This

maximizes the opportunity for natural ventilation and daylight harvesting through extensive shaded

operable glazing and light shelves at the north and south elevations. Lighting equipment is dimmed

by photo sensors to maximize the energy savings from day lighting. Ventilation also provides a night

flushing cycle to cool the buildings exposed thermal mass, and improve indoor air quality by diluting

pollutants that build up during the day. The night flush cycle is 100 percent outside air. This day

lighting and lighting strategy combined with an energy efficient mechanical system and naturally

ventilated areas reduce energy consumption by 30 percent below the already stringent Washington

State Energy Code. Interior & exterior material selections throughout were screened for

environmental considerations, indoor air quality and life cycle costing considerations. The building

was a market priced commercial building ($4.6 million), which costs less to operate and is a

healthier more productive workplace. This project recently received a 1996 Architecture + Energy

Award from the AIA and Bonneville Power Administration.

Patagonias Worldwide Distribution & Office facility is a 1 84,000-square-foot building in Reno. The

site planning and organization orients the building to southem exposure focusing views towards the

adjacent Truckee River. To the south of the building the river ecosystem is re-established up to the

building edge and incorporates biofiltration swales which treat all site runoff before entering the

river. The building envelope is designed to maximize daylight where appropriate in the warehouse

and office areas. This is achieved through extensive shaded glazing, light shelves and skylighting

provided by a combination of sun-tracking lights in the warehouse and north lights in the office

areas. In combination with the building optimized daylight section, lighting systems were designed

to be highly efficient. The combination of efficient lamps & fixtures with motion & daylight

controls provided a 60 percent reduction in energy consumption below industry standard systems.

The building is superinsulated to optimize heating & cooling loads and conditioned by hydronic

radiant heating and cooling panels. This system provides an estimated 50 percent reduction in

energy use over a conventional mechanical ventilation system. The system was complemented by

a combination of displacement ventilation and mechanically assisted stack effect.

Again, interior & exterior material selections throughout were screened for environmental

considerations, indoor air quality and life cycle costing considerations. The project cost was $6

million and the range of energy efficient systems, technologies and measures are expected to payback within 1-3 years.

These and many other projects show that green buildings really do make sense. They begin to bridge

the gap between development and the environment that has existed for so long, by simultaneously

creating both economic and environmental value in projects. This approach has implications for the

real estate and development community, beyond the design and planning professions. Those in the

industry that meet this challenge will be positioning themselves in the market through both cost and

differentiation, providing a clear strategic competitive advantage.

14
HOW RATHER THAN WHAT:

ENVIRONMENTALLY RESPONSIBLE BUILDING DESIGN

Raymond J Cole

School of Architecture

University of British Columbia

Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z2

Abstract. Case-studies are important vehicles for communicating advances in environmentally

responsible building design and construction. This paper uses the specific example of the

recently completed C.K. Choi Buiilding for the Institute ofAsian Research at the University of

British Columbia to raise a series of general issues associated with our current progress toward

improving the environmental performance of buildings. It argues that probably the most

important lessons that can be gained from case-studies is not in their technical features but in the

circumstances which led to their creation - the process, the conflicts and types of compromises

that were met and overcome during the design.

Introduction

Addressing the environmental agenda requires an exphcit restructuring of priorities and a questioning of a host of related assumptions which directly and indirectly shape buildings. It requires transcending professional boundaries between architects and engineering consultants

and creating a more effective dialogue among all participants involved in the production of

buildings. Innovative buildings reflect changes in both the process of their creation as well as

their distinctively different design features and characteristics. As such it is first useful to differentiate between the notions of an 'environmentally responsive building' and

'environmentally responsible building design.'

An environmentally responsive building is one which satisfies the physical requirements for

housing human activity using resources efficiently and effectively, and with minimum stress on

natural systems — offering the highest environmental performance within the site, program and

cost constraints. Environmentally responsible design describes the process by which an

environmentally responsive building emerges. It relates to the way in which the designers

choose to place environmental issues as guiding notions within the full breadth and complexity

of decision making ~ wherever and whenever choosing to evaluate the potential of natural

systems and emerging environmental options prior to conventional ones.

Environmentally responsible building design also involves challenging many existing design norms and promoting an attitudinal shift to embrace new ways of thinking about the processes of

production, use and disposal of a building. An environmentally responsive building is recognized equally by the integration of the various environmental strategies as it is by the

strategies themselves and, as such, requires a team approach throughout its execution. Since

building design is holistic, there is no true way to separate out the architect's role from others in

the design team - every member has, at some level, to be aware of all the significant design

issues. [1] Moreover, since environmentally responsible design is process related, it extends

beyond the physical design and embraces the subsequent responsibilities and roles of the

contractor and user.

15
Many aspects of a building design are a function of, and shaped by, the cultural, physical, and

economic context in which it occurs. Moreover, architecture does not typically change until the

context in which it occurs, changes. [2] The context in which the design of buildings occurs does

not currently support environmental responsibility and, despite the considerable advances in awareness of environmental concerns as witnessed by the rapid increase in research and

publication, environmental responsibility remains a peripheral issue to other seemingly pressing

issues within an ingrained culture of consumerism. Where change is occurring, it is typically a

'superficial change layered on top of an unchanged core organization' instead of questioning,

challenging and changing the core itself. [31 However, the emphasis and priorities evident in

state-of-the-art building design derive from the commitment and actions of specific individuals - clients and members of the design team - irrespective of or despite the prevailing trends and

context. The primary emphasis of this paper is this relationship between the specific set of

circumstances and the broader context that affect progress in environmentally responsible design.

The paper uses the specific example of the C.K. Choi building for Institute ofAsian Research at the University of British Columbia to raise a series of general questions pertinent to the current

progress being made in the environmental performance of buildings. Like many other significant

environmental buildings, the physical characteristics of the Institute ofAsian Research building

are well documented in the technical and professional press [4-6]. What is perhaps more

interesting is that, with time, the unique circumstances of their development, the frustrations, the

conflicts and compromises are often lost and supplanted by highly rationalized and exalted

explanations of the process. Although this is an inevitable consequence given the problems of

describing 'design,' it disguises many of the considerable difficulties that were faced and overcome in striving for environmentally responsible building design — lessons which could

have potentially profound value to others aspiring to make progress in their own work.

Context

Over the past eight years, the University of British Columbia has conducted a $500 million

building expansion program. To date this has been manifest in the construction of some thirty or

so completed projects with several others currently in the construction and planning stage. Of

these, only two stand represent examples of environmentally responsible design - the C.K. Choi

Institute ofAsian Research and Earth Science Building. Moreover, although the completed

schematic design of Earth Science Building embodies a number of significant environmental

strategies, its construction has yet to be funded, thereby making it difficult to fully critique.

The implications of the original 1915 decision to locate the University of BC on a peninsular

remote from the city are evident daily in the environmental impacts associated with transporting

its 30,000 plus students, staff and faculty to and from the campus each day. More significantly,

the original electricity, water and gas supply and sanitary waste infrastructure are nearing their

limit to meet current demand. Irrespective of the environmental benefits, significant reduction in

demand will negate the massive costs of increasing supply. The Institute ofAsian Research

building, while typically presented solely in terms of its environmental merits, represents a clear

direction for sound economics ~ if, of course, comprehensive cost accounting were an

instrument in both funding and subsequent decision-making.

Product

The Institute ofAsian Research houses Centres for China, Japan, Korea, India and South Asia,

and Southeast Asia Research and presents holistic image of Asia without reference to single

16
countries. This $4.5 million (Canadian) building was funded by donors from Canada and Asia,

including C.K. Choi family and BC. Government.

The approach to the site selection in itself is revealing. The site for the building was a former

long, narrow 300' by 60' parking lot on a north-south axis bounded by a major vehicular route on

the east and a wooded area to the west linking to the existing Asian Centre. The decision was made at the outset not to encroach on the wooded area and retain as much of the existing

vegetation. Only selective pruning was employed and, as such, constrained the building form.

The overall form of this 32 000 ft^ building was largely dictated by the proportions of the

selected site and the progranmiatic necessity of five distinct sub-groups under one conmion roof - presenting both opportunities and difficulties for accommodating environmental strategies:

Naturally Conditioned: The natural conditioning of building interiors is regaining acceptance and

the Institute ofAsian Research shows a welcome reversion back to simple, straightforward, user

controls to condition the offices — wherever and whenever taking advantage of ambient natural

conditions. Operating energy is reduced by the elimination of traditional ducted air systems,

natural ventilation with few fans, operable windows, fresh air vents, louvers, and atria:

- By creatively using full height atria as the punctuations between the individual centre, stack

ventilation could be induced throughout all occupied spaces. Air enters through operable

windows and fresh air vents and is carried out through louvers near the roof in the atria - providing 100% fresh air at all times;

- The narrow floor plate, in combination with the atria, provides high quality daylighting in the

office areas. The power consumption for lighting - 0.9 W/ft^ - is less than half that of a

typical office building - manual switches for lights, daylight monitoring dimmer switches,

automatic shutoff switches for rooms when vacant;

- The north-south axis limits the ability to use passive solar gain - placing the emphasis on

high performance windows to reduce heat loss and daylighting as the primary energy

strategies;

- Domestic hot water is preheated from the waste heat from the campus steam heat distribution

which runs adjacent to the site ~ a strategy which raises the larger question about re-using

legitimate by-products or 'wastes' which could be eliminated at source.

Healthy Workplace: Office interiors must be healthy and productive environments. Following

the principle that source control is the most effective strategy for improving indoor air quality,

careful selection of building materials, finish products and construction practices in the building

insures good indoor air quality:

- In the selected areas where carpet is used it was laid without adhesives;

- The millwork was constructed from formaldehyde-free materials and all finishes are solvent

free;

- Copy machine areas are vented directly to the exterior.

Resource Reduction: Reduction is the primary method of conservation. If the scale of demand

for energy, materials and other resources is not managed, then other strategies such as reuse and

recycling will ultimately prove irrelevant:

- More than 50% of the total materials and components have recycled content or were salvaged:

- Salvaged heavy timbers from a demolished campus building on an adjacent site form the

basis of the buildings structural system - itself design using mechanical fasteners for future

recovery and reuse;

17
- The brick cladding was derived from locally salvaged street bricks.

- The architects chose to deliberately exclude or only selectively employ many traditional

interior finishing materials:

- Polished concrete on major common areas;

- Elimination of suspended ceiling elements.

- Use of composting toilets: waterless system that saves 1500 gallons of water per day and

enables the building to be disconnected from the University sanitary system.

Landscape design: Indigenous plants used, especially those needing little maintenance

- Columnar Gingko trees selected to clean air and not block the light

- Existing soil used and amended with organic matter

- Chemical pesticides avoidance and non-toxic biological fertilizer

- Water efficient subsurface irrigation system utilized

- Storm water stored for gradual absorption and a subsurface trench recycles greywater with

marsh vegetation

Three important outcomes can be discussed:

Reassessment of expectations: Many of the environmental strategies used in the Institute of

Asian Research building are quite different from conventional practice and expectation:

- The elimination of the finishing materials exposes the hitherto unseen building services and

reveals harder surfaces which change the acoustic environment;

- Perception over the operation and performance of the composting toilets;

- The thicker and coarser mortar joints to accommodate the irregularities in the reused brick

creates a finish not consistent with 'conventional' expectations for a new building.

Many of these are, of course, a function of familiarity and will change over time.

Absence of Quantification: With the exception of reductions in energy and water use, no

indication of the degree of performance is reported in the building's environmental features, e.g., the amount of recycled materials, amount of re-used materials. While current research aims at formulating tools to provide a more comprehensive, objective and quantifiable descriptions - many criteria will centre on the direction of change rather than the degree.

Skepticism often parallels state-of-the-art building: Universities, like many other clients do not

like to be the first to try new technologies or ones without a proven track-record. As such, fail- safe precautions are incorporated into the design - increasing both the capital cost and design

effort.

Process

The way in which the Institute ofAsian Research project was initiated and the subsequent

collaboration between all consultants from the beginning, is now viewed as vital to its success. This was manifest in three ways:

18
- An initial agreement by the senior university personnel and future building users to use the

project as a demonstration of sustainable building design and construction practices.

- Making environmental issues an explicit part of the selection of the architects.

- A two-day workshop involving the entire team, users and campus at the outset of the project

which concluded in a joint statement of goals and principles for the project.

The first two actions exemplify the fact that if building design is to emphasize and incorporate

environmental criteria, clients must both raise such criteria as explicit concerns and issues, and

communicate this intent and expectation of environmental responsibility to their design teams.

The workshop was critical in two ways:

- It established a shared vision for the project - a notion that is seldom possible within the

traditionally linear approach to building design.

- It provided performance targets that were far beyond those of other campus buildings and the

previous experience of the design team:

- 50% less water use than normal

- No sewer connection

- 50% re-used/recycled materials

- 50% recyclable materials

- Reduction of energy use 65% less than ASHRAE/IES 90.1 standards

- Lighting densities less than 0.5 W/ft^

The setting of these demanding performance goals at the outset was profound. Though not met

in all instances, they became a necessary 'gauntlet' to challenge the design team. More

interestingly, these targets emerged from a working sessions in a loose and, to a degree, arbitrary

way. The research community continues to seek precision and has yet to recognise that

sustainability is a complex issue and has social, political, economic and environmental

dimensions and there will be no simple solution to such a inadequately understood problem.

Notwithstanding the difficulties, architects as with other sectors of society must continue to make

decisions and act within this uncertainty.

Sustaining Commitment: Though they had a general understanding of broader environmental

concerns, the architects were neither exceptionally knowledgeable or noted for accounting for

environmental issues in their prior work. Despite cautious beginnings, the team progressively

engaged environmentally considerations. The gaining of interest and momentum throughout the

design and the desire to aspire to greater levels of environmentally responsible remains the

critical point.

The willingness of the design team to reassess the evolving design brought about by the

availability of better environmental options is another important feature of the process:

- The structural system was originally to be concrete, but revised upon the availability of a heavy

timber structure from an adjacent demolished building.

- The quantity and quality of the brick and other reused components, require keeping options

open until the supply is confirmed.

Sensitivity to Site: Having the contractor selectively excavating strips into the existing carpark

covering for the building footings rather than indiscriminate clearing on the basis of not further

19
violating the site ecology. There is insufficient scientific evidence to validate the ecological

merits of this strategy nor the indirect, but probably profound, impact it had on changing the

attitudes of the contractor and crew members - reassessing former practices and being selective

in their application is the transferable skill.

Environmental Guidelines for University and College Facilities

Despite the considerable number of accolades that the Institute ofAsian Research buildings has

received locally and nationally, only one subsequent building within universities building

program has yet to aspire to or achieve the same degree of environmental commitment. This

clearly indicates the limited extent to which an environmental ethic has fully permeated the

institution to date. Irrespectively, the Institute ofAsian Research has begun to change the

perception of what is possible in a similar way that the workshop goals set new boundaries for

the design team. Indirectly but none-the-less linked to the development of the Institute of Asian

Research building was the changing expression of commitment of British Columbia universities,

colleges and institutes and the BC Ministry of Skills, Labor and Training to environmentally

responsible building design and operation.

Representatives from the operations and development departments from these institutions jointly

formulated the following general objectives as an expression of this commitment during the

period at which the Institute ofAsian Research building was being designed:

- Respectfor Natural Systems: New university, college and institute facilities should be

conscious of, and responsive to, the ecology of the site and of existing natural systems.

- Energy Use: Institutions should strive to reduce overall quantities of energy used and to use

sustainable energy sources as much as is technologically possible.

- Resource Use: Institutions should approach facilities development and operation with the aim

of using land, material and water resources in the most efficient and effective manner.

- Health and Well-Being of Users: Institutions should ensure that indoor environments are healthy and comfortable.

- Integration of Principles: Institutions should strive to effect a comprehensive and holistic

environmentally sustainable approach to development and operation by consideration of all of

the above issues.

These were the underpinnings of a set of environmental guidelines developed for new facilities

for higher educational in BC. [7] The mere existence of the Institute ofAsian Research building

as a point of reference, made it possible for the review committee to accept and subsequently

incorporate more far reaching performance targets and strategies than would have probably been

otherwise possible.

Conclusions

Probably the most important conclusions from the examination of this, or for that matter, any

other case-study building is not in their technical features but are in the circumstances which led

to its creation - the process, the conflicts and types of compromises that were met and overcome

during the design. Several important lessons seem evident from this case-study:

20
- Environmentally responsible building design must be 'kick-started,' i.e., a mechanism is needed to challenge preconceptions and accepted design norms.

- It is important to establish challenging goals at the outset without the expectation that they will

necessarily be met. Many goals are often formulated on the basis of realistic, achievable

targets - far reaching challenges may be a more powerful basis for reassessing strategies. The

goals established for the Institute ofAsian Research project were, for the main part, quite

arbitrary but none-the-less effective at producing the desired effect.

- Personalities can drive change toward dramatic improvements in environmental performance

despite information, cost or regulatory constraints. The environmental emphasis of this project can be traced to the advocacy and commitment of a few key personnel.

- Environmentally responsible building design must be sustained. At this point - and for the

foreseeable future - environmentally responsible design will be moving into uncharted

territory. The design team must see value in committing additional effort to a project - in

particular the added professional competitiveness that the newly acquired experience and

knowledge can and should bring.

What remains difficult, of course is that we have to make judgements of these and other

innovative buildings so soon after their completion. The extent and rate at which new emphases

to design are introduced is a function of momentum created by the approaches and technologies

used in state-of-the-buildings. Unfortunately there is little, if any, time before true strengths and

problems to fully reveal themselves. The potential dangers of propagating myth could be an unformnate outcome - but time will inevitably tell!

References

1. Stafford, C^., et ah, (1992) Designing with Vision: Public Building Guidelinesfor the 21st

Century, Stafford Architects, Seattle, WA

2. Ingersoll, R., 1991, Unpacking the Green Man's Burden, Design Book Review, Spring 1991,

pp 19-26

3. Sexton, M.G., The Prajna Approach to Sustainable Construction, Proceedings Environmental

Impact of Buildings and Cities Workshop, Florence, Italy, September 1995

4. Asia Pacific Report, Vol. 20 No. 1, Spring 1996

5. Pagani, P., Energy-Efficient Initiatives at the University ofBritish Columbia, Paper presented

at the Fourth National Energy Efficient New Construction Conference, Vancouver, BC, Sept

30-Oct 2nd 1996

6. Ledger, B., Swooping for Air, Canadian Architect, July 1996, p 17

7. Environmental Guidelines for British Columbia University, College and Institutions

Facihties, Ministry of Skills, Labour & Training, Victoria, BC April 1995

Credits

C.K. Choi Buiilding for the Institute of Asian Research:

Architects: Matsuzaki Wright Architects; Structural: Read Jones Christoffersen; Mechanical:

Keen Engineering; Electrical: Robert Freundlich & Associates; Landscape: Cornelia Hahn

Oberlander; Contractor: Country West Construction.

21

THE QUEENS BUILDING AT DE MONTFORT UNIVERSITY, LEICESTER, UK

The new School of Engineering and Manufacture, a working example of a naturally

ventilated, naturally lit, inner-urban public building.

SHORT, C. Alan, Visiting Professor, De Montfort University, and partner in

Short * Ford and Associates, Chartered Architects,

15 Prescott Place, London SW4 6BS, UK

tel. 0171 720 9994 fax 0171 720 8857

Abstract

The Queens Building, opened October 1993, accommodates a complete University School of

Engineering and Manufacture. It is designed to be a low energy building. The teaching and

research relates to the practical business of Manufacturing Technology, and much of it is heat

producing at a prodigious scale. The conventional response would seem to be to seal and air condition a building of this type. However this building is almost wholly naturally lit and

naturally cross-, and stack-ventilated, and the first results are very encouraging. The Building was awarded the UK Green Building of the Year Award for 1995.

Introduction

The School of Engineering and Manufacture at De Montfort University, is re-housed within

the all new 10,000 square metre Queens Building. In excess of two thousand undergraduates,

graduates, research students, fellows and staff are connected with the building, if not full time

occupants. It was built very precisely to meet the strict Polytechnic & Colleges Funding

Council cost and space Hmits, its construction cost being £8.5 million, excluding fitting out. No further funding was introduced to increase its cost allowances and in fact its fitting out

budget was very restricted. The University very deliberately describes the building as a School

of Engineering and Manufacture. The teaching and research generally relates to Manufacturing

Technology, particularly in the Textile Industry, and so it replicates typical computer

laboratory and factory situations.

As remarked, much of this work is heat producing at a prodigious scale. The electronics

laboratories may generate 84 watts per square metre, such is the density of computers and

other electronic equipment, twice the heat gains in a City dealing room for example, three

times that in a conventional office building. However this building is almost wholly naturally

conditioned, that is naturally lit and passively cross- and stack-ventilated. Less than 2% of the

floor area is mechanically ventilated or air conditioned. Design work commenced in 1989,

supported by the UK Department of Trade and Industry. Research physicists at the

Cambridge University Department of Applied Mathematics and Theoretical Physics simulated

the likely air flow within the Architects' proposed configurations using a physical model

immersed in a saline bath, and colleagues at De Montfort University using the dynamic thermal

model ESP, to simulate the thermal behaviour of key spaces through time.

23
Through the scheme design phase, a series of extremely productive and intense meetings were

held in Cambridge, at which the configuration of the principal volumes of the proposed

building was debated, as it was generated, by the very diverse team of scientists, designers,

structural and environmental engineers, and cost consultants, chaired by the architects. The

broad strategy proposes a combination of heavy masonry construction and the judicious

provision of natural ventilation paths. An appreciable cooling effect through the overheating

months was predicted.

The Building in Use

The first results are excellent. In late June the auditoria just reached 23.5°C whilst external

temperatures exceeded 3\°C, with little or no consumption of energy. Our client's ideas for

academic reintegration, the City Authority's urban design notions, and the environmental

strategy, in concert, suggested a series of fundamental configurations; a tight courtyard of

electronics laboratories is introduced to the northwest of the site, the 'poor' orientation

maintaining a sump of cooler air to cross-ventilate the laboratories, whilst a large single

volume mechanical engineering hall is placed at the opposite end of the school. The two are connected by a 50 metre long double height general laboratory in which mechanical and

electronics engineers combine forces to invent new applications of robotics, mechatronics, and

artificial vision to related production fields. A full height concourse forms the main circulation

space in which much of the very important informal meetings and discussions occur. It contains most of the balancing area allowable within the PCFC floor area recipe. Its air volume stabilises the thermal behaviour of the surrounding spaces.

Two full raked amphitheatres for 1 60 people each, sit opposite above similar, radial plan, flat floored teaching rooms. Their ceiling slabs support north lit drawing and design studios, half

devoted to CAD and half to drawing board design activity. General purpose classrooms

occupy the ground floor, supported by a computer node and common room. Staff and

research fellows occupy the attics, encircling the design studios. A specialist Engine Test Cell

sits a little apart from the main building on Mill Lane.

Energy Usage at Queens Building, De Montfort University

September 1993 - July 1994

The building was compared with the BRECSU 'Energy Consumption Guide'. This gives

figures for typical and best practice offices for delivered amounts of gas and electricity.

FUEL USAGE USAGE

ACTUAL

(kWHperm^) (kWH) (kWH)

TYPICAL BEST TYPICAL BEST

PRACTICE PRACTICE

GAS 200 95 2,000 950 1,140

ELECTRICITY 85 61 850 610 630

24
From these figures it can be seen that the electricity usage is very much in line with 'best practice', but the figures include the electrical consumption of all the laboratory equipment.

Sadly it is not possible to disaggregate the figure for artificial lighting.

The Gas consumption is slightly higher than 'best practice'. This is expected in a heavyweight

building where the structure of the building itself stores quite a lot of heat which has to be

re-input after every weekend. The benefits and savings of the heavyweight building of steady

internal temperatures and the avoidance of air conditioning far outweigh the small additional

cost of heating in winter.

A Natural Conditioning Strategy may promote a more flexible and sympathetic

approach to urban planning

Our hypothesis is that the optimal form for such a building dissolves its considerable volumes

into narrow section elements, with free elevations on two or even three sides. We believe that

it is possible for such a building, whilst it is attempting to strike a rhythm with its immediate

environment, also to exploit its inherently more flexible form to mend a hole in the surviving

urban fabric. Our researches show that this prototypical site was densely occupied by terraced

houses, interspersed with hosiery mills, and that the concave shape of the main street, Mill

Lane, was established before Robert's 1741 City map was surveyed, and is therefore, in our

view, significant.

The block plan experienced a huge extraction in the early 1960's under the direction of the

then Chief Planning Officer, an enthusistic demolisher.

The more manoeuvrable building volumes resulting from the notion of introducing light and

air from both sides and above, enable, for example, the street elevation to flex so as to reinforce the old route whilst tuning the orientation of the various elements. The drawing

studios are very deliberately slewed to make northlit spaces, and receive high levels of diffuse

indirect light. An imaginative regional architecture, primarily in masonry but highly perforate,

was developed through the nineteenth century in the English Midlands to satisfy the

requirement for high natural light levels in the Lace-making industry.

External spaces are more deliberately formed at different scales around the building. A new

Great Court is proposed between the Mechanical Laboratory and the Kimberlin Library.

Smaller scale outdoor rooms intended for teaching are formed between the southfacing

classrooms, transepts and the electronics laboratories. The area is unsafe at night, and the

contents of the building represent a high security risk. Approaching visitors enter the

courtyard in full view and cross its fuU length before presenting themselves at the door. This

is a very deliberate entry sequence.

The Interdependence of the passive cooling strategy and the structure, and the potential

for making the strategy intelligible

Crucial to the environmental strategy is the thermal stability provided by the massive brick

masonry construction. Furthermore this masonry must be exposed to the air volume within.

25
Its potential for thermal admittance would be very reduced by a lightweight applied finish. Blockleys mellow grain pink bricks are used externally with silver buff and red syncopated

stripes. Internally solid load bearing walls are made in calcium silicate bricks by Ryarsh in a

variety of pastel colours, set in flemish bond or collar - jointed to fairfaced blockwork walls.

Polychromatic expression of various of the bond types reveals their pattern to the student

engineers. The greater the degree of polychromatic density the less load bearing is the

element. The mortar colour is matched to the brickwork to increase the apparent sheerness of

the masonry planes, a quality we admire in Richardson's work amongst others, for example

Sever Hall in Harvard Yard. Typically heavy masonry buildings develop a very occluded

ground floor plan. We borrow VioUet Le Due's notion of propping masonry up above head

height. Pin - jointed steel frames along the length of the concourse lift masonry ventilation

stacks up to the first floor level. The stacks are very visible and have become a popular

'leitmotiv' of the campus.

The imagery conveyed by the paraphernalia of air conditioning, its grilles and 'penthouse units'

is avoided. Air inlets and extract stack terminations are designed specifically within the natural

materials of the building. There are small areas of lightweight timber enclosure, heavily

insulated and clad in cedar shingles impregnated with intumescent material, one of its first uses on a public building in Britain, but very familiar to a North American audience.

The Central Strategy

One issue, the source of some scepticism inevitably, is that with a naturally-ventilated building, as compared with an air conditioned building, there is no spare capacity in the system, for

example the chiUer cannot be turned up. This means that everything must work to its maximum potential for the building to work correctly. As a result the control system must be

relatively sophisticated so that the optimum can be extracted from the natural ventilation.

At De Montfort, an extensive building management system (BMS) has been installed with

approximately 900 control and monitoring points. One of the best features of this particular

system is that its control algorithms are written in plain English and can be easily altered by the

user. This means that it is easy to continually fine-tune the controls. This is particularly

important bearing in mind the radical design of this building for which there was little previous

experience to fall back on, although this is not the case now, six years on.

The building will be used at a wide variety of times throughout the day and during the year

and it was therefore divided in to ten zones to allow the maximum control over the heating of

the occupied spaces. If it is found to be necessary, the building can be further split up simply

by using software as the motorised valves are already in place.

One condensing boiler and two conventional gas fired boilers, together with a gas fired

packaged combined heat and power (CHP) system, provide the heat source for the building.

These four heating units are connected in parallel to each other as well as to the heating load.

The CHP unit is more efficient than either the condensing boiler or buying in electricity but

only provided that most of the electricity and the hot water which it produces are being used.

The CHP will usually be the lead heat producer, followed by the condensing boiler and then

26
the conventional boilers. Before the BMS enables the CHP unit, it checks to see if sufficient

heating and electricity is being used. If this is not the case, the CHP will be deactivated and

the condensing boiler will become the first to fire. Delays have been built-in to ensure the lead

does not fluctuate between the CHP and the condensing boUer. The CHP unit was sized so

that its hot water output was roughly the same as the hot water load in the building. This

means that the CHP will be used virtually all year round, except for summer nights, and will

thereby guarantee the fastest payback of the cost of the unit.

The building is generally heated by perimeter mounted radiators or natural convectors. A few

areas have underfloor heating, and in the mechanical laboratory there are high level radiant

panels. These heaters are controlled by two-port valves and averaging thermostats. All

heating set-points are set centrally from the BMS computer (largely to prevent fiddling by the

student, although fiddling by staff has turned out to be a problem). These temperature settings are set back at night, and in summer so that the structure of the building can be pre-cooled at night by natural ventilation. At times it will be possible to cool down the building slightly

below its heating set-point and in this eventuality it is important that the controls prevent the

building from being re-heated the following morning.

The controls in the auditoria function in a very similar way to those in the rest of the building.

There are, however, many more sensors in the auditoria and this allows a greater degree of

control over the space. The basic requirements is for liberal supply of fresh air (10 1/s/person)

when the auditoria are in use and then for enough air to provide the required cooling.

Generally, the dampers and stacks will open to cool the room as required. The controls are

best explained in tabular form.

The air inlet dampers and the stack outlet dampers will open if the room requires cooling and

the external temperature is less than the internal temperature. When the room is occupied, as determined by the CO2 sensor, the air inlets and outlets will maintain a minimum position. In both cases the positions of the air inlet dampers and the stack dampers will be modulated

based upon the air velocity up the stack. This is to ensure that, in summer draughts are not

created on windy days and in winter, the amount of cold fresh air entering the building is kept

to a minimum. Furthermore the stack dampers will be partially closed if it is raining and the

wind is sufficient to cause the rain to enter the building. There is one further refinement to the

controls: if the inlet damper attempts to go below 10%, the stack dampers will close instead.

This ensures that the inlet damper does not create too much air turbulence and hence noise.

The lighting in the building is controlled by the building management system via passive

infra-red detectors. During the occupied period of the day, the lighting circuits are energized

by the BMS, and are subsequently controlled by the local switches. Out of normal hours the

BMS will de-energize any lighting circuits which serve an area where no occupants are

detected. The lighting circuits will be re-energized when an individual enters a room.

It is intended to extend the use of the system during the occupied period so that the lights

inside certain areas of the building are switched off dependant upon the external light level. Obviously this extension of the control system wiU have to be implemented with care and with

the users approval, so that the occupants do not feel they have lost control over their building.

27
The services in this building have the desirable characteristic of being simple and the building

characteristics are, in many ways, similarly straightforward. Paradoxically, a sophisticated

well tuned control system is required to ensure that such relatively simple systems work well

together.

Conclusions

Every space in the building is different, adapted to its orientation, activity, and its desired

lighting, acoustic and ventilation pattern. We believe that this has already had a very beneficial

effect on the morale of its occupants. A variety of window openings is employed; Gothic head

openings on the ground floor make arcaded bases to the teaching courtyards and lift glazed

area up between the deep floor structure downstairs. The emphasis is on de-institutionalising a very large University School, on reinforcing the genius loci of the existing place, which is more powerful than one might think, and making new places in the same spirit. The students,

staff and principals of the University know very well the significance of their new building, and

the Vice Chancellor reports that it has helped to attract a very gratifying level of new

engineering based research contracts.

28
The New School of Engineering and Manufacture, 'The Queens Building',

at De Montfort University, Leicester, 1989-1993

Alan Short, Brian Ford, Anne Goldrick and Peter Sharratt, with Catherine Hoggard, Mark

Hewitt, Michael Betts, Jo Ki, Bruce Graham, Gary Stewart

and others, Max Fordham, Randall Thomas, Edith Blennerhesset, services and environmental

engineers, Stephen Morley of Anthony Hunt Associates, structural engineer.

1. Mary Whittaker, "Ring in the Old", Architecture Today, Vol. 9, September 1993.

2. Alan Short, "A Well-Tempered Environment : Peake Short at Leicester",

Architecture Today, Vol. 23, November 1991, drawing by Alan Short on cover.

3. "Detail - The Engineering and Manufacture School at De Montfort University",

Architecture Today, Vol. 35.

4. Philip Arcidi, "School of Engineering and Manufacture, Leicester Polj^echnic,

England", Progressive Architecture, Sustainable Design Within Reach?, March

1993.

5. Helena Russel, "Test Case", New Builder, May 28th 1993.

6. Mark Swenarton and Peter Rickaby, "Low Energy Gothic", Architecture Today, Vol. 41, September 1993, photos by Peter Cook.

7. Roderic Bunn, "Learning Curve", The CIBSE Journal, Building Services, Vol. 15,

No. 10, October 1993.

8. Gillian Darley, "A Smart Line in Mediterranean Cool", The Observer, Review

Section. 17th October 1993.

9. Hugh Pearman, "The Battle of the Buildings", The Sunday Times, 10th October

1993.

10. "Review of the Year", Building Design editorial, 10th December 1993.

11. Lucy Young, "Basic Green", Metropolis Magazine. September 1994, New York.

12. Jeremy Hunt, "Engineering A New Breed of Student", The Engineer, 27th January

1994.

13. "Daylighting in Buildings, Thermie", The European Commission

Directorate-General for Energy (DG XVII), School of Engineering De Montfort

University, UK Case Study, p 12, 16.

I 29
"Naturally Energy Efficient", The Brick Bulletin. Autumn 1994.

Richard Patterson, "Queens Building", DEMO 1994. Department of Architecture,

De Montfort University.

Hazel Conway and Rown Roenisch, "Understanding Architecture", Routledge. 1994, p65-66.

Robert Webb, "Offices That Breath Naturally", New Scientist. 1 1th June 1994.

Dean Hawkes, "User Control in a Passive Building", The Architects Journal. 9th March 1994, photographs by Peter Cook.

Hugh Pearman, "Building of the Year" review of finalists, The Sunday Times. The

Culture Section. 15th May 1994.

Alan Powers, "The New Gothic", Perspectives. February 1995.

John Worthington, "Bricks and Stone May Set The Tone", The Times. Higher

Education Supplement. 31st March 1995, p6 of Buildings and Estate Management

Supplement.

"Green Building Award Goes to 'Gothic' Design", The Independent newspaper,

24th May 1995.

David Nicholson-Lord, " 'Medieval' Building wins Green Award", The

Independent on Sundav. 28th May 1995.

Anthony Oliver, "Green Leicester", New Builder. Vol. 16, June 1995, photographs

by Grant Smith.

Colin Davies, "Green Gothic", also editorial by Deborah K. Dietsch, "Green

Culture", Architecture. The Journal of the American Institute of Architects, July

1995, USA.

"AIA", Environmental Resource Guide, Washington, 1996.

Charles Jencks, "The Architecture of the Jumping Universe, A Polemic: How

Complexity Science is Changing Architecture and Culture", Academy Editions. 1995, pp97-99.

30
28. Scorpio, "It's Like Wow! Cosmic and Jumping, Man", review of Jencks book in Building Design, 12th May 1995.

29. Bill Addis, "The Art of the Structural Engineer", Artemis. London 1994.

Radio coverage of the Queens Building

30. Presented by Dr. Mark Swenarton, Joanna van Heyningen and Dr. Peter Rickaby,

"Friday Feature: Home is Where the Hearth Was", BBC Radio 3, Friday 10th June

1994.

31
Mechanical Engineering

Laboralor>' willi iravclling crane

Specialist Laboratories. Printed

Circuit Boards, Dark Rooms,

Metrology

Breaking buttresses restrain travelling crane

Shared Electro-mechanical

Laboratory, Mechalronics and

Robotics

Staff offices on top floor

Everyday entrance through

protected courtyard

Stacks to promote through

ventilation to teaching rooms

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35

Environmental Responsibility

At The

Jean-Michel Cousteau Fiji Islands Resort

by

Richard C. Murphy, Ph.D.

Jean-Michel Cousteau Institute 1933 Cliff Drive

Santa Barbara, California 93109

805/8998899ph, 8998898fx

email -rmurphyOOO@aol.com (O=zero)

Abstract

The Jean-Michel Cousteau Fiji Islands Resort uses the coral reef as a conceptual model for sus- tainable and responsible design. We use the free services of nature to minimize environmental

impact and economic investment. Integrated systems are designed to give guests a high quality

environment for mental, spiritual and physical enrichment. Coral reefs, mangroves, rainforests

and traditional Fijian culture offer guests a wide range of options for connection to Nature and

local people.

Introduction

For most of our 3 rmllion years of evolution we have struggled to survive under the overwhelming

forces of nature. Now we seem to have separated ourselves from nature in many ways, both

physically and spiritually. This is an illusion! We are very much connected to nature - more than

most people realize.

Even though we may not consciously think of it, our fundamental connection to all life and a need

to feel this is what drives most of us to travel and seek spiritual, mental and physical restoration in nature. This is a reconnection to our ancestral heritage. In taking the public to islands for over 20

years and offering an opportunity for connection and restoration, we have found a quality setting,

and simple yet tasteful amenities are the essential qualities for rejuvenation. Since our origins are with the sea, exploring the underwater wonders is an important ingredient to these experiences.

Our involvement in the Jean-Michel Cousteau Fiji Resort (JMC Fiji) on the island of Vanua Levu

is an opportunity to put into practical application many of the things Captain Cousteau has been

emphasizing for the last 40 years.

37
Our design objectives are to create an environmentally responsible facility which is elegant, yet

simple, so as to promote an appreciation of, and connection with, the natural and cultural qualities

of Fiji. Diving is superb and we have a full-time marine biologist on staff to guide our guests

through the magnificent coral gardens in our front yard. I we hope our facility will become a model for the tourist industry in Fiji and elsewhere.

Design Philosophy

We take a pragmatic approach to development and environmental protection. Nature has value

and as the demand for an experience in nature increases, due to the depletion of natural resources worldwide, so will the value of our facility. Consequently, we must do everything possible to

protect our natural resources to insure the highest economic return on our investment. Economic

sustainability requires ecological sustainability. This is not a constraint but rather a guiding

principle which offers numerous possibilities for those who understand ecology and environmental

design. Our design ethic is to use, as much as is possible, the services of nature because nature

does work without human input, renews and repairs itself for free, replaces itself for free, adapts

to change naturally and runs totally on solar energy. Thus we employ what have been called

living machines, biosystems and functional landscapes in our Fiji design. Energy sustainability,

integrated food production, water conservation, and waste reduction strategies are be the

foundation of our integrated systems.

There are a number of benefits derived from this design approach. People are connected to, rather

than separated from nature, visitors see that it is possible to live in harmony with nature and still enjoy a high quality of life, and most importantly, we can demonstrate that environmentally

responsible design is practical and economically viable. The fact that it is less expensive to employ environmental systems, than to use traditional approaches, is obvious when one remembers that nature does its work for free.

As we endeavor to minimize ecological impact and design with nature, so we must consider the

social environment and implement culturally responsible design. We are very sensitive to the fact

that we are guests of the Fijian people and as a member of the regional community we are obliged

to accept certain responsibilities. In a very real sense the resort owners and local people are partners in this development, and this has been reflected in the planning process. It is the locals

who staff the resort and it is local people with whom we visit in villages or along the beaches.

They have much to gain from a well designed program and, as we have seen elsewhere, they have

much to lose if their culture is undermined by poor design. For these reasons we have worked

very closely with local chiefs and villagers to ensure our facility and activities are compatible with

their culture, traditions and aspirations for the future. We have invited them to participate our development and tried to incorporate their suggestions and concerns in the design and operation

of our facility. We schedule regular meetings to keep the dialogue open and the exchange of

ideas flowing.

Our commitment to environmental design goes beyond the boundaries of the resort. We have

established a relationship with the University of the South Pacific in Suva, Fiji to ensure that

lessons learned can be shared with students from throughout the South Pacific. We consider this as a demonstration project to educate others about the long-term benefits of responsible design ~ ecologically and economically. In addition, sustainability goes hand in hand with self-sufficiency

38
which is critical for communities in isolated areas. The keystone of sustainability and self- sufficiency lies in integrated systems which produce less waste and use what is created in a productive way to minimize the need for external products. We hope to prove what we preach that

human beings can have a high quality of life without destroying the natural resource base which

supports all activity.

Site Selection

Environmentally responsible development implies a minimization of human impact on nature. As

there is already excessive development in many parts of the world an important challenge is to keep additional development to a minimum and make better use of what already exists. JMC Fiji

has taken advantage of an existing facility and revitalized it to meet our standards. We were fortunate to find this facility located on a prime site at the tip of the peninsula directly south of the

town of Savusavu and constructed on the theme of a traditional Fijian village. The retrofit process is actually a form of recycling in which existing materials and resources are used and

upgraded. It will also involve habitat restoration as certain areas of the coast were mismanaged in the past. The village theme is also critical to our design ethic as it dignifies the cultural heritage

and uses design characteristics refined by generations to meet unique Fijian geography and

chmate. Our recycling/retrofit ethic and respect for local culture will be a key element in

demonstrating creative approaches to responsible development.

Construction

Construction at JMC Fiji is guided by a number of principles: minimize impact on the landscape, use natural materials and systems when possible, use materials fabricated in an environmentally

responsible manner, minimize construction waste, and design for flexibility to implement more

environmental technologies and systems as they become available.

Landscape management is particularly important at JMC Fiji because of the potential for coastal

erosion. In the past mangroves were cut, resulting in erosion. We are restoring the natural landscape so that mangroves can do their job of protecting the coastline as they did in the past.

Energy

Solar and wind energy systems, with diesel back-up generators, will eventually provide power to JMC Fiji. As the process of retrofit continues the most energy efficient systems will be used.

Passive solar design will maximize utilization of nature's free services to condition and cool the

air, to heat water and for drying laundry.

Water

Tropical systems are extremely fine tuned and thus sensitive to perturbation. The coral reef is the

most extreme example and thus deserves special attention since protecting the beauty and vitality

of the coral reef is essential to our operation. Although reefs suffer from many factors, the impact

39
of nutrients and sediments are among the most devastating. The coral reef is adapted to an environment of low nutrients. Increased nutrients stimulate algae to overgrow corals, increase

planktonic growth, reduce light to corals, and upset coral physiology. Consequently, the management of domestic waste is critical for coral reef health and vitality.

Consistent with our ethic of designing with nature, we intend to implement an integrated system

of constructed wetlands for waste treatment. Treated water will irrigate gardens or "edible landscaping" to keep nutrients cycling within the system. The cycling will revolve from waste to fertilized irrigation water to tropical fruits and vegetables for resort use, ultimately completing the

cycle. In this way waste becomes a resource to be used and also protects the reef from pollution.

Such integrated systems have been proven extremely beneficial ecologically and economically.

Once constructed they function with minimal human input, run on natural solar energy, repair

themselves and adapt as conditions change. They produce useful products and turn damaged

landscapes into aesthetic natural habitats and gardens. At JMC Fiji the priorities will be the

production of food and natural products such as thatching, and the restoration of natural habitats

which invite indigenous birds, and other creatures, back to the resort.

