DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

BUREAU Of STANDARDS

George K. Burgess, Director

TECHNICAL CONFERENCE OF

STATE UTILITY COMMISSION

ENGINEERS

MARCH 2 AND 3, 1923

MISCELLANEOUS PUBLICATIONS—No. S8

DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

BUREAU OF STANDARDS

George K. Burgess, Director

MISCELLANEOUS PUBLICATIONS No. 58

TECHNICAL CONFERENCE OF

STATE UTILITY COMMISSION

ENGINEERS

HELD AT THE BUREAU OF STANDARDS

WASHINGTON, D. C, MARCH 2 AND 3, 1923

PRICE, 15 CENTS

Sold only by the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office Wasliington, D. C.

WASHINGTON

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE

1924
LIST OF ENGINEERS

The following engineers of

attendance at the conference

I. F. McDonnell, Alabama.

A. E. Knowlton, Connecticut.

J. HousTouN Johnston, Georgia.

Eael L. Carter, Indiana.

A. B. Campbell, Iowa.

Wm. M. Black, Maine.

H. C. Wolf, Maryland.

W. F. Steouse, Maryland.

S. A. CovELL, Maryland.

J. A. CuLLEN, Maryland.

L. Ellis, Maryland.

R. Y. Gildea, Maryland.

u

ATTENDING CONFERENCE

public service commissions were in

J. L. Wicks, Maryland.

Manfred K. Toeppen, Michigan.

D. Waldo White, New Hampshire.

Philander Betts, New Jersey.

C. R. Vanneman, New York.

R. H. Nexsen, New York.

Ward Snook, Ohio. A. I. Thompson, Oklahoma.

James Imboden, West Virginia.

C. B. Hatden, Wisconsin.

E. G. Runyan, District of Columbia.
CONTENTS

Page

Foreword 1

FiKST Session (Morning of Friday, Maech 2, 1923)

Opening address, by Secretary Herbert Hoover 2

Public-utility work of the Bureau of Standards 3

Electrol5'sis and its mitigation, Burton McCollum 4

Safety engineering and safety codes, M. G. Lloyd 4

Gas engineering, W. M. Berry 4

Electric light and power service standards, J. F. Meyer 5

Telephone service standards, F. A. Wolff 5

Discussion 5

Grading utilities on conformity to service rules, by C. B. Hayden, service engineer, Railroad Commission of Wisconsin 7

Grading of public utility service, by J. Howard Mathews, service engineer, Illinois Commerce Commission 19

Second Session (Afternoon of Friday, March 2, 1923)

Discussion of papers on grading of utilities 24

General review of the inductive interference problem, by Burton McCollum 28

Discussion of problem of inductive interference 40

Grounding of electrical circuits, by M. G. Lloyd 48

Discussion of grounding of electrical circuits 49

Third Session (Morning of Saturday, March 3, 1923)

Discussion of grounding of electrical circuits (continued) 53

The public interest in heating value standards for gas, by S. A. Covell,

assistant engineer, Maryland Public Service Commission 55

The public interest in heating value standards for gas, by C. R. Vanneman, chief engineer. New York Public Service Commission 59

Discussion of papers on heating value standards for gas 64

Report of committee on organization 68

Conservation of natural gas, by James Imboden, chief engineer, West

Virginia Public Service Commission 69

Conservation of natural gas, by Ward H. Snook, inspector, power wire,

Ohio Public Utilities Commission 74

III
3^
TECHNICAL CONFERENCE OF STATE UTILITY COMMISSION ENGINEERS

HELD AT THE BUREAU OF STANDARDS, WASHINGTON, D. C, MARCH 2 AND 3, 1923

FOREWORD

For more than 10 years the Bureau of Standards has been giving

active study to various problems connected with the operation and

regulation of public utility services. This work has been done in

cooperation with utility companies, as well as city and State officials

who are concerned with these problems, but as the practice of exercising control of utilities through State commissions has spread, the

bureau's relations with such commissions have naturally become

more and more important. While these relations have been very

cordial and mutually helpful, it has become evident that there

should be provided a more effective means of cooperation between the

bureau and the engineers of the various commissions. It has also

been recognized as very desirable that engineers of commissions

have some regular means of making contact with each other and discussing problems of mutual interest.

In connection with the revision of the National Electrical Safety

Code, representatives from seven State commissions visited the

bureau in December, 1922. This opportunity was taken to hold an

informal meeting to consider the best method of procedure for calling a larger conference. In accordance with decisions then reached, ar- rangements were made for a general conference of State commission

engineers to be held at the Bureau of Standards.

This conference met March 2 and 3, 1923, and its proceedings are herein reported in abbreviated form. It is hoped that this partial

report will serve to give a wider usefulness to the important papers

presented at the conference.

One of the most valuable features of such meetings is the opportunity to compare experience gained in different localities. In the judgment of those who attended this conference its success justified plans

for future meetings of a similar nature at which some sessions should be

devoted to problems in which the commissions and the bureau have

a joint interest, while others might be assigned to matters with which

the commission engineers must deal, but which fall outside the province

of the bureau. As is indicated in this report, a representative committee was appointed to arrange for the next meeting without creating

any formal organization. The bureau has been glad to have the opportunity of inaugurating these meetings, and trusts that they will

develop into an effective means for furthering cooperation in the

technical and engineering work of the various commissions.

George K. Burgess,

Director, Bureau of Standards.

1
FIRST SESSION (MORNING OF FRIDAY, MARCH 2, 1923)

The first two sessions of the conference were held at the Department of Commerce Building. The opening session was called to

order at 10 o'clock by Secretary Hoover, who spoke as follows

Gentlemen : You are responsible in some measure for calling this

conference. It has been suggested by utility engineers that some such

conference should be called, and it is the policy of this department

in all matters to endeavor to set up measures of cooperation with

various bodies with which the department must come in contact in

one way or another. We have a feeling that the field of utility regulation presents many problems that must be solved by joint action.

This department has no regulatory authority of any consequence. It

is not looking for authority. It is looking for the best solution of

engineering problems by means of cooperation with other public

service bodies. The problems that you have to deal with are problems

of an intensely technical character, but they have a very definite

bearing on public utility service and must have translation into en- gineering terms, and ultimately into money. If we can organize

some sort of definite basis of cooperation, we shall feel that we have

made material advancement for both sides.

You will, of course, understand that the Bureau of Standards has

two separate functions, not very precisely defined, but the first of

these is in the field of standardization and the second in the field of

research on physical questions. Its work in standardization or determination of various standards, units, and conditions of their use

is familiar enough to you. As this industrial country of ours goes

on inventing one thing after another, the engineers have to go on

with the work of standardization. This is the basis not only of technology but also of the protection of the public. The units and

standards used in the measurement of gas and electricity, as well as conditions of their use when aj^plied to all sorts of public utilities,

require a certain amount of conference and consideration, because

many of these units must be translated into charges.

There are also the other matters of investigation and research.

The research j)roblems go into questions of the best mixture of gas,

electrical inductive interference of various kinds, electrolysis, and

other problems of this nature on which the bureau is constantly en- gaged, and that research work largely comes up to us from the public

utility organizations, from the operating corporations, as well as the

States and municipalities. Often, in fact, the bureau is called on to

act as advisor in questions of this character, more particularly with

the public utility commissions than any other bodies.

We have thought then from the many cases where the bureau has

been called upon to act as a sort of umpire by various commissions

and others that it would be well if we could have this conference

and general discussion, in order that we may have a better basis of

cooperation with you—the engineers of these commissions. I want

to express my appreciation for your coming here and meeting with

2
CONFERENCE OF STATE UTILITY ENGINEERS 3

us. We are all more or less interested in engineering problems,

and the Bureau of Standards is fundamentally an engineering or- ganization, I feel that whenever and. wherever it is possible to do

so, we should endeavor to develop the foundations of engineering

themselves. I do not believe any engineers' conference is fruitless,

because by the needs of their profession and by the character of their

work, engineers are men who deal in concrete and constructive

thought and waste fewer words and come more definitely along the

road of progress than any other group.

I have often been impressed with the exceedingly wide difference

between the engineering mind and the economic and political mind.

This department has to deal with economic problems to a very large

degree and there has resulted a tremendous discussion of pure and

applied economics, but the tendency of all economists and economic

science is to be purely qualitative. There is very little weighting

of their arguments in proportion to the dollars and cents involved.

Nine-tenths of all our problems are economic, but the economist

continues to weight the importance of a problem and the force of an

argument by a sort of relativity of the quantity of paper on which

it is written, whereas the fact is that 99 per cent of the weight may

be on the side of the one argument. The engineer is the only man

that ever has weighted these economic questions with actual quantities and actual values. He is the only man that has applied engineering to economics. We are all of us dealing often enough with

economic problems as well as problems in engineering construction

and others of that character. We are, by necessity of our profession

and the application of engineering methods to individual and national life, beginning to make a dent in the thought of economists.

If we can advance the solution of these economic problems, either

through legislation or otherwise, with a little engineering science

we will have made pretty definite progress.

This is to be a wide open conference to see whether we can be of

assistance to you with the greatest physics laboratory and physics or- ganization in the country, and the engineers that have to apply

physics in their relationship to public questions. With this I give

you a word of welcome and hope that you may make some progress.

Thank you.

PUBLIC UTILITY WORK OF THE BUKEAU OF STANDARDS

Mr. E. C. Crittenden, chief of the electrical division of the bureau,

gave a brief history of the development of the bureau's work relating directly to utility service problems, his conclusions being as follows:

In brief, in all the work mentioned the bureau has aimed to do

three things—first, to carry out experimental investigations of problems affecting the efficiency of operation, cost, and quality of service

rendered; second, to determine the facts with regard to actual practice; and third, to combine the results of laboratory investigations

and of field observations with the judgment of trained and experienced engineers so as to formulate recommendations or codes of practice which would safeguard the interests both of utility operators

and of utility customers.
4 BUREAU OF STANDARDS

It should be emphasized that the bureau does not seek nor desire

any authority to impose its findings on others. Its position as an

impartial fact-finding and advisory body is believed to be the most

useful one for a Federal Government agency in this field. Such

success as the work has attained in the past would have been impossible without the cordial cooperation of all interests concerned, including utility companies and their associations, as well as city and

State authorities. The earlier work was done largely with city

officials, but as the principle of State regulation has gained wider

and wider acceptance, our contacts have naturally shifted to the

State commissions.

More detailed explanations of five of the subdivisions of this

work were then given by the men in charge of the respective

sections.

ELECTilOLYSIS AND ITS MITIGATION, BY BURTON McCOLLUM:

Mr. McCollum emphasized the necessity of cooperation of many

interests in dealing effectively with this complex problem, and ex plained how such cooperation of utility interests with the bureau had

been obtained through the American Committee on Electrolysis.

In order to determine the most effective means of reducing damage by electrolysis, it became necessary to find better methods for

determining what the actual conditions of current flow were. Recent work of the bureau has, therefore, been directed largely toward

the development of new methods of electrolysis testing. This development has been so successful that field research work has lately

been resumed with a prospect of obtaining much more definite and

conclusive results than were previously possible.

Because of its close connection with electrolysis research, corrosive

action of soils on pipes and cables is also being studied on a large

scale by the same section in the bureau. Manufacturers of materials,

as well as utility operators, ai'e cooperating, and representative

samples have been buried in 46 typical soils distributed throughout

the country. This work will require a number of years, but should

eventually make it ]D0ssible to select more intelligently pipe material

that will be most economical for use in a given soil; protective materials are also being tested.

SAFETY ENGINEERING AND SAFETY CODES, BY M. G. LLOYD

The most important item in this work which is of direct interest

to utility commissions is the National Electrical Safety Code, particularly those parts dealing with construction of transmission and

distribution lines and the grounding of lines and equipment. These

parts of the code are now undergoing revision by a committee, which

will also draw up specifications covering electrical construction at

crossings of all utilities.

A pictorial edition of the code and an engineering handbook cov- ering line construction are also being prepared.

GAS ENGINEERING, BY W. M. BERRY

Gas-service regulations constituted the first specific utility work

of the bureau, and Circular No. 32, Standards for Gas Service, which
CONFERENCE OF STATE UTILITY ENGINEERS 5

is now in its fourth edition, has found very extensive use. More

recent work of the bureau has been directed toward greater safety

and efficiency in the use of gas.

ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER SERVICE STANDARDS, BY J. F. MEYER

In this field likewise Circular No. 56, Standards for Electric Service, has been found useful by many commissions. The second edition, now in press, has been prepared with the most cordial cooperation of utility associations, commissions, and city authorities.

A circular, somewhat similar, on " Street lighting " is being prepared, and some progress has been made on rules for central station

heating.

TELEPHONE SERVICE STANDARDS, BY F. A. WOLFF

The development of standards for telephone service is an intricate

problem which few of the commissions have yet actively taken up,

and it is one of the most recent of the bureau's undertakings in the

utility field. The work done up to the present time has been largely

studies of fundamental principles underlying the telephone art, collection of detailed information regarding telephone practice in vari- ous sections of the country, and the analysis of telephone service

from the standpoint of standards of service. These studies constitute a groundwork for the determination of standard measures for

quantity and quality of service.

Since October, 1921, a large part of the time of the telephone sec- tion has been spent on a survey of the Government's own telephone

service in the District of Columbia. Through this survey, which

has been made under the direction of the Bureau of the Budget and

with the cordial cooperation of the company rendering the service,

annual economies of $60,000 have been effected with no detriment

to the service. The survey has also given the staff exceedingly valuable information regarding many details of telephone equipment

and practice.

DISCUSSION OF REPORTS PRESENTEp BY BUREAU STAFF

Mr. ToEPPEN. I note that in all these statements of the bureau's

work no mention has been made of problems involving rates and

rate groupings or rate structures, nor are these problems included in

the program for the conference. These questions are among the

most urgent ones before the commissions, and it appears to me that

this meeting offers a good opportunity to discuss them. Would it

not be well also for the bureau to take up a study of the technical

aspects of rate systems? In my judgment this work would be of

very great value, esjjecially to the smaller utility companies as well

as to the commissions.

Mr. Chittenden. This is a question wliich has been much discussed

in years past. The bureau has deliberately refrained from extending its work into the field of rates because there has been at least a divided opinion on the part of the general public as to the advisability of the bureau's doing this kind of work. To undertake it
6 BUEEAU OF STANDARDS

would be a definite change of policy on the part of the bureau, and

whether or not such a change would be made would depend on the

unanimity of the demand for it. We, as public servants, feel that

we should do the things that the public asks us to do and which we

are qualified to do. If there Avere a general feeling on the part of

those we serve that the bureau should undertake work on rate systems, the bureau might do so, but it must be with the approval and

at the request of the interests whose cooperation we would need to

have before we could undertake the work with any propspect of

success. Mr. KisrowLTOTsr. I think the gentleman from Michigan has brought

out a point of interest to all of us. There are some important questions upon which the commission engineers would like advice, which

are not included in the present program. Perhaps we could stop for a moment and discuss some of these. I think it would be very helpful to get the commission engineers to organize, as loosely or as

closely as might he desirable, in order to furnish a basis "^for the

study of these very things.

Mr. Ckittenden. We have called this conference to find out just

how we can best help you, and whether future meetings are desirable.

Regarding the question of organization in this particular, we decided to omit it from the formal program because it was deemed

better to find out first the sentiment of the engineers in regard to

this matter. This was done, however, with the understanding that

if the engineers desired to organize and have future meetings, the

bureau would be very glad to cooperate. In this way questions in

which you are interested could be scheduled for discussion even though they were outside the scope of the bureau's work . Mr. Imboden. From what I have seen of the correspondence calling this conference together I have not been able to determine its

object other than to discuss these fixed subjects that are on the program. In line with the remarks which have been made I think it would be well, either through the help of the men I might know or through the help of the bureau, to carr}^ this thing further and to

have future conferences or have an association.

Mr. Crittenden". The chief business of this conference is to get an

understanding between ourselves and yourselves as to just what the

bureau can best do. It has not been definitely decided whether we

will continue to have these conferences in the future or not. That

depends on you. We at the bureau Avould certainly be glad if this

might be the inaugural one of a series of conferences held, perhaps, annually either here in Washington or at other places more

convenient for other engineers. Some sort of organization might

be formed to make plans for future meetings. You all know, of

course, that matters in which the utility commissioners are most

directly interested are effectively handled by their own national

organization, but our contact being more with engineers and our

needs being to get in touch with them, we have felt that a meeting

of engineers separately from the commissionei's would be a very

great advantage to us, and we think it would be an advantage to the

engineers themselves. Whether an organization should be formed

or not is for you to decide. Our purpose would be to do whatever

is of most help to you. I think it would be well for jou to appoint

a committee to decide if some more or less definite arrangements
CONFEEENCE OF STATE UTILITY ENGINEEKS 7

can be made for future meetings and to outline the work which it

would be desirable for the organization to undertake.

After considerable informal discussion, it was moved by Mr.

Knowlton that the Chair appoint a committee of four or five to get

together and report back to the conference as to the advisability of

forming an organization, with the idea that this committee get

thoughts and ideas from other members present and put something

definite before the conference.

The motion was carried unanimously. The following were named

on this committee: Messrs. Hayden (chairman). Wolf, Thompson,

Black, and Meyer.

Mr. Crittenden. We will now pass on to the subject of grading

of public utilities. The first paper on this subject will be presented

by Mr. Hayden.

GRADING UTILITIES ON CON^OIIMITT TO SESVICE RULES

By C. B. Hayden, Service Engineer, Railroad Commission of Wisconsin,

Madison, Wis.

The first oi-der issued by the Eailroad Commission of Wisconsin

prescribing certain requirements for gas and electric service was

made effective in 1908 ; the second order, which is now in effect, Avas

issued in 1913. Very soon after the last order came out, early in 1914,

the service department began grading the gas and electric utilities

and about a year or so later, in 1915 or 1916, the telephone utilities

were given standings. Up to this time we have not attempted to

grade the water utilities, although service rules have been in efl'ect for about four years. There does not appear to be any great advantage, as far as our department is concerned, in applying grades to the

service of water utilities, since the quality of service with different

municipal and private utilities does not vary to any large extent.

When this system of grading was started, it was not with the

thought of applying to the regulation of utilities the time-tried plan

of grading as used in our school system, where it is absolutely neces- sary in order to keep the pupils placed according to the achievement

and growth which each one makes ; nor was it our intention that each

utility would be expected to run the gamut of condition, passing and

honor marks through the various years of the course, with the possibility of failure up to the final graduation. It was clone because it afforded a means of keeping track of the utilities according to the

service standards which had been established and if possible to determine whether there was any increase or decrease in the degree of

compliance, from year to j'ear, of the utilities throughout the State or of any one in particular.

After use in tliis way for some time it was determined to try out

the scheme on the unsuspecting utilities, and it was foitnd that the

results were decidedly good. The utilities which received high rank

were very much pleased and in most every case put forth effort to

improve their position or maintain it at any event. To be sure, some

jealousy developed, but for the most part the best of feeling existed

and a friendly rivalry developed for the high-rank positions.

The engineers present will see that the rules do not all have the same

relation to the quality of the service, as, for instance, the meter-
8 BUREAU OF STANDARDS

history record has no particular bearing on service, while the pressure

conditions and meter-testing practice will determine in a large measure the satisfaction to the consumer. You will also realize that some of the rules are subject to quite a wide interpretation, and the inspector must make this decision. To

be sure that this will be worked out uniformly by the engineer inspectors (all of our inspectors are engineer college graduates), conferences have been held about twice a year, when sample inspection

reports are given; that is, each rule is given a percentage by each

inspector according to the report. These marks are then compared

and the differences argued out by the several inspectors until it is possible to have very good uniformity.

In order to avoid too great variation, the different rules are divided,

where this is possible, into their elements, and a portion of the percentage allowed for each subdivision. In the detailed explanation

of the markings this will be followed out. The weighting of the

various rules for gas and electric service was decided after a number

of conferences of all the inspectors, and we believe that the result is reasonably proper.

For gas service the heating value of the gas is given first place

in importance, pressure variation second, periodic meter tests third,

accuracy of meters and calorimeter equipment fourth, and the balance

of the rules of about equal value. For electric service, interruptions

and voltage variation hold first place, periodic tests second, accuracy

of meters third, and the balance of the rules of about equal value.

The following table gives a clear idea of the plan.

Table 1.Rules regarding gas and electric service

Rule Credit Credit

Gas Electric

Subject Gas Rank Electric Rank

14 Creeping meters.

Per

cent Per

cent

4 6

1 15 Accuracy of ineters ' 7 4 7 3

16 Installation tests... 5 5

2 17 Periodic tests 14 3 14 2

3 18 Meter-testing records 6 6 5 5

4 1920 Meter-testing equipment 5 6 5 5

5 Request tests 4 7 4 6

6 21 Referee tests 7 22 Meter readings on bills 4 7 4 6

8 Heating value... 21 1

9 Calorimeter equipment 7 4

23 Interruptions 18 1 24 Station records 6 4

10 25 I'ressure and voltage variation . 18 2 18 1

11 26 Pressure and voltage surveys 6 5 6 4 12 Puritv. . 4 7

13 Complaint records . --. 5 6

27 Information 4 6

Total _ 100 100

It is obvious that the instance would be rare of a utility which

could give perfect voltage or pressure conditions over its entire

system all of the time, but it is possible that such a condition could
CONFEKENCE OF STATS UTILITY ENGINEERS 9

exist, so that the full allowance of 18 per cent is seldom if ever

given. An anatysis of the company's records and of the inspector's

tests will give a good idea of the extent of poor-pressure conditions,

and penalties are imposed in proportion to the extent and of the

importance of the business affected. "With most of the rules, however, it is quite possible for the utility to fully meet the requirements

and receive full credit.

I will attempt to follow through the rules giving an explanation

of the reasons for the gi'ades given.

CREEPING METERS (4 PER CENT)

Rule 14. Electric.—No electricity meter which registers upon " no load

shall be placed in service or allowed to remain in service.

If the records show and from other evidence it is found that the

meters are over compensated on light load, in many instances, zero

will be given on this rule; that is, the inspector will determine

whether the full credit will be given or not.

ACCURACY or METERS AS FOUND ON TEST ( 7 PER CENT)

Rule 15. Electric.—No electricity meter shall be placed in service, or allowed

to remain in service, which has an incorrect register constant, test constant, gear ratio, or dial train, or which has an error in measurement in excess of 4 per cent between one-tenth and full connected load. Rule 1. Oas.—No gas-service meter shall be placed In service, or allowed to remain in service, which has an incorrect gear ratio or an error in meas- urement in excess of 2 per cent when passing gas at the standard test rate

of flow. This rule covers the general meter accuracy, and compliance depends on the percentage of meters found within allowable limits

of accuracy on test and whether or not the utility is prepared, with

competent and properly instructed employees, to give and does give

the best care to the meters.

INSTALLATION TESTS (5 PER CENT)

Rule 16. Electric.—Each watt-hour meter shall be checked for correct connection, mechanical conditions, suitable location, and accuracy of measure- ment at approximately three-quarters and one-tenth connected load by

comparing the meter with approved suitable standards in its permanent

position in place of service within 30 days after installation. Meters oper- ating at low-power factor shall also be tested at approximately the minimum power factor under which they will be required to operate. Meters

installed with instrument transformers or shunts must be tested jointly

with the transformers or shunts, otherwise the ratio of transformation of

the transformers or calibration of the shunts must be determined at

least once every five years. This applies like rule 14 only to electric meters, and a grade is

given depending on the number of installation tests made compared to the number of meters installed during the period.

PERIODIC TESTS (14 PER CENT)

Rule 17. Electric.—Each watt-hour meter shall be tested according to the

following schedule, and adjusted whenever it is found to be in error more

than 1 per cent, the tests both before and after adjustment being made

at approximately three-quarters and one-tenth of the rated capacity of

the meter. Meters onerated at low-power factor shall also be tested at approximately the minimum power factor under wffich they will be re-
10 BUREAU OF STANDARDS

quired to operate. The tests shall be made by comparing the meter, while

connected in its permanent position, on the consumer's premises with

approved suitable standards, making at least two test runs at each load,

of at least 30 seconds each, which agree within 1 per cent. Single-pliase, induction-type meters having current capacities not ex- ceeding 50 amperes shall be tested at least once every 24 months, and as much oftener as the results obtained shall warrant.

All single-phase induction-type meters having current capacities ex- ceeding 50 amperes, and all polyphase and commutator-type meters having voltage ratings not exceeding 250 volts, and current capacities not exceeding 50 amperes, shall be tested at least once every 12 months.

All other watt-hour meters shall be tested at least once every six months.

In no case shall commutator-type meters having heavy moving ele- ments and sapphire jewels be allowed to make more than 1,000,000 revo- lutions between tests. Where meters are found to register considerably

in error when tested on the above schedule, the commission reserves the

right to order the particular meter or class of meters tested more fre- quently.

