TOXICOLOGICAL PROFILE FOR 

1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH AND HUMAN SERVICES 

Public Health Service 

Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry

July 2006 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE ii 

DISCLAIMER 

The use of company or product name(s) is for identification only and does not imply endorsement by the 

Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE iii 

UPDATE STATEMENT 

A Toxicological Profile for 1,1,1-Trichloroethane, Draft for Public Comment, was released in 

September 2004. This edition supersedes any previously released draft or final profile. 

Toxicological profiles are revised and republished as necessary. For information regarding the update 

status of previously released profiles, contact ATSDR at: 

Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry

Division of Toxicology and Environmental Medicine/Applied Toxicology Branch 

1600 Clifton Road NE 

Mailstop F-32 

Atlanta, Georgia 30333 
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FOREWORD 

This toxicological profile is prepared in accordance with guidelines developed by the Agency for Toxic 

Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). The 

original guidelines were published in the Federal Register on April 17, 1987. Each profile will be revised 

and republished as necessary. 

The ATSDR toxicological profile succinctly characterizes the toxicologic and adverse health effects 

information for the hazardous substance described therein. Each peer-reviewed profile identifies and 

reviews the key literature that describes a hazardous substance’s toxicologic properties. Other pertinent 

literature is also presented, but is described in less detail than the key studies. The profile is not intended 

to be an exhaustive document; however, more comprehensive sources of specialty information are 

referenced. 

The focus of the profiles is on health and toxicologic information; therefore, each toxicological profile 

begins with a public health statement that describes, in nontechnical language, a substance’s relevant 

toxicological properties. Following the public health statement is information concerning levels of 

significant human exposure and, where known, significant health effects. The adequacy of information to 

determine a substance’s health effects is described in a health effects summary. Data needs that are of 

significance to protection of public health are identified by ATSDR and EPA. 

Each profile includes the following: 

(A) The examination, summary, and interpretation of available toxicologic information and 

epidemiologic evaluations on a hazardous substance to ascertain the levels of significant human 

exposure for the substance and the associated acute, subacute, and chronic health effects; 

(B) A determination of whether adequate information on the health effects of each substance 

is available or in the process of development to determine levels of exposure that present a 

significant risk to human health of acute, subacute, and chronic health effects; and 

(C) Where appropriate, identification of toxicologic testing needed to identify the types or 

levels of exposure that may present significant risk of adverse health effects in humans. 

The principal audiences for the toxicological profiles are health professionals at the Federal, State, and 

local levels; interested private sector organizations and groups; and members of the public. 

This profile reflects ATSDR’s assessment of all relevant toxicologic testing and information that has been 

peer-reviewed. Staff of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and other Federal scientists have 

also reviewed the profile. In addition, this profile has been peer-reviewed by a nongovernmental panel 

and was made available for public review. Final responsibility for the contents and views expressed in 

this toxicological profile resides with ATSDR. 
vi 

*Legislative Background 

The toxicological profiles are developed in response to the Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization 

Act (SARA) of 1986 (Public Law 99 499) which amended the Comprehensive Environmental Response, 

Compensation, and Liability Act of 1980 (CERCLA or Superfund). This public law directed ATSDR to 

prepare toxicological profiles for hazardous substances most commonly found at facilities on the 

CERCLA National Priorities List and that pose the most significant potential threat to human health, as 

determined by ATSDR and the EPA. The availability of the revised priority list of 275 hazardous 

substances was announced in the Federal Register on December 7, 2005 (70 FR 72840). For prior 

versions of the list of substances, see Federal Register notices dated April 17, 1987 (52 FR 12866); 

October 20, 1988 (53 FR 41280); October 26, 1989 (54 FR 43619); October 17,1990 (55 FR 42067); 

October 17, 1991 (56 FR 52166); October 28, 1992 (57 FR 48801); February 28, 1994 (59 FR 9486); 

April 29, 1996 (61 FR 18744); November 17, 1997 (62 FR 61332); October 21, 1999 (64 FR 56792); 

October 25, 2001 (66 FR 54014), and November 7, 2003 (68 FR 63098). Section 104(i)(3) of CERCLA, 

as amended, directs the Administrator of ATSDR to prepare a toxicological profile for each substance on 

the list. 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE vii 

QUICK REFERENCE FOR HEALTH CARE PROVIDERS 

Toxicological Profiles are a unique compilation of toxicological information on a given hazardous 

substance. Each profile reflects a comprehensive and extensive evaluation, summary, and interpretation 

of available toxicologic and epidemiologic information on a substance. Health care providers treating 

patients potentially exposed to hazardous substances will find the following information helpful for fast 

answers to often-asked questions. 

Primary Chapters/Sections of Interest 

Chapter 1: Public Health Statement: The Public Health Statement can be a useful tool for educating 

patients about possible exposure to a hazardous substance. It explains a substance’s relevant 

toxicologic properties in a nontechnical, question-and-answer format, and it includes a review of 

the general health effects observed following exposure. 

Chapter 2: Relevance to Public Health: The Relevance to Public Health Section evaluates, interprets, 

and assesses the significance of toxicity data to human health. 

Chapter 3: Health Effects: Specific health effects of a given hazardous compound are reported by type 

of health effect (death, systemic, immunologic, reproductive), by route of exposure, and by length 

of exposure (acute, intermediate, and chronic). In addition, both human and animal studies are 

reported in this section. 

NOTE: Not all health effects reported in this section are necessarily observed in the clinical 

setting. Please refer to the Public Health Statement to identify general health effects observed 

following exposure. 

Pediatrics: Four new sections have been added to each Toxicological Profile to address child health 

issues: 

Section 1.6 How Can (Chemical X) Affect Children? 

Section 1.7 How Can Families Reduce the Risk of Exposure to (Chemical X)? 

Section 3.7 Children’s Susceptibility 

Section 6.6 Exposures of Children 

Other Sections of Interest: 

Section 3.8 Biomarkers of Exposure and Effect 

Section 3.11 Methods for Reducing Toxic Effects 

ATSDR Information Center 

Phone: 1-888-42-ATSDR or (404) 498-0110 Fax: (770) 488-4178 

E-mail: atsdric@cdc.gov Internet: http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov 

The following additional material can be ordered through the ATSDR Information Center: 

Case Studies in Environmental Medicine: Taking an Exposure History—The importance of taking an 

exposure history and how to conduct one are described, and an example of a thorough exposure 

history is provided. Other case studies of interest include Reproductive and Developmental 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE viii 

Hazards; Skin Lesions and Environmental Exposures; Cholinesterase-Inhibiting Pesticide 

Toxicity; and numerous chemical-specific case studies. 

Managing Hazardous Materials Incidents is a three-volume set of recommendations for on-scene 

(prehospital) and hospital medical management of patients exposed during a hazardous materials 

incident. Volumes I and II are planning guides to assist first responders and hospital emergency 

department personnel in planning for incidents that involve hazardous materials. Volume III— 

Medical Management Guidelines for Acute Chemical Exposures—is a guide for health care 

professionals treating patients exposed to hazardous materials. 

Fact Sheets (ToxFAQs) provide answers to frequently asked questions about toxic substances. 

Other Agencies and Organizations 

The National Center for Environmental Health (NCEH) focuses on preventing or controlling disease, 

injury, and disability related to the interactions between people and their environment outside the 

workplace. Contact: NCEH, Mailstop F-29, 4770 Buford Highway, NE, Atlanta, 

GA 30341-3724 • Phone: 770-488-7000 • FAX: 770-488-7015. 

The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) conducts research on occupational 

diseases and injuries, responds to requests for assistance by investigating problems of health and 

safety in the workplace, recommends standards to the Occupational Safety and Health 

Administration (OSHA) and the Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA), and trains 

professionals in occupational safety and health. Contact: NIOSH, 200 Independence Avenue, 

SW, Washington, DC 20201 • Phone: 800-356-4674 or NIOSH Technical Information Branch, 

Robert A. Taft Laboratory, Mailstop C-19, 4676 Columbia Parkway, Cincinnati, OH 45226-1998 

• Phone: 800-35-NIOSH. 

The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS) is the principal federal agency for 

biomedical research on the effects of chemical, physical, and biologic environmental agents on 

human health and well-being. Contact: NIEHS, PO Box 12233, 104 T.W. Alexander Drive, 

Research Triangle Park, NC 27709 • Phone: 919-541-3212. 

Referrals 

The Association of Occupational and Environmental Clinics (AOEC) has developed a network of clinics 

in the United States to provide expertise in occupational and environmental issues. Contact: 

AOEC, 1010 Vermont Avenue, NW, #513, Washington, DC 20005 • Phone: 202-347-4976 

• FAX: 202-347-4950 • e-mail: AOEC@AOEC.ORG • Web Page: http://www.aoec.org/. 

The American College of Occupational and Environmental Medicine (ACOEM) is an association of 

physicians and other health care providers specializing in the field of occupational and 

environmental medicine. Contact: ACOEM, 25 Northwest Point Boulevard, Suite 700, 

Elk Grove Village, IL 60007-1030 • Phone: 847-818-1800 • FAX: 847-818-9266. 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE ix 

CONTRIBUTORS 

CHEMICAL MANAGER(S)/AUTHOR(S): 

Henry G. Abadin, M.S.P.H. 

Daphne B. Moffett, Ph.D. 

Alfred F. Dorsey, D.V.M. 

ATSDR, Division of Toxicology and Environmental Medicine, Atlanta, GA 

David W. Wohlers, Ph.D. 

Sari J. Paikoff, Ph.D

Mona Singh, Ph.D. 

Syracuse Research Corporation, North Syracuse, NY 

THE PROFILE HAS UNDERGONE THE FOLLOWING ATSDR INTERNAL REVIEWS: 

1. Health Effects Review. The Health Effects Review Committee examines the health effects 

chapter of each profile for consistency and accuracy in interpreting health effects and classifying 

end points. 

2. Minimal Risk Level Review. The Minimal Risk Level Workgroup considers issues relevant to 

substance-specific Minimal Risk Levels (MRLs), reviews the health effects database of each 

profile, and makes recommendations for derivation of MRLs. 

3. Data Needs Review. The Research Implementation Branch reviews data needs sections to assure 

consistency across profiles and adherence to instructions in the Guidance. 

4. Green Border Review. Green Border review assures the consistency with ATSDR policy. 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE x 

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1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE xi 

PEER REVIEW 

A peer review panel was assembled for 1,1,1-trichloroethane for the pre-public draft. The panel consisted 

of the following members: 

1. Dr. Bhupendra Kaphalia, Associate Professor, Department of Pathology, University of Texas 

Medical Branch, Galveston Texas; 

2. Dr. Kannan Krishnan, Professor and Director, Human Toxicology Research Group, University of 

Montreal, Pierrefonds, PQ, Canada; and 

3. Dr. Gary Stoner, Professor, Environmental Health Sciences, Ohio State University School of 

Public Health, Columbus, Ohio. 

These experts collectively have knowledge of 1,1,1-trichloroethane's physical and chemical properties, 

toxicokinetics, key health end points, mechanisms of action, human and animal exposure, and 

quantification of risk to humans. All reviewers were selected in conformity with the conditions for peer 

review specified in Section 104(I)(13) of the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, 

and Liability Act, as amended. 

Scientists from the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) have reviewed the peer 

reviewers' comments and determined which comments will be included in the profile. A listing of the 

peer reviewers' comments not incorporated in the profile, with a brief explanation of the rationale for their 

exclusion, exists as part of the administrative record for this compound. 

The citation of the peer review panel should not be understood to imply its approval of the profile's final 

content. The responsibility for the content of this profile lies with the ATSDR. 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE xii 

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1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE xiii 

CONTENTS 

DISCLAIMER ..............................................................................................................................................ii 

UPDATE STATEMENT .............................................................................................................................iii 

FOREWORD ................................................................................................................................................v 

QUICK REFERENCE FOR HEALTH CARE PROVIDERS....................................................................vii 

CONTRIBUTORS.......................................................................................................................................ix 

PEER REVIEW ...........................................................................................................................................xi 

CONTENTS...............................................................................................................................................xiii 

LIST OF FIGURES ..................................................................................................................................xvii 

LIST OF TABLES.....................................................................................................................................xix 

1. PUBLIC HEALTH STATEMENT..........................................................................................................1 

1.1 WHAT IS 1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE?..................................................................................1 

1.2 WHAT HAPPENS TO 1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE WHEN IT ENTERS THE

ENVIRONMENT? ......................................................................................................................2 

1.3 HOW MIGHT I BE EXPOSED TO 1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE? .........................................3 

1.4 HOW CAN 1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE ENTER AND LEAVE MY BODY? ...................... 4 

1.5 HOW CAN 1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE AFFECT MY HEALTH? ....................................... 5 

1.6 HOW CAN 1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE AFFECT CHILDREN? ..........................................6 

1.7 HOW CAN FAMILIES REDUCE THE RISK OF EXPOSURE TO

1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE? ...................................................................................................6 

1.8 IS THERE A MEDICAL TEST TO DETERMINE WHETHER I HAVE BEEN EXPOSED 

TO 1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE?.............................................................................................7 

1.9 WHAT RECOMMENDATIONS HAS THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT MADE TO 

PROTECT HUMAN HEALTH?.................................................................................................7 

1.10 WHERE CAN I GET MORE INFORMATION? .......................................................................8 

2. RELEVANCE TO PUBLIC HEALTH .................................................................................................11 

2.1 BACKGROUND AND ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURES TO 

1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE IN THE UNITED STATES......................................................11 

2.2 SUMMARY OF HEALTH EFFECTS......................................................................................12 

2.3 MINIMAL RISK LEVELS (MRLs) .........................................................................................17 

3. HEALTH EFFECTS..............................................................................................................................21 

3.1 INTRODUCTION.....................................................................................................................21 

3.2 DISCUSSION OF HEALTH EFFECTS BY ROUTE OF EXPOSURE ..................................21 

3.2.1 Inhalation Exposure ..............................................................................................................22 

3.2.1.1 Death ............................................................................................................................22 

3.2.1.2 Systemic Effects...........................................................................................................24 

3.2.1.3 Immunological and Lymphoreticular Effects...............................................................69 

3.2.1.4 Neurological Effects.....................................................................................................70 

3.2.1.5 Reproductive Effects....................................................................................................75 

3.2.1.6 Developmental Effects .................................................................................................76 

3.2.1.7 Cancer...........................................................................................................................77 

3.2.2 Oral Exposure........................................................................................................................79 

3.2.2.1 Death ............................................................................................................................79 

3.2.2.2 Systemic Effects...........................................................................................................79 

3.2.2.3 Immunological and Lymphoreticular Effects...............................................................95 
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3.2.2.4 Neurological Effects.....................................................................................................95 

3.2.2.5 Reproductive Effects....................................................................................................96 

3.2.2.6 Developmental Effects .................................................................................................97 

3.2.2.7 Cancer...........................................................................................................................99 

3.2.3 Dermal Exposure.................................................................................................................101 

3.2.3.1 Death ..........................................................................................................................101 

3.2.3.2 Systemic Effects.........................................................................................................101 

3.2.3.3 Immunological and Lymphoreticular Effects.............................................................110 

3.2.3.4 Neurological Effects...................................................................................................111 

3.2.3.5 Reproductive Effects..................................................................................................111 

3.2.3.6 Developmental Effects ...............................................................................................112 

3.2.3.7 Cancer.........................................................................................................................112 

3.3 GENOTOXICITY ...................................................................................................................112 

3.4 TOXICOKINETICS................................................................................................................117 

3.4.1 Absorption...........................................................................................................................118 

3.4.1.1 Inhalation Exposure....................................................................................................118 

3.4.1.2 Oral Exposure.............................................................................................................119 

3.4.1.3 Dermal Exposure ........................................................................................................120 

3.4.2 Distribution .........................................................................................................................121 

3.4.2.1 Inhalation Exposure....................................................................................................121 

3.4.2.2 Oral Exposure.............................................................................................................122 

3.4.2.3 Dermal Exposure ........................................................................................................122 

3.4.2.4 Other Routes of Exposure ..........................................................................................122 

3.4.3 Metabolism..........................................................................................................................122 

3.4.4 Elimination and Excretion...................................................................................................126 

3.4.4.1 Inhalation Exposure....................................................................................................126 

3.4.4.2 Oral Exposure.............................................................................................................127 

3.4.4.3 Dermal Exposure ........................................................................................................127 

3.4.5 Physiologically Based Pharmacokinetic (PBPK)/Pharmacodynamic (PD) Models ...........128 

3.5 MECHANISMS OF ACTION ................................................................................................ 132 

3.5.1 Pharmacokinetic Mechanisms............................................................................................. 132 

3.5.2 Mechanisms of Toxicity......................................................................................................134 

3.5.3 Animal-to-Human Extrapolations.......................................................................................137 

3.6 TOXICITIES MEDIATED THROUGH THE NEUROENDOCRINE AXIS ........................137 

3.7 CHILDREN’S SUSCEPTIBILITY.........................................................................................138 

3.8 BIOMARKERS OF EXPOSURE AND EFFECT ..................................................................140 

3.8.1 Biomarkers Used to Identify or Quantify Exposure to 1,1,1-Trichloroethane....................141 

3.8.2 Biomarkers Used to Characterize Effects Caused by 1,1,1-Trichloroethane ......................143 

3.9 INTERACTIONS WITH OTHER CHEMICALS ..................................................................144 

3.10 POPULATIONS THAT ARE UNUSUALLY SUSCEPTIBLE............................................. 145 

3.11 METHODS FOR REDUCING TOXIC EFFECTS................................................................. 147 

3.11.1 Reducing Peak Absorption Following Exposure ............................................................147 

3.11.2 Reducing Body Burden...................................................................................................148 

3.11.3 Interfering with the Mechanism of Action for Toxic Effects .........................................149 

3.12 ADEQUACY OF THE DATABASE......................................................................................150 

3.12.1 Existing Information on Health Effects of 1,1,1-Trichloroethane ..................................150 

3.12.2 Identification of Data Needs ...........................................................................................152 

3.12.3 Ongoing Studies..............................................................................................................162 

4. CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL INFORMATION..............................................................................163 

4.1 CHEMICAL IDENTITY.........................................................................................................163 
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4.2 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES......................................................................163 