Both the constructed wetlands and multicrop agriculture system will be based on known, tested

and demonstrated strategies which are general enough to be replicated elsewhere. As these

programs get underway they wiU be coordinated with the University of the South Pacific so as to insure theory and implementation strategies wiU be of use to others in the Pacific.

Waste

Waste minimization and reuse are the foundation of our operations. Gray water, kitchen waste

and sewage are considered resources to be utilized for beneficial purposes. Packaging materials

have been reduced dramatically through our buying procedures and staff education. Fortunately,

the local staff find uses for most cardboard and metal so our waste is primarily limited to plastic

which is ahnost impossible to avoid in packaging of materials purchased from outside. We have

gotten the local drinking water distributor to recycle the plastic water bottles used by guests. We

have convinced the major paper recycling company in the Suva, the capital, to take work with us. A difficulty is by being efficient our waste stream has become so small it is not economical for

recyclers to work with us so we are trying to get the nearby town of Savusavu to become part of our recycling program to get the volume up to something interesting to the recycling company.

Operations

It is essential that all the staff understand the environmental ethic of JMC Fiji and how to operate

and maintain the resort according to this ethic. Regular staff education seminars are conducted.

Here the challenge is that the locals associate luxury with waste so they think we are a bit strange

to have a nice facility and then want to scrimp and save on things. I remind them that this is what

they do in the village but they say, "Of course, we do at home but you have money and don't have

to worry about such things." It is a challenging process to make-up for all the bad examples the

outside world has conveyed to these people about luxury and quality of life.

40
Conservation practices at JMC Fiji

Nature

• a full time marine biologist is dedicated to interpreting the reefs, mangroves and forest for

visitors, this person presents evening lectures as well

• all visitors receive a brief orientation soon after arrival and are instructed in ways to minimize their impact on the environment and local culture

• interpretation panels are provided for guests about diving and walking along the shoreline

and the critters they may encounter

• construction is kept to a minimum and we try not to impair scenic vistas of the sea

• collecting of shells, even empty ones, and other sea life is forbidden

• all divers are given training in ecological diving by the JM Cousteau dive master before entering the water

• all dive sites have moorings to prevent damage from boat anchors

dive sites are rotated to control visitor impact

• some dive sites are held in reserve for rest and recuperation from past diver impact

• certain dive sites of particular vulnerability will be dived only by experienced divers well

versed in the techniques of ecodiving

Chemicals

• photographic processing chemicals are chemically rendered inert and the silver is extracted

and sent back to the USA for reuse

• no toxic pesticides (long-lived chlorinated hydrocarbons) or chemical fertilizers used on the

landscape

• all cleaning products are non-toxic (soaps, cleaning sprays, detergents, kitchen products,

etc.)

• no aerosols will be used which contain CFC or HCFC

Environmental products

• artifacts are not sold that come from animals or endangered species

Tranquillity

• neither televisions nor radios are provided in the bures to encourage appreciation of the

natural beauty of the setting

Health

• facilities for handicapped people will be provided

• food is purchased from local growers whenever possible

• a demonstration program of constructed wetlands and gardens will be used to encourage

local people to create organic gardens with the resort as a stable buyer

I-X)cal culture

• guests are instructed as to proper etiquette and a respect for Fijian culture

• as many products as possible are purchased from local vendors to support the regional econ- omy

• over 90 % of the staff are local Fijian, including one of the two managers

41
Improvement

• an expert in environmental technologies and systems is retained to constantly monitor ad- vances and offer suggestions for improvement

• regular staff meetings are convened to review and improve environmentally sound operations

• guests are invited to offer suggestions for improvements

Scientific Researcli and Education

The foundation of knowledge on which sustainable management is based comes from scientific

research. We cannot protect and manage something we don't understand. Since the environment

is the most important aspect of the visitors experience at JMC Fiji we are obliged to insure its protection. Consequently, we are implementing a long-term coral reef monitoring program. Our

data is sent to an international enter for reef studies in the Philippines and incorporated into a world-wide monitoring system to asses health and vitality of coral reefs.

Before contact with Europeans, Fijians traditionally used the marine and terrestrial resources for a few thousand years without substantially depleting them. Their cultural knowledge is extremely

valuable as we seek to achieve respectful and sustainable relationships with our surroundings.

Unfortunately, this knowledge is being lost as culture changes due to outside influences.

Consequently, we are working with village and government people to promote and revive

traditional practices in both the forest and reef environments. We hosted a women's workshop on

traditional use of medicinal plants and now have created our own medicine garden on the Resort

grounds as a demonstration project for villagers and guests alike.

Students from local schools visit the resort regularly and for talks and nature walks by our

naturalist. Our live diver uplink system gives many of them the first views of the ocean world at their doorstep. This program is integrated with the Ministry of Education's environmental

educational program to insure our message enhances it's curriculum.

We want each guest who leaves JMC Fiji to be mentally and physically rejuvenated and

committed to living more environmentally responsible lives. To this end we have crated a booklet

designed to inspire guests to apply some of what they have learned and experienced at the Resort

into their own lives back home. This "Guide for Responsible Living" offers case studies on what

others have done to live more gently on earth, environmental organizations which one can join or

contribute to and a list of publications to guide students, home makers and business people in helping achieve sustainability.

42
Conclusion

If our species is to continue on this planet, we must create new strategies for sustainability. Being

at a resort on a remote island in the middle of the ocean offers a microcosm view of the world but

in an easier to understand setting. It gives us an opportunity to educate people in a subtle yet

concrete manner the benefits of protecting nature and the fact that living responsibly does not

mean a reduction in quality of life. Certainly, we don't have all the answers, but we are searching. In addition, we encouraging our guests to participate in this quest for more sustainable ways of

organizing our business and personal lives. We we have tried to create an environment and experience from which our guests will return

home physically, mentally and spiritually enriched and charged with a sense of hope that it is possible to live in harmony with the planet.

Richard C. Murphy

43

RIDGEHAVEN GREEN BUILDING DEMONSTRATION PROJECT

Charles Angyal, AIA

Chief Architect, New Business Development Services

San Diego Gas & Electric

Abstract. Creating a green building on a budget is a challenging prospect. The City of San

Diego's Environmental Services Department has successfully met this challenge in their new

offices on Ridgehaven Court. In this renovation project, they emphasized the importance of longterm operating and maintenance costs, environmental protection and worker comfort and health.

The integrated design team of architects, engineers, and specialized energy and environmental

consultants, together created an award winning building embodying sustainable design, energy

efficiency and economic innovation. This green building demonstration project now serves as a teaching and learning tool for the surrounding metropolitan community and a catalyst for further

strides towards sustainable design nationwide.

Introduction

Nothing about the three-story office building on Ridgehaven Court in San Diego looks

particularly unusual. The 73,020-square-foot commercial structure typifies developments of the

1980's, when low first costs of materials and systems took precedence over long-term operating,

environmental, and maintenance costs.

But when the City of San Diego's Environmental Services Department (ESD) chose the

Ridgehaven building as its new home, the Mayor of San Diego, the Director of the ESD, and San

Diego Gas & Electric pushed for energy efficiency and other environmentally sustainable criteria

in the renovation. That idea guided the many participants in a "green building" demonstration

project that has drawn national interest.

This project proves that any city could have a green building on a limited budget. According to the entry that won the AIA / SDG&E Savings Through Design award, the estimated construction

cost of the $37 per square foot for both the base building improvements and new tenant work falls within a range typical of municipal remodels.

Energy Use in Lowest 10 Percent

However, the project is anything but typical in terms of energy use. Based upon DOE-2

(Department of Energy) computer simulations projecting performance of upgraded mechanical

and electrical systems, the Ridgehaven building is expected to consume between 8.5 and 10

kilowatt-hours per square foot per year, putting it into the lowest 10 percent of commercial

energy users in San Diego County. That works out to energy savings of approximately $66,000

per year compared to the 15 year-old building's historical annual bill of over $125,000.

45
HVAC System

A wide spectrum of energy-efficiency measures are included in the Ridgehaven project to help cut

utility costs by over 50%. The mechanical engineer chose to modify the water-source heat pumps

system used for heating, ventilating and air conditioning. This type of HVAC system has been

considered economical due to its low first cost, but it has a high operating cost. Through

technological advances and with some innovative thinking, the team turned this system into an economical operating system.

The plan to reuse some parts of the existing system, such as the boilers, and replace motors on pumps produced a virtually new, high-performance system of the same type. Features of the new

energy saving system include:

• High-efficiency water source heat pumps with an EER of 14.9 (32 percent more

efficient than the current industry standard).

• Heat pump/condenser water isolation valves, which save pumping energy by diverting

condenser water around the heat pump if the compressor does not require cooling.

• An adjustable speed drive (ASD) for condenser water pumps. The ASD senses the

reduced need for pumping energy as the number of isolation valves going to the closed

position increases.

• New radial fiberglass cooling towers that use a two-speed, 5 horsepower fan motor in lieu of the original 1 5 horsepower fan motor.

• A direct digital control system to optimize all equipment performance and control.

• An experimental "floating loop controller" recently developed by the Electric Power

Research Institute (EPRI) allowing the condenser water temperature to float within

prescribed limits. The limits are dynamic, based upon a simultaneous analysis of

current ambient conditions in conjunction with time-corresponding building

performance. The controller could save up to 5 percent of cooling tower energy.

Lighting Design

The design of the lighting system is another key area in which the Ridgehaven building will accrue energy savings. Lighting specifications call for 0.78 connected watts per square foot - a net reduction of 52 percent from levels allowed by California's Title 24 energy standards.

Key components that were used to achieve this included T8 fluorescent lamps, electronic dimming

ballasts, 2x4 deep parabolic fixtures, reflectors, occupancy sensors for each room, daylight

savings sensors in perimeter rooms with exterior windows, lumen maintenance control devices in core areas not subject to daylight, and photo cells. Energy-efficient task lighting at workstations

will reduce the general area lighting requirement in the open office environment.

In addition to increasing comfort, the lighting design offers ongoing net savings for 1 0 to 20 years

aflter the initial installation cost is recovered in three to five years. Another bonus, the lower

lighting loads will decrease cooling requirements. Mechanical equipment sizing is also reduced by

46
the use of anti-solar window film with a shading coefficient of 0.34, which Umits solar gain into

the building.

Original Vision

Energy Efficiency was just one element of this lean, green design model. The vision of the Mayor

and the Environmental Services Department included providing the department staff with an

environmentally sound workplace while providing the city as a whole with a model for

appropriate design in this day and age. The real struggle was to bring these lofty goals into

conformance with an ever-shrinking municipal budget. After persuading the city to purchase the

$3 million building, the project team came up with a set of objectives that demonstrate the original

vision. The criteria included:

• Using construction materials that are least toxic and least carcinogenic. Materials also were chosen with minimized volatile organic compounds (VOC) emissions and potential

for growth of mold, mildew and bacteria to protect indoor air quality.

• Selecting construction materials to have substantial recycled content, to be recyclable

themselves or , in the case of virgin materials, to be renewable or sustainably produced.

Contractors were required to show receipts documenting the reuse or recycling of

materials removed from the building during remodeling.

• Modifying the HVAC system to provide high-quality indoor air, prevent the growth and

transmission of molds and bacteria, and minimize the circulation of VOCs. If nothing else,

good indoor air quality helps increase worker productivity by having fewer absences due

to sickness.

• Using construction methods compatible with the goals set for the building.

Many Contributors

To ftilly realize the Ridgehaven project's potential, many people contributed to the effbrt. The

project's Architectural and Engineering team included:

PlattAVhitelaw Architects, Inc. - Architects

Jackie Lu, Project Architect

Lynn Froeschle, AIA - Environmental Consulting Architect

Lynn Froeschle, Environmental Consultant

McParlane & Associates, Inc. - Consulting Mechanical Engineering

Mitch Hart, Project Engineer

Turpin & Rattan Engineering, Inc. - Consulting Electrical Engineers

Pervez Mobin, Project Engineers

47
The environmental consulting architect did extensive research and analysis of materials to meet

the green guidelines set forth for the project. The carpeting, for example, was chosen for its significant recycled content, its low VOC emissions and its tile-size sections that can be replaced

easily in minimal quantities, reducing future rehabilitation costs. These carpet tiles will be rotated, so that the entire carpet will last longer than one continuous piece of carpet that can't be moved.

The carpeting also reflects creative budgeting. It will be leased form the manufacturer under an

innovative "evergreen lease," only the second such arrangement in the U.S. at the time, so it is considered an operational cost rather than construction cost. The manufacturer will rotate,

maintain, and replace it over the lease term. Innovative materials selections were just one of the

significant contributions made by including this specialized consultant on the design team.

Another major contributor to the project was Gottfried Technology, Inc., an environmental

technology and consulting firm. In conjunction with it's subcontractor. Flack & Kurtz Engineers,

Gottfried Technology used the complex DOE-2 software to project the building's energy

performance under different design scenarios, then cost out and rank the energy-savings

opportunities. SDG&E provided further analysis of the building's potential with an eye toward

giving cash incentives and financing for energy-efficient mechanical and electrical measures.

Partnership Program

Gottfried Technology also created a partnership program for the city. Through this program,

Ridgehaven will showcase manufacturers and others who are donating or discounting products

and services for use in the renovation. Educational exhibits by participating partners will be set up

in an environmental display area open to the pubHc, along with a resource Hbrary that includes

information on green construction, resource conservation and energy efficiency. SDG&E and

EPRI are a few of the major supporting partners.

Conclusion

To promote green building on a budget to other local governmental agencies and utilities nationwide, Gottfried Technology has prepared a case study, available from the Environmental

Services Department, that discusses the process in full. It is evident that green development is surging across the country. Projects such as Ridgehaven serve as a catalyst for this design

direction, and as practical, economical example of how to make it work.

48
BUILDING DURACELL'S NEW CORPORATE HEADQUARTERS

AN ENVIRONMENTAL SUCCESS STORY

Glenn R. Machemer, Manager

Facilities Planning

Duracell Inc. Berkshire Corporate Park

Bethel, CT 06801

Abstract. In November 1995, Duracell employees moved into our new worldwide headquarters

in Bethel, Conneticut. The goals, methodology of how a 44 acre natural site was developed in a sustainable manner; the story of how a building was designed to use energy efficiently and was

constructed with recycled materials; and the story of cooperation among a team of employees,

senior management, the project team and conservation groups is described. This is the story of

how the new headquarters has become a symbol of Duracell's worldwide environmental

commitment.

Project Goals

Duracell is committed to becoming an envirormiental leader in the worldwide consumer battery

industry. Accordingly, a goal was established to incorporate the principles of sustainable

development into the new headquarters.

This commitment is reflected in the following comments:

"I wanted to ensure that we did not end up with the standard corporate headquarters of a gray

monolith with tinted glass set in immaculately manicured lawns with no sensitivity or

relationship to the surrounding envirormient. It was particularly important that as the building

matures it should grow old gracefully, integrating with the environment in which it resides."

Wade Lewis, Senior VP and Chief Financial Officer

"The architecture (of this complex) is the trees." Herbert S. Newman, Chief Architect

"On June 8, 1993, 1 conducted a comprehensive survey of the site with the Project Manager and

members of the Ecology Task Force. Later, I presented Duracell with a proposed habitat plan.

The plan, which called for not only preserving - but enhancing - wildlife was largely

implemented over the next 3 years." Darlene Pais, Biologist, Wildlife Habitat Council (WHC)

49
strategies

In order to embody sustainable development principles into the new headquarters, a project team

was assembled (refer to an organizational chart). Strategies were developed and organized into

twelve groups: site design, natural planting and landscaping, habitat and wildlife, storm water

runoff, architectural design, construction waste management, building materials, energy

conservation, water conservation, preparing for the move, waste management, and employee

safety.

Site Design

Objectives

To minimize the impact of the new corporate office facility on the environment.

To manage the storm water run-off in a manner which will provide wildlife,

vegetation and employee benefits; and

To enhance the property's landscape through the preservation of native vegetation,

the creation of meadows in open areas and along roads, and the design of wildlife

gardens to attract songbirds, hummingbirds, and butterflies.

Results

The building location on the 44 acre site was selected primarily because of its general topography. The location was the flattest area of the property and straddled a small ridge. Prior to Duracell's selection of this site, one area had been disrupted

to create a helicopter landing area. This was the largest area on the site which was

already void of trees and other vegetation. Therefore, this site was selected because

it required the least regrading, the least additional disruption to existing drainage

patterns and the least encroachment on existing woodlands.

In order to minimize the disturbance to mature woodlands and to wildlife habitats,

the following actions were taken: The siting of the actual building location was

adjusted slightly into the open areas to the east;

Roadway alignments were changed;

The ridge line to the west of the complex which served as a wildlife trail was

preserved;

The service access of the building was relocated to the north side in order to take

advantage of the flatter areas and to minimize disturbance to the site for both the

loading area and the service drive;

50
Areas of woodlands that were cut off from surrounding forest by roadways and/or

buildings were kept as large as possible in order to mitigate against the effects of

forest fragmentation; and

The property wetlands were not disturbed. Protecting these sensitive ecological

areas required the project team to perform muUiple building siting layout and

grading analyses.

Refer to chart on Page for description of site following development.

Natural Planting and Landscaping

Objectives

To preserve as many mature trees as possible in order to maintain the surrounding

woodland habitat.

To preserve plant wildlife in order to promote opportunities for wildlife forage and

shelter.

Results

Trees were preserved throughout much of the site during construction, including

along the entry roadway, within the circular drop-off area and immediately

adjacent to the building to the north and northwest. The project team was also

able to maintain greater tree coverage around the parking structure because of

greater distances to roadways and more rapid transitions of building levels. Some

shading of the parking structure was also achieved.

Protecting the bark and structure of the trees and the prevention of soil compaction

around their roots during construction were critical design objectives. In addition,

tree protection fencing was utilized in all areas of woodlands that were to be

preserved.

Both the size and alignments of utility corridors were adjusted in order to preserve

specific native vegetation.

Trees that had to be removed were recycled either as fire wood which was given to employees or as wood chips for use on nature trails to minimize compaction and

erosion. Economic incentives for preservation were incorporated into the design

team's construction specifications; therefore, penalties were levied if damages

occurred to designated trees or other vegetation.

Native, water tolerant plants were utilized in wetland areas and around drainage

basins in order to emphasize opportunities for forage and shelter.

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Meadow grasses were used rather than turf in open areas and along the road sides

in order to benefit wildlife, and to avoid acres of grass that would require chemical

fertilizers, watering and energy-intensive maintenance.

In the selection of grasses, special attention was given to enhancing the habitat

for the wild turkey that populate the site. A distinctive quality of the site prior to development was the absence of understory

plants. A minimum number of small trees, shrubs, and herbaceous plants were

disturbed. These were replanted onto the site at the newly created forest edge as one would expect to find in naturally occurring woodlands transition zones.

Seven new trees were planted adjacent to the parking garage in order to celebrate

Duracell's worldwide Green Teams.

Habitat and Wildlife

Objectives

To preserve the natural habitat;

To build awareness of environmental issues, including wildlife resources;

To serve as a model for others who wish to preserve the habitat in new construction

projects;

To develop a comprehensive management plan that focuses on enhancing the land

to make it more supportive to native plants and animal species; and

To create educational and recreational opportunities for employees, employee

families, visitors, and the local community.

Results

Habitat Plan: A plan was developed for managing the wildlife and habitat of the

site. The plan is administered by a Wildlife Committee which delegates to five

project teams. The habitat plan was formed with help from the Wildlife Habitat

Council (WHC, and other local wildlife groups.)

Wildlife Committee: The site is managed by a Wildlife Committee. The Committee

is responsible for implementing and maintaining the overall habitat plan and for

coordinating all nature projects. It consists of seven to eight members and meets

monthly or every other month. Goals are to improve upon the wildlife plantings,

manage the right-of-way, and m.aintain a suitable habitat for wildlife. In addition.

52
the Committee coordinates with local groups such as Ducks Unlimited, Girl Scouts

of America, and Boy Scouts of America.

Storm Water Runoff

Objective

To enhance wetlands; and

To protect downstream water quality.

Results

The site is divided into two drainage basins:

Approximately one-quarter of the site drains to the north through a wetland area

in the northwest quadrant. Although the original plan called for the creation of a

detention pond, the project team developed a storm water drainage system which

allowed water to be detained in the wetlands without the need for such a pond. By

having the drainage system located above the wetlands area, the water flows

naturally into the wetlands; thereby, resulting in no change in outflow from the site. In this way, the wetlands area has been preserved.

The remainder of the site drains generally to the east toward the adjacent corporate

park. There are no wetlands near the bottom of this system in which to drain;

therefore, a detention pond was created to avoid any change in surface water

outflow from the site. The pond was also designed to serve as a temporary

sedimentation basin both during and after construction. Thus, the storm water

run-off plan maintained or slightly improved downstream water quality.

The planting around the detention pond utilize native, water tolerant plants in

order to emphasize the opportunity for forage and shelter for wildlife. In addition,

the pond was sited quietly into the natural landscape, thereby maintaining the

natural aesthetics and environment.

Architectural Design

Objective

To build a facility that complements the landscape and reinforces the cormection

between the inhabitants and the site.

Results

Duracell's decision to build a parking garage rather than develop on-grade parking

53
is probably the single most important (and I might add costly) habitat preservation

strategy of the project. Approximately, nine acres were saved from development

(clear cutting) by utilizing a multi-story garage at a cost of approximately $7 million.

The 700-car parking area is tucked unobtrusively into the side of a hill. Trees close

to the building help shade and cool it, while natural habitats for indigenous wildlife were preserved.

The floor plan for the building was configured in several relatively narrow wings.

This approach allowed more flexibility in siting the large building footprint; thereby

minimizing disturbance, accommodating the rolling terrain, and preserving special

site features. The building perimeter allows windows in all offices, in 75 percent

of shared conference spaces, and in a significant proportion of the interior general

office space. In addition, the use of floor to ceiling high windows and continues

interior clerestory glazing at the private office/corridor wall allows natural light to reach into the center of each wing.

An arcade connects the parking garage to the building's main entry lobby. It allowed best siting of both the headquarters building and the parking garage while

protecting building users from rain and snow. The configuration of the parking

garage was adjusted to better respond to the existing slopes. A reduction in the

size of the garage was accomplished by obtaining a variance to provide substantially

fewer parking spaces than the zoning code required. This action significantly

reduced environmental disturbance to the site.

Since the building closely follows topography of the landscape, the impact on

drainage patterns is minimal. Also, where roadways traverse slopes and interrupt

the existing surface run-off patterns, storm drainage systems have been designed to maintain original watersheds.

A partial fourth level was added to the northwest wing of the main building to make

it more closely follow the existing terrain.

Construction Waste Management

Objectives

To properly manage all construction waste material including recycling of

unavoidable waste. •

Results .

All salvageable scrap metal was collected and sold for reclamation. Refuse (e.g.,

cardboard, wood, metal) was separated and recycled. All tree wells and the stone

wall behind the dining area were created from on-site material. Approximately

8,000 cubic yards of blasted rock were collected and used as structural fill.

54
Building Materials

Objectives

To maximize the number of building materials containing recycled content

(minimum of 50 percent);

To minimize the use of hazardous materials used in construction;

To minimize the negative effects of building materials on employee health and

safety.

Results

The New Building Ecology Task Force set a goal at the beginning of the project to ensure that a minimum of 50 percent of all building materials, both interior and

exterior construction, must contain some recycled content.

At the end of the project, 50.8 percent of all building materials contained some

amount of recycled content. The incremental cost was approximately $200,000.

Examples of materials with recycled content include:

floor tiles containing 70 to 1 00 percent recycled glass (including crushed

light bulbs;

partitions in restrooms made from recycled plastic;

recycled steel in the superstructure, 25 percent of which is recycled from

such sources as automobiles and demolished buildings;

water main piping, containing 50 percent recycled steel;

all paving material containing recycled asphalt;

acoustical ceiling made from recycled newsprint, wood fibers and wool; and

roofing shingles containing 95 percent recycled aluminum;

One recycled material used in the new building deserves special recognition. Byproducts from Duracell's manufacturing process in Lexington, North Carolina were

used in the bricks that cover the exterior of the headquarters building. The bricks

contain 1 .3 percent (by weight) of scrap manganese dioxide powder. This powder,

which is an important raw material in Duracell's batteries, gives the brick their dark

color. Duracell began sending waste manganese powder to brick makers several

55
years ago and currently sends approximately 460,000 pounds per year to brick

makers in North Carolina and in Belgium. Cunningham Brick Company of

Lexington, North Carolina and Cherokee Sanford Brick of Sanford, North Carolina

used approximately 5,400 pounds of scrap manganese in supplying over 400,000

bricks for the new headquarters.

In order to minimize any off-gassing of hazardous chemicals into the new building,

the following materials were used during construction:

Low volatile organic compound (VOC) paints;

Water based adhesives; and

. , Carpets made of stable recycled plastic with natural fiber backings.

A concerted effort was made to use a non-fiberglass insulation material in the

external walls.

Numerous fiberglass substitutes were evaluated, including mineral wool, a cottonbased material, a foam material, and a wood pulp product made from recycled

newspapers; however, none of these materials were able to meet fire, insulating, and

physical dimension requirements at an acceptable incremental cost.

As a result, a fiberglass-containing insulation was used. However, two points should

be emphasized:

1. Fiberglass-containing insulation was installed in a manner that is safe.

It was applied only in the external walls in conjunction with a special

plastic barrier that prevents any friable glass fibers from entering the

inside of the building.

; 2. The fiberglass-containing insulation contains recycled materials.

To further ensure optimal working conditions, the design includes:

A high level of air ventilation (e.g., 25 cubic feet per minute per person and

1 00 percent fresh air make-up when weather permits).

Filtration of all air to remove 90 percent of particulates.

Humidification of all air in the winter.

A very high degree of acoustic attenuation to provide a very quiet

environment.

56
Energy Conservation

Objective

To minimize energy consumption.

Results

Overall Energy Efficiency: It is estimated that overall annual energy efficiency of

the building is 1 5 to 20 percent better than typical office buildings designed to current national energy standards.

Lighting Control Systems and Occupancy Sensors: Energy saving lighting control

systems and occupancy sensors have been installed in the new facility in order to conserve electricity. Occupancy sensors are located in every office and conference room.

Building Automation: The automation system consists of a direct digital control

system (DDC) using electrical devices, optimum start/stop and economizer

operation. This increases both building and equipment efficiency.

Lighting: The lighting consultant and electrical engineer's design achieved an

energy efficiency equivalent of 1 .2 watts per square foot. This is very impressive for a building of this type. Typical office buildings generally have energy efficiency

equivalents of 2.0 to 2.5 watts per square foot. This was achieved in part through

the use of: energy efficient fluorescent lamps and electronic ballast; compact

fluorescent lamps; high pressure sodium lamps; metal halide lamps; and low voltage

tungsten halogen.

In addition, all lighting complies with the US EPA Green Lights specifications.

Passive Solar Energy: The building has numerous skylights to provide natural

lighting and passive solar heating.

Windows: All windows have double paned glass with a low emissivity coating to prevent heat loss in winter, maximize passive sun in winter and minimize cooling

loads from direct solar in summer.

Windows have an insulation value of R-3.0, which is over 50 percent better than the

R-1.9 ASHRAE standard. This additional insulation is expected to save over 200,000 kWh's per year.

Insulation: All external walls have vapor seals and an insulation value of R-20,

which is approximately 60 percent better than the R-12 ASHRAE standard. This

additional insulation is expected to save 37,000 kWh per year. The roof has an

57
insulation value of R-20 which complies with ASHRAE energy standards.

HeatingA/^entilation/Air Conditioning (HVAC) System: HVAC represents the

largest use of electricity for a commercial office building; therefore, the selection of

the HVAC represented one of the most critical environmental decisions in the entire

project.

Various energy source systems were evaluated including geothermal heat pumps.

Such systems involve the circulation of water through pipe wells deep in the ground

to harvest the Earth's heat in the winter and cooling in the summer. However,

geothermal systems are still an emerging technology. Although a geothermal

insulation at our headquarters site appeared to be feasible, this unconventional

technology was dropped from consideration due to uncertainties about cost,

reliability and applicability of the site.

Following extensive performance modeling and calculations by our project

engineers, a gas-powered HVAC system, consisting of two gas fired chillers

totaling 900 tons, was selected to provide heating and air conditioning. Compared

to an electric chiller system, the gas system had an incremental capital cost of

$300,000. The gas system was selected for the following reasons:

1. It avoided the use of any ozone-depleting refrigerants (e.g., it fully

complies with the Federal Clean Air Act);

2. Although an equivalent electric chiller uses slightly less overall energy,

the gas system uses less electricity and therefore has an overall fiiel

ij-viic mix with considerably less environmental impact (e.g., emits less

pollutants). By using gas instead of electricity for cooling in the

summer, the following emissions are avoided each year:

^ . 284,922 pounds of carbon dioxide;

5,280 pounds of sulfur dioxide;

.! 497 pounds of nitric oxides;

1 ,077 pounds of methane;

' 5.7 pounds of load; and

304 pounds of airborne particulates.

It should be noted that the above data was given to Duracell by Northeast Utilities in October of

1993.

58
3. Fuel costs are less with gas due to special incentive rates. For

example, the electric chiller would use expensive electricity in the

summer while the gas system uses inexpensive gas in the summer

resulting in major cost savings HVAC Fans & Motors: All supply

and return air fans use premium efficiency motors and fans, with the

exception of several small constant volume units, use energy

efficient variable speed motors.

Air Distribution and Waste Heat Recovery: Conditioned air is distributed by

ceiling hung, fan-powered terminal boxes. These distribute variable quantities of

cold air mixed with warmer ceiling plenum air to provide proper temperature and

ventilation year round to each zone. Waste heat from lights in the ceiling plenum is mixed with primary air to warm perimeter zones in winter before the supplemental

gas boilers and hot water coils turned on. This minimizes the use of fossil fuels and

improves the building energy efficiency.

By participating in the Energy Conscious Constmction (ECC) Program, Duracell

received approximately $300,000 of rebates from Northeast Utilities. These energy

conservation measures are projected to save annually approximately $125,000 of

energy costs.

Water Conservation

Objectives

To minimize water use and water discharges; and

To minimize contaminants in waste water.

Results:

Native landscape plantings were used which require substantially less watering than

typical non-native ground coverings.

A special water filtration system will be installed in early 1997 which will remove

trace impurities from incoming city water. By removing these impurities, water

and energy usage involved with maintenance of all building operations and

equipment (including the HVAC) will be decreased.

Where practical, a limited number of "low flow" bathroom fixtures were installed.

(Such fixtures require much less water than standard fixtures).

59
Preparing for the Move

Objective

To maximize recycling of files, paper and other supplies prior to moving into the

new headquarters

To conserve resources.

Results

Since over 600 Duracell employees moved from six leased office buildings in the

adjacent corporate office park, our Bethel Green Team launched a major effort to discard and recycle all unnecessary files and supplies prior to the move. Three halfday "file flings" were held at which hundreds of employees struggled through

mountains of files! The results were impressive:

Approximately $200,000 of used office furniture was distributed to community

charities, such as schools and service organizations. Some items were also donated

to municipal offices.

160 tons of office material was recycled in preparation for the move, which is equivalent to 2,714 trees. The total is broken down as follows:

Day-to-day, office paper recycling: 121 tons (2,061 trees)

Special "file flings": 31 tons (525 trees)

Archives: 8 tons (128 trees)

Approximately $16,000 was saved on mover fees as a result of the file flings.

Waste Management - Post Move-In

Objectives

To maximize recycling;

To minimize the amount of waste generated; and

To conserve natural resources.

Results

Pantries: To facilitate recycling, several pantries are located on each floor. Each

pantry has three recycling chutes: one for trash (such as food material); one for

60
metal; and one for glass. The chutes flow into an adjacent recycling room which is used to sort and store collectibles.

Cafeteria: With only few exceptions, paper products (plates and cups) used in the

dining and pantries have been replaced with permanent products which can be

washed and reused. For example, by converting to plastic take-out trays, over 1,000

cardboard trays have been eliminated every week.

Offices: Each is office is equipped with its own recycling bin with daily pick-up of

trash provided. The unique "Copper Top" recycling bins were designed, ordered,

assembled and distributed by the Bethel Green Team. Over 900 of these bins are now located throughout the building. Daily pick-up from the collection bins is performed by clients of DATAHR, a Danbury, Connecticut rehabilitation center for

physically and mentally challenged people. As a result of the Green Team recycling

program, two DATAHR employees have been provided with full-time employment.

Employee Safety

Objectives

To achieve "zero accidents" during the building construction.

Results

The construction project involved employees from 40 subcontractor companies,

working a total of 480,000 hours over a period of 18.5 months.

A total of eight lost time injuries occurred which is an "OSHA Lost Work Day Case

Rate" of 3.2. All of these accidents were minor injuries, the most serious being a sprained ankle.

This means that approximately 3 lost time accidents occurred for each 1 00

construction employees working an equivalent of one year. For comparison,

according to the US Bureau of Labor Statistics, general building contractors have

an average "OSHA Lost Work Day Case Rate" of 5.6. Thus, the lost time accident

rate during the construction of the Duracell Headquarters was over 40 percent

lower than the national average for construction workers.

Although we did not meet our "zero" accident goal, we are proud of our safety

record. The low number of lost time accidents was the result of a high degree of

safety awareness among workers and supervisors. Regular safety meetings were

held throughout the project.

i

61
CONCLUSION

We feel our project is an exciting example of sustainable design. The environmental planning

took into account the total life cycle of building materials and technologies including production,

transport to the site, energy use, operating cost impacts and the effect on occupants. And I might

add that now that the project is completed, the wild turkeys have returned.

62
PROTOCOL DEVELOPMENT FOR ASSESSING THE

ANCILLARY BENEFITS OF GREEN BUILDINGS:

A CASE STUDY USING THE MSQA BUILDING

James A. Wise, Ph.D., Human Factors Scientist

Judith Heerwagen, Ph.D., Environmental Psychologist

David B. Lantrip, Ph.D., Environmental Planner, Architect

Michael Ivanovich, Environmental Engineer

Pacific Northwest National Laboratory

Battelle Seattle Research Center

Seattle, WA 98105

Abstract. Widespread anecdotal reports and some focused evaluations have indicated that

"green" buildings may be as beneficial to their occupants as to the environment. These are purported ancillary benefits beyond the expected energy and operational savings, and take the

form of improved health, morale and well being for occupants, along with enhanced human

perfonnance that may increase productivity. Such benefits could be significantly higher than

those from energy savings alone. The Department of Energy, in cooperation with Herman Miller

corporation and the Green Building Council, is undertaking a muhi-year quasiexperimental study

to develop benefits measures and assessment techniques utilizing a new 'green' building —the

MSQA facility. This combines office, manufacturing and shipping and receiving functions in a 200Kft2 building in western Michigan. This paper reviews the organization of the study, its' rationale, and progress to date in creating a protocol to assess ancillary benefits of green

buildings. Building assessment results will be presented at the USGBC conference session.

Introduction

The U.S. Department of Energy's Office of Building Technologies (DOE-OBT) has tasked

Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL) to develop a scientifically credible protocol for

identifying and assessing potential ancihary benefits of "Green" Buildings. These are benefits

that may accrue to owners, operators, occupants and others that are different from traditional

benefits such as energy efficiency and cost savings. Such benefits have been reported mostly as anecdotal inforaiation or highly focused investigations, and have been attributed to improvements

in occupant, health, morale, well-being and perfomiance that are induced by Green Building

conditions or features. But there is currently no overall theoretical model explaining or predicting

such benefits, nor is there sufficient empirical evidence to substantially confinn a general benefits

condition. An earlier study perfonned for OBT [1] on purported ancillary benefits from energy

efficient lighting retrofits at Boeing manufacturing plants in the northwest was suggestive of such

benefits, but inconclusive due to other significant organizational and personnel changes that had

occurred within Boeing during the same time period as the retrofits.

Another difficulty for assessing benefits is that there has been no fonnal definition in the

architecture and building professions of what constitutes a "Green Building." Rather, there have

63
been (increasingly) more building projects that incorporate environmentally or energy conscious

features of different kinds. There are "shades of green", as it were, in how buildings may be

regarded. Our benefits study does not attempt to provide a universally accepted definition

because such efforts are currently under way within the U.S. Green Building Council and

American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) standards committees. Rather, this study

selected a building as an exemplar because it has a large number of the "green" characteristics

nonnally associated with such projects, and because the owner and design and construction team

had committed themselves to a Green Building from its inception. A paper in last year's Green

Building Conference Proceedings [2] provides a full description and background brief on the

selection of the Miller SQA building and that company's business. For convenience, background

infonnation on Miller SQA and their buildings is summarized below.

The building chosen for development and test of a benefits protocol is a new multi-purpose

faciUty for Miller SQA, a subsidiary of Hernian Miller Inc that is a combined plant, office, and

warehouse building in a naturalistic setting. The chief architect of the new Miller SQA building is William McDonough and Partners, who are architectural leaders in the Green Buildings field. The

landscape architect finn is Pollack Design Associates, with a history of landscaping with native

vegetation. Hennan Miller Inc, Miller SQA, William McDonough and Partners, and Pollack

Design Associates have been instmmental in the success of this research project by providing

access to design and construction specifications of the new building, in studies of the old Miller

SQA building, and to the historical infonnation that will enable refinement of the protocol as it is being developed.

Miller SQA is a fast-growing re-manufacturer, manufacturer, and vendor of office furniture that

has been in business for approximately 10 years. Miller SQA has a niche market providing "just

in time" products for small businesses and nonprofit institutions. Miller SQA has a total quality

metrics (TQM) program that generates perfonnance data which is used to help make business

decisions and to inspire staff in the manufacturing plant. The plant operates in three full-time

shifts. Other perfomiance data, such as errors in orders, delivery fauhs, and accidents are tracked

through other internal programs. Employee health and safety records are kept and are being made

available to this study, as are energy consumption data and other operations and maintenance

(O&M) statistics. Approximately one year of consistent, historical data and infonnation are currently available for this study as is future operating information throughout its duration.

Miller SQA formerly leased space in a building that we call the "baseline building", and they own

their new "green' building, which they occupied in October of 1995. A partial list of the new

building features that are "green" includes these features of lighting and heating, ventilating and air conditioning (HVAC) systems:

• Air turners (requiring no ducting) used in plant area instead of centraHzed heating system

• High-efficiency (89%) filters installed in the air turners in plant area

• 45% filters used in office areas (exceeds the ASHRAE 62-1989 ventilation standard)

• High-polluting plant tasks located on "exhaust-side" of building downstream of inlet

• Hydronic floors on window-side of office-side of building to dampen transients

64
• Peak-shaving efforts will be made through HVAC direct digital controls

• Twelve levels of control available in screw chillers

• Generous use of daylighting throughout plant and warehouse areas

• Lighting levels modulated automatically using photosensitive controllers In addition, the facility is finished with low VOC emitting materials and finishes, has direct access to a surrounding outdoor site that is landscaped with natural vegetation, ponds and

wetlands to control water runoff, and enjoys outstanding view access to the outdoors from most

places inside.

In most all respects, then, the MSQA building fulfills what is generally expected in the features

of a "green building". The protocol under development in this study is not concerned with how

'green' the MSQA building is, but rather, given that it is 'green' in various features and operating

functions, how do these get transfomied into ancillary benefits of the type that have been

reported elsewhere, and how can those benefits be scientifically assessed?

Green Building Benefits

We began this study by examining the nature of benefits that were being reported and to what

aspects of green buildings they have been attributed. We then identified and prioritized

underlying elements of Green Building characteristics in how the building's design and

constmction might accrue to

• its occupants,

• the outdoor environment, in general (including energy),

• its community,

• its owners. We chose to focus primarily on the first one because within this category are the topics of

worker perfonnance (productivity), energy efficiency, indoor air quality, pollution prevention,

and interior lighting that figure prominently in discussions on Green Buildings. It is also the

impacts on people (occupants) that are the least understood in the arena of Green Buildings, and

that have potentially the highest multiplier effect when it comes to assessing the tme worth of

'green' or 'sustainable' design.

With this simplification, a research fi-amework for the Green Buildings Benefits Study was

derived from theoretical considerations in biological psychology and habitat selection. The

framework breaks the project down primarily into environmental qualities that have

demonstrated consequences for human perfonnance and well being. These are interior air quality,

the thermal environment, the luminous environment, the acoustic environment, spatial orders and

territories, viewscapes, haptic (touch) qualities, and meaning and symbolism in setting features.

The framework is predicated on the supposition that buildings are habitats for people, and that

building features and qualities of the environments they create can be framed within the context

of preferred habitats. Humans are biological creatures, genetically adapted to the kinds of natural

conditions that proved so accommodating to early Man. Work by E.O. Wilson [3,4] and Orians

65
and Heerwagen[5,6] suggest that modem environmental preferences derive from the behavioral,

physiological, and psychological adaptations of our hunting and gathering ancestors in natural

environments. For instance, Wilson's "Biophilia Hypothesis" [3] proposes that human evolution

in an "outdoor" world created brain structures attimed to extracting, processing, and evaluating

infonnation from natural settings, events, and stimuli. Fitness in this ancestral habitat meant the

difference between hfe and death, so it is not unreasonable to expect that people have been

somewhat genetically "tuned" to the natural world. For example, there is increasing crosscultural evidence that particular kinds of settings are preferred over others, that natural

environments are preferred over built settings, and that built settings with trees and vegetation are more liked than settings that lack natural elements [7, 8].

If true, the "Biophilia Hypothesis' provides an explanation for why green buildings may be

capable of producing a wide variety of benefits seen in the health and behavior of their occupants.

If the modem interior environment of a green building recreates, in an analogous manner, the

essential habitability features of ancestral savannah habitats, these are likely to be especially

appealing and to have positive biological and psychological impacts (benefits) on people. Green

buildings may be beneficial for people because in relying more on daylighting, natural ventilation,

passive and varied thermal control and natural materials, and avoiding the building systems that

homogenize interiors, they have inadvertently recreated the most biologically preferred

conditions that first gave rise and support to the human species. In the assessment of the MSQA

building, we are making a special effort to test this 'Biophilia Hypothesis' for Green Building

design by making sharp predictions of the kinds of benefits one ought to see given the sorts of

biophillic conditions created by the particulars of this building's design.

Design of the Study

Four major subtasks of this study were conducted by PNNL for OBT in FY 1995:

1 . Basehne the Existing Building and Staff Collect data and infonnation on the "old building" that

estabhshes a context for "before and after" comparisons of the Miller SQA perfonnance after the

new building is occupied for a sufficient period of time. This includes an enviromnental qualities

survey of the staff, an examination of the Total Quality metrics package that MSQA uses to track business perfonnance, and a record of environmental conditions in the baseline building to compare with those in the new.

2. Track Constmction of the New Building. Collect design and constmction infonnation on the

new building during 1995 and prepare to collect post-occupancy data on the new building and its occupants in 1996.

3. Develop a Draft Benefits Assessment Protocol. Perfonn background research and analyses of

collected data and infonnation. Compose a first draft of the benefits assessment protocol that

will be the primary product of this study.

4. Communicate Progress and Findings to DOE and the U.S. Green Buildings Council.

During 1996, all of the activities in 1. above are being repeated in the new building, with some

added emphases on building features or conditions that may have been revealed by the earlier

survey results. Some new data-gathering activities were also perfonned in the new building using

66
protocols developed in the course of this study. The staff questionnaire was revised slightly to add questions asking for more explicit comparisons with baseline and new buildings. The

protocol for the lighting survey was completed late last year when it became apparent that

standard lighting measures were not appropriate to assess what would be high quality 'biophillic'

lighting conditions. These were subsequently tested first in the new building in June of 1996.