Rule 2. Gas.—Each gas-service meter shall be tested before installation, and

shall be removed, tested, and overhauled at least once every 48 months,

and adjusted whenever it is found to be incorrect. At least two consecutive test runs must be made which agree v/ithin one-half of 1 per cent. (See Temporary order, p. 11, Standards of Gas and Electric Service.)

This rule is divided into companies' testing methods and the result, with 5 per cent for methods and 9 per cent for results. When

the utility has a practice of keeping a large proportion of the meters

tested in compliance with this rule the part of the 9 per cent to be

allowed is determined by the proportion of the number of meters

found tested compared to the total number connected. If testing

practices are correct, the full 6 per cent is allowed or a proportionate amount if not, but if at recurring inspection a number of meters

are found not tested, the total 5 per cent will be deducted.

METER-TEST RECORDS (5 PER CENT)

Rote 18. Electric. Whenever an electricity meter is tested the original test record shall be kept indicating the information necessary for identifying

the meter, the reasons for making the test, the reading of the meter be- fore being disturbed, a statement regarding creepage and the accuracy of

measurement, together with all data taken at the time of the test. This

record must be sufficiently complete to permit the convenient checking of

the methods and the calculations. All utilities having more than 250 elec- tricity meters in service shall maintain a meter record, numerically ar- ranged, indicating approximately when the meter was purchased, its identification, its various places of installation, with dates of installation and removal, and the dates and general results of all tests, and

shall tabulate the results of tests according to types of meters and in- tervals of test, compiled monthly and annually.

Rule 3. Gas.—Whenever a gas service meter is tested the original test record

shall be kept, indicating the information necessary for identifying the

meter, the reason for making the test, the reading of the meter before

being disturbed, and the accuracy of measurement, together with all data

taken at the time of the test. This record must be sufficiently complete to permit the convenient checking of the methods employed and the calculations. A record shall be kept, numerically arranged, indicating approxi-

. mately when the meter was purchased, its size, its identification, its various

places of installation, with dates of installation and removal, and the

dates and general results of all tests. A complete set of meter records which are kept up to date will give

a full percentage of compliance, but incomplete records will reduce

and no history cards will wipe out any credit
COK-FEEENCE OF STATE UTILITY ENGINEERS 11

METER-TESTING EQUIPMENT AND METHODS (5 PER CENT)

EULE 19. Electric.—Each utility furnishing metered electric service shall own

suitable working standards for the testing of electricity meters, and

either maintain these standards correct within one-half of 1 per cent or apply the proper correction to all tests. Secondary standards of some

approved type shall be owned and maintained by each utility having more than 250 electricity meters in service.

Rtoe 4. Gas.—Each utility furnishing metered gas service shall own a suitable

meter prover, and maintain the same in proper adjustment to register the

condition of the meters within one-half of 1 per cent. The meter prover

shall be so placed as to be shielded from excessive temperature disturbances,

and shall be equipped with suitable thermometers and other necessary

accessories.

The meter-testing equipment of the utility must be complete and

suitable or must be available and tests be properly made for full

compliance which will be determined by the inspector after follow- . ing through the methods of the company's employees. Deduction

will be made where these conditions are not met.

REQUEST TESTS (4 PER CENT)

Rule 20. Electric.—Each utility furnishing metered electric service shall make

a test of the accuracy of any electricity meter upon request of the con- sumer, provided the consumer does not request such test more frequently

than once in six months. A report giving the results of each request test shall be made to the consumer, and the complete, original record kept on

file in the office of the utility.

Etoe 5. Gas.—Bach utility furnishing metered gas service shall make a test of the accuracy of any gas service meter upon request of the consumer,

provided the consumer does not request such test more frequently than

once in six months. A report giving the results of each request test shall

be made to the consumer, and the complete, original record kept on file in the ofiice of tlie utility.

Compliance with this rule depends on whether these tests are made willingly and promptly, complete records kept, and the con- sumer promptly informed of the result. If evidence is found to the

contrary deductions will be made.

REFEREE TESTS (0 PER CENT)

RuxE 21. Electric.—Any electricity meter may be tested by an inspector employed by the commission upon written application of the consumer. For

such test a fee shall be forwarded to the commission by the consumer when making application ; the amount of this fee shall be refunded to the consumer by the utility if the meter is found to be fast beyond the

4 per cent limit. The amount of fee to be collected for these tests so made shall be $2 for each single phase or continuous current electricity

meter having a voltage rating not exceeding 250 volts and a current ca- pacity not exceeding 25 amperes without having instrument transformers;

for other electricity meters having a capacity not exceeding 100 amperes

the test fee shall be $4 per meter ; for all others the fee shall be $8 per

meter. Rule 6. Gas.—Any gas service meter may be tested by an inspector employed

by the commission upon written application of the consumers. For such

test a fee shall be forwarded to the commission by the consumer when

making application ; the amount of this fee shall be refunded to the con- sumer by the utility if the meter is found to be fast beyond the 2 per

cent limit. The amount of fee to be collected for tests so made shall be

$2 for each gas service meter having a capacity not exceeding 10 lights

for other gas service meters having a capacity not exceeding 45 lights,

the test fee shall be $4 per meter ; for all other gas service meters the test fee shall be $8.
12 BUKEAU OF STANDARDS

Since the utility has nothing to do with this rule, no weight is given.

METER READINGS ON BILLS (4 PER CENT)

Rule 22. Electric.—Bills rendered periodically for metered electric service shall designate the reading of the meter at the beginning and end of the interval

for which the bill is rendered and shall give the dates of the reading of

the meter. Rule 7. Gas.—Bills rendered periodically for metered gas service shall designate the reading of the meter at the beginning and end of the interval for which the bill is rendered and shall give the dates of the reading of the meter.

If no meter readings are put on the bills, the whole amount is deducted and one-half when the readings are put on, but dates

omitted.

HEATING VALUE (21 PER CENT)

Rule 8. Oas.—Each utility furnishing gas service must supply gas of such

standard heating value as will enable it to obtain the greatest practicable

efficiency with its equipment and the raw material available, giving due

consideration to the uniformity of the quality of the service rendered. A

minimum monthly average shall be maintained of not less than 520 British

thermal units total heating value per cubic foot, as referred to standard

conditions of temperature and pressure. No fluctuations from the standard

selected by the individual companies shall exceed 4 per cent below, or 5 per cent above, that standard. The tests to determine the heating value

of the gas shall be made anywhere within a 1-mile radius of the center of distribution.

If the company is equipped with a calorimeter: When the heat

content of the gas as found by the inspector and as shown by the

company's records is within 4 per cent below or 5 per cent above

the standard of 520 B. t. u., or a standard above 520 B. t. u. adopted

by the company, the full amount of credit is given. Deductions are made, depending on the number of days that the record shows the

value to be outside the limits and on the amount of variation either

above or below. If the company has no calorimeter: If the inspector's tests show the heat content of the gas to be within the above

limits, full credit is given with deductions if it is found outside the

requirements.

CALORIMETER EQUIPMENT (7 PER CENT)

Rule 9. Gas.—Each utility, whose gas output exceeds 20,000,000 cubic feet per

year, shall equip itsell: with a complete standard calorimeter outfit, and

shall determine the heat value of the gas on at least three days each

week. A record of all of these tests shall be made and kept open for public

inspection.

If utilities with outputs exceeding 20,000,000 cubic feet per year

have not installed or are not using a calorimeter as requix-ed, no credit

is given; utilities not required to have a calorimeter are given full

credit.

INTERRUPTIONS (18 PER CENT)

Rule 23. Electric.—Each electric utility shall make all reasonable efforts to eliminate interruptions in service, and when such interruptions occur shall endeavor to reestablish service with the shortest possible delay. AVhenever

the service is interrupted for the purpose of working on lines or equipment,

this shall be done at a time which will cause the least inconvenience to consumers, and those most seriously affected by such interruptions shall,

if possible, be notified in advance.
CONFEKENCE OF STATE UTILITY ENGINEERS 13

Compliance with this rule is based upon the number of interruptions to service, the length, and whether they are reasonably avoidable or not. Some weight is also given to the class of consumers

served and whether or not the interruptions affect the whole, a major

portion, or only a small part of the system. Interruptions of the

whole service are classed as few, short, unavoidable; few, long, unavoidable; few, short, avoidable; few, long, avoidable; many, short,

unavoidable; many long, unavoidable; many, short, avoidable; and

many, long, avoidable.

STATION RECORDS (6 PER CENT)

ExiCE 24. Electric.—Each utility furnishing electric service shall keep a record

of the time of starting and shutting down power-station equipment and

feeders, together with the indication of the principal switchboard instruments, at sufficiently frequent intervals to show the characteristics of the

load ; and shall maintain a record of all interruptions of service upon the

entire system or major divisions of its system, and include in such record

time, duration, and cause of each interruption.

A complete station log will be given full compliance, but if lacking a record of interruptions showing cause, duration, etc., only one- half to two-thirds credit will be given.

PRESSURE AND VOLTAGE VARIATION (18 PER CENT)

EuLE 25. Electric.—Each electric utility operating in a city having a population of 1,500 or more shall adopt a standard voltage for the entire constant

potential system, and shall maintain the voltage within 3 per cent of such

standard on all lighting circuits during lighting hours ; on power circuits

and during other than lighting hours the voltage shall be maintained

within 10 per cent of the standard. All other electric utilities shall maintain their voltage regulation on constant potential circuits during lighting

hours so that the maximum voltage furnished any consumer shall not be more than 6 per cent above the minimum voltage at that consumer's cut-out. Rule 10. Gas.—Gas pressure, as measured at the outlet of the company's service to any consumer, shall never l)e less than 2 inches nor more than 6

inches of water pressure, and the maximum pressure at any such outlet on the system shall never be greater than double the minimum pressure at that outlet. A large percentage, about 15 per cent, is given if the pressure re- quirements are met with electric service during lighting hours and

3 per cent for balance of the 24 hours. With utilities not giving service except during lighting hours, compliance is figured on the whole

18 per cent. Deductions are made, depending on amount of variation

from the standard voltage and for variations below the standard on

parts of the system.

With gas service full compliance is allowed when the inspector is

convinced from the company's records and tests made at the time of

the inspection that the requirements of this rule have been met for

the period which the inspection covers. Deduction for violation of

this rule will depend on the number of consumers affected, although

not in proportion since the variation in gas pressure and particularly

low pressure vitally affects the service. In the absence of suitable

records made by the company the inspector must judge the degree of

compliance by the tests made by himself and by taking into consideration the holder pressure, length and size of mains, amount of con- sumption, the elevations, and by a study of the complaint records.

431—24 2
14 BUREAU OF STANDARDS

PRESSURE AND VOLTAGE SURVEYS (6 PER CENT)

Rule 26. Electric.—^Each utility furnishing electric service shall provide itself with one or more portable indicating voltmeters, and each utility serving more than 250 consumers shall have one or more portable graphic recording voltmeters, these instruments to lie of a tyjie and capacity suited

to the voltage supplied. Each of tlie utilities shall make a sufficient number of voltage surveys to indicate the service furnished from each

transformer and feeder and to satisfy the commission of its compliance

with the voltage requirements, and those having graphic recording volt- meters shall keep at least one of these voltmeters in continuous service

at the plant, office, or some consumer's premises. All voltage records are

to be kept for public inspection.

Rule 11. Gas.—Each gas utility sliall provide itself with one or more portable

graphic recording pressure gauges, and shall make frequent measurements

of the gas pressure and pressure variation throughout the system, and

these shall be kept on record and open for public inspection.

The compliance with this rule depends on whether or not the

utility is fully equipped with recording gauges and the judgment

used in making the surveys, as to the proper time and the location

of the gauges, etc., and whether or not a complete and available

record is kept for inspection. Deductions will be made, depending

on the amount that the inspector feels that the surveys are incomplete.

PURITY (1 PER CENT)

Rule 12. Gas.—In no case shall the gas contain more than 30 grains of total sulphur per 100 cubic feet, and not more than a trace of sulphur as sulphuretted hydrogen.

Complete tests for sulphur are impracticable and compliance with

this rule, therefore, depends on the hydrogen sulphide tests. A deduction of 2 per cent, one-half the weight of the rule, is made if

the utility does not make and keep a record of such tests; if only

an occasional test is made a deduction of 1 per cent is made, and

if the test made by inspector shows a trace of HgS a deduction of

1 per cent is made and if strong evidence is found, deduct 2 per cent.

COMPLAINT RECORDS (5 PER CENT)

Rule 13. Gas.—Each company shall keep a record of all complaints made,

which shall include the name and address of the consumer, the date, the

nature of the complaint, the remedy, and date of completing the work.

This record shall be kept open for public inspection.

No record at all will mean zero on this rule. From an inspection

of the complaint records a determination is made of the degree that

the requirements of this rule are met as to completeness of the

record.

INFORMATION (4 PER CENT)

Rule 27. Electric.—Each utility supplying electric service shall specifically

inform each of its consumers as to the conditions under which efficient service may be secured from its system and render its consumers reason- able assistance in securing incandescent lamps and other appliances best

adapted to the service furnished.

A utility is required by this rule to properly advise the consumers

regarding the proper lamps and motors to use, etc., and, in fact, to

show a proper attitude to the public. The degree of compliance must

be determined from observation by the inspector.
CONFERENCE OF STATE UTILITY ENGINEERS 15

TELEPHONE UTILITY GRADING

In the grading of utilities giving telephone service, according to

the degi-ee of compliance with the commission's rules for service, very

careful consideration was first given to determine what should be the

proper weight to be given to each rule.

. The rules relating to the construction and maintenance of equipment and lines, rule 1, and relating to speed, accuracy, and supervision of service, rule 7, were given equal weight of 15 per cent.

The rule covering the exchange equipment (switchboard capacity,

etc.), operating force, and traffic studies, rule 5, was considered next

in importance and given a weight of 12 per cent.

Next in importance comes the continuity of service, elimination of

irregularities, and promptness of taking care of trouble, rule 11. In

this is included the trouble record. This rule is weighted 11 per cent.

Rule 4, which is considered as next of importance, refers to tests and inspections to assure continuance of proper service. This I'ule merges somewhat into rule 1 on maintenance and rule 11 on continuity of service. This rule is weighted 10 per cent.

The rule relating to and limiting the number of subscribers on a

line to a number not greater than or consistent with good service is

given a weight of 8 per cent.

The rest of the rules are considered of about equal importance and

are given a weight of 4 to 6 per cent.

In determining the percentage of compliance on the different rules

the following practice has been followed by the inspector

EQUIPMENT AND MAINTENANCE (15 PER CENT)

EuLE 1.—Equipment and lines shall be so constructed and maintained as to eliminate all cross talk and noise which unreasonably interfere with the

transmission of messages for ordinary distances.

A reduction of 4 per cent is made for cross talk and 4 per cent for

bad noise on the lines. The remaining 7 per cent covers adequacy of

distribution equipment and maintenance of the same.

LOADED CIRCUITS (8 PER CENT)

EtJLE 2.—The number of >iUbscribers on any one line shall not be greater than

that consistent with adequate service.

In general, the number of subscribers on a rural line must be determined by the requirements of the people served and may be limited to

10 or 12, but because of the nature of the territory or the limited

means of the subscribers in the territory as a class, the number may be

increased materially. A subscriber should have available to him as high a grade of service as the utility can furnish, providing, of course,

he is willing to pay a compensatory price for the service. No subdivisions are made under this rule and the inspector grades according

to his best judgment.

THROUGH LINES (5 PER CENT)

Rule 3.—Each utility, furnishing service alone or jointly with nther utilities in two or more cities, villages, or other exchange points shall yro\ iLlo at least one line for through traffic betvv'een such points, along which few, if any,

subscribers" instruments are installed.

A utility is expected to provide enough circuits interconnecting the

communities being served to properly take care of the traffic, and
16 BUREAU OP STANDARDS

only where there is very little business between these communities

will subscribers' connections be allowed to these lines. Compliance is determined by the adequacy of these through-line facilities.

TEST AND INSPECTIONS (10 PER CENT)

Rule 4.—Bach utility slaall maintain in proper condition the lines, instruments,

and other equipment used on its system and sliall malie sucli tests and in- spections as are necessary.

This rule does not specify what tests shall be made nor just what

inspections are necessary, but because these are required, a utility

which has no regular plan of making such tests and inspections or, if they are made, can show no results recorded will have deducted at least 3 of the 10 per cent. The actual condition of the whole system

will determine the amount of the remaining 7 per cent which will be

allowed.

ADEQUACY OF EQUIPMENT (12 PER CENT)

Utile 5.—Each exchange shall have sufficient switchboard capacity, and a suffi- cient operating force to handle the traffic at all times with reasonable facility. Traffic studies shall be made and recorded of such extent and fre- quency as to demonstrate to the commission that sufficient equipment is in use and that an adequate operating force is employed.

Central office equipment proj^er for the traffic is given 3 per cent;

sufficient operating force 3 per cent ; night service 2 per cent ; Sunday

and holiday service 1 per cent; traffic studies, if necessary in the

discretion of the inspector, 3 per cent. There should be no time when

it is impossible to get a call through if it is necessary, and so a utility

is penalized that does not in some way provide such service.

A careful study of traffic conditions is necessary to any well con- ducted, medium sized exchange, so this is given as much weight as anything else under this rule.

EMERGENCY PROVISIONS (6 PER CENT)

Rule 6.—Reasonable provision shall be made against the failure of lighting or power service, fires, and storms, sudden increases in traffic, the illness of

operators, or other emergencies which would seriously impair the service if not promptly met. Proper provision for emergency operators will count 2 per cent;

for substitute means of ringing, headsets, and for fire protection, etc., 2 per cent ; and for a proper supply of materials which may be needed

on short notice, 2 per cent.

SPEED AND ADEQUACY OF SERVICE ( 15 PER CENT)

Rule 7.—At exchanges serving 500 or more subscribers 94 per cent of the calls should be answered within 10 seconds or less. At all other regular ex- changes 90 per cent of the calls should be answered within 10 seconds or

less. At small exchanges, operated in connection with other v.'ork, slower

service may be adequate. Calls shall be carefully supervised and parties

disconnected promptly after conversations are completed.

For the larger exchanges the utility is expected to make and keep

a record of test calls. The inspector will make such calls and from

these records the speed of the operators is determined as well as the
COJiTFEKENCE OF STATE UTILITY ENGINEERS 17

supervision and promptness of disconnection. The utility is then

graded on a basis of speed of answer 8 per cent, supervision 4 per

cent, and prompt disconnection 3 per cent.

In the smaller exchanges the same speed is not expected where the

operating is done in connection with other work, but the inspector

should determine when the traffic is sufficient to require an operator on the board continuously,

operators' service RUUES (4 PER CENT)

Rule 8.—Suitable rules and instructions shall be adopted covering the phraseology and methods to be employed by operators in handling regular and

special calls.

This rule is important, that the operator may know just what is

required of her and that at all times there may be assured to the

subscribers speed and adequacy of service, courtesy, absolute secrecy,

security from business diversion, etc. Compliance with this rule

depends upon having the rules and enforcing them.

DIRECTORIES (5 PER CENT)

RtJLE 9.—Directories in which 1,500 or more subscribers are listed shall be

revised at least semiannually. All other directories shall be revised at least once each year. All directories shall be dated.

Compliance with this rule, of course, depends on the issuance of

the directory as required,

KULES AND INSTRUCTIONS (5 PER CENT)

RxJLE 10.—Directories shall contain such instructions and rules governing local

and toll service and methods of payment as may be necessary to inform

subscribers of their rights and obligations.

All rules for the instruction of the public should be included, as

well as toll and local rules, for full compliance. Regulatory rules

might well be included,

REGUIiARITY OF SERVICE AND TROUBIU RECORDS (11 PER CENT)

Rule 11.—Reasonable efforts shall be made to eliminate interruptions and

irregularities, and to correct them promptly when they occur. Records shall

be kept of all complaints or irregularities in the service, showing the day

and time at which tlie trouble is reported, the nature of the trouble, its duration, and final disposition.

In many instances recurring failure of telephone service, from any

particular cause, properly investigated, will lead to the permanent

removal of the cause if right methods are followed. It is for this reason that many companies keep a detailed record of trouble reports

and by analysis are enabled to do away with parts of the equipment

which are the source of interruptions to service. The infrequency

of interruptions and the completeness of trouble records, together

with the promptness of caring for trouble will determine compliance

with this rule.
18 BUREAU OF STANDARDS

IJiTFORMATION TO COMMISSION (4 PER CENT)

Rule 12.—The name and address of the official or employee designated to handle service matters, and a copy of each new directoi-y shall be filed with the commission. Upon request a complete map of each telephone

system shall be filed with the commission, and a similar map shall be kept

at the principal office of each utility and revised from time to time as changes in the system are made.

It is necessary to know who is responsible for the service of a particular company, and the reg'ulatory body should have this information as well as the knowledge of the extent of the company's system.

For the last few years the service requirements imposed by the

Wisconsin Eailroad Commission have been tempered materially be- cause of the difficulties which have been the lot of all public utilities,

and doubtless this condition has been prevalent throughout the

country.

Special cases which have arisen because of conditions resulting

from the war have engrossed largely the time of our engineers so that

the personnel of the staff was not sufficient to handle the service matters thoroughly and do the extra special work.

For these reasons the work of grading the utilities has not been

complete; that is, while grades have been given with the reports on

all inspections, it has not been possible to make the inspections of

all the localities and, therefore, comparative summaries have not

been made for two or three years.

We are getting caught up again, though, and will have our summary of the gas companies again for this year for inspection by the

utility representatives at the gas and electric association convention

this month.

The results of grading of telephone utilities have never been summarized and submitted to the companies for the reason which, I believe, can be stated at this conference with propriety, namely, the

very obvious difference between the general service conditions found

in Bell exchanges and those existing in the average independent ex- change.

Our grading shows that the poorest exchange of the Bell interests

will seldom fall below 90 per cent and the average about 92 to 93

per cent, while the marking of the independents will vary from 30

to 97 per cent. I do not want you to infer that we believe the independent exchange is not making the effort to improve the service,

for, in fact, the contrary is true.

The Bell exchanges are, in most instances, in the larger localities,

and the managers working under a definite and well-seasoned policy are enabled to bring about the best results from a service standpoint,

and the independent exchanges in the larger towns are well up to

the standard service. The rank and file of independent exchanges,

however, are in the smaller centers hampered, if I may use the term,

with a large number of switched roadway companies with whom

good service has in the past not been considered of the greatest importance.

I want to say, though, that we have in our State some of the most

progressive independent operators, who are doing wonderful missionary work among the smaller operators through the State independent telephone association, and this work has resulted in the
CONFEEElSrCE OF STATE UTILITY ENGINEERS 19

smaller operator coming to see the necessity for better service conditions.

It is quite possible that within a short' time we will decide to make

public our telephone utility grades, because of this marked improvement in the service.

It is our oj)inion that the practice of grading has been of great

value as an aid to the department and has been generally looked

upon favorably by the utilities.

Since Mr. Mathews, of Illinois, was unable to attend the conference, the following paper prepared by him was read by Dr. J.

Franklin Meyer:

GHADING OP PUBLIC UTILITY SEBVICE

By J. Howard Mathews, Service Engineer, Illinois Commerce Commission

In thinking of service of public utilities, we are likely to have in

mind only a few of the most important factors. When the average

user of electric service says service is poor, he usually means it is subject to frequent interruptions, or possibly, the voltage is low.

The gas consumer makes complaint if he has difficulty in cooking or

if he is unable to get any gas. These are no doubt some of the most

important matters to be considered in classifying electric and gas

service, but an analysis of the records of any utility or of any regulatory body will show almost every conceivable objection to the

service. Criticisms are made of the equipment, methods of operation, kind of ti-eatment accorded consumers, extension policies, ac- curacy of meters, and many other features. The Illinois Commerce

Commission law defines service as including not only the use or ac- commodation afforded consumers or patrons but also any product or commodity furnished by any public utility and the plant equipment,

apparatus, appliances, property, and facilities employed by the

utility in performing its service. This definition has been found

none too broad to cover the large range of subjects to which attention must be directed if patrons of public utilities are to be satisfied.

In this broad sense, we are really considering the treatment ac- corded the consumers, and every factor that enters into treatment

may properly be termed a factor of the service.

In every move a utility makes, in everything it does, there is a

service done or omitted. From the time the prospective electric

consumer first interviews a utility representative about securing

service until his service is discontinued and final bill paid, the utility's sole business is to serve him. For his electric energy and gas

he pays directly on a metered basis as does his neighbor, but he is entitled also to continuous service, good voltage, gas of good pres- sure and quality, information courteously given, and to careful consideration of complaints for which he pays only indirectly.

More specifically, the most important factors that enter into the

furnishing of gas and electric service and which are given consideration in our grading system are listed below

Electric Utilities : 1. Continuity of service.