5. PRODUCTION, IMPORT/EXPORT, USE, AND DISPOSAL..........................................................167 

5.1 PRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................167 

5.2 IMPORT/EXPORT .................................................................................................................170 

5.3 USE..........................................................................................................................................170 

5.4 DISPOSAL..............................................................................................................................171 

6. POTENTIAL FOR HUMAN EXPOSURE .........................................................................................175 

6.1 OVERVIEW............................................................................................................................175 

6.2 RELEASES TO THE ENVIRONMENT................................................................................178 

6.2.1 Air .......................................................................................................................................178 

6.2.2 Water...................................................................................................................................181 

6.2.3 Soil ......................................................................................................................................186 

6.3 ENVIRONMENTAL FATE....................................................................................................186 

6.3.1 Transport and Partitioning...................................................................................................186 

6.3.2 Transformation and Degradation ........................................................................................187 

6.3.2.1 Air...............................................................................................................................187 

6.3.2.2 Water ..........................................................................................................................189 

6.3.2.3 Sediment and Soil.......................................................................................................190 

6.4 LEVELS MONITORED OR ESTIMATED IN THE ENVIRONMENT...............................191 

6.4.1 Air .......................................................................................................................................191 

6.4.2 Water...................................................................................................................................201 

6.4.3 Sediment and Soil ...............................................................................................................204 

6.4.4 Other Environmental Media................................................................................................204 

6.5 GENERAL POPULATION AND OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE .....................................210 

6.6 EXPOSURES OF CHILDREN...............................................................................................214 

6.7 POPULATIONS WITH POTENTIALLY HIGH EXPOSURES ...........................................218 

6.8 ADEQUACY OF THE DATABASE......................................................................................219 

6.8.1 Identification of Data Needs ...............................................................................................219 

6.8.2 Ongoing Studies ..................................................................................................................223 

7. ANALYTICAL METHODS ...............................................................................................................225 

7.1 BIOLOGICAL MATERIALS.................................................................................................225 

7.2 ENVIRONMENTAL SAMPLES............................................................................................ 227 

7.3 ADEQUACY OF THE DATABASE......................................................................................230 

7.3.1 Identification of Data Needs ...............................................................................................231 

7.3.2 Ongoing Studies ..................................................................................................................232 

8. REGULATIONS AND ADVISORIES ...............................................................................................233 

9. REFERENCES ....................................................................................................................................237 

10. GLOSSARY ......................................................................................................................................319 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE xvi 

APPENDICES 

A. ATSDR MINIMAL RISK LEVELS AND WORKSHEETS .............................................................A-1 

B. USER'S GUIDE ..................................................................................................................................B-1 

C. ACRONYMS, ABBREVIATIONS, AND SYMBOLS......................................................................C-1 

D. INDEX ................................................................................................................................................D-1 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE xvii 

LIST OF FIGURES 

3-1. Levels of Significant Exposure to 1,1,1-Trichloroethane–Inhalation................................................. 51 

3-2. Levels of Significant Exposure to 1,1,1-Trichloroethane–Oral.......................................................... 88 

3-3. Metabolic Scheme for 1,1,1-Trichloroethane ...................................................................................124 

3-4. Conceptual Representation of a Physiologically Based Pharmacokinetic (PBPK) Model for a 

Hypothetical Chemical Substance....................................................................................................130 

3-5. Scatter Diagram Relating Time-Weighted Average of Environmental Concentration and Urinary

Concentration of 1,1,1-Trichloroethane in Exposed Workers..........................................................142 

3-6. Existing Information on Health Effects of 1,1,1-Trichloroethane....................................................151 

6-1. Frequency of NPL Sites with 1,1,1-Trichloroethane Contamination ...............................................176 
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1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE xix 

LIST OF TABLES 

3-1. Levels of Significant Exposure to 1,1,1-Trichloroethane–Inhalation................................................. 25 

3-2. Levels of Significant Exposure to 1,1,1-Trichloroethane–Oral.......................................................... 80 

3-3. Levels of Significant Exposure to 1,1,1-Trichloroethane–Dermal................................................... 102 

3-4. Genotoxicity of 1,1,1-Trichloroethane In Vivo.................................................................................113 

3-5. Genotoxicity of 1,1,1-Trichloroethane In Vitro................................................................................114 

3-6. Parameters Used in the Physiologically Based Pharmacokinetic Model for 1,1,1-Trichloroethane 

Developed by Reitz et al. (1988)......................................................................................................131 

4-1. Chemical Identity of 1,1,1-Trichloroethane .....................................................................................164 

4-2. Physical and Chemical Properties of 1,1,1-Trichloroethane ............................................................165 

5-1. Facilities that Produce, Process, or Use 1,1,1-Trichloroethane ........................................................168 

5-2. 1,1,1-Trichloroethane in Common Household Products ..................................................................172 

6-1. Releases to the Environment from Facilities that Produce, Process, or Use 

 1,1,1-Trichloroethane .......................................................................................................................180 

6-2. Detection of 1,1,1-Trichloroethane in Water and Sediments ...........................................................182 

6-3. Detection of 1,1,1-Trichloroethane in Air........................................................................................192 

6-4. Detection of 1,1,1-Trichloroethane in Effluent ................................................................................202 

6-5. Detection of 1,1,1-Trichloroethane in Soils .....................................................................................205 

6-6. Detection of 1,1,1-Trichloroethane in Foods....................................................................................206 

6-7. Detection of 1,1,1-Trichloroethane in Human Samples...................................................................211 

6-8. Occupational Air Levels of 1,1,1-Trichloroethane...........................................................................215 

7-1. Analytical Methods for Determining 1,1,1-Trichloroethane in Biological Samples........................226 

7-2. Analytical Methods for Determining 1,1,1-Trichloroethane in Environmental Samples.................228 

8-1. Regulations and Guidelines Applicable to 1,1,1-Trichloroethane....................................................234 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE xx 

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1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 1 

1. PUBLIC HEALTH STATEMENT

This public health statement tells you about 1,1,1-trichloroethane (also called 1,1,1-TCE) and the 

effects of exposure to it. 

The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) identifies the most serious hazardous waste sites in 

the nation. These sites are then placed on the National Priorities List (NPL) and are targeted for 

federal long-term cleanup activities. 1,1,1-Trichloroethane has been found in at least 823 of the 

1,662 current or former NPL sites. Although the total number of NPL sites evaluated for this 

substance is not known, the possibility exists that the number of sites at which 1,1,1-trichloroethane is found may increase in the future as more sites are evaluated. This information is 

important because these sites may be sources of exposure, and exposure to this substance may 

harm you. 

When a substance is released either from a large area, such as an industrial plant, or from a 

container, such as a drum or bottle, it enters the environment. Such a release does not always 

lead to exposure. You can be exposed to a substance only when you come in contact with it. 

You may be exposed by breathing, eating, or drinking the substance or by skin contact. 

If you are exposed to 1,1,1-trichloroethane many factors will determine whether you will be 

harmed. These factors include the dose (how much), the duration (how long), and how you 

come in contact with it. You must also consider any other chemicals you are exposed to and 

your age, sex, diet, family traits, lifestyle, and state of health. 

1.1 WHAT IS 1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE? 

1,1,1-Trichloroethane is a synthetic chemical that does not occur naturally in the environment. It 

also is known as methylchloroform, methyltrichloromethane, trichloromethylmethane, and α-trichloromethane. Its registered trade names are chloroethene NU® and Aerothene TT®. It is a 

colorless liquid with a sweet, sharp odor. 1,1,1-Trichloroethane dissolves slightly in water. The 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 2 

1. PUBLIC HEALTH STATEMENT 

liquid evaporates quickly and becomes a vapor. Most people begin to smell 1,1,1-trichloroethane in the air when its levels reach 120–500 parts per million (ppm). If the chemical makes 

up 8–10.5% (80,000–105,000 ppm) of the air, it can burn easily when it contacts a spark or 

flame. A poisonous gas known as phosgene can be produced during welding if 1,1,1-trichloroethane is used to clean the metal. 1,1,1-Trichloroethane also can be found in soil and water, 

particularly at hazardous waste sites. Because of its tendency to evaporate easily, the vapor form 

is most commonly found in the environment. 

1,1,1-Trichloroethane had many industrial and household uses. It was often used as a solvent to 

dissolve other substances, such as glues and paints. In industry, it was widely used to remove oil 

or grease from manufactured parts. In the home, it used to be an ingredient of products such as 

spot cleaners, glues, and aerosol sprays. No 1,1,1-trichloroethane is supposed to be 

manufactured for domestic use in the United States after January 1, 2002, because it affects the 

ozone layer. However, until 2005, limited amounts were still allowed to be produced for 

essential purposes, and until 2012, production of 1,1,1-trichloroethane is allowed for export. 

About 300 million pounds were produced in 2000, but less is being made today. Most of the 

1,1,1-trichloroethane that is manufactured today is exported. 

You will find detailed information about the chemical properties of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in 

Chapter 4. Chapter 5 describes production data and the uses of 1,1,1-trichloroethane. 

1.2 WHAT HAPPENS TO 1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE WHEN IT ENTERS THE 

ENVIRONMENT? 

Most of the 1,1,1-trichloroethane released into the environment enters the air. Once in the air, it 

can travel to the upper part of the earth's atmosphere, which is called the stratosphere. There, 

sunlight breaks it down into other chemicals that may reduce the stratospheric ozone layer. This 

ozone layer blocks certain damaging ultraviolet rays of the sun from reaching the earth's surface. 

Some scientists think the gradual thinning of the ozone layer is increasing the number of skin 

cancer cases in humans. 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 3 

1. PUBLIC HEALTH STATEMENT 

Spills, improper disposal, industrial emissions, and consumer use can release 1,1,1-trichloroethane into the environment. Contaminated water from landfills and hazardous waste sites can 

contaminate surrounding soil and nearby surface water or groundwater. However, most of the 

chemical probably will evaporate eventually into the air. It will not build up in plants or animals. 

Industrial operations release the largest amount of 1,1,1-trichloroethane into the environment, 

mostly by emissions into the air. The vapor also enters the air because many products containing 

the chemical were used in the home and workplace. 

We do not know how long 1,1,1-trichloroethane lasts in water or soil. In surface waters, such as 

lakes and rivers, where it partially mixes with water, much of the chemical evaporates quickly. 

1,1,1-Trichloroethane also evaporates from soil surfaces. Water can easily carry it through soil 

into groundwater. 1,1,1-Trichloroethane in groundwater can evaporate and pass through soil as a 

gas and finally be released to the air. Also, organisms that live in soil and water may break down 

1,1,1-trichloroethane. One study suggests that half of the chemical takes 200–300 days to break 

down in contaminated groundwater. However, the number of days can vary widely, depending 

on specific site conditions. 

Chapter 6 provides further information about what happens to 1,1,1-trichloroethane in the 

environment. 

1.3 HOW MIGHT I BE EXPOSED TO 1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE? 

You are not likely to be exposed to large enough amounts of 1,1,1-trichloroethane to cause 

adverse health effects. 1,1,1-Trichloroethane has been found in air samples taken from all over 

the world. In the United States, city air typically contains about 0.1–1.0 parts per billion (ppb) of 

1,1,1-trichloroethane; rural air usually contains less than 0.1 ppb. Because 1,1,1-trichloroethane 

was used so frequently in home and office products, much more was found in the air inside 

buildings (0.3–4.4 ppb) than in the outside air (0.1–0.9 ppb). Since this chemical was found in 

many building materials, new buildings used to have higher indoor levels than old buildings. 

Thus, you were likely to be exposed to 1,1,1-trichloroethane vapor at higher levels indoors than 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 4 

1. PUBLIC HEALTH STATEMENT 

outdoors or near hazardous waste sites. However, since 2002, 1,1,1-trichloroethane is not 

expected to be commonly used, and therefore, the likelihood of being exposed to it is remote. 

Common consumer products that used to contain 1,1,1-trichloroethane included glues, household 

cleaners, and aerosol sprays. In the workplace, you could have been exposed to 1,1,1-trichloroethane while using some metal degreasing agents, paints, glues, and cleaning products. You 

could have been exposed to 1,1,1-trichloroethane by breathing the vapors from these products or 

by letting the liquid contact your skin. High levels of exposure have occurred in people who 

deliberately inhaled the vapors, as in glue-sniffing or solvent abuse. 

1,1,1-Trichloroethane has been found in rivers and lakes (up to 0.01 ppm), in soil (up to 

120 ppm), in drinking water (up to 0.0035 ppm), and in drinking water from underground wells 

(up to 5.4 ppm). In one case, drinking water from a private well contained up to 12 ppm, 

possibly as a result of illegal discharge or spill from a nearby industrial plant. Releases during 

manufacture and transportation and during industrial or household use can cause these high 

levels, but the levels vary substantially from one location to another. Certain foods you eat and 

water you drink or bathe in may be contaminated with 1,1,1-trichloroethane. However, you can 

be exposed to 1,1,1-trichloroethane primarily by drinking contaminated water and eating 

contaminated food. Chapter 6 discusses further information about human exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane. 

1.4 HOW CAN 1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE ENTER AND LEAVE MY BODY? 

1,1,1-Trichloroethane can quickly enter your body if you breathe in air containing it in vapor 

form. It also enters your body if you drink water or eat food containing 1,1,1-trichloroethane. If 

you spill 1,1,1-trichloroethane on your skin, most of it quickly evaporates into the air, but small 

amounts enter your body through your skin. Regardless of how 1,1,1-trichloroethane enters your 

body, nearly all of it quickly leaves your body in the air you exhale. The small amount that is 

not breathed out can be changed in your body into other substances, known as metabolites. Most 

of the metabolites leave your body in the urine and breath within a few days. Chapter 3 provides 

further information about how 1,1,1-trichloroethane can enter and leave the body. 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 5 

1. PUBLIC HEALTH STATEMENT 

1.5 HOW CAN 1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE AFFECT MY HEALTH? 

Scientists use many tests to protect the public from harmful effects of toxic chemicals and to find 

ways for treating people who have been harmed. 

One way to learn whether a chemical will harm people is to determine how the body absorbs, 

uses, and releases the chemical. For some chemicals, animal testing may be necessary. Animal 

testing may also help identify health effects such as cancer or birth defects. Without laboratory 

animals, scientists would lose a basic method for getting information needed to make wise 

decisions that protect public health. Scientists have the responsibility to treat research animals 

with care and compassion. Scientists must comply with strict animal-care guidelines because 

laws today protect the welfare of research animals. 

If you breathe air containing high levels of 1,1,1-trichloroethane (1,000 ppm or higher) for a 

short time, you may become dizzy and lightheaded and possibly lose your coordination. These 

effects rapidly disappear after you stop breathing contaminated air. If you breathe in much 

higher levels of 1,1,1-trichloroethane, either intentionally or accidentally, you may become 

unconscious, your blood pressure may decrease, and your heart may stop beating. Whether 

breathing low levels of 1,1,1-trichloroethane for a long time causes harmful effects is not known. 

Studies in animals show that breathing air that contains very high levels of 1,1,1-trichloroethane 

(higher than 2,000 ppm) damages the breathing passages and causes mild effects in the liver, in 

addition to affecting the nervous system. There are no studies in humans that determine whether 

eating food or drinking water contaminated with 1,1,1-trichloroethane could harm health. 

Placing large amounts of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in the stomachs of animals has caused effects on 

the nervous system, mild liver damage, unconsciousness, and even death. If your skin contacts 

1,1,1-trichloroethane, you might feel some irritation. Studies in animals suggest that repeated 

exposure of the skin might affect the liver and that very large amounts on the skin can cause 

death. These effects occurred only when evaporation was prevented. 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 6 

1. PUBLIC HEALTH STATEMENT 

Available information does not indicate that 1,1,1-trichloroethane causes cancer. The 

International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has determined that 1,1,1-trichloroethane 

is not classifiable as to its carcinogenicity in humans. EPA has also determined that 1,1,1-trichloroethane is not classifiable as to its human carcinogenicity. The likelihood is very low that 

exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane levels found near hazardous waste sites would cause significant 

health effects. You can find more information about the health effects of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in 

Chapter 3. 

1.6 HOW CAN 1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE AFFECT CHILDREN? 

This section discusses potential health effects in humans from exposures during the period from 

conception to maturity at 18 years of age. 

Children exposed to large amounts of 1,1,1-trichloroethane probably would be affected in the 

same manner as adults (see Section 1.5). In animals, it has been shown that 1,1,1-trichloroethane 

can pass from the mother’s blood into a fetus. When pregnant mice were exposed to high levels 

of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in air, their babies developed more slowly than normal and had some 

behavioral problems. However, whether similar effects occur in humans has not been 

demonstrated. 

1.7 HOW CAN FAMILIES REDUCE THE RISK OF EXPOSURE TO 1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE? 

If your doctor finds that you have been exposed to substantial amounts of 1,1,1-trichloroethane 

ask whether your children might also have been exposed. Your doctor might need to ask your 

state health department to investigate. 

Children can be exposed to 1,1,1-trichloroethane in household products, such as adhesives and 

cleaners that were manufactured before 2002. Parents should store household chemicals out of 

reach of young children to prevent accidental poisonings or skin irritation. Always store 

household chemicals in their original labeled containers. Never store household chemicals in 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 7 

1. PUBLIC HEALTH STATEMENT 

containers that children would find attractive to eat or drink from, such as old soda bottles. Keep 

your Poison Control Center’s number near the phone. 

Sometimes older children sniff household chemicals in an attempt to get “high”. Your children 

may be exposed to 1,1,1-trichloroethane by inhaling products containing it. Talk with your 

children about the dangers of sniffing chemicals. 

1.8 IS THERE A MEDICAL TEST TO DETERMINE WHETHER I HAVE BEEN 

EXPOSED TO 1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE? 

Samples of your breath, blood, and urine can be tested to determine if you have recently been 

exposed to 1,1,1-trichloroethane. In some cases, these tests can estimate how much 1,1,1-trichloroethane has entered your body. To be of any value, samples of your breath or blood have to 

be taken within hours after exposure, and samples of urine have to be taken within 2 days after 

exposure. However, these tests will not tell you whether your health will be affected by 

exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane. The exposure tests are not routinely available in hospitals and 

clinics because they require special analytical equipment. See Chapters 3 and 7 for more 

information about tests for exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane. 