All data from the baselining effort has been summarized., with early statistical analyses on MSQA's Total Quality and Productivity metrics completed by June of 1996. This allowed any

adjustments to procedures to be made before full scale comparisons before and after the move.

Full statistical analyses of the business perfonnance metrics, the occupant surveys and

enviromnent measurements will be used to identify building feamres and occupant outcomes that

most readily distinguish between the old and new buildings. These "vital indicators" will become

the core of the subsequent protocol. Additional measures or assessments can be added to the core

protocol, depending upon the specific interests of its ftiture proposed uses.

Survey

A questionnaire was developed by PNNL researchers to survey Miller SQA workers about their

experiences in the baseline building and their feelings and attitudes about the building's physical

and social work environments. The survey was an extensive questionnaire of nine major sections

and a total of 23 questions. Many questions expanded into subparts resulting in a total of 173

possible responses in each questionnaire. The survey had a response rate of well over 50%,

which is good for industrial settings, and perhaps reflects the interest of the staff in the

forthcoming move. The survey included questions about perceived indoor air quality that will

supplement the lAQ measurements taken in both baseline and new buildings. The questionnaire was adininistered a second time (in late July of 1996) and is scheduled for a third time (in 1997)

to capaire changes in staff perceptions of their new working environment that would now have

gone through its "shakedown' period.

The entire questionnaire takes approximately 10 minutes to complete. Most of the questions were multiple choice; a few were fill-in-the-blank; and a few were open-ended solicitations for

comments. The Background Information section in the questionnaire is sufficient to enable us to compare answers given by the same person to both surveys. The pre-occupancy results will be

compared with the post-occupancy results on both a statistical and individual basis.

Surveys were prepared foUowing a literature search for studies of work places and associated

human factors and design issues (9). Several versions of the questionnaire were reviewed by

representatives from the Facilities Design group at Herman Miller, Inc. and Human Resources

from Miller SQA. Separate questionnaires were prepared for plant and office staff, but the

difference between them is a single question that pertains only to shift times. The questionnaire

takes into consideration the wide range of education among the Miller SQA staff, ranging from

high school diplomas to graduate engineering and management degrees. Table 1 shows the survey

breakdown with the number of possible responses in each of the 9 major categories.

67
Table 1: Major Sections of Benefits Study Questionnaire for Miller SQA Staff.

Secti o n Na m© ( tJ u mber of fliu© ati on a

)

1. YourWoik P\ax (QT) Charac-terietict ard judgement* about lAork space | and abil rty to onntrol or adjust It.

2. Prruacyand Sucial Relatbnshp® iJCh Describe forn-iai a^id inforn-i,=i qnportunities to | ODrrim u nii^ate for vi.ork . to learn, to take a break.

3. Wort*:- Re lated E^pe riences (1 S:i Pe rsonal feel ing* about vunrt*: ; p hys ical comfort ^ | i.ixork:

.

4. Buikding Oper^icns Perceptinn* cf houv the building is connected to the | o3m mu n ity and to the natural e nvironmie nt.

5. Building Lccaticn and Cony-enence © DuiWing access ibilit'/ for variety of traffic ard | arrpe n ities

.

6. .^testhietc* and Favorite Plaie* (5) Wentify the rrore faucred features iz^ the building; | and do::un-pent the rticst unpleasant.

7. Environ n^nt^ Report Card (9h Simple rating of a var iety- buiWing ard envircfi mental

|

parameters.

S. Baiikground inlizr rri^icn f'Q Errpilc^i ee profile infoirmi^ion, but nn pe rsonal | dentificatbn. Uses unique iiitentrfer fcr corrparing j vi.<th foillovkf up q uesticri na res

.

9. 'SpEtjiEi fcf 'C+erieraJ Comrrierrt* (1)

1

E ncou rage me nt for any comi me nts about the | bui d ing or s ite.

The questionnaires were distributed to approximately 400 Miller SQA staff, 100 office workers,

and 300 plant workers. 259 surveys were returned, 76 from office workers, 183 from plant

workers. The overall response rate was approximately 65%; for office workers the response rate was 76%; for plant workers, 61%. In inspecting the responses, we noted that only a very small

percentage were partially or incorrectly completed, and that many workers wrote in information

where appropriate (such as questions that had an "Other:" category). We are creating a spreadsheet database and a data entry procedure that will enable the forms to be translated into an electronic fonnat suitable for statistical analysis. This database stmcture and procedure will be

reused whenever the survey is re-administered. Having the results in electronic fonn will make it faster and easier to compare pre- and post-occupancy results throughout the study period.

Indoor Air Quality & Acoustics Survey

Fresh, clean air is important for a healthy work environment, and good indoor air quality (lAQ) is a presumption of Green Buildings. The new building is designed to be well-ventilated and to perfonn extensive air filtration. Also, high-polluting manufacturing processes (such as painting)

are located in a closed room near the building's exhaust outlet for ventilation air. In order to assess the benefits of this conscientious clean-air approach, we initiated an lAQ survey of the

baseline building in October, 1995. A similar investigation in the new building was taken in

summer of 1 996 as well. We are comparing data between the baseline building and the new

building, and between data taken from the new building during different seasons. We are also

68
comparing data from the lAQ surveys to the corporate perfonnance data and staff

questionnaires. Some of the potential impacts of high lAQ that we will be looking for are fewer

sick days and higher acceptability of the indoor air in the new building than in the baseline

building. A cursory look through the responses to the lAQ-related questions indicate that many

of the Miller SQA staff graded the LAQ as below average or poor in the baseline building, so this seems to be an area of potential high improvement.

For additional insights into the lAQ conditions at the baseline building, we interviewed the

Herman Miller industrial hygienist responsible for the Miller SQA building, and the facilities manager at Miller SQA regarding LAQ. In some cases, there were discrepancies in perceptions

about the history of lAQ problems at the baseline building. For example, while industrial

hygiene records showed no documented LAQ problems in the baseline building, facilities management reported that the front office had complained of "stale" air and frequent headaches

which cleared up after leaving the building.

Because indoor air quality surveys can be very costly and still yield inconclusive results, we

designed a protocol for taking intensive measurements at a few strategic sites and several

instantaneous readings at a larger number of sites. We selected measures based on their relevance

to the activities that are perfonned in the building (e.g., painting and finishing, which led us to measure volatile organic compounds), and based on their generalizability about the LLVAC

systems for ventilation and comfort control. Table 2 on the next page summarizes the parameters

that were measured in the basehne building. Locations for continuous monitoring over a 24-hour

period in the baseline building were detennined based on where the activities will be moved to in

the new building where they will be similarly monitored. Figure 1 on the succeeding page shows

the floorplan of the MSQA baseline building, with functional areas and the locations of the lAQ

sampling points.

The office area monitored in the baseline building had carbon dioxide levels that averaged 874

parts-per-million (ppm) during a 2 3 -hour monitoring period, with a range of 599 ppm to 2304

ppm, indicating this area may have been under-ventilated during the monitoring period. A level of

1000 ppm is the ASHRAE standard for using C02 as a surrogate for ventilation effectiveness

(US EPA 1991). Findings such as these will be correlated with questionnaire data when it is fully

analyzed and a summary of findings will then be written.

In a brief review of the survey responses to the baseline building, many of the staff also seemed

to be bothered by noise, so acoustical measurements were made as part of the lAQ survey in the

baseline building and v^ll be repeated in the new building. Noise is a well documented impairer of

human performance as well as increased physiological stress, so improvements in a building's

acoustic environment could show up in both productivity and health and well-being measures.

69
[ !

Legend

1 ] Cp^ 03fs$ Spsot

r

' pE^jit ViTork Af6?<& v«ti vvlf^'Cv.'s to Oif^dfe

{ J

RV.:^\iAVllVt\V\VJ

i: ...-} Gitcuistiai liSitft ss'SCflO

(.9

( 1 J ^surface Aj&^-^a t>iy (7) Ojstanef SeMss

Figure 1 : Floor plan of the baseline Miller SQA building showing indoor air quality monitoring

points.

70
Table 2: Summary of Indoor Air Quality Survey Parameters.

lAQ Parameter Rel evance How Measured

Carbon Dioxide (COj) Product of human respiration and

combusticn. Mass ute me nt has a variety of uses, but most com rrxDn is as a tracer for

*iMCf"c» n1 "f i 1 _af h~i Pi offci i "i n * 1 LIIcJLH-JI 1 Cl IcL^LI Mc 1 loo c-

.

Monitored at 3 bcatbnsl2

Sampled at 1 1 locations^

Non-dispersive inrfrared

Carbon MoncKide (CO) Product of combustion. Presence mould

indb^ entrain ment of air from loading

docks, CO is tcxic at high levels, and

pete ntially debi litating at low leve Is

.

ContinLDUs data loggerl.2

Volatile Or^nb

Compounds (V/OC)

VOCs are released from chemicals ijsed in Miller 8QA office furniture producte and from

thei r manufactu ri ng p rorass es . Some VO C s are carcinogenic; some can be debilitating or irriteting at bwlexrels.

Hand-heW meter^

Phctovsi: MbroTIP HL-2COD

p hcto ion ization detector

.

Relatore Humidity Product of respiratbn. combustbn, outdoor

air entrain ment. and certain rranufa:;turing

p recesses . Trace r of comfort, and H V.i^

performiarce. A factor in VOC rate of

1 1 1 K> V Km* \ K> .

Continuous data bgger^^^

Thin-filmcapacitruie sensor.

Te mpe r^u re Productcf HVAC system performiarce,

hun\3n respiratbn, manufacturing

processes , ard outdoor air rarditbns.

Tracer Of comfcft and HVAC s'l/stem

performamifi.

Continuous data loggerl.2

Thermistor sertsor

RespiratJe Particulate

M^ter (d U6 1. pollens) P rod uct of n^an ufactu r ing p roces ses . HVAC

system performance, and outdoor air conditbns. RPM is an irritant and can

•zontain al^rgens.

Hand- he Id meter^

MINIRAM (Mini^ure RaalTime .Aerceol McnitoO fulo^l

PDM-3

Backgrojnd Noise Prod uct of man ufactu rirg processes,

inchjdirg comimiunicatbn.

Hand- he Id meter^

Quest M-27 Noise Legging

Dc«inreter.

1 Q-Trak with CO, Model 8551 data logger measures CO 2 , CO, relative humidity, and air

temperature using a single probe.

2 The same data logger was placed for approximately 24 hours at three different locations.

Sample rates for all parameters was 20 seconds; 5 minute averages were recorded and downloaded

to diskettes.

3 Sample data (spot measurements) taken at 1 1 locations over four consecutive weekdays

between 9:30 am and 10:30 am, and on one weekday of the following week between 9:30 am and

10:30 am. Data were recorded in field notes. Weather conditions were noted and outdoor air

measurements were taken.

71
Performance, Health, and Wellness Data

The purpose of collecting and analyzing perfonnance, health, and wellness data is to determine if Green Buildings with features like MSQA benefit building occupants so much that their work

related performance is noticeably enhanced. Miller SQA has been maintaining performance,

health, and wellness data for several years on staff, and this database offers an excellent basis for

comparison of any discernible trends in these indicators.

There are two general approaches to specifying measures of corporate perfonnance. The first approach emphasizes theoretical definitions of measures and can be found in various publications

and research papers. The second approach, used for this study, is to leam as much as possible

about the corporate mission, goals, values, and activities and then define measures based on these

values. In other words, our approach is to measure what has largely already been identified by

the company as important. Miller SQA has a well-organized quality management program called

6 Sigma and regularly monitors several measures of their corporate perfonnance. The name of the

program comes from the goal of reducing all defects in products or service to less then 6 standard

deviations from the mean (depending on the complexity of the product, this may approximate 1 defect or enor in one million products shipped). Indicators include what they call efficiency,

effectiveness, productivity, quality and profitability, which are all higher level global indicators

that can reasonably be infened to be affected by facility conditions.

To accomplish the 6 Sigma goal. Miller SQA managers routinely (often daily) collect, analyze,

and distribute company-wide reports summarizing measures of perfonnance. All employees are trained to read and interpret these reports in tenns that relate to their activities for the purpose of

encouraging improved individual and collective perfonnance. It is important to recognize that even though some of the measures are intended to improve the perfonnance of individual

employees, the entity being measured is the company.

With the assistance of the Facilities Design group at Hennan Miller and the Miller SQA

operations manager, quality systems manager, human resources manager, interior designer, and a member of the finance department, we have selected a subset of measures for this study. The

data and measures are described in Table 5 on the next page.

Trends of five measures from data that we have received for 1995 show that some measures can

vary dramatically from month to month, while others are relatively steady. These variations

follow seasonal trends in the office furniture industry, as well as the addition of temporary

workers to the staff during busy periods. Such trends have to be partialed out in the statistical

analysis of before and after move comparisons, and represent another difficulty in using business

performance data to assess effects induced by facility design and environmental conditions.

72
Table 5. Perforaiance Dimensions and Measures for the MSQA building study

Performaic« Dmenaiona Meaaurea and Method of Track ng

Effectfyeness

Reccfds are kept on tl^ie periients!^ erf prcduct* tl"iat are shipped to

customers vutien promised. This e called tl-ie "On-Tirre Si-ipment

Report" arid e a gcod measure of j-iiivr effectively Miller SQA is srcorrplishing their objactive i=f getting prcducdis t>D customers on

time.

Efficiency

Waste materials from the priiductiirri lines are cdlected arid vieighed as a viay of traii^: ing ttie efficency of prcductbn.

Reducing viaste fnDm iriefficent p recesses and humari error fe a

goal of the 6 Sigma program arid is erceur^^d by the xc&eUM

"tofsp report."

Tre rds i n ove ral 1 p red u::t q ualitj/ are trsiked by meae; u r ing frie number of repcfted defects in prodiji-t ef service as ccmpaied 'Aiith the number erf products shipfiied. The ratb b reporteid to sto:J<: holders In a "Returns" repcft and used to dentif/ are3£ Vi.+iere imp rcri/e rria nt in the oriite r-p red uiitbn s yste m can be mai=

.

Productri/ity

The finarp::ial ciff ice reporte the r^io of total labor cc*t to the dollar

value of list sales (\&.. vuitheut any discounts) as; a rreaeure erf ouierall cx total mrpor-ie preduDtivrti/. This rreasure viill be a geod

Lfifiry feir us to tra:k anv n^apr chianqes in the preductivitv erf Miller SQA.

Quditi/ Of 'i/li'oik Life (QWLi

En-pli^yee health and uxellness, satisfaDtbn. arid safety fall under

this dime rps bn erf corporate performance. The Hun-an Resources

Departmerrt at Milfer SQA he^ied us untangle the overlapping

nature at the mariy meat ures used to monitor employee quality of

life. F or e;-:an-p le , absenteeism te rot an eaf!:y mea£:ure df QVu'L

becsjse it ts difficult to differentiate from personal leave dai/s (used

for both vac^ieri and s cl<:ness) fniim absences dij=: to illness or \Erzk of iTpotivatbn. Ho^f.ever, "o:currences" are days tai^ien >^ beyond

Tne iaP_>jdieQ persi—ini^i eaiic; ijcdys, ariQ Trei-i:i riurnfirs. ni^y Lrr useful measures iif absenteeism. Whenever anempbyee » absent

for S d3/s cf rrore (e:K):sptfor scheiduted vatatbn trre) . they are

lions de red on s her t ter m d is atiii rhy leaxie . Th b inci ijdes

m^rniti/Zpaterniti/ and ad to re^ru'es, so it is difftulttiD use these

statistic*. OS HA repiorts are more vxell behaved and provde fee a

COn s is te n t re cord of s ^ety- re late d i rei den ts and i nj ures. We vmi 1

1

need toviriJik 'lAiith fuliller SQA n^ore to finalize our apipreiaiti for QWL

measures , bjt vie feel there is geod inforrrstbn availatile and vi.e

vi.<ll hari/e useful indicators.

innau-atciri There are no records kept cericern ing new products (an infrequent

event) or line precess chaniges. Innovatbns are cons de red aidaih/

part erf the 6 Sigmapregram arid not indri.fidually dentified. We

currerftly ha</e no rrethed to tra::k this n-easure.

Profitabilit./ The errployees s hiare a percentage erf the net profits eacti year in the form of bc'nuses. By trapd<:ing the bonus tevels over several

years before and after relcc:aitbn, vi.e can see if there b achiange in the post- relec^icn profitablit/ a( fi.>1iller SQA..

73
Energy Efficiency Data for the Baseline Building

x\s part of the baselining effort, we attempted to gather energy consumption statistics for the

existing building. These were to include:

• Energy use per square foot of space (inckiding the plant area)

• Percent of lighting requirement met by daylighting

• Windows as a percentage of total wall area

• Electrical costs for lighting (based on lighting survey that will be perfonned in 1996)

• Illuminance levels

• Lamp types and controls

• Plant energy costs (machinery and operations)

• Office energy costs (lighting, HVAC, machinery)

• Rated efficiency of HVAC system

• Fuel types

• Peak-shaving efforts

• Building materials that explicitly address energy efficiency (special glazing, insulation levels)

• Energy-saving programs or efforts

Some of these parameters were not monitored separately by Miller SQA and were therefore not

recoverable. For example. Miller SQA does not currently have an explicit energy conservation

program in place. Their baseline building was not designed to be an exemplar for energy

efficiency. It has a 1 million BTU natural gas system manufactured by Applied Air Systems, Inc. The offices have conditioned air and fluorescent lighting (ballast types are unknown); the plant area does not have conditioned air and has large floor fans near work stations to help cool the

plant workers. Given the attention to energy efficiency in the new building, we predict that total energy consumption per worker will decrease as a result of expHcit design for energy

conservation, better materials, better construction practices, new HVAC equipment, and

extensive use of daylighting.

Lighting Survey

Lighting is a major consideration for Green Buildings for two distinct reasons. First, most

anecdotal (and some evidential) reports of ancillary benefits have to do with energy efficient

lighting retrofits to buildings. This has caught people's attention because of the long history of

prior arguments between lighting designers and energy engineers over the energy allowance for

lighting in buildings. Those disagreements centered on how many watts-per-square-foot

(watts/ft2) of power should be allotted to different spaces. Such disagreements were

unnecessarily destructive because they focused consideration on sheer quantity of illumination,

when in reality lighting effects on people's perfonnance and well-being are hardly ever a function

of quantity measures alone. The Green Buildings movement has neatly resolved this argument by

both substituting daylight for hghting energy, and by calling attention to more global issues of

lighting quality. Through the combined use of daylighting and new energy efficient lighting

systems, it appears that very satisfactory lighting quality can be had at sufficiently low watts/ft

2 to make both lighting designers and energy engineers successful at their previously opposing

purposes.

74
Second, lighting does provide the single largest opportunity to reduce energy costs of a commercial building because it typically accounts for about 40% of its electricity usage. Lighting

is justifiably a big target for energy cost reductions, so a Green Building can be attractive from a sheerly economic perspective if its energy load is reduced through energy-efficient hghting. If the

lighting energy reductions are also incidentally beneficial to occupants in ways that improve

business performance and reduce human resources costs, lighting design becomes an attribute of

major iinportance in Green Building design.

The purpose of the Hghting survey perfonned at Miller SQA was to look for explicit evidence of

ancillary benefits related to particular kinds of hghting quality that resuh from Green Building

design strategies. The provision of at least minimal needed illuminance to work surfaces and the

avoidance of glare have been traditional concerns of interior lighting quality. The Biophilia

Hypothesis makes much more specific predictions about the aspects of lighting quality that are important to occupants. In particular, the hypothesis proposes that natural illumination of a kind

most likely to be found in highly preferred natural settings ought to be the most conducive to health and well-being. Such Hghting quality will be the most restorative to human ability to focus,

to maintain attention, and to engage in productive social commerce.

What kind of lighting is this? Using the Biophilia Hypothesis as a guide, we propose that

building light should be similar to the spatial distribution, intensity, and psychological impact of

sunlight as it is experienced at the edge of a tree canopy. Several lines of reasoning support this

assertion. First, there is strong evidence that early human encampments occurred in areas with

clustered trees adjacent to water. Second, the tropical habitats of our early ancestors would have

inade trees a highly likely source of refuge from both midday sun and sudden stonns. And third, trees are likely to have been used for sleeping, escape from predators, and as viewing platforms

for assessing the environment. Although caves are commonly regarded as the first surrogate

"home" for humans, it is likely that large shade trees also served this purpose. Light from a Biophilia perspective has the following features: (1) it produces a relatively higher luminance in

the surround field of view, both from vertical surfaces and through window views; (2) it produces filtered illumination on the observer; (3) it displays mildly varying distribution in the

hnmediate surroundings and with a local illumination vector centered on 45-degrees from the

vertical; (4) it contains highhghts and sparkle on vertical and horizontal surfaces similar to sun

spots penetrating a tree canopy; and (5) it resembles daylight in its power spectmm.

Recent studies by an Illumination Engineering Society coininittee on lighting quality have been

independently confirming some of these characteristics of "high quality" lighting in a purely

empirical way. These also demonstrate that traditional Hghting measures are insufficient to capture aspects of the luminous environment that may be most important in establishing such

'high quality'. It is heartening to see that laboratory work is confinning the purely theoretically

derived predicUons of the Biophilia Hypothesis. What remains to be shown is whether the more

naturalistic lighting approaches taken in Green Building design also reproduces the highly

preferred natural lighting conditions, and whether these are associated with measurable benefits to occupants of the work setting.

75
The New Miller SQA Building

This aerial photo shows the new Miller SQA building and it's distinctive crescent shape. The

loading docks are in the foreground of this picture. Clearly visible are the square roof monitors

allowing daylight into the factory area, and the large cupola that is over the wellness center.

The building's design and construction characteristics that are relevant to Green Buildings are summarized in Table 6. and are based on design documents and infonnation available during the

constmction of the building.

Table 6: Features of the New Miller SQA Building that are "Green."

Feature Attn but© a

| InirjjipiQrates vkxhsc^iss | Low n-balntenarce. Indigenc^u* plant* |

"Lru lng rTia::hire" (plariVsoll f 1 Itration) viater treatrrient for storm xriater j i/io g re y vst^ r treatrre nt * v'**^ TM)

Iri'^rior Finish M^ri^s

Sefectijn of peirits arid finis fe* for esthetes, duratiliti/. and tow

IrTipaDte CTi Indccf airqijality j

Consicter^icT of the ccricerns regarding lAQter treatment, truck headlights scannirg retderces, noise, and e^Dessrue tr.3^lc

Com mu n Hy In voKi eme nt and

Integ raticri

Strategic terrriingtD hde trud* Ight*

Routing of trud<:t ctf of a cc-unty road to avoid resdential areas

Lccatbn of ti=»ding dzck* at rear 'Ot building |

Extension ct bike path* to faDllih/ and irclusion of arrienites such as | raijk* =rid thov^srs 1

Staff InvofkferTient Loading dosks arranged so rriateriaJ* delr*/ery is near point of use

Constructcin fglateriate Use* lo;aih,f mariufaDtured rti^rals v<.^ere fessible

Particpating In EPA Oreen

1 Light* and Energy Star

1 Prcgrams

£hc»jld result in energy sau'ing*

j

76
Feature Attribute a

Building Architecture The building is crescent-shaped. This makes the building seem

$ mal le r fran eye le ve 1 and les s obtrus ive.

Solutbns- through-design apparent throughout architecture and

bndscaping plans

Ontif 10 percent to 12 percent of acreage vinll be covered; law

ailoAis 40 percent CQMie rage

Designed toeriDourage random meetings in halkAoys beb/ieen plant

and office staff

Designed i/jth break rooms, lunch rcoms that consider bref transit times

HVAC System Design

Air Turners (deceritralized air visrmers) used in the plant area

require no ducting and raise "return" air temp. on^fT'F

High-effbiency (1S0% effbiency ait2 microns) filters used in Air Turners in plantarea

High-pdiuting plant tasks (such as painting) loc^d on"exh3Jstsicte" ai buikdirg doM-unstream of inlet. Exhaust air is filtered in paint rcom bjf trarefer fans.

4&'A filters used in office fan coil units (Jitters exceed the A£HR>iE

62-1 989 ventilatbn standard)

Sequenced boilers produce hot iAster for radiant floor heat in offices to terrper fresh air introduced at 30 cfm per person

Tvuelve levels of control ai/ailable in air rotation / chillers

1 "Ozone-friend t/' HFC-134A heat tansfer fluid in chiller

|

Pe^.-sha(/ing efforts viill be made through HVAC dirertdigitai

corrtrols

j

Liglitirg Design

L^ge reef monrtors and srriall skylights for darj/l ig ftti ng .

|

Scphisic^ed controllers snd autoriatb shutters actu^ed br^ photo | sensors j

Mult-lewel elei^ronic ballast and rrotbn sensors j

Efforts to corrtrd nigfrt- lighting pdlutbn (dotAfiviard- casting park ing j btlghts)

I

Eye- leve 1 vi;( ndavvs Eye- level viirdam around most of the building |

1 Views capes of the outside environmientare riaturalistic

|

The new Miller SQA building shows many of the attributes common to 'Green Building' design.

It is efficient in layout and in building systems, making exceptional use of daylighting. It covers a

relatively small proportion of it's site, and is minimally impactful from ground level in a visual

sense, despite it's mass. It allows large use of wetlands and natural landscaping on the site to

treat runoff, and is a 'good neighbor' to nearby residential areas in the sense that loading

operations are kept out of view by landscape berms and that traffic related dismptions around

the facility have been minimized. Green buildings are meant to be good for the environment, the

community, and their occupants. Where do the benefits in this one lie?

77
Using the Protocol to Assess MSQA Building Benefits

As stated earlier, the first lighting, acoustics, and air quality surveys in the new MSQA building

have been taken in the summer of 1996, along v/ith a second administration of the environmental

survey of the staff. At the time of preparation of this manuscript, no definitive results are ready

for publication, but these will be reported and discussed at the USGBC Conference in November.

However, a cursory look at the survey returns and experiences of the research team on a walkthrough indicate that the new MSQA building is still in transition three-quarters through it's first year of occupancy, and that the total benefits picture will probably be a 'mixed bag' until design

details are finished and the building's operations are sufficiently 'tuned' through experience with

the facility. These include details that directly affect fLmdamental habitability conditions of

ambient hght, temperature and noise level, so we expect to be able to detect and track meaningful

changes in occupants' responses as these are addressed.

We are seeing early confimiation of our working hypothesis that 'green buildings' produce

ancillary benefits to the degree that they produce enhanced habitability conditions, and that these

appear dependent on how a green design's potential is carried out in the actual performance of

the building. The testing of specific 'biophilhc' aspects of the design awaits a closer inspection of

the data, but we currently suspect that the standardized measures used in perforaiing

assessments of general interior environmental conditions are not particularly suitable for detecting

and reporting those conditions that may actually be most beneficial to human occupants. General

indicators such as dbA weighted noise level, ambient temperature, and average foot-candles on

the floor or work surface may succinctly reflect the absence of deleterious ambients, but they are hardly sufficient to capture the sort of enhanced interior environments that it is possible to create through a total and careful 'green design'. We are testing some new measures in attempt to capture such qualities that biophilia actually suggests are important to building occupants.

Recovery and comparison of historical health, well-being and perfonnance data from the MSQA

database has been much more difficult than expected, due largely to peculiarities of the particular

database management system, which was not designed to be able to recover and group records

based on smaller work units or with tags that have relevance to particular locations in the facility.

Where records have been analyzed, we have found variations in measures driven largely by

workflow demands created by cyclable influences in the industry, and by demographic changes in

the workforce that accompany these. Isolating facility environment effects in the midst of these

is requiring more data and more indepth analyses.

Creation of a protocol that can accurately and reliably assess the effects of green building design on worker health, well being and human performance is proving challenging but worthwhile. Since

this project was started, the anecdotal and quasiscientific evidence of benefits from pollution

prevention and ecologically conscious constmction has only become stronger (9), and are well

established in certain related fomms such as Interior Air Quality. The opportunity to use the

Miller SQA building for comprehensive study is providing the means to extend the scientific

knowledge of human-centered building benefits to the entire context of green building design.

78
References

1 . Wise, JA., F Weaver, and D Fong.. Boeing energy benefits study. Prepared for the U.S.

Department of Energy by Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, Washington

1994.

2. Ivanovich MG, JA Wise, DB Lantrip, JH Heerwagen, L Doreimis. "Status on the

deyelopment of a protocol for assessing potential benefits of green buildings." In Second

international green buildings conference and exposition- 1995 . eds. AH Fanney, KM Whitter,

and TB Cohn. NIST Special Publication 888. Gaithersburg, Maryland, 1995.

3 Wilson EO. "Biophilia and the conservation ethic." In The Biophilia Hypothesis, eds.

SR Kellert and EO Wilson. Island Press, Washington, DC, 1993.

4. Wilson, EO. Biophilia. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, 1984.

5. Heerwagen JH and GH Orians. "Humans, habitats, and aesthetics." In The Biophilia

Hypothesis , eds. SR Kellert and EO Wilson.. Island Press, Washington, DC, 1993.

6. Orians GH and JH Heerwagen. "Evolved responses to landscapes." In The adapted mind:

evolutionary psychology and the generation of culture, eds. J Barkow, J Tooby and L

Cosmides. Oxford University Press, Oxford UK and New York, 1992.

7. Ulrich RS. "Biophilia, biophobia and natural landscapes." In The Biophilia Hypothesis, eds. SR Kellert and EO Wilson. Island Press, Washington, DC, 1993.

8. Kaplan R and S Kaplan. The experience of nature: a psychological perspective. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge UK and New York, 1989.

9. Lantrip DB. Environmental constraint of human movement: a case study of the effects on office worker environmental satisfaction and self-rated productivity . Unpublished

doctoral dissertation. University of Michigan, 1993.

10. Browning WD and JJ Romm. "Greening the bottom line: increasing productivity

through energy-efficient design." In Second international green buildings conference and

exposition- 1995 . eds. AH Fanney, KM Whitter, and TB Cohn. National Institute of

Standards and Technology (NIST) Special Publication 888. Gaithersburg, Maryland, 1995.

79

GREENING THE PRESIDIO

A CASE STUDY OF THE THOREAU CENTER FOR SUSTAINABILITY

Marsha Maytum, AIA - Tanner Leddy Maytum Stacy Architects

Lynn Simon - Simon & Associates

Tom Sargent - Equity Community Builders

ABSTRACT. The Thoreau Center for Sustainability, located in the rehabilitated historic wards of

the Letterman General Hospital, is the first privately financed project in the new Presidio

National Park in San Francisco. The 75,000 square foot complex, opened in April of 1996,

provides a place for twenty non-profit organizations committed to research and educational

activities focused on the complex and inextricable connections between human society and the

natural environment. This case study presents the goals, design process and final project

developed by the design team, the client and the National Park Service. All parties involved were committed to integrating environmental materials, sustainable building and landscape

practices, and energy efficient building systems from the inception of the project to final

completion.

INTRODUCTION

The Presidio of San Francisco, transferred from the U.S. Army to the National Park Service in

October of 1994, is being developed as a model park for the 21st century. The Presidio's

mission goes beyond the traditional goals of national parks - preserving, improving and

interpreting natural and cultural resources for future generations. The Presidio will be a global

environmental center and working laboratory illustrating the principles of sustainable design.

The Thoreau Center serves as an important model for sustainable development and innovative

private/public partnerships which maintain and enhance the historic resources at the Presidio and

beyond. The next decade will see an unprecedented opportunity to restore and renovate the

available resources at closed military bases across America. Creative solutions will be required

to fully realize the potential of these important architectural and cultural resources as models for a sustainable future.

The Thoreau Center for Sustainability, located in the historic wards of Letterman Hospital, is the

first public/private partnership project completed at the new Presidio National Park, a part of the

Golden Gate Recreational Area. The Thoreau Center opened in April of 1 996 as the new home

for Tides Foundation, Tides Center, Energy Foundation and the Institute for Global

Communications and sixteen other non-profit organizations that are working directly on

environmental and sustainable development issues. The 75,000 square foot complex is named

after Henry David Thoreau, who introduced into American literature the central concept of

human interrelatedness with nature which underpins modern environmental thought. The

81
Thoreau Center provides a place for organizations committed to research and educational

activities focused on the complex and inextricable connections between human society and the

natural environment.

Project Description

The design of the Thoreau Center provides an excellent example of the important relationship

between historic rehabilitation and sustainable development. By transforming older buildings

into new uses, there is a net reduction in the utilization of resources and building materials, as well as the preservation of important architectural and cultural landmarks. More importantly

building rehabilitation reinforces the concept of using what already exists within the boundaries

of our existing developed areas; thereby stopping the continued development, decentralization

and sprawl of our urban and suburban areas.

The creation of this new center provides an unprecedented opportunity to showcase sustainable

design principles and sound environmental practices. It also presented a major challenge in

transforming the historic hospital wards into new office space integrating new energy efficient

building systems and "green" materials while maintaining the historic integrity of the landmark

structures. In addition to the rehabilitation requirements of the National Park Service for

historic landmark buildings and landscape, the project also had to conform to the rehabilitation

requirements for the federal historic tax credit program which was critical to the financial

viability of the Thoreau Center.

Constructed by the U.S. Army between 1899 and 1933, the buildings were in bad repair and

needed complete new electrical, mechanical, plumbing and life safety systems as well as basic

building maintenance and accessibility upgrades. In addition the hospital wards needed to be

transformed and reconfigured into office space appropriate for a variety of non-profit

organizations. Public exhibit space was also included in the program for the new Center.

Building 1016, the original Letterman Hospital administration headquarters, is a three story

wood frame building. This is the main public entry to the Thoreau Center. The upstairs offices

are devoted to "incubator space" for a variety of small non-profit organizations. Adjoining

Building 1016 are buildings 1012, 1013 and 1014 which form an E-shaped two story concrete

structure. These buildings originally served as wards, research laboratories and operating rooms. These buildings were renovated to provide offices for the Tides Center, The Tides Foundation,

The Energy Foundation and the Institute for Global Communications.

A north facing gallery, linking all of the original buildings of the complex, serves as the new

"Main Street" for the center and also provides opportunities for exhibit space and a cafe.

Sitework included restoration of the surrounding grounds, and the creation of the Thoreau

Courtyard to the north of Building 1012-14. The renovation had to be accomplished within a budget of $4.1 million for base building and tenant improvements, excluding sitework

(approximately $55/sq.ft.).

82
Schedule

In the spring of 1994 the first pubHc call for Park Partners was announced by the new Presidio

National Park. The Tides Foundation and Equity Community Builders, a San Francisco based

developer of infill housing and mixed use projects, responded with a proposal to develop the

Thoreau Center in the historic wards of the Letterman Hospital Complex. They were one of two

organizations selected to begin negotiations in the summer of 1994 for a lease agreement with

the National Park Service.

The Tides Foundation and Equity Community Builders formed Thoreau Center Partners L.P., to serve as the lessee in a 55 year master lease with the National Park Service. Tanner Leddy

Maytum Stacy Architects was selected to lead an interdisciphnary team during the design

process which began in the fall of 1994 and was completed during the summer of 1995.

Construction began in September of 1995 and was completed in March of 1996.

Goals

In September of 1994 a joint resolution was signed by the U.S. Department of Energy and the

Department of Interior (including the National Park Service) calling for the "Greening of the

Presidio". These two organizations have helped to guide the development of the Presidio into a model of environmentally sustainable design. Sustainability as defined by the World

Commission on Environment and Development is "meeting the needs of the present without

compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs."

The most important environmental goal for this project was to prove that it is possible and

economically viable to transform and recycle existing historic building resources into new uses

for the next century. Historic rehabilitation is a fundamental act of sustainable development.

Other project goals included the efficient use of resources, integration of energy saving systems,

and the use of environmentally sound building materials and practices

The interdisciplinary team; including the architect, engineers, lighting designer, and

environmental materials consultant, worked in conjunction with the developer, tenants, National

Park Service, LawTence Berkeley Laboratory and the National Renewable Energy Laboratory to develop a strategy for implementing specific energy and environmental goals for the Thoreau

Center including:

• Integrating state-of-the-art energy efficient systems and environmentally friendly building

materials within the Hmitations and constraints of a historic landmark structure.

• Maximizing daylighting in the new office spaces

• Providing natural ventilation throughout with only minimal use of air conditioning

• Using energy efficient mechanical, electrical and lighting systems throughout

• Using recycled, and/or environmentally responsible materials and products

83
• Integrating alternate energy systems

• Providing a safe, healthy working environment

• Integrating sustainable landscape practices

• Reducing overall energy usage and minimizing on-going operating costs

• Incorporating environmentally appropriate maintenance, operations and recycling procedures

within the Center.

Context

The Presidio is a 1,480 acre reserve located near the Golden Gate Bridge at the edge of the San

Francisco peninsula. During its 220 year history as a military base, under three flags (the

Spanish, Mexican and the United States), the Presidio has developed as a rich cultural,

architectural, ecological and environmental landmark. The Presidio will pioneer a new role as a national park and global center dedicated to the world's environmental, social and cultural

challenges.

The historic ward buildings, housing the new Thoreau Center, comprise an important remnant of

the overall Letterman Hospital complex. The hospital was constructed between 1899 and 1935,

and substantially demolished by the Army in the 1970's. As remaining elements of the original

campus plan, they contribute significantly to the architectural and cultural history of the Presidio.

The buildings and surrounding landscape are designated landmarks. These structures are important examples of Greek and Mission Revival styles typical of Presidio buildings of this era. The exterior of the buildings have remained relatively unchanged and stand as excellent

examples of this period in the Presidio's history. The interiors, although modified over time, are important examples of clinic/hospital architecture of the era. The many important medical

innovations developed over the decades at Letterman and countless lives saved attest to the

cultural significance of this landmark. The hospital complex was the Army's first permanent

general hospital; providing continuous operation through five wars until 1969.

Although the climate of the Presidio falls under the official California Climate Zone 3, there is a

great deal of variety and microclimates within the boundaries of the Presidio as is typical

throughout the San Francisco Bay region. In general the climate is very temperate that only

infrequently exceeds 80 degrees F. "Natural air-conditioning" provided by the coastal fog keeps

the summer time temperatures relatively cool. The high thermal mass construction and plan

configuration (small floor plates and access to exterior windows) of many of the Presidio's

existing buildings is also advantageous for limiting the mechanical requirements for the

buildings. The unique climate and building conditions make this site an ideal candidate for

natural ventilation and "freecooling" which have minimal environmental impact, low first cost and low operating cost.

As apart of the overall Presidio masterplan other critical environmental issues such as

transportation, waste management, infrastructure and natural habitat management will be

addressed in the on-going development of the new national park. The National Park Service the

84
U.S. Department of Energy, Department of Interior, National Renewable Energy Laboratory and

the Lawrence Berkeley Laborator}' are actively involved in research studies and

recommendations for the future development of the Presidio.

Given the current political climate and general budgetary limitations, a critical component for the

successful transformation of the Presidio from military base to national park is private

investment and partnership with the government. The Thoreau Center is the first privately

funded park project. In today's political and economic context, the successful completion of the

Thoreau Center, without government funds, will serve as a model for the future success of the

Presidio and for all other base closures throughout America.

Team Organization

The tenants, developers, design team and governmental reviewing agencies were all equally

committed to the integration of sustainable design practices into the Thoreau Center. The shared

goals and mutual understanding facilitated the successful results of this project.

The Presidio Project Group of the National Park Service, represented by Robert Wallace and

Steve Kasierski, represented the landlord and also the reviewing agency for building permits and

inspections. Tom Sargent and John Clawson from Equity Community Builders represented the

Thoreau Center Partners during the process. They were instrumental not only in project

management, and tenant representation but also in creatively structuring and securing the

required private bank financing and historic tax credits.

The design team was led by Marsha Maytum of Tanner Leddy Maytum Stacy Architects.

Thoreau Center provided an opportunity to combine the firm's expertise in historic renovation

and adaptive reuse with their experience in energy efficient and alternative energy design. The

interdisciplinary team included Steven Tipping Structural Engineers, Flack & Kurtz Consulting

Engineers, David Malman of Architectural Lighting Design, Cheryl Barton Landscape Architect,

Lynn Simon of Simon & Associates Environmental Building Consultants and GL&A Civil

Engineers.

The design team worked together throughout the process with the National Park Service,

Thoreau Center Partners, and the tenants as well as the Western Regional Office of the National

Park Service, the State Historic Preservation Office in Sacramento and the Lawrence Berkeley

Laboratory for energy evaluation and review.

The decision making process was complicated by the perceived conflicts between tenant required

plan reconfigurations, maximizing of energy efficiency, minimizing the impact on the historic

fabric of the landmark structures and of course the balance with desires and the realities of the

budget. As in any design process a collaborative dialogue continued throughout the process to reach the final design solution.

85
Intents

At the time that the hospital wards were originally designed, buildings were planned to respond

to the need for natural light and ventilation. Buildings could not rely on artificial light and large

mechanical systems for climate control. The narrow width of the buildings and abundant access

to exterior windows provides for excellent daylighting conditions and natural ventilation for the

interior spaces. The new office spaces were designed to maximize the penetration of the daylight

and natural ventilation into the work areas. The office area was designed with a layering of

private and open work areas. The private and semi-private offices were located at the perimeter

of the building, defined by a seven foot high glass and aluminum wall system to assure that both

the natural light and air flow would reach the interior open work areas. The new custom work

stations were designed with adjustable desks for maximum ergonomic control by the tenants.

As a historic landmark, the retention of the existing materials, configuration and character was

very critical to the National Park Service. The original circulation and general plan configuration were maintained. New interior tenant space was recaptured by enclosing the original portecocheres of two of the ward buildings. New restrooms, elevator and handicapped access were

discreetly incorporated into the original plan.

The new architectural features needed to be designed in a way which could be "reversible" and

not damaging to the original structure if the use of building changed again in the future. Key

existing elements could not be altered; such as the original windows. The upgrade and energy

enhancement of these windows could not be accomplished. The balancing of energy

performance and retention of historic fabric was an important part of the design dialogue on this

project.

Building Envelope Improvements

Building 1016, a three story wood framed structure, had only minimal thermal insulation in the

attic area. New cellulose insulation (made from recycled newspaper and paper products) was

installed in the attic area and in the wall cavities. Insulation was also installed in the crawl space.

One difficulty occurred during construction at the existing walls. There is a historic stained

wood wainscoting installed on almost all walls in this building. Due to the diagonal blocking

behind the wainscoting, the cellulose insulation could not be installed without severe damage to the historic woodwork. It was decided to drill access holes only through the upper plaster wall

which could be easily patched and install the cellulose insulation only in the upper half of the

wall. The thermal insulation was compromised but the integrity of the wood wainscoting was

not.

Buildings 1012-13 had very thick concrete perimeter walls. Cellulose insulation was only

installed in the attic area. Cotton batt insulation, in lieu of fiber glass insulation, was installed in

the interior walls where acoustic insulation was required.

86
As mentioned above, the existing windows could not be improved by double glazing or installing

window film. However the new windows installed at the entry to Building 1016 are double

glazed with low- E glass. The new entry skylight is also dual glazed and will have photovoltaic

panels installed in the summer of 1996.

Photovoltaics

As a separately funded project by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory and the National

Park Service, a small demonstration installation of photovoltaic (PV) panels will be added to the

Thoreau lobby skylight and canopy. The project schedule and warrantees precluded completely

integrated PV panels in the skylight system. The laminated glass panels, provided by Atlantis

Energy and Solarex will be installed as a separate layer above the skylight glass. The electricity

produced by the panels will go back into the building electrical system. There will be a public

display in the lobby on photovoltaics, a meter monitoring the amount of energy produced by the

panels and an interactive computer program setup to explain this new alternative building

material and energy system.