2. Voltage regulation.

3. Handling of complaints.

4. Accuracy of meter registration.
20 BUKEAU OF STANDAKDS

Electric Utilities—Continued

5. Construction and maintenance.

6. Adequacy of capacity.

7. Provisions for emergency.

8. Adjustment of bills.

9. Billing.

10. Extension policy.

11. Promptness in furnishing new service.

12. Courtesy of utility representatives.

13. Testing of service and keeping of records.

Gas Utilities : 1. Pressure (including continuity).

2. Heating value.

3. Handling of complaints.

4. Purity.

5. Adjustment of appliances.

6. Construction and maintenance.

7. Adequacy of capacity.

8. Provisions for emergency.

9. Adjustment of bills. 10. Billing.

11. Extension policy.

12. Promptness in furnishing new service.

13. Courtesy of utility representatives.

14. Testing of service and keeping of records.

NEED FOR SERVICE RATING

In connection with our extensive study of service matters throughout the State, we have become impressed with the need for some

system of comparing gas and electric service in various communities. The necessity for such development arose out of the fact that

it was practically impossible to state specifically how the service of

one utility or in one town compared with that of another utility.

In one town the continuity of electric service may be good and voltage regulation poor. In the other the voltage regulation may be

good, but interruptions more serious than in the other community.

In many respects the service in one might be better than in the

other, while in other respects the service in the second may be better

than in the first. In the absence of some form of abstract grading

we were unable to answer intelligently an inquiry whether originating in our own minds or on the part of others as to the relative

standing of two utilities from a service point of view. We could

also see need for some brief yet concrete way of indicating service

conditions in any community. We wanted something that would

give the same information as a lengthy report. It was, therefore,

found necessary to develop a method that would give some means

of grading the service.

It was found advisable also to develop some scheme which could

give more accurate information than a mere statement that a rule

had been violated or complied with. If a few meter tests, for instance, are overdue the rule is, technically speaking, violated and

must be reported as such by the inspector. A large number of rules,

however, might be reported violated when the service was truly

good. The number of rules violated does not necessarily fairly indicate the character of service rendered. The question with which

we are most concerned is the importance of the rule violated, and the

extent to which it is violated. Unsatisfactory gas pressure consti-
CONFERENCE OF STATE UTILITY ENGINEEES 21

tutes a violation of one rule as does a failure to enter properly information taken in connection with the meter test. Obviously, the

importance of the first far outweighs the other. Actual conditions

of service are manifestly more important than are the records indicating the conditions of service, and yet the violation of a rule may

appear in either.

METHOD OF GRADING

The plan as developed and shown hereinafter in detail shows at

a glance the degree of perfection attained in each phase of service.

This is done by giving a specific grade on the basis of 100 per cent

for each factor. To take care of the relatively greater importance

of one over the other, the grade as assigned by the engineer is multiplied by a fixed weight, the value of which depends on the importance of the factor. For instance, a constant of 30 is used where

continuity of electric service is graded, whereas 1 has been chosen

for use where information on bills is concerned. The total of the

weights is 100. The various grades are multiplied by the respective

constants, the products added and the final results so obtained

divided by 100 to give the final grade of service. This final gi'ade

then takes into consideration the grade and relative importance of

each of about 18 factors. The form used in grading is printed on

the back of the service-inspection sheet, and the grades are assigned

by the engineer making the investigation. They are checked against

the report by someone other than the engineer making the investigation.

From the point of view of this office the plan provides a concrete, brief method of showing by a few figures what an engineer

could not show in a voluminous report. It shows at a glance what

particular features of service are satisfactory, and the extent to

which others are unsatisfactory. It has a further advantage that

it makes it necessary that an inspector make a very careful investigation of every feature of the service in order that he may grade it. The grading of any property tells a complete and interesting story.

The greatest advantage that we have seen, however, with the

grading system is that it has had the effect of instilling into utilities

and their representatives a spirit of competition in the matter of

rendering satisfactory service to the public. Under the operation

of this grading plan different utilities compete with each other.

Different divisions of the same utility and different communities of

the same division endeavor to stand higher than their neighboring

division or community. The sj^stem has impressed upon utilities the

importance of such factors as properly handling complaints and

creating good public relations, which were not given so much thought

before. It served to make a concrete and tangible objective out of

the problem of " selling the company " to the community it serves, whereas this had previously seemed to so many employees as something of little practical importance.

Recently one of our larger utilities in a period of emergency desired service from another large utility. The latter was reluctant

to furnish the service until it was assured by this department that

should its voltage be affected for a few days due to the abnormal

demand, we would overlook the voltage regulation for this period in
22 BUBEAU OF STANDAEDS

grading the service. I cite this instance to give an idea of the

seriousness with wliich many of the pubUc utilities view our grading

system.

When we write a company about the results of an inspection we

usually send a list showing the detailed grades given for each factor

of service. Some of the organizations delegate individuals to visit

this office in order that they may go over in detail the grades assigned

and learn wherein they may improve their standing, which means

incidentally, of course, that they must improve the service. Some of

them make an immediate stucly of their distribution systems and

operating conditions to see how they may improve voltage regulation

or reduce interruptions, and the local manager is usually furnished

with the details of the grade in order that he may improve service

conditions in his locality, put his records in good condition, etc. We

have been asked in a number of cases to make additional inspections

a little later in order that the company's showing might be better.

On August 10, 1922, we mailed to all gas and electric utilities in

the State a list showing the grades for gas and electric service in

some 700 localities. The highest grade given was 96.45 and the

lowest 56.50. Needless to say this occasioned considerable interest

and we were very glad to find that the reaction was favorable indeed.

Upon receipt of the list of grades, most of the utilities requested

more detailed information, asking for the specific grade for each

factor of service in order that they might concentrate their efforts

on those particular features of service in which they had been found

deficient. We have had practically not a word of criticism, nor has

there been found any tendency to " whine " or find fault because

some one did not receive as good a grade as some one else. There

seemed to be a slight feeling at first on the part of one utility that

there was too much guesswork about it, but when that organization

became familiar with our detailed instructions it became one of the

best supporters for the system.

Detailed instructions to inspectors have been prepared to insure

uniformity of opinion and, so far as possible, to eliminate the element

of personal judgment. These instructions are now so specific that by

their use anyone would arrive at practically the. same final grade

as would one of our engineers. It has been our plan, which is apparent from a study of these instructions, to base the grading on service conditions and on records that any well managed company would

desire to keep, rather than on compliance with the commission's rules.

For this reason the operating companies can make use of these instructions to grade their own service, delegating some individual to

study service conditions and to assign a grade on the basis of his

knowledge as secured through inspections. Some of the most progi-essive utilities already have this under consideration and a general

adoption of the plan would, we believe, be highly beneficial.

In order that all towns may have as nearly as possible an equal

opportunity to stand at the head of the list, we are arranging to

classify the electric and gas properties into four classes, A, B, C, and

D. In classifying these properties we take into consideration a large

number of factors, such as number of consumers, reasonably expected

oj)erating and financial ability (usually dependent on the size of the

operating utility), whether served from a transmission line, con-
CONFERENCE OF STATE UTILITY ENGINEERS 23

sumption per consumer, character of community, etc. "Wliereas it would be discouraging for small isolated properties to attempt to

compete with large properties, they may be able to stand at the top of

the particular class into which they fall. One important use which we make of the grading is to use the

grade assigned in determining the frequency of inspection, it being

our theory that the towns v/hich grade lowest should be given the

most frequent inspections. Our periods vary from 6 to 18 months,

depending upon the character of service rendered as reflected in the

grade.

Detailed instructions to inspectors for arriving at values to be as- signed to the various factors of gas and electric service are attached.

(The instructions for rating electric service, with detailed tables

showing the weights assigned to various elements of service and the

deductions to be made for specific deficiencies, have been published

by Mr. Mathews in the Electrical World, volume 81, pages 1034-

1036, May 5, 1923. Similar instructions are used for gas service.)
SECOND SESSION (AFTERNOON OF FRIDAY, MARCH 2,

1923)

DISCUSSION" OF PAPERS ON GRADING OF UTILITIES

Doctor Wolff. The States of Wisconsin and Illinois are to be congratulated on the steps they have taken, first, in making a preliminary attempt to fix standards for telephone service, the most difficult

group of standards to fix, and, second, in this next step of grading

utilities. The importance of the steps taken comes from the fact

that it marks the beginning of a realization that that which the public pays for, in the way of telephone service, has to be graded and

that the companies furnishing such service also have to be graded.

We must, however, make a careful distinction between the grading

of service and the grading of the utilities rendering the service. The

ratings in the two cases need not be the same, and apparently from

the presentation of the two papers this morning, they are not always

the same. Irrespective of any economic aspects of the question you

can set a standard for service and you can grade a utility with re- spect to compliance with that standard in a perfectly rigorous way.

However, there is a point that is entirely left out of account, possibly

intentionally so at this time. The standard which sliould be set, the

attainment of which is credited with a mark of 100, is the standard

which best fits the needs of the public.

Take, for example, the matter of the time required to effect a local

telephone connection, the time that elapses between taking the re- ceiver off the hook until you get the party called. In the case of the

type of switching equipment that is now being introduced in large

multi-office areas, the time that elapses between lifting the receiver

off the hook to the time when you get the ring back is a matter of

some 20 to 25 seconds. Apparently an entirely different value is

now being placed on speed elements of telephone service than in the

past. The point I am trying to emphasize is that the public may

have been educated to a point where it insists upon an exceedingly

prompt answer and that this promptness may not be in balance with

the time required to get the party called. Moreover, in this city, for

example, we have a residence measured-service rate with 60 calls per

month, or 600 calls per year, and it is well known that the average

residence subscriber does not go very much beyond the minimum

number of calls. Suppose that the answering time in this case was

5 seconds, 50 minutes in the aggregate in a whole year. On the other

hand, what is the value of the time of the average person who uses the telephone ? Of course, if he wants a doctor in a hurry, lost sec- onds may mean lost lives, but the average residence subscriber has

no real need for an immediate answer by the operator. If the subscriber were paid for his waiting at the rate of $1,200 per annum on a seven-hour day basis, that would aggregate 50 cents a year. But

how much increased efficiency is required, how much more cost is

24
CONFEEENCE OF STATE UTILITY ENGINEERS 25

involved to enable the telephone company to render three and one- half seconds service as compared with five seconds service? Tliis

is a question which will have to be considered in grading utilities

and grading service. The one big factor, therefore, Avhich has not

been adequately stressed is that the method of grading which has

been proposed by Wisconsin and Illinois enables the company that

is willing to spend a sufficient amount of money to render service

of any quality which it may set, without reference to whether the

value of the service is thereby correspondingly enhanced. Eventually the rating of utility service (we may not be ready for it now

by any means) must take into account the relation between the

quality of service rendered and the cost of rendering that service.

Mr. Hayden. I wish to say that in our grading of the telephone

companies it has not been the thought to carry it to the extreme, the

idea being that reasonable service is considered as meeting the re- quirements of the standards of service. As far as the speed of

answer is concerned, we have ]Dut as a basis that 90 per cent of the

calls should be answered within 10 seconds. You can see that we

are not getting into refinements of the question at present at least,

and we have not had any particular intention of emphasizing the

speed of answer. Doctor WoLrr. Take the matter of continuity of service, there can

be such a thing as supermaintenance involving unjustifiable mainte- nance costs. Perfect. continuity of service would involve prohibitive

cost. Each of the elements of service must eventually be viewed

from that angle, to the end of attaining an economically balanced

whole.

Mr. CovELL. The Wisconsin method rates companies on the quality

of service rendered. The Illinois method takes into account the

maintenance and method of operation of the plant. Of course, if a plant is poorly maintained, that poor maintenance will eventually

affect the service, but there is this question in my mind : Is it not

desirable to consider the condition of the plant as well as the quality

of the service? A poorly maintained plant may be giving just as good service as another plant which is maintained well. At the

same time the poor maintenance causes an increase in operating ex- penses and also will eventually affect the service. I would like to

hear Mr. Hayden's ideas on the subject.

Mr. Hatden. In regard to maintenance, that is an important

factor in determining the standing of a telephone utility, because

the maintenance is immediately reflected in the service which the

telephone company gives. Inasmuch as the rules do not require

maintenance, except in so far as it may be included in the general

public policy that I spoke of at the start, we have not entered it into

the grading with the thought that it would ultimately be reflected in

the service.

A Member. If so, is not that rather misleading?

Mr. Hayden. You know it is always said that the inspector should

wear gum shoes and go around when nobody knows anything about

it. With the telephone service it is absolutely necessary that the

inspections be made when the manager and operator know nothing

about it. The manager has to do the same thing that we have to do,

and that is what any telephone manager who wants to find out anything about his own service has to do.
26 BUKEAU OF STANDARDS

Mr. ToEPPEN. There are two points that I would like to bring out.

First, an inspector or observer in a telephone company can not work

in an office without the operators getting wise to his presence. Second, grading on occasional inspections alone is not enough, for the

general run of service is more essential than anything else. Mr. Snook. I'd like to ask Mr. Hayden if he has made a comparative study along the line of human relations to show how it lines up

with the rest; that is, whether the opinions of the companies' cus- tomers coincide at all with the grading made by the commission. It seems to me that this point of human relations is one of the most

imjDortant ones to the public utility. I am wondering if either one

of these commissions who have tried out this system have ever con- sidered the question at all or have looked to that particular item,

and, if not, if they have made any tentative plans. I would like to

know what they think about it. Mr. Hayden. I will be very frank in saying that I do not believe

5'ou can gauge the value of the services rendered by the public opinion

of it, because in my own observation there have been some utilities

that have given very poor service and have a good reputation with

the public because the operators knew how to put things before the

people. I have seen utilities giving the finest kind of service lose

favor simply because they did not know how to get across proper

public relations.

Mr. Wolf. In the giving out of these grades, doesn't the commission in a sense act against the very thing they are trying to at- tain ? There are instances where the utility might be giving the

best service in the world and still not be able to get it across to the

public. There are also cases where the service needs improvement, but

the first thing necessary is support from the public to make betterments of service possible. In reporting low grades for such cases, do you not add to the difficulties of getting better service?

Mr. Hayden. We certainly are getting good results in the opinion

of the commission by this means. Doctor Wolff. It was indicated that the public utility is rather

sensitive to anything affecting its pocketbook. Is it not also true that

the public is very sensitive on that same score? May not dissatisfaction result from the rates they have to pay for that service? And

that raises the question as to whether or not the service which is being rendered may not be of a quality higher than the people would

demand, so that correlation between public relations and your grading may be in part explained by not taking into account in your

grading what you get for a dollar.

Mr. Hayden. I Avould like to say that Doctor Wolff has gone just a

little too far. We are making minimum standards, the idea being

that these are minimum requirements. We have not made this matter

of service grading so prominent that the utility must go to extremes

in maintenance in order to get a good rating.

A Member. In a rate case does the gi'ade assigned for the service

enter into the rate of return?

Mr. Hayden. The grade that we have given the utility has an influence in establishing the rates for the utility. The question of the

utility's service is referred to the service department and the commission may ask for a report on the service of the utility. In making

up such a report we take into account the grading that utility has.
CONFERENCE OF STATE UTILITY ENGINEERS 27

Mr. Vanneman. There is one thought that occurs to me besides the one Doctor Woltf lias expressed. Taking Wisconsin, where regulatory power has been about as broad as any in the country, as an il- lustration the application of the grading system might be said to

show up the work of your commission in a retroactive sense. I have

noticed ratings as low as 60 per cent on the list of gas companies. If

such a system prevailed New York State and such a result were

broadcast, I am afraid that some of the localities would come back at the commission with the questions, "What have you been doing?"

Why have you permitted such poor service to be given?" For that

reason I have some doubt as to the advisability of adopting the system.

Further, I do not think it is fair to parallel corporations. Certain

corporations in New York State are capable of giving the very highest possible service, capable not because of any special means or effi- ciency, but because of the number of consumers in a given srea ; while

there are other companies giving poorer service, but nevertheless the

very best service possible under the conditions existing, especially

those cases where there are a limited number of consumers who naturally can not expect to get the same degree of service on a relative rate

as is rendered in areas more favorably situated. Some have rates

which the public will believe to be commensurate with the service

given, while in other cases the public will contend that the rates are

too high.

Mr. Hayden. In regard to the first qviestion as to what explanation

the commission has to make for allowing the company to operate with

a standing as low as 50 per cent, I will say that our plan in carrying

out the laws atfecting utilities has always been to deal with the utility

in the way that we felt would get the best results, namely, not to immediately start in and penalize the utility if they did not come across and do what they should do, but to work with ifchem. This has been

justified in our work with the telephone utilities particularly. If we

had tried to enforce these telephone standards rigidlv, opposition

from the utilities would have been the result. We realized this and

tried to use the same method that we have used in carrying out the

rules for other lines of service, and the result has been very good. I

think that everybody who is familiar with the Wisconsin situation

feels that the improvement in the quality of telephone service in Wisconsin has been wonderful. Similarly with the gas companies. It

does not help them to apply penalties if the public is not getting

what it should get. If we were to apply some rigid method and

take them before the attorney general we would not accomplish anything, but this grading of service exerts a continual pressure for improvements that will bring up the grade of the service.

Mr. Brown. I have one thought to suggest as a telephone engineer. There is no question but that grade of service can be defined

and measured, but there is great difference of opinion in regard to

details of the matter. For example, you can not give the same grade

of service with magneto equipment as you can on common battery

equipment. It seems to me that a company serving a small community with magneto equipment would render a lower grade of

service than with a common battery equipment. Yet that company

should certainly be rated at 100 per cent if it gives the best service

possible with equipment suited to the size of the community.
28 BUBEAU OF STANDARDS

Mr. PIayden. We have telephone utilities which are simply what

are known as roadway companies. Each utility, as far as its own

service is concerned, can attain as high a rating as is possible, because, as I tried to state in my paper, a condition, such as the number

of subscribers on a line, is determined by the locality served. I know

of a place in Wisconsin where there are 30 parties on a line. The

line runs up the valley of a river. These people have their own

service for communication with each other.. They can talk with each

other just as much as they are a mind to, and have little or no use for outside connection.

Mr. Vanneman. One phase that struck me was that it seemed to me, from my recollection of Mr. Hayden's paper, that inspections

were made at intervals varying up to 18 months apart, and then

how does he compare the different companies with some others that

have been inspected as often as once a month ? Mr. Hayden. We apply it just as Secretary Hoover says. We apply weighting. We consider the number of inspections made and

the time which elapses. In addition, we limit inspections on an

electric utility that stands 85 per cent or above. We would not make

an inspection there pei'haps in a year or year and a half. Somewhere else where the rating is low we make more frequent inspections. We try to bring up the service by making more frequent

inspections where they are necessary.

Mr. Crittenden. The next paper is on the problem of inductive

interference. This problem, as you all know, is an exceedingly intricate and difficult one, on which the bureau has done no specific

work. In listing the problem here, the purpose has been simply to

raise the question of how best to go about meeting it. It is with

this idea in mind that Mr. McCollum has prepared his paper on the

subject.

GENEE.AL SEVIEW OF THE INDUCTIVE ITTTERFEREITCE PKOELEM

By BuETON McCoLLUiiC, Electrical Engineer

INTEODUCTION

During the last few years there has been pressed upon the attention of power and signal companies and public utility commissions

a problem of far-reaching importance, resulting from inductive effects on communication circuits caused by power circuits operating

in close proximity to them. This problem is one presenting con- siderable difficulty for utilitj^ commissions, partly because of the

complexity of the technical factors involved and partly because the

problem is a relatively new one and there are few precedents to serve

as a guide even in dealing with the broader phases of the problem

and none at all relating to many important aspects of it. The problem is rendered more difficult because its solution involves not technical factors alone, but presents import economic and legal aspects

which are inseparable from any comprehensive treatment of the subject. In the present paper no attempt is made to enter into any

detailed discussion of the manj^ technical factors involved in the

problem. An attempt will be made, however, to review briefly the

more important physical principles on which inductive interference
CONFERENCE OF STATE UTILITY ENGINEERS 29

i-ests and. the chief technical factors involved in the mitigation of

the troubles. A brief resume will then be given of the more important principles that must be consfdei'ed in any comprehensive

treatment of this question, a review of the progress that has been

made by State commissions in dealing with it, and of measures that

are now being taken by the utility companies concerned in an at- tempt to secure an adequate solution of this troublesome problem.

ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES

The space around any conductor carrying an electric current is,

in general, filled with two distinct types of fields of force, one

of which is the electromagnetic field, proportional to the current in the

wire, and the other is the electrostatic field, proportional to the voltage impressed upon the Avire. The electromagnetic field is most

logically regarded as comprising lines of magnetic force surrounding the wire in the form of closed circles or loops, while the electrostatic field can best be regarded as lines of electric stress extending

radially in all directions from the wire. It is a well-known fact that

if another electrical conductor or a group of such conductors are brought into close proximity to a wire carrying a varying electric

current, voltages and corresponding currents will be induced in these

neighboring wires. These induced currents are, in general, quite

feeble in comparison with the currents in the power circuit giving

rise to them, but in the case of telegraph and telephone circuits, the

instruments connected to which are usually of extreme delicacy and

sensitivity, interference of a substantial character may result in the

functioning of the signal systems. It is this phenomenon that is re- ferred to as inductive interference. Interference of a material

character may result from either induction from the electromagnetic

field or induction from the electrostatic field, and either may be the

predominating factor in a particular case. As a general rule, however, under most practical conditions the troubles arising from electrostatic induction are more serious and more difficult to eliminate

or control than those arising from electromagnetic induction. This

is due chiefly to the fact that in most power transmission circuits

the voltages involved are relatively high and the current for a given

amount of power transmitted correspondingly small. There is also

the further fact that the technical difficulties of eliminating the effects of electrostatic induction are usually more serious than those

involved in controlling electromagnetic induction.

GENERAL EFFECTS OF INDUCTIVE INTERFERENCE

The consequences of these inductive effects on communication circuits are varied in character, depending upon conditions and on the

uses to which such circuits are put. In the case of telephone circuits,

the most common and serious difficulty is the production of noise in

telephone instruments which may be of sufficient magnitude to re- duce materially the usefulness of the service. In the case of telegraph lines the interference manifests itself largely through the

operation of relays and the consequent obscuring of signals. If the

inductive effects should become especially severe protective devices

on the lines may be caused to operate, thereby putting the lines tem431—24 3
30 BUREAU or STANDABDS

porarily out of commission. False ringing of telephone bells is also not an uncommon result of severe electromagnetic induction.

In extreme cases also a distinct fire hazard has been alleged due

to the blowing of fuses or a breakdown of insulation and other

causes. Another trouble from this source which has recently begun

to assume considerable proportions is the interference with radio re- ception due to certain types of induction interference. Because of

the tremendous growth of the radio industry during the last few

years and the still greater prospects for its growth in the future, it is not unlikely that this phase of interference may assume considerable importance.

Still another manifestation of inductive interference which, in

comparatively few cases, has assumed serious proportions has to do

with the personal hazard to operators of signal equipment, more particularly of telephone equipment. In extreme cases, due to short

circuits or very sudden or extreme changes of load in power systems,,

currents may be induced in adjacent telephone systems sufficient to

actuate the receivers of telephone operators with sufficient intensity

to produce serious acoustic shocks. Numerous cases are reported in

which the hearing of operators has been jeopardized by such acoustic

shocks, and with accompanying temporary demoralization of the

operating force. Also some cases have been reported of severe electrical shocks to operators due to very high voltage induced in telephone circuits resulting from severe transients in neighboring power

lines. While accidents of this latter class are admittedly rare, they

emphasize the extreme severity which may at times be attained by

the effects of inductive interference.

TECHNICAL FACTORS UNDERLYING CAUSES OF INDUCTIVE INTERFERENCE

In considering the factors involved in inductive interference it is

necessary to consider the general character of the currents existing

in commercial, power circuits. For the most part such currents comprise alternating current of relatively low frequency, in this country

usually 25 or 60 cycles per second. These currents are the useful

currents in the power circuits and are responsible for the conveyance

of practically all the useful power which they transmit. These cur- rents of fundamental frequencies induce currents of corresponding

frequency in neighboring signal lines, but the effects of these low

frequency induced currents in telephone systems are in most cases of relatively little consequence because the frequency is so low that

they are comparatively inaudible. In the case of telegraph circuits,,

however, it so happens that the frequency of the instruments used is of the same order as these fundamental frequencies, and it is chiefly

from induced currents from these low frequencies that interference

from telegraph circuits results. In addition to these fundamental

frequencies, there exist in practically all commercial power circuits

harmonics of relativelj^ high frequencies, which frequencies may be

any odd multiple of that of the fundamental wave. In general, these

higher harmonics lie within the range of from a few hundred to

several thousand cycles per second, and it is also within this range

of frequencies that both the ear and telephone receiver exhibit maximum sensitivity. These higher harmonics, though usually of small

amplitude as compared with the fundamental wave, nevertheless give
CONFERENCE OF STATE UTILITY ENGINEERS 31

rise to most of tlie disturbing effects resulting from inductive interference in telephone systems. These harmonics may arise from imperfections in the generating or distribution equipment itself, and

may, therefore, be factors of permanent and persistent influence.