1.9 WHAT RECOMMENDATIONS HAS THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT MADE TO 

PROTECT HUMAN HEALTH? 

The federal government develops regulations and recommendations to protect public health. 

Regulations can be enforced by law. The EPA, the Occupational Safety and Health 

Administration (OSHA), and the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) are some federal 

agencies that develop regulations for toxic substances. Recommendations provide valuable 

guidelines to protect public health, but cannot be enforced by law. The Agency for Toxic 

Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) and the National Institute for Occupational Safety 

and Health (NIOSH) are two federal organizations that develop recommendations for toxic 

substances. 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 8 

1. PUBLIC HEALTH STATEMENT 

Regulations and recommendations can be expressed as “not-to-exceed” levels, that is, levels of a 

toxic substance in air, water, soil, or food that do not exceed a critical value that is usually based 

on levels that affect animals; they are then adjusted to levels that will help protect humans. 

Sometimes these not-to-exceed levels differ among federal organizations because they used 

different exposure times (an 8-hour workday or a 24-hour day), different animal studies, or other 

factors. 

Recommendations and regulations are also updated periodically as more information becomes 

available. For the most current information, check with the federal agency or organization that 

provides it. Some regulations and recommendations for 1,1,1-trichloroethane include the 

following: 

EPA regulates the levels of 1,1,1-trichloroethane that are allowable in drinking water. The 

highest level of 1,1,1-trichloroethane allowed in drinking water is 0.2 ppm. Any releases or 

spills of 1,1,1-trichloroethane of 1,000 pounds or more must be reported to the National 

Response Center. OSHA regulates 1,1,1-trichloroethane levels in the workplace. The workplace 

exposure limit for an 8-hour workday, 40-hour workweek is 350 ppm in air. See Chapter 8 for 

more information about regulations and advisories regarding 1,1,1-trichloroethane. 

1.10 WHERE CAN I GET MORE INFORMATION? 

If you have any more questions or concerns, please contact your community or state health or 

environmental quality department, or contact ATSDR at the address and phone number below. 

ATSDR can also tell you the location of occupational and environmental health clinics. These 

clinics specialize in recognizing, evaluating, and treating illnesses that result from exposure to 

hazardous substances. 

Toxicological profiles are also available on-line at www.atsdr.cdc.gov and on CD-ROM. You 

may request a copy of the ATSDR ToxProfilesTM CD-ROM by calling the toll-free information 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 9 

1. PUBLIC HEALTH STATEMENT 

and technical assistance number at 1-888-42ATSDR (1-888-422-8737), by e-mailing 

atsdric@cdc.gov, or by writing to 

Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry 

 Division of Toxicology and Environmental Medicine 

1600 Clifton Road NE 

 Mailstop F-32 

 Atlanta, GA 30333 

 Fax: 1-770-488-4178 

Organizations for-profit may request copies of final Toxicological Profiles from the following: 

National Technical Information Service (NTIS) 

5285 Port Royal Road 

 Springfield, VA 22161 

 Phone: 1-800-553-6847 or 1-703-605-6000 

 Web site: http://www.ntis.gov/ 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 10 

1. PUBLIC HEALTH STATEMENT 

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1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 11 

2. RELEVANCE TO PUBLIC HEALTH 

2.1 BACKGROUND AND ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURES TO 1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 

IN THE UNITED STATES 

1,1,1-Trichloroethane is a synthetic chemical. In 2003, the estimated capacity of the commercial 

production of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in the United States was 510 million pounds. Under the Clean Air 

Act as amended in 1990, all production of 1,1,1-trichloroethane for domestic use was scheduled to cease 

as of January 1, 2002. It may be used for essential applications such as medical devices and aviation 

safety (for the testing of metal fatigue and corrosion of existing airplane engines and other parts 

susceptible to corrosion) until January 1, 2005 or for export to developing countries until January 1, 2012. 

1,1,1-Trichloroethane was predominantly used as a chemical intermediate in the manufacture of hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs). It was also commonly used in vapor degreasing and cold cleaning, 

adhesives, coatings and inks, textiles, and electronics. Currently, 1,1,1-trichloroethane is almost entirely 

used as a precursor for hydrofluorocarbons. 

1,1,1-Trichloroethane was released to the environment during the course of its manufacture, formulation, 

and use. It was frequently detected in the atmosphere and in water. In 2003, environmental releases of 

1,1,1-trichloroethane reported under the EPA Toxics Release Inventory (TRI) program were about 

114 thousand pounds in air emissions, 40 pounds in water discharges, and 16 hundred pounds in releases 

to land. 

Monitoring studies of the ambient air levels of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in urban areas have reported 

concentrations in the range of 0.1–1 ppb, while the concentrations in rural areas have been reported to be 

<0.1 ppb (Table 6-3). Representative data taken from five geographic areas located throughout the 

United States report indoor concentrations of 0.3–4.4 ppb and outdoor concentrations of 0.11–0.92 ppb. 

A more recent EPA region V (Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan, Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio) National 

Human Exposure Assessment Survey (NHEXAS) detected a mean concentration of 1,1,1-trichloroethane 

to be 1.15 ppb in indoor air samples collected from residential areas from July 1995 to May 1997. 

Levels of 1,1,1-trichloroethane detected in water ways near sources of emissions such as industrial waste 

water, hazardous waste sites, and spill locations are usually <1 ppb. Drinking water from surface or 

groundwater sources contained 1,1,1-trichloroethane concentrations of 0.01–3.5 ppb. Limited monitoring 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 12 

2. RELEVANCE TO PUBLIC HEALTH 

data are available for the presence of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in soil. 1,1,1-Trichloroethane is expected to 

rapidly volatilize from soil and to leach through soil. 

Environmental exposures of humans to 1,1,1-trichloroethane have been correlated with levels of parent 

compound and 1,1,1-trichloroethane metabolites (trichloroethanol and trichloroacetic acid) in expired air, 

blood, and urine. The appearance of trichloroacetic acid in urine is not unique to 1,1,1-trichloroethane, as 

it has also been identified as a urinary metabolite of trichloroethylene and tetrachloroethylene. If 

exposure is known to be solely to 1,1,1-trichloroethane, trichloroacetic acid levels in the urine may be a 

useful biomarker of exposure, because of the relatively long half-life of trichloroacetic acid. However, 

the length of time between 1,1,1-trichloroethane exposure and the measurement of breath, blood, or urine 

levels is critical to the accurate evaluation of the magnitude of exposure. Up to 90% of the 1,1,1-trichloroethane absorbed by any route is rapidly excreted unchanged in the expired air. Most of the 

remaining 10% is accounted for as the urinary metabolites trichloroethanol and trichloroacetic acid. 

2.2 SUMMARY OF HEALTH EFFECTS 

1,1,1-Trichloroethane is one of many solvents inhaled by some people to alter mood or consciousness. 

Available human and animal data indicate that the central nervous system is the most sensitive target for 

1,1,1-trichloroethane toxicity. Clinical signs of toxicity associated with human exposure to large 

quantities of 1,1,1-trichloroethane include central nervous system depression, hypotension, cardiac 

arrhythmia, diarrhea and vomiting, mild hepatic effects, and dermal and ocular irritation. Deaths of 

persons exposed to high concentrations have been attributed to cardiac arrhythmia and respiratory failure 

secondary to central nervous system depression. Lower-level exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane may 

result in more subtle neurological effects such as impaired performance in tests designed to measure 

variables such as manual dexterity, eye-hand coordination, perceptual speed, and reaction time. Mild 

hepatotoxicity and decreased body weight gain have been demonstrated in some animals exposed to 

relatively large quantities of 1,1,1-trichloroethane. Mild developmental effects induced by high level 

exposure of animals have not been verified in humans. Available data are inadequate to determine the 

carcinogenicity of 1,1,1-trichloroethane. The EPA has classified 1,1,1-trichloroethane as group D, not 

classifiable as to human carcinogenicity, based on no reported human data and inadequate animal data. In 

general, route of exposure does not appear to be as important as circulating levels of 1,1,1-trichloroethane. 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 13 

2. RELEVANCE TO PUBLIC HEALTH 

Death. The volatility of 1,1,1-trichloroethane, in addition to the rapid and extensive absorption and 

elimination of the inhaled compound, makes acute inhalation in product use situations the most likely 

lethal exposure scenario in humans. The acute lethal air concentration for humans is unknown; however, 

simulations of several lethal exposures suggest that it may be as low as 6,000 ppm. The results of animal 

studies indicate that the acute lethal exposure concentration decreases substantially with increasing 

exposure duration. Thus, the concentration required to cause animal death after a 6–7-hour exposure is 3– 

4 times less than that required after a 15-minute exposure. 

Human deaths after inhalation exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane have been attributed to respiratory failure 

secondary to central nervous system depression and to cardiac arrhythmias. Animal studies reveal that 

arrhythmias may result from sensitization of the heart to epinephrine. Hypoxia may exacerbate the 

situation. Therefore, acute lethal exposure levels may be lower in individuals exposed during physical 

exertion. Physical exertion also may decrease the acute lethal exposure level by increasing the respiratory 

rate and lung perfusion rate, thereby increasing the systemic absorption of 1,1,1-trichloroethane. 

Very little is known about the lethality of ingested 1,1,1-trichloroethane in humans. In one case of acute 

oral exposure, accidental ingestion of 600 mg/kg of 1,1,1-trichloroethane was not fatal. Animal studies 

suggest that even higher acute oral doses may not cause death. 

Neurological Effects. Neurological effects are the preeminent signs of acute inhalation exposure to 

1,1,1-trichloroethane in humans. The intoxicating effects of the inhaled chemical create a potential for its 

abuse. The severity of central nervous system depressant effects in humans during acute inhalation 

exposure increases as the exposure duration and level are increased. Impaired performance of 

psychophysiological function tests has been observed in individuals exposed to moderate concentrations 

(≥175 ppm). Dizziness, lightheadedness, and loss of coordination are caused by exposure to higher 

concentrations (>500 ppm). General anesthesia occurs at high levels (≥10,000 ppm). These effects 

subside rapidly after exposure. One report suggested that impaired memory and deficits in balance were 

persistent effects in a group of workers after chronic exposure to moderate to high levels of 1,1,1-trichloroethane. 

Animals are useful models for examining the neurological effects of exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane. 

As in humans, central nervous system depression is the predominant effect of inhaled 1,1,1-trichloroethane. Signs include ataxia, unconsciousness, and death at increasing concentrations. No evidence of 

gross or histological damage was found in the brains of most exposed animals, although some evidence of 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 14 

2. RELEVANCE TO PUBLIC HEALTH 

potential for cellular damage was indicated by reports of increased levels of glial fibrillary acid protein 

and decreased DNA content in the brain of gerbils after repeated exposure to low levels of the chemical. 

Alterations of brain metabolism also were observed in exposed animals. Behavioral changes, including 

impaired performance of neurobehavioral tests and increased motor activity, have been widely reported; 

however, the sites of action and biochemical mechanisms of neurotoxicity have not been identified. 

Neurophysiological changes also have been reported. These latter observations were made at a relatively 

high exposure level (4,000 ppm). 

Little information was located regarding neurological effects in humans or animals after oral or dermal 

exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane. Existing data indicate that a single oral exposure to a dose of 

approximately 600 mg/kg did not produce overt signs of neurotoxicity. It is assumed, however, that 

sufficiently high doses of 1,1,1-trichloroethane administered orally or dermally will result in neurological 

effects. Oral exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane produced neurophysiological changes in rats given 

moderate doses (700 mg/kg/day) and gross neurobehavioral changes (hyperexcitability and narcosis) in 

rats given high doses (≥2,500 mg/kg/day). No neurological effects were observed in the offspring of rats 

treated by gavage during gestation and lactation with up to 750 mg 1,1,1-trichloroethane/kg/day (see 

Developmental Effects). No clinical signs of neurotoxicity were seen in rats and mice receiving 1,1,1-trichloroethane in the diet at concentrations as high as 80,000 ppm (doses as high as 4,800 and 

5,000 mg/kg/day in males and females, respectively) for 13 weeks. 

Cardiovascular Effects. 1,1,1-Trichloroethane can lower blood pressure (mildly to severely) in 

humans and can induce transient myocardial injury. Such effects, however, are likely only after exposure 

to very high concentrations of 1,1,1-trichloroethane vapor. Chronic exposure of workers to levels 

≤250 ppm did not affect blood pressure, heart rate, or electrocardiogram results in humans. Reduced 

blood pressure accompanies exposure to anesthetic concentrations of 1,1,1-trichloroethane vapor 

(10,000–26,000 ppm). The effects are not permanent and subside shortly after exposure. The 

hypotensive mechanism has been studied in animals and appears to involve cardiac depression and 

peripheral vasodilation. 

Human deaths following 1,1,1-trichloroethane inhalation are often attributed to cardiac arrhythmias. 

Such conclusions are based on animal studies in which arrhythmias have been produced during or 

immediately following acute inhalation exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane. The mechanism for the 

arrhythmias apparently involves sensitization of the heart to endogenous epinephrine. The exposure level 

at which cardiac sensitization occurs in humans is not known, but in animals, concentrations as low as 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 15 

2. RELEVANCE TO PUBLIC HEALTH 

5,000 ppm are effective after only 10 minutes of inhalation. Physical exertion, stress, or any other 

stimulus of epinephrine release from the adrenal medulla may render an individual more vulnerable to 

1,1,1-trichloroethane. Hypoxia may further increase a subject's susceptibility. 

Hepatic Effects. 1,1,1-Trichloroethane may be a mild hepatotoxin in humans, although the evidence 

is not conclusive. Increased levels of serum bilirubin, lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), alkaline 

phosphatase, and serum glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase (SGOT), all suggestive of liver injury, have 

been reported in humans exposed to high levels of 1,1,1-trichloroethane by inhalation or ingestion. 

Elevated serum LDH, gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase (GGT), SGOT, and glutamic pyruvic transaminase 

(SGPT), and pathologic signs of progressive liver disease were noted in a patient who was occupationally 

exposed to 1,1,1-trichloroethane for several years. Removal of the patient from exposure resulted in 

improvement of the impaired liver function. Mild hepatic changes have also been noted in liver biopsies 

of exposed individuals and at autopsy in individuals who died after acute inhalation exposure to high 

concentrations of 1,1,1-trichloroethane. Animal studies indicate that exposure to relatively high 1,1,1-trichloroethane concentrations in air (≥1,000 ppm) or high oral doses (≥1,334 mg/kg) are required to 

produce liver injury. Effects observed in animals include necrosis, fatty change, increased liver weight, 

and changes in liver and serum enzyme levels. These effects are reversible and subside after termination 

of exposure (in the case of necrosis, hepatocytes in the proximity of the killed cells proliferate and replace 

them). 

Body Weight Effects. Although 1,1,1-trichloroethane-induced body weight effects have not been 

observed in humans, reduced body weight gain has been reported in animals exposed to relatively high 

concentrations of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in air or diet. For example, dose-related reduced body weight 

gains (ranging from 12 to 33% lower than controls) were observed in male mice receiving 1,1,1-trichloroethane in the diet for 13 weeks at concentrations ranging from 5,000 to 80,000 ppm. Dose-related 

reduced body weight gain was also noted in similarly-treated female mice and male rats. Although most 

of the animal studies did not provide information regarding food consumption during exposure to 

1,1,1-trichloroethane, the body weight effects observed in the NTP study occurred in the absence of 

apparent reductions in food consumption. 

Developmental Effects. Developmental effects in humans exposed to 1,1,1-trichloroethane have not 

been observed. Epidemiology studies found no relationship between adverse pregnancy outcomes and 

maternal exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane. Minor embryotoxic effects were observed in rats and rabbits 

after inhalation exposure to high concentrations of 1,1,1-trichloroethane. Effects included decreased fetal 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 16 

2. RELEVANCE TO PUBLIC HEALTH 

weights, increased minor soft tissue and skeletal anomalies, and delayed ossification. Exposure of 

pregnant mice to 1,1,1-trichloroethane at a concentration of 2,000 ppm for 17 hours/day on gestation days 

12–17 resulted in significantly reduced postnatal pup weights, overt developmental delays (pinnae 

detachment, incisor eruption, eye opening), and impaired performance in behavioral tests (righting reflex, 

forelimb grip strength, negative geotaxis, inverted screen climbing). In a similar study of pregnant rats 

that were exposed to 7,000 ppm of 1,1,1-trichloroethane 3 times/day for 60 minutes on gestation days 13– 

19, two of nine litters were completely resorbed and significant increases in gestation length were noted. 

Developmental effects included increased mortality at birth, decreased litter weight, and significant 

deficits in coordination, muscle strength, and spontaneous motor activity. The developmental defects 

reported in three of these studies may have been associated with significant maternal toxicity. Neither an 

inhalation study using a lower, although still high, concentration nor drinking water studies revealed any 

developmental effects. Furthermore, a comprehensive study in which pregnant rats were gavaged with 

1,1,1-trichloroethane during gestation and lactation found no neurobehavioral alterations in the pups 

tested up to 2 months of age. Overall, 1,1,1-trichloroethane does not appear to be a significant 

developmental toxicant in animals; effects appear to occur at high levels (>2,000 ppm). However, in 

view of the known neurological effects of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in humans and animals, additional 

developmental studies that examine neurological end points would be an important component of a 

complete investigation of 1,1,1-trichloroethane's potential developmental toxicity in humans. 

Cancer. A relationship between exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane and cancer in humans has not been 

established. Among animals, no effects were found in a well-designed inhalation study at exposure levels 

≤1,500 ppm. The results of an oral study indicate that 1,1,1-trichloroethane may have increased the 

occurrence of immunoblastic lymphosarcoma in rats; however, the biological and statistical significance 

of these results are questionable because of the study design limitations. The results of another oral 

(gavage) cancer bioassay were negative, but high early mortality in treated animals in this study made 

these results questionable. 