The U.S. Department of Energy's Federal Energy Management Program (FEMP) in conjunction

with the National Renewable Energy Laboratory and Sandia National Laboratories, has provided

assistance to the National Park Service to install a photovoltaic electric vehicle charging station near the Thoreau Center. The mobile photovoltaic array can be used as a stand alone system for

battery recharging or grid connected to use utility-provided electricity as auxiliary power or to send excess electricity produced by the PV system back into the grid.

Mechanical & Electrical Systems Design

The Thoreau Center was initially viewed as a good opportunity to consider natural ventilation in

lieu of mechanical cooling. Located near the Pacific Ocean the site has a very temperate climate

that only infrequently exceeds 80 degrees F. The building geometry further encouraged natural

ventilation because of the shallow floor plates that places occupants within close proximity of a window. The knowledge of historical building performance and comfort supported the decision

of using operable windows and natural ventilation.

The following mechanical/electrical items were considered

• High efficiency boilers

• Hot water radiators with greater heat transfer surface to allow lower hot water supply

temperatures

• High efficiency motors

• Simple and effective controls

• Variable speed pumps

• Reduced-flow plumbing fixtures

87
The use of pulse combustion water heaters was initially proposed because of their greater

efficiency (90-95%, depending on water temperature). These were also selected because smaller,

modular equipment could be used that reduced part-load inefficiencies and stand-by losses.

However, during the cost evaluation a high efficiency, standard combustion boiler was selected

because the operating savings, in the relatively mild San Francisco climate, could not justify the

cost premium.

The selection of radiators allowed for the evaluation of heat transfer efficiency. By selecting

units of greater efficiency the hot water supply temperature could be reduced. This results in

both lower thermal losses in the piping distribution and greater efficiency with the boiler.

High efficiency, or premium efficient, motors were specified because they are known to have an immediate cost payback and typically operate with higher reliability.

For all systems it is important to look at system part-load efficiencies because the building

seldom operates at its peak design condition. Thus variable speed pumping was seen as an

essential feature for the hot water distribution system that allowed the pump output to vary and

match the building requirement, with energy tracking this variable output. Variable speed drives

(VSD) were seen as becoming widespread in the marketplace and the cost effectiveness of this measure has been demonstrated on numerous projects.

Building controls were considered for their simplicity and effectiveness. Following the project's

underlying theme that "less is more" the project was not seen as requiring a central computerbased system. Simple on-off controls were selected because they provided the greatest value.

Radiators were provided with local thermostat control that monitored comfort conditions for a

small, discrete area. At the system level the hot water heating temperatures were reset based on

outdoor air temperature such that thermal distribution losses were reduced.

Low flow plumbing fixtures were specified because they conserve water as well as reduce

distribution pumping energy and lower domestic hot water heating energy.

Lighting controls in large office areas and common corridors were equipped with occupancy

sensors to automatically switch off lights when the building is not occupied. Occupancy sensors were seen as providing the most flexibility to the various tenants for after hours use and avoids

timed overrides by each user.

The use of electrically operated cars are encouraged to help reduce pollution and help the

environment, so special outlets were provided at select parking stalls to enable electric powered

cars to be charged during the day ensuring a fially charged vehicle for the trip back home.

From an engineering perspective the project appropriately did not embrace a technologicallydriven comfort solution. The elegance of providing comfort with a minimum of equipment

should never be lost, even when a project may not have the same advantage of benign climate

88
and optimum building flooiplate. The design team should look at how buildings and nature have

worked in the past, not take the "easy way out" and simply install energy-intensive mechanical

equipment that solves the problem by brute force.

Lighting

By far the most important component for energy efficiency in the San Francisco Bay Area, due

to the mild climate, is electrical use, in particular lighting use. The primary goal for the lighting

design of the Thoreau Center was to minimize energy use while providing a pleasant quality of

light. David Malman, of Architectural Lighting Design, designed the lighting to be very

comfortable for the users to whom "fluorescent lighting" had a bad connotation. Fluorescent

uplighting was selected because of its soft, shadow-free, low-glare quality of light, particular

good for the high computer use. Some of the fixtures also emit a small quantity of downlight

which adds visual interest and increases fixture efficiency.

Fixtures were kept very simple and generic to make it possible for several manufacturers to bid on the lighting systems. At the Owner's request, the project uses tried-and-true technology with

low initial cost and fast payback. F32T8/730 fluorescent lamps and electronic ballasts are used

for silent, flicker-free, low energy lighting with a pleasant warm color that complements the

natural wood finishes of the casework. Incandescent lighting is limited to a few locations where

accent lighting was required. Corridors are lit with pendant lights using compact fluorescent

lamps in "schoolhouse" white glass globes that blend harmoniously with the historic architecture

of the old hospital buildings.

Controls are ordinary wall switches combined with occupancy sensors in many areas to assure energy savings, particularly in intermittently used rooms. Due to budget constraints, we

evaluated and ultimately rejected more advanced technologies using daylight sensing combined

with fluorescent dimming.

The lighting consultant prepared computer calculations to plot out the lighting levels in the work

spaces to assure that the light levels would be adequate. Light levels in the Tides Foundation and

Tides Center offices range from 1 5 to 45 foot-candles, and the connected power density is 1 .06

watts per square foot. Refer to attached diagram of the foot-candle computer model.

Although the Thoreau Center does not set any records for low energy use, it does demonstrate

that a historic rehabilitation with a low budget can successfully integrate energy conserving measures and greatly reduce the energy usage of the buildings resulting in substantial energy

savings per year.

89
Tools And Techniques

The energy performance of the project was modeled using D0E2 with special assistance from

Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, the Department of Energy and input and review by Flack +

Kurtz Engineers, and Architectural Lighting Design. Following is a summary of results from the

Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory report dated April 16, 1995.

To evaluate the energy efficiency of the planned renovation, a hypothetical Base Case was

defined for the proposed renovation of the hospital ward buildings to the new office use without

any conservation measures. The base case assumed no additional thermal insulation, standard

mechanical and electrical systems, a lighting level assumed to be 1.5 watts/square foot, typical

office internal loads and occupancy schedules. This scenario represented how the buildings

would perform if they were used as offices without any attempt to improve their energy

efficiency. The planned design was then modeled incorporating the energy efficiency measures

integrated into the renovation design.

Compared to the hypothetical base case, the planned design will have an estimated annual

energy savings of $22,000 or a 1/3 reduction in the total energy budget of the buildings. Almost

all of that savings is in electricity usage from the typical office lighting wattage of L5

watt/square foot to the .59-. 9 watt/square foot in the planned design. The lighting electrical use

in the base case accounts for nearly half of the entire energy bill. The savings in space

conditioning energy use is minuscule in comparison, roughly $500 in heating and $100 in

cooling. The reduction in energy consumption will provide meaningful energy savings (+\-

$1,210,000) for the Thoreau Center over the life of the fifty five year lease. The results are summarized in the attached charts.

Materials And Systems Specifications

Green buildings are environmentally designed and operated to lessen their impact on the

environment through energy and resource efficiency, and to provide good indoor environmental

and air quality, in order to assure occupant health and productivity. Ideally, green building

concepts are applied throughout the whole building, and over its entire life-cycle ~ from site planning through operations and maintenance. The primary goal is to design, construct and

operate an aesthetic building which meets all the occupants' and ovmer's needs, including

budgetary constraints, while performing at optimum levels of efficiency.

One of the primary goals of the Thoreau Center is to fulfill and promote the principles of

sustainable design. One way this goal is achieved is through the research and selection of

environmental materials and products. From the initial stages of the design process Lynn Simon

with Simon & Associates provided design review, research and input in the selections of

materials and systems to assure environmental performance. This process lead the design team to a series of informed choices which were made based upon environmental criteria and real-world

issues including project schedule, budget, aA'ailable resources, and aesthetics.

90
The material selections have environmental and health merits that traditional materials have

typically not considered. The production and use of these materials means less energy

consumption, less natural resource depletion and pollution, and are generally less toxic for both

the planet and its occupants. The selection of green building materials began with preliminary

criteria including:

• recycled content

• sustainably acquired or renewable resource

• in-plant energy efficiency and recycling

• low-emissions plant

• minimum recycled, recyclable packaging

• maximum transport efficiency

• minimum installation hazards

• low-toxic emissions

• durable

• easy to maintain

• reusable and salvageable

• recyclable

Manufacturers who had established credentials as environmentally concerned companies or as having products with some environmental or health benefits were then selected and their

products researched. Environmental product guidelines based upon the preliminary criteria were

then used to evaluate each product. In addition, product brochures and Materials Safety Data

Sheets (MSDS) were requested and evaluated. Following is a matrix of the materials researched

and used on the Thoreau Center.

see attached matrix ofmaterials

Landscape Design

The landscape features surrounding the Thoreau Center are also included in the landmark

designation. The large open grass areas, significant historic plantings and exterior circulation

patterns are all apart of the historic cultural landscape. As such, the design of the new landscape

elements must also meet the requirements of the Secretary of the Interiors' Guidelines for

Historic Rehabilitations. In addition to the restoration and maintenance of the existing features,

Cheryl Barton the landscape architect, also incorporated the following sustainable landscape

practices:

• rehabilitation rather than removal of historic plant materials

• minimization of earthwork - new grades work with the existing slopes

• soil building with organic amendments in lieu of synthetic fertilizers • water conservation through the introduction of drought tolerant plants, low flow irrigation

systems, and the capture of rainwater for supplemental irrigation

• excavation and use of historic drainage structures to minimize runoff

91
• removal of evergreen trees (replaced with deciduous trees) on south side of buildings to maximize interior daylighting

• reduction in asphalt paving and parking areas

• installation of alternatives to turf lawns such as low growing groundcover, unmown grasses

and wildflowers, and decomposed granite

• updated National Park Service standard landscape specifications via research from "green"

data bases and product literature on sustainable materials and products

To the north of Buildings 1012-14, the Thoreau Courtyard has been created where two original

ward wings were demolished by the U.S. Army. This area will be developed over the next few

years as a public garden and demonstration area for sustainable landscape practices, medicinal

and herbal plants, as well as wind and solar energy demonstration projects.

Construction

Plant Construction Company was selected at the beginning of the project and was an integral part

of the design team from the feasibility phase. Given the nature and complexity of the renovation

and the fact that this was the first private project to be undertaken in the Presidio, the developers

decided that it was important to have the input of a qualified renovation contractor in the initial planning. Plant Construction Company is experienced in the challenges of historic renovations

and also has an ongoing commitment to environmentally sound building practices. They

provided on-going cost estimating and review through all phases of the project. Through a

negotiated bid process the subcontractors were brought in at the design development phase to provide field research and systems input with the team engineers.

In addition to complying with the environmental requirements of the specifications for the

building materials and systems, the construction team supported the goals of the project by

recycling building materials and debris.

Construction debris and material waste are major contributors to the land fill crisis in America.

Waste prevention, sorting and recycling of debris at the construction site can greatly reduce the

tons of material annually dumped into land fills. California Assembly Bill 939 requires a 50%

reduction in the amount of solid waste disposed by the year 2000.

At Thoreau Center, Plant Construction Company organized and managed a waste prevention

program throughout the course of demolition and construction. The company has a long term

commitment to recycling of building materials. At the end of each year. Plant donates the money

received from material recycling to local charities.

The contractor provided separate debris bins designated for scrap metal, brick and concrete,

wood, and general debris. Wood products were removed and stored at the Plant yard for use on

future projects. Wood removed from the project during demolition was used for new infill framing where ever possible. The general contractor trained all personnel on the job site to

92
separate and use the designated debris bins. Golden Gate Disposal, the local refuse company,

accepted pre-sorted materials from the job site for recycling. They also monitored the quantities

of materials delivered during the course of construction.

At the Thoreau Center for Sustainability, over 73% of all debris was recycled. The typical

recovery rate for recycled construction material at Golden Gate Disposal is 40 - 50%. The

increase in the amount of recycled material is due to the careful labeling of debris bins on site and the training and commitment of the general contractor and crew.

Summary Of Recycled Construction Material

Scrap Metal:

Inert Fill:

Wood:

General Debris:

19.2 tons recycled (Metal was sent to Circosta Metals)

380 tons recycled (Inert fill includes: concrete, bricks, soil, and terra cotta. The fill was sent to Ryan Engineering or Brisbane Recycling where it was

either dumped for fill or screened for topsoil and sand. Bricks were cleaned

and became "used bricks". At Brisbane Recycling concrete is chipped and

prepared for a variety of uses.)

137 tons recycled

199 tons discarded (General debris was not able to be recycled due to the

presence of various contaminates.)

Total: 735.2 tons of material hauled

536.2 tons of material recycled

73% of material was recycled

Use And Operation

Since the building has only been occupied for two months there is not yet any operating data

available for review. However, the feedback from the users, the developers and the National

Park Service has been very positive. The transformation from hospital wards to new energy

efficient offices is complete. The Thoreau Center is now a thriving community of related nonprofit organizations dedicated to community development and environmental stewardship. At

the building dedication ceremonies on June 7, 1995 U.S. Representative Nancy Pelosi said, "If

anyone were to choose the right organization to be a part of the Presidio, the Thoreau Center is

it."

c:partners:/marsha/presidio/usgreen/greenbld.doc

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97

CIVANO VILLAGE

John Laswick, Project Manager

City of Tucson Office of Economic Development

P.O. Box 27210

Tucson, AZ 85726

Abstract. The goal of the Civano project is to demonstrate the marketability of sustainable

community development on a large scale at affordable prices. This 820 acre traditional

neighborhood development will utilize proven, available technology to reduce natural resource usage substantially below current levels. Extensive community involvement in its planning gives

Civano a solid base of local support. The property is located on former State Trust land in the

City of Tucson, southeast of Houghton and Irvington Roads.

Civano takes its name from the golden era of native Hohokam civilization, which exhibited a balance between human needs and the natural environment. Civano addresses the growing desire

for a new development pattern that enables people to meet their economic needs, yet maintain

social values and ecological harmony. Recent local consumer research indicates substantial

interest in a traditional community with strong environmental values. Civano's master plan

envisions construction of 2,500 homes and apartments using significantly lower natural resources

than conventional homes. The challenge to builders is to develop housing with these features in a wide range of prices. The City is committed to assisting builders who accept this challenge.

In eight to twelve years, Civano will become home to more than 5,000 people and the location of

light industry, offices, and retail businesses. Commercial, cultural, and civic activity clustered in the village core will foster a small town ambiance. Half the population and two-thirds of the jobs

will be within a five minute walk of the Civano village center. Businesses in Civano will provide

jobs for some of the residents, reducing the need for automobile travel and its attendant air pollution. The plan aims to create one job for every two housing units, although not all jobs will

be held by Civano residents. Residents and employees alike will enjoy access to active recreational

facilities and natural desert open space.

Civano's buildings initially will utilize passive solar designs to reduce energy demand. As

photovoltaic (PV) electric generation and similar technologies become economical, Civano hopes

to use such supply systems as grid-connected PV to provide power to major portions of the

community. Harvested and reclaimed water will irrigate vegetation and conserve precious potable

water. Improved collection and disposal methods will facilitate solid waste recycling. Extensive

walking and biking paths will reduce auto usage for internal circulation and create a more livable

community. The City has established construction requirements to achieve the highest possible

standards of resource conservation.

The City of Tucson has acted as a catalyst in the State's auction of the property to a private

master-developer. This involved cooperation among the State Land Department, the development

community, utilities, financial institutions, and advocates for energy conservation and nextgeneration neighborhood design. The City's Office of Economic Development has lead

99
responsibility and worked closely with an advisory group of interested parties, as well as with an

interdepartmental team of public agencies. The State Land auction took place on July 24, 1996,

with sale to the Community of Civano LLC, a joint venture of the Trust for Sustainable

Development and Case Enterprises; construction of the first buildings should begin at Civano by

mid-1997.

Ultimately, successful development of Civano will demonstrate community design and

construction methods that will enable Tucson and other cities to meet the demands of growth

without straining the supply of natural resources. For additional information, use the Internet to view the Civano Web Site at http://vvww.civano.com or contact Project Manager John Laswick at (520) 791-5093.

100
A SIMPLIFIED ENVIRONMENTAL SCREENING

METHOD FOR BUILDING MATERIALS

Nadav Malin and Alex Wilson

Environmental Building News

RR 1, Box 161

Brattleboro, VT 05301

ABSTRACT

, Sustainable design encompasses many strategies and considerations. Not least among these is the

selection of products and materials with minimal environmental burdens over their life cycle.

Ideally a green building designer would have access to a complete life-cycle analysis for each

material under consideration in order to choose those with the lowest impacts. For most materials,

however, the majority of environmental burdens occur at just a few points in the life cycle. By

focusing on the "pressure points" outlined in this paper, designers can make wise choices without

pouring through reams of information, and manufacturers can concentrate their efforts where there

is most to be gained.

INTRODUCTION

Life-cycle analysis or life-cycle assessment (LCA) has generated enormous interest over the past

decade as a method for determining the total environmental impacts of a particular product. The

process includes a life-cycle inventory, in which a researcher must identify and quantify all of the raw materials and energy consumed in the production, use, and disposal of the product, as well as pollutants and byproducts generated. Following the inventory, the task remains of determining the

environmental impacts of these material and energy flows. This step is an inexact science, because

it involves tracking ecological impacts as they ripple endlessly through the world's natural

systems. In the context of a specific product, the final stage is often one of identifying areas for

improvement. In a broader sense, this screening method is a means of improving the life-cycle

impacts of an entire building through optimal materials choices.

Given the level of complication involved in analyzing the life cycle of a specific product, it is not

surprising that such tasks are usually undertaken only by relatively large manufacturers who are committed to learning about and reducing the environmental impacts of their processes.

Unfortunately, such detailed information is rarely made available to the public. Even if it were, it is unlikely that architects and specifiers—who must make decisions about hundreds of products for

each project—would be able to digest and utilize the information. In addition, if detailed

information is available for a product from one manufacturer but not from competitors, the

designer still has no way to ascertain which products have the lowest cumulative impacts.

Given this predicament, most practitioners of sustainable design end up learning what they can

about products, and then make their decisions based on intuition and an informal (and usually

undocumented) assessment of the options. The process outlined in this paper, while still very

informal, aims to bring out into the open the primary considerations needed to put these decisions on firmer footing.

101
A number of efforts are underway to adapt the life-cycle assessment process in order to make it more useful to building designers. Most notable among these efforts to date are The American

Institute of Architects' Environmental Resource Guide (1) and the Athena^'^ database from

Forintek Canada Corp. (2).

As these general assessments cannot be product-specific, they are necessarily imprecise in LCA

terms. They consider the flows of materials and energy that are considered typical in each industry

(3), and the environmental impacts that commonly stem from those flows. Joel Ann Todd, author

of the Environmental Resource Guide methodology, refers to her process as a "streamlined" LCA.

These studies each break up the life cycle of products into significant stages as illustrated in

Figures 1 and 2 below.

Figure 1: Life-cycle stages as per ERG (4)

Material acquisition and

IVIanufacturing

Construction,

use, Reuse,recycling, or and fabrication preparation maintenance disposal

Figure 2: Life-cycle stages as per AthenaTM (5)

Resource

extraction

Processing/

manufacturing

Construction Occupancy

Demolition/

disposal

These streamlined and generalized LCA studies are valuable tools for the environmentally aware

designer, yet they have significant weaknesses in practice. First, even these generalized studies

have only been completed for a fraction of the materials available to designers. Second, although

significant efforts are underway to make the information more accessible (6), much of the material

is available only in detailed technical reports, which many designers may not take the time to read.

Articles on materials published in Environmental Building News (7) aim to be more accessible, but

only a handful of materials have been covered in such articles to date. Developing these articles,

however, has lead to the creation of a methodology that knowledgeable designers can use to make

their own informed choices. Outlined below are EBN's twelve steps for environmental screening

of building materials. This method is not intended to replace true life-cycle assessment, but merely

to offer a framework for identifying the most significant factors for each material. It is a work-inprogress that evolves each time we use it, and we welcome ideas for modifications and

improvements.

HIERARCHY OF LIFE-CYCLE STAGES

The twelve steps of this method span the life cycle of the materials in question, but not in the

normal, chronological order. While the LCA of many consumer products focuses on the

production and disposal issues, with most building materials it is the use phase of the product that

is most significant because of the relatively long lifetime over which building materials are in

service. In this sense, Todd refers to building materials as having a "use-dominated life cycle."

This does not mean that use phase is the most important stage for every material one might

consider, but it does suggest that in many cases this is where the most significant environmental

considerations can be found. Like the Environmental Resource Guide, we have included the act of

assembling the materials into a building as part of the use phase of the material.

102
Following the use phase, the raw materials extraction phase is usually the most important with

building materials. This is primarily because buildings are relatively large objects, and large

quantities of raw material are used in their construction.

The manufacturing or production stage is typically next in importance, as many materials contain

hazardous or toxic components, or generate toxic intermediaries as part of their production

process.

Finally, the disposal stage can be important due to the shear volume of material that buildings

embody. It falls at the end of this list, however, because of the long useful life of most building

materials and the recyclability of many of them. Additionally, much of the mass of buildings can

often be utilized as clean fill in many cases, so the potential impact on solid waste landfills is mitigated. Figure 3 below illustrates this hierarchy.

Hierarchy of Life-cycle stages:

1 . Construction and Use

2. Raw material acquisition

3. Manufacturing

4. Disposal/Reuse

It is important to note that while this hierarchy is a useful guide, it is not meant to suggest that all materials will have their environmental burdens ranked in this order. The most significant impacts

of some synthetic materials, for example, may be found in the manufacturing stage. And products

such as preservative-treated wood may be most problematic in terms of disposal.

THE FIRST THREE STEPS: THE USE PHASE

Two of the most significant sources of environmental impact from building materials are energy

use in the building and effects on occupant health. Considering a specific application and a list of

possible materials to suit that application, the following three decision points are a good place to begin.

Step 1 - Energy use: Will the material in question, as used in the relevant application, have a measurable impact on building energy use?

If no, proceed to step 2.

If yes (for example, materials such as glazing, insulation, and mechanical systems), avoid

options that do not minimize energy use. Also take care to design the application to minimize

energy use. For materials that can be used in an energy-efficient manner only with the addition

of other components, the impact of including those components must be factored in. Examples

include glazing systems that require exterior shading systems for reduced energy use, or lightgauge steel framing, that requires foam sheathing to prevent thermal bridging.

Step 2 - Occupant health: Might the material in question, as used in this application, affect the

health of building occupants?

If no, proceed to step 3.

If yes (such as interior furnishings, interior finishes, and mechanical systems), avoid materials

that are likely to adversely affect occupant health, and design systems to minimize any possible

adverse effects when sources of indoor pollution cannot be avoided.

103
Step 3 - Durability: Is this material, as used in this appUcation, likely to need replacement,

special treatment, or excessive maintenance/repair during the life of the structure?

If no, proceed to step 4.

If yes (for example, roofing, coatings, and sealants), avoid products with short expected

lifespans. An exception to this rule might be a product made from low-impact, renewable

materials that is easily applied and easily recycled. Also, design the structure for flexibility so

that materials that might become obsolete before they wear out (such as wiring) can be replaced

with minimal disruption and cost. NEXT STEPS: THE RAW MATERIALS STAGE

The remaining steps are less application-specific. They require some knowledge of the raw

materials that go into each product.

Step 4 - Resource Limitations: Are any of the component materials from limited or endangered resources?

If no, proceed to step 5.

If yes (for example certain sources of old-growth timber), avoid these products. It may be

possible to obtain comparable materials through salvage.

Step 5 - Impacts of Resource Extraction: Are there significant ecological impacts from the

process of mining or harvesting the raw materials?

If no, proceed to step 6.

If yes (such as damage to rainforests from bauxite mining for aluminum, or clearcutting on

steep slopes with unstable soils), seek suppliers of material from recycled stock, or those with

credible third-party verification of environmentally sound harvesting methods.

Step 6 - Transportation: Do the raw materials require significant shipping energy because of

distance, weight, or other factors?

If no, proceed to step 7.

If yes (for example, petroleum, Italian marble, and tropical timber), seek appropriate alternative

material from more local sources. FURTHER STEPS: MANUFACTURING

Step 7 - Hazardous byproducts: Are significant toxic or hazardous intermediaries or byproducts created during manufacturing, and if so, how significant is the risk of their release to the environment or risk of hazard to worker health?

If these are not significant, proceed to step 8.

Where toxic byproducts are either generated in large quantities (for example, certain plastics) or

in small but uncontrolled quantities, the building material in question should be avoided if possible.

Step 8 - Energy use: How energy-intensive is the manufacturing process?

104
If not very intensive, proceed to step 9.

If the manufacture of a building material is very energy-intensive compared to the alternatives

(aluminum and plastics, for example) its use should be minimized. It is not the energy use itself that is of concern, however, but the pollution from its generation and use. So industries using

clean-burning or renewable energy sources have lower burdens than those relying on coal or petroleum.

Step 9 - Waste from manufacturing: How much solid waste is generated in the

manufacturing process?

If not much relative to the quantity- of product manufactured, proceed to step 10.

If significant amounts of solid waste are generated that are not being reused for other purposes

(for example, carpet manufacturing scrap or steel slag), seek alternative materials. The degree

of reuse can vary by manufacturer, so product-specific information may be needed at this step.

FINAL STEPS: DISPOSAL OR REUSE?

Step 10 - Demolition waste: Can the material be easily separated out for reuse or recycling

after its useful hfe in the structure is over?

If yes, proceed to step 1 1

While most materials that are used in large quantities in building construction (such as steel and

concrete) can be at least partially recycled, products that combine different materials (such as thermoset plastics and composites) are less recyclable, and may become a disposal problem in

the future. Consider the future recyclability of products chosen.

Step 11 - Hazardous materials from demolition: Might the material become a toxic or hazardous waste problem at the end of its useful life?

If no, proceed to step 12.

If yes (for example, preservative-treated wood), seek alternative products for the application, or seek to minimize their use.

Step 12 - Review the results: Go over any concerns that have been raised about the

products under consideration, and look for other life-cycle impacts that might be specific to a particular material. For example, with drywall and spray-in, open-cell polyurethane foam

insulation, waste generated at the job site is a major problem. Finally, factor this information into

all the conventional product selection criteria—price, availability, appearance, ease of installation.

SOME RESULTS

Figures 3, 4, and 5 below illustrates some of the issues that emerge as a result of this process for a few specific materials. Depending on your goals and the criteria for the particular project, these concerns may be "knock-out criteria" (8), meaning that the product in question is eliminated from

consideration. Or, they may simply be factors to be aware of and to mitigate through careful

design.

105
Figure 3: EBN's simpliHed method applied to oriented-strand board sheatliing

Step 1

Step 2

Step 3

Little impact on energy use in buildings

Potential (minor) offgassing of formaldehyde from

Good durability if properly installed

Specify OSB

produced with MDI

binder

Step 4

Step 5

Step 6

Step 7

Step 8

Step 9

Minimal resource impacts-produced

from small-diameter, low-quality trees

Potentially significant impacts from

logging if clearcutting on slopes with

unstable soils

OSB plants distributed fairly widely, so transportation is reasonable

Potential air pollutants from

manufacturing, especially from

dryers

Fairly efficient manufacturing

process

I

Very little waste from wood products

industry

Specify OSB

produced with MDI

binder

Specify OSB

produced with MDI

binder

Step 10

Step 11

Limited possibilities for recycling

OSB from existing buildings

Material not hazardous

Step 12 No other significant problems

106
Figure 4: EBN's simplified method applied to aluminum-frame windows

Step 1 Unacceptable thermal performance ^

Seek thermally

broken frames or other frame material.

of frame material in nearly all climates W

Material e iminated

Step 2

Step 3

Step 4

Figure 5: EBN's simpliHed method applied to old-growth cedar siding

g. ^ Little impact on energy use in ^ buildings

Little or no impact on lAQ in buildings

Excellent durability if properly

installed

Very limited resource from

old-growth forests

Seek alternative

siding, or cedar from

salvaged sources or

certified forests.

Material e iminated

1 Now published annually by John Wiley & Sons, New York.

2 Forintek Canada Corp., 319 Rue Franquet, Sainte Foy, Quebec GIT 4R4 Canada

3 The Forintek assessment of steel, for example, is based on the inputs and outputs of a

hypothetic£il "typical" steel mill.

4 American Institute of Architects. 1996 "Materials Research Framework" in Environmental

Resource Guide. Ed. by Joseph A. Demkin, AIA. NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

5 Forintek Canada Corp. and Wayne B. Trusty & Associates Limited. 1993 Building Materials

the Context of Sustainable Development: Phase II Summary Report.

107
6 Environmental Resource Guide Application Reports and Athena database

7 A bimonthly newsletter on environmentally sustainable design and construction, published in

Brattleboro, Vermont.

8 A phrase used by William McDonough, in reference to toxic byproducts in the textile

manufacturing process that were avoided in the manufacture of his line of textile from DesignTex,

Inc.

108
AN OVERVIEW OF WORLDWIDE DEVELOPMENT

ACTIVITY IN BUILDING-INTEGRATED PHOTOVOLTAICS

Steven Strong

Solar Design Associates

Harvard, MA 01451

109

The Dawning of Solar Electric Architecture

The last two decades have brought significant changes to the design profession. In the wake of

traumatic escalations in energy prices, shortages, embargoes and war along with heightened concerns over pollution, environmental degradation and resource depletion, awareness of the

environmental impact of our work as design professionals has dramatically increased.

In the process, the shortcomings of yesterday's buildings have also become increasingly clear:

Inefficient electrical and climate conditioning systems squander great amounts of energy.

Combustion of fossil fuels on-site and at power plants add greenhouse gasses, acid rain and other

pollutants to the environment. Inside, many building materials, furnishings and finishes give off

toxic by-products contributing to indoor air pollution. Poorly designed lighting and ventilation

systems can induce headaches and fatigue.

Architects with vision have come to understand it is no longer the goal of good design to simply

create a building that's aesthetically pleasing - buildings of the future must be environmentally

responsive as well. They have responded by specifying increased levels of thermal insulation,

healthier interiors, higher-efficiency lighting, better glazings and HVAC equipment, air-to-air heat

exchangers and heat-recovery ventilation systems. Significant advances have been made and this

progress is a very important first step in the right direction.

However it is not enough. For the developed countries to continue to enjoy the comforts of the late twentieth century and for the developing world to ever hope to attain them, sustainability must

become the cornerstone of our design philosophy. Rather then merely using less non-renewable

fuels and creating less pollution, we must come to design sustainable buildings that rely on

renewable resources to produce some or all of their own energy and create no pollution.

One of the most promising renewable energy technologies is photovoltaics. Photovoltaics (PV) is a truly elegant means of producing electricity on site, directly from the sun, without concern for

energy supply or environmental harm. These solid-state devices simply make electricity out of

sunlight, silently with no maintenance, no pollution and no depletion of materials. Photovoltaics

are also exceedingly versatile - the same technology that can pump water, grind grain and provide

communications and village electrification in the developing world can produce electricity for the

buildings and distribution grids of the industrialized countries.

There is a growing consensus that distributed photovoltaic systems which provide electricity at the

point of use will be the first to reach widespread commercialization. Chief among these distributed

applications are PV power systems for individual buildings.

Interest in the building integration of photovoltaics, where the PV elements actually become an

integral part of the building, often serving as the exterior weathering skin, is growing world-wide.

PV specialists from some 15 countries are working within the International Energy Agency's Task

16 on a 5-year effort to optimize these systems and architects in Europe, Japan and the US are now

beginning to explore innovative ways of incorporating solar electricity into their building designs.

A world overview of building-integrated PV activity follows with a country-by-country description

of component and systems development along with selected examples of Solar Electric

Architecture. View these early PV-powered buildings as a first glimpse into the coming new era of

energy-producing buildings where this elegant, life-affirming technology will become an integral

part of the built environment,

Steven Strong, Solar Design Associates

Harvard, MA, September 1995

111
Japan

Interest in building-integrated PV has been growing steadily in Japan over the past decade and the

government has funded a number of R&D contracts which address this area. For example, Sanyo has

developed and prototyped two types of a-Si PV roof modules for residential roof integration. Both are direct-mounted on a sloped roof surface over the roof deck. The first was a curved tile similar to the

traditional Japanese ceramic roof tiles. This curved tile measured 305 mm square, was quite elegant and

blended well with the traditional Japanese roof tile system but, with an output of only 2.7 Wp per tile,

was very expensive to produce and install.

The second Sanyo effort introduced a larger-area, fiat-panel shingle measuring approximately 1. .54 m with an active area of approximately .5 sq. m. It did not

integrate as well with the traditional Japanese architectural style

but the results were pleasing and it was far more cost effective to produce and install. The concept is very similar to the

rectangular roof shingle developed in the US using single-crystal

cells in the early 1980's by General Electric.

1 mby

Fig. 1. Sanyo PV shingles under test

A-Si technology appears to be a better choice for direct-mounted

roof applications when compared to thick-crystal technologies

because it is far less sensitive to the higher operating cell temperatures resulting from reduced module cooling. The first generation of the Sanyo PV roof shingle is shown in Figure 1. The traditional roofing material in Japan has been tile. However,

an asphalt-based roof shingle similar to that produced in the US is now being used increasingly on new

residences because of cost. Sanyo has recently revised their flat-panel shingle, changing its scale to better integrate with these new conventional roofing materials. The latest version, shown in Figure 2, is approximately 90 cm wide by 35 cm high with an exposed area of about 1 5 cm high.

Fig. 2. Latest Sanyo glass a-Si PV Shingle

The module is a-Si on a glass superstrate and small

plug-in connectors are employed to facilitate

module-to-module interconnection. Installation is direct-mount over the structural roof deck. A test house employing this new Sanyo roof shingle has

been completed at the Japanese PV test site at Rokko Island operated by Kansai Electric. This

house is shown in Figure 3.

Sanyo is also working on a-Si-on-glass modules for commercial curtain

wall applications. Their vertical facade PV element is a semi-transparent a-Si glass panel

with uniformly-spaced, laser-cut microscopic holes, using a process developed at Sanyo in 1986. This

technology, which generates electricity while allowing 30% light transmission, is well suited for auto

windows and sunroofs as well as residential windows and commercial curtain wall construction. The

integration of the semi-transparent a-Si PV into a conventional building curtain wall reduces glare from

direct sun while also reducing the building's cooling demand from unwanted solar gain. Companion

opaque (full power) a-Si panels could be installed on the non-view surfaces of the building.

112
Module construction employs: glass cover, EVA, glass, a- Si thin film with microscopic holes, EVA and a clear

plastic back sheet. Prototype modules measure 1.22 m

by .370 m by 9 mm thick and weigh 6.4 kg. All modules

are custom order. In addition to commercial curtain wall

view panels, many other varied applications such as individual skylight units, sloped glazing systems and

residential window units are possible with this versatile

product.

Fig. 3. Kansai Electric's PV demo house

Following the classic Japanese model for market entry,

Sanyo began marketing this transparent a-Si technology to automotive companies first for see-through

PV sunroofs which are a high-value-added product, while working to develop a market for building

integrated power products which is potentially a very large market when unit costs are lowered. Sanyo

is the largest Japanese PV manufacturer, reportedly producing 6.5 MWp in 1992.

Fig. 4. Sanyo a-Si PV facade

Recently, Sanyo has fielded several prototype installations of its a-Si

curtain wall modules in commercial buildings including their own office

building and a building for Hokuriku Electric Power Company. A

building for the Tsukasa Electric Industry Company, shown in Figure 4,

features a full south facade of Sanyo a-Si PV with opaque modules used

in the non-view areas and see-through modules used as view glass.

Other Japanese companies are gearing up for the domestic market for

distributed PV systems in Japan. Misawa has built a demonstration called

the Eco Energy House which is shown in Figure 5. The home features a PV roof employing custom glass-superstrate polycrystalline PV modules

from Solarex and an innovative framework of extrusions which provide

physical clamping and a weather seal to create an integral PV roof over a sloped residential roof deck.

The Japanese government subsequently sponsored another

effort for "The development of a (low-cost) roof-mounted

PV array for existing Japanese residences". The prime

contractor for this effort is Kandenko Co., Ltd. The

program involved an assessment of existing Japanese

housing stock and resulted in the development of a new

large-area, single- and poly-crystal PV module 1.3 m by

.650 m and a stand-off mounting system to install the

arrays above the existing roof. The results are quite

similar to the 30 residential systems fielded in the US by

Solar Design Associates in 1985 for New England Electric

in Gardner, Massachusetts..

The Japanese government is also funding participation in

the lEA Task 16, Photovoltaics in Buildings. In addition to representatives from the Japanese MITI, the

Government Research Institute and Project Sunshine, PV professionals from Sanyo, Kandenko and the

113
Central Research Institute of Electric Power (Japan's EPRI) are representing Japan in this multi-country

development effort.

In 1993, the Japanese government invested 206 million yen

in component development, 45 million yen in standards and

1,224 million yen on PV demonstrations. Another area of

interest has been the development of combined PV/thermal

systems for buildings in Japan. Figure 6 shows a prototype

combined PV/T system developed for residential

applications. This system employs hybrid collectors using

polycrystaUine PV cells backed by a thermal absorber to produce 3.2 kWp of electricity and 25 kW of thermal energy.

At their Rokko Island test site, the Japanese have some 500

kWp of small, distributed PV systems under test. Most of these systems are 2 kWp. Some are mounted

on test houses as shown in Figure 7, while others are ground-mounted and all are connected to the same

distribution feeder through a complex of switchgear that allows simulation of any possible combination

of events. When representatives of Solar Design Associates visited Rokko Island, Mr. Kitamura, the

Program Manager, stated that:

• Distributed PV systems are safe and reliable and will be encouraged in Japan

• The issues surrounding "islanding" and power quality have all been technically resolved

• All utilities must follow the same national uniform interconnection standards

• All utilities must provide Net Metering, two-way power flow connections to small power producers

• Utilities are 'encouraged' to offer a 10% premium for renewables for the good of the country

These statements were later confirmed and elaborated on in various presentations at the 7th PVSEC

held in Nagoya in November, 1993 in a special session entitled: "PV Residences Now Ready". The

Japanese have concluded that distributed PV systems on buildings are the most attractive way to field

photovoltaics and appear ready to dive into this market

and make it happen to the direct benefit of their country

and their PV manufacturers and the indirect benefit of

the rest of the world.

To get things started, the Japanese Ministry of

International Trade and Industry (MITI) announced a domestic program, in January 1994, to subsidize

distributed, utility-interactive PV systems for

residential roof-top applications. The subsidy, of up to 2.7 million yen (~US$27,000), is meant to cover only

up to 1/2 of the price of the PV systems up to 3 kWp per

house.

At least 700 residential installations are planned for

1994, the first year of the program; 1,500 in 1995, 2,000 in 1996 and so on, building toward a total of

62,000 and 185 MWp over seven years. The 1/2 subsidy will remain for the first three years of the

program and then step down to zero after seven years. The subsidy is proposed to be paid to the PV

system supplier, not the homeowner.

114
Germany

In the aftermath of the disastrous nuclear plant meltdown at Chernobyl, the "Green political revolution"

gained a strong following momentum all across Europe as environmental consciousness grew. The

German government has lead the way in the acceleration of its renewable programs, allocating about

300 milhon DM in FY 1993. Out of this, 100 million was set aside for PV.

With the implementation of the "1,000 Roofs" program,

the German government assumed a leadership role in

supporting distributed PV systems for buildings in

Europe. In this program, grid-connected PV systems

sized at 1-5 kWp are fielded on residential roof tops with

up to 70% cost-sharing from the German government.

Figure 8 shows a typical PV installation under the 1,000

Roofs Program. This residence in Helmstedt received a 4 kWp array of 80 standard (frameless) Siemens M-50

modules integrated into the roof using off-the-shelf

aluminum profiles from the German facade company

Schiico, replacing the traditional red-clay tile roof. Shortly after the program was started in the fall of

1990, it was expanded to include some 2,500 roof-top installations. By the spring 1994, over 4 MWp of

roof-top PV systems had been installed on 1- and 2-family homes across Germany.

In 1993, the headquarters of the Bavarian Environment Ministry received a building-integrated facade

of amorphous silicon modules and sun-controlling "eyebrows" over the south-facing windows using

mono-crystalline PV modules. This installation, shown in

Figure 9, was engineered and supplied by Deutsche Aerospace,

(now a partner with RWE in the new German PV joint venture

ASE), and provide a total of 53.4 kWp of capacity.

Germany's strong commitment to distributed PV systems for

buildings has spurred considerable activity in the development

of PV modules specifically for building-integrated applications

Phototronics Solartechnik (PST) of Putzbrunn (near Munich

and also now a part of ASE) is developing an a-Si commercial

curtainwall module approximately 1 m by .6 m with 6%

efficiency. These modules were used on the PV facade at the

Bavarian Environment Ministry.

The PST line includes custom-made modules on thin glass

superstrates of 1mm to 3mm thick and 1 m by .6m in size.

Larger modules can be made up of multiple a-Si panels on a

larger sheet of face glass. The maximum output claimed is 60

Watts / sq. m. Both opaque and semi-transparent panels are available. Power reduction for semitransparent panels is said to be only 15%.

Fig. 8. PV residence in '1000 Roofs Program'

115
This product is designed for vertical facades of commercial and residential buildings. Four basic

product approaches are offered for vertical building facades: opaque PV panels for "cold" facades,

opaque PV panels backed by thermal insulation, semi-transparent PV panels for view windows within an insulated glass sandwich and a hybrid combined PV/thermal panel incorporating semi-transparent

PV panels for view windows within an insulated glass sandwich with warm-air heat recovery. All

orders are custom. A roofing tile is also available which fits into standard tile roof systems with an a-Si

I

1 glass module top surface measuring .6m by 1.0m.

Telefunken System Technik (TST) and Nukem (both now part of

ASE) have each developed large-area, glass-on-glass, frameless

modules using thick-crystal cells for vertical wall and sloped roof

integrated applications. Nukem, which is wholly-owned by the

German electric utility RWE, offers a full line of PV modules

including special custom large-area frameless modules.

Modules are available with either CZ or polycrystalline cells in sizes

up to 1.5 m by 2.5 m at up to 360 Wp. Module construction is glass-on-glass lamination with a poured and cast methyl

methacrylate resin as the cell encapsulation and lamination

adhesive. Large-area module voltage and current parameters can be

configured to suit project requirements. ASE also recently acquired

the assets of Mobil Solar Energy Corporation in the US and will be

marketing an unframed version of Mobil's large-area 300 Wp

module to the building-integrated market.

Flachglas Solartechnik (Flagsol) in Koln, a subsidiary of Flachglas, a major producer of architectural

glass in Europe, has embarked on an ambitious development program for both thick-crystal and thinfilm commercial curtain wall applications and is looking at semi-transparent thin-film curtain wall

modules similar to those produced by Sanyo in Japan. Flachglas sees PV as a means to add additional

value to their glass products.

In May 1991, Flachglas installed a prototype 4.2 kWp, 50m^

array in the south facade of the administration building of

the Stadtwerke Aachen AG (STAWAG), a local municipal

utility in Aachen, Germany. The facade, shown in Figure

10, employs 10 x 10 cm polycrystaUine cells laminated

between two sheets of 4mm glass backed by an air space and

two more panes of glass (3mm and 4mm).