Frequently, however, such harmonics are of a transient character due

to temporary causes originating in the power system.

Interference with radio receiving equipment, in general, involves

a third type of current far higher in frequency than those which

cause trouble in telephone circuits. It is a well-known fact that

arc lamps, certain types of circuit breakers, and transient discharges

over defective insulatoi-s act substantially as radio transmitting sta- tions sending out trains of electric waves of frequencies comparable

to those used in ordinary radio transmission. These may at times

be severe enough to interfere materially with reception of radio signals in their vicinity.

From the foregoing it will appear that interference in telegraph

systems is due primarily to currents of fundamental frequency, and

therefore to the useful current necessarily involved in the transmission of power. In case of interference with both telephone and

radio systems the interference is caused by frequencies of higher

range which not only play no useful part in the normal functioning of power systems, but, on the contrary, are in many cases objectionable from the standpoint of power operation. This is a fortunate circumstance, because any measures that may be taken to

suppress these higher harmonics are beneficial alike to the power as

Avell as to the signal systems. The detection and suppression to as great a degi-ee as possible of these higher harmonics of audible and

radio frequencies must, therefore, be regarded as prerequisite to

any adequate treatment of the inductive interference problem.

REMEDIAL MEASURES

(a) Suppression of harmonics.—Taking up now the various major lines of procedure that may be followed in the mitigation of

indxictive interference troubles, it will be evident that the most logical first step will be to inquire as to what extent it may be possible

to suppress or minimize the high frequency harinonics which, as has just been stated, are m.ainly responsible for the most serious

interference effects. The suppression of these harmonics has long

been regarded by the power companies as desirable because of cer- tain objections to their presence in the system from the standpoint

of operation. The existence of such harmonics in a power system

may contribute appreciablj' to the heating of generators and transformers and may give rise to serious overstress on electrical insulations, resulting in interruptions or impairments of the service

rendered by the power circuits. The high frequency harmonics,

which are most concerned in producing inductive interference in

telephone circuits, have their origin in imperfections in design of

generators, improper design or operation of transformers, and

other equipment connected to the power system. They may also be

caused in transient form by switching operations incidental to the

control or operation of the power circuit.

These higher harmonics are especially detrimental from the standpoint of inductive interference not alone because they are of fre-
32 BUREAU OF STANDARDS

quencles giving rise to much higher audibility than fundamental

waves. There is a further fact that the problem of suppressing

the inductive influence on neighboring lines is much more difficult

than that of suppressing the inductive influence of the fundamental

waves. In the case of fundamental waves it is comparatively easy

to maintain a close approximation to a balance of the currents on

the several Avires of the transmission line, and in this way the

algebraic sum of the currents of fundamental frequencies at any

point in the transmission line may easily be kept very close to zero. This is not true, however, in the case of many of the higher

hai^monics. It is a fact well known to electrical engineers that in

any three-phase system the third harmonic, as well as the odd

multiples thereof, bears such a phase relation to the fundamental

wave that at any given instant the harmonics in the three lines are flowing in the same direction. This results, in a case of an un- grounded line, in charging currents surging back and forth from

one end of the line to the other. In the case of a three-phase line

grounded at one end at the neutral of a star connected bank of the

transformers, the charging currents flow between the lines and the

ground. If the three-phase line has a grounded neutral at both

ends, then the third harmonic and odd multiples of it all flow at

any instant in the same direction in the line and return by way

of the earth. Obviouslj', such unbalanced curi-ents flowing in this

way produce very much greater inductive effects on neighboring

systems than those due to balanced currents. These unbalanced

components of currents which surge back and forth on the line or between line and earth or which utilize the earth as a return are commonly known as residual currents. Their unbalanced character

and high audibility combine to make them the predominant factor

in the production of noise in telephone circuits.

Leading manufacturers of electrical equipment have become fully

alive to the importance of these factors and a great deal is beingdone at the present time with a view of determining to what extent

these sources of inductive interference may be eliminated by proper

design of generators and other power equipment. We may reason- ably hope for material improvement in this direction in future installations. As to existing equipment, a great deal may be done by wellknown methods to reduce the magnitude of these harmonics in j)0wer

circuits by proper connection and operation of transformers and

other connected equipment, and by giving due attention to insulators

and the maintenance and operation of switching devices.

In the selection of transformers care should be exercised in avoiding the use of too high magnetic densities, since the use of such high

magnetic densities is one ©f the most prolific sources of harmonics in a power system. Even if the voltage wave of a generator is a pure

sine wave the use of high magnetic densities in the transformers

may give rise to both currents and voltages of the various higher

harmonics for which there is little excuse in practice. Proper con- nection of polyphase transformers is also important. Numerous

combinations entirely satisfactory in practice are known to engineers,

so that there is little excuse for introducing serious harmonic disturbances in this way. Grounding should be done only at a neutral

point and, as a rule, only one ground on each portion of the network
CONFERENCE OF STATE UTILITY ENGINEERS 33

should be made. Switches should be properly maintained and operated so as to open the circuit as quickly as possible since sustained

arcs, even though of relatively short duration, may give rise to harmonics very disturbing both to the power sj^steras and to near-by

communication systems.

Even direct-current railway systems may at times be important

sources of inductive interference due to the fact that the tooth structure of the armature as well as the process of commutation both introduce high frequency pulsations in the current which have the

same effect as the higher harmonics in alternating-current systems

mentioned above. In some practical cases these harmonics have

been largely eliminated from direct current systems by the use of

resonant shunts which form practically short circuits to the disturbing currents without affecting in any way the operation of the

power system to which they are connected.

(&) Separation.—Obviously the severity of inductive interference

effects will be reduced by maintaining as large a separation as is

reasonably practicable between the power and signal circuits. Long

parallels should be avoided insofar as this may be feasible, and

where such are unavoidable it has become a well-established principle that, in general, one side of the highway should be reserved

for power systems and the other for signal systems in order that

the maximum practicable separation may be realized. It should be

emphasized here, howevei", that this idea of separation of lines to

minimize inductive interference, while a basic factor in any broad

treatment of the subject, nevertheless has serious limitations, and

care should be exercised in its application lest an unwarranted financial hardship be imposed on one or the other of the utilities concerned.

(c) Use of metallic circuits.—One of the most common methods

resorted to for reducing inductive interference effects comprises the

use of complete metallic circuits for both the power and signal systems. The use of the metallic circuit has long been used by telephone companies for the mitigation of interference between adjoining telephone circuits, giving rise to the well-known phenomenon of cross talk. Wherever power and sigTial lines are brought

into close proximity complete metallic circuits in at least one, and

usually in both systems, are absolutely essential to prevent serious

disturbances in the communication circuits. Practically all such circuits are now made completely metallic as standard practice, the

only important exception being electric railway systems using the

rails and ground as a return circuit and rural telephone lines which

in many parts of the country are still largely installed as ground

return circuits.

{d) Transposition.—The foi*egoing remedies, while basic and es- sential in practically all cases, do not, in general, afford sufficient

protection from inductive interference effects, either as between

power and communication circuits or between various components of

communication circuits themselves. It is found necessary, as a rule,

to supplement metallic circuits with proper transpositions of wires

at suitable intervals. Such transpositions are often necessary within

the telephone system itself in order to reduce cross talk to a desirable

minimum, and transpositions in the power lines are necessary in
34 BUREAU OF STANDAEDS

order to reduce to a minimum the inductive effects which a line may

exert on a neighboring system. Theoretically it should be possible by

means of proper transpositions to reduce to an almost indefinite

extent the voltages induced in communication circuits. In practice,

however, this ideal may fall far short of realization unless the transpositions are made with great care and with due regard to the mutual

reaction of the two systems upon each other. As stated above, the

telephone lines must often be transposed according to a logical system with respect to each other, in order to avoid mutual interference.

It is necessary that these transpositions be very carefully coordinated

with transpositions made in the power circuits if the full advantage

is to be realized. This brings us to one of the most important aspects

of mitigating inductive interference troubles, namely, the necessity of

properly coordinating the transposition of wires of both the power

and comnumication circuits, and stresses the absolute necessity of

full and complete cooperation in this respect if satisfactory results are to be achieyed.

(e) Balancing of eJectrlcal systems.—By the application of the

methods outlined above it will, in most cases, be practicable to re- duce the resultant voltages induced in the communication circuits to

extremely small values, such that, if the signal systems are properly

balanced with respect to the two sides of the line, the resultant

interference with the operation of the communication circuits will

not be material. Careful attention, however, must be given to such

balancing both in the poAver and communication circuits, since

owing to the extreme sensitivity of the ordinary telephone receiving

equipment if such balances are not properly maintained in the sev- eral circuits both with respect to each other and to ground, local

currents will flow fi-om one portion of the circuit to the other in

sufficient magnitude to produce objectionable disturbances in the

telephone system.

The measures above mentioned for the mitigation of inductive

interference troubles form the essential basis of procedure for dealing with the inductive interference problem and they are generally

agreed upon by all as being necessary to its proper solution. However, the extent to which these principles are applied and the mode

of application are questions which bring up in practice many points

of conti-oversy, the solution of which has presented problems of great

difficulty not only to utility companies, but also to State commissions

and others interested in the mitigation of this trouble.

We shall now proceed to review briefly the principles and practices

that have been resorted to by State commissions in dealing with this

problem and endeavor to set forth the present status of the art as regards its relationship to the commissions and to the power and

communication companies.

STATE REGULATIONS REGARDING INDUCTIVE INTERFERENCE

It is only within the last few years that State commissions have

been called upon to give serious attention to the problem of inductive

interference. In the early days of telephone operation the only inductive interference of moment was that due to mutual action by

the telephone lines, resulting in cross talk, and this was taken care
CONFERENCE OF STATE UTILITY ENGINEERS 35

of by the telephone companies themselves. In the earlier days of

power and electric railway development the parallels were short,

loads light, and voltages relatively low, so that inductive interference

from these sources was in most cases so small that the telephone companies using metallic circuits were able to protect themselves against

it without serious hardship. However, the extension of power lines

into interurban and rural districts, with the accompanying increase

in loads, and more particularly the adoption of higher voltages due

to the longer distances over which power was transmitted, resulted

in an increase of inductive, effects to such an extent that the communication companies could no longer protect themselves without

the cooperation of the power companies. It therefore became neces-< sary to adopt joint measures applicable to both systems. These joint

measures, as indicated above, are often interrelated, and conse- quently there arose the problem of inductive coordination. The

problem first reached an acute stage in California, where, owing to

the extensive hydroelectric development, many transmission lines of

great length and very high voltage extended throughout many portions of the State.

The problem became so serious that in 1913 it was taken up by the

California State Railroad Commission with a view of finding a satisfactory remedy. It was evident at the outset that not enough information was available to make it possible for the commission to

draw up a set of regulations which would be at all adequate to

meet the situation. In consequence of this fact, there was organized

under the auspices of the California commission a joint committee

on inductive interference. This committee was organized in the

early part of 1913 and carried on its work continuously for a period

of about six years. During this time many extensive researches

covering many different aspects of the inductive interference problem were carried out and a vast amount of valuable data Avere accu- mulated. Some idea of the extent and scope of the committee's work

and of the complexity of the problem may be gained from the fact

that this committeee issued over 70 technical reports dealing with

nearly all technical phases of the inductive interference problem.

Following the final report of the committee, the California commission drew up and promulgated a set of rules governing power and

signal companies for the mitigation of inductive interference. Many

of these rules were general in character, providing for proper spacing of conductors, selection and operation of generating and utilization apparatus, and maintenance of proper balances on transmission

and communication lines. Some phases of the subject were, however,

covered by specific quantitative rules. These related to the distance

between transmission and signal lines in close proximity, the intervals at which transpositions should be made, the operation of transformers, and the avoidance of parallels.

The California rules are of special importance, because they have

largely been used as precedents by other States in dealing with this

problem. A number of States have adopted rules which are very

similar in character and scope to the California rules, and while

these have met many of the problems involved and have undoubtedly

cleared up many perplexing situations, they have not been altogether

satisfactory to all the interests involved. The power interests particularly have criticized these rules on the ground that, while they
36 BUREAU OF STANDARDS

specify in some detail the requirements that would have to be met bj

the power companies, they were not equally specific in defining the

obligations and duties of the signal companies. There has also

been considerable disagreement as to the wisdom of including in the

rules at this time any sort of quantitative limitations covering inductive interference. It appears to be the general attitude of the engi- neers of the telephone interests that enough engineering data is available to warrant the drawing of quantitative regulations covering

many of the more important phases of the problem. Power interests,

on the other hand, take issue with this view and contend that at the

present time only rules qualitative in character are warranted by the

existing data.

As previously stated, a number of States have dealt with the matter by the promulgation of regulations. During the first few years

following the issuing of rules by the California Railroad Commission

these rules were very largely copied by other States, though in most

cases changes and some extensions of scope were made. During the

last few years, however, the tendency of States that have dealt with

this matter has been toward greater conservatism and to avoid specific quantitative requirements. Up to the present time nine States

have taken action of one kind or another with a view of mitigating

inductive interference troubles. Of these, six have issued rules based

largely on the California regulations. In all of these latter sets of

regulations some of the rules are general and qualitative in character

and others specific and provide quantitative limitations. The Indiana

commission has more recently promulgated a set of regulations general in character, all specific quantitative requirements having been

avoided. The Oklahoma commission has taken a still more reserved

position and has thus far issued only tentative instructions which are intended to serve as a guide for power and telephone companies and

do not at present have the status of regulations.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES

We have thus far dealt only with the strictly technical aspects of

the problem of mitigating inductive interference. From the standpoint of State commissions the inductive interference problem pre- . sents three main aspects, namely, technical, economic, and legal, and

these several aspects are mutually interrelated. It is possible to eliminate substantially all inductive interference effects by the application

of one or more technical measures already well known. The difficulty

arises from the fact that, in general, the application of these technical measures may, unless properly coordinated, lead to excessive cost. One phase of the problem before the State commissions, therefore, is to see that technical measures are properly coordinated and applied

so that no undue hardship will be placed on any one utility company

and the total cost ultimately passed on to the public will be as low as practicable. This principle has been fully recognized by the various

commissions that have given attention to the problem, but only in one

set of regulations has any specific provision been included to cover it. The Ohio regulations provide that wherever two or more methods for

mitigating inductive interference are applicable that method or combination of methods involving the least total cost shall be adopted re- gardless of the system to which they must be api)lied. This principle
CONFERENCE OF STATE UTILITY ENGINEERS 37

is fundamentally correct and has met with general favor on the part

of both power and communication companies. It will undoubtedly

find wide application in the future except whei-e barred by legal

limitations to be mentioned later.

APPORTIONMENT OF COSTS

Another question that frequently arises in the practical application of the methods of mitigating inductive interference is that of

the division of costs between the utilities concerned. Some States

provide explicitly in their rules that such apportionment of costs

shall be made by agreement between the utilities themselves if this

is possible, but if such agreement can not be reached, the matter is to be referred to the commission for decision. At least one commission, namely, that of Iowa, has stated that, in general, where the

telephone line is the prior occupant and where changes, such as conversion from ground return to metallic lines, moving of lines from

one side of the highway to the other, and providing proper transposition, are necessary to avoid interference troubles, these changes

will be made and the costs charged to the power company.

SUPERIOR RIGHTS

There is one legal aspect of tlie question which has a direct bearing on the matter of the application of the principle of least cost

and also on the apportionment of costs, and this is the question of

superior rights. Presumably this question will arise only in the case

of interference between communication circuits and railway lines.

There is a well-established princii)le sustained by numerous court

decisions that any utility company which, in its normal operation,

facilitates traffic along a public highway occupied by it has a superior

right to the use of such highway and is not liable to the same extent

as a power company for interference with the operation of a communication circuit. This is true even though the communication

circuit may be a prior occupant of the highwaj'.

AGREEMENT PRIOR TO CONSTRUCTION

There is another basic principle, namely, that of agreement between power and communication companies in advance of construction, which is vital to a proper handling of the inductive interference

problem. This principle is in reality a corollary to the principle of

least cost. In practically every case the inductive interference can

be taken care of more economically if the necessary measures are

built into the lines at the outset than if introduced at any later time.

This principle has been recognized and often applied hy mutual

agreement between power and communication companies themselves.

It is probably with this principle in view that most of the commissions promulgating regulations to date have included a clause requiring that advance notice of construction be given to the other parties

affected.

As regards the matter of advance notice of construction, it is perhaps well to distinguish here between advance notice to the commission and advance notice to the other party concerned. As a
38 BUKEAU OF STANDARDS

rule, the latter is sufficient and in most cases, with proper cooperation, will permit the use of properly coordinated measures that will

eliminate materially inductive interference. Only in those cases in

which the utilities are not able to reach a satisfactory agreement between themselves is it necessary to have the matter referred to the

commission. By following this procedure the commission can relieve

itself of a tremendous amount of unnecessary detail which would

devolve upon it in case advance notice of all construction were re- quired to be made direct to the commission.

MUTUALITY OF INTERFERENCE

From the standpoint of the public and, therefore, from the public

utility commission, the subject of inductive interference can not be

treated merely as a question of interference by one utility affecting

the quality* of service supplied by another. This latter aspect of

the question must, of course, always be kept rigidly in mind in

justice to the utilities concerned, but it is important to bear in mind

also that in its ultimate aspects it is a question of interference between two . services, both of which are essential to the public, and,

therefore, in i^roviding rules or requirements which are designed to

mitigate troubles growing out of interference it is necessary to exercise care lest ihe burden of avoiding interference with one class of

service may impose serious and unwarranted restrictions on providing the public with the other class of service. The broad principle

here involved has been clearly recognized and expressed in a number

of commission documents and many court decisions, but it has not

yet found expression in any set of commission rules with which we

are acquainted, except, perhaps, in that clause of the Ohio rules

which provides that the mitigation must be brought about by that

method or combination of methods involving the least total cost.

RECENT DEVELOPMENTS

During recent years it Ifas become more and more evident that

such rules as have been promulgated in the past, while undoubtedly

accomplishing much good, have not been adequate to meet the demands of practice, and, furthermore, that there is not at present

available sufficient technical data -to warrant the drawing of rules

that will be sufficiently comprehensive and specific to meet requirements. The general "tendency on the part of communication interests has been to press strongly for more specific regulations, they

believing that enough data is available at least to warrant going

considerably further than we have yet gone in the direction of

formulating quantitative rules. The power interests, on the other

hand, have energetically opposed this view, they deeming it neces- sary to study the subject in a more comprehensive and thorough

manner before it can, be properly dealt with by regulatory bodies.

It became more and more evident that in order to reconcile these

views not only must more technical data be made available, but

better and more effective means of cooperation between the interests

concerned would have to be brought about. Until recently effective cooperation between the power and communication interests

in the solution of this difficulty has been rendered difficult, partly

mmmmmMMMimmmmmmEmmi, n
CONFERENCE OF STATE UTILITY ENGINEERS 39

liecause of lack of mutual confidence based chiefly on lack of ac- quaintance and partly on the comparatively loose organization of the

power interests.

For some years past, however, there has been a growing appreciation on the part of leading executives both of the power and communication interests of this unsatisfactory state of affairs. They

have come more and more to recognize that the mere promulgation

•of rules based on insufficient data will not only fail to solve the

problem, but will lead to the establishment of dangerous precedents. Furthermore,, they have come to appreciate that even good

rules without the proper cooperative spirit will be useless. In con- sequence of the better appreciation of these fundamentals there has

been a gradual drawing together of the power and communication

interests which has resulted recently in the appointment of a joint

general committee to deal with the physical relations between electrical supply and signal systems. This committee represents the

National Electric Light Association and the Bell Telephone System. It has been actively engaged in working out a fundamental

basis for the ultimate solution of the inductive interfei'ence problem. The objects of the committee as set forth in its first report,

issued March 7, 1922, were threefold—first, to develop general principles on which effective coordination between the two interests must

be based; second, to develop standards of construction and operation in accordance with such principles ; and third, to cany on such

research work as may be necessary to reduce as far as practicable

both the inductive influence of power systems and the inductive susceptibility of power-communication circuits. The committee issued

a second report dated May, 1922, and a third one dated December,

1922, the latter being only recently made available. This third re- port sets forth in considerable detail certain basic principles and

practices essential to a proper treatment of the inductive interfer- ence problem. It also emphasizes particularly the joint nature of

the problem and the mutual responsibility of the two classes of

utility companies in dealing with the problem. Full and complete

cooperation is urged in order that adequate coordination so essential

to the treatment of the inductive-interference problem may be realized. The report recognizes that wherever two or more methods

of eliminating inductive interference are available, that method or combination of methods which affords the best engineering solution

should be adopted. This principle is substantially identical with

the principle of least cost already discussed.

Another important principle set forth in the report is that of

mutual tolerance on the part of the two utilities of each other's pres- ence on the same highway, it being frankly recognized that the interests of the two utilities themselves, as well as of the public, will be

best served by the utilities making such concessions as to permit

joint use of highways wherever possible.

The development of this new cooperative movement has, within

the last year or two, changed completely the entire aspect of the inductive-interference situation, and the importance of the work of the

joint committee that has been the outgrowth of this movement can

hardly be overestimated. Although it has been in existence for

little more than a year, its accomplishments to date mark one of the
40 BUREAU OF STANDARDS

biggest steps that has yet been taken toward the ultimate sokition of

the problem of inductive interference. The work of this committee

has been of great value in developing mutual confidence on the part

of the different utilities and the spirit of cooperation between them.

The principles and practices already promulgated by the committee

will go far toward laying an effective groundwork for the ultimate

and satisfactory mitigation of inductive-interference effects. The

importance of the committee's work is augmented by the fact that it is a national committee and, therefore, in position to secure the advice and counsel of nation-wide interests and to view the entii-e

problem on a truly national scale. It is, therefore, in position to command the confidence of local utilities throughout the country so that its findings are very likely to be adopted and used in the same

cooperative spirit which the committee is displaying in working out

the solution of the problem. Undoubtedly, the work of this committee when finally completed will afford a firm and satisfactory

groundwork on which to base not only general regulations, but details of procedure and practice under practically all conditions.

DISCUSSION OF PROBLEM OF INDUCTIVE INTERFEHENCE

Mr. Crittenden. Mr. McCollum has indicated the futility of legal

action and the advantages to be gained by cooperation in dealing

with these technical problems. Because this correlation of effort has

been so successfully inaugurated, we have present this afternoon representatives of two interests which might be considered as opposed

the National Electric Light Association and the American Telephone & Telegraph Co. I will call on Mr. W. J. Canada, of the

National Electric Light Association.

Mr. Canada. Mr. McCollum has given a thorough, concise, and

well-balanced resume of all phases of the inductive interference

problem. I can only emphasize two or three points that appear likely

to be of particular prominence for the next year or two at least. One

of these is the departure from the purely legal standpoint in dealing with inductive interference problems. When the problem came

up it came so suddenly, and being little understood, provoked so much apprehension and misapprehension, that the quickest method

seemed to be to resort to the courts. At present the utilities are endeavoring to establish a better basis for understanding and treat- ment of these inductive relations without recourse to old legal

precedents such as govern court decisions. Our present course in

development of principles and practices is in conformity with the

theory of modern public-utility law, which provides for a constantly

progressive guardianship of the public interests by a commission

which makes and modifies the requirements for practice as the times

demand. This gives opportunity for the settlement of problems

where progress goes too rapidly for courts and court precedents to

keep up with it. In the past few years we have been seeking the cure, rather than

simply naming and analyzing the difficulty. Instead of the " inductive-interference " problem, we have started calling it the " inductive-coordination " problem. In approaching the subject from this

cooperative standpoint we bring out many facts formerly withheld for defensive reasons. Also, by thus bringing both power and
CONFERENCE OF STATE UTILITY ENGINEERS 41

signal points ot view into frequent and friendly contact, we are bringing out of obscurity many important considerations. Inductive

influence, susceptiveness, and coupling are being considered and

analyzed as physical factors and not as blameworthy qualities. Just

what treatment each factor should receive depends upon the economic

solution. Just how each factor may be treated and how much advantage may be derived by applying one or another method in varying degree is the subject of our present study. Our recommended

treatment in control of different factors will be aimed at producing

the best results in all services at an overall minimum of cost, generally applicable treatment being, of course, preferred to specific

treatments which merely tend to delay cost and controversy.

As Mr. McCollum stated, there has been for some two years going

on between the lighting companies and the Bell system a very large

and very effective cooperative movement. At first there was some

tendency to try to draw up quickly some quantitative provisions.