Information is also limited on the role of 1,1,1-trichloroethane metabolites in the parent compound's 

toxicity. Reactive metabolites are important in the carcinogenicity of other chloroethanes (i.e., 

1,1,2,2-tetrachloroethane). Binding to DNA, which is correlated with carcinogenicity in chlorinated 

ethanes, was weak in an in vivo test. Even weak binding, however, indicates the potential to interact with 

DNA. Cell biotransformation tests were positive for this chemical. The results of these assays may have 

been confounded by the presence of stabilizing agents, however. Two of the common stabilizing 

additives in commercial formulations of 1,1,1-trichloroethane are 1,2-epoxybutane (butylene oxide) and 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 17 

2. RELEVANCE TO PUBLIC HEALTH 

1,4-dioxane (diethylene dioxide). Both stabilizers have been identified as animal carcinogens. At this 

time, it does not appear that 1,1,1-trichloroethane exposure poses a clear cancer risk in animals; however, 

as discussed above, the limitations of the available studies prevent a definitive assessment of the risk of 

cancer in humans exposed to the compound. Related to potential exposures near NPL hazardous waste 

sites, the risk appears to be of little significance. 

2.3 MINIMAL RISK LEVELS (MRLs) 

Estimates of exposure levels posing minimal risk to humans (MRLs) have been made for 

1,1,1-trichloroethane. An MRL is defined as an estimate of daily human exposure to a substance that is 

likely to be without an appreciable risk of adverse effects (noncarcinogenic) over a specified duration of 

exposure. MRLs are derived when reliable and sufficient data exist to identify the target organ(s) of 

effect or the most sensitive health effect(s) for a specific duration within a given route of exposure. 

MRLs are based on noncancerous health effects only and do not consider carcinogenic effects. MRLs can 

be derived for acute, intermediate, and chronic duration exposures for inhalation and oral routes. 

Appropriate methodology does not exist to develop MRLs for dermal exposure. 

Although methods have been established to derive these levels (Barnes and Dourson 1988; EPA 1990a), 

uncertainties are associated with these techniques. Furthermore, ATSDR acknowledges additional 

uncertainties inherent in the application of the procedures to derive less than lifetime MRLs. As an 

example, acute inhalation MRLs may not be protective for health effects that are delayed in development 

or are acquired following repeated acute insults, such as hypersensitivity reactions, asthma, or chronic 

bronchitis. As these kinds of health effects data become available and methods to assess levels of 

significant human exposure improve, these MRLs will be revised. 

Inhalation MRLs 

• An MRL of 2 ppm has been derived for acute-duration inhalation exposure (14 days or less) to 

1,1,1-trichloroethane. 

The acute-duration inhalation MRL is based on a lowest-observed-adverse-effect level (LOAEL) of 

175 ppm for reduced performance of psychomotor tests in a human study by Mackay et al. (1987). 

Individuals exposed to 175 or 350 ppm of 1,1,1-trichloroethane for 3.5 hours demonstrated impaired 

performance of psychomotor tests. The derivation of this MRL is supported by results of other human 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 18 

2. RELEVANCE TO PUBLIC HEALTH 

studies. Gamberale and Hultengren (1973) found psychophysiological test performance deficits in 

exposed individuals, although at a higher concentration than the LOAEL of 175 ppm identified by 

Mackay et al. (1987). Muttray et al. (1999, 2000) found EEG changes consistent with increased 

drowsiness and slight irritant nasal responses in volunteers exposed to 200 ppm. Numerous studies 

described behavioral and neurophysiological effects in animals. 

Although the LOAEL of 175 ppm in the critical study of Mackay et al. (1987) was associated with only a 

3.5-hour exposure period, the acute-duration inhalation MRL is intended to be protective of a continuous 

acute-duration exposure. Data reported by Nolan et al. (1984) and Mackay et al. (1987) indicate that 

blood levels of 1,1,1-trichloroethane approach steady state during 2 hours of continuous inhalation 

exposure in humans. Neurobehavioral performance was correlated with 1,1,1-trichloroethane blood 

levels and there was little additional change in most measures of neurobehavioral performance as 

exposure duration increased from 2 to 3 hours (Mackay et al. 1987). Therefore, the LOAEL of 175 ppm 

was not adjusted for exposure duration. 

• An MRL of 0.7 ppm has been derived for intermediate-duration inhalation exposure (15–

364 days) to 1,1,1-trichloroethane. 

The intermediate-duration inhalation MRL is based on a no-observed-adverse-effect level (NOAEL) of 

70 ppm derived from the study by Rosengren et al. (1985), which found evidence of astrogliosis 

(increased glial fibrillary acid protein levels) in the brains of gerbils exposed to 210 or 1,000 ppm, but not 

70 ppm, of 1,1,1-trichloroethane continuously for 3 months. Choice of a neurological end point for 

derivation of the MRL is supported by numerous studies in humans and animals showing neurological 

effects to be the critical end point for 1,1,1-trichloroethane. 

A chronic-duration inhalation MRL was not derived because suitable studies including tests for subtle 

neurological effects were not available. 

Oral MRLs 

An acute-duration oral MRL was not derived for 1,1,1-trichloroethane due to the lack of adequate 

information. Acute-duration oral exposure in humans is limited to a single account of an accidental 

exposure. Comprehensive acute-duration oral toxicity studies in animals were not located and available 

studies did not clearly establish sensitive targets and dose-response relationships. 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 19 

2. RELEVANCE TO PUBLIC HEALTH 

• An MRL of 20 mg/kg/day has been derived for intermediate-duration oral exposure 

(15B364 days) to 1,1,1-trichloroethane. 

The intermediate-duration oral MRL is based on treatment-related body weight effects in mice (NTP 

2000). Groups of male and female B6C3F1 mice (10 per group) were fed diets containing 0 (untreated 

feed); 0 (microcapsule vehicle in feed); 5,000, 10,000, 20,000, 40,000, or 80,000 ppm of microencapsulated 1,1,1-trichloroethane (99% pure) 7 days/week for 13 weeks. Average daily doses calculated 

by the researchers were 850, 1,750, 3,500, 7,370, and 15,000 mg/kg in male mice; and 1,340, 2,820, 

5,600, 11,125, and 23,000 mg/kg in female mice. Clinical signs and body weights were recorded weekly. 

Food consumption was determined every 3–4 days. Water consumption was not reported. Vaginal 

cytology and sperm motility evaluations were performed on all mice in the vehicle control and the three 

highest dose groups of mice. At necropsy, all mice were subjected to gross pathological examinations, 

and the heart, lungs, thymus, liver, right kidney, and right testis were weighed. Mice in untreated and 

vehicle control and high-dose groups were subjected to complete histopathologic examinations. 

There were no exposure-related deaths and no indications of treatment-related clinical or histopathological effects. Food consumption was slightly increased in 1,1,1-trichloroethane-treated groups, 

relative to untreated and vehicle controls. As shown in Table A-1 of Appendix A, the final mean body 

weights in the 5,000, 10,000, 20,000, 40,000, and 80,000 ppm male groups were 91, 91, 88, 90, and 85% 

of the vehicle control mean. In the female mice, the respective final mean body weights were 97, 93, 89, 

88, and 84% of the vehicle control mean. The effects on mean final body weight and mean body weight 

gain reached the level of statistical significance in all treated groups of male mice and in the 20,000 and 

10,000 ppm groups, respectively, of female mice. NTP (2000) estimated the dose of 10,000 ppm 

(1,750 and 2,820 mg/kg/day in male and female mice, respectively) to represent a NOAEL. According to 

ATSDR policy, a treatment-related change in body weight of 10% or more (relative to controls) may be 

considered to represent an adverse effect. Therefore, the 20,000 ppm (3,500 and 5,600 mg/kg/day in 

males and females, respectively) level is considered to represent a LOAEL for decreased mean terminal 

body weight (≥10% lower than control values). 

All continuous data models in the EPA Benchmark Dose Software (version 1.3.2) were fit to the terminal 

body weight data for male and female mice in the NTP (2000) study. A 10% change in mean terminal 

body weight relative to the control mean was selected as the benchmark response (BMR) level. A 10% 

change in body weight is the minimal level of change generally considered to be biologically significant, 

according to EPA benchmark dose guidance (EPA 2000). 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 20 

2. RELEVANCE TO PUBLIC HEALTH 

Based on the goodness-of-fit statistic, male mouse data were not adequately fit by any of the continuous 

data models. An adequate fit was obtained for the female mouse data using the Hill model (p=0.68; EPA 

benchmark dose guidance recommends a p-value ≥0.1), which yielded BMD and BMDL10 values of 

5,064 and 2,185 mg/kg/day, respectively (see Figure A-1 of Appendix A for a plot of the predicted and 

observed means). 

The BMDL10 of 2,185 mg/kg/day was used as the point of departure for deriving the intermediateduration oral MRL for 1,1,1-trichloroethane. A total uncertainty factor (UF) of 100 (10 for extrapolation 

from animals to humans and 10 for human variability) was applied to the BMDL10 as follows: 

 Intermediate-duration oral MRL = 2,185 mg/kg/day (BMDL10) ÷ 100 (UF) = 20 mg/kg/day 

The choice of 1,1,1-trichloroethane-induced body weight changes as the critical effect is supported by 

results of other subchronic- and chronic-duration oral and inhalation animal studies in which body weight 

effects were reported, either in the absence of other signs of toxicity (Adams et al. 1950; Bruckner et al. 

2001; Prendergast et al. 1967) or at doses causing minimal liver lesions (Calhoun et al. 1981; Quast et al. 

1978, 1988). Bruckner et al. (2001) reported a frank effect level (FEL) of 2,500 mg/kg (1,786 mg/kg/day 

when adjusted for exposure 5 days/week) for gross central nervous system depression and death in rats 

exposed by gavage. Investigation of systemic end points was limited to the liver; only mild hepatic 

changes were found and only at lethal doses. Sensitive neurological endpoints were not monitored. NTP 

(2000) observed no gross central nervous system effects or deaths at doses up to about 5,000 mg/kg/day 

in rats or 23,000 mg/kg/day in mice. The differences in the findings of the Bruckner et al. (2001) and 

NTP (2000) studies can be attributed to the bolus dosing employed by Bruckner et al. (2001). In 

comparison to relatively steady intake throughout the day in the diet, bolus dosing will produce much 

higher peak blood levels as the entire daily dose is rapidly absorbed. The gross central nervous system 

effects and mortality observed by Bruckner et al. (2001) are likely a reflection of the high peak blood 

levels by this mode of administration. Such bolus oral exposure is not considered relevant to longer-term 

or chronic exposure scenarios in humans. Therefore, the results of Bruckner et al. (2001) were not used 

as the basis for derivation of an intermediate-duration oral MRL for 1,1,1-trichloroethane. 

A chronic-duration oral MRL was not derived for 1,1,1-trichloroethane. No relevant human data were 

located. Chronic-duration oral animal studies were designed as cancer bioassays and included only 

limited investigation of noncancer endpoints (Maltoni et al. 1986; NCI 1977). 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 21 

3. HEALTH EFFECTS 

3.1 INTRODUCTION 

The primary purpose of this chapter is to provide public health officials, physicians, toxicologists, and 

other interested individuals and groups with an overall perspective on the toxicology of 1,1,1-trichloroethane. It contains descriptions and evaluations of toxicological studies and epidemiological 

investigations and provides conclusions, where possible, on the relevance of toxicity and toxicokinetic 

data to public health. 

A glossary and list of acronyms, abbreviations, and symbols can be found at the end of this profile. 

3.2 DISCUSSION OF HEALTH EFFECTS BY ROUTE OF EXPOSURE 

To help public health professionals and others address the needs of persons living or working near 

hazardous waste sites, the information in this section is organized first by route of exposure (inhalation, 

oral, and dermal) and then by health effect (death, systemic, immunological, neurological, reproductive, 

developmental, genotoxic, and carcinogenic effects). These data are discussed in terms of three exposure 

periods: acute (14 days or less), intermediate (15–364 days), and chronic (365 days or more). 

Levels of significant exposure for each route and duration are presented in tables and illustrated in 

figures. The points in the figures showing no-observed-adverse-effect levels (NOAELs) or lowestobserved-adverse-effect levels (LOAELs) reflect the actual doses (levels of exposure) used in the studies. 

LOAELs have been classified into "less serious" or "serious" effects. "Serious" effects are those that 

evoke failure in a biological system and can lead to morbidity or mortality (e.g., acute respiratory distress 

or death). "Less serious" effects are those that are not expected to cause significant dysfunction or death, 

or those whose significance to the organism is not entirely clear. ATSDR acknowledges that a 

considerable amount of judgment may be required in establishing whether an end point should be 

classified as a NOAEL, "less serious" LOAEL, or "serious" LOAEL, and that in some cases, there will be 

insufficient data to decide whether the effect is indicative of significant dysfunction. However, the 

Agency has established guidelines and policies that are used to classify these end points. ATSDR 

believes that there is sufficient merit in this approach to warrant an attempt at distinguishing between 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 22 

3. HEALTH EFFECTS 

"less serious" and "serious" effects. The distinction between "less serious" effects and "serious" effects is 

considered to be important because it helps the users of the profiles to identify levels of exposure at which 

major health effects start to appear. LOAELs or NOAELs should also help in determining whether or not 

the effects vary with dose and/or duration, and place into perspective the possible significance of these 

effects to human health. 

The significance of the exposure levels shown in the Levels of Significant Exposure (LSE) tables and 

figures may differ depending on the user's perspective. Public health officials and others concerned with 

appropriate actions to take at hazardous waste sites may want information on levels of exposure 

associated with more subtle effects in humans or animals (LOAELs) or exposure levels below which no 

adverse effects (NOAELs) have been observed. Estimates of levels posing minimal risk to humans 

(Minimal Risk Levels or MRLs) may be of interest to health professionals and citizens alike. 

A User's Guide has been provided at the end of this profile (see Appendix B). This guide should aid in 

the interpretation of the tables and figures for Levels of Significant Exposure and the MRLs. 

3.2.1 Inhalation Exposure 

3.2.1.1 Death 

1,1,1-Trichloroethane is one of many solvents intentionally inhaled by some people to alter mood or 

consciousness. Solvent abuse of this type is associated with "sudden sniffing death" syndrome. In a 

survey of sudden sniffing deaths across the United States in the 1960s, 29 of the 110 deaths in the survey 

were attributed to inhalation of 1,1,1-trichloroethane (Bass 1970). Case reports of individuals who died 

following intentional inhalation of 1,1,1-trichloroethane are readily available (D'Costa and Gunasekera 

1990; Droz et al. 1982; Guberan et al. 1976; Hall and Hine 1966; MacDougall et al. 1987; Ranson and 

Berry 1986; Travers 1974; Winek et al. 1997). 1,1,1-Trichloroethane is a widely used industrial solvent. 

Although mortality due to accidental exposure from its use as a solvent is not common, a number of cases 

have been reported (Caplan et al. 1976; Jones and Winter 1983; McCarthy and Jones 1983; Commission 

of the European Communities 1981; Northfield 1981; Silverstein 1983; Stahl et al. 1969; Sullivan 1994). 

Data from case reports and surveys are useful, but concomitant exposure to other chemicals cannot be 

ruled out, and exposure concentrations and durations are rarely known. Although the actual levels of 

exposure that produced death are not known for any of these cases, some investigators used simulations to 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 23 

3. HEALTH EFFECTS 

estimate the fatal exposure concentrations. Droz et al. (1982) performed detailed simulations of two 

fatalities from intentional 1,1,1-trichloroethane inhalation. The lethal concentration of 1,1,1-trichloroethane was estimated to be between 6,000 and 14,000 ppm in one case and between 10,000 and 

20,000 ppm in the other. Simulation of the circumstances of deaths of two people exposed while using 

1,1,1-trichloroethane as a solvent showed that concentrations ≤6,400 ppm may have been generated in 

one case (Jones and Winter 1983) and concentrations ≤9,000 ppm may have been generated in the other 

(Silverstein 1983). Northfield (1981) reported a case in which a worker, whose death was attributed to 

respiratory failure, may have been exposed to 1,1,1-trichloroethane concentrations of 6,000 ppm or 

higher, depending on distance from the source. 

Human death following acute exposure to high 1,1,1-trichloroethane concentrations is usually attributed 

to either depression of the central nervous system, which results in respiratory arrest (Hall and Hine 1966; 

Jones and Winter 1983; Stahl et al. 1969; Winek et al. 1997), or sensitization of the heart to epinephrine, 

which results in severe cardiac arrhythmias (Guberan et al. 1976; MacDougall et al. 1987; Travers 1974). 

The occurrence of death during physical exertion following inhalation of 1,1,1-trichloroethane (Ranson 

and Berry 1986) or a mixture of 1,1,1-trichloroethane and trichloroethylene (King et al. 1985; Troutman 

1988) is consistent with the possibility that cardiac sensitization to epinephrine caused death in these 

cases. It should be noted that anoxia or hypoxia, which are present to some extent during physical 

exertion, exacerbate the cardiac arrhythmias caused by sensitization of the myocardium to catecholamines 

(Reinhardt et al. 1971). 

Studies of animal mortality following acute inhalation exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane are numerous. 

Median lethal concentrations (LC50 values) have been calculated for rats and mice. For rats, LC50 values 

from 10,305 to 38,000 ppm were reported (Adams et al. 1950; Bonnet et al. 1980; Clark and Tinston 

1982). For mice, reported LC50 values ranged from 3,911 to 22,241 ppm (Gradiski et al. 1978; Horiguchi 

and Horiguchi 1971; Moser and Balster 1985; Woolverton and Balster 1981). Much of the variation in 

these data can be attributed to differences in the exposure duration (higher LC50 values were generally 

obtained in studies with short exposure periods). In studies of the same duration, rats (6-hour 

LC50=10,305 ppm) were somewhat more susceptible to 1,1,1-trichloroethane than mice (6-hour 

LC50=13,414 ppm) (Bonnet et al. 1980; Gradiski et al. 1978). An alternative way to study lethality is to 

expose animals to a given concentration of vapor and record the time required to kill half of the animals 

(LT50). The LT50 was 180 minutes in rats exposed to 18,000 ppm of 1,1,1-trichloroethane (Adams et al. 