Four different size panels were specified by the architect to provide balanced daylighting for the stair hall while creating a pleasing design pattern. The interior of the STAWAG PV

facade is shown in Figure 1 1 . The system is utilityinteractive. Flachglas provides complete system design and

integration as desired by the client and recently received a contract for design and construction of a 300 kWp utilityinteractive PV roof to be installed at the Science Park Gelsenkirchen near the Essen, Germany. This

116
system will cover some 2, 130m making it the largest building-integrated PV system in Europe.

Other German companies have also developed

innovative approaches to building integration. The

commercial building shown in Figure 12 features a facade of "structural glazing" elements which

incorporate PV modules and operable view glass in a prefabricated assembly. Close design collaboration

between the architect, (Planerwerkstatt Holken and

Berghoff of Vorstetten), the PV system engineers,

(Solare Systemtechnik of Freiburg) and the

construction contractor, (Greschbach of Karlsruhe),

allowed the entire building facade to be installed in

half a day. The combined capacity of the PV facade

and the roof-top array is 18.5 kWp. The building was

completed in 1993.

Fig. 12. Structural PV Glazing in Freiburg

The Institut fiir Solare Energieversorgungstechnik (ISET) in Kassel is also developing and refining

methods of mechanical and electrical integration of PV elements into commercial building facades as well as working on other 'balance-of-system' issues for building-integrated PV including small,

modular, DC-to-DC maximum-power-point tracking devices and DC-to-AC power converters.

The Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems in Freiburg has active research efforts underway in a number of areas related to PV-in-buildings and

has recently completed the design and

construction of an energy autonomous house in

Freiburg which incorporates PV, active solar

thermal, passive solar gain, super insulation and a hydrogen system consisting of an electrolyzer,

storage and a fuel cell. This house is shown in

Figure 13.

Under the leadership of Dr. Jiirgen Schmid, who

realized very early on the many benefits of PVin-Buildings, Germany took the lead in

establishing the lEA Task 16, Photovoltaics in

Buildings and is the operating agent. In addition

to representatives from the Government's Federal

Energy Office, PV professionals from several government-funded research institutes, universities and

PV companies are representing Germany in this multi-country development effort.

The immediate future for building-integrated PV in Germany will certainly be affected by the current

budget strain on all branches of government due to the enormous costs of the re-unification of east and

west Germany. PV is said to still be an important priority but things like housing, schools, etc. are first

in line. Program managers say the best they are hoping for is level funding but some budget reductions

seem certain in the near term as the country struggles to accommodate the fiscal burden of re- unification.

117
Switzerland

Political fallout from the nuclear disaster at Chernobyl has also had a very significant impact on Swiss

policy making. The Swiss declared a 10-year moratorium on new nuclear plant construction in mid1990 and, shortly thereafter, announced a dramatic increase in support for photovoltaics and other

renewable energy sources with the pledge to field 50 MWp of PV by the year 2000.

Fig. 14. Integrated PV facade by

Schweizer at the Swiss Demo Site

Large areas of flat, open land are not common in Switzerland and,

accordingly, activity in photovoltaics for buildings has increased

significantly. A substantial amount of funding (6,100,000 SF) has

been allocated by the Swiss Federal Energy Office to support the

development of building-integrated PV, including component and

systems development, systems integration issues, utility interface,

demonstration projects, and education / information dissemination.

As a part of the Swiss Federal PV in buildings program, the Solar

Energy Laboratory at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology

(EPFL) in Lausanne has recently dedicated a demonstration site for

the testing and evaluation of building-integrated PV systems. At

present, some twelve demonstration pavilions are complete,

presenting different approaches to roof and facade construction.

Figure 14 shows an innovative integration of PV into a commercial

building facade on display at the 'Demo Site'. The system,

developed by the Swiss firm of Ernst Schweizer in Hedingen,

places the PV elements at 20° to the vertical, creating a suncontrolling overhang for the floor below.

Sponsors of the Demo Site envision it as an "international center

for the architectural integration of PV" in support of the lEA Task 16. A sort of 'shopping market'

where architects, engineers and building owners can go to see a variety of working building-integrated

PV systems on display. Sites for additional systems are still available and manufacturers the world over

are invited to participate.

In addition to the Demo Site, the EPFL has a number of innovative installations of PV on their

campus. Figure 15 shows the integration of PV

elements into daylighting roof monitors on the

EPFL Administration Building. The PV modules

are fabricated with a clear back skin and a slight

spacing between the cells to allow in a gentle

pattern of direct sunlight while the primary

daylighting comes from the north-facing

clerestories.

Engineers at the EPFL's Laboratoire d' Energie

Solaire (LESO) have designed other PV systems

118
for new and existing buildings on the campus including PV elements used as sun shades, retrofits of

existing roof monitors, a novel flat roof system and a facade retrofit. A privately funded program started before the German "1,000 roofs" program was instituted to install a megawatt of capacity in distributed roof-top PV systems. Using specially-arranged private, long-term

financing with low interest rates and volume purchases, 333 grid-connected PV systems, each rated at 3kWp, have been constructed by the Zurich company Alpha Real.

Alpha Real is also developing a novel PV roof tile system in collaboration with Plaston LTD. (Widnau)

with funding from the Swiss Federal government.

These tiles have an active area of about .25 sq. m

and employ 24 10 x 10 cm silicon cells to produce approximately 30 Wp each.

Quick-connect, plug-in connectors are employed.

The tile design is very clever in that they

integrate directly into the system of conventional

tiles as shown in Figure 16 and are thus

appropriate for both retrofit as well as new

construction. Several prototype residential

installations have been fielded.

With well over 90% of the sloped roofs in Switzerland and most of the rest of central Europe

constructed with clay tile, the potential market for new and retrofit installations of PV roof tiles is very

large across Europe and in other countries such as Japan where clay tiles are also the traditional roofing.

The Swiss government has embarked upon an ambitious nation-wide educational program on

photovoltaics. The program goal is to inform the Swiss people of the virtues and benefits of solar

electricity. The program includes public information (including the Swiss DemoSite) and technical

seminars and workshops for electricians, roofing craftsman, architects and building engineers. In an

effort to reach all segments of the population, PV systems have been fielded on Swiss school buildings

as a way to acquaint the next generation with photovoltaics.

Fig. 16. Plaston's PV roof tile replaces clay tiles

Fig. 17. PV roof and facade integration at Fenster AG

17 shows a new industrial plant and office building

Solution AG fur Solartechnik (Harkingen) has

developed a line of large-area, glass-superstrate PV

modules custom made to project specifications

which employ either single-crystal or polycrystal

silicon cells. Modules can be made up to 1.7 m

long by 1.3 m wide. Combined PV / thermal

hybrid designs have also been produced using air to scavenge heat from the back of the modules and

deliver it to storage or a load.

Working in collaboration with Atlantis-Energie AG

(Berne), Solution has fielded several demonstration

projects with building-integrated PV arrays. Figure

in Arisdorf (CH) completed in 1991 for window

119
I I ill <l'i liii

':'!!>

i||

i« nil "il

Fig. 18. Swiss PV facade at Scheidegger Metallbau

manufacturer Aerni Fenster, AG where Solution

installed a 62 kWp grid-tied system. 9 kWp of

modules were integrated into the office building's

facade and 53 kWp of modules were integrated

into the roof of the production facility on the south

side of north-facing daylighting clerestories.

Another significant project realized by Solution

and Atlantis is the new office and manufacturing

building for Scheidegger Metallbau in Kirchberg,

shown in Figure 18. Completed in 1992, the

south-facing facade of the building incorporates a

multifunctional PV system employing PV elements

for sun shading and facade cladding with reflector

augmentation in the spandrel areas, while

scavenging thermal energy from the center section

to temper the stairhall. The system peak output is 18kWp.

The Swiss government is also heavily involved in

the IEA Task 16, Photovoltaics in Buildings. In addition to representatives from the Government's Federal Energy Office, PV professionals from

several government funded research institutes, universities and PV companies are representing

Switzerland in this multi-country development effort.

The immediate future for buildingintegrated PV in Switzerland looks very

promising. With generous government

incentives to underwrite the cost of

introducing a new technology, Swiss

architects and engineers have responded

with very innovative concepts in the

design of building-integrated PV

They have also fielded some innovative

systems integrated with other "built

forms" such as the system shown in

Figure 19 which is integrated with the

sound barrier along highway N13 south of Chur. Other PV systems have been fielded along rights of

way of the Swiss railroads which are, of course, electric.

A number of Swiss companies have begun to produce custom PV modules to meet special design

requirements with some even producing custom triangular modules to architect's specifications. In

addition, the country has instituted net metering and uniform interconnection policies on a national basis

which, in itself, represents a major national commitment to PV since Switzerland has over one thousand

individual electric utility companies.

120
The Netherlands

Interest in PV and distributed systems for buildings has also grown in the Netherlands just as it has

across the rest of Europe. Recent R&D activities have concentrated on improvements in the

development of PV building elements and improved power conditioning. Government funds have been

appropriated for a pilot program of grid-connected, distributed PV systems with building-integrated PV

arrays. In the next 4 years, some 1,000 homes

will be built with roof-integrated PV systems.

In this effort, the Dutch will study the influences

of PV on architecture, town planning, home

financing and ownership.

Figure 20 shows a 10-unit multi-family housing

development in Heerhugowaard, a town 50 km

north of Amsterdam, where a roof-integrated 25

kWp utility-interactive PV system was installed

as a demonstration of building-integrated PV

applications.

Financed largely by the Dutch regional utility PEN with additional support from the Netherlands Office

of Energy and Environment, (NOVEM), the PV system uses standard polycrystalline PV modules from

R&S (Netherlands), integrally mounted with off-the-shelf aluminum profiles adapted from a greenhouse

glazing system. Each individual unit has its own 3 kW power inverter.

The Dutch PV program has provided funding for the development of building integration techniques for

both residential and commercial buildings. In addition to the multi-family housing demonstrations, a number of detached, single-family homes have received roof-integrated PV systems such as the home

shown in Figure 2 1 in Lekkerkerk which features an integral 3kWp array of glass-superstrate crystalline

silicon PV roof tiles from Switzerland.

A PV-powered, energy autonomous

demonstration house was constructed in

Woubrugge, a small village between Amsterdam

and Rotterdam. The PV array incorporates

standard (unframed) polycrystalline modules in a

roof-integrated mount using aluminum profiles

similar to those employed in the Heerhugowaard

project. Space and domestic water heating are provided by solar thermal collectors. As would

be expected, the house is heavily insulated and

employs high-efficiency glazings and appliances.

The Dutch have also explored other methods of integrating PV into their lives, including the use of PV

on-board the hundreds of house boats that line the canals in and around Amsterdam as well as on cargo

barges so important for the shipment of goods. Figure 22 shows a "roof-top" PV system atop the

wheelhouse of a Dutch canal barge. The PV system provides power for lights and communications

equipment allowing the Captain to shut down the ship's diesel when the vessel is not underway.

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Similar PV systems on the roofs of Dutch

houseboats allow boat owners to live

independent of the utility mains without

operating an on-board generator. Nearly all PV systems on watercraft are installed flat because of variable orientation. The first of

these systems were fielded by ECOFYS

(Utrecht) as demonstrations. Now that they

have been shown to be reliable and costeffective, boat owners are installing these

systems themselves. As might be expected,

the Dutch government has long ago instituted a program to power the thousands of aids to water navigation with PV.

In the interest to further integrated PV solutions that utilize existing aperture area and available

structural elements, the Dutch have also developed PV for highway soundbarriers. Figure 23 (below

left) shows a prototype section of a pre-cast concrete soundbarrier element with integrated PV The

Dutch government will complete the first 80 kWp demonstration in 1994. Also being considered are the rights-of-ways along the Dutch railroads, where a recent assessment has shown that PV placed in the

available area would provide enough capacity to completely power the rail system.

The Dutch government has announced plans for a large-scale PV-in-buildings project on 100 units of

new housing to be constructed in Nieuw Sloten, a new city district of Amsterdam. The project is being

funded by the Energy Company of Amsterdam (the electric utility), as part of its Environmental Action

Plan, in cooperation with NOVEM and EU-Thermie. Plans call for PV to be installed on some 70

buildings using roof integration and facade integration techniques, resulting in a total capacity of 250 kWp. Other future plans call for up to 600 kWp of roof-top

PV to power a new, large-scale housing development in

Amersfoort with construction scheduled to start in

1995.

The Netherlands is actively involved in the lEA

Task 1 6 program with participation by NOVEM and

ECOFYS. The Dutch coordinated the first worldwide design competition on PV-in-buildings

sponsored by TEA Task 1 6 and Novem. The

competition was open to A&E professionals as well as students. 100 entries from all around the world were received and awards were presented at the 12th EC PV

conference in Amsterdam in April, 1994. A book of the most creative

designs has been published and is available from NOVEM.

The prospects for advancement of building-integrated PV in the Netherlands look very promising.

Budgets and research activity are increasing and significant demonstrations are planned over the next

few years. The Dutch see PV as a significant part of their 20-year National Environmental Pohcy Plan

and, if the Dutch program goal of fielding 250 MWp of PV by the year 2010 is to be achieved, there

will surely be thousands of PV-powered buildings.

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Austria

Interest in distributed PV applications has increased in recent years in Austria along with the rest of

Europe. The Austrian government has announced a comprehensive plan to reduce CO2 emissions and

PV is seen as an important part of this effort. Over the past ten years, Austria has fielded a number of

stand-alone and grid-connected PV systems totaling some 800 kWp including a 30kWp utilityinteractive system at Mount Loser, high in the Alps and a 40 kWp U.I. system along the Al motorway.

In May 1992, the Austrian government announced a distributed roof-top PV demonstration program

modeled after the German "1,000 roofs" effort. This program will initially include some 200 kWp of

PV systems financed with support from the government and the electric utilities. In addition, several

local district authorities have offered additional funding of up to 50% of the systems cost. A good example of the Austrian roof-top PV program can be seen in the energy-efficient, private,

single-family residence constructed in 1992 in Gleisdorf, a small town in southern Austria. The house

was designed as a 'low-energy' house and, as such, incorporates solar thermal collectors for domestic

water heating, extra-heavy insulation, high-quality glazings, passive solar gain and state-of-the-art highefficiency appliances. The home's detached garage, shown in Figure 24, incorporates a 2 kWp roofintegrated PV array employing frameless Siemens laminates. The array has provisions for free air flow

behind the modules to provide back-surface cooling.

In 1993 another 'low-energy' house was completed near Vienna. With support from the local electric

utility, Wiener Stadtwerke Wienstrom, and the Austrian Roof-top PV Program, a 3 kWp PV system was

installed with approximately one half the capacity mounted on the roof and the remainder integrated

into the south facing facade. The house also incorporates solar thermal collectors for domestic water

heating. The utility is monitoring the output of the energy systems to determine the amount of possible

reduction in CO2 from large-scale use of

PV and solar thermal systems.

Within the first five months of the

Austrian roof-top PV program, over 1 60

kWp of systems were committed with

significant cost-sharing from the

homeowners. Many of these systems are building integrated. Nearly all of the

systems under the first 200 kWp roof-top

program are presently complete and in

operation, and discussions are now

underway to expand the program by

another 100 kWp.

As in most of Europe, tile is the traditional material for sloped roofing in Austria. In an effort to make

residential PV arrays compatible with the majority of exisfing roofs, a flat-glass roof tile using singlecrystal technology has been prototyped in Villach, Austria by a private group headed by a Dr. Kroner.

The tiles are a glass-on-glass laminate with silicon gel used as the encapsulant. Each tile measures

approximately 12" wide by 9" high in active area and incorporates twelve 3 inch square cells to deliver

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Fig. 25. Austrian PV Roof Ti

about 12 Wp. A prototype residential roof system, shown

as Figure 25, was successfully fielded in Gleisdorf and the

group is now looking for development capital.

With much of Austria alpine, efforts have been made to

utilize other available sites for PV in addition to buildings.

In 1992, the Austrian electric utility Oberosterreichische

Kraftwerke AG, (OKA) completed a 40 kWp PV system

atop the existing soundbarriers along the southern

motorway Al near Salzburg.

The system, shown in Figure 26, incorporates standard

Siemens modules preassembled into subarrays and lifted

into place with a light crane reducing field labor. An

advanced IGBT pulse-width-modulated inverter feeds

system output directly into the OKA distribution feeder.

OICA fielded the first utility-interactive

PV system in Austria in 1988 and has

since taken a lead role in the promotion

of PV in Austria for both stand-alone and

grid-tied applications. The utility is studying the potential benefits provided

by the PV system they installed along the

motorway for line support as it is located near the end of their distribution line.

Austria has also initiated work in PV

facade integration in commercial

buildings with the recent construction of the 13 kWp system on an office building in Innsbruck shown

in Figure 27. The building was an existing structure which was scheduled for extensive renovation.

During the reconstruction process, the idea was proposed to incorporate a PV array on the south facade

as a sun screen to limit unwanted sun-driven summer cooling loads from direct solar gain through the

glazing.

The grid-connected system employs large- area single-crystal PV modules

manufactured by DASA in Germany (now

ASE). The system's output is estimated at 10,370 kWh per year and will be

monitored as part of the programme of the

Austrian Utilities Association (TIWAG).

Austria supports lEA Task 16 effort with

representation from the Technical

University at Wien and OKA

participating.

124
United States

Photovoltaics was bom in the US with the invention of the silicon solar cell at Bell Labs in the early

1950's. With the first world oil shock in 1973, interest blossomed in terrestrial applications of PV and, a conference was held at Cherry Hill, NJ where experts in all aspects of PV convened to plan the best

strategy for the development of the PV industry. As a result of the Cherry Hill meeting, the United

States embarked on a comprehensive, multi-level program of research, development and demonstration

of PV for large-scale terrestrial power use.

Many major corporations including US industrial giants such as Atlantic Richfield, Exxon, Texaco,

Shell, General Electric, Westinghouse, Boeing, and Martin Marietta, jumped in, investing hundreds of

millions of dollars in PV research and development and the race was on! With its considerable

resources, focused program and federal government leadership, the US quickly became the

acknowledged world leader in the development of PV. After just five years, costs had been reduced

dramatically and efficiencies had improved significantly.

In the late 1970s, a well-planned program

of development of distributed PV was

established by the US Department of

Energy (DOE) at MIT which included the

design and demonstration of many

different approaches to building

integration. A number of hardware and

building designs were commissioned and

three demonstration sites were established

across the country where prototype

building-integrated PV systems were

fielded for evaluation under different climate conditions. The DOE's Southwest Residential

Experiment Station (SWRES) constructed at New Mexico State University in Las Cruces, NM to test PV systems in the hot, dry, desert climate is shown in Figure 28.

Working under contract to the US DOE, Solar Design Associates developed the first building-integrated

PV system employing large-area .9m x 1.8m PV modules and, in 1979, constructed prototype

residential roofs for testing and evaluation

at the DOE-sponsored residential

experiment stations. Based on the results

at the residential experiment stations, the

US DOE and MIT commissioned Solar

Design Associates to design the energyefficient, passive solar residence powered

by photovoltaics, shown in Figure 29.

The 'Carlisle House', as it became known,

was constructed in 1980 in Carhsle, MA

with participation from MIT and the US

DOE. The residence features passive

125
solar heating and cooling, super-insulation, internal thermal mass, earth-sheltering, daylighting, a roofintegrated solar thermal system and a 7.5 kWp PV array of polycrystalline modules from Solarex. The

home is heated and cooled by a high-efficiency, dual-compressor heat pump system, needs no fossil fuel

and shares its surplus power with the utility via a net metering connection. This first residence ever to be powered by a utility-interactive PV system received world-wide attention.

In 1982, Solarex Corporation made a most significant commitment to PV-inBuildings by powering their new

manufacturing plant with their own solar

modules. The facility, located in

Frederick, MD, was designed specifically

to receive a 200 kWp array as the entire

south roof. A large bank of storage

batteries provides a UPS capability for

critical plant systems. The 'Solarex

Breeder', as the plant became known,

was the vision of Solarex founder Joseph

Lindemeyer and is shown in Figure 30.

In 1983, the Boston Edison Company commissioned Solar Design Associates to design the Impact 2000

residence as a demonstration of future trends in energy technology and design that would be

commonplace early in the next century. The house, shown in Figure 3 1 , features passive solar heating

and cooling, super-insulation, internal thermal mass, earth-sheltering, daylighting, a roof-integrated

solar thermal system and a 4.5 kWp PV array of large-area modules, each 2.5m^, integrated as the

finished weathering skin of the roof. Heating and cooling are supplied by a high-efficiency, groundcoupled heat pump system and no fossil fuel is required on site. Like the Carlisle house before

it, this house shares its surplus electricity with the

Boston Edison grid via a net metering

connection. The building of the house was the

subject of a national TV series on energyefficient construction.

In 1984, a significant commercial-scale buildingintegrated PV system was completed at Georgetown University in Washington D.C. The

project, sponsored by the US DOE, integrated a 300 kWp PV array of Solarex polycrystalline

modules into the stepped south roof of the new Intercultural Center. The project architect worked

closely with the PV system engineers to design the building specifically to receive the PV array. The

electricity generated serves the building's loads and the surplus is used to support the campus utility

grid. The Georgetown Intercultural Center is shown in Figure 32.

In 1985, Solar Design Associates fielded 100 kWp of distributed, roof-top PV systems in a demonstration sponsored by the New England Electric System which includes the world's first PVpowered neighborhood, in the central Massachusetts town of Gardner. Following the NEES pioneering

126
example, far-sighted utilities, such as the Sacramento

Municipal Utility District (SMUD) in California, are now beginning to install distributed PV systems on

buildings to support their grid, helping to meet their peak

demand while reducing dependence on traditional sources of power and improving the environment.

According to SMUD board Chairman Edward Smeloff,

their multi-year program will field some 850 kWp of

distributed PV systems in 1993 with 1 MWp in 1994 and

another 1 MWp in 1995. Southern California Edison has

also recently announced plans for a distributed, roof-top

PV program and other utilities such as Niagara Mohawk

(NY), Delmarva Power and Light (DE), the New York

Power Authority and the City of Austin (TX) Electric are also fielding PV-powered buildings.

In 1992, Advanced Photovoltaics Systems (APS) completed its new manufacturing plans in Fairfield, CA. APS produces a-Si

glass modules measuring .75m by 1.5m in size and asked New

York architect Gregory Kiss to integrate these modules into

their new building. His design incorporates a cubic control

room for the production facility clad with APS modules. The

cube, shown in Figure 33, also has a skylight fitted with both

clear glass and PV modules. The building's front entry canopy

also incorporates PV modules above the curved metal elements.

In June of 1993, the US DOE and the National Renewable

Energy Laboratory (NREL) awarded 5 contracts for a 5-year,

$25M program called: "Building Opportunities in the U.S. for

Photovoltaics" ("PV:BONUS") to encourage development of

building-integrated PV systems. Specific products include a PV

element for architectural curtain walls by Solarex and large-area

integral roofing modules from Energy Conversion Devices.

The US PV program was invited to join the IEA Task 16 development effort in PV systems for

buildings and, in January 1994, the US DOE's Office of Building Technology accepted this invitation.

The potential market for building-integrated PV systems in the US is enormous and many companies

are beginning to work at the development and commercialization of building-integrated PV components

and systems. If consistent government support can be assured, this potential will be realized.

Fig. 34. The US National Renewable Energy Laboratory's new SERF building features a 15 kWp PV system

127
United Kingdom

Until recently, the UK PV industry has concentrated on traditional export markets for remote PV power

systems. In 1990, a review for the UK Department of Energy (now part of the Department of Trade and

Industry or DTI) indicated that the status of PV had moved from a 'long-shot' to a 'medium term'

solution as an energy resource for the UK. This conclusion was based on the decreasing costs of PV

devices and perceived advantages of applying this technology to commercial buildings.

The report concluded that daytime loads of commercial buildings are a good match for PV power

systems and commercial building facades are often clad with expensive materials - such as marble or

stone - which can be replaced by the PV panels in an integrated structure. These factors together with

avoided costs of land and array support structure could make building-integrated PV systems cost

effective in the UK within 10 years for optimum designs.

An initial two years of studies have looked at the potential resource; feasibility of building integration;

grid interconnection guidelines and practical roof integration. A recent white paper (R62) has

formalized PV as a technology requiring R&D support within the Government Renewable Energy

Research, Development, Demonstration and Dissemination Programme. This strategy for PV started in

1994 and builds on the previous studies to assist industry to develop a capability in building-integrated

PV systems and then field demonstration systems. This segment of the PV programme will look at technical and non-technical barriers to market development in the following areas:

• Resource studies

• Cladding and roof integration methodologies

• Technical issues for grid interconnection

• Examples of building integrated PV system types

Many of these topics were examined during the

realization of the UK's first commercial PV

curtain wall facade at the University of

Northumbria at Newcastle. This project, shown in

Figure 35, is a refurbishment of an existing

university building and incorporates 40 kWp of

high-efficiency BP Solar PV laminates into a new

rainscreen overcladding spandrel system which

also provides integrated sun shading on the south

face of the building. The project was realized

under the direction of Professor Robert Hill and

received support from the local regional electricity

company (REC) and other members of the

electricity supply industry in addition to DTI and

EU THERMIE demonstration progranmies.

Although residences are not expected to be the first cost-effective application for building-integrated PV

systems in the UK, there is a growing interest from domestic consumers and there are some projects

completed or under construction which use PV in grid-connected application. Another demonstration

project will incorporate a 10 kWp array into the roof of a visitor center at the Center for Alternative

128
Technology in Wales. Significant attention is being paid to the combination of PV with passive design

principles to optimize daylighting, heating and PV power use.

The UK PV community is discussing options for market stimulation with the UK Government. One

strategy would be to include PV in the legal requirement for RECs to buy Renewable Energy at a premium rate (the Non-Fossil Fuels Obligation - NFFO), The 1989 UK Electricity Act created a special

"non-fossil fuel obligation" (NFFO) requiring the 12 Enghsh and Wales regional electric utilities to produce or purchase a specified portion of their capacity from renewable sources. This has created the

vitally-important "market pull" needed to introduce renewables to the utihty community. The initial goal of 102 MWp was easily reached and the government has set a target of 1,000 MWp by the year

2(XX). This initiative has helped to increase interest and activity in photovoltaics in the UK.

On the technology side, BP Solar International LTD. now has working prototype modules using

cadmium telluride technology with efficiencies approaching the 10% range. BP also has single crystal

modules in the 17% range using high-efficiency, laser-grooved cell processes developed by Martin

Green at the University of New South Wales in Australia. BP has estabhshed a manufacturing plant in

Spain (BP Solar Espana) and plans to look at large area module fabrication of the CZ modules and the use of its CdTe thin film materials in modules developed specifically for building facades. Initially,

modules of .5 m by 1.0 m are planned with CdTe technology and CdTe module selling prices in the area of US$1.00 - 2.00 AVp are forecast by the end of the decade.

The British government has funded a comprehensive evaluation of the potential of building-integrated

PV systems in the UK. The study, conducted by Professor Robert Hill and his colleagues at the

Newcastle PV AppUcations Centre, was initially only to include the south-facing facades but was

expanded to include all building surfaces regardless of orientation and concluded there were 111

Gigawatts of potential generating capacity available from distributed PV systems on buildings. Another

related study now underway is investigating the various types of curtain wall systems for commercial

buildings. It is expected that a follow-on study will pursue the development of specific PV products

designed for building integration.

The British government is also funding participation in the IEA Task 16, Photovoltaics in Buildings. In

additional to UKDOE personnel, PV professionals from BP Solar and IT Power are representing the UK

in this multi-country development effort.

Finland

Activity in Finland relative to distributed PV applications has also increased in recent years along with

the rest of Europe. Finland has recently embarked on a three-year plan which includes the development

of improved load management systems, demonstration of PV / hydrogen systems with hydrogen storage

and the fielding of distributed, grid-connected PV demonstration systems on buildings.

There are over 4(X),(X)0 vacation cottages in Finland and about half of them are located off the grid

where PV systems are an ideal source of power. Today there are some 20,000 summer houses around

Finland powered by small PV systems. A typical system is designed to meet lighting, home electronics,

water pumping and refrigeration needs from April to September.

129
Figure 36 shows a Finnish summer

cottage with a 2.4 kWp roof-top array of

a-Si modules from NAPS France. This

system was installed in 1992 and includes a battery bank and stand-alone 2.5 kW

DC/AC inverter to power lighting,

refrigeration, home electronics and small

appliances, vacuum cleaner, washing

machine and dishwasher. The house is located some 260 km north of Helsinki at 62°N and 26°E.

Since 1991, the Fins have retrofitted 10

residences with PV power systems. Five

are stand-alone and five are grid-connected. R&D programs underway are presently investigating the

development of building-integrated PV systems and engineers from NESTE have fielded two

demonstration projects.

The first, shown in Figure 37, is a demonstration house designed and

constructed by NESTE as an experimental

house incorporating many building

components and materials made of

plastic. The house features see-through a- Si modules as window glass and crystalSi sun shades on the south facade to reduce summer cooling loads. The house

is located 35 km east of Helsinki in

Porvoo, 60°N and 25°E.

The second, shown in Figure 38, is a

private house located in Pietarsaari, Finland 63.5°N and known as the Pietarsaari low energy house.

This residence features a roof-integrated 2.4 kWp PV array of a-Si modules along with a lOm^ array of

solar thermal collectors. The PV array is mounted using novel custom designed

profiles of glass fibre which have nearly

the same expansion coefficient as glass.

The house is a demonstration of energyefficiency and solar design and serves as the Finnish lEA demonstration house. It was completed in 1994.

Finland has also joined the lEA Task 16

effort with representatives from Helsinki

University and the engineering firm

NESTE OY participating.

130
Spain

Spain's interest in distributed PV applications has also increased in recent years along with the rest of

Europe. The potential market for remote PV applications in isolated areas of Spain is considered the

most significant in the European Community.

Spain has already fielded hundreds of stand-alone and grid-connected PV systems totalling well over 5

Megawatts in capacity including a 1 Megawatt central plant under construction at Toledo.

Spain has a number of PV R&D and manufacturing activities underway including the production

facility of BP Solar and ISOFOTON. Spain's recent activity has focused on systems design, utility

interface, demonstration monitoring and

testing. The area of building integration

of PV is beginning to receive research and

development attention.

Spain has joined the IEA Task 16 PV-inBuildings development effort and was the

host of the second meeting of the Experts'

working group held in Madrid at CIEMAT in February 1992.

Figure 39 shows the Spanish Task 16

demonstration house which is a four-plex

incorporating 4 roof-integrated PV arrays

of 2.2 kWp each. The systems are utility

interactive. There are thousands of PV-powered off-grid residences in remote areas of Spain and utilityinteractive PV systems are now starting to be installed on residences with the cooperation and support

of Spanish utilities. Additional building-integrated PV projects are now in the planning stages.

Sweden

In Sweden, as well as in Norway and Finland, PV is often employed to power remote vacation cottages.

There are now over 20,000 such PV powered cottages in Sweden and the market is increasing rapidly

with over 5,000 new installations every year. In addition, several hundred lighthouses along remote

stretches of the Swedish coast are now powered with PV.

Sweden's activity in distributed PV has increased along with that of other European countries. Present

program activities include both stand-alone and grid-connected distributed PV systems. Development

and testing of DC-AC inverters and battery charge control regulators is being undertaken. PV research

and development activities in Sweden are concentrated at the Royal Institute of Technology and the

University of Uppsala for cell research and, Catella Generics AB and Vattenfall Utveckling AB (the

largest utility in Sweden) for systems.

In 1990, a 3.5 kWp grid-connected demonstration was completed on a single residence in Linkoping

131
approximately 200 km south of Stockholm.

A Swedish company called GPV has recently

started manufacturing PV modules. The modules

are of standard construction with a glass top skin

and tedlar back and come in sizes up to lOOWp.

The company has expressed an interest in

participating in the development of PV modules

for direct building integration.

In 1993, the Swedish utility, Stockholm Energi

AB, installed a 10 kWp utility-interactive PV

system on an existing apartment building in

downtown Stockholm. The system, shown in

Figure 40, serves as the IEA Task 16

demonstration building and features three parallel arrays of 3.3kWp each with its own inverter. Sweden

has also joined the lEA Task 16 effort with representatives from the Swedish National Testing Institute

and Catella Generics representing the county's effort.

Italy

Italy's federal funding has increased significantly for

PV in recent years and interest in building-integrated

PV applications is growing in Italy along with the rest of Europe. As a result of growing environmental

concerns and the dependence of Italy on foreign oil, the

government has launched a program to field some 25

Megawatts of PV by 1996. Italy's National Agency for

New Technology Energy and the Environment (ENEA)

will be responsible for research and development and

the National Electrical Board, ENEL will be

responsible for implementation of the demonstration program and construction of the plants.

The Italian PV program includes plans for a number of building-integrated PV demonstrations. One of

the first is a PV parking structure in Rome shown in Figure

41. Others include an innovative 30 kW integrated PV roof

for the Eurosolare factory of Nettuno near Rome shown in

Figure 42 which combines PV with daylighting, a 20 kW

terrace at the German School of Rome and a 4 kW shading

structure at ENEL headquarters in Rome. A second series

of 10 systems is planned for 1995 with cost-sharing from

the Thermie Project. These will include ENEL offices,

training and information centers and parking structures.

Fig. 42. Integrated PV factory roof Mr. Robert Vigotti of ENEL is a very strong proponent of

132
PV and its use in buildings and has considerable influence on the development of the government's

policy to promote the technology. Italy has recently joined TEA Task 16 and appointed an architect

from Rome to represent the country. Italy has also sent a representative from ENEL to participate in

LEA Task 16 meetings as well as in the new lEA PV Task 5.

Canada

Interest in PV has increased in Canada in recent

years even though conventional energy resources

are plentiful and inexpensive. Present activities

within the Canadian R&D program center on improved system design and performance

modeling. Projects underway include further

software development for system optimization

and simulation including modeling of battery storage characteristics. Over a dozen PV systems are being monitored, and codes and standards for PV systems are being developed.

Fig. 44 Stand-alone PV house in Saskatchewan

PV powered buildings are also beginning to be fielded

such as the stand-alone residence in Saskatchewan

shown in Figure 44. The Canadian Department of

Energy, Mines and Resources (CANMET) has installed a 30 kWp array atop their research laboratory near

Montreal. The system, shown in Figure 43, works as a

building peak shaver while providing PV power to support research efforts in power conditioning

development and system simulation modeling.

In Toronto, the Canadian utility Ontario Hydro, in

collaboration with the Canadian Energy Diversification

Research Laboratory (EDRL), has fielded a 75 kWp

roof-top PV system at the McMillian Rehabilitation Center as a demand-side management measure to help shave the hospital's summer air conditioning peak.

Canada has also joined the lEA Task 16 effort. Representatives from the University of Ottawa, PV

systems companies and the government (EDRLCANMET) are representing Canada in Task 16.

Ontario Hydro was influential in the installation of

PV on the "Innova House", a low-energy

demonstration home in Ottawa which is shown in

Figure 45. This system, which features a 2.7 kWp

array, is the first grid-connected PV residence in

Canada and has been selected as an IEA Task 16

demonstration house.

1 133
Norway

Norway has long had a strong market for small distributed residential PV systems with the large number

of vacation cottages located off the power grid. There are presently over 50,000 PV-powered vacation

homes in Norway with over 8,000 new installations completed every year. A substantial part of the energy R&D activities in Norway has been allocated to medium-scale hybrid

power generation plants for isolated communities along the coast. Wind/diesel systems of 50 kW

installed power have been developed and are being commercialized. The integration of PV in such

stand-alone systems is being investigated and development of supervisory control systems for shortterm scheduling of diesel start/stops has received much of the R & D attention in the last 5 years.

A demonstration low energy row-house with 3 apartments has been constructed in Hamar to provide

housing for foreign journalists at the 1994 Winter Olympics. The project, shown in Figure 46,

established a new level

of integrated design

incorporating passive

solar, super insulation,

air-tight construction

with controlled

ventilation, active solar

water heating, highefficiency heat pumps for

backup space and water

heating as well as nontoxic building materials.

The center apartment gets its electricity from a 2.2 kWp / 21m^ roof-integrated, utility-interactive PV

system. The array incorporates standard Siemens modules mounted over a watertight membrane. A

detail of the PV array installation is shown as Figure 47. The project supports Norway's work in IEA

Tasks 13 (Low-energy Buildings) and Task 16 (PV-in-Buildings) and will serve as a model for new

building codes to be introduced in 1995 incorporating very

high energy efficiency standards.

As Norway has introduced a deregulated electricity market

with spot-pricing, utilities are interested in testing

electronic meters with 2-way conmiunication for remote

metering of small and medium size customers. The impact on this market regime from all kinds of local generation by

new renewable energy sources, along with equipment

reliability and power quality issues are subject to increasing

interest by the distribution utilities in Norway.

Interest in distributed, grid-connected applications has increased along with that of other countries in

Europe. As a result, Norway has increased its program involvement in this area and participates in the

lEA Task 16 effort. Representatives from the Norwegian Institute of Technology and SINTEF are representing Norway in Task 16.

134
BEST SUSTAINABLE INDOOR AIR QUALITY

PRACTICES IN COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS

Hal Levin, Research Architect

Hai Levin & Associates

2548 Empire Grade

Santa Cruz, CA 95060-9748

Abstract. This paper describes commercial building indoor air quality practices and then discusses

them in the context of total building environmental performance. "Green buildings" generally have

included some effort to address indoor air quality issues along with an unspecified number of

other environmental concerns. Rarely, if ever, is analysis conducted to evaluate trade-offs made

among environmental features considered important in "green" buildings even though conflicts occur among design features intended to improve a building's environmental performance. One

"green building" feature may reduce certain environmental impacts while increasing others. A

method is needed to examine the total environmental impact of designs. In order to identify best

sustainable indoor air quality practices in commercial buildings, a newly-developed,

comprehensive approach to building ecology is presented. This approach, tentatively titled the

Systematic Evaluation and Assessment of Building Environmental Performance (SEABEP), uses

sustainability criteria as the basis for comprehensive evaluation of the environmental performance

of design features.

Introduction

Many building design professionals are now involved in "green" building design or "sustainable

design" in response to expressed interest or requirements from their clients. Some building design

professionals initiate "environmentally-responsible" design based on their own recognition of the

need for reducing human impacts on the environment - local and global. This appears to be

occurring more frequently in Europe and North America during the past half-decade. In the

future, economic criteria and regulatory mandates are likely to motivate more and more designers'

clients, building owners, and other both public and private organizations to create

"environmentally-responsible" buildings. As this occurs with increasing frequency, designing

buildings with low environmental impacts will become both a necessary and a challenging part of

building design professionals' work. It will also offer new opportunities for developers, product

manufacturers, and others in the building industry.

The trend toward environmental protection is gaining momentum. Public opinion in the United

States (and around the worid) indicates that people are supportive of environmental protection even if they must pay a modest additional economic cost. Innovations in economic analyses are emerging that value environmental resources and quality more highly and modify the outcome of

"bottom line" calculations to favor less environmentally harmful behavior (1). In many cases, as

for example in the production of aluminum and steel building products, recycling already appears

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Table 1 . Common "Green Building" Features

Energy conservation features: insulation, efficient lights and mechanical equipment

Solar energy utilization: passive space heating, cooling; water heating; photovoltaic electricity generation

Water conservation features: low consumption fixtures Incorporation of recycled materials, or materials with large fraction recycled content Low emitting material selection and ventilation for improved indoor air quality

Reduced building construction waste and re-sourcing waste products Less environmentally-destructive site development: run-off control, small footprint, preservation of water courses, natural vegetation and habitats On-site wastewater treatment Reduced or zero use of ozone-depleting compounds in refrigeration and fire suppression systems

Life cycle assessment ("cradle-to-grave") of materials or building systems

Formal (regulatory) environmental impact assessment of the total building project

Recycling provisions (in building design) for occupants

to make both economic and environmental sense. It is clear that the environmentally preferred

solution is also better economically. Social and political forces will bring additional pressure for

more environmentally-sound technological decisions. Regulations will continue to evolve to

protect the environment from technological development including the construction, operation,

use, and disposal of buildings.

"Green Building" Practices

To date, efforts to implement "green" design practices have consisted largely of adoption or

eclectic adaptation of various technologies and solutions to perceived environmental problems.

Normally these solutions have been incorporated to reduce harmful environmental impacts (2).

Collectively, they have come to be known as the elements of a "green" building design. Some

examples of common "green building" features are listed in Table 1

Indoor Air Quality "Best Practice"

Many building design, construction, and operational measures necessary to create good indoor air

quality in commercial buildings are well-established. The challenging opportunity facing designers

today is to implement the measures in the context of a so-called "green building" project or

"sustainable" building design. Table 2 below provides an overview of the major measures required

to create good lAQ in a commercial building. Following the table is an elaboration and discussion

of each of the ten best practices. That is followed by consideration of how to integrate these with

other sustainable design objectives in a rational and comprehensive fashion. More detailed

guidance for indoor air quality can be found in several referenced publications (3-9).

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Table 2. lAQ best practice concepts For commercial buildings

1. Relationships between indoor air pollution sources, ventilation, and concentrations.

2. Simple dose response basis for health effects: "the dose makes the poison"

3. Overall design consideration of indoor air quality: from cradle to grave

4. Source identification:

5. Source control options and strategies

6. Ventilation system design and operation

7. Material selection and specification

8. Construction procedures

9. Maintenance and operation

10. Change of Use, Renovation, Adaptive Re-use, and De-mounting

Basic Relationships Between Indoor Air Pollution Sources, Ventilation, and Concentrations

Concentration = source strength/ventilation rate. There is a simple mathematical relationship that

clearly expresses the most important relationships in indoor air quality. Concentration is a function

of source strength divided by ventilation. There are many types of contaminant removal

mechanisms including filtration and air cleaning, deposition on surfaces, and chemical

transformation. But the most important concepts are embodied in the simple relationship between

source strength, ventilation, and concentration (7-9).

This relationship is expressed in equation 1

Concentration (mg/m^ - Emission Rate (mg/h) / Ventilation Rate (mVh) [1]

The emission rate is determined by the emission factor (mg/m^ h) times the area of the source

(m^). The ventilation rate is the amount of uncontaminated air introduced into the space (or

environmental test chamber) per hour.

Source control is most effective. The most effective strategy for achieving good indoor air quality

is source control. Identification of pollutant sources is the first step. Then, elimination, reduction or isolation are the next three strategies that should be applied. For example, completely

encapsulating a particleboard sheet material used in casework can reduce significantly the

emission rates of formaldehyde and other volatile organic chemicals from the product (7-9).

Major sources: The major sources of indoor pollutants include the outdoors, the building itself,

the occupants, building equipment, appliances, and consumer products. The most important

sources vary from project to project. Building materials are important, particularly when they are new and for many weeks or months aflerwards. Some, such as composite wood products, due to

their thickness and their pollutant content, can be sources for years after installation. Major

pollutant sources and removal mechanisms are listed in Table 3.

Ventilation principles: The most effective exhaust for point or concentrated sources of pollutants

is local exhaust. For distributed sources, dilution ventilation is used. An effective air supply

strategy is displacement ventilation, usually involving introduction of air low in a space, then

relying on thermal forces to transport low air upwards and create a strata of more polluted air just

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Table 3. Determinants of indoor air quality

POLLUTANT SOURCES

Outdoor Air, Soil, Water

Building Envelope

Building Equipment

Finishes and Furnishings

Machines and Appliances

Occupants

Occupant Activities

Maintenance and Cleaning

POLLUTANT REMOVAL MECHANISMS

Sinks

Ventilation

Air Cleaning and Filtration Chemical Transformation

below the ceiling. There the polluted air is collected and removed for exhaust or cleaning and

recirculation. It is essential to maintain overall ventilation system balance since it is pressure

differences that result in air flows within and between spaces.