These are certainly needed in field work in order to avoid argument

und produce results economically, but with considerable restraint on the part of both the power and signal groups the joint committee

refrained from doing this, and tried instead to get at the problem

more fundamentally and to arrive at broad principles which could

afterwards be expanded into recommended practices without necessity for going hack over the early work and amending results too

hastily arrived at. The joint report made in May, 1922, included

principles which had been given a considerable test by applying

them to numerous situations and which seemed to be essentially fair

and sound. After putting them up for discussion and trying them

out in many fields and giving opportunities for criticism by many

interests, particularly the engineers of commissions, it seemed cer- tain that thej were in fairly good shape to build upon further. A

more detailed interpretation of these principles was next prepared

which constituted the joint report of December, 1922. There was

again considerable tendency toward introducing quantitative provisions before the treatment of all factors could be settled. Again,

however, that tendency was avoided by mutual restraint and an

effort was made to assure against losing sight of any of the principal factors which should enter into the settlement of individual

problems or into general solutions. Our aim was to include a brief

qualitative treatment of each important subdivision into which the

factors contributing to inductive relations between circuits could be

classified. How well that purpose has been fulfilled, of course, re- mains to be seen. The next piece of work ahead of our joint conmiittee evidently

is to build up some quantitative treatment of the factors which are now laid out as those to which control treatment should be given.

This task involves a number of considerations. It involves important economic considerations, and these require scrutiny from more

viewpoints than do the underlying technical and ethical questions.

Every wire operating organization—power, signal, transportation

should be afforded full opportunity for sharing in the presentation

of economic considerations involved. Facts, rather than assumptions of special pi-ivilege, should govern the solutions and no class

of service user be under or over favored.
42 BUREAU OF STANDARDS

As Mr. McCollum also indicated, the question of the best use of

our highways is one of the most important questions. Highways

are sometimes considered by the courts in the more narrow way of

being traffic channels only, but there is an increasing tendency to- ward considering them as routes for rendering public services. In

most cases we have investigated we find that the people are more

economically served by maximum use of highways than they were formerly by the separation of services into diverse channels. This

consideration of most economic use of highways (including railroads which have been declared highways) forms a very convenient

criterion as to the kinds of facilities to be recommended on a line

of highway between centers of population or tributary to many

dwellings or workshops.

The work immediately ahead in the joint committee has been

divided into subcommittees. One is the subcommittee on further

development of rules and practices. For quantitative development

there is needed a very considerable amount of field work. In spite

of the history of the matter, we have comparatively little data on

the existing field conditions to show why some of the thousands

of existing inductive exposures between lines are workable and trouble free, while a few others, though roughly similar, are not

workable.

Thei'e is also a subcommittee on development and research being

formed to inquire into various factors which contribute, respectively,

to interference and coordination.

I believe that there is much more work needed in the near future

among some other classes of utilities, particularly for the sake of

building up groups of engineers in those utilities who will understand the technical questions involved and can intelligently join in a cooperative method of procedure for inductive coordination. Some

of the economic considerations of street railways, railroads, etc., would be somewhat different from those of power and signal utilities,

although the physical considerations would be more or less alike, but

the main reason for work by these other organizations is to keep oui'

procedures on a cooperative basis. That is the thing that is needed

and that the public expects of its utilities.

Mr. Crittenden. We would be glad also to hear from Mr. Wilkinson, of the telej)hone company.

Mr. Wilkinson. Mr. 3IcCollum has summarized the inductive

interference or inductive coordination situation in a splendid way

and has probably treated it more fully and more completely than

has ever been done at one time before. Mr. Canada has covered

practically all of the other phases of the problem which come up in

practice, and between them they have left very little for me to say.. The National Electric Light Association was born about 1885 in

Chicago, and at its very first meeting one of the things that was

taken up was a letter from a telephone company complaining that

telephone service was being disturbed by a power line. The tw'>; interests did not then, of course, realize what they were up against,,

but if there could have been full realization of the importance of

the problem at that time, we might not have to be discussing the

matter in such detail to-day. However, the telephone companies

had enough difficulties of their own in the early days because of the-
CONFEEENCE OP STATE UTILITY ENGINEERS 43

naturally rather primitive equipment that was then in use. As the

telephone plant grew and developed, we took care of the mutual

inductive problems in our own plant, and we thus to a large extent

took care of the problems that would have arisen otherwise from

what we may call "outside sources." Then the power companies

started to grow by leaps and bounds, and it became apparent after

full study by telephone engineers that the problem can not be

solved by making changes in the telephone plant alone. It became

more and more apparent as time went on that it was a mutual problem, and that it could not be solved by each party trying to place

the blame on the other. This was tried for some time and it naturally led the com,panies further apart, and brought them to the

point where they were considering the advisability of letting the

courts decide the matter.

Of course, this was not the general case, but there were enough

cases of acute controversy so that the two utilities were brought to

the realization that if they wanted to get the right answer they must

treat inductive interference as a mutual problem and solve it by

methods of inductive coordination determined by joint study and

investigation. Naturally, it is only by such cooperative method that

the two utilities can properly meet their service requirements.

As Mr. McCollum has pointed out, there are two main parts to the

technical problem. One, the investigation of the causes and effects

of inductive interference brought about by the proximity and character of the lines, and two, the methods of coordination to prevent

the interference. From the operational side, in order that the information which technical research brings out may be applied to

each particular case it must be applied in accordance with the best

engineering solution which, of course, includes the necessity of ren- dering proper and efficient service of both kinds. Mr. Canada and

Mr. McCollum both pointed out to you the Vt^ork of the joint general

committee of the National Electric Light Association and the Bell

Telephone System. The work of that committee, looking toward the

proper engineering solution of this mutual problem of coordination,

has showed that both utilities can develop their respective systems

and give adequate and efficient service without undue difficulty or

interference. Cooperation and advance plamiing are rapidly bringing about effective coordination. Through such work the utilities can plan together for the most effective and economical scheme to care for future coordination, as Avell as to make arrangements to

clear up in an orderly and systematic way existing unsatisfactory

conditions. Through such advance planning it is found there is plenty of room for both companies to give adequate and efficient

service. Where considerations of safety, service, and economy make

joint use of poles desirable, such arrangements should be made, and

it is found that this can be done with a great many of the lines.

Then there are certain classes of lines where joint use is not so desirable, but the lines can be properly operated on opposite sides of

the highway. This leaves only the higher voltage transmission lines

and the longer toll lines where the consideration of more than highway separation enters into the problem, and where separate routes

may be required. These latter lines, while sometimes giving rise to

difficult problems, only represent a small part of the total line mile-
44 BUEEAU OF STANDARDS

age, and it is generally found that there is sufficient room to work

out a proper solution.

Wliere the question of principles and practices for coordination

has come up before the State commissions, I want to say that the

utilities feel that they have had the fullest cooperation, and in these cases you gentlemen have done a great deal to assist in the advancement of the solution of our difficulties. Thank you.

Mr. Crittenden. The question is now open for general discussion.

The engineers of the State commissions must have had some experi- ence with this problem. We would be glad to hear from them.

Mr. Black. I might say in the beginning that we have fallen for

the joint report of this committee. We took the rules as they state them here and changed a few clauses in order to fit our case, and we

require the utilities in the State of Maine to report along the lines

suggested here. We leave out the question of payments, but we re- quire that the power companies and the telephone companies shall

get together and follow the general principles laid down in this particular report of the joint committee, and then if they can not agree

as to the paym.ent of expenses they have the option of referring that

back to the commission. We have simply made these suggestions

mandatory upon the utilities in the State. We have stated a policy

in regard to the location of lines and types of construction and have

made the utilities do what the}- should have done without any complaints.

Mr. ToEPPEN. We are at present drafting a new set of rules in

which the report of the committee will be incorporated, probably not as independent sections but merged with the old ones. We do not call

attention to interference as a special problem, but make the taking

care of it just a part of good construction practice throughout the

State. This will apply to the small company primarily. With the

two large companies, the Detroit-Edison and the Consumere, we have never had any arguments as far back as I can remember, but we have

had a few small cases in the last two years. We have not had any

real inductive interference problems in the State of Michigan.

Mr. Snook. There is one point that was brought out last by Mr.

Wilkinson that has given us the most satisfaction; that is, compulsion of advance planning. I had a man say to me, " Your code

sounds too much like the Bible." Yet his company found that if plans are taken care of in the right way there won't be very much

trouble when it comes to the final consideration.

Mr. Carter. Last November the Indiana commission put out a pamphlet taking care of this matter. We have several hundred independent telephone companies. The commission felt, and I felt, in

working up a set of rules, that a very brief, concise statement would

be better than to try to work out elaborate teclinical plans. We got

it out and it has worked out very well. We have solved several problems that we had not been aT^le to solve before. The electric and

telephone interests have gotten together and have gotten into agreement to a very large extent.

Mr. Crittenden. Do the railways, electric or steam, come into

this problem?

Mr. Canada. It is only in respect to the proper economic solution

that the inductive coordination problem between electric lines of

different utilities varies. At present the technical solution could
CONFERENCE OP STATE UTILITY ENGINEERS 45

apparently be exactly the same, but the proper quantitative application of control measures for various factors in power and signal circuits and in their couplings would differ as between highways and

railroad right of way, because of the different dimensions, the public

vs. private ownership, the character of development of land at either

side of the way, etc. We might find it proper to make quantitative

differences of predetermined degree, between the application of

control measures under one or another right of way conditions or according to the character of public or private use to which the

electrical systems concerned are put. In arriving at these proper

quantitative solutions (and our joint work has hot yet included

these) there is no doubt but that additional cooperation of electric

and steam railroad representatives should be secured.

Mr. Snook. On my way to Washington a prominent railroad man

described to me their installations with telephone lines on trolley

poles. He said that in most cases this would not be practicable, but

for the particular kind of construction which they had it was the

most economical thing for them to do.

Mr. Knowlton. It seems to me that the two associations, while

they represent a very large per cent of the utilities in the country, can not speak for all of them, and I am just wondering how their

results can be gotten to the stage of an authoritative rule, one that can be adopted by every company and by the commissions. There

is hardly opportunity for any one companj'^ to do the thing as thoroughly as they intend to do it. The question is, then, will it be

possible to adopt the different conclusions they arrive at, or should

there not be some consideration of our special administrative problems in formulating these as formal rules? There is also another

question, should the State commissions make investigations of their

own, or should they have a hand in the present study of inductive

coordination ? Mr. Wilkinson. When we completed the woi-k on these reports,

we sent copies to the president of the United States Independent

Telephone Association. It is very interesting to note that of the

last issue we sent him 200 copies and he wi-ote back and wanted

more. He wanted to put them in the hands of the small telephone

companies throughout the country and asked us to send him 1,000

copies more. In this way we are endeavoring to make this information generally available throughout all branches of the industry.

Mr. Snook. In regard to coordination between the Electric Light

Association and the Independent Telephone Association, it would

help along the line of coordination if the telephone people could

know what the electric-light people plan to do, and vice versa. Mr. Canada. I am glad that the question is raised. About a year

ago the United States Independent Telephone Association, at its

Chicago convention, invited both Bell and National Electric Light

Association organizations to be represented and to present companion papers on inductive interference and its prevention. This was

for the professed purpose of promoting a mutual understanding and

so furthering cooperation. Similar representation of the National

Electric Light Association at State telephone conventions has been

frequently requested and arranged whei-e pi-acticable. These ex- 431—24 4
46 BUREAU OF STANDAEDS

changes have been supplemented by a permanent assignment by

President MacKinnon of an independent telephone representative,

Mr. Bearing, of Des Moines, to keep constantly in touch with the

National Electric Light Association's work on this subject and so facilitate mutual agreement in development of methods and in handling individual problems.

We might as well understand, however, that this does not fully

represent the educational problem among small telephone companies.

While the Bell System represents all Bell companies, and the National Electric Light Association a very large proportion of all power

utilities, the proportion of independent companies represented in the

independent associations is small. Furthermore, the independent as- sociations themselves are loosely knit and have neither adopted consistent and far-sighted policies on such joint problems of coordinating public-service facilities, nor developed machinery for carrying

out such policies. This difficultj^ is fully appreciated by them and

we shall do all possible to make our cooperation stronger, more consistent, and more in the interest of both, kinds of service users. The

State commissions appreciate this situation. If the association of

telephone companies supports a mutually acceptable plan of cooperation and inductive coordination, the unassociated telephone companies will undoubtedly adopt similar practices. Education along

these lines appears to be the province of the telephone associations

with whom the National Electric Light Association and Bell System will cooperate in the first instance and as fully as organization

limitations permit.

Mr. Hayden. In regard to the dissemination of information which

Mr. Canada and Mr. Wilkinson spoke about, at the last annual con- vention of the Wisconsin State Association Mr. Canada and Mr.

Grace, of the American Telephone & Telegraph Co., talked of this

same cooperation and the effort that was being made to determine

a final solution. I will say that the Wisconsin Railroad Commission has never laid down any i"ules on inductive interference just

because we felt that we did not know what requirements to make.

We did not know what rules to lay stress upon. We did not have

the engineers, and did not have the experience necessary to carry

out the program properly. We are looking to this very cooperation and the work that is being done to give us our foundation for

such rules as we may find are necessary to lay down. In the meantime we have somewhat arbitrarily established a rule that telephone

and supply lines shall not occupy the same side of the highway in

the rural districts, except where it is not practicable to do otherwise. We can get along with such rules until more definite ones have

been formulated. Such talks before the Independent Telephone Association and before the Electric Light Association have brought

about, we think, the understanding that the utilities should consult

with one another before they construct a new line.

Mr. Snook. We have rules in regard to the location of lines. We

have had the question up with the Ohio Electric Light Association,

the Independent Telephone Association, and some of the officers of

the Bell Telephone Co., and it was agreed that to require obtaining

the commission's consent before commencing construction would be

futile, because of the enormous number of such cases. If such a rule
j CONFEBENCE OF STATE UTILITY ENGINEERS 47

were made, it would require an army of inspectors and engineers

- to be effective.

Mr. Hatden. I believe that a little notification beforehand will save a whole lot of correspondence later on, and I believe that if we

had notification beforehand we could determine by quite a casual

analysis whether there would be bad inductive interference. Advance notice to the commission is impoi'tant. Notice should also be

given to the other utilities. Then, if it is seen that there is likely to

be a real problem, the utilities could settle it between themselves, and

if they can not do that they can take it up with the commission.

Mr. Campbell. In Iowa the board of supervisors in each county

may grant a franchise for a right of way, or the railroad commission

may grant this, just as the applicant desires. A great proportion of our trouble comes from lines granted franchises by the supervisors.

As a general thing, the supervisors in the rural counties are not in a

position to pass on the matter of whether or not a line is hazardous.

They look upon it as simply a matter of using the highway. I do not

think advance notice is necessary so much for telephone lines because

most of them are now built, but if something can be done which will

not be too great an inconvenience to let the commission know just

where new power lines are going to be built, so that advance planning can be taken into consideration, one of the greatest sovirces of

our trouble will be removed.

In Iowa I can safely say that there is a marked improvement when

the people at large know just what is beihg done from a cooperative

standpoint. We still have a situation which is not solved. The telephone proprietors who are not members of the independent organization are difficult to reach. For instance, in one county we have 37

separate telephone companies all owned by farmers, and many of

them still insist upon a full observance of their legal rights. There

are plenty of attornej-s they can consult who will tell them that that

is the thing to do.

Mr. Black. We had an 11,000-volt line which paralleled the Western Union, and the matter came to the attention of the commission.

The commission had no rules at that time in regard to it, so we took

it up with the power company, and the line was moved to another

place just as satisfactory to the power company.

We are in difficulty in Maine because the selectmen in each town

specify the location that the power company should have, but we

do have the advantage that in case the selectmen in the town re- quire something that the company does not feel it can give the company has the right of appeal, to the commission and then to the

supreme court.

Mr. ToEPPEN. In addition to the matter which Mr. Black mentioned, I think the thing that is really needed to make the final con- necting link, especially in dealing with the small companies, is to

have a man on the commission staff who shall act as a sort of liaison

officer. We have such a person in the telephone section and are looking for the same kind of man for the electrical section, one who can

bring the companies into line, because John Jones, the commission

man, who is a good friend says, " Jim, this is a good thing, and the

thing you ought to do."
48 BUREAU OF STANDARDS

1

Mr. Wolf. In Maryland we have made no rules. We have preferred to leave the matter of inductive interfex-ence for treatment

by the utilities along cooperative lines, such as those of the National

Electric Light Association and the American Telephone & Telegraph Co. We have taken the bull by the horns, so to speak, and

got something done in another way by encouraging the small or- ganizations to sell out. We have been rather successful in getting

rid of some of the weaker sisters. We have not been able to get

rid of them all. One other thing. We had a meeting recently and called all the

utilities of the State together and formed an organization, which

includes not only the gas, water, and electric, but the telephone utihties, and we hope to have all the smaller telephone companies included.

Mr. Crittenden. We will pass to the last item on the program

for to-day, which involves a variety of problems on the grounding

of electrical cii-cuits. I will ask Doctor Lloyd to give an introductory^ statement on the question.

GROUNDING OF ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS

By M. G. Lloyd, Electrical Engineer

The grounding of electrical circuits is instituted in some cases for

operating reasons and in 'others for protective reasons. A third

consideration which may influence this practice is its effect upon

inductive interference between power and signal (telephone and telegraph, etc.) circuits. The public utility commissions may be con- cerned with grounding as it affects inductive interference and as it affects the operation of power utilities, since this will have an effect

upon the service given; but it is my purpose to discuss only the

grounding which is carried out for protective purposes since our

staff' here at the bureau has not made any study of grounding from

the two other viewpoints.

Grounding for protective purposes applies both to low-voltage circuits and also to the noncurrent-carrying metallic parts of electrical

equipment. Such grounding is called for by both the National Electrical Safety Code and the National Electrical Code of the Fire

Underwriters. The grounding of the frames of macliinery, the

cases of equipment, conduit for wiring, and similar metallic parts is required to be carried out whenever the voltage of the circuit exceeds

150 volts, and is desirable in all cases. The purpose of this grounding is to insure that such exposed parts will never be at a potential

much higher than that of the ground, even though there should be

a failure of insulation which would bring them in contact with the

circuit and thus make them alive.

The grounding of the circuits themselves is called for whenever

the normal voltage is comparatively harmless and there is a possibility that a higher voltage may be imposed upon the circuit by a breakdown of insulation or unexpected contact with wires of foreign

circuits. The exposure to circuits of higher voltage may be brought

about through connection to a transformer or by connection to an overhead outdoor line. Even where there is no such exposure it is

I
CONFERENCE OF STATE UTILITY ENGINEERS 49

desirable to ground the neutral of a three-wire circuit in order to

reduce the maximum possible potential of the circuit above the earth.

Heretofore both of the electrical codes have required that independent ground connections be made for the circuits and for the noncurrent-carrying parts of equipment. The objection to a common

ground connection is twofold. In the first place, if this ground connection should be interfered with, the voltage of the circuit may be

imposed upon the exposed metal parts and thus a possibility of shock

through accidental contact be introduced which would make the conditions more hazardous than if the grounding had not been at- tempted. In the second place, even though the ground connection

remains intact, any drop of potential on the grounding conductor

due to the flow of current from the circuit to the ground would be

effective in raising the potential of the exposed metal parts above

ground potential, and thus promote conditions for shock at the time

such current was flowing. Thus, if the resistance of the grounding

conductor and the ground amounted to no more than 4 ohms, a flow

of 30 amperes would raise the voltage of the conduit system, cases,

etc., to 120 volts above the ground, which is not a desirable condition.

Where there are sufficient grounds on a sj'stem, as, for instance, a ground at each service entrance of a group of buildings all fed

from one transformer or one interconnected secondary system, the

first of the above objections disappears, since the possibility that all

ground connections will be lost is decidedly remote. A proposal

has consequently been made and is now under consideration in the re^

vision of the National Electrical Code that such a common gi-ound be

permitted whenever three or more sei'vices on the same secondary

system are grounded to metallic water piping. This proposal ignores

the second objection mentioned above, since that objection will still

apply to the situation thus created. On the other hand, it should be

kept in mind that in certain municipalities this practice has already

been in vogue, and so far as I am aware little or no trouble has so far been experienced.

A particular instance of the grounding of noncurrent-carrying

parts comes up in rule 213 of the National Electrical Safety Code,

which requires the grounding of guy wires upon high-voltage lines

unless an insulator is inserted in the guy which is effective against the

line voltage. The rule at present is applicable in urban, but not

in rural districts. Perhaps this rule should be extended to rural districts inasmuch as an accident occurred in Maine about a year ago

from contact with a live guy wire which resulted in the death of

three persons.

DISCUSSIOIT OF GROITNDING OF ELECTRICAL CIRCTJITS

Mr. Snook. In the case of joint construction with signal lines, it

is sometimes necessary to swing a transformer below a signal line,

and we must determine what to do to make it safe for the telephone

lineman. What would be your suggestion ? Mr. Hayden. I think the code covers that. The transformer leads

would be in conduit.

Mr. Snook. What kind of conduit?

Mr. Hayden. Put them in iron conduit.
50 BUREAU OF STAXDARDS

Doctor Lloyd. In a situation of the kind Mr. Snook juentions, it is desirable that the case of the transformer be grounded for the protection of the telephone lineman. Otherwise, if there should be any

breakdown the lineman would be exposed to the high-voltage line in

his own low-voltage work. On the other hand, in order not to carry

that ground up to the neighborhood of the high-voltage conductors

above, it seems to me that the higli-voltage leads coming down to

the transformer should be placed in insulated conduits instead of

metal conduits. It seems to me that gives sufficient protection to

the telephone linemen.

Mr. Wilkinson. Ordinarily in joint pole construction it is customary^ to locate a transformer above the telephone attachments. It is then not necessary to run primary and secondary wires vertically

through the telephone space, and thus the telephone lineman does

not find it necessary to work around such wires or around the transformer itself. However, there are occasional cases in factory districts where the amount of power needed in an individual location

requires the installation of a transformer too large to be located near the top of the pole. Where it is necessary to place such transformers

on the poles a satisfactoiy arrangement is to -build an H fixture with

a platform between two poles to carry the transformers. The telephone lineman does not then have to come in contact with them in

climbing the pole. Furthermore, an arrangement of vertical runs

to such transformers can be so made that the telephone attachments

are avoided, and the telephone lineman can keep at a safe distance

from such vertical runs. Mr. Black. In considering the adoption of the National Electrical

Safet}' Code in Maine the local utilities objected to the requirement

for grounding and took specific exception to rule 213 (c), part 2 of

the National Code, which reads as follows:

The anchored end of the guy wires attached to wood poles carrying lines of more than 15,000 volts shall, except in rural districts, be permanently grounded

(see sec. 9) wherever this part of the guy has a clearance of less than 8 feet to ground, unless an insulator is used which is permanently effective against

the highest voltage which is liable to be impressed upon it. We have a rather peculiar situation in Maine, There is one company that has a 13,000-volt power line, with their poles set in a gravel base, and they have asked how they are going to get grounding. (Beads extract from letter) :

In our particular system we operate 38,000 volts with the transmission in Y and the Y point permanently grounded. As a result of this permanent

ground we find it impossible to operate any of our lines with the wire off the

insulator and touching a cross arm, and in all cases where such a condition occurs our lines will trip out immediately. It, therefore, appears that under

the condition of any of our transmission wires coming in. contact with a guy

wire, even with high resistance to ground, the same conditions would be ob- tained, namely, that the switch would trip immediately.

We, therefore, feel that for companies operating as our company with a grounded transmission system, that we should be exempted from maintaining

the grounds on guy wires with a resistance as low as 25 ohms.

I Avould rather like to get the ideas of some of you gentlemen in

regard to that particular point: whether it is necessary or not to

ground guys when you have a transmission system in Y and Y point

permanently grounded.

w II
CONFERENCE OF STATE UTILITY ENGINEERS 51

Doctor Lloyd. Was it on that particular system that you had that

accident when the distribution line came in contact with the guy?

Mr. Black. No; the condition was this: A 33,000-volt line had

been built over a 2,200-volt distribution system. For some reason

or other at the time they were built the transmission line was owned

by one company and the distribution line by another. The distribution line had been allowed to go. They had not paid any attention

to it. Finally the pole tipped over. The 2,200-volt line came in

contact with the guy on the 33-000-volt line. A man came alongdriving a horse. I am not certain, but I think the horse stepped

into a puddle of water, as it had been raining. The man went to

help the horse, and another man went to help him and they were

killed. Then a woman went to help and she was killed. No one

standing around them knew what happened. We measured the

resistance and found something like 900 ohms. It was very high,

but I do not remember the exact figures. In that particular case we searched around to find means of grounding, and did finally

locate one that came within requirements, but it was quite a job to

find one which gave the desired resistance.