1950) and 595 minutes in mice exposed to 13,500 ppm (Gehring 1968). Deaths of animals exposed to 

1,1,1-trichloroethane were usually attributed to either respiratory or cardiac failure (Adams et al. 1950; 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 24 

3. HEALTH EFFECTS 

Clark and Tinston 1982; Krantz et al. 1959). Most deaths occurred during exposure. Animals that 

survived the exposure period usually recovered rapidly and appeared normal within 10–15 minutes 

(Adams et al. 1950; Clark and Tinston 1982). 

1,1,1-Trichloroethane did not increase mortality in longer-term studies in which animals were exposed to 

lower exposure concentrations than the acute studies. No effects on survival were observed in 

intermediate-duration studies in which animals of several species were exposed to concentrations 

≤5,000 ppm (Adams et al. 1950; Calhoun et al. 1981; Prendergast et al. 1967; Rosengren et al. 1985) or 

chronic-duration studies in which rats and mice were exposed to concentrations ≤1,750 ppm (Quast et al. 

1978, 1988). 

Reliable acute LC50 values for death in each species are recorded in Table 3-1 and plotted in Figure 3-1. 

Acute exposure to high concentrations of 1,1,1-trichloroethane can be lethal to humans and animals. The 

cause of death is usually either respiratory or cardiac failure. Limited human data and studies in animals 

indicate that long-term exposure to low or moderate 1,1,1-trichloroethane concentrations may not 

influence survival. 

3.2.1.2 Systemic Effects 

Respiratory Effects. In humans, acute exposure to high concentrations of 1,1,1-trichloroethane can 

produce respiratory depression (Kelly and Ruffing 1993), leading to death (Hall and Hine 1966; Jones and 

Winter 1983; Stahl et al. 1969; Winek et al. 1997). Respiratory depression may be a result of generalized 

central nervous system depression (see the discussion of Neurological Effects in this section). Acute 

exposure to lower concentrations of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in controlled studies did not affect respiratory 

rate or volume in humans (Dornette and Jones 1960; Sot et al. 1975; Torkelson et al. 1958). 1,1,1-Trichloroethane may act as a slight respiratory tract irritant, as evidenced by increased concentrations of 

proinflammatory cytokines in nasal secretions (Muttray et al. 1999) and elevated olfactory threshold for 

n-butanol (Muttray et al. 2004) in healthy volunteers exposed to 1,1,1-trichloroethane at a vapor 

concentration of 200 ppm for 4 hours. Chest radiographs from several (unspecified number) of 

28 workers exposed to an undetermined concentration of 1,1,1-trichloroethane for about 10 years showed 

changes consistent with early pneumoconiosis (fibrosis), but this was consistent with known exposure to 

asbestos and silica (Kelafant et al. 1994). 
a

Key to

Figure

Table 3-1 Levels of Significant Exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane - Inhalation

Species

(Strain)

LOAEL

System 

NOAEL

(ppm)

Less Serious

(ppm)

Serious

(ppm)

ReferenceChemical Form

Exposure/

Duration/

Frequency

(Route)

ACUTE EXPOSUREDeath

1

37

14250 (LC50 - 7 hr) Adams et al. 1950

14250

Rat(Wistar)

Once6-420 min

2

123

10305 M (LC50 - 6 hr) Bonnet et al. 1980

10305

Rat(SpragueDawley)

1 d6 hr/d

3

129

38000 (LC50 - 15 min) Clark and Tinston 1982

38000

Rat(AlderleyPark)

1 d10-15 min/d

4

126

13414 F (LC50 - 6 hr) Gradiski et al. 1978

13414

Mouse(OF1)

1 d6 hr/d

5

203

3911 M (LC50 - 2 hr) Horiguchi and Horiuchi 

3911

Mouse(NA2)

1 d2 hr/d

6

242

18358 M (LC50 - 60 min) Moser and Balster 1985

18358

Mouse(CD-1)

1 d10-60 min/d

7

211

22241 M (LC50 - 30 min) Woolverton and Balster 

22241

Mouse(CD-1)

1 d30 min/d

Systemic

8

277

Resp 10000 Dornette and Jones 196

10000

Human 1 d

up to 2 hr/d

Cardio 10000 (5-10 mm Hg reduction in

blood pressure)

10000

Hepatic 10000

10000
a

Key to

Figure

Table 3-1 Levels of Significant Exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane - Inhalation (continued)

Species

(Strain)

LOAEL

System 

NOAEL

(ppm)

Less Serious

(ppm)

Serious

(ppm)

ReferenceChemical Form

Exposure/

Duration/

Frequency

(Route)

9

216

Gamberale and Hulteng1973

Cardio 550 M

550

Human 1 d

30 min/d

10

771

Resp 200 M (nasal irritation) Muttray et al. 1999

200

Human Once

4 hr

11

269

Resp 1900 M (throat irritation) Stewart et al. 1961

1900

Human 1 d

15-186min/d

Hepatic 2650 M

2650

Renal 2650 M

2650

12

279

Resp 500 Stewart et al. 1975

500

Human 5 d

1-7.5 hr/d

Hemato 500

500

Hepatic 500

500

Renal 500

500

13

36

Resp 506 Torkelson et al. 1958

506

Human 1 d

5-450 min/d

Cardio 920

920

Hemato 920

920

Hepatic 920

920

Renal 920

920

14

39

Bd Wt 30000 Adams et al. 1950

30000

Rat(Wistar)

Once6-420 min
a

Key to

Figure

Table 3-1 Levels of Significant Exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane - Inhalation (continued)

Species

(Strain)

LOAEL

System 

NOAEL

(ppm)

Less Serious

(ppm)

Serious

(ppm)

ReferenceChemical Form

Exposure/

Duration/

Frequency

(Route)

15

41

Resp 18000 M Adams et al. 1950

18000

Rat(Wistar)

Once6-420 min

Cardio 18000 M

18000

Hepatic 8000 M (increased liver weight,

mild fatty change)

8000

Renal 18000 M

18000

Bd Wt 18000 M

18000

16

128

Hepatic 13070 M Carlson 1973

13070

Rat(NS)

1 d2 hr/d

17

403

Resp 15000 M Cornish and Adefuin 19

15000

Rat(SpragueDawley)

1 d2 hr/d

Hepatic 15000 M

15000

Renal 15000 M

15000

Endocr 15000 M

15000

Bd Wt 15000 M

15000

18

248

Hepatic 2500 M Fuller et al. 1970

2500

Rat(SpragueDawley)

1 d24 hr/d

19

140

Hemato 800 M Koizumi et al. 1983

800

Rat(Wistar)

10 d24 hr/d

Hepatic 800 M

800
a

Key to

Figure

Table 3-1 Levels of Significant Exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane - Inhalation (continued)

Species

(Strain)

LOAEL

System 

NOAEL

(ppm)

Less Serious

(ppm)

Serious

(ppm)

ReferenceChemical Form

Exposure/

Duration/

Frequency

(Route)

20

183

Hepatic 500 M Savolainen et al. 1977

500

Rat(SpragueDawley)

5 d6 hr/d

21

711

Bd Wt 2000 M Evans and Balster 1993

2000

4000 M (26% reduction in body

weight)

4000

Mouse(CFW Swiss)

4 d24 hr/d

22

136

Hepatic 13500 F Gehring 1968

13500

Mouse(SwissWebster)

1 d10-780 min/d

23

763

Bd Wt 8000 F Jones et al. 1996

8000

Mouse(CD-1)

Gd 12-1760 min/exposure

3 exposures/d

24

246

Hepatic 6000 M Lal and Shah 1970

6000

Mouse(Swiss albino)

1-6 d4-24 hr/d

25

228

Cardio 7500 (EC50 for cardiac Clark and Tinston 1973

sensitization)

7500

Dog(Beagle)

1 d5 min/d

26

253

Cardio 10000 Egle et al. 1976

10000

Dog(Beagle)

1 d15 min/d
a

Key to

Figure

Table 3-1 Levels of Significant Exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane - Inhalation (continued)

Species

(Strain)

LOAEL

System 

NOAEL

(ppm)

Less Serious

(ppm)

Serious

(ppm)

ReferenceChemical Form

Exposure/

Duration/

Frequency

(Route)

27

271

Resp 25000 Herd et al. 1974

25000

Dog(NS)

1 d5 min/d

Cardio 8000 (50 mm Hg reduction in

mean blood pressure)

8000

Hepatic 25000

25000

28

227

Cardio 2500 M Reinhardt et al. 1973

2500

5000 M (cardiac sensitization)

5000

Dog(Beagle)

1 d10 min/d

29

229

Cardio 5600 M (cardiac sensitization) Carlson 1981

5600

Rabbit(NewZealand)

1 d7.5-60 min/d

Immuno/ Lymphoret

30

704

15000 M Cornish and Adefuin 19

15000

Rat(SpragueDawley)

1 d 2 hr/d

31

112

350 F Aranyi et al. 1986

350

Mouse(CD-1)

1 d3 hr/d

Neurological

32

276

10000 (anesthesia) Dornette and Jones 196

10000

Human 1 d

up to 2 hr/d

33

215

Gamberale and Hulteng1973

250 M

250

350 M (increased reaction time,

decreased perceptualspeed and manualdexterity)

350

Human 1 d

30 min/d
a

Key to

Figure

Table 3-1 Levels of Significant Exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane - Inhalation (continued)

Species

(Strain)

LOAEL

System 

NOAEL

(ppm)

Less Serious

(ppm)

Serious

(ppm)

ReferenceChemical Form

Exposure/

Duration/

Frequency

(Route)

34

769

200 M Laine et al. 1996

200

Human Once

5 hr

35

218

Mackay et al. 1987 b 175 M (decreased psychomotor

performance)

175

Human 1 d

3.5 hr/d

36

770

200 M (increased drowsiness) Muttray et al. 2000

200

Human Once

4 hr

37

219

450 M Salvini et al. 1971

450

Human 1 d

8hr/d

38

184

400 M Savolainen et al. 1981

400

Human 1 d

4hr/d

39

268

496 M Stewart et al. 1961

496

900 M (lightheadedness)

900

Human 1 d

15-186 min/d

40

232

500 M (impaired balance) Stewart et al. 1969

500

Human 5 d

6.5-7 hr/d

41

278

350 Stewart et al. 1975

350

500 (altered EEG)

500

Human 5 d

1-7.5 hr/d

42

35

920 (ataxia) Torkelson et al. 1958

920

Human 1 d

5-450 min/d

43

217

1400 M Geller et al. 1982

1400

1800 M (increased response time

in match to sample task)

1800

Monkey(Baboon)

1 d4 hr/d
a

Key to

Figure

Table 3-1 Levels of Significant Exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane - Inhalation (continued)

Species

(Strain)

LOAEL

System 

NOAEL

(ppm)

Less Serious

(ppm)

Serious

(ppm)

ReferenceChemical Form

Exposure/

Duration/

Frequency

(Route)

44

38

5000 (narcosis) Adams et al. 1950

5000

Rat(Wistar)

Once6-420 min

45

124

10000 M (all somnolent) Bonnet et al. 1980

10000

Rat(SpragueDawley)

1 d6 hr/d

46

130

5000 (EC50 for ataxia) Clark and Tinston 1982

5000

Rat(AlderleyPark)

1 d10-15 min/d

47

209

8000 M (increased brain lactate Folbergrova et al. 1984

and pyruvate)

8000

Rat(Wistar)

1 d5-60 min/d

48

224

3500 M Hougaard et al. 1984

3500

6000 M (dizzness, decrease local

cerebral glucoseconsumption)

6000

7800 M (ataxia)

7800

Rat(Wistar)

1 d0.5-2 hr/d

49

430

4000 (increased motor activity) HSIA 1991b

4000

Rat(Fischer 344)

4 d6 hr/d

50

791

1000 F (altered EEG, FEP, and HSIA 1991b

SEP)

1000

Rat(Fischer 344)

4 d6 hr/d

51

240

1750 M Mullin and Krivanek 198

1750

3080 M (impaired reflexes)

3080

Rat(CharlesRiver-CD)

1 d0.5-4 hr/d
a

Key to

Figure

Table 3-1 Levels of Significant Exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane - Inhalation (continued)

Species

(Strain)

LOAEL

System 

NOAEL

(ppm)

Less Serious

(ppm)

Serious

(ppm)

ReferenceChemical Form

Exposure/

Duration/

Frequency

(Route)

52

785

5000 M (reduced cGMP in the You and Dallas 2000

brain)

5000

Rat(SpragueDawley)

40 or 100 min

53

210

2836 M (EC50 for effect on Balster et al. 1982

operant behavior)

2836

Mouse(CD-1)

1 d20 min/d

54

753

1250 M (increased motor activity) Bowen and Balster 199

1250

Mouse(CFW)

30 min

55

754

2000 M Bowen and Balster 199

2000

4000 M (increased motor activity)

4000

Mouse(albino)

30 min2x/wk

56

755

2000 M Bowen and Balster 199

2000

4000 M (altered

schedule-controlledbehavior)

4000

Mouse(albino)

30 min2x/wk

57

756

2500 M (increased anxiety) Bowen et al. 1996a

2500

Mouse(albino)

Once30 min

58

757

Bowen et al. 1996b1,1,1-trichloroethane

4000 M

4000

8000 M (significantly impaired

righting reflex)

8000

Mouse(albino)

20 min1x

59

195

6644 M (EC50 for increased De Ceaurriz et al. 1981

seizure threshold)

6644

Mouse(Swiss OF1)

1 d4 hr/d
a

Key to

Figure

Table 3-1 Levels of Significant Exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane - Inhalation (continued)

Species

(Strain)

LOAEL

System 

NOAEL

(ppm)

Less Serious

(ppm)

Serious

(ppm)

ReferenceChemical Form

Exposure/

Duration/

Frequency

(Route)

60

214

2064 M (altered swimming De Ceaurriz et al. 1983

behavior)

2064

Mouse(Swiss OF1)

1 d4 hr/d

61

710

500 M (decreased threshold to Evans and Balster 1993

convulsions uponwithdrawal)

500

Mouse(CFW Swiss)

4 d24 hr/d

62

135

13500 F (unconsciousness) Gehring 1968

13500

Mouse(SwissWebster)

1 d10-780 min/d

63

764

8000 F (mild tremors and gait Jones et al. 1996

abnormalities in dams)

8000

Mouse(CD-1)

Gd 12-1760 min/exposure

3 exposures/d

64

206

1300 M Kjellstrand et al. 1985a

1300

2000 M (increased motor activity)

2000

Mouse(NMRI)

1 d1hr/d

65

243

5674 M (EC50 for impaired Moser and Balster 1985

screen climbing ability)

5674

Mouse(CD-1)

1 d10-60 min/d

66

222

7129 M (EC50 for reduced fixed Moser and Balster 1986

interval response rate)

7129

Mouse(CD-1)

1 d30 min/d
a

Key to

Figure

Table 3-1 Levels of Significant Exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane - Inhalation (continued)

Species

(Strain)

LOAEL

System 

NOAEL

(ppm)

Less Serious

(ppm)

Serious

(ppm)

ReferenceChemical Form

Exposure/

Duration/

Frequency

(Route)

67

197

500 M Nilsson 1986a

500

1000 M (increased cAMP in

brain)

1000

Mouse(NS)

1 d4 hr/d

68

196

50 M Nilsson 1986b

50

100 M (reduced cGMP in brain) 

100

Mouse(NS)

1 d4 hr/d

69

775

Páez-Martínez et al. 201,1,1-trichloroethane

4000

4000

8000 (increased anxiety)

8000

Mouse(SwissWebster)

Once30 min

70

172

2876 M (EC50 for effect on ability Rees et al. 1987a

to discriminate frompentobarbital)

2876

Mouse(CD-1)

1 d20 min/d

71

173

850 M (EC50 for effect on ability Rees et al. 1987b

to discriminate fromethanol)

850

Mouse(CD-1)

1 d20 min/d

72

212

5173 M (EC50 for impaired Woolverton and Balster 

screen climbing ability)

5173

Mouse(CD-1)

1 d30 min/d

73

786

5000 M (reduced cGMP in the You and Dallas 2000

brain)

5000

Mouse(CD-1)

40 or 100 min

74

252

10000 Egle et al. 1976

10000

Dog(Beagle)

1 d15 min/d
a

Key to

Figure

Table 3-1 Levels of Significant Exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane - Inhalation (continued)

Species

(Strain)

LOAEL

System 

NOAEL

(ppm)

Less Serious

(ppm)

Serious

(ppm)

ReferenceChemical Form

Exposure/

Duration/

Frequency

(Route)

Reproductive

75

40

18000 M Adams et al. 1950

18000

Rat(NS)

Once6-420 min

Developmental

76

358

3000 F BRRC 1987a

3000

6000 F (decreased female fetal

weight, delayedossification)

6000

Rat(CD)

Gd 6-154 hr/d

77

114

875 F Schwetz et al. 1975

875

Rat(SpragueDawley)

Gd 6-157 hr/d

78

761

2000 (delayed development Jones et al. 1996

and impaired motorskills)

2000

Mouse(CD-1)

Gd 12-1717 hr/d

79

762

Bd Wt 2000 (18% decreased litter Jones et al. 1996

weight)

2000

Mouse(CD-1)

Gd 12-1717 hr/d

80

765

8000 (reduced litter and Jones et al. 1996

postnatal pup weight)

8000

8000 (delayed development,

impaired performance inbehavioral tests)

8000

Mouse(CD-1)

Gd 12-1760 min/exposure

3 exposures/d

81

790

Jones et al. 19961,1,1-trichloroethane

2000 (18% decreased litter

weight)

2000

Mouse(CD-1)

Gd 12-1717 hr/d
a

Key to

Figure

Table 3-1 Levels of Significant Exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane - Inhalation (continued)

Species

(Strain)

LOAEL

System 

NOAEL

(ppm)

Less Serious

(ppm)

Serious

(ppm)

ReferenceChemical Form

Exposure/

Duration/

Frequency

(Route)

82

115

875 F Schwetz et al. 1975

875

Mouse(SwissWebster)

Gd 6-157 hr/d

83

356

3000 F BRRC 1987b

3000

6000 F (extra rib)

6000

Rabbit(NewZealand)