Other pollutant removal mechamsms: Among the most common removal mechanisms are

filtration, usually incorporated into a mechanical ventilation system, the process of particle or chemical deposition on surfaces, and chemical transformations. These are discussed further below.

Simple dose response basis for health effects: ''the dose makes the poison''

The dose makes the poison: This is the fundamental principal of toxicology. Everything is toxic, it

is just a matter of dose. Thus, there are no "non-toxic" products or chemicals, there are just more

or less toxic ones..

Major health effects: Health effects can range from irritation and discomfort to disability or life threatening disease. Table 4 lists the major effects including health effects of exposure to indoor

pollutants.

Major indoor air pollutant classes and their effects: The most commonly discussed indoor air

pollutants are volatile organic compounds (VOCs), microbial contaminants (fungi, bacteria,

viruses), non-viable particles, inorganic chemicals (nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, carbon

dioxide, ozone), and semi-volatile organic compounds (SVOC - including pesticides and fire

Table 4. Major Health Effects of Indoor Pollutants:

Infectious disease: flu, cold, pneumonia (Legionnaires' Disease, Pontiac fever),

Cancer, other genetic toxicity, teratogenicity - (Ecotoxicity)

Asthma and allergy

CNS, skin, Gl, respiratory, circulatory, musculoskeletal, and other systemic effects

SBS (Sick Building Syndrome)

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retardants). The VOCs and the microbial contaminants receive the most attention, and, perhaps,

deservedly so. Common industrial solvents, adhesives, and other modem chemical products are abundant in most indoor air, although the concentrations are generally far lower than known

thresholds for health effects. Nevertheless, the huge number of chemicals present suggests that

there may be effects due to additive or synergistic effects.

SBS: causation hypothesis and interactions: Sick building syndrome has received much attention as it has become more widespread in modern buildings. It is now generally recognized as a multifactorial problem; that is, it is caused by a constellation of factors, not by a single building-related

factor. It is probable that there are additive and even synergistic effects of some of the

environmental factors, not just chemicals or microbes, but also the acoustic, thermal, illumination,

and other aspects of the indoor environment that affect the incidence of SBS. It is also likely that

work stress and other psychological and social or institutional factors play a role in the incidence

of SBS (10-15).

Overall Design Consideration of Indoor Air Quality: From Cradle to Grave

Planning through construction, commissioning. A major cause of indoor air quality problems is premature occupancy. Buildings are occupied before construction is complete, either with respect

to installation of finishes and flimishings, or with respect to the complete testing, adjusting, and

balancing of the HVAC system. By considering the need for thorough curing of new products and

complete verification of a properly functioning ventilation system, many lAQ problems can be

avoided. This requires planning from the outset for adequate time between scheduled completion

and initial occupancy.

Operation Design and operation must be consistent. The design team must make appropriate

assumptions about the use of the building, document their assumptions, and pass them along to the operators of the building. Operational schedules must be adequate not only to control thermal

conditions but also to remove pollutants accumulated during off-hours. Early morning purginjg,

especially after weekends and other extended unoccupied periods is essential. When maintenance

or housekeeping activities involve the application of chemicals such as carpet shampoo, solvents,

floor wax, or furniture polish, the accumulated emissions from these processes should be removed

before re-occupancy.

Maintenance and housekeeping. Neglected or deferred maintenance is often the source of lAQ

problems. Design should provide for access to all components of HVAC systems for inspection,

repair, and cleaning. Cleaning of surfaces, especially periodic removal of accumulated dust from

concealed surfaces above a suspended ceiling used as a return air plenum, is essential. Vertical

fabric covered surfaces such as walls or office workstation panels should be vacuumed since

small, inhalable particles deposit as easily on vertical as on horizontal surfaces.

Modification and Renovation. During construction activities, construction dust, fijmes, and

vapors must be contained and not allowed to contaminant building surfaces or the air in occupied

spaces. Temporary ventilation and isolation barriers should be employed.

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Adaptive re-use. When the use of a space or building is significantly changed, it is essential to determine whether the building can support the new activities and occupancy loads. This can be

done by reviewing record drawings and other documents. If such documents are not available, an

engineering assessment should be conducted.

De-motmting and re-source or disposal. Ultimately, buildings or portions of buildings will be

demounted and replaced. Care must be taken during demolition to avoid contamination of

occupied spaces or of surfaces that will remain in use or be re-used.

Source Identiflcation

Control of indoor air quality requires adequate identification of pollution sources and

development of strategies to address each source.

Outdoors. Sources outside the building include ambient air pollution, emissions from neighboring

buildings or activities, contamination in soil adjacent to or under the building.

Building fabric. The building structure, envelope, and floor system are major components that

must be considered, even though many of their surfaces will be covered by finish materials or will

not be visible to the building occupants. Spray-on fireproofing or acoustic materials have very

large surface areas and are often exposed to the circulating air within the building. Contaminants

can adsorb on these surfaces and subsequently be re-released. Chemical reactions and emissions

from the products themselves can occur due to changes in the humidity. Deterioration of aging

binders or erosion by air currents can also result in breakdown of these materials and releases of

pollutants into the building air.

Building Jinishes. As is the case with the building fabric, finishes can be sources and sinks for

pollutants. Care in their selection is essential, and major surface areas and masses of materials

should be identified and carefully considered as potential pollutant sources.

Building equipment: HVAC systems are increasingly recognized as sources of pollutants.

Microbial contamination of filters is a potential source of microbes and their metabolic byproducts, microbial VOCs. Power, illumination, transport, communication, and security system

components can also be significant sources.

Occupants and their activities. The most important source, and the one over which building

designers and constructors have the least control is the building occupants themselves. The nature

of the occupancy and use of the building is an important indicator of the type of contaminants that

will originate from the occupants.

Load documentation and calculations Thermal and pollutant loads should be documented and

considered part of the design process as well as the building management process. By creating

such documentation and including it with materials submitted to the building owner as part of the

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design approval process, designers ensure that there is a common understanding of the use of the

building and its implications for pollutant sources.

Source Control Options and Strategies

Isolation from outdoors. For pollutants such as pesticides used to treat soil or for radon gas, complete isolation of the building from the outside is the most effective strategy. Moisture

intrusion is a major contributor to microbial contamination, and, therefore, should be prevented.

The integrity of joints in the construction, of coatings, seals, and other barriers is essential. It is also important to control pressure relationships across the envelope to prevent moisture

accumulation on or behind surfaces. The placement of vapor barriers is determined by the indoor - outdoor humidity ratios and the local climate.

Outdoor air cleatiing andfiltration. Among the most common pollutant removal mechanisms is filtration, usually incorporated into a mechanical ventilation system. This involves circulation of

air through a filter where particles are removed primarily because they cannot pass through the

openings in the media, usually made from cellulose or man-made mineral fibers. Recent advances

in filter technology allows for much more effective filtration of smaller particles, those in the

inhalable size range, without concomitant pressure drops that formerly required larger fan

capacity and more energy consumption. In some cases air cleaning is done for gases by use of

selective sorbent media.

Some pollutants are removed by the process of deposition on surfaces. To some extent these

processes, known as sink effects, are usually reversible, at least to some degree, but the sink effect serves to buffer very high concentrations at the cost of extending the pollutant residence time over

longer periods. Frequent cleaning of surfaces can reduce the burden on ventilation and filtration or

air cleaning and may be found cost effective in some applications. In any case, surfaces should be

cleaned to control contaminant concentrations.

Finally, chemical transformations can take place, as is the case when ozone brought in from

outdoors or generated by photocopiers and laser printers reacts with certain organic chemicals,

often forming more irritating compounds than were present before the ozone interaction. Ozone

is often used to convert a "smoking" room to a "non-smoking" room in hotels. What is not wellunderstood or considered is the nature of the compounds formed by this process.

Outdoor air ventilation rates and schedules. Adequate outdoor air supply involves assessing the

quality of the outdoor air as well as the needs to remove pollutants from people and from

materials or processes within the building. Starting up to late in the morning or not providing

enough ventilation during housekeeping activities can cause unnecessary air quality problems.

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Ventilation System Design and Operation

Local exhaust for point sources. The most effective way to control indoor air pollutants from

sources within a building is to remove them at the source and not allow them to disperse to other

portions of the space or building or to deposit on surfaces (sinks) from which they can be emitted

later. Kitchen range hoods and bathroom exhaust fans are good examples. Smoking lounges with

one-pass, direct-exhaust ventilation are another example.

Air distribution strategy and ventilation effectiveness. Consider air distribution and ventilation

effectiveness before establishing outdoor air ventilation rates. Ventilation effectiveness indicates

the portion of the supply air that reaches the occupants' breathing zone. To the extent that

ventilation effectiveness is less than 100%, then additional outdoor air needs to be provided to

compensate for the shortfalls. The location of supply and return registers will affect air distribution and ventilation effectiveness under some conditions. Local supply directly into the

breathing zone of the occupants may be the most effective strategy where feasible. In the long

run, it can save energy and even first costs for mechanical ventilation and conditioning.

Outdoor air ventilation rate: It is necessary to ensure that there is adequate dilution for the

people-related, activity-related, and the building-related sources. Traditionally ventilation rates have been based only on the number of people. This is not adequate since occupant density does

not necessarily correlate with the source strengths of processes, building materials, and other

potentially important sources.

Accessibility of all system components. This includes filters, coils, drain pans, ductwork, duct

liners, plenums, valves, controllers, etc. They must be accessible for inspection, cleaning,

maintenance, and repair. While this may seem obvious, it has frequently been neglected and

caused serious lAQ problems.

Operator training. Operation of complex, modern HVAC systems requires competent, welltrained personnel. While operator training is often part of the construction contract, it is often

skipped over because the operators are pre-occupied with getting a new building or system

running at the time when the training is to occur.

Commissioning. Traditional testing, adjusting, and balancing is simply insufficient to ensure a

properly function HVAC system. Increasingly in recent years, construction contracts call for

complete HVAC system commissioning before final acceptance of the building. This is found to be both cost effective for the owner and beneficial for the contractor as well. Benefits include

reduced call-backs, energy-saving during operation, and avoidance of many common lAQ

problems in new buildings.

Material selection and specification

Quantify major materials and identify important sources. Based on mass and area ratios to space

volume, target products should be selected for careful review, specification, and installation.

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Some sources will be important although small in area or mass. These include many wet products

such as paints, sealants, adhesives, caulks, and chemical additives.

Identify major material selection criteria and alternatives. Criteria include emissions when new

and service lifetime for estimating total occupant exposure; acoustic, energy, lighting, aesthetics,

maintenance, cost, and other factors. Data are available on the emissions of many products and,

increasingly, manufacturers are recognizing the need to provide data on the emissions from their

products. Low total emissions is useful for screening but compound specific emission rates are necessary to address health, irritation, and odor effects.

Obtain maintenance, durability, and expected service life for candidate materials The durability

of a material or product is a major determinant of its potential importance to indoor air quality.

The more durable a material, the less likely it will result in indoor pollution. Maintenance product

requirements should be considered at least as important as emissions from new materials.

Determine indoor air implications of removal and replacement processes. Ultimately, surface

materials will need to be replaced, and their removal and replacement can be a very large source of indoor air pollution. This should be evaluated when products are originally selected.

Specify construction practices Temporary ventilation can reduce adsorption on surfaces and

subsequent re-emission of contaminants from building products. Construction filters should be

specified and changed before occupancy. Moisture protection for porous materials can reduce

microbial growth when materials are installed. Moistened materials should be removed and

replaced at the contractor's expense. Proper clean-up of exposed and concealed surfaces exposed

to circulating air should be completed before initial occupancy. Indoor air quality can be

improved by limiting fleecy and porous materials and by isolating them from high VOC

concentrations and particles during construction. Specify finish construction installation practices

including adequate ventilation (special temporary if necessary) to control concentrations and

avoid excessive sink effects.

Construction Procedures

Review submittals to ensure conformance to IAO performance specifications. No matter how

careful the selection process, materials can be substituted during the construction process. It is necessary to monitor the submittals phase for substitutions that will result in lAQ problems.

Specify and observe construction site practices. It is essential to ensure that porous materials are protected from moisture. Wet or moist construction materials are a common source of microbial

contamination once buildings are occupied. Specify and observe adequacy of ventilation

conditions during installation of wet products. Specify and observe protection of fleecy and

porous surfaces from dust, gases, and vapors. Ensure completion of HVAC Testing, Adjusting

and Balancing, and of full HVAC commissioning before occupancy. Ensure ventilation and

thermal control systems are operational and effective prior to move-in and initial occupancy.

Recommend (if possible, specify) and monitor move-in and initial occupancy procedures to ensure

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indoor air quality and climate. Assemble the project manual to include full documentation of

thermal and lAQ loads; HVAC system design criteria, assumption, and equipment; operational

sequences and controls; warranties; record drawings and specifications; and, inspection,

maintenance, and replacement requirements.

Maintenance and operation

Inspection, Cleaning, and Replacement. Periodic inspection for lAQ with good record-keeping can create a preventive maintenance environment in which problems are less likely to occur. The

records should be archived in an accessible location and protected from deterioration. This

inspection should include but not be limited to HVAC systems. It should also be conducted to

identify any new or modified indoor pollution sources.

Change of Use, Renovation, Adaptive Re-use, and De-mounting. Evaluate impacts of planned use changes on loads (thermal, lAQ) and determine system design capacities, distribution, etc. and the

adequacy for planned changes. Treat renovation projects as new construction with respect to the

items discussed above.

TOWARDS A SUSTAINABLE BUILDING PRACTICE

There can be little doubt that buildings are important contributors to environmental deterioration.

Buildings contribute from 15% to 45% of the total environmental burden for each of the eight

major LCA inventory categories (16). Table 5 shows these contributions.

The data in Table 5 above are from the United States, but the portion of buildings' environmental

impacts globally show that this share of total environmental burdens is generally consistent

throughout the worid ( 1 7).

In any design, trade-offs must be made among solutions aimed to optimize building performance

for various objectives. Environmental objectives are diverse, complex, inter-connected, and, not

infrequently, conflicting. Local, regional, and global objectives may conflict. Natural resource

conservation and other objectives often do conflict. Explicitly or implicitly, trade-offs must be

made among objectives in choosing a design solution. Decision-making tools such as multiple

attribute decision analysis can assist designers and their clients resolve conflicting project goals

Table 5. Environmental Burdens OfBuildings, U.S. Data (16)

RESOURCE USE % OF TOTAL POLLUTION EMISSION % OF TOTAL

Raw materials 30 Atmospheric emissions 40

Energy use 42 Water effluents 20

Water use 25 - Solid waste 25

Land (in SMSAs) 12 Other releases 13

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that normally are part of any project. Yet no comprehensive, systematic analysis based on

empirical data has provided the tools necessary for designers and other decision-makers to evaluate the trade-offs they must make explicitly or unwittingly between and among putative

"environmentally-friendly" building features.

Until recently, there has been no comprehensive effort to establish a systematic approach for

evaluating total building environmental performance. The two notable exceptions are the

"Building for Environmental and Economic Sustainability" (BEES) being developed by Barbara

Lippiatt at NIST in cooperation with EPA (18), and EcoQuantum, being developed by W+E

Consultants in Gouda, the Netherlands Both are comprehensive in their scope, but both are presently years away from flill development.

Books and reports abound with discussions, advice, directions, and even scoring or rating systems

for assessing the environmental performance of building features. The scoring is usually implicitly or explicitly in terms of a small number of discrete environmental goals. No apparent effort is made to assess the trade-offs among various environmental objectives. This approach, used most

notably by BREEAM (19), BSRIA (20), and BEPAC (21), and now proposed by the Green

Building Council, provides some guidance to those lacking any other basis for choosing less environmentally harmful building technologies. However, it is clearly an inadequate basis to determine whether a particular design element is "sustainable" or even environmentally benign or

beneficial from a comprehensive building environmental performance perspective.

Typically, each green design features addresses a single environmental problem and appears, at least on first glance, to be environmentally beneficial. Often life cycle assessment inventory

analysis of the pre-use phase of a product is the basis for the selection. This analysis is performed

semi-quantitatively while in-use phase environmental impacts are assessed qualitatively with the

usual exceptions of energy and water consumption and waste production. No basis for

comparison of the relative importance of energy consumption versus other environmental impacts

such as water consumption, soil erosion, habitat destruction, or wastewater production is developed, and, therefore, no basis for weighting the various impacts is available. But because

environmental problems are complex and interconnected, optimizing performance of a building

material, product, or system may not produce unqualified environmental benefits. It is necessary

to weight environmental impacts, normalize sources of similar impacts, and calculate the total

environmental performance in order to determine which alternative technology is preferable.

Furthermore, it is essential to establish sustainability criteria to determine the performance of an

alternative in terms of sustainability.

There are no a priori environmentally benign products (22). In fact, a more complete evaluation is required to assess confidently the environmental performance of a particular design.

Implementation of some or all the features listed in Table 1, ahhough often labeled "green" design

or "green building," are also promoted as "sustainable design" or sustainable building. No

evidence is provided to support these claims. No criteria are presented based on calculated

environmentally sustainable impacts in relation to ecosphere carrying capacity. Projections and

assumptions regarding population growth, per capita consumption, and impacts per unit of

consumption must be made. Further, estimates of ecological carrying capacity must be made that,

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require both scientific knowledge and value judgments that are often unavailable for the former

and generally controversial for the latter. Efforts to make such estimates are appearing in Europe,

especially in the Netherlands. (23-25). Such an estimate is attached as Appendix A to this paper.

In an attempt to address the shortcomings of previous efforts to guide environmentallyresponsible design, we have developed an approach based on building ecology, the study of the

inter-relationships of the building to its inhabitants and to the larger environment (26). A new

model for assessing building environmental performance is being developed. It attempts to

address the need for comprehensive performance evaluation and assessment based on life cycle

assessment, comparative risk assessment, industrial ecology, and the work done to date on the

BEES model being prepared at by Lippiatt at NIST (18, 27-33). The most rigorous effort to

establish relative importance of varioius environmental problems is an international comparative

risk assessment completed at Harvard by Norberg-Bohm et al (32). The approach, tentatively

called the Systematic Evaluation and Assessment of Building Environmental Performance

(SEABEP), is intended to be based on similarly rigorous methodologies. Some progress has been

made on portions of the model. A diagram representing the approach is shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Systematic Evaluation and Assessment of Building Environmental Performance

(SEABEP) Decision Model

The valuation of various environmental problems requires construction of a list of problems that is both comprehensive and not too detailed. Such a list is shown in Table 6.

In order to assess the overall impacts of trade-offs, the relative importance of various

environmental problems must be determined. Following are criteria recommended to develop a weighted set of environmental problems. These criteria are similar to those used by EPA's

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Table 6. Building related environmental problems

ECOLOGICAL PROBLEMS

Top priority

Habitat destruction / deterioration

(directly resulting in Biodiversity loss)

Global warming

Stratospheric ozone depletion

High priority

Soil erosion

Depletion of freshwater resources Acid deposition

Urban air pollution / smog

Surface water pollution

Soil and groundwater pollution

Depletion of mineral reserves

(esp. oil and some metals)

HUMAN HEALTH PROBLEMS

Building occupants

Indoor air pollution - radon

Indoor air pollution - non-radon

Accidents in buildings (electrical, fire, falls, etc.) Building workers

Building construction / demolition / material

manufacturing, etc.

Science Advisory Board in "Reducing Risk" (29) The first four criteria used for weighting were

adapted from reference 28 and the fifth was added here. These are shown in Table 7.

Table 8 shows a sample of "generic" weights created from a global environmental perspective.

The weights shown or ones developed by those involved in a project could be used in a scoring

system where impacts per problem are to be assessed in a comprehensive environmental analysis.

Such weightings can be done on a global scale or on a local, regional, or project scale. The results

will often differ. It is important that both sets of weightings be applied. A default set of global

weightings can be used, or an original one developed by the project team. The local or project

specific weightings must be developed by the project team.

Table 7. Criteria for Weighting Environmental Problems

THE SPATIAL SCALE OF THE IMPACT

(Global, regional, local - large worse than small)

THE SEVERITY OF THE HAZARD

(More toxic, dangerous, damaging being worse)

THE DEGREE OF EXPOSURE

(Well-sequestered substances being of less concern than readily mobilized substances)

THE PENALTt' FOR BEING WRONG

(Longer remediation times of more concern)

THE STATUS OF THE AFFECTED SINKS

(An already overburdened sink more critical than a less-burdened one. Sinks = receptors, or environmental compartments)

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Table 8. Weightings for ten environmental (ecological) problems

Environmental Problem Category Weigtiting

Habitat destruction / deterioration (Biodiversity loss)

Global warming

Stratospheric ozone depletion

Soil erosion

Depletion of freshwater resources Acid deposition

Urban air pollution / smog

Surface water pollution

Soil and groundwater pollution

Depletion of mineral reserves (esp. oil and some metals)

90

80

90

20

10

25

25

25

35

50

A similar set of weights should be developed for the environmental problems with direct human

impacts, as listed in Table 6 above. One of the most challenging tasks is to develop a single

weighting system that integrates both the ecological environmental problems and the human

health environmental problems.

Sustainability Criteria for Design Analysis

There are several possible approaches to developing sustainability criteria. Each has its shortcomings, either involving the need for scientific knowledge or data that aren't available or

requiring value-based judgments that vary among individuals, cultures, and locations.

Nevertheless, each of these leaves "transparent" the basis for the criteria and, therefore, is susceptible to revision by those who wish to apply new or different data, knowledge, or value

judgments to the process. Among these are socio-ecological indicators (34), ecological carrying

capacity (23), and I=PAT (35) among others. The last two are similar in that they both establish

acceptable levels of consumption and pollution generation based on assumed levels of sustainable

environmental impacts. Such determinations of sustainable impacts require value judgments that are often considered outside the purview of scientists. However, James Nash asserts that such

value judgments are implicit in many of the requisite scientific components of risk assessment

(36). By ignoring them, Nash argues, scientists are accepting certain values by default, not

avoiding value based decisions. He points out that issues of social, generational, and genetic

justice are at the heart of any risk assessment. These three issues are similar to those identified by

Azar et al as indicators of their fourth socio-ecological principle discussed below (34). They

clearly are issues in defining sustainability criteria or any environmental goals.

It is important to understand the implications of projected global population growth and

consumption to anticipate the level of environmental impacts to be addressed by technological

improvement and/or reduced consumption. Table 9 shows global population projections to the

year 2100.

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Table 9 United Nations median population projections (billions of people)

Year: 1900 1950 2000 2050 2100

Industrialized countries 0.6 0.8 1.2 1.3 1.3 Population

Developing countries 1.0 1.7 5.1 8.7 9.9 in billions World 1.6 2.5 6.3 10.0 11.2

In Table 10 it is assumed that a doubling of per capita consumption in the industrialized countries

and a quadrupling in the developing countries based on a projected 2.5% annual growth rate in

industrialized countries and a projected 3.5% annual growth rate in developing countries. These

are reasonable estimates based on recent experience. When these consumption rates are multiplied

by the population growth rates, there is an overall increase in consumption to 3.5 times current

levels. There is also a decrease in the fraction of total consumption occurring in industrialized

countries from the present 75% to a projected 43% in the year 2050.

By calculating the effects of combinations of projected population growth rates, per capita

consumption rates, and environmental impacts per unit of consumption, one can assess in gross

terms the seriousness of the coming crisis. If current stresses on the environment such as greenhouse gas emissions, soil erosion, acid deposition, mineral consumption, etc. are approaching the limits of the earth's carrying capacity, then significant reductions in these stresses

is required. Only when the magnitude of these reductions is determined and the results used as targets for technological improvement can sustainability be assessed. One of the major limitations

of this approach is the insufficiency of scientific data on most environmental problems.

Reasonably good data are available for global climate change and ozone depletion, but even the

seriousness of these environmental problems remains controversial, if not among most scientists, at least among many policy-makers in the industrialized countries (35). Other problems such as

soil erosion, habitat destruction and biodiversity loss are not only subject to political and regional

differences, they are also plagued by insufficient scientific knowledge. Most other global

environmental problems are similarly insufficiently characterized from a scientific perspective.

A slightly different approach is proposed by Azar et al to avoid focusing directly on

environmental impacts because, the authors assert, impacts are so complicated and difficult to

assess. The authors argue that there are anthropogenic actions that affect the environment for

which establishing acceptable rates based on four simple principles is reasonable (34). These four

principles are are presented in Table 11.

Table 10. Global consumption in 2050 based on population and consumption per capita.

Now Population

factor

Consumption

factor

2050

Industrialized countries 75 1 2 150

Developing countries 25 2 4 200

Worid 100 350

149
Table 11. Four Socio-Ecological Principles Of Sustainability.

Prwciple 1: Substances extracted from the Hthosphere must not systematically accumulate in the

ecosphere

Principle 2: Society-produced substances must not systematically accumulate in the ecosphere

Principle 3: The physical conditions for production and diversity within the ecosphere must not

systematically be deteriorated

Principle 4\ The use of resources must be efficient and just with respect to meeting human needs

These four principles are the basis of several indicators for each. These indicators, given by Azar

et al as mathematical formulas, can be used to calculate criteria for most technologies including

building technologies. For each principle, then, the indicators can be used to assess the

sustainability of buildings' impacts on the "ecosphere." Table 12 lists each of the "socioecological" indicators for the four socio-ecological principles.

Many of the criteria from Table 12 can generally be applied to decisions affecting indoor air quality alone or to the composite environmental impacts of a whole building or collection of

buildings. The indicators for principles 1 and 2 can be converted more or less directly into

indicators usefiil for the indoor environment.

Sustainable lAQ Practice

Space limitations do not permit a full exploration of all these lAQ "best practices" persented

above. However, we will examine some exemplary ones in order to discover some principles that

may demonstrate the application of a systematic evaluation and assessment of building

environmental performance based on sustainability criteria.

Table 12. Socio-ecological indicators based on socio-ecological principles (34)

Principle 1: Substances

extractedfrom the Hthosphere must not

systematically accumulate

in the ecosphere

Principle 2: Society-produced

substances must not

systematically accumulate in the ecosphere

Principle 3: The physical

conditions for production and

diversity within the ecosphere must not systematically be

deteriorated

Principle 4: The use of

resources must be efficient andjust with respect to meeting human needs

/i i: Lithospheric extraction compared to natural flows

/i.j: Accumulated

litliospheric extraction

/1.3; Non-renewable energy

supply

/: 1: Antlu-opogenic flows compared to natural flows

/j.:: Long-term implication of

emissions of naturally

existing substances h y Production volumes of

persistent chemicals

/: Long-term implication of emissions of substances that are foreign to nature

lyy. Transformation of lands hy. Overall efficiency

h i. Soil cover A 2' Intragenerational justice

/3 3: Nutrient balance in soils 74.3: Intergenerational justice

h.A. Harvesting of funds Ua'. Basic human needs

150
Deciding What's Important In Design

A simple illustration of the application of criteria that might be developed for healthy material

selection considering the indoor air quality, indoor environment, and the general environment is shown in Table 13. The importance of each factor for each environment is indicated by the

number of marks in the matrix. This exercise shows that there is considerable overlap among the

criteria for different environmental compartments.

'^Sustainable Design" Guidance

Following is preliminary design guidance that attempts to integrate both indoor and general

environmental considerations.

Resource consen>ation. Selecting building materials and products that are extremely durable and

can be expected to perform well over an extended useful life will generally result in a better

environmental choice than one that must be replaced twice or even ten times during the same time

period. This is evident from the approximately ten-fold greater relative additional resource

extraction/consumption, manufacturing, transport, installation, and disposal. A roof used in many

European applications may last between one and three hundred years while in the United States

typical roofs last ten to thirty years. It is obvious that the environmental impacts of U.S. roofs are roughly ten times that of the European roofs regarding the extraction and disposal of materials.

Long-lived products are an inherently preferred solution for resource conservation and

environmental protection.

Re-using materials and products that have reached the end of their useful lives is the next most

effective way to avoid withdrawal of additional resources and creation of environmental pollution

associated with the extraction, transport, processing, manufacturing, installation, and disposal. A

longer-lasting material is inherently more desirable from an overall environmental perspective(37).

Table 13. Sample Matrix of Criteria for Healthy Materials Selection

Material Selection Criteria IAO Indoor General

Env 't Env't

Resource conservation X XXX

Durability XX X XXX

Low emissions/pollution production XXX

Low emissions/pollution finished XXX XX

Maintenance chemical requirements XXX X XX

Replacement frequency XX X XXX

Hard surface (lAQ vs. acoustics) XX XXX

Smooth surface XXX XX X

Energy consumption X XX XXX

151
Durable materials tend to have low emissions. Therefore, they tend to be better for indoor air

quality than less durable ones. They may also require less frequent application of maintenance and

surface renewal chemicals and use of less harmflil chemicals. There is a sort of multiplier effect

from the use of durable materials..

Designs that assume frequent changes in interior partitions should provide for re-mounting

durable ones rather than demolition/disposal and new construction.

Pollutant source control. Controlling pollution at the source is generally four times as cost

effective as removing pollution from air, water, or soil. This applies both to indoor air as well as ambient air. It also applies to both surface and groundwater water. It is widely accepted that the

most effective strategies for indoor air quality involve reducing indoor air pollutant sources and

their source strengths or toxicities by one of the following measures: elimination, reduction,

substitution, or source isolation. Important considerations for material selection and indoor

environmental quality include flinctional requirements, surface characteristics, total mass,

chemical composition and emissions, durability - longevity, and cleaning, maintenance and

renovation requirements. Selecting low-emitting materials, especially for those products that will

be present in large quantities by mass or exposed surface area, is also important to reduce

emissions to the general environment. Typically, low-emitting products will have resulted from

production processes involving lower exposures of the manufacturing workers as well.

Design for effective moisture protection is important to prevent intrusion of water from outdoors

through cracks, openings, or semi-permeable membranes and eliminate potential for standing

water or condensate inside the building from chilled water systems. This will prevent the growth

of microorganisms and, therefore, result in better indoor air quality. This will also prolong the life of the building and its components resulting in resource conservation.

Energy conser>'ation. The first step toward reducing energy consumption is conservation. This

includes effective building envelope insulation, tightly-sealed openings, and control of air

movement and thermal transport mechanisms between the building and the outside and, in some

cases, between spaces within the building. This does not mean minimal ventilation; it means

reducing the requirements for conditioning ventilation air by avoiding unintentional thermal losses.

Energy conservation will produce more comfortable indoor environments. Energy conservation is extremely important in reducing potential emissions of greenhouse gases at power plants, and

acid-forming gases that cause acid deposition. This will also reduce the need for refrigeration

involving ozone-depleting compounds.

Energy efficiency. Where energy-consuming devices are required (such as fans, pumps, motors,

appliances, etc.) it is essential to select efficient appliances. The ratio between the best and worst

in a class of products may easily be 2-to-l or even 3-to-l, so it does make a great deal of

difference which product is selected.

Ventilation. Ensure adequate ventilation to control pollutants that reach the indoor air by

reducing and removing them through dilution, exhaust (local, general), filtration, and air cleaning.

Occupant-controlled ventilation can produce energy savings while reducing occupant stress and

152
building sickness symptoms. Individual occupant desk top air supply that is turned off

automatically when a desk is unoccupied can save energy as well efficiently deliver air when and

where it is needed. Reduction in overall air supply volumes reduces ductwork materials

consumption, air handler capacity, and operating energy. The cost savings achievable with such an approach can easily pay for the additional costs of the individual desktop supply and control.

Overall design. Design for the whole person: The human body and mind integrate all the factors

in the physical, chemical, biological, and psychosocial environment. Full integration of

environmental considerations in design will include not only indoor air quality but also thermal

comfort, lighting, acoustics, and spatial relationships. Such designs will be inherently healthier. A

building that meets the needs of its users (occupants, operators, others) will endure longer and not

require demolition, replacement, or other resource- and pollution-intensive actions. The more

satisfied building users are, the longer the building will remain in service, avoiding the need for

additional construction.

Building design and indoor environmental quality issues must be considered throughout the

process of planning, design, construction, use, and disposal/re-use/recycling buildings. The major

design phases include site selection, project feasibility, budgeting, building configuration, building

envelope, environmental control scheme, energy considerations, and environmental impact

analysis.

DISCUSSION and CONCLUSION

This paper has emphasized a "building ecology" view of buildings as dynamic, interdependent

systems (25). This view suggests the importance of planning during the design phase for varying

cycles of building performance and use or requirements during the building's lifetime. The more

specific the analysis, the more relevant its application to any given building design. Generic

analyses are helpflil but suffer from the potential to miss important characteristics of a particular

situation.

It is apparent that in many instances, the design alternative best for indoor environmental quality is also best for general environmental quality. For example, durable materials will be less likely to emit contaminants into the indoor air, will require lower quantities and less toxic chemicals for the

maintenance and reftirbishing, and, by definition, will be longer lasting. Service life is an

extremely important determinant of overall impact on the general environment since each

replacement cycle requires the use of additional resources with the concomitant pollutant

emissions.

Designers must be aware of the impacts of the building on the larger environment. These will

include impacts on biodiversity, global warming, ozone depletion, on the soil, air, and water, on

resource depletion, on waste generation, and on energy consumption,. Some of these will

ultimately, although perhaps imperceptibly, affect the building itself and its users. Therefore, each

building must be planned and designed as though it were being replicated a million times over so

that we take seriously the consequences of its impacts on the global environment and, in a very

real sense, its own environment.

153
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The preparation of this paper was based in part on woric prepared by Atze C. Boerstra, Shela Ray,

and Eugena Bendy.

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156
Appendix A. : Sustainable versus expected level of environmental impact for selected indicators

(Reference 22, p. 25)

Dimension/indicator of Sustainable level Expected level Desired Scale

environmental impact 2040 reduction

DEPLETION OF FOSSIL FUELS:

• oil stock for 50 years ctrt^^ leta/^ 00 /o global

* natural gas stock for 50 years / UTo giooai

* coal stock for 50 years stock exhausted 20% global

DEPLETION OF METALS:

* aluminum stock for 50 years stock for >50 years none global

* copper stock for 50 years stock exhausted 80% global

* uranium stock for 50 years depends on use nuclear not quantifiable global energy

DEPLETION OF RENEWABLE RESOURCES:

Biomass 20% terr. animal biomass 50% terr. animal biomass 60% global

20% terr. primary production D\j /o icii. primary prouucLion DU /O giooai

Diversity of species extinction 5 species 365-65,000 species 99% global per annum ner annum rULLU 1 lUlN. Emission of CO2 2.6 Gigatonnes carbon 13.0 Gigatonnes carbon 80% global per annum per annum

Acid deposition 400 acid eq. per 00 /o hectare per annum

Deposition nutrients P: 30 kg. per ha. per annum IIU ^UdMLuallVc UaLo ilUl ^UdnUllaUle ndiiundi

N: 267 kg. per ha. per annum no ouantitative data not riuantifiablp national 1 1 CI LI V1 1 CI 1

Deposition of metals:

* deposition of cadmium 2 tonnes per annum 50 tonnes per annum 95% national

* deposition of copper 70 tonnes per annum 830 tonnes per annum 90% national

* deposition of lead 58 tonnes per annum 700 tonnes per annum 90% national

* deposition of zinc 215 tonnes per annum 5190 tonnes per annum 95% national

ENCROACHMENT

Impairment through reference year 1950 no quantitative data not quantifiable national dehydration

Soil loss through erosion 9.3 billion tonnes per annum 45 to 60 billion tonnes 85% global per annum

157

IMPROVING INDOOR AIR QUALITY IN RESIDENCES - A SYSTEMS APPROACH

Subrato Chandra, David Beal and Andrew Downing

Florida Solar Energy Center (FSEC)

(A Research Institute of the University of Central Florida, UCF)

1679 Clearlake Road, Cocoa, FL 32922

Ph. 407-638-1000 / Fax. 407-638-1010

Abstract. The importance of common residential allergens and irritants (tobacco smoke, dust

mites, pollens, pet danders, molds, cockroaches, VOC's, odors, fine dust and radon) is reviewed.

Strategies to eliminate them through advanced energy efficient building construction techniques,

equipment and material choices are discussed using recently constructed demonstration Health

Houses® as examples.

Acknowledgement

This work was sponsored by the U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Building Systems, Mr.

George James, program manager whose support and goodwill is very much appreciated. The

authors are grateful to the American Lung Association of Minneapolis, the American Lung

Association of Central Florida, the American Lung Association of Florida, the American Lung

Association of Huntsville, the American Lung Association of Alabama, the American Lung

Association of New Orleans and Mr. Rick Mickler of New Orleans. Without their cooperation,

this work would not be possible.

Introduction

In order to improve the indoor air quality in residences it is essential to be aware of the various

indoor allergens and irritants and their importance. In the authors view they are listed in the

order of probable decreasing importance at levels commonly found in indoor environments for

the general population:

• Environmental Tobacco Smoke

• Dust Mite Allergens

• Pollen Allergens

• Pet D£inder Allergens from cats and dogs

• Molds

• Cockroach allergens

• Volatile Organic Compounds and Odors(VOC's)

• Fine Dust

• Radon

Of course exceptions prove the rule. For the chemically hypersensitive a certain VOC might be

159
lethal. Poorly maintained water systems can harbor deadly bacteria such as legionella. Excessive

rodents, pesticides and malfunctioning combustion devices can be extremely hazardous. Recent

studies point to the increasing importance of cockroach allergens to asthma in inner city housing

causing asthma in up to 8.6% of the children (1), almost twice the national rate. Because of

genetic factors, Native Americans have a low incidence of asthma and smoking related lung

disease (2). To them tobacco smoking may be a lesser concern.

The following paragraphs contain remarks about each of the allergens and irritants.

Environmental Tobacco Smoke (ETS). About 25% of North American adults smoke today. In

countries such as Japan and Poland, above 50% of the adult males smoke. The sidestream and

exhaled smoke (i.e. ETS) is a major cause of respirable particles indoors as well as various

carcinogens, odors and other toxic compounds (3). Some air filtering and purifying devices are reported to clear up ETS somewhat. High levels of localized ventilation may also help.

However, the most practical solution seems to be banishing the smokers to the outside of the

house. Building science is probably of limited help in alleviating ETS.

Dust Mite Allergens. About 20% of the general population suffer from allergies. About 5%

suffer from asthma. Among children the percentages appear to be higher. The increasingly large

percentage of people suffering from allergy and asthma appears to be a worldwide phenomena.

In humid climates, dust mites appear to be a leading cause of asthma (4). In the hot, humid

central Florida climate, approximately 60% of the patients complaining of respiratory problems

tested positive to dust mite skin prick tests (5), rates two to three times greater than any other

aero-allergen. In a study of North Carolina school children, 30% tested positive to house dust

mites (6).

There are several dust mite species. Dust mites feed on human skin flakes and are translucent

creatures invisible to the naked eye and are about 300/im (micrometers or microns) in size (see

figure 1). Dust mites themselves also generate type II allergens from their body parts. The dust

mite fecal particles contain large amounts of the most common type I dust mite allergens, Der

p I and DerfI. The fecal particles are about 1 0 ixm in size and heavier than air. When airborne,

they settle out in about five minutes. Dust mites live and breed on carpets, sofas, beds and other

soft and fluffy furnishings. When a person lies down on a bed, they will release puffs of dust

containing dust mite fecal particles. These are likely to be breathed in by the person before they

get a chance to be filtered out by a room or a whole house air filter.

Washing clothes in hot (>130 F) water, frequent vacuuming with a good dust filter (pore size <1

micron) and covering mattresses and pillows with impermeable covers can reduce exposure to dust mite allergens. However, those measures do not kill the mites. One way to dehydrate and

kill dust mites is through humidity control. Laboratory experiments (7) have shown that limiting

relative humidity (RH) to about 50% kills the two most common species of dust mites. A

systems approach to controlling RH in homes is a promising approach to controlling dust mite

allergens in houses and will be discussed further in this paper.

Pollen Allergens. Pollens from grasses, weeds and local trees are another frequent cause of

allergy. In a study of North Carolina school children, 29% tested positive to grasses and weeds.

160
Measurements in the Tucson area (8) indicate that between 10 to 25% of the outdoor pollen can come indoors. Pollen can come indoors by convective transport through open windows or cracks

or can be carried indoors on clothes and footwear. Since most pollen grains are larger than 10

microns, efficient filtration should be effective if the pollen can be trapped before they are breathed in by humans. The practice of removing shoes and outerwear outside the house may

be helpful in reducing the pollen inside homes. This could be encouraged by designing such a "mud room" space in the garage just before the garage entry door into the house as most North

Americans enter the house through their garages rather than their front doors.

Pet Dander Allergens from cats and dogs. This is another important class of allergens. In the

same North Carolina study, 25% of the school children tested positive to animal danders. Pet

dander allergens are really small about 0.3 microns in size and stick to walls after being airborne.

Frequent bathing of pets can reduce the allergens. However, like smokers, pets need to be

banished to outdoors to eliminate this allergen from the house.

Molds. Mold allergy is also quite common. 20% of the schoolchildren in the above study tested

positive to molds. Molds are ubiquitous in nature and not all molds are harmful. Some molds

such as Stachybotrus can be toxic and have been implicated in several sick buildings and in the

deaths of children. If the surface relative humidity exceeds 65% to 70% on a continuous basis

then molds can amplify and create a problem, particularly in the absence of light and airflow.

Most molds in buildings arise from water leaks or mist carryover from cooling coils and grow

in porous materials. Proper moisture control techniques, biocides and regular cleaning can

control molds in housing.

Cockroach allergens. In the North Carolina study only 5% of the children tested positive to cockroach allergens and that's why we ranked the cockroach problem lower than most others.

Recent epidemiological studies (1) point to the increasing importance number of asthmatic

children (about 8.5%), especially in inner city housing, who have developed asthma because of

cockroaches. Proper housecleaning and use of safe pesticides are needed for cockroach control.

Volatile Organic Compounds and Odors(VOC's). Many VOC's and bioeffluents exist in houses,

especially during the first several months. While irritating or unpleasant, VOC's are probably

not unhealthy in concentrations found generally in houses, except to the hyper sensitive. Proper

choice of materials for construction, adhesives, finishes and furnishings can dramatically reduce

VOC exposures in houses. Adequate ventilation, such as recommended by ASHRAE (9) should

take care of the remaining VOC, odors and bioeffluents.

Fine Dust. Can be generated indoors during remodelling projects or brought in from outdoors.

In large quantities, fine dust can trigger bouts of sneezing but is not generally toxic, except to the hypersensitive. Positive pressure ventilation and good air filtration can minimize the dust

problem.

Radon. Recent large scale epidemiological studies using 10,000 households in Norway(lO) seem

to suggest that at levels generally found in houses, Radon is not a significant health risk. If it were, the strategies of positive pressure discussed in this paper should be helpful in mitigating

the Radon problem.

161
Strategies to Improve the Indoor Air Quality

From the above discussions it appears that a systems approach to improving residential indoor

air quality involves:

1. Designing for water drainage

2. Air tight construction and good air distribution

3. Positive pressure ventilation

4. Whole house dehumidification

5. Excellent filtration

6. Insulation to minimize thermal gradient between floor and air in the house

7. Material selection to minimize VOC emissions

8. Regular cleaning and maintenance

We now discuss the above steps above drawing fi*om recently constructed Health Houses® in

humid climates. Please note that energy efficient construction (items 2, and 6.) are integral parts

of the systems approach. Also, this is a work in progress, not all the answers are known yet and

considerable challenges lie ahead.