A Member. What was the reason for wanting to ground it?

Mr. Black. We thought if the wire came off the insulator and

touched the cross arm, the circuit breakers would throw the line off

immediately.

Doctor Llotd. That means that they get a good enough ground

on a wood cross arm to throw the circuit breaker on the 2,200-volt

system ? Mr. Black. No; the 38,000-volt system. In some locations their

system is not grounded.

Doctor Llotd. Would this company object to running an overhead

wire to a point where they could get a sufficiently good ground?

Mr. Black. Most of the companies in the State seem to object to

it. One company has built an extension to its line with every pole

set in a granite ledge, and they are probably hunting for some place

to ground it. We had one case of electrocution because of an

overhead ground system. The wire came in contact with the 2,200-

volt distribution system. The ground was not effective, and the reason why the accident happened was that the space between the

transmission wire and the ground wire itself was very small, and a boy swinging on the guy brought them in contact and was killed.

There were five points where the system was supposed to be

grounded. It was an exceptionally dry summer. The ground plate

was buried in charcoal, but it was dry as a bone. That accident

came about by an attempt to carry such a system.

Mr. ToEPPEN. We have had two fatalities in Michigan in the last

two months when the 11,000-volt distribution line came in contact

with the telephone line.

Mr. Black. Do you consider insulation as a practical proposition

for these high-voltage lines ? Mr. ToEppEN. I think so. I would take my chances on poor insulation. I would rather have a broken, interlocking insulator than

bad grounds.

Mr. Black. The principal objection is the cost of maintenance.

Mr. ToEPPEN. I would rather have the expenses than a law suit.
52 BUEEAU OF STANDARDS

Ml". Black. It would make a difference as to how many miles of

line you had to maintain.

Mr, Imboden. Foi' some voltages there are various opinions as to

whether or not it is desirable to have a common ground whe car- ried throughout the entire system, but as far as grounding a guy is concerned, if you can not get an adequate grounding of guys, it is. absolutely essential to carry the overhead ground to some point

where you can get it. Mr. Black. One company has suggested that the requirement

for grounding or insulation of guy wires attached to wood poles

should not apply to rural districts. Perhaps we may solve our problem through a definition of " rural districts." What is your

answer, Doctor Lloyd ? Doctor Lloyd. Where it is so expensive to insulate the guy on

these high-voltage lines and expensive or impossible to get a ground,

it is best to try to get rid of the guy. Wouldn't it be less expensive

in the end to place the poles at short enough distances so that they

do not need guys or possibly use an H frame? It seems to me that

after all that might possibly be the cheapest way out of it, Poles

are not expensive up in your country.

Mr. Imboden. Doctor Lloyd's suggestion has been carried out very

extensively in Ohio and West Virginia by using A and H structures,,

except in cases where such structure would be unsightly. Then we

used the guys.

Mr. Black. Has anyone had any occasion to consider the point of

whether or not the gi'ovmded transmission line should be exempted

from grounding the guys attached thereto ? Doctor Lloyd. That would not take care of the accident hazard if

that particular line was not in trouble itself, although it was one of

these guys that made contact. The very ground that causes the circuit breaker to open may be due to somebody in contact, and even

in the act of opening up the line that person may be killed.

Mr. Black. It is also a rule with some companies that the operator

shall close the circuit, after it has been thrown out by the circuit

breaker, to determine whether or not the line has cleared itself in the

meantime. I think I have a pretty good idea as to what your ex- perience has been and thank you very much.

Mr. Crittenden. I would suggest that questions like these be formulated as concisely as possible, and that we begin our session to-morrow with a discussion of experience in the various States. The meeting will be called at 10 o'clock to-morrow morning at the Bureau of

Standards. Unless there are other things we should take up this

afternoon, this session will now close.
THIRD SESSION (MORNING OF SATURDAY, MARCH 3, 1923)

The conference reconvened at 10 a. m. at the Bureau of Standards,

Mr. E. C. Crittenden presiding, and continued the discussion which

was begun at the preceding session.

DISCUSSION OF GROUNDING OF ELECTUICAL CIRCUITS (CONTINUED)

Mr. Hayden. The things I am particularly interested in are the

necessity of the ground on secondaries being properly made and the

question of the grounding of the secondaries where you have threephase distribution leading from a distribution network. In the

State of Wisconsin we have a great many small communities where

there is a considerable amount of power used. Motors are operated on three-phase circuits, and the lighting is taken directly

from the three-phase secondary. The lighting is 110—220 volts on

the three phases, and it would then be impossible to ground in each

of the j)remises. Now the question arises whether the best plan would

be to require the utility to put a larger transformer in on one phase

and take the lighting all from this transformer, or whether it would

be better to have the grounding only on one of the transformers on

one phase and have the lighting distributed from the three transformers as is now done. I should like to hear the experience of some

of the men in this matter, and get their ideas especially on guying

and grounds.

Colonel Betts. In New Jersey one of the largest companies does

not ground its two-phase power secondaries at all. The lighting is

supplied by separate transformers. They have a regular program

of testing transformers to see if there is liability of any danger from

lightning, etc. They actually test transformers to find out whether

anything has happened to them, so with their system of inspecting

transformers the situation seems to be satisfactory. We have not

had, in several years, any cases of death or shock that we know of,

that have come because circuits have not been grounded.

With regard to the difficulties in establishing grounds. New Jersey

has a rocky territory in the northern part. The rules for groundingcall for grounding on Avater pipes. In Bayonne and in Hoboken

the municipal- authorities were opposed to attaching the grounding

systems to water pipes on account of electrolysis troubles that had

been caused by street railways. Professor Ganz, of Stevens Institute was very active in bringing about a solution of that matter.

The grounds are now being made on the water-pipe systems, which

is the only way to do it on a rock ridge. Along the seashore and

the territory back of it there is a great deal of dry sand and gravel.

There are few water pipes or piping systems which can be used for

grounding, and the companies have experimented with ground rods

and things of that kind. While we have an order on every com53
54 BUREAU OF STANDARDS

pany requiring the grounding, they are often reluctant to put in

ground rods because the customers get the idea that they will be

absolutely protected. We have been unusually fortunate in not having anything happen, but by stirring around among the companies

we have possibly kept them a little more alive in seeing that their

apparatus itself and transformers, etc., were located whei^e there was

no possible danger of accidents.

Doctor Lloyd. With regard to the problem brought up by Mr.

Playden, I know that has come up in a number of places. Usually

the higher voltage power circuits are not required to be grounded

under the rules, but where they tap off the line and get 110 volts

for lighting or use separate transformers, the secondary wires should

be grounded, and wherever these lighting taps have been grounded

they have brought up the question as to how it should be done. One

aspect of the problem comes up in another case where you have the

high-voltage circuits carrying the power and you want to get lighting from the same source. You can put autotransformers in the

same circuit and get 110 volts that way. If that happens at a point

on more than one circuit you are going to have trouble in grounding. In California they have prohibited the use of autotransformers.

They require a two-coil transformer so that the lighting circuit will

be entirely insulated from the high-voltage circuit, and ground each

circuit for itself. I think probably that particular item would not

ordinarily come under the jurisdiction of the utility commission

since it is a problem of interior wiring. The consumer connects the

autotransformer on the circuit after it has passed his meter. In

California the rule comes under the Industrial Accident Commission.

Regarding the other aspect of this matter brought up yesterday

regarding the change in the Underwriters' Code, I was just looking

over the rules in a number of States and find the cases pretty nearly

equally divided. Quite a number require grounding according to

the Safety Code, and others have required grounds according to the

rules of the National Electrical Code. The two were practically

identical a few years ago, but these changes proposed in the Underwriters' Code may bring in a discrepancy between the two sets of

rules. I think that this is probably a matter in which you gentlemen are particularly interested, and I should like to hear from

some of you, especially in regard to a single grounding connection

for both circuit and conduits. It is an important matter and we do

not want, if we can help it, to get wide divergence in practice.

Mr. Knowlton. With reference to Doctor Lloyd's statement re- garding a single ground connection for both circuit and conduit or noncurrent carrying metal parts, the criterion would be the actual

experience of the companies in connection with their routine inspections to determine how frequently ground connections are lost

by corrosion or interference. If that experience could be tabulated

it would be a fairly good guide to determine the desirability of a change in the rule.

Doctor Lloyd. From the complaints, it appears that plumbers

sometimes remove the grounds when repairs are made in house connections, or they are left off, or sometimes interfered with in other

ways; we have to take that into consideration. Some attempt

should be made, as is done by some companies, to follow up not
CONFERENCE OF STATE UTILITY ENGINEERS 55

' only to see that they are attached, but also to see that they make

the proper connections. One municipality which has already folI lowed this practice of permitting the common ground connection is in Michigan. I had hoped that Mr. Toeppen would be able to tell us something about that, but apparently they have no record in the

State office of what the experience has been in these companies.

Mr. Snook. Doctor Lloyd said the other day that the Middle

West was more likely to have good driven grounds than some of

the other sections. That question is a matter of relative resistance.

We find that even the best ground we can make has high resistance

unless the top of the ground is wet.

I would like to give an illustration bearing out his suggestion

that the ground can be very easily lost. A boy was killed in

Columbus about two months ago on a 240-120-volt Edison three-wire

alternating-current distribution line. The little fellow was about

tall enough to touch the key socket, and all he could get was on the

exposed lamp joint in the socket, but it was enough to hold him.

His mother picked him off about 10 minutes after it happened. A

joint investigation by the fire marshal and the public utility commission showed that there was 240 volts between the place whera

the boy made contact and ground. It showed a ground somewhere.

We found that in order to give service the service man, without consulting any authority, had taken the ground off the neutral at the

transformer. This, combined with the house ground, caused the

little boy to lose his life. He was perfectly healthy. It should not

have happened, but it did. We checked over several transformers,

and distribution systems in that section and we found two or three

where grounds had been lost. Mr. Crittenden. If there is no more discussion we will pass to

the next paper on the program.

THE PUBLIC INTEREST IN HEATING VALUE STANDARDS FOR GAS

By S. A. CovELL, Assistant Engineer, Maryland Public Service Commission.

The question of the most desirable heating value standards for

gas has been much discussed for several years past. The first

standards were adopted when a large portion of the send out of

most gas companies was used in open jet burners. These original

heating value standards were set so as not to interfere greatly with

the use of gas for this purpose. The use of gas for illuminating

has come to be a less important consideration in determining the

proper heating value standard. This, of course, is due to gaslighting being superseded by electricity and to the almost general use of

mantle lights.

Heating value standards have been very generally revised downwai'd during and since the war. These reductions have been made

for several reasons—the high price of oil, evidence showing that

high standards give rise to complaint and inefficiency in the use of

gas, development in the art, such as the more general use of vertical

retorts.

THE EFFECT OF A CHANGE OF STANDARDS ON THE CONSTJMPTION OF GAS

The usual contention on the part of gas companies applying for

a reduction in the standard has been that the increased efficiency of
56 BUREAU OF STANDARDS

utilization of the lower heating value of gas would overcome the re- duction in heating value. Some of the first investigations made seem

to support this contention, but in the light of further investigations

the evidence seems inconclusive. Laboratory tests made under working conditions prove that the usefulness of any particular kind of

gas is in direct proportion to the heating value. However, in one

recent series of such tests results showing consistent and material

increases in efficiency with gas of lower values have been obtained.

No copies of these tests or details concerning the method in which

they were made are available.

Infod'mation purporting to show the effect of a reduction in heating value on the consumption of gas per meter is apt to be misleading,

and at best should be used with great care. Industrial conditions,

rates, the attitude of the consumers toward the company, changes in

pressure, weather conditions, and any number of factors have a great

effect on the consumption. It is, therefore, extremely difficult to make a test covering the actual vise of gas by consumers in any com- munity or number of communities, which will eliminate all the factors tending to affect the consumption except the heating value.

Some of these data have been obtained by reducing the heatingvalue, making a general adjustment of appliances, and comparing

the consumption with that which obtained before the reduction..

Such tests are also open to the objection that the general adjustment

of appliances probably cleared up a number of cases where gas was

being used inefficiently prior to the reduction.

When a reduction is made from a very high heating value, such

as those corresponding to the old candlepower standards, there may

be something in the contention that the gas of low heating value

will prove more efficient in so far as the utilization by the consumer

is concerned. It is sometimes difficult to get appliances in proper

adjustment when operating on a heating value of more than 600'

B. t. u. Soot is apt to be given off by the flame. This forms deposits on cooking utensils and mantles, and results in the inefficient use of

gas. Walls and ceilings may be blackened.

Another reason why a lower heating value may in actual use prove more efficient is that the average consumer is apt to waste a large amount of gas. Assume a reduction in heating value has been

made, the specific gravity and pressure remaining the same as formerly, while the orifices on appliances have not been changed.

In such a case gas will be supplied to the burner at the same rate as before, and the amount of gas wasted when the burner is lighted, but

not in use, will be the same. The amount of heat wasted, of course,- will be less. A more important consideration is the waste of heat during boiling operations. In this connection the Bureau of Standards recently

made an interesting series of tests. In one case they found that it took nine times as much gas to boil the contents of a utensil violently as to boil it gently. It is more or less general practice tO' waste gas in this manner, and the useful results accomplished in

this case with a cubic foot of 500 B. t. u. gas or a cubic foot of 600'

B. t. u. gas would be about the same. The consensus of opinion among gas men seems tO; be that a re- duction in heating value will be accompanied by an iuccease in con-
COisFERENCE OF STATE UTILITY ENGINEERS 57

sumption. However, it is generally believed that there is some in- crease in the overall efficiency of utilization of the gas.

Laboratory tests do not take into account the possible increase in

•efficiency due to the elimination of waste. However, they are, perJiaps, the best guide we have as to the elfect of a reduction in heating

value on the consumption. They prove conclusively that with proper

operation of appliances the efficiency of utilization is constant, re- gardless of the heating value. If we accept this, the heating value,

which is most desirable from the standpoint of the public, must be

^letermined by other facts.

THE DETERMINATION OF HEATING VALUE STANDARDS

The general points which must be given consideration in deter-

.mining the most desirable heating value standard are the economy

of manufacture and distribution and the character of service.

Changes in heating value standards as they affect water gas

'plants.—Carbureted water gas is a mixture of blue-water gas and oil

"gas. The blue-water gas is made in the generator of the water gas

set by the action of steam on the incandescent fuel. It consists

mainly of hydrogen and carbon monoxide. The heating value is -about 300 B. t. u. The oil gas is made by the destructive distillation

of oil in the carburetor of the machine. Its heating value varies,

I but for purposes of illustration may be taken as 1,700 B. t. u. per

i cubic foot. The volume of oil gas made per gallon of oil is about

60 cubic feet. If then we use 3 gallons of oil per thousand, the finished gas will consist of 180 cubic feet of oil gas and 820 cubic feet

of blue-water gas per thousand. The heating value of the gas will

be about 552 B. t. u. If the oil is cut to 2 gallons per thousand, the

heating value will be 468 B. t. u. We have reduced the heating value

84 B. t. u. and saved 1 gallon of oil. However, it is now necessary to

make 880 cubic feet of blue-water gas per thousand, and the generator fuel will be increased about 7.3 per cent. The steam required by

the generator will be increased by about the same percentage. The

tar made will be reduced by about 0.15 gallon. The capacity of the

machine will be decreased.

The net result is a decrease in the net holder cost of gas per thousand. However, until oil reaches a price considerably above present

levels, it will usually be found that the cost per heat unit has increased as the heating value per cubic foot has decreased. This is shown by the following table in which fuel and oil results actually

obtained when operating at 550 B. t. u. have been taken. All the

facts mentioned above have been given consideration.

Gas oil at 6 cents per Gas oil at 12 cents per Heating

gallon gallon

value

of gas in B. t. u. Net holder Cost per Net holder, Cost per

cost per million cost per million thousand B. t. u. thousand B. t. u.

400 42. 5 106.0 49.0 122.8 450 45.2 100.5 55.2 122.8 500 47.6 95.2 61.4 122.8 550 50.8 91.0 67.4 122.5 600 52.4 87.3 73.5 122. 5
58 BUREAU OF STANDARDS

In some cases a slightly higher oil efficiency is obtained when less

oil is used. Unless the pi-ice of oil increases considerably, it would

seem that conditions do not warrant a standard veiy much below

550 B. t. u. for water gas plants.

Changes in heating value standards as they affect coal-gas

"plants.—In a coal-gas plant the heating value of the gas is practically fixed by the kind of coal used. Most gas coals give gas of a heating value ranging from about 570 to over 600. Some change in

heating value can be made by changing the depth of seal, the heats

and the time of burning off the charge. Under certain conditions

a greater efficiency of manufacture may be obtained.

Exhausting to such an extent that any considerable amount of

inert gases are mixed with the gas will, of course, reduce the heating value. It is doubtful if this is good practice, as the works and

distribution system must be equipped to handle some inert gas which

could be avoided. The presence of large quantities of inerts in the

gas may reduce the flame temperature, hence the efficiency of the

gas when it is used in mantle lights and in some industrial appliances. If the heats carried are excessive, naphthalene trouble may be

experienced. Another trouble which has occurred in some instances

IS the excessive corrosion of mains, services, meters, and house piping.

The determination of heating value for mixed gas plants.—The

number of plants sending out mixed gas will probably increase in

the future. The determination of the proper heating value for such

a plant presents a problem which is apt to be different from that of

any other plant. For example, in Baltimore the gas company buys

coke-oven gas from the Sparrows Point plant of the Bethlehem Steel

Co. The supply is sufficient at times to take care of the load. The

heating value of the coke-oven gas is about 500 B. t. u. The difference

in the holder cost of the coke-oven gas and the water gas is so great

that it would be an expensive matter for the consumer to use gas

of a heating value higher than 500 B. t. u. One point which should

be given consideration is to set a heating value which will permit

the most constant proportions of the gases in the mixture.

Pressure conditions.—^When a large reduction in the heating value

is made it is usually found necessaiy to ream or adjust orifices of

such appliances as linotype machines. Increasing the size of orifices

on all appliances should be avoided as it throws an additional load

on the distribution system. If there had been no changes in the

size of orifices, pressure at the works or centers of distribution and

the specific gravity of the gas remains constant, there should be

little effect on the pressure conditions throughout the distribution

system. If any of these conditions are changed, however, pressure

conditions will be affected, and in some eases there is danger of

portions of the' system proving inadequate. If the rate of flow of

gas is constant, the droj) in pressure is directl}' proportional to the

specific gravity of the gas.

Consumers'' appliances.—In general, the efficiency of appliances

is not affected by a reduction in the heating value. The efficiency

of mantle lights will be reduced somewhat if the quantity of inert

constituents in the gas is increased. A large increase in the per-
CONFERENCE OF STATE UTILITY ENGINEERS 59

centage of inerts may cut down the efficiency of certain industrial

appliances where the temperature head is only a fraction of what

it is in most appliances.

A more important consideration is the necessity for the adjustment of appliances, so that they will operate properly under the

changed conditions. As the heating value is reduced the volume of

air required, for combustion of the gas is reduced. If the adjustment of the air shutter is not changed, a leaner mixture of gas will

pass through the burner. This mixture has a higher rate of flame

propagation and the tendency to flash back through the burner

ports is increased. In order to avoid trouble appliances should be

carefully adjusted when a reduction is made. Probably the most

satisfactory method to follow is to reduce the heating value by steps

of 20 or 30 B. t. u. and to adjust immediately all appliances which are complained of at any time. There have been cases where proper

care has not been taken in making reductions in the heating value.

The consumers of such companies have naturally acquired a prejudice toward the low heating value standard.

Experience in England has shown that gas with a heating value

of 450 B. t. u. or even lower may be utilized with perfect satisfaction

to the consumer,

CONCLUSIONS

The question of determining the heating value standard most

desirable from the standpoint of the public is almost entirely an

economic one. The standard which should be set is that at wliiclx

heat can be supplied to the consumer at the cheapest rate. There

are, of course, certain service matters to be considered, but unless

the heating value is reduced to a very low figure these will usually

prove to be of minor importance.

In estimating the saving to be obtained by a change in heating

value, the point which should be given the most consideration is not

the cost per thousand cubic feet, but the cost per heat unit. It is not sufficient to consider operating expenses alone. Any improvements which the change in standard will make necessary or any re- duction which such a change is likely to make in the capacity of the

plant should be studied. It should be realized that every plant may

present a problem different from that of other plants.

High fuel prices are encouraging the development of new types of

gas manufacturing equipment and new operating methods. If *the

consumer is to get the benefit of savings made possible by such development, heating value standards must be made elastic. Complete

gasification plants, the process of steaming in coal-gas plants, extraction of light oils, and a number of other processes may come into

general use in the future. The use of such new methods should not

be discouraged by inflexible rules.

THE PUBLIC INTEREST IN HEATING VALUE STANDARDS EOR

GAS

By C. R. Vanneman, Chief Eiifjiiieer, ycic York Piihlic Serrice Commission

Manufactured gas production and gas utilization provide some of

the most important problems with which regiilatorj' bodies have to

deal to-day. Notwithstanding the fact that the business is a rela-
60 BUBEAU OP STANDARDS

tively old one, it is at this time on the threshold of an era within

which the demands upon it will be enormous, and during which there

must be rapid strides in both manufacture and utilization if there is to be not only a satisfied public but also economic operation and distribution. The standards adopted for the control of the heating

value furnished are fundamentally important in this development,

and I am firmly convinced that the time is ripe for concerted action

upon this subject.

In reality public utility regulating bodies, representing as they do

both the public and the corporations subject to their jurisdiction, are concerned primarily with the satisfaction of the public, both as to the quality of the gas which is furnished and the price charged for

that gas. By satisfaction in the latter case I do not mean neces- sarily the personal satisfaction of the individual with his monthly

gas bills, for that borders on the impossible, but rather the satisfaction that the imit price is not unreasonable. The regulating bodies

must also be vitally interested in the methods and practices of the

corporations for upon these the price of the gas as well as the future

existence of the corporation depends. A poorly managed corporation, even though it comply with adopted standards in furnishing gas, can

not do so except at an unreasonable price and a continuation of such

conditions eventually results in disaster. Having these things in

mind, I would like to discuss one of the principal phases of the gas

problem as I see it, which up to the present has received but a limited

amount of consideration.

I refer to the ultimate utilization of the gas. Every works

manager or superintendent is or ought to be intensely interested

in his output, and my observation has been that, generally, he is constantly alive to what is going on within his plant. I realize that

there are exceptions, but as a rule, in modern plants at least, I

believe this to be true. As to the distribution system, this interest

is present, but in a lesser degree, for it is a step removed from his

direct observation, and, hence, it does not receive that immediate

personal attention which is given to actual production. Still

further removed is the utilization of the gas, and here, speaking

broadly, the problem is in effect turned over to the consumer, or what is virtually the same, to the manufacturer of the apparatus

which the consumer uses. Most corporations sell or are agents for a general line of gas utilizing mediums. How much do the officials

actually know about the efficiency of these devices when using the

quality of gas furnished by them? I dare say, very little. I am

reminded of an assertion of one of the most prominent men in the

gas industry in this country, who, in referring to a type of gas

range sold by his corporation, alleged that it was as nearly perfect

as gas ranges could be made. I have seen many types of gas ranges,

but the nearly perfect one, in so far as gas utilization is concerned,

has not been shown to me up to the present.

In the recent investigation conducted by the Public Service Commission of New York, it was quite obvious that the utilization phase

liad been considered in but a secondary light by those who appeared

as experts in that inquiry. Even after the completion of this inquiry and the promulgation of an order establishing a new standard,

I found that the gas producing corporations knew little about the
COKFEEENCE OP STATE UTILITY ENGINEERS -61

efficiency with which appliances, in genei'al, are used ; in other words,

this has been left up to the manufacturer. The opening of a cock

on a gas range permits gas to flow ; and if the air shutter is set within

certain limits, a flame oeA^eloping more or less heat is produced when

the mixture of air and gas is ignited. Employees adjust the air

shutters and pronounce the device efficient, and, perhaps, for years

it continues to be used in its original condition. Only upon complaint or under the influence of a highly organized service bureau

are any changes ever made. I admit that a device so constructed

must needs be held in high respect, but such, nevertheless, does not

offer irrefutable proof of the efficiency of the device.

You may ask what this has to do with a heating value standard.

For years within the United States, at least, gas ranges have been

gas ranges, and here I am referring particularly to the ordinary

household type, and not to the more highly perfected hotel or res- taurant type. The burners of to-day vary little from the burners

of 20 years ago. Then they would handle practically any gas furnished ; to-day they do the same ; but how do they handle it ? Does

the consumer get out of the gas burner full value in heating e^erg^'

for the volume he consumes? I am very much inclined to believe

that there is a ti-emendous annual waste in heat energy due solely

to the fact that the varying qualities of gas furnished throughout

the country have caused manufacturers of devices to be content lo

furnish those which would utilize practically any quality of gas.