Gd 6-186 hr/d

INTERMEDIATE EXPOSURESystemic

84

193

Resp 1000 MacEwen and Vernot 1

1000

Monkey(NS)

14 wk7 d/wk24 hr/d

Hemato 1000

1000

Hepatic 1000

1000

Renal 1000

1000

85

181

Resp 2210 Prendergast et al. 1967

2210

Monkey(Squirrel)

6 wk5 d/wk8 hr/d

Cardio 2210

2210

Hepatic 2210

2210

Renal 2210

2210

Bd Wt 2210

2210
a

Key to

Figure

Table 3-1 Levels of Significant Exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane - Inhalation (continued)

Species

(Strain)

LOAEL

System 

NOAEL

(ppm)

Less Serious

(ppm)

Serious

(ppm)

ReferenceChemical Form

Exposure/

Duration/

Frequency

(Route)

86

47

Resp 5000 Adams et al. 1950

5000

Rat(NS)

44 d5 d/wk7 hr/d

Cardio 5000

5000

Hepatic 5000

5000

Renal 5000

5000

Bd Wt 5000

5000

87

368

Resp 1000 Calhoun et al. 1981

1000

2000 (mild nasal epithelial

degeneration)

2000

Rat(CDF)

90 d5 d/wk6 hr/d

Cardio 2000

2000

Gastro 2000

2000

Hemato 2000

2000

Musc/skel 2000

2000

Hepatic 1000

1000

2000 (reduced glycogen, fatty

change)

2000

Renal 2000

2000

Dermal 2000

2000

Ocular 2000

2000

Bd Wt 2000

2000
a

Key to

Figure

Table 3-1 Levels of Significant Exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane - Inhalation (continued)

Species

(Strain)

LOAEL

System 

NOAEL

(ppm)

Less Serious

(ppm)

Serious

(ppm)

ReferenceChemical Form

Exposure/

Duration/

Frequency

(Route)

88

194

Resp 1000 MacEwen and Vernot 1

1000

Rat(NS)

14 wk24 hr/d

Hepatic 1000

1000

Renal 1000

1000

Bd Wt 1000

1000

89

163

Resp 2210 Prendergast et al. 1967

2210

Rat(SpragueDawley)

6 wk5 d/wk8 hr/d

Cardio 2210

2210

Hemato 2210

2210

Hepatic 2210

2210

Renal 2210

2210

Bd Wt 2210

2210

90

187

Hepatic 820 M Toftgard et al. 1981

820

Rat(SpragueDawley)

4 wk5 d/wk6 hr/d

Bd Wt 820 M

820

91

32

Hepatic 10000 M Torkelson et al. 1958

10000

Rat(NS)

3 mo5 d/wk3-60min/d

Renal 10000 M

10000

Bd Wt 10000 M

10000
a

Key to

Figure

Table 3-1 Levels of Significant Exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane - Inhalation (continued)

Species

(Strain)

LOAEL

System 

NOAEL

(ppm)

Less Serious

(ppm)

Serious

(ppm)

ReferenceChemical Form

Exposure/

Duration/

Frequency

(Route)

92

190

Resp 1100 F Truffert et al. 1977

1100

Rat(SpragueDawley)

15 wk5 d/wk5-6 hr/d

Hemato 1100 F

1100

Hepatic 1100 F

1100

Renal 1100 F

1100

Bd Wt 1100 F

1100

93

363

Resp 1000 Calhoun et al. 1981

1000

2000 (mild nasal epithelial

degeneration)

2000

Mouse(B6C3F1)

90 d5 d/wk6 hr/d

Cardio 2000

2000

Gastro 2000

2000

Hemato 2000

2000

Musc/skel 2000

2000

Hepatic 1000

1000

2000 (fatty change)

2000

Renal 2000

2000

Dermal 2000

2000

Ocular 2000

2000

Bd Wt 2000

2000

94

144

Hepatic 250 M McNutt et al. 1975

250

1000 M (fatty change, necrosis)

1000

Mouse(CF1)

14 wk24 hr/d
a

Key to

Figure

Table 3-1 Levels of Significant Exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane - Inhalation (continued)

Species

(Strain)

LOAEL

System 

NOAEL

(ppm)

Less Serious

(ppm)

Serious

(ppm)

ReferenceChemical Form

Exposure/

Duration/

Frequency

(Route)

95

46

Resp 5000 Adams et al. 1950

5000

Gn Pig(NS)

45 d5 d/wk7 hr/d

Hepatic 5000 (fatty change)

5000

Renal 5000

5000

Bd Wt 5000 (over 20% decrease

body weight gain)

5000

96

56

Resp 3000 Adams et al. 1950

3000

Gn Pig(NS)

29 d5 d/wk7 hr/d

Cardio 3000

3000

Hepatic 3000 (fatty change)

3000

Renal 3000

3000

Bd Wt 3000 (over 20% reduction in

body weight gain)

3000

97

69

Resp 650 Adams et al. 1950

650

Gn Pig(NS)

93 d5 d/wk7 hr/d

Cardio 650

650

Hepatic 650

650

Renal 650

650

Bd Wt 650 (body weight gain

reduced 18-35%)

650
a

Key to

Figure

Table 3-1 Levels of Significant Exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane - Inhalation (continued)

Species

(Strain)

LOAEL

System 

NOAEL

(ppm)

Less Serious

(ppm)

Serious

(ppm)

ReferenceChemical Form

Exposure/

Duration/

Frequency

(Route)

98

167

Resp 2210 Prendergast et al. 1967

2210

Gn Pig(Hartley)

6 wk5 d/wk8 hr/d

Cardio 2210

2210

Hemato 2210

2210

Hepatic 2210

2210

Renal 2210

2210

Bd Wt 2210

2210

99

34

Resp 1000 F (lung irritation) Torkelson et al. 1958

1000

Gn Pig(NS)

3 mo5 d/wk3-180 min/d

Hepatic 1000 F (fatty change)

1000

Renal 2000 F

2000

Bd Wt 2000 F

2000

100

192

Gastro 1000 MacEwen and Vernot 1

1000

Dog(NS)

14 wk24 hr/d

Hemato 1000

1000

Hepatic 1000

1000

Renal 1000

1000
a

Key to

Figure

Table 3-1 Levels of Significant Exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane - Inhalation (continued)

Species

(Strain)

LOAEL

System 

NOAEL

(ppm)

Less Serious

(ppm)

Serious

(ppm)

ReferenceChemical Form

Exposure/

Duration/

Frequency

(Route)

101

156

Resp 380 Prendergast et al. 1967

380

Dog(Beagle)

90 d24 hr/d

Cardio 380

380

Hemato 380

380

Hepatic 380

380

Renal 380

380

Bd Wt 140

140

380 (body weight gain

reduced 51%)

380

102

177

Resp 2210 Prendergast et al. 1967

2210

Dog(Beagle)

6 wk5 d/wk8 hr/d

Cardio 2210

2210

Hemato 2210

2210

Hepatic 2210

2210

Renal 2210

2210

Bd Wt 2210 (body weight gain

reduced >12%)

2210
a

Key to

Figure

Table 3-1 Levels of Significant Exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane - Inhalation (continued)

Species

(Strain)

LOAEL

System 

NOAEL

(ppm)

Less Serious

(ppm)

Serious

(ppm)

ReferenceChemical Form

Exposure/

Duration/

Frequency

(Route)

103

52

Resp 5000 F Adams et al. 1950

5000

Rabbit(NS)

44 d5 d/wk7 hr/d

Hepatic 5000 F

5000

Renal 5000 F

5000

Bd Wt 5000 F (slight decrease in body

weight gain)

5000

104

153

Resp 380 Prendergast et al. 1967

380

Rabbit(New Zealandalbino)

90 d24 hr/d

Cardio 380

380

Hemato 380

380

Hepatic 380

380

Renal 380

380

Bd Wt 140

140

380 (66% reduction in body

weight gain)

380
a

Key to

Figure

Table 3-1 Levels of Significant Exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane - Inhalation (continued)

Species

(Strain)

LOAEL

System 

NOAEL

(ppm)

Less Serious

(ppm)

Serious

(ppm)

ReferenceChemical Form

Exposure/

Duration/

Frequency

(Route)

105

171

Resp 2210 Prendergast et al. 1967

2210

Rabbit(New Zealandalbino)

6 wk5 d/wk8 hr/d

Cardio 2210

2210

Hemato 2210

2210

Hepatic 2210

2210

Renal 2210

2210

Bd Wt 2210 (over 34% reduction in

body weight gain)

2210

106

26

Resp 500 Torkelson et al. 1958

500

Rabbit(NS)

6 mo5 d/wk7 hr/d

Cardio 500

500

Hemato 500

500

Hepatic 500

500

Renal 500

500

Bd Wt 500

500

107

251

Bd Wt 1000 Rosengren et al. 1985

1000

Gerbil(Mongolian)

3 mo24 hr/d

Immuno/ Lymphoret

108

179

2210 Prendergast et al. 1967

2210

Monkey(Squirrel)

6 wk5 d/wk8 hr/d
a

Key to

Figure

Table 3-1 Levels of Significant Exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane - Inhalation (continued)

Species

(Strain)

LOAEL

System 

NOAEL

(ppm)

Less Serious

(ppm)

Serious

(ppm)

ReferenceChemical Form

Exposure/

Duration/

Frequency

(Route)

109

161

2210 Prendergast et al. 1967

2210

Rat(SpragueDawley)

6 wk5 d/wk8 hr/d

110

360

2000 Calhoun et al. 1981

2000

Mouse(B6C3F1)

90 d5 d/wk6 hr/d

111

44

5000 Adams et al. 1950

5000

Gn Pig(NS)

45 d5 d/wk7 hr/d

112

175

2210 Prendergast et al. 1967

2210

Dog(Beagle)

6 wk5 d/wk8 hr/d

113

51

5000 F Adams et al. 1950

5000

Rabbit(NS)

44 d5 d/wk7 hr/d

Neurological

114

180

2210 Prendergast et al. 1967

2210

Monkey(Squirrel)

6 wk5 d/wk8 hr/d

115

431

630 Mattsson et al. 1993

630

2000 (decreased forelimb grip

performance)

2000

Rat(Fischer 344)

13 wk5 d/wk6 hr/d

116

162

2210 Prendergast et al. 1967

2210

Rat(SpragueDawley)

6 wk5 d/wk8 hr/d
a

Key to

Figure

Table 3-1 Levels of Significant Exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane - Inhalation (continued)

Species

(Strain)

LOAEL

System 

NOAEL

(ppm)

Less Serious

(ppm)

Serious

(ppm)

ReferenceChemical Form

Exposure/

Duration/

Frequency

(Route)

117

31

10000 M (ataxia, narcosis) Torkelson et al. 1958

10000

Rat(NS)

3 mo5 d/wk3-60 min/d

118

213

3300 M (EC50 for decreased Moser et al. 1985

response rate)

3300

Mouse(CD-1)

4 wk4 d/wk20 min/d

119

166

2210 Prendergast et al. 1967

2210

Gn Pig(Hartley)

6 wk5 d/wk8 hr/d

120

176

2210 Prendergast et al. 1967

2210

Dog(Beagle)

6 wk5 d/wk8 hr/d

121

170

2210 Prendergast et al. 1967

2210

Rabbit(New Zealandalbino)

6 wk5 d/wk8 hr/d

122

250

Rosengren et al. 1985 c 70

70

210 (increased GFA protein

indicating astrogliosis)

210

Gerbil(Mongolian)

3 mo24 hr/d

Reproductive

123

48

5000 M Adams et al. 1950

5000

Rat(NS)

44 d5 d/wk7 hr/d

124

362

2000 Calhoun et al. 1981

2000

Mouse(B6C3F1)

90 d5 d/wk6 hr/d
a

Key to

Figure

Table 3-1 Levels of Significant Exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane - Inhalation (continued)

Species

(Strain)

LOAEL

System 

NOAEL

(ppm)

Less Serious

(ppm)

Serious

(ppm)

ReferenceChemical Form

Exposure/

Duration/

Frequency

(Route)

125

45

5000 M (testicular degeneration ) Adams et al. 1950

5000

Gn Pig(NS)

45 d5 d/wk7 hr/d

126

55

3000 M Adams et al. 1950

3000

Gn Pig(NS)

29 d5 d/wk7 hr/d

127

25

500 M Torkelson et al. 1958

500

Rabbit(NS)

6 mo5 d/wk7 hr/d

Developmental

128

117

2100 F (delayed ossification, York et al. 1982

reduced clavicle)

2100

RatLong-Evans

premating:2 wk5 d/wk6 hr/dpregnancy:Gd1-207 d/wk6 hr/d

CHRONIC EXPOSURESystemic

129

272

Cardio 150 Kramer et al. 1978

150

Human up to 6 yr

(occup)

Hemato 150

150

Hepatic 150

150

Renal 150

150
a

Key to

Figure

Table 3-1 Levels of Significant Exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane - Inhalation (continued)

Species

(Strain)

LOAEL

System 

NOAEL

(ppm)

Less Serious

(ppm)

Serious

(ppm)

ReferenceChemical Form

Exposure/

Duration/

Frequency

(Route)

130

295

Resp 1500 Quast et al. 1988

1500

Rat(Fischer 344)

2 yr5 d/wk6 hr/d

Cardio 1500

1500

Gastro 1500

1500

Hemato 1500

1500

Musc/skel 1500

1500

Hepatic 500

500

1500 (mild liver histopathology)

1500

Renal 1500

1500

Bd Wt 1500 F

1500

131

289

Resp 1500 Quast et al. 1988

1500

Mouse(B6C3F1)

2 yr5 d/wk6 hr/d

Cardio 1500

1500

Gastro 1500

1500

Hemato 1500

1500

Musc/skel 1500

1500

Hepatic 1500

1500

Renal 1500

1500

Dermal 1500

1500

Bd Wt 1500

1500
a

Key to

Figure

Table 3-1 Levels of Significant Exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane - Inhalation (continued)

Species

(Strain)

LOAEL

System 

NOAEL

(ppm)

Less Serious

(ppm)

Serious

(ppm)

ReferenceChemical Form

Exposure/

Duration/

Frequency

(Route)

Immuno/ Lymphoret

132

291

1500 Quast et al. 1988

1500

Rat(Fischer 344)

2 yr5 d/wk6 hr/d

133

285

1500 Quast et al. 1988

1500

Mouse(B6C3F1)

2 yr5 d/wk6 hr/d

Neurological

134

263

200 F Maroni et al. 1977

200

Human 6.7 yr

avg(occup)

135

294

1500 Quast et al. 1988

1500

Rat(Fischer 344)

2 yr5 d/wk6 hr/d

136

286

1500 Quast et al. 1988

1500

Mouse(B6C3F1)

2 yr5 d/wk6 hr/d

Reproductive

137

292

1500 Quast et al. 1988

1500

Rat(Fischer 344)

2 yr5 d/wk6 hr/d
a

Key to

Figure

Table 3-1 Levels of Significant Exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane - Inhalation (continued)

Species

(Strain)

LOAEL

System 

NOAEL

(ppm)

Less Serious

(ppm)

Serious

(ppm)

ReferenceChemical Form

Exposure/

Duration/

Frequency

(Route)

138a The number corresponds to entries in Figure 3-1.b Used to derive an acute-duration inhalation minimal risk level (MRL) of 2 ppm; unadjusted exposure concentration divided by an uncertainty factor of 100 (10 for hand 10 for use of a LOAEL)c Used to derive an intermediate-duration inhalation minimal risk level (MRL) of 0.7 ppm; continuous exposure concentration divided by an uncertainty factor of 100 extrapolation from gerbils to humans and 10 for human variability)ave = average; Bd wt = body weight; cAMP = cyclic adenosine monophosphate; Cardio = cardiological; cGMP = cyclic guanidine monophosphate; d = day(s); Derm deoxyribonucleic acid; EC50 = effective concentration, 50%; EEG = electroencephalogram; Endo= endocrine; F = female; FEP = flash evoked potential; Gastro = g= gestation day; GFA = glial fibrillary acid; Gn Pig = guinea pig; Hemato = hematological; hr = hour(s); LC50 = lethal concentration; 50 kill; LOAEL = lowest-observelevel; M = male; min = minute(s); mo = month(s); Musc/skel = musculoskeletal; NS = not specified; NOAEL = no-observed-adverse effect level; occup = occupationper million; resp = respiratory; SEP somatosensory evoked potential; wk = week(s); x = time(s); yr = year(s)

287

1500 Quast et al. 1988

1500

Mouse(B6C3F1)

2 yr5 d/wk6 hr/d
1

10

100

1000

10000

100000

Death

4m

5m

6m7m

1r

2r

3r

Respiratory

27d

8

10

11

12 13

15r 17r

Cardiovascular

25d

26d

27d

28d

28d

8

9

13

15r

29h

Hematological

12

13 19r

Hepatic

27d

8

11

12

13

22m

24m

15r

16r 17r

18r

19r

20r

Renal

11

12

13

15r 17r

Endocrine

17r

Body Weight

21m

21m

23m

14r

15r 17r

Immuno/Lymphor

31m

30r

ppm

Figure 3-1 Levels of Significant Exposure to 1,1,1-Trichloroethane - Inhalation

Acute (≤14 days)

c-Cat

d-Dog

r-Rat

p-Pig q-Cow

 -Humans

k-Monkey

m-Mouse

h-Rabbit

a-Sheep

f-Ferret

j-Pigeon

e-Gerbil

s-Hamster

g-Guinea Pig

n-Mink

o-Other

 Cancer Effect Level-Animals

 LOAEL, More Serious-Animals

 LOAEL, Less Serious-Animals

 NOAEL - Animals

 Cancer Effect Level-Humans

 LOAEL, More Serious-Humans

 LOAEL, Less Serious-Humans

 NOAEL - Humans

 LD50/LC50

 Minimal Risk Level

 for effects

 other than

 Cancer

Systemic

51
1

10

100

1000

10000

100000

ppm

Figure 3-1 Levels of Significant Exposure to 1,1,1-Trichloroethane - Inhalation

Acute (≤14 days)

c-Cat

d-Dog

r-Rat

p-Pig q-Cow

 -Humans

k-Monkey

m-Mouse

h-Rabbit

a-Sheep

f-Ferret

j-Pigeon

e-Gerbil

s-Hamster

g-Guinea Pig

n-Mink

o-Other

 Cancer Effect Level-Animals

 LOAEL, More Serious-Animals

 LOAEL, Less Serious-Animals

 NOAEL - Animals

 Cancer Effect Level-Humans

 LOAEL, More Serious-Humans

 LOAEL, Less Serious-Humans

 NOAEL - Humans

 LD50/LC50

 Minimal Risk Level

 for effects

 other than

 Cancer

Neurological

38

39

39

40 41

41

42

43k

43k

53m

54m

55m

55m

56m

56m

57m

58m

58m

59m

60m

61m

62m

63m

64m

64m

65m

66m

67m

67m

68m

68m

69m

69m

70m

71m

72m 73m 44r

45r

46r

47r

48r

49r

50r

50r

50r

51r

51r

52r

Reproductive

75r

Developmental

78m 79m

80m 80m

81m

82m

76r

76r

77r

83h

83h

74d 32

33

33

34 35 36

37

 (Continued)

52
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 53 3.