1. Designing for water drainage. It is quite amazing that given the importance of this topic,

how often it is overlooked. A partial checklist of things to look for in slab-on-grade houses

follows:

The bottom of the slab or floor should be at least 8" above the top of the backfilled dirt

of the yard which should be graded to drain away from the house.

Garage floor and driveway should be sloped to drain out.

The roofs should have at least a 3 in 12 pitch and all roof penetrations properly flashed.

All windows should be under at least a 2 feet overhang.

Roof gutters should drain out on splash blocks so water drains away from the house

The wall system must be designed so that even if there is water penetration, it is allowed

to drain out. Figure 2 shows a detail in the Huntsville Health House where a plastic

sheeting was installed over the bottom of the studs before the exterior sheathing was

applied. The slab perimeter insulation was inserted so that the plastic sheeting covered

its top edge. Also note the high level of the floor slab. The wall has a brick finish with an air gap and weep holes for drainage.

On stuccoed frame walls or block walls a waterproofing sheet with wire mesh must be

installed before applying stucco.

The drain pan of air-conditioners should leave no standing water.

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2. Air tight construction and good air distribution. Air tight construction is needed, because

without enclosing the air it impossible to control it. Good air distribution systems assure that the

benefits of mechanical ventilation and central dehumidification are distributed evenly throughout

the house. Several items need careful attention in this area:

Air distribution ducts and registers must be constructed to be air tight. Detailed

instructions on how to accomplish this may be found in several references (see for

example reference 1 1). See figure 3 for a new metal duct system with o-rings which was

used in the Jaclcsonville Health House. To minimize acoustical problems the runouts were

constructed with conventional insulated flex duct in this house. Figure 4 shows the duct

system used in the New Orleans Health House. The fiberglass duct has a inner coating

with a mildewcide and is fairly rigid. This should prevent loose fibers in the airstream

and the hard surface should be easy to clean. The flex duct has a heavy liner to permit

future cleaning. The cut lines of the ducts and the joint with flex duct are sealed with a UL listed adhesive and sealant.

Air tight recessed can lights must be used. Several manufacturers make these now.

Figure 3 shows two types used in health houses. These lights should also be rated to allow direct placement of insulation on the lights.

A good way to airtight frame walls, band joists, garage ceilings and other hard to reach

places is to use a combination foam insulation and air sealer. This was used in the

Orlando Health House, see figure 6.

The common practices of using sill sealers, sealing all electrical and plumbing

penetrations at the top plate and through the walls, sealing the gap between window frame

and wall must not be forgotten.

Good air distribution is assured by having return or transfer ducts or transfer grills in all bedrooms. This assures good air distribution even if bedroom doors are kept closed.

3. Positive pressure ventilation. In humid climates (e.g. the US south east and the northwest)

positive pressure ventilation is recommended. This is only possible if the house is air tight.

Positive pressure ventilation requires only one intake and thus permits filtering and

dehumidification of the incoming air. Maintaining a positive pressure minimizes infiltration of

humidity and dust and improves combustion safety (as opposed to negative pressures which may

cause backdrafting). In humid climates mechanical ventilation must be combined with

dehumidification. Otherwise the house may experience serious moisture problems in mild and

wet months when neither cooling nor heating is required. In the Orlando and Huntsville Health

Houses a combination whole house dehumidifier and positive pressure ventilator was used as shown in figure 7.

The kitchen and bathroom exhaust fans should vent to the outside and should be installed for

point source exhausts in addition to the central whole house ventilation system.

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4. Whole house dehumidification. Whole house dehumidification in addition to central heating

and cooling is recommended to control dust mites. Room dehumidifiers are unlikely to control

dust mites throughout the house, although it might benefit a single room. Whole house

dehumidifiers, as noted in figure 7, run independently of the central heating and cooling system

and control the RH in homes every month of the year. The authors are currently engaged in

research to determine the effectiveness of central dehumidifiers in controlling dust mite allergens

by comparing allergen levels in Health Houses and neighboring control homes without central

dehumidification and mechanical ventilation.

5. Excellentfiltration. Excellent filtration is a key to achieving excellent indoor air quality. For

many years studies have shown that allergy sufferers feel more energetic and sometimes require

less medication when using room air cleaners or good air filters. Health Houses have used 4"

and 7" pleated filters as well as HEPA filters. Disposable filter elements are probably better than

washable types. Most electronic air cleaners produce some ozone and if used should be well

maintained and regularly cleaned per manufacturer instructions.

A frequent problem noted in many homes is the air bypass around furnace filters. This should

be avoided.

6. Insulation to minimize thermal gradient between floor and air in the house. In slab on grade

houses the slab is often poorly insulated or not insulated at all because of concern with termites.

This creates a RH (as well as temperature) gradient between air in the middle of the room and

that at the carpet, where dust mites live and breed. In order to limit the RH to say 50% at the

floor, it may be necessary to set the dehumidifier at 45% RH or lower. The effectiveness of slab

perimeter insulation is currently being evaluated the authors. A promising new foundation

insulation material is now on the market which is termite resistant. Another possibility may be

to use insulated aerated concrete blocks as perimeter foundation blocks and then pour the slab

inside it. There is a patented termite control system on the market which uses perforated tubes

installed under the slab. Then termiticides can be poured regularly at the tube terminating point

and spread throughout the soil under the slab. This system was used in the Orlando Health

House.

7. Material selection to minimize VOC emissions. Today there are a variety of materials on the

market which emit low amounts of VOCs in paints, adhesives, caulks etc. In addition low VOC

emitting carpets, pads, hardwood floors, cabinetry can be selected which leads to low VOC levels.

One of the difficult areas is material used as subfloor bases in second stories, stair cases and other

wooden surfaces which are inside the conditioned space. Choices are available, but not as convenient as using readily available high VOC emitting materials.

In addition there should be no unvented combustion appliances in side the house. Direct vented

fireplaces are preferred. In garages and basements combustion appliances should be placed in

permanently ventilated spaces which cannot go to a severe negative pressure.

8. Regular cleaning and maintenance. In today's busy lifestyles there appears to be little time

or interest in this in many houses. Unfortunately, technology alone will probably not be able to create excellent indoor air quality in a house unless it is regularly cleaned and maintained.

164
Conclusions

Improving indoor air quality in houses requires thought and effort during design, construction and

operation of a house. It is an effort well worth making.

References

1. D.Q. Haney, "Cockroaches are a Factor in Severe Urban Asthma, Researchers Warn",

Associated Press, July 14, 1996 as reported in many major newspapers including the LA

Tunes, 1996.

2. A. M. Pope, R. Patterson and H. Burge (editors). Indoor Allergens. National Academy Press,

Washington, D. C. p. 67, 1993.

3. Thad Godish, Indoor Air Pollution Control. Lewis Publishers, p. 29, 1989.

4. S. Chandra, R.F. Lockey, L.W. Alidina, D. Beal, R. Codina, and K. Gehring, "Adverse Health

Effects and Elimination of Dust Mites in Humid Climate Housing," Proc. 7th International

Conference on Indoor Air Quality, Nagoya, Japan, July 21-26, 1996. Vol 3., pp. 433-438,

1996.

5. E. Femandez-Caldas, R. W. Fox, G. A. Bucholtz, W. L. Trudeau, D. K. Ledford and R. F. Lockey. House dust mite allergy in Florida - Mite survey in households of mite-sensitive

individuals in Tampa, Florida. Allergy Proceedings, Vol.ll/No.6, pp263-267, 1990.

6. A. M. Pope, R. Patterson and H. Burge (editors), Indoor Allergens. National Academy Press,

Washington, D. C. p. 52, 1993.

7. L. G. Arlian, Water balance and humidity requirements of house dust mites. Experimental and

Applied Acarology, Vol.16, pp 15-25, 1992.

8. M.K. O'Rourke and M.D. Lebowitz. "Environmental Allergens and the Development of

Chronic and Allergic Obstructive Lung Diseases," Chapter 13 of Environmental

Respiratory Diseases. Eds- Cordasco, Demeter and Zenz. Van Nostrand Reinhold. p.303,

1995.

9. Anon, "Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality," ASHRAE standard, public review

draft, Ch.9, August 1996.

10. K. Magnus, A. Engeland et al "Residential Radon Exposure and Lung Cancer ~ an

Epidemiological study of Norwegian Municipalities," Int J Cancer vol. 58, pp. 1-7, Jul 1, 1994.

11. J. Lstiburek, "Builder's Field Guide," North Carolina Alternative Energy Corporation, ch.6,

1994.

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Figure 1: Dust Mite - blomia tropicalis

Photo Courtesy of; Dr. Richard F. Lockey, M.D. and Enrique Fernandez-Caldas, Ph. D.

College of Medicine, University of South Florida

166
Figure 2: A detail of the Huntsville Health House showing the water drainage sheet.
;ure 4: The air duct system in the New Orleans Health House featuring coated

ductboard, flex duct with a thick lining, and UL listed inside sealant.

168
Lights used in the Himtsville Health House. Lights used in the Jacksonville Health House.

The gasket must be installed to obtain the required air tightness in the light fixture.

Figure 5: Air tight recessed ceiling lights.

169
Foam wall insulation being applied. Foam insulation applied around the direct vent

propane fireplace.

Foam is easy to apply in hard to insulate areas (Wall comers, window headers, etc.)

Figure 6: A foam insulation and air sealing system used in the Orlando Health House.

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Figure 7: Schematic of Whole House Dehumidifier / Ventilator (DV)

integrated with the Heating and Cooling System.

Center of Home

\ from Dining Room Ceiiing

1. Ventilation timer operates tlie fresh air vent damper. Wlien open, small fan in DV

pulls in fresh air, mixes It witti house air, filters it using DV filters, and distributes it to house using ttie return air ducts.

2. When dehumidistat is not satisified, compressor and fan in DV turn on and provide

dehumidifled warm air to the house.

3. When themraostat calls for heat or cool the heat pump and blower turn on to Independantiy control temperature. Air from DV unit (if DV Is also on) is sucked In and distributed through the supply air ducts.

171

Interoperable, Life-cycle Tools for Assuring Building Performance:

An Overview of a New Commercial Building Initiative

Stephen Selkowitz

Building Technologies Program

Energy and Environment Division

Ernest Orlando Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory

1 Cyclotron Road

Berkeley, CA 94720

Abstract. A key impediment to improving the energy efficiency and reducing the environmental

impact of buildings is the complexity and cost of managing information over the life cycle of a

building. A surprisingly large fraction of the total cost of buildings is embodied in the decision

making and information management process due to the nature of the building industry itself, the

numerous people and companies involved in the process, the current nature of the building

acquisition process, and the long time periods over which buildings operate once design and

construction are completed. We suggest that new interoperable software tools could greatly

facilitate and rationalize this complex process, thereby reducing time and cost, and greatly

improving the habitability and environmental impact of these buildings. We describe a series of

projects in which we are building and testing several prototype toolkits as part of a building life- cycle information system that will allow interoperable software tools to function more

effectively throughout the design, construction, commissioning, and operations phases.

Background

Virtually every decision made over the life cycle of a building has envirormiental consequences of

both a short and long term nature. The creation of sustainable buildings requires that thought and

care has gone into a wide range of performance issues and impacts on a local, regional, national

and even global scale. Many consequences of creating a building are immediate and "visible," but

some are more subtle or complex in the way they manifest themselves to designers and owners. Although the occupants, or society at large, may ultimately experience these effects, these groups

typically have almost no direct input to the building plarming, design, and construction process

and often not much more once the building is occupied. Building design and operation is a

business in which time and money are important. When the consequences of a decision are

"invisible," little extra effort or resources will be spent on fme-tuning that decision.

A central challenge to the task of creating more sustainable buildings is thus to be able to bring all the information needed to assess the consequences of numerous decisions to the attention of the

appropriate decision makers in a timely, cost effective, and practical way. This is a challenge

that begins when the client first considers constructing or renovating a building to meet a need,

and continues over the life cycle of the building. As a prerequisite, it requires that people choose

to create a sustainable design, and there are numerous cultural and educational obstacles to overcome in this regard. But assuming this can be done, if we are to have the required impact on

a national scale, it must become easier, less risky, and more "practical" to design and create a

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sustainable living and working environment. This will require innovation and advances in both

design process and in building technology. As we approach the beginning of the 21st century,

computers and the software infrastructure that supports their operation will almost certainly

play a rapidly growing and critical enabling role in meeting these challenges.

Researchers at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory have been addressing many of the

interrelated issues of sustainable design over the last 20 years, in partnership with industry,

government, and professional societies. Since the US Department of Energy has been our

primary client, energy use and energy-related impacts have been the focus of our work. Because

energy use (extraction, conversion, transmission, and end use) is thought to be the single largest

human activity with direct environmental impacts, much of our past and ongoing work has direct

relevance to the challenge of creating sustainable buildings. Over the last three years we have

made an explicit effort to refocus some of our efforts on the challenge of improving the design and

operation of commercial buildings.

Despite significant advances in building technology and the promulgation of tighter building

codes, commercial buildings consume about 15% of all energy used in the US at a cost of $85

billion annually, half of which is wasted compared to what is achievable, with associated adverse

environmental impacts. Assuring total building performance (which includes health, comfort,

and productivity in addition to operating expense such as energy costs) is a priority in an

increasingly competitive world. Achieving this goal requires a careful examination of the process

by which buildings are designed, built, and operated. A life-cycle perspective on how

information is managed in the building sector provides useful new insights and opportunities for

achieving performance potentials.

To address these challenges we have launched the "Building Performance Assurance" project.

Much of the initial proof-of-concept exploratory effort has been funded by internal R&D funds

at LBNL. Members of the Energy and Environment Division teamed with colleagues in the

Information and Computer Sciences Division to pursue this initiative. The immediate goal of the

project was to initiate the development and standardization of an interoperable set of tools that

enhance building performance by facilitating information transfer throughout the building life cycle. These tools are individually optimized to respond to the specific needs of each phase of

the building's life, but are linked by a shared information infrastructure, the Building Life-Cycle

Information Systems (BLISS). Our overall project strategy was to develop workable, cost- effective prototype solutions to assuring building performance as a springboard for creating

building industry interest in these concepts and then developing future private sector

partnerships to implement our complete vision.

Our initial effort has focused on the conceptual development of BLISS and the development of a

series of prototype tools: a tool for capturing Design Intent, a Chiller Commissioning tool kit to assist in the process of verifying and documenting installed chiller performance, and a Performance Evaluation and Tracking Tool, which incorporates a chiller emulator and data

visualization module. In this exploratory project we focused our efforts on chiller system

performance, beginning in the design phase and extending through commissioning and operations.

We are also using the other tools already under development, such as the Building Design

Advisor. In order to ground the proof-of-concept in reality, all of the software models under

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development have been driven by measured data from Soda Hall, a newly occupied building on

the U.C. Berkeley campus. As part of this project we have added additional instrumentation to the existing building energy management system and have tapped into these data streams

(approx. one gigabyte per month) as needed by our software tools. In addition to the tool

development efforts, we have created a computer-based mockup and videotape that demonstrates

key elements of our entire BLISS vision and have held a series of meetings with utilities,

manufacturers, building owners, and government agencies, all with prospective interests in the

successful completion of this effort.

Tool Development Projects

A brief overview of each of these efforts is given below. More information can be obtained from

the references and by contacting the author.

Building Life-Cycle Information Systems, BLISS. The goal of this effort is to create a software

infrastructure that can be used for information sharing across disciplines and can be used to link

interoperable software tools throughout the building life cycle. The project has three major

elements: (1) to specify the distributed software architecture, (2) to build a life-cycle database,

and (3) to develop a mechanism to capture and update "design intent" throughout the life cycle

(see below). The distributed systems architecture describes how various building software

components communicate and the database schema specifies the structure and semantics of the

database. An initial version of this software will be built as an extension of the Building Design

Advisor data model (see below). In order to be sure that our work is truly interoperable with

industry efforts to create a standardized building model, we will make this software consistent

with the evolving software specification from the International Alliance for Interoperability

(lAI).

International Alliance for Interoperability, lAI. Only a small fraction of buildings are designed

using computer-based energy simulation tools, such as DOE-2, in part because of the time and

effort needed to enter descriptive and performance data. Much of this needed information already

exists in other building design tools (e.g., CAD tools contain the required geometric data) but it is not readily accessible since there is no agreed upon procedure for sharing such information

between tools. In the building industry, the goal of "interoperability" means concurrent access to project/building information and information sharing: a single building model that is shared by all participants in a building's design, construction, and use. Interoperability supplants the current

sequential data exchange; information is no longer lost in the process. Data compatibility across applications and platforms is no longer an issue. Software users will benefit from enhanced

communication among disciplines and across project teams, reduction of inconsistencies from

decisions made by different disciplines, and direct links of CAD data to non-CAD applications.

The industry will see major cost savings through more efficient information management, tracking

of project/building decision-making, and the ability to add to previously made decisions. The

benefits of an interoperable ftiture are clear—the challenge is how to get there.

In the fall of 1994 LBNL joined 1 1 private sector companies, each a major force in the building

industry, and formed an alliance whose goal was to bring interoperability to architecture,

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engineering, construction, and facilities management. A 10 month intense development effort

culminated in the creation of a demonstration of the potential benefits of software interoperability at the AEC Systems Show in Atlanta in June, 1995. LBNL participated in the

demonstration with the Building Design Advisor (BDA), DOE-2, and Radiance, which were

simulated in use in a fully interoperable building design environment. After the demonstration,

the private alliance of 1 2 companies was reorganized as the non-profit International Alliance for

Interoperability (lAI), which now has 70 US members and 200 additional members in new

chapters in Europe and Asia.

lAI's main task is to define, publish, and promote Industry Foundation Classes (IPCs). IPCs

comprise a library of commonly defined software "objects" that depict building components,

features, and events, and which can be shared by diverse applications throughout a

project's/building's life cycle. All IPCs are to be defined by the lAI and are open; i.e., not owned

by any vendor. They are to be implemented incrementally, and would continually evolve to meet

industry needs. lAI has recently published version 1 .0 of IPCs, which contains the reference

object model definition (IPCs), IPC conformance criteria, IPC implementation guidelines, and

specifications for model exchange requirements. 25 companies have committed to developing

software that will be IPC compliant. Prototypes will be demonstrated in the fall of 1996 with

initial products available in 1997. If lAI can successfully accomplish its goals and become a de

facto new industry standard, it opens the possibility that all energy-related tools will be able to communicate and share information with each other, as well as with the CAD, cost estimation,

and facilities management software that is at the heart of the building industry. This has the

potential to significantly enhance the impact of energy and environmental tools on building design

and operations.

Goal of Industry Foundation Classes (IFC)

Now Future Pigure 1 . Industry Foundation Classes (IPC) will allow the building profession to share a single

project model, thus facilitating the use of interoperable tools.

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IFC Vendor Implementation

ALLIANCE

"PUBLIC"

IFC DEFINITION

SOFTWARE VENDORS

"PROPRIETARY"

IFC IMPLEMENTATION

REFERENCE OBJECT

MODEL DEFINITION

CONFORMANCE

CRITERIA

IMPLEMENTATION

GUIDELINES

MODEL EXCHANGE

REQUIREMENTS SPEC

VENDOR "A"

.

1 IMPLEMENTATION

IFC MODEL

EXCHANGE

It VENDOR "C" IMPLEMENTATION

Figure 2. The framework for IFC is being developed by the lAI as a "public" activity. Individual

software vendors will then implement IFC in their proprietary software.

Design Intent Tool. This software tool will assist in documenting design intent as expressed in a

set of performance objectives that are initially generated during the early phases of design, but

then revised and altered in both planned and unplanned ways over the building life cycle. The

performance objectives can take the quantitative form of a performance metric with target values

or the qualitative form of a text-based descriptive statement. The rationale behind the initial decisions and later alterations, which is typically lost, will be archived by the software for later

retrieval as needed.

The design, construction, and operation of a building is a complex undertaking that spans many

disciplines over long time durations. Although virtually every element of the building life cycle

has become more complex over time, the building information management methods used to support and integrate the wide variety of project participants and their activities have not kept

pace. In current practice, the bulk of building design-related information is still documented and

communicated in the traditional forms of paper-based specifications and graphical drawings with

text armotations. Much valuable information, in particular the intent behind the myriad design

decisions made by all project participants, is altered or lost due to inadequate documentation and

poor information management.

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We have been examining the issue of documenting design intent from a Ufe-cycle perspective so

that this information can be made accessible to all project participants throughout the life cycle to better assure that a building achieves the functional and operational needs of its ovmers and

occupants. We have developed a formal methodology for identifying and documenting the

required building-related information. We then developed a prototype of an early vision of a

software tool for documenting design intent (1).

The prototype software assists in explicitly identifying and documenting the performance goals

(explicit global objectives, EGOs). An individual EGO may take the quantitative form of a performance metric with its target value or the simple qualitative form of a text-based descriptive

statement. We also specify Context Parameters which define the operating environment within

which the building has been designed to achieve the stated explicit global objectives; e.g., the

design day cooling load used to size an HVAC system chiller. A series of Design Rationale

Records document the basis for design decisions in which building components, systems, and

operation procedures are synthesized to achieve identified objectives under stated operating

contexts. A single Building Design Version is thus comprised of a complete set of objectives,

context parameters, design records, and other supporting information. The initial Building Design

Version then changes over time to reflect life-cycle variations of a building, which can include

alternative design solutions, the as-specified design that is sent out for construction bidding, the

as-built building, the post-commissioned building, and the building at various stages in its ongoing

operation. In the coming year this early prototype will be extended and tested using real building

data sources.

Figure 3. Screen image of Design Intent Tool objectives hierarchy.

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The Building Design Advisor (BDA) is a computer program that allows designers to quickly and

effectively use multiple analysis and visualization tools and integrate their output to support

informed multicriterion decision-making. The development of BDA started in FY94 with funding

from the Pacific Gas & Electric and Southern California Edison through the California Institute

for Energy Efficiency, as well as the US Department of Energy. The objective of the BDA

development efforts is to promote energy efficiency and environmental awareness in the design

of new buildings, particularly in the schematic design phase, by providing means for decisionmakers to analyze and evaluate the potential performance of their designs. Unless energy and

environmental benefits can be accurately predicted, along with other non-energy performance

aspects—such as comfort, esthetics, and economics—most building designers will not risk the

implementation of new energy efficiency strategies and technologies in their designs.

The currently available tools for accurate prediction of energy and environmental performance are very hard to use because they require preparation of complicated text files to describe the

building and its context and provide output in the form of numerical tables that are hard to review

and understand. Moreover, such tools use building modeling representations that are incompatible with each other and thus require multiple, specialized descriptions of the building

and its context. As a result, such programs are generally used only by experienced consultants for

large projects that can justify and support the high associated costs. Our initial goal is to move

these decision-making capabilities to the architect's office early in the design process and to make

its use cost-effective as viewed by designers.

To facilitate the integrated use of multiple analysis tools—such as DOE-2 for energy simulation,

and RADIANCE for lighting analyses and photo-realistic rendering—BDA uses a real-world,

object-oriented representation of the building and its context, mapped onto the specialized

representations of the analytical models linked to it. In this way, BDA shields building designers

from the modeling complexities of the individual analysis and visualization tools, allowing them

to concentrate on design decisions. BDA allows the user to quickly specify the basic geometric

attributes of spaces, windows, doors, etc. through a CAD-like Schematic Graphic Editor while it automatically assigns default values from a Prototypical Values Database to all non-geometric

parameters required for energy and other analyses. The default values are assigned based on

location, building type, and space type and can be reviewed and changed at any time using

BDA's Browser. Using the Browser, the user can select any number of input and output

(computed) parameters for display in BDA's Desktop for decision-making.

In addition to the Prototypical Values Database, BDA is linked to a multimedia Case Studies

Database that allows building designers to compare their designs to existing buildings and create an appropriate, realistic context to set performance goals and evaluate performance. The Case

Studies Database serves as an electronic magazine and supports the use of images, sound, and

video for enhanced coverage of buildings.

The major development effort to create a working prototype of BDA began in 1995 and a beta

version was released just after the end of the fiscal year. The release of version 1 .0 should occur

in late 1996. We have also started with initial development of new modules to extend the

functionality of the tool to environmental issues, cost issues, and expect to make BDA compliant

with lAI's object specifications. We are exploring the use of BDA as an educational tool, and

179
examining how the internet might be used to support BDA development, distribution, and

training (2).

Figure 4. Schematic diagram showing the Building Design Advisor software environment.

Computerized Chiller Commissioning Tools. The focus in this project is to explore the general

structure of commissioning tasks and their implementation, plus the development and testing of

commissioning procedures for one specific component, chillers, in a new, well-instrumented

building. Our prototype commissioning tool kit includes test procedures as well as software to

assist in the commissioning of chillers. The software contains a component library and test plans, and it archives results from the commissioning tests.

Commissioning is a set of processes to ensure that building components and systems are installed

and operated in an optimal fashion to meet or exceed design intent. Most buildings are not

commissioned in a structured manner, resulting in significant problems such as defeated energyefficiency strategies, incomplete control sequences, and poor documentation on as-operated

conditions. While recent LBNL analysis of the benefits of commissioning has shown it is often

cost-effective on energy savings alone, efforts to reduce costs are needed to encourage more

widespread use of commissioning processes and techniques (3).

Computer-based information technology is one approach to address the loss of information that occurs as a building moves from design to operations. We have developed a prototype chiller

commissioning tool to assist in the development, customization, execution, and archiving of

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commissioning plans. Our initial efforts have focused on chiller commissioning, since chillers are the largest single energy-using component in buildings with central plants. The first step in

applying the software is to describe the characteristics of the chiller components, such as chiller

size, type, design efficiency, flow rates, and operating temperatures. The software contains a

general description of chiller commissioning activities and a module to record specific test plan

methods, customized for a particular building. Laptop computers can be used to track changes to

test plans and collect data during plan execution. Test results are recorded and outstanding issues

and deficiencies are tracked to ensure that the chiller is ftilly ftinctional.

The procedures were tested on a 120,000 sq. ft. building on the U.C. campus. At the conclusion

of the commissioning procedures we obtain an updated performance model of the as-built

performance of the building, a model which is then used as the starting point to track building

performance in the operations phase, using the performance tracking tool described below.

Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4

Describe Customize Execute Record

Components Plan Tests Results

Component

Library &

Assemblies

Start-Up Tests

Functional Tests

Outstanding

Deficiencies

Test Results

Data Base

Long-Term Monitoring

Figure 5. The four steps of commissioning and the use of a computer-based chiller

commissioning tool.

Building Performance Evaluation and Tracking Tool, PETT. The focus of this project is the

development and testing of performance tracking tools, again focusing on cooling plants. The

bulk of the effort was in the development and calibration of a component-based SPARK HVAC

simulation model of our case study building to evaluate chiller performance. This model in turn

will be the starting point for a controls optimization and retrofit tool.

Measured HVAC time-series data are descriptive of the performance, but only under the strict boundary conditions that the building was exposed to during the monitoring (such as weather

181
conditions during monitoring, the control strategies that were applied, etc.). When one wants to estimate performance under other possible conditions, measured time-series data of the past is of

limited use. However, a dynamic model of the HVAC systems calibrated to monitored data can

facilitate such estimations.

PERFORMANCE EVALUATION TRACKING TOOL (RETT)

Compare to Simulated Data

Back to Main View Desktop .»

Run SPARK Model

Time Period to Compare

Month September I

Date \4 ] Year |1995 Hour 0

Length |i Months |

Parameters to Graph

XAxis

tons

YAxis

kW/ton

Print Graph

Printer Name

Soda Hall

1.5-

e1

1-

0.5-

50 100 150 tons

Figure 6. Measured and simulated data for the chillers of a case-study building.

A major objective during this phase of the project was to develop a prototype emulation tool

using a dynamic model of the chiller system to track system performance in a testbed building

and optimize chiller operations as required. We used the Simulation Problem Analysis Research

Kernel (SPARK) to build our emulation model. SPARK is an object-based differential and

algebraic equation solver that is well suited for detailed modeling of HVAC systems..

In our methodology, during the design phase, the HVAC model is built using the design

documents and manufacturer-supplied data on equipment performance. If the building is still not

built at this stage, it is possible to emulate several design options (such as different equipment

sizes, efficiencies, etc.), compare the energy performance of these different options, and feed

information back to the design process.

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During the commissioning phase, the SPARK model buih using the design data is calibrated to represent the dynamic behavior of the system as it actually performs. After the acceptance of the

building, time-series data on the HVAC variables are used to revise the SPARK model

parameters. At this point, the emulation resuhs and the real data from the building should be very

close.

Using the performance tracking options, data from the building can be compared to benchmark

data from other similar buildings, to historic data from the same building during other time

periods, or most significantly to the emulated data using the SPARK HVAC model. Deviations

of the building data from the simulated data may indicate problems in the HVAC system. At this

stage, this project is not aimed at pinpointing the source of such problems. While this in not a

diagnostics application, other related research projects are addressing those issues.

Options related to control strategy analysis facilitate changes to the control logic that is actually

used during the measurement and comparison of the emulated results to the actual measured data.

The environmental conditions and the building loads are maintained at the reported levels, but

changes are made on the control choices, such as temperature set points or equipment status. Although at this stage, these control strategy analysis options serve as a "what-if type of

analysis facility, capabilities here can be expanded to include optimization. In such an

application, the tool would return an optimal set of choices for all of the control options.

Summary

A series of projects are underway to provide a new set of tools that should make it far easier to create energy efficient, cost effective, sustainable buildings. A set of interoperable tools

addresses key decision-making issues in design, commissioning and operations. The development

of a Building Life-Cycle Information System, compliant with the emerging lAI specifications for

describing buildings, is seen as key to successful linkage of a series of interoperable tools that are needed if sustainable buildings are to become the norm, rather than the exception. The initial tool

development has been carried out in parallel with related tests and energy measurements in a

near-by building, to vahdate the initial process and tools.

A number of private and public enfifies have expressed interest in this approach. We are developing partnerships to cost-share further development of these tool kits. We are interested

in learning more about related efforts and exploring how such efforts might be integrated with this

project.

Acknowledgment: This work was supported by the Assistant Secretary for Energy Efficiency

and Renewable Energy, Office of Building Technology, State and Community Programs, Office

of Building Systems of the U.S. Department of -Energy under Contract No. DE-AC03-

76SF00098.

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References

A video of the software mockup is available. In addition to the technical reports listed below,

check our project web site for more information (http://eande.lbl.gov/BTP/BTP.html.

1. R. J. Hitchcock, "Improving Building Life-Cycle Information Management Through

Documentation and Communication of Project Objectives," CIB Proceedings Publication 180,

pp. 153-162. 1995. Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory Report LBL-37602, August

1995.

2. K. Papamichael, F. C. Winkelmann, W. F. Buhl, H. Chauvet, D. Collins, K. L. Ellington, J. LaPorta, J. Sadlier, S. Selkowitz, J. Thorpe, T. Trzcinski, "New Tools for the Analysis and

Design of Building Envelopes," Thermal Performance ofthe Exterior Envelopes ofBuildings

VI Conference Proceedings, December 4-8, 1995, Clearwater Beach, Florida. Lawrence

Berkeley National Laboratory Report LBL-36281, October 1995.

3. M. A. Piette, B. Nordman, and S. Greenberg, "Commissioning of Energy-Efficiency

Measures: Costs and Benefits for 16 Buildings," prepared for the Bonneville Power

Administration, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory Report LBL-36448, November,

1994.

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DIGITAL PERSPECTIVES IN ARCHITECTURE

Mieczyslaw Boryslawski, Assoc. AIA, President

View By View, Inc. San Francisco, California 94109

Associate Member of the American Institute of Architects

In this century, the computer has furthered the development of human beings more than

any other invention. It has helped the design profession to produce the unimaginable by consolidating insurmountable data available within the global village into tangible visual three

dimensional images. The computer, in light of its capacity to produce intelligent 3D environments, can expand the designer's visual aptitude and ultimately prepare the design community

for the next millenium. The explosion of hardware and software technology, combined with

increased affordability, has created a new digital information explosion, that of 3D computerbased modeling, rendering and virtual explorations of proposed designs.

Introduction

More and more, we are beginning to give greater consideration to the ways in wich we do

things. We have made some serious mistakes in " world building" and we can't afford any

more. Certain things which once seemed so desirable now appear down right dangerous and

discomforting. The automobile is one of the best examples. Not long ago more than eighty

percent of the population was rural, coming into town to do Saturday shopping. Now eighty

percent of the population lives in the city. Streets designed to accommodate the horse and

buggy have now become gridlocked and the number of automobiles has increased beyond any- ones wildest speculation.

We are now alerted to the fact that our human species is in need of conservation and that in

order to save our own place in the world we need to save all others as well. We seem to be the

only species whose role consists in defining ourselves. We spend our lives defining and redefining our place in nature

Today's high-tech tools allow ever increasing facility in this learning process. We are achieving

a new perspective of existence, a world view perhaps no broader that that of previous cultures,

but much more detailed. Our Architecture is being redefined by the tools we use. Objects cre- ation is no longer a barrier. The question "WHY?" is now more important than the question

"HOW?". We can now create visions of spaces and places so exact as to appear real. Shadows

are cast precisely as they would be from the real object. Colors and textures are taken from the

objects themselves, there are even devices which take advantage of the stereoscopic nature of our vision.

What do these new abilities portend? Frank Lloyd wright, in facing the challenges of the industrial age propounded a number of answers which are perhaps even more valid today.

He said, "/ do not believe any architecture in the time of commercialism, of industrialism and of

huge organization can be an architecture true to the spirit of those times unless it includes the use of all these great tools of modem life.

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By substituting the word "machine" with the word "computer" the following statement is quite

relevant today.

Mr. Wright went on to say: "In this day and generation we must recognize that this transforming force whose outward sign and symbol is the thing of brass and steel we call a computer, is now grown to the point that the artist must take it up, no longer to protest. Genius must dominate the work of the computer age. We cannot set it aside, although there is involved an adjustment to cherished goals, perplexing and painful in the extreme, and though the fires of longhonored ideals shall go down to ashes, they will reappear Phoenix-like, with new life and purposes.

"

This would seem to indicate that Mr. Wright foresaw an inevitable step in technology which

has not yet taken place and which only computerization can accommodate.

The use of the computer puts us on a new frontier, as we begin to publish rather than draw documents, we also begin to feel the need for a new level of information service, something more

akin to API or UPl or RUETERS. Imagine accumulated knowledge and experience at your finger tips the next time you design a building. Perhaps the days of designing a single building

irrespective of the environment is at an end. Perhaps hard copy presentation will soon take a backseat to three dimensional simulation. We will no longer be focusing our intelectual energy on the overall design process of the buildings but also on the global environmental impact that

such design practice might have.

Digital technology has become the infrastructure of the Internet Revolution which is one of the

most important significant technological achievements of this century. I personaly believe that

in the short term this technology will have a negative impact on our social fabric but over the

long run it will save our already fragile environment and will enrich the lives of all the children on this planet.

Help is now available on the Internet for architects and builders that need information on sus- tainable architecture and good environmental practice. All it remains is to embrace this technology for the good of this planet.

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Mieczyslaw Boryslawski, Assoc. AIA.

President and Founder of View By View Inc. was bom in Poland, educated in Europe, Africa

and the US in architecture, film, photography and construction project management.

He holds a degree in construction project management from the school of architecture,

University of Cape Town, South Africa, and is a adjunct professor at the California College of

Arts and Crafts, School of Architecture, teaching the state of the art in 3D digital architecture.

Boryslawski was involved in international architectural competitions on three continents, was a

guest speaker on digital architecture at the Smithsonian Institute, Washington DC, Global

Engineering Conference, Vancouver, BC. Canada and at the International Outdoor Advertising

Conference, Los Angeles as well as other major events. In 1992, Boryslawski together with the ALAS, initiated an international student design competition and was selected as one of the jurors. This competition was the first digital architectural

competition of its kind in the world. Boryslawski was one of the main sponsors of a five day

conference focusing on the digital technology in an architectural environment held at the Frank

Lloyd Wright Institute's Taliesin West.

His digital work is permanently on display at the Old Executive Building, The White House,

Washington D.C. and is being exhibited around the world.

Boryslawski together with CREST produced the "Greening of The White House" CD-ROM, a environmental project funded by the department of Energy.

Currently he is working on a virtual tour CD-ROM that will represent the entire architectural

history of the White House.

Boryslawski received an Award of Excellence in the International Competition and Exhibition

from The American Society of Architectural Perspectivists.

His work has received considerable attention in the international and local press, including TV

coverage.

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THE NARM SUSTAINABILITY MODEL:

DYNAMIC AIDS FOR ECOLOGICAL DESIGN

AND SUSTAINABLE COMMUNITIES

David A. Tice, President

North American Resource Management, Inc. P.O. Box 6777

Charlottesville, VA 22906

Abstract. North American Resource Management, Inc. (NARM) has developed sustainability

extensions to dynamic input-output models to provide comprehensive tools for local communities

and sustainable development projects. These tools enable communities, developers and planners

to:

(a) estimate the flow of resources and dollars between interdependent economic sectors and into

and out of the region, to assess community self-sufficiency, economic "leaks", development

opportunities and other aspects of sustainable development; and

(b) measure the full extent - the direct, indirect and the induced economic as well as environmental impacts of new sustainable development projects or other economic changes

in a region.

The NARM Sustainability Model is a set of extensions to IMPLAN to assist planners and designers

in several areas of sustainability, industrial ecology and ecological design:

• Tracing the Ecological Footprint - the NARM model allows users to follow the economic and

resource flows resulting from the product or service output of an economic sector, to track the

total direct, indirect and induced footprints.

• Sustainable Economic Development - the NARM model identifies the portions of a study

regions's economic resources that currently leave the region and opportunities to "plug the leaks"

to build local economies through energy and other resource conservation and efficiency measures.

• Closing the Loops ("Waste Equals Food*^) - the NARM extensions to IMPLAN estimate the

emissions, wastes and byproducts ocurring from the output of a particular sector, including the

direct, indirect and induced effects of the output. This information is critical for evaluating

environmental impacts, developing mitigation strategies and planning for industrial ecology

approaches such as zero emissions industrial centers.

• Impact of Sustainable Economic Development - closely related to traditional input-output

analysis, the NARM model adds features to enable planners to estimate the total economic and

environmental impact of the development of sustainable economic outputs.

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• The Missing Link of Sustainable/Ecological Design - the NARM model fills the gaps in most

studies of life cycle analysis (LCA), sustainable architecture and ecological design, by enabling

planners to evaluate the induced effects, including both economic and environmental parameters.

Sustainability and Industrial Ecology: The Missing Link

Communities, states and nations, as well as many private businesses, are expressing growing interest

in concepts of sustainable development. Sustainable design, though, as it has been typically defined

to-date, omits one element of the equation and, consequently, may not give the totally correct answer. Under current definitions, sustainable design, even if carried out to the letter on a specific

project, would miss significant ecological influences and impacts. The largest of the omissions

comes from failure to consider the economic transactions as they are distributed by a project,

including households. These effects, as integrally wedded to the project as the building materials

and energy demands directly attributable to the project, will vary, but can typically range in extent

from 50% to 300% as great as the direct and indirect effects themselves.

To examine the nature of this missing link, one should start by considering the recent definitions of

sustainable architecture. Ken Yeang (1), for example, establishes a framework for ecological design

that includes the designed system, its environment and the interactions between the two. He finds

that "the designed system requires continuous inputs of energy and materials, and makes outputs of

energy and materials into its environment."

The American Institute of Architects (2) workshop on "Sustainable Development and Public Sector

Architecture" defined that: A sustainable architecture must be usable by all people and appropriate in terms of

scale, use, cost, materials, and technologies. There should be no depletion of

renewable resources caused by the choice, provision, and use of materials....

Sustainable buildings should be healthy, require little energy and maintenance, and

not add significantly to existing or future waste streams.

The Green Building Council (3) concerns itself with improving environmental and energy efficiency

of the "whole building environment", defined as "site development, the things that go into planning

for buildings, wastewater treatment, water use, construction design, planning and operation of the

building, and the use of building materials."

Embodied in these definitions is the related emerging field of industrial ecology. According to Hardin Tibbs (4), industrial ecology "involves designing industrial infrastructures as if they were

a series of interlocking man-made ecosystems interfacing with the natural global ecosystem."

Robert Ayres (5), a key advocate of industrial metabolism, limits its definition to "material flows

in a modem economy."

Most sustainable design projects, however, fail to take into account the total flows and processes.

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particularly the induced economic effects: the impacts created by the distribution of financial

transactions attributable to the project as they move through the economy, locally, nationally and

globally. Yet, there are now valuable tools for estimating induced impacts - tools that can identify

cost-saving opportunities to achieve sustainability goals.

Moving beyond thinking in terms of two-dimensional circular systems

Sustainable design correctly moves the discussion of processes from the linear (acquire-use-waste)

system to a two-dimensional circular system, where waste becomes food for the same or other

processes. Much of the effort has focused on life cycle analysis, reduction of embodied energy, the

sustainable management of raw materials such as forest resources and related techniques. This

effort is a major advancement in the development of sustainable systems.

Ecological systems are more than two-dimensional circular systems. If we are truly going to model

our buih environment and our industrial processes on sustainable ecosystem principles, we need to look at the project ecology in three dimensions.

The third dunension requires encapsulating the circular process flows to include all of the indirect

and induced flows of materials, services, and payments that are attributable to the direct activities

of the project. Input-output (I/O) analysis offers a framework by which these impacts can begin to be understood, including identification of opportunities for developing a sustainable program.

Key to this analysis is the recognition that a given project triggers, in both the construction and

operation stages, significant household expenditures for both products and services, which, in turn,

have environmental impact. Omission of consideration of sustainability issues surrounding

household purchases of products and services can be a substantial gap in achieving full sustainability

for a project. The broader implication is that the financial flows, perhaps best examined in an I/O

analysis, are as critical to a sustainability program as the product flows. If one only looks, for

example, at the issue of obtaining lumber from a site in which sustainable forestry is practiced and

by which embodied energy and related demands are minimized, an enormous part of the puzzle is overlooked:

A. The indirect flows of materials required in the extraction, manufacturing, transportation,

construction, operation and disposal of the lumber;

B. The financial flows through the various economic sectors as the expenditure for lumber

triggers a watershed of financial transactions for other goods and services, each of which has

its own environmental impact and sustainability concerns;

C. As the original transaction for lumber translates into personal income among dozens,

hundreds, or thousands of households, the manner in which that income is subsequently

spent on goods and services is as much a part of the environmental impact of the proposed

project as the cutting of the trees that directly yield the lumber.

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The actual impacts of a project

Picture a new project. It can of any type, but, for the sake of example, let's say that it is a retail store. The store owner comes to an architect and requests a design based on the principles of

sustainability. The architect assembles a team which follows the definitions stated above perfectly, so perfectly in fact that they have succeeded in being able to take the store off the grid - it will

actually be a net exporter of electricity which it can sell to the local power company, offsetting the

embodied energy and indirect energy demands that were calculated by the design team for the

building materials and construction process^. Consequently, by their calculations, there will be no

net increase in energy demands as a result of the project.

Similarly, the site plan relies on infiltration devices and constructed wetlands for stormwater

management. The store even has a cistern to capture rainwater from the roofs and re-use the water

for irrigating the native species landscaping around the building. The stormwater system is designed

so that the runoff from the site will mimic the natural hydrologic regime for the area, with no

increase in peak flows or deterioration of water quality. By tracking the extraction and processing

of building materials, the team has also been able to assure the owners that no significant water

quality deterioration will occur from the construction phase of the project.