Improvements in appearance, in insulation and the installation of

automatic time cooking devices have been rapid within the past few

years, but outside of the industries using gas under pyrometric control, there has been little improvement in the direct means of utilization.

A heating value standard, therefore, seems to me to be vitally iruportant from this point of view. If within this country a uniform

standard were adopted, manufacturers could immediately concentrate their attention upon the utilization question within the domestic field, in which I include not only cooking but also house

warming, a field which I am convinced will within a very few

years cause an enormous gas demand.

I do not intend to make any argument as to what value is the

best one. This is a matter subject to the determination of the bodies

having jurisdiction within that field. I deem it proper, hoAvever, to

briefly refer to existing conditions, and to recent activities in establishing standards. In New York State after an exhaustive inquiry,

during which engineers of prominence in the gas industry Vv'ere called upon to testify, a standard of a monthly average of at least

537 B. t. u. per cubic foot was adopted. This supplanted a 22-candlepower standard formerly in effect within practically all of New

York City, a heating value standard of 625 B. t. u. in a portion of

that city, and a heating value standard of 585 B. t. u. which had

been in effect in the State outside Greater New York for many years.

In California and in Maryland, extensive studies have been made.

The former State, according to press reports, is about to consider

for adoption a standard of 540 B. t. u. ; the latter has, I believe,

adopted a standard of 500 B. t. u., at least for Baltimore. In EngOd. 5
62 BUREAU OF STANDARDS

land for two years the therm system has been in effect. I find there

is still a distinct ditFcrence of opinion as to the desirability of such

a system. Out of all the discussion, hoAyever, I do not find anything

to indicate that it may be supplanted. Comments by eminent gas

men within England respecting its use are interesting"; but all opinions lead to one inevitable conclusion whicli is sunnned up in a state- ment attributed to Mr. G. M. Gill, viz, that the quality of gas decided upon must be that best suited to the consumers and their appliances, and be such as may be produced and sold at the lowest

price per therm. Again \\e lind the corollary to tlie above in the

following statement : " Whatever the qualit}' declared there is no

alternative, if the ser\'ice is to be a good one, to the absolute necessity of adjusting all the consumeis" appliances to such quality.'*

Other States within the United States have adopted standards,

and Canada has been working for some time under one of the lowest

standards. The latest available information indicates that there are no standards in 19 States; that 2 have a standard of 600, 1 of 580,

2 of 575, 2 of 570, 2 of 565, 1 of 550, 2 of 540, 1 of 537, 1 of 539, 2

of 528, 3 of 525, 1 of 520, and 1 of 475. Two other States are now

engaged in an investigation which will probably lead to a revision of

existing standards, and one State still has a candlej)ower standard.

The fact that 19 States have no standards does not mean that within

the borders thereof gas is furnished in all communities according to the dictates of the corporations. On the contrary, certain municipalities have by ordinance adopted a standard for the corporation

serving within its boundaries. A notable example is Iowa. The

State has no standard, but the city of Des Moines has recently

adopted a standard of 560 B. t. u. Such then are the varying standards with which the manufacturer of gas appliances is confronted.

Would not a unification of these standards lead not only to the production of a much more efficient line of devices, but what is far more

important, to the development of highly standardized gas production apparatus?

As bearing on the foregoing, certain observations which I have

made of tests with gases of different heat values seem to be pertinent. These tests while laboratory in character were designed to

reflect the efficiency of different heating 'value standards from the

point of view of work performed. One in particular was a direct

comparison between gases having heating values of 537 and 585, re- spectively. The results are interesting. An average of five tests in which identical conditions prevailed, and where correction factors

were applied to give positive comparisons, showed that the efficiency

of utijization of 537 gas was 46.7 per cent, while that of 585 was 43.2

per cent. As you will expect, the time element varies, but to perform the same amount of work, an increase of but 1.12 per cent in

time was necessary in the case of 537 gas.

But with all these results, as the experimenters aptly put it, one

could get practically anything desired, because of the existing variables in the devices used. Pyrometer tests, however, showed a higher

flame temperature for the lower value gas. Tests in which the distance between the burner and the object to be heated was varied indicated still other results ; likewise, in the case of different pressures.

No matter what the B. t. u. content may be, the results from the use of

the gas will not be constant if there is wide fluctuation in these other
CONFEEENCE OF STATE UTILITY ENGINEERS 63

i variables. So it is that a universal standard for heating value

suggests a universal standard for pressure, etc. The question of pressure is a most important factor. Existing

systems of distribution, laid out as they have been in many cases without due regard for the future, have produced pressure variations which have been difficult to control. Many expedients have

been adopted, including pressure regulators, high-pressure feeders,

i belt systems, etc. All have tended to correct the evils resulting from

{ the initial errors. There is still the peak demand with which to

contend, and this demand is the controlling factor in the satisfaction

of the public. Inadequate pressure at pealf demand results in inadequate service to the ultimate consumer. Too often peak comes

during the period when the preparation of the Sunday dinner is in

progress. Of course, in the adoption of a pressure standard there

are many controlling features which should be considered, which

may influence the standard adopted, or even its adoption at all for

the time being. I know of instances where the adoption of a pressure standard would be accompanied with extreme hardships, which

ultimately would be reflected in tlie price of the gas. A new system

laid out with due regard to demand should not sufi'er from pressure

variations, neither should extensions to existing systems where plants

capacity and feeder distribution are ample.

A uniformity in the treatment of the heating value and pressure

standards will lead to manufacturers producing gas-utilizing devices

which will enable the consumer to receive^the maximum of efficiency

from the gas furnished, or, in other words, make it possible for

the consumer to get maximum value for the money he expends. I

have not heretofore considered the price charged for the gas, since

it must obviously be a variable; in fact, it is a function of so many

variables that one familiar with the subject naturally hesitates to

approach it. Nevertheless, if a uniform standard from which the

best results may be obtained were adopted, there would be a general

unification not only of the devices which vise the gas but, as stated

before, of those by means of which it is produced as well. In general, however, the price at which gas may be sold must be controlled

largely by the standard of heating value.

Another impoi-tant factor which is important in any discussion of

this subject is the acceptability to the public. It lias been my ex- perience that notwithstanding the extensive public discussion which

a heating value standard has had, especially in the press, it is still an enigma. It even provokes bitter and contentious discussion, and

in one instance at least has led to a considerable amount of mipleasantness. The public is inclined to look upon it as another means

by which it may be beguiled by alleged avaricious corporations,

that it permits of a reduction in the value of service rendered without a corresponding reduction in the ultimate cost to the consumer. For instance, during the period between the adoption of the New

York 537 standard and the date on which it was to become efi^ective, one municipality raised the question that the reduction in heating

value was much greater than the reduction in price, when compared

on a percentage basis; that is, the contention of the municipality

was that if a reduction of 8.2 per cent were made in the heatingvalue standard, there should be a similar liorizontal reduction of 8.2
64 BUREAU OF STANDAEDS

per cent in price, where, as a matter of fact, the reduction in price

in the particular instance was but 3.6 per cent. Similarly, the pubhc

finds it difficult to accept the conclusion that a standard of 528 is proper in Massachusetts, for instance, while just across the line

in New York 537 is proper. "Wliile I recognize the fact that there are many factors which influence a decision on the standard adopted

in certain communities, nevertheless I feel sure that in the interest of

the common good, some of these factors now considered controlling

should give way to the more important factor of common public

interest, from which immediately and directly follows an improved

public relationship.

In my treatment of this subject it may be inferred that I have

given but little thought to either the production of gas from the

corporation's viewpoint or to the process by which the English

Government has endeavored to bring satisfaction to the English

public. In the case of the former it is my belief that, no matter

what the present situation may be with an individual producer, a rational uniform standard can not but inure to his benefit. Concentrated effort directed to the performance of a single task in the

best possible manner can not but be productive of the highest results. As to the British expedient, I am convinced that time will

show a continued narrowing of the range of B. t. u. standards

adopted by the various undertakings, so that eventually there will

be but one quality of gas furnished. I do not see how such a conclusion can be avoided. If inevitable, as it seems to me, is it not

much better to avoid the difficulties always attendant upon an

evolution ? In conclusion, I desire to leave with you this thought. With so many different standards throughout the country, there can be but

confusion as to which is the best heating value. With such confusion there can not be crystallization of thought within the industry

which will make for ideal conditions in general. With a uniformity of standard there will be a concentration of effort, which must

of necessity result in the production of gas of a higher quality from

all standpoints, and a development of the means of utilization

which will make for increased output, conservation of our natural

resources, and ultimate satisfaction to the public.

DISCUSSION OF PAPERS ON" HEATING VALUE STANDARDS FOR GAS

Mr. Knowlton. Several years ago we had a request from the

Ordnance Department asking us to lower the quality of gas in a cer- tain city. We immediately arranged for an investigation of the gas

supplied to some 300,000 population. We tried to arrive at the

quality of gas which would give the greatest utilization value to the

consumer; that is, the greatest number of B. t. u. of heat communicated to his actual utensils per dollar. In trying to make the test practical, we adopted the type of range and type of burner which

this particular company had most extensively sold. The test consisted in raising 5 pounds of water just to the boiling point. We

first tried to eliminate the effects of pressure and distance from base

of utensil by observing separately what these effects would be and

plotting them. To sum it all up, we got the range conditions as practical as we could make them and proceeded to make various mixed

1
CONFERENCE OF STATE UTILITY ENGINEERS 65

gases and plotted the effects. We found under these conditions that

gas in the holder with the highest utilization efficiency in dollars and

cents to the consumers should be about 540 B. t. u. per cubic foot.

Therefore, to allow a margin for smaller companies with a small output, we set 528 as a minimum.

In reference to Mr. Vanneman's proposal that there be as far as

possible a national standard, I do not see any good reason why we

should not aim toward that, just the same as the voltage on lamps.

The lamp manufacturers no longer make lamps for several voltages.

They are built for only a single voltage or at most three voltages.

In this gas problem it seems to me that it should be possible ultimately to apply the same treatment.

Mr. CovELL. I feel that the work done by the Bureau of Standards

has shown that the efficiency of utilization is practically constant re- gardless of the heating value of the gas. As to a uniform standard,

it seems to me that in gas we have a problem that is entirely different

from the electrical problem. I do not feel that the design of appliances varies enough with heating value to make the adoption of

any single standard over the entire country, or even over any State,

desirable. The standard should be determined from the standpoint

of economy of manufacture and distribution for each particular

company.

The effect of the design of the appliances is very important. For

example, smaller top burners on ranges may improve the efficiency

of utilization.

Mr. Vanneman. I recognize that there will be difficulties attendant

upon the adoption of a xmiversal standard, but as long as you permit

this differentiation, just so long are you going to have difficulty.

The appliances in use to-day properly adapted will work as well

with a standard gas as they do now. Why continue all these variations when you can work toward a common standard ? Mr. IIx\.yr)EN. In regard to establishing a uniform standard I have

in mind an oil gas plant in Wisconsin which has a heating value of

900 B. t. u. Would not the advance in the art of manufacturing

gas be one reason for not going to a definite standard unless possibly

we went to a rather low one ? It seems to me that might be done.

Wisconsin established a minimum of 520 B. t. u., permitting each

utility to make its own standard, Avith the idea that different companies would establish standards which they could maintain most

efficiently. Most of the utilities have adopted 520 B. t. u., although

there are some with a standard of 545 and 550.

We have observed more or less closely different plants and their

output. When the standard was lowered we required each utility

to submit monthly manufacturing data. We have tabulated the

data, but as yet I have not made a thorough study of it. From obsei'vation of that data we have not been able to determine that tliere

has been an increase in efficiency following the change in standard

from 600 to 520. I have made special inquiry and have not been

able to find in my own gas bill a difference in consumption of gas.

Of course, we understand that there is a waste with the higher B. t. u. gas, but it would seem to me that if there was any such difi'erence

in the actual use of gas it would be so apparent that you could find

it out. I realize that laboratory experiments show it conclusively,

but do not believe this principle works out in actual use.
66 BUREAU OF STANDARDS

Mr. Crittenden. It appears probable that the discrepancies which

have been reported between laboratory conclusions and actual practice where the heating value of the gas has been changed, may be

explained b}^ the fact that lamps and other appliances are usually

far from having the adjustment which would give the best efficiency.

This is, perhaps, particularly true of gas-mantle lamps. In experiments made at th.e bureau a few years ago lamps of various types

were operated with gases ranging from 900 B. t. u. per cubic foot,

obtained by enriching with benzol, down to blue water gas. AVlien

the lamps were adjusted to the best efficiency for the particular gas

used, the efficiencies were practically the same throughout this range.

In actual operation, however, lamps are not so adjusted and a change

in heating value does not have the effect on consumption which might

be expected. Unless special attention is given to the matter the lamps

are probably left Avithout any change in orifices so that changes in

the amount of gas used are relatively small. Somewhat the same condition applies also to other appliances, such as ranges, where the

efficiency of use of the gas depends so greatly on conditions such as distance between burner and the bottom of utensils and on the rate

at whicli heating is done, that a change in heating value of the gas

applied can hardly be expected to be immediately shown by any

change in consumption.

Colonel Betts. In 1912 New Jersey adopted some rules which are pretty much the same as the Wisconsin rules. When the prices for

011 vv'ent up a few years back to very high figures and gas oil cost

12 to 16% cents per gallon, the^;- made some changes in the standard. The standard was supposed to be set at a minimum of 525. A

later decision covering the whole State called for an average of 525,

and left out anything about variation. I have always been skeptical

about this because difficulties come from too great fluctuations, and

a particular pressure, or particular heating values haA^e not nearly

as much effect on customers' bills as Avide fluctuations. HoAvever, the

order Avent out fixing a minimum standard of 525. The Public

Service Gas Co., selling about five-eighths of all gas sold in New

Jersey, had this average of 525, and later on the standard Avas at- tacked particularly in Jersey City. To meet the situation we had

to open an office of the Public Service Gas Co. in Jersey City and

send out a reminder that a representative of the public utility commission was in the office to receive complaints. He received a

ridiculously small number of complaints according to the number of

people who came to pay gas bills.

The Public Service Gas Co. presented some statistics taken some- what carefully on consumers' meters in Jersey City and Newark,

but taken at random so far as customers were concerned. They

were selected to include the customers who had taken gas for sev- eral years. The summation of figures for 700 customers shoAved

that if there was any increase in gas consumption it did not exceed

3 per cent. In one case it was 2i/^ per cent, and in the other it was

a little over. You could not tell anything about it. The use of gas from the standpoint of the effect of heating standard could be classified into three classes—the use for mantle lighting, use for ordinary household heating and cooking, and industrial use where you have apparatus designed by experts. We got into
CONFERENCE OF STATE UTILITY ENGINEERS 67

some trouble and were somewhat embarrassed by broadcasting data

not exactly supposed to be public. The results were based on conclusions by the Bureau of Standards in a technologic paper some

years ago in which they concluded that decreased heating value of

gas meant corresponding increase in the amount of gas used.

The conclusions in that abbreviated form got around and a number of our cities contended that the Bureau of Standards itself had

found this to be so and so. On the other hand, I have made the

statement that gas of a lower heating value, somewhere around 540

to 550, has a higher flame temperature which actually combined

with other things caused an actual reduction in the amount of gas

used. This is not a scientific statement; it is more or less a fact,

that in connection with gas cooking there are two methods in which

heat from gas is applied to the food—appliances in which the flame

impinges on the surface of tlie device and others in which the heat

has to pass through the air, like baking, roasting, etc. In devices,

such as a saucepan or frying pan, so located with reference to the

flame that the flame itself is in contact with the surface of the pan,

the higher flame temperature has resulted in an actual reduction

in the amount of gas i-equired to produce certain definite results.

On the other hand, in roasting, baking and the like, where the heat

has to pass through the air, the actual consumption of gas is increased. The results are somewhat mixed. In a house where little

roasting or baking is done an actual consumption of gas might be

reduced, while in a house whei'e much of the gas is used for roasting and baking, the gas bills would be a little higher. After a study

of the bills paid by some 700 customers in Newark and some 700

customers in Jersey City, all of whom had been regular customers

continuously for a long period of years, the conclusion was that

there was no real indication that bills had been increased because

of any change in the character of the gas itself. This, I believe,

follows exactly the experience in Massachusetts as reported by the

commission.

In regard to the apparatus used in industry under caretul control,

there would be expected to be a fairly definite increase or a proportionate increase, depending on the gas itself. So far as tlie mantle

burners are concerned, the amount of gas used in illumination has

gone down in proportion to the total. The amount of gas used in

industries in many of our cities is not so high so that it comes right

down to the household use again, and the experience of these 700

customers in each of two cities seems to be the only basis that influenced the board in keeping the standard just what it was. Mr. Vanneman. In New York there was very great diversity of

opinion as to whether the companies should come dovrn in heating

value by gradual steps covering a long period or by fairly abrupt

drops over a short period. A meeting at whicli that question was

discussed resulted in each company doing that wl\ieli seemed best

adapted to its particular needs. In New York City wiiei e a candlepower standard has been in eftect, the gas corporations decided that

they would come down by small steps covering a long period instead

of immediately dropping to the 537 standard, whereas up State one company started to come down on the 1st of October and by the

lotli were down to 587. That was done witliout any definite ad-
68 BUREAU or STANDAEDS

justment campaign. Necessary adjustments were taken care of in

the ordinary regular line of adjustment work. This seems to indicate quite conclusively that adjustments which the ranges had and

at which the burners had been set would generally take care of the

drop to 537 fi'om 585.

Colonel Betts. Just at tlie time we made this reduction six companies were petitioning for increased rates, and the difference in

heating value was taken into account in a determination of the new

rates. Other companies were warned that the matter would be

taken care of in time, but not until results were known as to what

the decreased heating value had meant to the companies.

Mr. Nexsen. Returning to the question of design and operation,

Mr. Covell spoke of the difficulty some companies were having with

holders. I should like to ask him if he has arrived at any proper

ratio of gas send out to holder capacity.

Mr. CovELL. In the cases of two coal gas plants the maximum

daily send outs are about four times as great as the holder capacity.

That ratio for the operation of these small plants is too low, particiilariy as the maximum hourly send out is from 12 to 15 per cent

of tlie maximum daily send out. In a plant with a holder capacity

of 50,000 and a send out of 200,000 a day, an additional 100,000 cubia

foot holder would enable them to get along very nicely. The heating

value could probably be reduced from 630 to about 585 B. t. u. REFOKT OF COMMITTEE ON OBGANIZATION

Mr. Hayden made a report for the committee on organization as follows

It is recommended

First, because of the valuable information to be gained by personal contact and exchange of ideas, and the possible benefits from

greater standardization of regulatory requirements of the various

commissions through the influence of the Bureau of Standards,

which has done such notable work in this direction, that future

conferences of the engineers of the railroad and utility commissions

be held at such times and places as may be determined, but that a

definite organization be postponed for the present.

Second, that the Bureau of Standards, having thus far acted as sponsor for the present conference, which has proven so profitable,

be requested to continue in this capacity; and

Third, that an executive committee be formed with a chairman,

who shall be a commission engineer, and a secretary, who shall be

from the Bureau of Standards, the i^urpose of this committee being

to provide some responsible body with whom the Bureau of Standards may consult with respect to the carrying out of future conferences.

This report was unanimously adopted after brief discussion, and

the executive committee was chosen as follows

Chairman: C. B. Hayden (Wisconsin).

Secretary: E. C. Crittenden (Bureau of Standards).

Members: C. H. Vanneman (New York).

A. I. Thompson (Oklahoma).

W. M. Black (Maine).
COXFEREXCE OF STATE UTILITY ENGINEERS 69

Mr. Wolf. Mr. Crittenden, may I ask the chairman of the executive committee to write to the director of the Bureau of Standards

and the Secretary of Commerce thanking them and through them

the electrical division of the Bureau of Standards for their fine

work in giving us this opportunity to come together for mutual

consideration of those problems of interest to all of us. Mr. Hayden. You have heard this motion made; what is the

vote ? The motion was unanimously carried.

Mr. Crittenden. I will call on Mr. Imboden for his paper on

natural gas problems.

CONSERVATION OF NATURAL GAS

By James Imboden, Chief Engineer, West Virginia Public Service Commission

There has been such an enormous amount of painstaking work

done by the Federal bureaus, the State governments, and various

associations of producing and distributing companies that I will

not otfer any suggestions strictly along the lines of use and supply.

My thought is that, as State commission engineers, our problem

bears on another phase of this subject; that is, the education and

the consequent protection of the producers and the public.

The engineering department of the West Virginia Public Service

Commission in collecting data on the gas situation in this State and

the territory served with West Virginia gas, addressed letters to

the engineers of the utility commissions of such States as we bej lieved produced gas. The information furnished by these men

' shows that in a large proportion of those States lying between the

Mississippi River and north of Louisiana, gas in certain districts

is a thing of the past and in others is thought of as verging on total

exhaustion.

At the present i-ate of consumption the available gas will be depleted within a very few years to such a degree that transpoi-tation

by long trunk lines as at present would probably not prove a profitable venture at any reasonable price per thousand cubic feet.

Even to-day there exists a shortage of gas at points close to or even in the producing areas, but it is questionable if this is to any

great degree directly attributable to an actual shortage of gas in the

sand, although the production per well to-day is much lower in

volume and pressure than in former years.

For example, in the year 1910 in the Kanawha County, W. Va.,

field, the average initial gas pressure in a new well was 500 pounds.

In 1922 the average well in the same pool, drilled a proper distance

from existing wells, will not show a pressure above 250 pounds. In

the Boone and Lincoln County fields a similar statement for 1910

would be 570 pounds, for 1922, 80 jiounds ; in the Roane County field,

for 1910, 975 pounds, and for 1922, 58 pounds. In this latter case too mucli stress must not be laid upon the remarkable decrease in

pressure, inasmuch as the producing sand in that territory is very

porous in structure and shallow in depth. As regards a reasonable

expectation of the number of cubic feet to be expected from the well,

it was not unusual in 1910 for an average well to produce 50,000,000

cubic feet per annum, whereas a well in the same territory to-day
70 BUKEAU OF STANDARDS

would be considered unusually good if it would maintain a production of 18,000,000 to 20,000,000 cubic feet per annum.

I think there is one fairly logical reason for this shortage in these

producing areas. The Great War brought about a condition that

made it impossible for the producers to carry on their usual drilling

program. During this period there was an unusual population in- crease in the districts served by natural-gas producers. The war

required products from these various territories in the manufacture

of which gas is an important item, or, in other Avords, Ave had the

rather unusual condition of an increased demand for a commodity

with a decreased production program. And inasmuch as these wartime prices and conditions are very apparent even to-day, the producers are still far behind in their drilling program.

One happy result of this shortage, however, has been to force cer- tain industries and some domestic users to use a fuel other than gas.

There are certain industries in which this has been found impracticable or even impossible. In the Ohio Valley territory we have a large glass industry that at pi-esent is dependent upon natural gas.

For these factories to change to oil or manufactured gas would re- quire the expenditure of immense sums of money. It is, of course,

possible to make glass with other fuel, but it is not possible to make

the quality of glass in quantity as at present and at present prices

if manufactured gas is used. Every foot of natural gas wasted is,

therefore, not only lost to those territories now being served, but

will be reflected along many lines, from the car windows in the New

York subway to the high-tension insulators in India.

The first thought is that a solution of the problem would be in

legislation that would prohibit the use of gas for any purpose other

than domestic and essential industrial use, such as glass manufacture, etc., and to limit the manufacture of carbon black to gas-producing areas from which gas could not be transported to advantage,

always assuming that such legislation were possible through the

assemblies or through the police powers of the various State commissions.

But the thought in my mind is that the most flagrant waste is on

the part of the very ones we wish to protect, namely, the domestic

user. And it is a serious question whether action by regulatory

bodies that tends to keep the price low is an unmixed blessing for

the user. No man present is so young but that he can remember

when this or that district in the gas area was served at from 5 to 10

cents per thousand cubic feet or even on a flat rate, whereas some

of these districts are to-day paying $1 or more for manufactured

gas, of one-half or less heating value.

In recent 3fears slide-upward scales have won many converts, and

this plan has much to be said in its favor, but on the other hand it is not a cure-all and does not produce a sufficient incentive for saving

by the worst user of all, who is the average small domestic consumer. The various Federal Government bureaus have contributed so much valuable matter along these lines that any suggestions from

me would be more or less of a repetition of statements that are now

available in printed form, but I do contend that concerted action by

the State governments along the lines suggested by the Federal

Government would almost seem to be a moral duty.
CONFERENCE OF STATE UTILITY ENGINEERS 71

With many hundreds or thousands of years' requirements of coal

in sight, manufactured gas will for the same length of time be available for the large centers, but what of the thousands of small villages

that now enjoy the comforts of natural gas which could not be

served with manufactured gas at a figure at which it could be

bought? Even though electrical developments are such that eventually this last class of user could have electricity, I do not think that

the most optimistic electric advocate believes that its possible development will keep pace with the gas depletion. And again, manufactured gas at the present state of development can not be transported in a manner and to a distance as is natural gas. It is also a

safe statement to make that electricity, no matter how cheaply produced, can never be transmitted and delivered at any price comparable to natural gas.