 HEALTH EFFECTS 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 54

0.1

1

10

100

1000

10000

100000

116r

117r

121h

122e

122e

Reproductive

125g

126g

124m

123r

127h

Developmental

128r

Figure 3-1 Levels of Significant Exposure to 1,1,1-Trichloroethane - Inhalation (Continued)

Intermediate (15-364 days)

c-Cat

d-Dog

r-Rat

p-Pig q-Cow

 -Humans

k-Monkey

m-Mouse

h-Rabbit

a-Sheep

f-Ferret

j-Pigeon

e-Gerbil

s-Hamster

g-Guinea Pig

n-Mink

o-Other

 Cancer Effect Level-Animals

 LOAEL, More Serious-Animals

 LOAEL, Less Serious-Animals

 NOAEL - Animals

 Cancer Effect Level-Humans

 LOAEL, More Serious-Humans

 LOAEL, Less Serious-Humans

 NOAEL - Humans

 LD50/LC50

 Minimal Risk Level

 for effects

 other than

 Cancer

ppm Immuno/Lymphor

112d

111g

108k 110m 109r

113h

Neurological

120d 119g 114k

118m

115r

115r

56
100

1000

10000

Respiratory

131m 130r

Cardiovascular

129

131m 130r

Gastrointestinal

131m 130r

Hematological

129

131m 130r

Musculoskeletal

131m 130r

Hepatic

129

131m

130r

130r

Figure 3-1 Levels of Significant Exposure to 1,1,1-Trichloroethane - Inhalation (Continued)

Chronic (≥365 days)

c-Cat

d-Dog

r-Rat

p-Pig q-Cow

 -Humans

k-Monkey

m-Mouse

h-Rabbit

a-Sheep

f-Ferret

j-Pigeon

e-Gerbil

s-Hamster

g-Guinea Pig

n-Mink

o-Other

 Cancer Effect Level-Animals

 LOAEL, More Serious-Animals

 LOAEL, Less Serious-Animals

 NOAEL - Animals

 Cancer Effect Level-Humans

 LOAEL, More Serious-Humans

 LOAEL, Less Serious-Humans

 NOAEL - Humans

 LD50/LC50

 Minimal Risk Level

 for effects

 other than

 Cancer

ppm

Systemic

57
100

1000

10000

Neurological

135r

Reproductive

138m 137r

Figure 3-1 Levels of Significant Exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane - Inhalation (Continued)

Chronic (≥365 days)

c-Cat

d-Dog

r-Rat

p-Pig

q-Cow

 -Humans

k-Monkey

m-Mouse

h-Rabbit

a-Sheep

f-Ferret

j-Pigeon

e-Gerbil

s-Hamster

g-Guinea Pig

n-Mink

o-Other

 Cancer Effect Level-Animals

 LOAEL, More Serious-Animals

 LOAEL, Less Serious-Animals

 NOAEL - Animals

 Cancer Effect Level-Humans

 LOAEL, More Serious-Humans

 LOAEL, Less Serious-Humans

 NOAEL - Humans

 LD50/LC50

 Minimal Risk Level

 for effects

 other than

 Cancer

ppm Dermal

131m

Body Weight

131m 130r

Immuno/Lymphor

133m 132r

134

136m

Renal

129

131m 130r

Systemic
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 59 

3. HEALTH EFFECTS 

Death due to respiratory failure has been reported in several species of animals acutely exposed to high 

1,1,1-trichloroethane concentrations (Adams et al. 1950; Krantz et al. 1959). Other data on respiratory 

effects in animals are limited to results of histological examinations of the lungs and related tissues. 

Tissue lesions were not found in rats or dogs exposed to high concentrations of 1,1,1-trichloroethane for 

short periods (Adams et al. 1950; Bonnet et al. 1980; Cornish and Adefuin 1966; Herd et al. 1974). 

Exposure to moderate to high concentrations for intermediate periods (≤6 months) failed to produce 

pulmonary lesions in most species (Adams et al. 1950; Eben and Kimmerle 1974; MacEwen and Vernot 

1974; Prendergast et al. 1967; Torkelson et al. 1958; Truffert et al. 1977), but irritation and inflammation 

occurred in the lungs of guinea pigs exposed to 1,000 ppm for 3 months (Torkelson et al. 1958). These 

effects were not found in other studies in which guinea pigs were exposed to lower concentrations or 

exposed for shorter durations (Adams et al. 1950; Prendergast et al. 1967; Torkelson et al. 1958). Rats 

and mice exposed to 2,000 ppm 1,1,1-trichloroethane for 3 months developed mild degeneration of the 

nasal olfactory epithelium (Calhoun et al. 1981). Chronic inhalation of moderate 1,1,1-trichloroethane 

concentrations did not produce lesions in the respiratory tissues of rats or mice (Quast et al. 1988). 

The highest NOAEL values and all reliable LOAEL values for respiratory effects in each species and 

duration category are recorded in Table 3-1 and plotted in Figure 3-1. Although lung irritation, 

inflammation, and olfactory epithelium degeneration were found in some species of laboratory animals 

exposed for intermediate durations in some studies, the weight of evidence suggests that respiratory 

failure in humans and animals is secondary to central nervous system depression and occurs only after 

acute exposure to very high concentrations. 

Cardiovascular Effects. Inhalation of very high 1,1,1-trichloroethane concentrations for a short 

period can produce severe cardiac arrhythmias and death in humans. Arrhythmias are thought to be 

produced indirectly by 1,1,1-trichloroethane by sensitization of the heart to epinephrine (Guberan et al. 

1976; MacDougall et al. 1987; Travers 1974). Cardiac sensitization to epinephrine has also been 

demonstrated in animals exposed to 1,1,1-trichloroethane (Clark and Tinston 1973; Kobayashi et al. 

1982). In addition, reduced blood pressure, occasionally severe, has been reported in humans following 

brief exposure to high concentrations of 1,1,1-trichloroethane (Dornette and Jones 1960; Krantz et al. 

1959). Acute exposure to lower concentrations (<1,000 ppm) did not affect clinical cardiovascular 

parameters such as blood pressure, pulse, heart rate, or electrocardiogram in the humans tested 

(Gamberale and Hultengren 1973; Torkelson et al. 1958). Myocardial injury, monitored by 

electrocardiography and echocardiography, was reported in the case of a young male who inhaled 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 60 

3. HEALTH EFFECTS 

typewriter correction fluid (Wodka and Jeong 1991). It should be noted, however, that 1,1,1-trichloroethane may have been only one of several chemicals in the correction fluid. 

In humans, long-term exposure to high 1,1,1-trichloroethane vapor concentrations can have toxic effects 

on the heart that persist beyond the period of exposure. While experiments in animals have shown that 

arrhythmias produced by 1,1,1-trichloroethane and epinephrine quickly subside after the cessation of 

exposure (Carlson 1981; Clark and Tinston 1973), three human cases involved ventricular arrhythmias 

that persisted for 2 weeks or more after solvent exposure ended (McLeod et al. 1987; Wright and Strobl 

1984). In all three cases, the subjects had been exposed repeatedly to high (unspecified) 1,1,1-trichloroethane concentrations. Echocardiograms revealed mild left ventricular dilation in one patient and slightly 

dilated left atrium in another, as well as impaired left ventricle function in both (McLeod et al. 1987). 

Chronic exposure (<250 ppm) to 1,1,1-trichloroethane had no effect on blood pressure, heart rate, or 

electrocardiogram in workers surveyed in a matched-pair epidemiology study (Kramer et al. 1978). 

Similar results were recently reported for a group of 28 workers exposed to unspecified, but high 

concentrations of 1,1,1-trichloroethane for about 10 years (Kelafant et al. 1994). 

Sensitization of the heart to epinephrine-induced arrhythmias has been reported in both rabbits and dogs 

acutely exposed to high 1,1,1-trichloroethane concentrations (≥5,000 ppm) (Carlson 1981; Clark and 

Tinston 1973; Reinhardt et al. 1973; Trochimowicz et al. 1974). The effect is rapid, occurring after only a 

few minutes of exposure, and transitory, quickly disappearing after the end of exposure. In rabbits, there 

was evidence that susceptibility to arrhythmia increased with exposure duration, and that 1,1,1-trichloroethane itself, not its metabolites, produced the sensitizing effect (Carlson 1981). Among dogs, the effect 

was similar in normal animals and those with experimentally induced myocardial infarctions; prior 

damage to the heart did not lower the threshold for cardiac sensitization produced by 1,1,1-trichloroethane 

(Trochimowicz et al. 1974). 

Blood pressure was reduced in dogs acutely exposed to high concentrations of 1,1,1-trichloroethane 

(>7,500 ppm) (Aoki et al. 1997; Herd et al. 1974; Krantz et al. 1959). This effect was studied in detail by 

Herd et al. (1974), who reported that the decrease in blood pressure began within 15 seconds of the start 

of exposure and grew more pronounced as exposure continued. At 8,000–15,000 ppm, the decrease in 

blood pressure was accompanied by increased myocardial contractility and cardiac output. A decrease in 

total peripheral resistance was apparently responsible for the decrease in blood pressure at these 

concentrations. At 20,000–25,000 ppm, blood pressure depression was caused by reductions in 

myocardial contractility and cardiac output. Blood pressure returned to pre-exposure values within 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 61 

3. HEALTH EFFECTS 

15 minutes after exposure, but indices of cardiac output and contractility required 45 minutes to recover. 

The dogs died if the blood pressure dropped too low. Histopathological changes in the heart were not 

found upon necropsy. In the study of Aoki et al. (1997), the decrease in blood pressure was accompanied 

by sinus tachycardia and increases in cardiac output, pulmonary vascular resistance, and pulmonary 

arterial pressure. 

The arrhythmogenic and hypotensive properties of 1,1,1-trichloroethane have not been examined in 

animal studies of longer duration. Cardiovascular end points investigated in longer-term studies include 

heart weight and histopathology. No cardiovascular lesions were found among several animal species 

exposed to moderate to high concentrations (≤5,000 ppm) of 1,1,1-trichloroethane for ≤6 months (Adams 

et al. 1950; Calhoun et al. 1981; Eben and Kimmerle 1974; Prendergast et al. 1967; Torkelson et al. 

1958). Chronic inhalation of moderate concentrations (<2,000 ppm) of 1,1,1-trichloroethane did not 

produce cardiovascular lesions in rats or mice (Quast et al. 1988). The absence of effects detectable by 

routine histopathology in longer-term studies does not provide convincing evidence for lack of 

cardiovascular effects, because even the marked acute effects were not accompanied by changes in 

histopathology. Overall, however, it appears that cardiotoxicity only occurs at very high exposure levels. 

The highest NOAEL values and all reliable LOAEL values for cardiovascular effects in each species and 

duration category are recorded in Table 3-1 and plotted in Figure 3-1. Cardiovascular effects reported in 

humans include sensitization of the heart to epinephrine and decreased blood pressure. Both effects were 

found only after brief exposure to high 1,1,1-trichloroethane concentrations. These effects were also 

reported in animals, which were studied in greater detail. Some evidence from human case reports, 

although not conclusive, indicates that repeated exposure to high 1,1,1-trichloroethane concentrations 

may result in cardiovascular effects that persist for some time after the end of exposure. This possibility 

has not yet been assessed in laboratory animal investigations. 

Gastrointestinal Effects. Nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea have been reported in humans exposed to 

high 1,1,1-trichloroethane concentrations by inhalation (Jones and Winter 1983; McCarthy and Jones 

1983; Stewart 1971). Other gastrointestinal end points have not been examined in humans. 

Gastrointestinal effects have not been reported in animals exposed to 1,1,1-trichloroethane, although 

vomiting is not possible in rodents and only histological end points have been studied in animals. 

Gastrointestinal lesions were not observed among several species of animals exposed to moderate to high 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 62 

3. HEALTH EFFECTS 

concentrations of 1,1,1-trichloroethane for intermediate or chronic durations (Adams et al. 1950; Calhoun 

et al. 1981; MacEwen and Vernot 1974; Quast et al. 1988; Torkelson et al. 1958). 

The highest NOAEL values for gastrointestinal effects in each species and duration category are recorded 

in Table 3-1 and plotted in Figure 3-1. Acute exposure to high 1,1,1-trichloroethane concentrations may 

produce nausea and related symptoms in humans, but evidence from animals suggests that long-term 

exposure will not produce histological changes. 

Hematological Effects. No evidence exists that 1,1,1-trichloroethane produces hematological effects 

in humans. Hematological parameters, including white blood cell count, red blood cell count, 

hemoglobin, and hematocrit, were unchanged in humans acutely exposed to high or moderate 

concentrations of 1,1,1-trichloroethane (Sot et al. 1975; Stewart et al. 1961, 1969; Torkelson et al. 1958; 

Wright and Strobl 1984). Hematological variables were similarly unaffected in workers chronically 

exposed to low-to-moderate levels of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in a matched-pair epidemiology study 

(Kramer et al. 1978). Hemolytic disease was suggested by increases in urinary urobilinogen in several 

people exposed to high levels of 1,1,1-trichloroethane (Stewart 1971; Stewart et al. 1961), but this 

possibility was discounted because there was no association between exposure and elevated urinary 

urobilinogen levels and because other indices of hematological effects were normal. 

Hematological effects were not found in animals exposed to 1,1,1-trichloroethane. No exposure-related 

changes in hematological parameters were found following acute, intermediate, and chronic exposure to 

moderate to high 1,1,1-trichloroethane concentrations in several species of animals (Calhoun et al. 1981; 

Eben and Kimmerle 1974; Horiguchi and Horiguchi 1971; Koizumi et al. 1983; Krantz et al. 1959; 

MacEwen and Vernot 1974; Prendergast et al. 1967; Quast et al. 1988; Torkelson et al. 1958; Truffert et 

al. 1977). 

The highest NOAEL values for hematological effects in each species and duration category are recorded 

in Table 3-1 and plotted in Figure 3-1. Existing data indicate that 1,1,1-trichloroethane does not produce 

hematological effects in humans or animals following inhalation exposure. 

Musculoskeletal Effects. No studies were located regarding musculoskeletal effects in humans after 

inhalation exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane. 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 63 

3. HEALTH EFFECTS 

No musculoskeletal effects were found in animals exposed to 1,1,1-trichloroethane as assessed by 

histopathological examination. No lesions were found in the muscles or bones of a monkey exposed to a 

high 1,1,1-trichloroethane concentration for 74 days (Adams et al. 1950), or in rats and mice exposed for 

intermediate- or chronic-durations to moderate to high concentrations of the chemical (Calhoun et al. 

1981; Quast et al. 1988). 

The highest NOAEL values for musculoskeletal effects in each species and duration category are 

recorded in Table 3-1 and plotted in Figure 3-1. Based on existing data, 1,1,1-trichloroethane does not 

cause musculoskeletal effects in animals after chronic inhalation exposure. The relevance of this 

information to human health is unknown. 

Hepatic Effects. Although there were no indications of liver effects in studies of controlled human 

exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane, data from case reports of overexposed humans suggest that this 

chemical may produce hepatic effects in humans exposed to high levels. 

Serum levels of transaminases and other enzymes, used as indicators of hepatocellular damage (or 

damage to other tissues or organ systems), were not increased by acute exposure to moderate to high 

1,1,1-trichloroethane concentrations in controlled human studies; liver function tests were likewise 

unaffected (Dornette and Jones 1960; Sot 1975; Stewart et al. 1961, 1969; Torkelson et al. 1958). 

However, some case studies of individuals exposed to high 1,1,1-trichloroethane concentrations did report 

elevated serum enzyme levels. Four individuals who had substantial occupational exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane had elevated serum glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase (SGOT) levels (Hodgson et al. 1989). 

An individual studied by Halevy et al. (1980) had elevated levels of serum bilirubin, lactate 

dehydrogenase (LDH), and alkaline phosphatase, as well as SGOT. It should be noted that SGOT and 

LDH are present in substantial amounts in myocardial cells as well as hepatocytes, and that elevations in 

these enzymes could have been the result of myocardial injury. Elevated serum LDH, gamma-glutamyl 

transpeptidase (GGT), SGOT, and glutamic pyruvic transaminase (SGPT), and pathologic signs of 

progressive liver disease were noted in a patient who was occupationally exposed to 1,1,1-trichloroethane 

for several years (Cohen and Frank 1994). Removal of the patient from exposure resulted in 

improvement of the impaired liver function, although the serum levels of LDH, GGT, SGOT, and SPGT 

remained higher than normal as long as 14 months following cessation of exposure. Other exposed 

individuals did not have elevated serum enzyme levels (Stewart 1971; Wright and Strobl 1984). In some 

cases, histopathological examination revealed mild fatty changes in the liver of individuals exposed to 

high 1,1,1-trichloroethane concentrations (Caplan et al. 1976; Hall and Hine 1966; Hodgson et al. 1989). 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 64 

3. HEALTH EFFECTS 

In another case, cholestasis was observed (Halevy et al. 1980). Pathological liver effects were observed 

in two separate case reports of repeated exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane in poorly ventilated work areas 

(Croquet et al. 2003; Texter et al. 1979). Nevertheless, hepatic changes were not observed in most cases. 