State-of-the-art water flow equipment is used within the store so that potable water demand will

only be a fraction of what would occur from conventional store design. And so on, for all of the

important potential environmental impacts of the store - the team has developed a plan to minimize

the adverse direct and indirect impacts, creating cyclical systems which eliminate waste, achieving

zero emissions for nearly all environmental parameters.

The store opens. One year later, the owner reconvenes the design team. Seated at the table with the

design team are representatives of the power company, environmental agencies and scientists who

have been monitoring the environmental parameters in the region around the store. In this fictional

story, the opening of this store is the only thing that has changed in this region in the past year. Yet,

when the scientists present their findings, instead of there being no net effect on power demands,

there has been a significant increase in energy usage. The water plant operator reports that water

usage is higher than the design team forecast. The state division of soil and water conservation

reports that they identified non-point stormwater runoff to be the source of significantly higher

nitrogen and phosphorus loadings in the streamflow than what had been occurring before the store was built. The air quality board reports that emissions from automobiles, despite the implemented

plans of the design team, far exceed the team's impact estimates at the time of project approval.

"What happened?", the owner demands to know. "All the monitoring systems that we have in place

at the store show that the design features are working at least as well as planned. We monitored the

indirect impacts; where is the excess coming from?"

Follow the money

The design team did a perfect job in designing a zero emissions system, but left out one whole part

of the equation. They considered the flow of all of the resources in and out of the project, through

its life cycle, except one: money. The business employs x number of people, supporting households

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who, in turn, demand electricity, use water, affect stormwater runoff at their homes, drive

automobiles, and use the income they receive from the plant to purchase other goods and services

that have respective environmental impacts. The plant itself pays other suppliers which utilize a

portion of those funds to pay their employees and support households, with cumulative

environmental impacts. The business, as well as all of its employees and suppliers (and their

employees and suppliers), transfers significant financial resources to local, state and federal

governments in the form of taxes, which are in turn used to support schools and other public

facilities with attendant environmental impacts. The cumulative effect of all of these induced

impacts as a result of the distribution of funds from the transactions triggered by the plant

throughout its life cycle can be enormous, in some cases dwarfing the direct and indirect effects of

the plant itself.

Removing an industry

Another way to look at the significance of the induced effects from the economic activity

attributable to a project is to examine what happens to environmental parameters as a result of a

plant closing in an area. Let's say that in the town of Designville, the owners of the large bakery

decide to close the store. No business of any type has stepped in to replace it. Look at air emissions

in the area - add up the drop in air emissions from the bakery (the direct effects), from the reduced

production of the bakery's suppliers and from the reduced traffic (the indirect effects) that may

result. Add in any other air quality benefits that can be determined using the sustainable design,

industrial ecology and life cycle analysis definitions commonly reported today. They still fall short

of the actual drop in emissions because they fail to take into account the induced economic effects

of the plant closing - the reductions attributable to reduced household incomes and expenditures due

to the loss of economic activity by the bakery.

Water usage has similarly fallen more than what can be directly or indirectly attributed to the plant.

Energy use experiences far greater drop in demand. And so on. The answer, of course, is that the

induced economic effects of the plant's closing are responsible. The plant no longer supports as many households and other entities financially. Thus, the households and entities cut their own

consumption of resources and modify environmental impacts far greater than what can be accounted

for by the direct and indirect effects alone. Of course, one can argue, correctly, that oftentimes such

a reduction in income may force households or individuals to engage in more environmentallydestructive behavior rather than less, but that ignores the point of this example.

Drawing from one's own effects

One can easily see the impact of this from his or her own personal experience. My household is

either partially or wholly supported by my employer. The net environmental impact of the activity

of the employer, then, must take into account the respective environmental impact of my household,

because, absent the employer, either my household would not be here and there would not be that

impact or I would be working for a different employer for whom my impact would be attributable.

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Seen in a slightly different way, if my services were replaced by a machine, it is easy to see how the

life cycle effects of that machine are a part of the environmental impact of the plant. But, if the

plant elects to spend its financial resources on my human services rather than a machine, the impact

of my activities on the environment are just as much a real impact attributable to the plant as that

ofthe machine. As Gregg Easterbrook (6) might put it, nature doesn't care whether the molecules

modifying the environment come from a machine or from me - it's still an impact. Yet current

sustainable design projects generally ignore these induced economic effects.

To the three dimensions we should add a fourth, to incorporate the dynamics of change brought by

time. The sustainability concerns of the initial projects have largely treated the earth's resources as they exist at a static point in time. It is dangerous to base sustainable design for projects that may

have dozens or hundreds or indefinite years of lifespan, based on a static interpretation of the natural

system that we have at this instant. Without even considering anthropogenic impacts on future

natural systems, those systems are so dynamic that it is virtually guaranteed that the environmental

influences of a particular project built today will be significantly different when it is 20, 40, 60 and

more years of age. Consequently, the processes that we develop for assuring the sustainability of

a project itself must be dynamic, to adjust to changes in the natural systems, changes in the inputoutput elements of the economy of which the project is a part, changes in our understanding of both

the natural and economic systems, as well as changes in technology.

The NARM Sustainability Model

While the dynamic economic flows rippling through the region and the globe may appear too

complicated to evaluate, they are real nonetheless, and any exercise in sustainable design which

ignores it will fail to achieve true sustainability. One cannot leave out such a large element of an

equation and expect to find the right answer.

Fortunately, there are some emerging tools to simplify the process of including induced effects in

sustainability considerations. The NARM sustainability model, being developed by North American

Resource Management, utilizes economic input-output modeling to examine the direct, indirect and

induced effects of a project through hundreds of economic sectors, locally as well as globally. The

model consists of "sustainability extensions" to the IMPLAN input-output database, providing

resolution at a county or city-level or any larger region. As briefly described by Clark, et al (7), this

system is being developed as part of the Haymount project, a new sustainable community along the

Rappahannock River in Virginia.

The IMPLAN Model

The complexity of the web of economic activity created by even a simple change in final demand

is often beyond the perceptual capacity of individuals - multiply this simple change by the thousands

of transactions involved in an industrial design or sustainable community and the task seems overwhelming indeed. Fortunately, systematic analytical techniques are available to make

meaningful assessment of the multiplier effects within the region of study, as well as between the

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region and the rest of the country and between the region and the rest of the world.

One of the most rigorous methods of determining the multiplier effect is by I-O analysis, originally

conceived by Wassily Leontief in the 1940's, for which he received a Nobel Prize in 1973. Leontief

devised 1-0 analysis as "a practical extension of the classical theory of general interdependence

which views the whole economy . . . as a single system and sets out to interpret all of its functions

in terms of the specific measurable properties of its structure." Leontiefs input-output analysis has

become a standard tool in economic accounting around the world.

Input-output analysis was developed to analyze the distribution of materials and transactions among

the industries and other sectors of an economy. It is one of the best methods for capturing the

secondary and induced effects of a change upon a regional economy.

The IMPLAN (Impact Analysis for Planning) model was originally developed by the USDA Forest

Service to estimate the regional economic impacts of National Forest management plans. Further

developed by the University of Minnesota and, more recently, private firms, IMPLAN has evolved

into a powerful comprehensive input-output model for analysis of nearly any form of economic

change or interaction between industrial sectors. The model is based upon a national matrix

describing the interrelationships between 528 economic sectors in any particular economy.

IMPLAN uses county specific data to produce input-output models on a regional or local scale as small as one county or any aggregation of counties within the U.S.

Input-output tables offer numerous mechanisms to view the interlocking connections between

economic sectors in a region and related measures that can be useful in analyzing the sustainability

of a region or in developing a program to foster development shaped by ecology.

IMPLAN can provide a holistic estimate of the total benefit of local sustainable development efforts,

including the direct and induced changes to income and employment in up to 528 economic sectors.

It is, thus, a more comprehensive measure of the economic impact of sustainability projects than

reliance on direct impacts alone.

The analytical component of input-output models involves algebraic processing of data organized

in the form of matrices. Each matrix contains entries that represent the amount input or output by

one economic sector to another. In the "Use" matrix, for example, the rows of the matrix define

commodities and the columns define the industries or economic sectors of a region. The data cells

of the "Use" matrix, then, represent the amount of that row's commodity that is "used" (input) by

that column's industry or economic sector. Similarly, the "Make" matrix contains datacells that

represent the amount of that commodity "made" (output) by that industry. Other matrices define the

byproducts, the interdependent transactions between the economic sectors and other measures of the

structure of the regional economy. For example, the Transactions Table, the heart of an input-output

analysis, estimates the flow of transactions, representing the industry-by-industry structure of a local

economy. The regional transactions table defines the expenditures that each industry or economic

sector makes when purchasing materials and other inputs from each of the other industries or economic sectors.

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In IMPLAN, households are included as an economic sector, to allow measurement of the induced

effects. Household data is derived from estimates of Personal Consumption Expenditures, collected

by the U.S. Department of Commerce.

Besides the regional data, IMPLAN also provides estimates of the imports and exports flowing

through the region, also for each of the 528 commodity groups and 528 economic sectors. Exports

are estimated in two categories - to the rest of the U.S. and to the rest of the world.

Economic - Ecologic Integration

The integration of economic I-O models with ecological models has been conceptualized in

numerous papers, such as Isard (8), Daly (9), Duchin (10), Forsund (11), Ayres (12), de Oliveira

(13), Breuil (14), Lave et al (15), and Cobas et al (16). These attempts generally embraced the direct

and indirect effects of the economic process - the NARM Sustainability Model attempts to add the

"missing link" by including the induced effects and allowing analysis at the county or project scale.

Datacells of economic matrices generally define the data in terms of dollars or other monetary value.

Combination economic-ecological 1-0 models, like the NARM Sustainability Model, include both

economic data (expressed in dollars) as well as natural resource or environmental data (expressed

in tons, BTUs, and other units). The environmental data is constructed from large databases of the resource and energy use and pollutant emissions of each economic sectors. Most, though, not all of these databases are from U.S. sources, including the massive Toxic Release Inventory of the U.S.

Environmental Protection Agency (200,000 reporting industry sites listed by economic sector and

more than 1500 categories of emissions), energy use data collected by the U.S. Census of

Manufactures, tiie World Bank's Industrial Pollution Projection System, and other databases. There

are recognized limitations with each of these databases - not the least of which is that they surely

do not accurately reflect resource use or emission levels for indirect and induced effects in other

countries - but continued evolution and improvement of the databases are planned.

In the IMPLAN model, a study region can have matrices that are 528-by-528 in size (528

commodity groups and 528 industries or economic sectors). While there are survey methodologies

for building the databases for these matrices, they would be laborious to construct to that level of

resolution - fortunately, that data is already developed and available for these core matrices for the

U.S. and for many other countries. With this model of the economy, the full range of inputs can be

traced and the environmental impacts assessed - a level of analysis not presently possible in any

other life cycle analysis method.

The NARM sustainability model is an evolving system based on years of experience with economic

I/O analysis as well as environmental impact assessment. As such, it embraces the most advanced

practical applications of both fields. The applications on a particular project can include:

• Improve marketing of sustainability projects by estimating the full (direct, indirect and

induced) economic and jobs effects of the proposed projects. Many sustainability projects

have not done as well as they could in promoting the full economic benefits that the projects

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would bring to a locality, because they generally report only the direct and, sometimes,

indirect effects. In actuality, due to the multiplier effect, a sustainability project will add

much more to the income stream and employment of an area, when the full effects are considered.

• Identification of the economic flows into all of a region's sectors as a result of a project,

providing the opportunity to address sustainability programs with those economic sectors

that are affected.

• Determination of resource imports in a local area and identification of opportunities to increase the portion of resources derived from sustainable local production, possibly

providing additional jobs and economic stimulus to the project area.

The Direct Requirements Table displays the expenditures required in each sector of the

economy for every dollar of output for a particular industry. The table columns thus define an industry's expenditure pattern for a given study area. This table offers powerful

advantages for studies of sustainable development. One of the primary uses is to project a

sector's expenditures for any level of total output. For example if some factor were to

increase demand for x product or material by $100,000, the y sector would have to increase

its purchases of z product or service by an amount projected in the model. Further, the table

defmes the portion of the activity's inputs that are currently being met only by imports from

outside the study area. Other input-output tables further define the commodities or services

involved in this importation.

• Identify local economic renewal opportunities. One of the often-cited goals of sustainability

and regional economic development, as in recent community energy and economic

development workbooks by the Rocky Mountain Institute (17), is to "plug the leaks", to reduce the export flow of dollars for nonrenewable energy, materials and services for which

a region is not self-sufficient. The NARM Sustainability Model estimates, for the direct,

indirect and induced effects, what portion of the inputs are currently purchased locally versus the portion that is imported; in other words, what portion of the local economic

resources currently "leak" from the region and where those "leaks" occur. This information can then be used (outside of the model) by the community to identify opportunities to capture that money through improving resource efficiency (such as energy conservation

measures) or expanding local businesses, making that money available to enhance local

sustainability.

• By showing the separate direct, indirect and induced effects, aid decisionmakers in finding

the most profitable or cost-effective points on which to focus to achieve environmental goals

(for example, if the goal is to achieve an X% reduction in some parameter of water

pollution, the model, by showing the water pollution effects from the direct, indirect and

induced impacts of the proposal, can help identify the sectors and activities that could

achieve the goal at the least cost).

As it evolves, the NARM Sustainability Model provides additional mechanisms to model

197
sustainability aspects of architectural and engineering projects. The available input-output

components of the system are already providing a wealth of information to improve environmental

stewardship and sustainable development.

Literature Cited

1 . K. Yeang, Designing with nature: the ecological basis for architectural design. McGraw-Hill,

New York, 1995.

2. American Institute of Architects, "Sustainable development and public-sector architecture:

results of a one-day workshop", AIA, Washington, D.C., 1993.

3. M. Italiano, "The U.S. Green Building Council's initiatives to improve the energy and

environmental efficiency of the 'whole building environment'" in Proceedings. U S. Green

Building Conference - 1994. NIST Spec. Publ. 863, U.S. Dept. Comm., Washington, D.C.,

1994.

4. H. Tibbs, "Industrial ecology," Whole Earth Review 77, pp. 4-19, 1992.

5. R. Ayres, "Industrial metabolism: material flows in a modem manufacturing economy" in

Proceedings. National Academy of Engineering Workshop on Industrial Ecology/Design For

Environment. Woods Hole, MA., 1993.

6. G. Easterbrook, A moment on the earth. Viking, New York, 1995.

7. J. Clark, N. Payton and D. Tice, "Architecture, ethics and the environment, an exploration

of nature and the human spirit" in Proceedings. U.S. Green Building Conference - 1994.

NIST Spec. Publ. 863, U.S. Dept. Comm., Washington, DC, 1994.

8. W. Isard, "Some notes on the linkage of the ecologic and economic system," Regional

Science Association Papers. Vol. 22, pp. 85-96, 1968.

9. H. Daly, "On economics as life science," J. of Political Economics. Vol. 76, pp. 392-406,

1968.

10. F. Duchin, "Industrial input-output analysis: implications for industrial ecology,"

Proceedings of the Natl. Academy of Sciences. Vol 89, pp. 851-855, 1992.

11. F. R. Forsund, in Handbook of Natural Resource and Energv Economics. Elsevier:

Amsterdam, 1985.

12. R. Ayres, "Industrial metabolism: theory and policy," in The Greening of Industrial

Ecosystems, edited by B R. Allenby and D.J. Richards, Washington: National Academy

Press, 1994.

198
13. L.F.S. de Oliveira et al, Risk Analysis. Vol. 7, No. 3, pp. 321-328, 1987.

14. J.M. Breuil, "Input-output analysis and pollutants emissions in France," Energy Journal. Energy Economics Educ. Found., Inc., Cleveland, OH., 1992.

15. L.B. Lave, E. Cobas-Flores, C. Hendrickson and F. McMichael, "Using input-output

analysis to estimate economy-wide discharges," Env. Sci. & Tech. . Vol. 29, No. 9, pp. 420-

426, 1995.

16. E. Cobas, C. Hendrickson, L. Lave and F. McMichael, "Economic input/output analysis to aid life cycle assessment of ectronics products." IEEE Intl. Symposium on Electronic and

the Environment Proceedings. Orlando, FL., pp. 273-278, 1995

17. M.J. Kinsley, Economic Renewal Guide. Rocky Mountain Institute, Snowmass, CO., 192

p., 1996.

199

VERTICAL INTEGRATION — the key to creating optimum real estate environments —

Kevork M. Derderian

President & CEO

Continental Offices Ltd.

MERITT Corporation

Executive Summary

Cross-functional team design optimizes the integration of building systems and components. The result of

this design process is a vertically integrated building—a building which achieves optimum energyefficiency, operating performance, and inhabitant comfort. Yet, buildings are rarely built using crossfunctional team design or vertical integration despite the enormous long-term costs that inefficient designs

impose on building owners and occupants.

The reasons for this widespread market feilure have to do with the traditional framework within which

buildings are designed, financed, constructed, and operated. The traditional design process is typically

linear and fi-agmented and encourages the application of obsolete rules of thumb rather than those oftrue

engineering. As a result, this traditional process yields designs that are more expensive to build, more

energy-rehant than necessary, and less comfortable for the inhabitants.

The ability to design, build, and operate properties that achieve maximum energy savings, facilitate

optimum operating levels, and offer healthier, more responsive work environments is becoming increasingly

important to remain competitive in the real estate market. Investments in education and incentives that

encourage architects, designers, and engineers to 'team design' integrated solutions are critical to alter the

traditional design process.

Even with a capable, well-organized design team, coordinating the interactive process required to achieve

vertical integration is difficult. In 1994 the MERITT Alliance was initiated to develop a systems approach

201
to cross-functional team design and the vertical integration process. A year-long study ensued. Industry

leaders General Electric, Carrier Corporation, Herman Miller, and Rocky Mountain Institute collaborated

with more than 20 other companies including service providers, manufacturers, project managers, energyefficient technology researchers, land planners, building operators, managers and owners. The result was

"the MERl l l approach"—a process to achieve vertically integrated, financially feasible real estate

solutions resulting in the optimum work environment.

202
VERTICAL INTEGRATION

The MERITTApproach to providing optimum real estate environments.

Kevork M. Derderian

President & CEO

MERITT Corporation

The MERITTApproach

Vertical integration is the key to creating work environments that achieve exceptional energy efiBciencies

and aesthetic comfort. Designing work spaces for the end user—form following function—saves both

human and produced energy and increases worker productivity and quaUty—both of which can dramatically

affect the company and property's bottom line.

. A vertically integrated approach in commercial ofiSce design is the pillar to creating a high-performance

environment. The premise of the vertically integrated approach is that the whole is greater than the sum of

its parts Vertical integration is the process by which afully coordinated, multi-disciplinary, crossboundary design team effectively interweaves building components and systems into a durable, yet

flexible, environment that ultimately results in optimum building performance, energy-efficiency, and

worker comfort andproductivity.

The MERITT Approach furthers the process by incorporating "green" design principles that dramatically

affect the end users' work environments, as well as building and operating costs. This approach also

directly affects real estate costs by improving space utilization 1 1 to 12 percent through better design.

203
The MERi ri Study began with each primary construction/building discipline represented. Industry

leaders—MERTTT Corporation, General Electric, Carrier Corporation, Herman Miller, and Rocky

Mountain Institute—brought the reach and resources to facilitate and support the process. Seven divisions

of GE—Supply, Plastics, Motors, Electrical Distribution & Controls, Capital, Lighting, and Human

Resources—contributed their expertise. Carrier Corporation focused on heating, ventilation and air

conditioning systems. Herman Miller provided emerging work trend research and intricate knowledge on

designing form to function. Rocky Mountain Institute participated as the "energy conscience" to ensure

that cross-cutting issues critical to the performance of the system were appropriately addressed. MERITT

Corporation coordinated the process.

These primary partners collaborated with more than 20 companies to laimch and participate in the

MERITT Study. The study ensued with participants representing each primary building disciphne

mechanical, electrical, elevator, structural, civil, and HVAC engineers; project managers; motors, glass,

and Ughting specialists; energy-efficient technology researchers; land planners; operations and maintenance

personnel; and building managers and owners—^working together to develop a financially feasible, systems

approach to deliver the world's most energy-efficient commercial and office work environments.

Areas of concern included energy efficiency, resource conservation such as native landscaping and

recyclable building materials, indoor air quality, lighting, building systems, operations and maintenance,

furnishings, and worker productivity. Interactive forum/brainstorming session formats fecilitated the

process with the MERITT Study participants from each primary discipline working across boundaries to

develop the MERITT Approach, a fully coordinated, vertically integrated systems strategy. In preparation

for the official study launch, participants were given volumes of iirformation on energy-efficient design,

environmental principles, and associated processes, as well as the known resulting benefits of energy

savings and increased worker productivity.

204
These experts learned about the technological changes that had advanced energy-efficient products into

mainstream commodities. They began analyzing, evaluating, and incorporating these technologies into

their systems and began to discern the effects oftheir actions and decisions on other systems and

components. Participants were encouraged to engage in boundaryless behavior—to step outside their areas

of expertise, to ask questions, and to probe for answers. The goals of the study were defined:

1) develop a systems approach to effectively deliver an environmentally principled real estate solution;

2) determine the financial feasibihty of such a solution; and,

3) maximize energy-efficiencies by incorporating state-of-the-shelf technologies.

Underlying these study goals was the vision of creating a unified Alhance comprised of diverse disciplines

capable of crossing boundaries and letting go of traditional thinking to create a systems approach to deliver

the optimum work environment.

Interdependence of Elements

The process of vertical integration—efiFectively weaving interrelated elements and building components

requires effective cross-disciplinary interaction. To describe the relativity of some ofthe primary system

components, we begin with one of the greatest influences on energy savings and productivity—lighting.

Lighting, one of the most significant components affecting worker productivity and comfort, consumes

about 40 percent ofthe electricity used in commercial office buildings. Natural daylight is the most

desirable and economical form of lighting. The type of windows selected can greatly affect the quantity

and quality of hght that permeates the office space, as well as the amount of supplemental lighting needed.

Other, often overlooked features that impact office lighting are fiimiture, finishes, colors, and reflective

surfeces. These affect:

a) the iirflux of natural light,

b) the effectiveness ofthe natural light, and

205
c) the amount and type of supplemental lighting; i.e., task, overhead, pendant lighting, that will be used

to optimize the benefits of a) and b).

With 40 percent of commercial building energy typically consumed by lighting and another 10 percent or

more used to cool the heat generated fi^om lighting, complementing natural light with an energy-efficient

lighting system offers significant savings opportunities. Energy-efficient lights use less than 50 percent of

the energy that typical commercial office lights use. Incorporating reflectors into the light fixtures can

reduce the actual number of lamps required by half, further reducing the amount of energy consumed.

Energy-efficient lamps and ballasts also last longer and generate less heat. The results of enhancing natural

light with energy-efficient lighting are significant energy savings and reduced HVAC requirements.

Under the MERITT concept, the windows selected to maximize the influx of natural daylight are also

evaluated for their affects on the HVAC system. Poorly insulated windows are responsible for about 25

percent of all heating and cooling requirements. High-efficiency windows let in visible light, but block

infi-ared radiation (heat) eliminating excessive heat gain and better protect against heat loss. Knowing the

interdependence ofthese components and their affect on the HVAC system allows the system to be "rightsized" based on the lighting heat load, estimated equipment heat load, and the integrity of the windows, and

offers an opportunity for significant capital savings as well as long-term energy savings.

A right-sized HVAC system often means smaller duct work which can increase ceiling heights and provide

the option of increased windowline. An efficient HVAC system also allows for pumps, fans, and motors to

be right-sized so they can run at peak efficiency levels. HVAC system heat pumps, motors, and drives are

significant draws on the base building electrical load. The annual cost of electricity for a typical motor is

three to four times greater than its capital cost. High-efficiency motors with adjustable speed drives can

save about 25 percent of motor energy. Efficient motors also reduce heat load which, in turn, affects the

206
HVAC system capacity requirements. A well-designed system not only provides greater energy-efficiency,

but allows more precise control of temperature and ventilation, as well as providing a quieter indoor

environment.

In addition, a building automation control system (BACS) can reduce costs even more by taking advantage

of a building's tendency to store heat and change temperature slowly. For example, in the summer the air

conditioning can automatically be shut down in the late afternoon hours allowing the temperature to rise

slowly, but not to a level that exceeds the comfort range until well after the building is no longer occupied.

The building can also be precooled, taking advantage of lower electrical rates and cooler night air which

reduces air conditioning use during the day when rates are at their peak. Preventive maintenance ofthe

systems can also save considerable money and discomfort—avoiding any emergency repairs or downtime

during critical business hours.

Typical electrical systems are configured to plate loads specified by equipment manufacturers rather than

to the actual loads the equipment requires to run. This approach oversizes the electrical system and the

resulting plug loads. Appropriately sizing the electrical system ofthe building, as well as the plug loads,

creates significant savings in initial capital expenditures for both the electrical and HVAC systems.

Weighing the affects ofthese interrelated components—hghting, windows, fiimiture, BACS, and HVAC

systems—one to the other and to the interactive system as a whole is indicative of the balance and

effectiveness wrought by the vertical integration process.

MERITT Study Results

The synergism of interactive design and the elegant solutions that result are apparent in the daily movement

of a building, its systems, and its inhabitants. A good analogy to the process of vertical integration is the

weaving of fabric. Properly woven, the fabric has great strength and durability, yet is flexible to adapt and

207
change. Planning for flexibility is a better,

^more economical option than oversizing equipment and

incurring increased operating costs for the long-term.

The results ofthe MERITT Study conclusively proved that the vertical integration process deUvers an

economical solution in both retrofit and design-build case studies. Applying the vertical integration process

resulted in a more comprehensive retrofit and 81 percent greater energy savings than conventional methods.

Similarly, applying this approach to new construction resulted in significant reduced energy costs—$ .62

per square foot—with less than a $1 variance in initial construction costs.

208
Retrofit Case Study

Cost Comparison

MERITT vs. Conventional

$ 453.405

or $3.56/SF

Chillers Lighting BAGS Motors Drives TOTAL

Cost-to-Savings Comparison

MERITT vs. Conventional

81 % Greater

BB Conventional

113 MERITT

7.9% Greater Cost*

Retrofit Cost Energy Savings

*MERITT additional components : BAGS, Drives & Motors

209
New Construction Case Study

Construction Cost Comparison

Conventional vs. MERITT

Initial Construction

Energy Cost/Energy Savings

Conventional vs. MERITT

Energy Costs Energy Savings

210
Conclusion

There are a seemingly infinite number of ways to increase energy-efficiency and incorporate environmental

principles to economically and ergonomically benefit commercial/office real estate. A well-integrated and

interdisciplinary effort by a design team—vertical integration—is often the key to producing buildings that

achieve exceptional energy efficiency and aesthetic comfort. In most cases, even with a well-ordered design

team, it is difficult to find anyone coordinating the entire interactive system. The MERl l 1 Alliance, a

collaborative effort of industry leaders—MERITT Corporation, General Electric, Herman Miller, Carrier

Corporation, and Rocky Mountain Institute/Green Development—provides such services.

The MERITT AUiance coordinates and provides a systematic approach to vertically integrated real estate

solutions to maximize the benefits imique to this process—a process that evolves as knowledge and

technologies advance. The benefits of the MERITT Approach include:

211
high-performance work environments,

reduced operating and construction costs,

^' healthier work environments, —improved air quality —better lighting

increased productivity,

reduced maintenance costs,

increased equipment life span, and

improved end-user/employee morale.

The MERITT Alliance provides team assembly, project management, process mapping, timeline

coordination and management, assembly & dissemination of operating handbook, and environmental

consulting services. In addition, MERITT provides handbooks on equipment and recommended preventive

maintenance procedures to optimize the efficiency of the equipment, the life span of the equipment, and to

facilitate the productivity of the maintenance staff. Operating manuals for end users are also available to

better educate them on more effectively maintaining the comfort oftheir work environments.

Kevork M. Derderian initiated the MERITT Signature Alliance in an effort to provide turnkey

development and retrofit services based on environmentally sound practices to corporations seeking the optimum work environment. Mr. Derderian 's 20 years experience in commercial real estate provides a

sound basisfor implementing such a program. For more than nine years as President and ChiefOperating

Officer, Mr. Derderian has overseen the business operations including property management, leasing, construction and general contracting, architectural services, and corporate activities ofContinental

Offices Ltd. In addition to his active involvement in educating commercial real estate executives ofthe environmental andfinancial benefits ofvertically integrated design andprocess, Mr. Derderian serves as Chairman ofthe Municipal and Real Estate Tax Committee and also on the Executive Committeefor the Chicago Civic Federation. Mr. Derderian can be reached at 312.663. 7242.

in
THE SCIENCE & ART OF "DAYLIGHTING"

BRINGING NATURE'S LIGHT INSIDE

Philippe C. Dordai

The Hillier Group

ABSTRACT. Daylighting refers to efforts to harness natural light, primarily to increase a building's energy efficiency, but also to bring light inside. In the past, architects have had a fairly nar- row range of traditional choices in solving the problem of daylighting. Relatively high mainte- nance solutions have been utihzed in Europe, resulting in long, thin (and expensive) buildings.

Efforts to control daylighting and increase energy efficiency in this country have focused on providing various types of reflective coatings on glass.

Recent developments in daylighting techniques can be classified as either "passive", which rely

upon a particular, fixed configuration of building elements or "active", which involve devices

which track and react to the position of the sun. In general, passive solutions, even when costeffective, are less precise. Meanwhile, new technologies such as photo sensitive coatings and

micro-laminated coatings on glass promise modified active systems without the costs associated

with the moving parts of the present systems. Ultimately, the ideal solution is one which is fully

integrated and uses dayhghting to supplement artificial hght in a dynamic and energy efficient

way.

As the advantages of using natural light become more apparent - not only as measured by

increased energy efficiency but in terms of improved morale and productivity - daylighting will

become a more integral part of building design. At the same time techniques to provide such

solutions will become increasingly sophisticated and precise.

Background

The problem of how to bring daylight into buildings is not new. In the past, architects have had a fairly narrow range of

traditional choices in solving this problem, relying on light

shelves, skylights, louvers and clerestory glass, etc. (FIGURE

1-2) to selectively admit natural light. The solutions have usually relied upon some manipulation of the depth of the building's exterior wall and have commonly been viewed by owners as high maintenance solutions because of the time required

to keep them adjusted and clean.

Skylight

Diffusing Egg Crate

Ceiling

figure 1

In Europe, where energy costs are high, daylight control

GiasfBiS!:k'^''' devices have always been a part of exterior wall systems. Reflective cenmg

Deep-set windows, exterior blinds and hght shelves are high- -.X..-';-^ "^v er maintenance solutions, especially items Uke blinds, which ught^

j , "^^iffusing loujers are either manually adjustable or motorized from the inside of 1 the building (FIGURE 3). European architects have also figure 2

213
"solved" the daylighting problem by designing longer and

thinner (and relatively more expensive) buildings to insure

that daylight is available to all. These buildings are more

expensive to build because their long thin shape (FIGURE

4A) requires more exterior wall square footage to enclose the

same volume of space than in a more conventional rectangular

or square building (FIGURE 4B).

In the United States, the control of daylighting and the exteri- or walls energy performance has focused on either providing

various types of reflective coatings on glass to control different parts of the solar spectrum or on adding insulation to the

existing envelope to reduce thermal transmission. Early coat- ing methods were rather crude and operated by reflecting most

of the light off the mirror glass facade (FIGURE 5). This

allowed for much less daylight and produced a sense that one was looking out of the building through dark sunglasses.

Subsequent combinations of tinted glass and special coatings

have resulted in more sophisticated glass which rejects the

infrared band of the spectrum (heat) and permits the visible

portion to pass through the glass. These types of low-E glass

coatings also work to admit heat into the building during the

winter months and reject heat during the summer months.

Recent Developments in Daylighting Techniques

In general, the recent daylighting solutions we are discussing can be categorized into two groups; "passive" solutions,

which rely upon a particular, fixed configuration of building

elements to redirect the sun, and "active" solutions, which

consist of moving parts which react dynamically to the position of the sun to optimize the daylighting in the building.

Passive Solutions

A series of recent technological advances has further increased our ability to control the sunlight coming into the building

through the use of insulated glass. Almost all commercial

glazing (and the majority of new residential glazing) makes

use of insulated glass, which consists of two pieces of glass

with an airspace in between (FIGURE 6). Using this

approach, louvers, prisms and light transmitting fibers are placed inside this airspace with the goal of taking sunlight and

the brightness of the sky, and diffusing it or redirecting it upwards to the ceiling surfaces of the building (FIGURES 7

& 8). Such passive solutions have the advantage of integrating all of the light redirecting surfaces within a protected air- space where maintenance can be virtually eliminated. The

figure 3

<soo

t2Sl

...

40,000 SF

A. 1160' perimeter m too'

^0,000

ho'

figure 4A

figure 4B

B. 800' perimeter

12 3 4

Outboard Inboard

(V'l.G.) figure 6

214
prism or louver must be set at a certain angle which

will be determined by the siting of the building and

the direction which the glazing faces. Many of these

solutions can be adjusted and optimized for their particular orientation for different parts of the world and even for different faces of the building.

While these means of redirecting and controlling

daylight are effective and low maintenance, the fact

remains that a static solution to a dynamic source

(the sun) is not the most optimal solution because

any solution involving a static component must work

to a hypothetical median condition which cannot

take full advantage of the changing position of the

sun.

Passive solutions which redirect sunlight within a

building, while requiring little or no maintenance,

promise to provide substantial energy savings over

previous traditional solutions; however, these solutions only provide a part of the overall daylighting

solution for a particular project.

Active Solutions

The challenge of harnessing the sun is one that has

fascinated people for centuries. An ideal solution is a device which allows for constant adjustment to the

position of the sun as it changes through the day and

the seasons. Today such a precise response would

require motors, moving parts and a relatively high

degree of maintenance. The most elaborate of these

devices (heliostats) track the sun continuously using

a computer program (FIGURE 9). Such solutions,

although extremely precise and efficient, are expensive, and often require a great deal of attention and

maintenance. Their payback in terms of life cycle

cost is relatively long. However, new technologies,

such as photo-sensitive coatings (similar to what is used on sunglasses) and micro-laminated coatings on

glass promise modified and more cost-effective

active systems.

Daylighting Applications: Case Study

Any successful daylighting project will be the result

of an intensive collaboration between the client, the

architect (who will integrate the various components

figure 7

figure 8

figure 9

figure 10

215
of the solution), the daylighting, hghting, and electrical engineering consultants (who will refine cind test the various components of the system), and the manufacturers (who will actually provide the various

products which make up the system). Like most

architectural systems, daylighting requires a high

degree of coordination between different disciplines

to realize the energy paybacks potential in the

design. This also means that the design of the interi- or and the exterior of a building must work in concert. Too often, because the work of the architect has

been divided between the inside and the outside of

the building, the interior concept (lighting, furniture

configuration and placement, partitions, colors and

finishes) does not recognize and reinforce the dayhghting concept, which is part of the exterior building design.

Hoffmann LaRoche

The challenge at Hoffmann LaRoche's New

Building One was defined by the dimensions of the

building floor plans required. Given a building of

185 feet by 185 feet (FIGURE 10), how could the

structure be designed to maximize available daylight?

The first step was to plan the building with a central core and maximize the available perimeter for daylighting. The core was offset within the square plan

to reduce the building depth at the north side where

daylight penetrates the least and to accommodate the

design of a skylit atrium stair to the south of the core (FIGURE 11) at the location where the plannable

space is furthest from the exterior wall.

The next step was to undertake studies, using a computer modeling program, to provide a visual image

that allowed the designer to see where the sun would

be at various times of the day and year. These "snapshots" (FIGURE 12A & 12B) of the building's components were taken from the point of the view of the sun and were referenced constantly throughout the

design of the daylighting system. These pictures were supplemented with a site analysis that modeled

adjacent buildings (FIGURE 13) so that the shading

and reflecting effect of adjacent structures on the

new building could be evaluated.

figure 13

216
Our initial design concept had proposed two basic

approaches to daylighting. The first utilized exterior

and interior light shelves (FIGURE 14) to redirect

sunlight onto the ceiling; the second utilized large

two-story "work studios" (FIGURE 15) which

because of their tall glass openings would admit daylight deep into the center of the building (FIGURE

16). These interior spaces were conceived of as functioning like a traditional lightwell - which would

normally be enclosed by exterior wall construction.

This concept demonstrated the advantages of utiliz- ing interior construction for the boundary wall of the

hghtwell, a relatively economical alternative to the

original exterior lightwell. The ultimate design

evolved into a multi-component system in which

each part plays a significant role in the overall

scheme. The components of the system are as fol- lows:

• A 9'-6" interior ceiling height within a 13'-0"

floor-to-floor height to permit the design of an

indirect lighting system and maximize the depth

of the daylight penetration.

• A ceiling surface and adjacent wall finishes

designed to optimize brightness and reduce glare

and contrast.

• A series of twelve, two-story high work studios

designed as team work rooms and as overall sources of daylight for the adjacent office areas. These rooms are equipped with interior light

reflectors and computer-controlled roller shades

to again redirect sunlight and skydome light onto

the ceiling of these two-story spaces.

t

A

figure 14

ligure 15

figure 16

A largely open interior plan with no perimeter

offices to maximize the penetration of daylight

into the building.

A well-designed artificial uplighting system

which can be dimmed and can handle input from

a daylight sensor.

figure 17

217
An exterior wall system which takes advantage of

setbacks and projections to shade the vision glass

wherever possible (FIGURE 17).

A light reflector/sunshade which acts to redirect

more daylight into the transom glass and hence up

onto the ceihng (FIGURE 18).

A sophisticated transom glass which uses acrylic

prisms precisely angled to redirect sunlight and

skydome light up onto the ceiling of the space

(FIGURE 19). figure 18

As each component was developed and fme-tuned,

computer analysis played an essential role in providing the engineering back-up to what were originally

schematic concepts (FIGURE 20). These tools were

also used to keep the client informed about the dayhghting solutions and gave the design ideas a quantifiable foundation upon which they could be evaluated.

None of the components alone could have done the

job. Together they provide an integrated system in

which each piece provides a part of the daylighting

design, one which permits the occupants to turn off

their lights, save energy, and enjoy higher quality

lighting.

And so a fully integrated solution developed out of our

analysis of the problem at Hoffman LaRoche (FIGURE 21). It involves a complete system which uses

daylighting to supplement artificial light in a dynamic

and energy efficient way.

The design, predicated on a compromise between a

static solution and a dynamic source (the sun), has an

analogy in another, more conventional architectural

problem, namely that of rain drainage. Think of how

well most pitched roof and gutter systems work to drain roofs. Add a rain barrel at the end of the downspout and you have a relatively good model in terms of

a passive system which handles an active and variable source acting upon it (rain). To work properly, all the

components must be designed together and be in bal- ance. The pitch of the roofs must be steep enough to

b ^ ij;-38 IL-2.MB e-ri 9,2-

figure 19

figure 20

218
get good drainage but not too steep as to cause

the rain to pick up such speed that it overspills

the gutter at the eaves. The gutters must be

sized to handle a downpour but not so big that

they pick up debris and constantly need cleaning out. At the end, the collector must be sized

to provide the right size reservoir. Like the

rain collection system, the sun collection system must be conceived of as a closed loop,

from its source to its end point.

Daylighting has become increasingly important in buildings, in part because it is recognized as relating to the improved morale and

productivity of a building's occupants. In Europe, building codes in some countries have

required that all office workers in buildings

have access to some daylight. While increased

productivity is more difficult to measure among white-collar workers, planning specialists are incorporating surveys into their

research to attempt to quantify those productivity gains. Coupled with more measurable

cost-saving effects of bringing natural light

into a building, daylighting should become a more integral part of building design, and techniques to provide such solutions will become

increasingly sophisticated and precise.

figure 21

The author would like to acknowledge the contributions of the manufacturers who participated in

the design of Hoffmann-La Roche project, OkaSolar and Figla. Special thanks to Mike

Moribayshi and his team of technical experts at Figla for their exhaustive analysis and support in

the refinements made to the louvered glass. David Norris of Carpenter Norris Consulting was the

daylighting consultant on the Hoffmann-La Roche project and contributed some of the analysis

drawings in the article. Finally Don Raney and all of the participants from Hoffmann-La Roche

contributed the vision and patience required to implement such innovative solutions to daylighting.

• O.S. GOVZRKMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1996-417-392/67910 219



Technical Publications

Periodical

Journal of Research of the National Institute of Standards and Technology—Reports NIST research and development in those disciplines of the physical and engineering sciences in which the Institute is active. These include physics, chemistry, engineering, mathematics, and computer sciences. Papers cover a broad range of subjects, with major emphasis on measurement methodology and the basic technology

underlying standardization. Also included from time to time are survey articles on topics closely related to the Institute's technical and scientific programs. Issued six times a year.

Nonperiodicals

Monographs—Major contributions to the technical literature on various subjects related to the

Institute's scientific and technical activities. Handbooks—Recommended codes of engineering and industrial practice (including safety codes) devel- oped in cooperation with interested industries, professional organizations, and regulatory bodies. Special Publications—Include proceedings of conferences sponsored by NIST, NIST annual reports, and

other special publications appropriate to this grouping such as wall charts, pocket cards, and bibliographies.

National Standard Reference Data Series—Provides quantitative data on the physical and chemical

properties of materials, compiled from the world's literature and critically evaluated. Developed under a worldwide program coordinated by NIST under the authority of the National Standard Data Act (Public

Law 90-396). NOTE: The Journal of Physical and Chemical Reference Data (JPCRD) is published

bimonthly for NIST by the American Chemical Society (ACS) and the American Institute of Physics (AIP).

Subscriptions, reprints, and supplements are available from ACS, 1155 Sixteenth St., NW, Washington, DC

20056.

Building Science Series—Disseminates technical information developed at the Institute on building

materials, components, systems, and whole structures. The series presents research results, test methods, and

performance criteria related to the structural and environmental functions and the durability and safety

characteristics of building elements and systems.

Technical Notes—Studies or reports which are complete in themselves but restrictive in their treatment of

a subject. Analogous to monographs but not so comprehensive in scope or definitive in treatment of the subject area. Often serve as a vehicle for final reports of work performed at NIST under the sponsorship of

other government agencies.

Voluntary Product Standards—Developed under procedures published by the Department of Commerce

in Part 10, Title 15, of the Code of Federal Regulations. The standards establish nationally recognized

requirements for products, and provide all concerned interests with a basis for common understanding of

the characteristics of the products. NIST administers this program in support of the efforts of private-sector

standardizing organizations.

Order the following NIST publications—FIPS and NISTIRs—from the National Technical Information

Service, Springfield, VA 22161

Federal Information Processing Standards Publications (FIPS PUB)—Publications in this series

collectively constitute the Federal Information Processing Standards Register. The Register serves as the

official source of information in the Federal Government regarding standards issued by NIST pursuant to the Federal Property and Administrative Services Act of 1949 as amended. Public Law 89-306 (79 Stat. 1127), and as implemented by Executive Order 11717 (38 FR 12315, dated May 11, 1973) and Part 6 of

Title 15 CFR (Code of Federal Regulations).

NIST Interagency Reports (NISTIR)—A special series of interim or final reports on work performed by

NIST for outside sponsors (both government and nongovernment). In general, initial distribution is handled

by the sponsor; public distribution is by the National Technical Information Service, Springfield, VA 22161,

in paper copy or microfiche form.