The present problem is not only to develop better methods of

using gas, but to educate the producer and the user to the use of

the now developed economical methods of use. While I feel that

the large part of actual waste is by the consumer, I do not lay the

whole burden on him. A most necessary factor in the solution of

this problem will be to make an incentive to save. At this point

I wish to call your attention to the following. A speaker at the 1922

annual meeting of the Natural Gas Association of America in

Kansas Cit}" raised the question whether or not a sufficient price was

allowed in the field, and I am quoting Mr. F. L. Chase, as follows

I submit the general proposition that the value of gas in the field should be

a price that wiil afford a profit to the independent producer, and that such

price should be considered as a fair price for gas in the field and one that

should be talien as a basis for arriving at a price to the consumer. As a primary means of maintaining at all times a liberal gas supply, so long as gas

at all is available, I know of no better way than through this means. It will result in a good many cases in a higher domestic rate, but it has been

found from experience that most of the troubles arising from gas rates have come from shortages of supply with the resulting discontent and discomfort on

the part of the consumer.

If, through such higher field price, the production of gas by independent

producers would result in maintaining, so long as gas at all were available, a

liberal supply of gas, with a corresponding rate to the consumer, and, if the

domestic rate were then successfully attacked and reduced, the gas company

could secure some relief through a reduction of the field price, with the proper

warning to the public that such action would probably result in a diminished

supply of gas and possibly a complete shortage.

Where natural gas has been found in oil fields, until recently the idea seems

to have been prevalent that it was wisdom on the part of the gas company to acquire the gas at the very lowest price it was possible to secure it. The oil producer, naturally, was forced to accept whatever price he could secure, if he

expected any revenue whatever from his gas. In certain West Virginia districts that are now producing both gas

and oil the gas companies find it necessary to allow their wells to

overproduce and eventually flood through the necessit}' of securing

the gas for their transmission lines before the oil companies draw

from the gas sands and discharge the gas itself into the air.

A suggestion of rate increase for customer's benefit is, of course, a bold one and subject to bitter criticism, but the fact remains that until an incentive for economy is presented there will be no desire on

the part of the general public to effect savings to-day for to-morrow's

use.
72 BUEEAU OP STANDARDS

If a consumer who to-day pays 25 cents per thousand feet were compelled to pay 75 cents for the same gas, he could still, by the use of proper type of apparatus and elimination of waste, hold his gas

bill t o a figure that would only show a small per cent of increase,

provided that to-day this consumer is not using the most economical

types of appliances. And it is our honest belief that in the low-price

districts such appliances are not used. And even though there

actually were a cost increase, the additional price paid would be

returned to the community in future years multiplied many times.

Unquestionably gas at 50 cents or more can not be used for general

heating purposes, but I am frank to say that I do not think that it should be. We think that the best way to bring this directly home

is to remember those districts mentioned, where gas was once used

without stint and which to-day are paying an equivalent of from

$3 to $4 for the same heating value.

Assuming that a price increase is a proper measure to bring about

more careful use and general conservation, there must be great care taken to protect the public from shortsighted action by utilities.

As an explanation of this I will cite the following: In Kanawha

County, W. Va., the rate for gas to-day is 20 cents per thousand

feet. Assuming that the utilities were granted a rate of 50 cents

• per thousand feet, unquestionably Kanawha County consumers would

economize. Let us further assume that the present price of 20 cents

allows the utility to be assured of a 6 to 8 per cent return on its

capital invested, plus an 8 per cent depreciation and depletion re- serve. What assurance have the Kanawha County consumers that

the utility will not transport the gas that they would be forced to conserve to some other point for sale? In other words, is it fair to

put a price on gas in producing areas that Avill allow the natural

gas utilities to compete in nonproducing areas and at the expense of

the now existing consumers in producing districts? If this point

and other similar problems can be covered hj the various commissions, I then say let us increase the price.

Such action would incidentally benefit certain users in the territories now served, in that the various producers would be assured of

long corporate life and could then extend their mains to potential

consumers in those districts not served at present and could furthermore make many improvements that their systems now demand.

As stated before, without doubt gas is now being wasted in the

field. We have in mind a recent report received from a small utility

that in seven months delivered approximately 1,260 thousand cubic

feet of gas and stated they used 1,000,000 feet in drilling a well.

Their gas is sold for 35 cents per thousand and $350 will buy !a great deal of coal in West Virginia. Such practice should not be

allowed. Indiscriminate drilling for oil in territory served by gastransport trunks, with no provision made to conserve the gas when

encountered, is a criminal waste. We have seen water pumps operated by gas instead of steam, the gas being fed into the. steam cylinder and discharged into the air. Of late years electric power has

been used to great advantage in drilling operations. Through the

courtesy of the H. L. Doherty organization there have been made

available to us cost data covering operation in the mid-continent

field which have proven beyond doubt that electrically operated drill
CONFERENCE OF STATE UTILITY ENGINEERS 73

rigs ai'e not alone satisfactory from an operating standpoint, but

show in a majorty of cases that wells can be drilled cheaper than

with gas or oil heated steam boilers or oil engine-driven rigs. In

some cases a saving of one-half of former cost has been noted and

with an additional time-saving factor. With reference to the adaptation of electric power to the gas-producing operations, it might

be noted that uniform or general practice has been to build compressor stations at central points. This means stations in most cases

j of considerable size.

The result has been that as drilling territory was extended suction

lines have become longer. It is possible to conceive that with wells

of varying rock pressure connected to a common suction line, unless

great care is exercised some part of the work done by the suction

engine is equivalent to drawing a vacuum in a spur line into which

no gas would flow and with danger of doing damage to the well

through water flooding. Our thought is that if electric power,

where available were used, isolated motor driven composite vacuum

and compressor units could be installed and possibly operated by

time switches that would allow the pumping of wells on a time basis

directly proportionate to their producing capacity. It is well to

note that from an operating standpoint electricity has certain advantages over internal combustion engines in that this last-mentioned

type of equipment is very hard of operation in times of low temperature, which times are those when the gas is particularly needed.

Certain States regulate the production of wells to a propoi-tion

of their open-flow capacity. A wide divergence of opinion exists

among many producers as to the desirability of such rules, but I

believe that better control could be obtained through individual compressors electrically operated. I think it is impossible to allow too

much credit to the Natural Gas Association of America for their

earnest and painstaking work in attempting to organize, standardize,

and generally improve producing and marketing practice among

member companies and no doubt the greater number of these companies make a real effort to adopt the methods approved by experi- ence or recommended by committee.

But the fact remains that hundreds of producers are not members

of this or possibly any other organization and are not profiting by

the work mentioned and continue to operate along antiquated lines,

and it is this class of operator who should be investigated and

regulated by the State commissions. I believe it is a safe statement

to make that every commission engineer can call to mind case after case where application for rate increase was made and investigation

showed that what was needed by the applicant was not a rate in- crease or an efficiency expert, but just a little ordinary common

sense. We do not believe that the producers as a whole are operating their properties at the highest efficiency, and more than once we have felt that an educational campaign among the producers

would not be amiss. With support from the commissioners, en- gineers employed by the State commissions could do a great deal

of good by advocating and enforcing more modern methods in

the field.

As the larger part of my work has been electrical, I may haye a prejudice in that direction, but I honestly feel that the possibilities
74 BUREAU OF STANDAEDS

of gas conservation and production through the use of electricity

have only been touched.

We think that one of the best things that has ever been said is that what we need is more business in government and less government in business, but regulation of utilities by State commissions

has done more to stabilize those industries than any other single

factor, and we contend that constructive regulation can not be

burdensome either to the public or to the industry. I think the time

has come when it is the duty of the gas-producing States to take

the bull by the horns and get together on a program that will actually bring about conservation of gas and protect the public. And

lemember that the public means both the user and the producer,

for they are one and the same. There is a solution of the problem, but it can not be solved by

newsjiaper advertisements, unenforced regulations legarding drilling

and transportation, and a general inclination to consider the question as of to-day with no thought of the future. We I'ealize that, as President Denning, of the Natural Gas Association at Kansas City,

stated, " much space in publications has been used for educational

purposes," but from a personal standpoint, having read a number

of these, it is questionable in my mind if they approach the public

from the right angle. In most cases the natural inference is that

it is propaganda preceding a rate-increase application. In other

words, I do not think that the proper groundwork has been done.

I feel that in no other industry is personal contact with the consumer

so essential as in the furnishing of natural gas, which is a commodity

peculiar in itself and in general ver}' little understood by the

average consumer. As a conclusion I Avill state that my only recommendation is that

the various States producing natural gas make an effort to organize

through their commissions a committee or board that will act in

conjunction with the Federal Government; that the duty of this

body will be to prepare and present the actual situation in the vari- ous fields to-day ; that when this information is completed it be separately referred to the various commissions; and that after separate

consideration it shall then be returned to the original committee Avith

instructions to formulate a uniform recommendation for inter and

intra state production and marketing of natural gas. It will, of

course, be impossible to lay down rules and regulations that will apply to all producing territories, but we do believe that the great

problem to-day is to bring about a better understanding between the

various commissions which would directly affect all consuming territories.

CONSERVATION OF NATURAL GAS

By Waed H. Sxook, Inftpector Poiccr Wire, Ohio Public Utiliti^ti Commifision

To appreciate some of the problems which have confronted the

State of Ohio in the conservation and economic utilization of the

available gas resources, I quote from the annual report of the Public

Utilities Commission of Ohio of 1920

From the annual reports of all natural gas companies doinl^ !)usiness in Ohio, it is shown that during the year 191S these natural gas companies pro- duced and purchased for consumption in Ohio, in round numbers, 17i?% billions
CONFERENCE OF STATE UTILITY ENGINEERS 75

cubic feet. Thougli the demaiul was greatly increased, ttie supply was diminIslied I)y 0% billions cul)ic feet, or 5.37 per cent. This diminution in supply

is equal to tlie annual consumption of 1 city like Columbus or 7 cities like

Newark or 32 towns like Delaware.

Of the 173% billions cubic feet produced and purchased in 1918, 142'/2 billions cubic feet were sold to domestic consumers, and 23% (or 16 per cent

of i)roduction) billions cul)ic feet were sold to industries. Tl'ie remainder was

furnislied to municipalities or consumed by the companies, or lost in transmission. Of the 16-1 billions cubic feet produced and purchased in the year 1919,

140 billions cubic feet wei-e sold to domestic consumers, and 21% (13 per cent)

billions cubic feet to industries. In the year 1916 this comniission, without any direct statutory authority,

but relying- wholly upon its police powers, issued its first order directing naturalgas companies doing ))usiness in Oliio to disconnect all industries at all times

when the weather was .such that the supply was needed for domestic consumption, thereby pioneering the way in conserving natural gas. This administrative order No. SI has been )'enewed with still further restrictions annually since

1916 and has been pretty generally observed, so tliat the gas sold to industries was for the most part supplied during summer months, when, if it had not

heen so sold, m.uch of it would liave been consumed by industries of other

States drawing their sup]>ly from the same fields. At least 60 per cent of the gas consumed in Ohio comes from the counties of

l^Iarrison ;ind Lewis in the State of West Virginia, and that State and the State

of Pennsylvania are drawing from the same fields; and from the testimony on

file in this commission it is shown tliat the carbon companies of West Virginia

alone drew from this field, during tlie fiscal year ending .Tune 30. 1917, 11 bil- lions cubic feet; in 1918 nearly 20 l)illions cubic feet; and in 1919, 19 billions

cubic feet. In hearing No. 1770, held before tliis commission in November and December,

1919. to determine tlie status of tlie natural-gas situation. Mi-. .1. A. Bownocker,

State geolog'st, and professor of geology at the Ohio State University, testified in substance

That for 25 years he had made a study of the natural-gas situation in Ohio and West Virginia ; that he had made recent tests of the rock pressure

of typical wells in the Reserve field in Harrison and Lewis Counties, West

Virginia, from wliich Ohio druws its chief supply: that whereas the rock

pressure in this field was originally from 900 to 1,000 pounds per sqiiare

inch, it was then l>ut 134 poTuids per square inch, and that the field is being

rapidly exhau.sted.

In hearing No. 1907, held before this commission February 27, 1920, Kay C. Krick, vice president of th.e Logan Natural Gas & Fuel Co., which supplies ap- proximately 100 communities in Ohio, testified: That as of November 1, 1919, the available supply of the Logan Company

was 88,000,000 cubic feet per day. and that its normal cold weather

demand for purely domestic consumption v.as 135,000,000 cubic feet per

day. That the company owns 800 wells in Ohio and had two-fifths in- terest in the output of 750 wells of the Reserve Gas Co. of West Virginia

that no industries were supplied duj'ing the winter months; that nevv' wells

produced less than one-third of the quantity of gas produced by former

wells. That during cold weather, with all available gas turned on, the

company could not meet the domestic demand and that all regulntors were

so set as to distribute the supply evenly, regardless of the difference iu

price paid in different localities. In order to clieck the depletion from the data at hand, we may

assume with practically no error, that the expansion of the gas

underground is at constant temperature; that is, isothermic expansion. In other words, the absolute pressure times the volume of the

gas is equal to a constant depending on the character, times the

quantity of the gas times the absolute temperature (PV—MRT).

There ai'e two major errors in the assumption that the volume is constant. This can not be true because the wells fill up; this, of

course, reduces the volume. However, at the higher pressures the
76 BUEEAU OF STANDARDS

gas is more soluble and as the pressures are reduced and the volumes

are reduced the gas in solution is released.

We find in checking the rock pressures and the volumes of gas

actually produced on this assumption, that they check with a fair

degree of accuracy. We are, therefore, warranted in assuming that

the depletion in 1919 is somewhere in the neighborhood of 80 to 90

per cent. The following tables have been prepared from the testimony submitted by Prof. I. C. White, for 22 years State geologist

of West Virginia, and a recent statement of the West Virginia

commission showing production for the years 1912 to 1921

Tablk 1.

Depletion of natural gas

Year

Average

rock

pressure

in pounds

per square

inch

Yearly

production

in thousands

of cubic

feet

Percentage

of maximum

production,

1916

Estimated

per cent of gas in terms of 1905

1905.... 930

791

681

100.0

85.5

74.0

1908. _ - -. 1911... 206, 890, 576

239, 600, 682

245, 453, 985

236, 480, 175

244, 400, 183

299, 313, 307

289, 698, 967

280, 289, 004

219, 886, 837

221, 268, 699

167, 227, 696

6980

82

7981.6

10096.6

93.5

73. 5 74.0

55.7

1912 - .- 1913 -.- 530

434

379 310

241

172

56.7

47.2

40.7

34.5 27.2

19.8

14.2

1914

1915 -- - - 1916 _ 1917... . -

1918

1919

1920 _ 1921.. -

An estimated average of from 7 to 8 per cent a year was used

from 1911 to 1919. Quoting further from the 1920 report:

There is a case now pending in the Supreme Court of the United States in whicli the State of Ohio is contesting the validity of an act of the Legislature

of West Virginia, requiring service to the consumers of that State in preference

to consumers in other States. Should this act be held valid it would sound

the death knell of natural-gas service in most of the communities of Ohio

now served from that field. The commission has deemed it prudent at this time to place these facts be- fore the public in order that consumers may not be deceived by those who

ignorantly or purposely attempt to mislead them and in order that they may be

apprised of the necessity of preparing for the use of other fuel when natural

gas is no longer available.

The commission also appeals to all consumers of natural gas to assist in every way within their power to conserve the present diminishing supply, to the end that service may be extended as long as possible.

This indicates that the Ohio Public Utilities Commission is fully

alive to the magnitude and importance of this problem to the people

of Ohio, and to the end that the available natural gas resources may

be economically conserved, they have adopted the policy of shutting

off the industrial consumer at the times of maximum demand and

have also graded the consumers, especiall}' the industrial consumers,

so that the load may be reduced in such a way as to cause the least

disturbance, in administrative orders 34 and 46. They have also

limited the domestic consiuner at the times of maximum demand to a total consumption of 10,000 cubic feet per month, and in order to
COXFERENCE OF STATE UTILITT EXGIXEEFvS 11

still furtliei' conseive the ever diminishing supplj' of natural gas,

they liave authorized the companies supph'ing this service to cliarge a sliding upward scale. A typical gas schedule of this kind is shown

in that of the Athens Co., which is as follows:

Filed November 20, 1919, effective December 20, 1919, and being for eacli municipality, P. U. C. O. No. 6 cancelling P. U. C. O. No. .5 carrying the fol- lowing rates: 4S cents per 1,000 cubic feet for the first 5,000 cubic feet each

month ; 5:3 cents per 1,000 cubic feet for the next 5,000 cubic feet each month

5S cents per 3,000 cubic feet for the next 5,000 cubic feet each month; 63 cents

per 1,000 cubic feet for the next 15.000 cubic feet each month. Subject to a

di.scount of ?i cents per 1,000 cubic feet if paid within 10 days after the bill for the previous monthly reading period has been issued.

Minim mil charge.—Tlie price of 2,000 cubic feet at the rate first above mentioned.

This schedule brings out another point wort^ij' of consideration,

namely, that of the minimum charge. This provision is not an eco- nomical one, because it encourages the small user to waste his gas

up to the amount of minimum charge. For that reason it is not

to the public's best interest and should be replaced by a service

charge.

Another tyj)ical schedule is that of the Lima ISTatural Gas Co.,

which is as follows

For tlie first 5,000 cubic feet per month $1 per 1,000 cubic feet. For the next 5,000 cubic feet per month ijJl.OS per 1,000 cubic feet. For the next 5,000 cubic feet per mouth $1.10 per 1,000 cubic feet. For all over 15,000 cubic feet per month .?1.15 per 1,000 cubic feet. Minimum charge.—.'?1.25 per month.

Lima is the center of the northwestern Ohio oil and gas field.

The commercial supply of gas, however, has been exhausted.

This case is interesting because there is almost a half million dollai's invested in 60 miles of high-pressure transmission line for

which there probal^ly will be no economic justification when the

natural-gas supply shall have been exhausted. This, together vyith

.several other items, has raised the price of gas in this case to aljout

the maximum at which natural gas can l)e economically delivered

and sold.

There are minor practices and customs which have grown up

with the natural-gas industry, which are very wasteful and in the

aggregate cause an enormous wastage. It was customary in the

original lease to supi^lj' the leaseholder witli all the gas lie wanted

for domestic purposes. There is then no incentive for tlie leaseholder to install fixtures or economical apjiaratus, nor to keep the

leaks out of his service lines, etc. His yard is quite likely to be illuininated by a torch which is .simply a pipe on the end of which the

gas is burning. This condition has rather a perplexing legal side,

due to the fact that the contracts for the luost part were made before the present pul^lic-utility law was passed, and consequently were not contrary to law or ]:»ublic policy at the time the contract

was made, and the old principle that "you can not impair tlie obligation of contract" holds in tlie.se ca.ses. It has been suggested by Mr. James Iniboden. chief engineer of

the "West Virginia Public Service Commission, that to a large extent, this difficulty may be adjusted by the gas-)irodiicing company

431—24 6
78 BUREAU OF STAS'DAEDS

making a new contract with the leaseholder giving him a rather

liberal estimate on his consumption and paying him the regular

field rate for the saving which he makes on the estimated or contract amount, thus making it well worth the leaseholder's while to

conserA^e the supply.

There is another type of minor wastage which in the aggregate

is considerable. This is due to the contract made by the pipe-line

company in securing its right of way, which provides that it will

furnish the property owner with gas provided he will install the

necessary service, reducing apparatus, and meter. In most cases, the installations were made with pipes of inadequate size, many of

them being old and in bad condition. It has been suggested that

this might possibly be taken care of by the gas company filing witli

the commission a reduced rate for this class of customer, providing

the consumer would" rearrange the service so that wastage would be

metered and the condition of the installation consequently reflected

in the amount of gas consumed.

There is another point which inevitably presents itself. During

the summer months the domestic demand falls off and the gas company is unable to maintain its plant on a profitable basis. For this reason the gas company invariably asks for a commercial rate

which will permit them to sell their product during the months of

minimum demand. While it may seem that putting the commercial

consumer who will use enormous amounts of gas on a lower rate

and a rate which will compete with other cheaper fuels, is not concluciA'e to the conservation of the supply, yet if is also true that if

the gas utility is not allowed to sell commercial consumers to flatten

out its load characteristics and keep its plant busy, that the cost

to the domestic consumer will be excessive in order to take care of

the necessary maintenance and depreciation.

In order to get an idea of the financial status of the gas industry

in the State of Ohio, we quote from the 1912 and 1921 anm;al report

of the Ohio Public Utilities Commission. In 1912 there were

485,509 gas customers in the State of Ohio: in 1921 there were

905,567, or an increase of 87 per cent. In 1912 the average monthly

bill per customer was $4.10 per month. In 1921 it was $7.26, or an

increase of 77 per cent. In 1912 there was an investment per cus- tomer of $226.93; in 1921 there was an investment per customer of

$370.80, or an increase of 63 per cent. In 1912 the gas companies

paid 21/^ per cent on their capital investment and 3.2 per cent on their

capitalization. In 1921 they paid 6.4 per cent on their capital investment and 8.4 per cent on their capitalization.

Figure 1 shows the trends of Ohio iitilit}" rates. This curve is interesting for it shows the relative trend of public-utility rates as well as the average vai'iation of commodity prices. The heavy black

line shows the maximum rates allowed by the Ohio Public Utilities

Commission in their formal cases. The average of these formal

cases is the heavy broken line. The average per cent rate increase

of .the 100 gas companies, the light broken line, shows that the

aA-erage increase in gas prices has been greater than those of any

other type of utility : the other line labeled " Large telephone companies rates" compares very favorably but does not reflect the

average trend.
COXFEEEXCE OF STATE UTILITY ENGINEERS 79

Let us consider for a moment how far we should go in the conservation measures. There are certain fundamental economic laws

which can not be disregarded. It is impossible to adopt effective

conservation measures which will conflict Avith these fundamental

conditions, and the point at which conservation ceases to be effective

is that point at which it ceases to pay. That point is to be found

where an economical substitute may be found, and such substitute

we have in artificial gas.

Although Ohio is unfortunate in not having any high grade gas

coal, in spite of this fact, by means of a mechanical cleaning process,

coals can be treated for a matter of about 15 cents per ton in such a wav that we can make high-grade gas and metallurgical coke out of

275

I3!3 1514 1313 ISIS I3i? IBIS igig ISSd ISZI 1322 1923 OHIO UTILITY RATE TRENDS

I it. If the local market is such that the coke can be sold for $2 per

!{ ton more than the price of coal delivered at the retort, gas may be

I put in the container at 30 cents per thousand cubic feet. In view

of the above we are in Ohio on the verge of an enormous development in the gas industry, especially in the retort processes.

Natural gas should be displaced as rapidly as possible by manufactured gas plants using combination coal gas and water gas plants

to eliect complete gasification of the coal, using natural gas only as an enricher as we use oil. Enough of the natural gas would be

needed to bring the B. t. u. value of the mixed coal gas and water

gas. which will be about 400 B. t. u. per cubic foot, up to about 550

B. t. u. In my opinion this is by far the most economical and

logical way to conserve our natural gas.
80 BUREAU OF STAXDARDS

Another kind of conservation Avhich should be mentioned, akhougli

it is properly a field of its OAvn, is the application of the gas and its use in fixtures so designed that they will be efficient over the probable range of gas pressure at which they will be required to operate.

There are two other principles which might profitably be utilized in

the conservation of fuel. One is the thermostatic regulator Avhich

regulates the temperature within certain well defined limits ; this can be used in domestic appliances as well as. in the commercial applica-

.tion, such as in annealing and carbonizing operations. The other

l^rinciple is that of heat insulation, which has alread}^ been commercialized in the so-called tireless cooker.

(On account of the lateness of the hour, the discussion of these

j^apers was not extended. It was pointed out that manufactured

gas must be provided to supplement or replace natural gas in the

territory which used to be the center of the gas and oil business,

while immense new supplies have been developed in more remote

locations. This change involves far-reaching readjustments in the

location or the methods of industries dependent on gas, and also

gives rise to difficult technical problems in regard to service requirements and financing in the regions where natural gas is failing.

While it is too late to do much for many of these sections, ihej afford

lessons which should not be overlooked in dealing with the gas suppi}' in other States.)

At 1.45 p. m. the conference adjourned sine die to give members

an oi^portunity to visit some of the laboratories of the bureau duiing

the afternoon.

o