Chronic exposure to low 1,1,1-trichloroethane levels (<250 ppm) did not affect serum chemistry 

parameters, including SGOT, SGPT, bilirubin, LDH, GGT, and alkaline phosphatase, in individuals 

tested as part of a matched-pair epidemiology study (Kramer et al. 1978). Results from tests for hepatic 

function were unremarkable in 28 workers exposed to unspecified, but high, concentrations of 1,1,1-trichloroethane for approximately 10 years (Kelafant et al. 1994). 

1,1,1-Trichloroethane produces mild hepatic effects in animals. The primary effects reported are mild 

histopathological changes in the liver and effects on liver enzyme activities. Acute exposure to high 

1,1,1-trichloroethane concentrations did not affect serum transaminase levels in rats or mice (Carlson 

1973; Cornish and Adefuin 1966; Gehring 1968). An increase in transaminase levels would indicate 

damage to hepatocytes. The rate of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) synthesis in the liver also can be used 

as an indicator of hepatotoxicity. DNA synthesis would be expected to increase in response to cell death. 

Exposure to 1,100 ppm 1,1,1-trichloroethane produced a 67% increase in DNA synthesis in the livers of 

exposed rats after 1 week; DNA synthesis returned to control levels throughout the rest of the 15-week 

study (Truffert et al. 1977). Corresponding histopathological changes were not found throughout the 

study. Based on these data, measurement of DNA synthesis may be a more sensitive indicator of 

hepatocellular damage than increases in serum transaminase levels or the presence of readily observable 

lesions. However, these results have not been verified by additional testing. Only one study actually 

observed cell death following 1,1,1-trichloroethane exposure; occasional hepatocyte necrosis was seen in 

mice exposed to 1,000 ppm of 1,1,1-trichloroethane continuously for 14 weeks (McNutt et al. 1975). The 

first evidence of necrosis was not seen until after 10 weeks of exposure, but within 2 weeks of first 

occurrence, necrosis could be found in 40% of the exposed mice. In a study of chronic exposure, a slight 

decrease in the size of hepatocytes in the liver's portal region was seen in high-dose male and female rats 

at 6, 12, and 18 months, but these effects were not distinguishable from normal geriatric changes at 

24 months (Quast et al. 1988). 

The most widely reported hepatic effect in studies of 1,1,1-trichloroethane inhalation in animals is fat 

accumulation in the liver. Such changes are generally reversible and do not necessarily involve 

impairment of liver function. Histological examination following acute exposure to high concentrations 

revealed mild, reversible fatty changes in the livers of rats, but not dogs (Adams et al. 1950; Herd et al. 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 65 

3. HEALTH EFFECTS 

1974). Exposure duration was important in rats; effects were seen in those exposed for 7 hours, but not in 

those exposed to much higher concentrations for only 2 hours (Adams et al. 1950). In mice, 3-hour 

exposure to 800 ppm of 1,1,1-trichloroethane appeared to increase liver triglyceride levels, although 

controls were not included (Takahara 1986a). In studies of intermediate duration, exposure to moderate 

to high 1,1,1-trichloroethane concentrations produced fatty changes in the livers of rats, mice, and guinea 

pigs (Adams et al. 1950; Calhoun et al. 1981; McNutt et al. 1975; Torkelson et al. 1958). Fatty changes 

produced by 1,1,1-trichloroethane in the livers of mice continuously exposed to 1,000 ppm for 14 weeks 

were described in detail by McNutt et al. (1975). Prominent swelling of centrilobular hepatocytes was 

visible after the first week of exposure. Swelling was associated with the presence of numerous small 

vesicles in the cytoplasm. After 4 weeks, the number of microbodies in the cytoplasm was dramatically 

increased, and lysosomal vesicles were more prominent. Increased liver triglyceride levels were also 

reported in this study. 

Studies of 1,1,1-trichloroethane's effects on liver enzyme activity are inconclusive. Acute inhalation of 

high concentrations induced the activity of liver microsomal enzymes (e.g., cytochrome P-450, NADPH 

cytochrome c reductase) in rats and mice (Fuller et al. 1970; Lal and Shah 1970). Continuous exposure to 

low 1,1,1-trichloroethane levels for 10 days also increased microsomal enzyme activity in rats (Koizumi 

et al. 1983), but exhibited no effect on liver or red blood cell δ-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase (ALA-D) 

activity, inhibition of which is an early indicator for disruption of heme synthesis (Koizumi et al. 1984). 

A 5-day repeated exposure to a moderate concentration decreased microsomal cytochrome P-450 enzyme 

activity in rats (Savolainen et al. 1977). Intermediate-duration exposure to a moderate concentration had 

no effect on microsomal enzyme levels in rats (Toftgaard et al. 1981). 

The highest NOAEL values and all reliable LOAEL values for hepatic effects in each species and 

duration category are recorded in Table 3-1 and plotted in Figure 3-1. Mild to moderate hepatic effects 

were occasionally reported in humans and animals exposed to 1,1,1-trichloroethane. These include 

indications of fatty liver and, in one case, cholestasis in humans and manifestations of hepatic necrosis 

and fatty changes in animals. These changes were not found in many studies, and results were mixed in 

many studies that did show effects. Evidence of hepatocellular damage and necrosis, changes in liver 

enzyme activity, and fat accumulation generally were reported following exposure to high concentrations 

in acute- and intermediate-duration studies in animals. The severity of the effects appears to be related to 

exposure dose and duration. It is unclear whether 1,1,1-trichloroethane may induce or inhibit microsomal 

enzyme activity in rats. In any case, the implications of effects on liver enzyme activity for toxicity are 

not clear, mainly because of the contradictory nature of the reported results. 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 66 

3. HEALTH EFFECTS 

Renal Effects. A few studies in humans have examined 1,1,1-trichloroethane's effects on select 

parameters of serum and urine chemistry that are related to renal function. Evidence of renal impairment 

was found in only one case report (Halevy et al. 1980). The individual in this case, who was exposed for 

4 hours in a small room without ventilation (probably to high levels) presented with proteinuria, elevated 

blood creatinine, and reduced creatinine clearance, all of which were maximal at time of admission and 

returned to normal within 10 days. In addition to having prominent renal effects, this individual was 

unusual in having prominent liver effects and only minimal neurological effects. The authors suggested 

that an individual hypersensitivity might explain the atypical course of 1,1,1-trichloroethane intoxication. 

No effects were found on subsequent evaluations. No evidence of nephrotoxicity was found in other 

studies, although the end points examined, such as blood urea nitrogen (BUN), are only adequate for 

detecting serious decrements in function. An increase in the BUN level would indicate decreased 

elimination of nitrogenous waste by the kidneys (impairment of kidney function). Acute exposure to 

1,1,1-trichloroethane had no effect on BUN or uric acid levels in humans exposed to high or moderate 

concentrations (Sot et al. 1975; Stewart 1971; Stewart et al. 1969; Wright and Strobl 1984). Chronicduration exposure of workers to <250 ppm of 1,1,1-trichloroethane had no effect on BUN, uric acid, or 

other serum indicators of nephrotoxicity in a matched-pair epidemiology study (Kramer et al. 1978). 

Acute-duration exposure to high 1,1,1-trichloroethane concentrations failed to produce kidney lesions in 

rats (Adams et al. 1950; Bonnet et al. 1980; Cornish and Adefuin 1966; Krantz et al. 1959), although 

relative kidney weight was increased slightly at 12,000 ppm in the one study in which it was measured 

(Adams et al. 1950). Exposure of several animal species to moderate to high concentrations for 

intermediate durations had no apparent effect on kidney weight or histopathology, or relevant serum 

chemistry parameters (Adams et al. 1950; Calhoun et al. 1981; Eben and Kimmerle 1974; Kjellstrand et 

al. 1985b; MacEwen and Vernot 1974; Prendergast et al. 1967; Torkelson et al. 1958; Truffert et al. 

1977). Chronic inhalation of 1,1,1-trichloroethane did not affect the kidneys of rats or mice (Quast et al. 

1988). 

The kidney does not appear to be a target organ for 1,1,1-trichloroethane toxicity. The highest NOAEL 

values and all reliable LOAEL values for renal effects in each species and duration category are recorded 

in Table 3-1 and plotted in Figure 3-1. 

Endocrine Effects. No studies were located regarding endocrine effects in humans following 

inhalation exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane. 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 67 

3. HEALTH EFFECTS 

Information in animals is limited. In an acute-duration study, no histopathological changes were seen in 

the adrenals of rats after a single 2-hour exposure to up to 15,000 ppm 1,1,1-trichloroethane (Cornish and 

Adefuin 1966). Plasma corticosterone levels were significantly decreased in rats after inhalation exposure 

to 1,1,1-trichloroethane at a concentration of 3,500 ppm for 30 minutes or 5,000 ppm for 10 or 

30 minutes; the highest exposure level also resulted in significantly reduced plasma adrenocorticotropic 

hormone (Pise et al. 1998). The NOAEL and LOAEL values for endocrine effects from these studies are 

recorded in Table 3-1 and plotted in Figure 3-1. 

Dermal Effects. Available information in humans is limited to a case-control report in which 

significantly increased risk of systemic sclerosis (scleroderma) was associated with purported exposure to 

1,1,1-trichloroethane in some Michigan women (Dow Corning Corp. 1994). However, a larger follow-up 

case-control study conducted on 660 women diagnosed with scleroderma between 1980 and 1992 in 

Michigan and Ohio found no significant association between exposure to 1,1,1-tricloroethane and 

scleroderma (Garabrant et al. 2003). In neither case control study could 1,1,1-trichloroethane exposure be 

quantified. 

Mice exposed continuously to 4,000 ppm 1,1,1-trichloroethane for 4 days exhibited dull fur coats (Evans 

and Balster 1993); this effect, however, was the result of direct contact with the chemical in the air (see 

Section 3.2.3.2). Intermittent exposure of rats or mice to 2,000 ppm 1,1,1-trichloroethane for 90 days 

(Calhoun et al. 1981) or to 1,500 ppm for 2 years (Quast et al. 1988) had no effect on the incidence of 

dermal lesions. NOAEL and LOAEL values derived from these studies are recorded in Table 3-1 and 

plotted in Figure 3-1. 

Ocular Effects. When 1,1,1-trichloroethane vapor concentrations exceeded 1,000 ppm, volunteers 

exposed for 20–73 minutes reported mild eye irritation (Stewart et al. 1961). Eye irritation was not 

indicated in other volunteers exposed for 186 minutes at a vapor concentration of approximately 500 ppm. 

Mice exposed continuously to 4,000 ppm 1,1,1-trichloroethane for 4 days exhibited eye irritation during 

exposure (Evans and Balster 1993). All of the above effects, however, were probably due to direct 

contact of the chemical in the air with the eye (see Section 3.2.3.2). Intermittent exposure of rats or mice 

to 2,000 ppm 1,1,1-trichloroethane for 90 days (Calhoun et al. 1981) or to 1,500 ppm for 2 years (Quast et 

al. 1988) had no effect on the incidence of ocular lesions. NOAEL and LOAEL values derived from 

these studies are recorded in Table 3-1 and plotted in Figure 3-1. 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 68 

3. HEALTH EFFECTS 

Body Weight Effects. No studies were located regarding body weight effects in humans after 

inhalation exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane. 

Acute inhalation exposure to high concentrations of 1,1,1-trichloroethane did not affect body weight in 

rats (Adams et al. 1950; Bonnet et al. 1980; Cornish and Adefuin 1966). However, mice exposed 

continuously to 4,000 ppm 1,1,1-trichloroethane for 4 days experienced a 26% reduction in body weight 

throughout the exposure period (Evans and Balster 1993). In studies of intermediate duration, significant 

reductions in body weight gain were reported in guinea pigs exposed to 650 ppm (Adams et al. 1950) and 

rabbits and dogs exposed continuously to 377 ppm (Prendergast et al. 1967). Other intermediate-duration 

studies of various species (including those mentioned above) found no compound-related effects on body 

growth, even at high concentrations (Adams et al. 1950; Calhoun et al. 1981; Eben and Kimmerle 1974; 

Kjellstrand et al. 1985b; Kyrklund et al. 1988; MacEwen and Vernot 1974; Prendergast et al. 1967; 

Rosengren et al. 1985; Toftgaard et al. 1981; Torkelson et al. 1958; Truffert et al. 1977). Body weight 

gain was reduced in a concentration-dependent manner in female rats chronically exposed to 1,1,1-trichloroethane (Quast et al. 1988). Body growth was not affected in male rats or male or female mice 

chronically exposed to the same concentrations. Food consumption was not monitored in the available 

studies. 

Changes in body weight can be produced in a number of ways (e.g., effects on palatability of food, 

absorption of nutrients, energy metabolism). In the case of 1,1,1-trichloroethane, it is possible that 

recurring central nervous system depression produced by repeated exposure may be responsible for the 

reduced body weight gain, by suppression of appetite and food intake. Due to the large number of factors 

that might affect body weight, assessing the potential relationship between isolated occurrences of 

reduced body weight gain in animals and possible effects of 1,1,1-trichloroethane on growth of humans is 

difficult. In any case, no body weight effects from levels found near NPL hazardous waste sites would be 

expected. 

The highest NOAEL values and all reliable LOAEL values for body weight effects in each species and 

duration category are recorded in Table 3-1 and plotted in Figure 3-1. 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 69 

3. HEALTH EFFECTS 

3.2.1.3 Immunological and Lymphoreticular Effects 

No information was located regarding immunological effects in humans after inhalation exposure to 

1,1,1-trichloroethane. However, lymphoreticular effects, specifically spleen congestion, have been 

observed at autopsy in cases of acute accidental exposure to high concentrations of 1,1,1-trichloroethane 

(Gresham and Treip 1983; Stahl et al. 1969). 

The effect of acute inhalation of 1,1,1-trichloroethane vapor on immune response in mice was studied by 

Aranyi et al. (1986). Mice received a single 3-hour exposure to 359 ppm of 1,1,1-trichloroethane. 

Susceptibility to respiratory infection was tested by challenge with Streptococcus zooepidemicus during 

exposure. Mortality was similar in test and control mice, indicating no effect on susceptibility to bacteria. 

To test the effect of inhalation exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane on the bactericidal activity of alveolar 

macrophages, mice were exposed to radiolabeled 35S-Klebsiella pneumoniae, and the percentage of 

bacteria killed was recorded. No difference was found between test and control mice. The same results 

were found in both tests when mice were exposed under similar conditions for 5 days. 

No histopathological alterations were observed in the spleen of rats exposed for 2 hours to up to 

15,000 ppm 1,1,1-trichloroethane (Cornish and Adefuin 1966). Longer-term studies of immunological 

effects in animals exposed to 1,1,1-trichloroethane by inhalation were limited to gross and microscopic 

examination of the spleen, thymus, and lymph nodes. No effect on spleen weight or histopathology was 

reported among several species exposed to moderate to high 1,1,1-trichloroethane concentrations in 

studies of intermediate duration (Adams et al. 1950; Calhoun et al. 1981; Kjellstrand et al. 1985b; 

Prendergast et al. 1967; Torkelson et al. 1958). No exposure-related effects were found upon 

histopathological examination of the spleen and thymus after chronic exposure to ≤1,750 ppm in rats and 

1,500 ppm in mice (Quast et al. 1978, 1988). 

The highest NOAEL values for immunological effects in each species and duration category are recorded 

in Table 3-1 and plotted in Figure 3-1. The existing data suggest that 1,1,1-trichloroethane may not 

produce toxic effects on the immune system, but sensitive immunological end points have not been 

examined in humans or animals. 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 70 

3. HEALTH EFFECTS 

3.2.1.4 Neurological Effects 

1,1,1-Trichloroethane produces central nervous system depression, increasing with exposure 

concentration from mild motor impairment to euphoria, unconsciousness, and death in humans. Low 

concentrations reportedly produce impaired performance in tests designed to measure variables such as 

manual dexterity, eye-hand coordination, perceptual speed, and reaction time (Gamberale and Hultengren 

1973; Mackay et al. 1987). Results using subjective assessment techniques indicate that behavioral 

changes may not be apparent to those exposed. Syntactic reasoning remained intact, and distractibility 

actually improved in the study by Mackay et al. (1987), suggesting that impairment produced by 1,1,1-trichloroethane may be task-specific. In other studies, comparable exposure conditions did not produce 

significant psychomotor effects (Salvini et al. 1971) or produced only weak effects (Savolainen et al. 

1981). Although these studies examined some of the same parameters, such as reaction time, different 

analytical methods were used and different subpopulations were tested. Laine et al. (1996) found no 

subjective symptoms and no significant effects on EEG, visual evoked potentials, or equilibrium among 

healthy male volunteers exposed to a time-weighted average concentration of 200 ppm of 1,1,1-trichloroethane for 5 hours, including six 10-minute periods of exercise. In another study, a 4-hour inhalation 

exposure of healthy male volunteers to 200 ppm of 1,1,1-trichloroethane resulted in significantly 

increased subjective tiredness scores and EEG changes consistent with increased drowsiness (Muttray et 

al. 2000). Based on the LOAEL of 175 ppm for reduced performance in psychomotor tests identified by 

Mackay et al. (1987), an acute inhalation MRL of 2 ppm was calculated as described in the footnote in 

Table 3-1. 

Gross neurobehavioral effects, such as disturbances of equilibrium and coordination, occur in humans 

following acute exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane concentrations between 1,000 and 2,000 ppm (Sot et al. 

1975; Stewart et al. 1961, 1969; Torkelson et al. 1958). These effects are more obvious at higher 

exposure concentrations (Torkelson et al. 1958). An increase was noted in the amplitude of alpha activity 

in electroencephalograms from individuals acutely exposed to moderate concentrations of 1,1,1-trichloroethane (Sot et al. 1975). The significance of this effect is unknown, especially since it persisted for 

several days, but it occurred at an exposure level that produced no effect on equilibrium or coordination. 

Visual evoked response was not affected in this study. Complaints of lightheadedness were also reported 

at moderate levels (Stewart et al. 1961). High 1,1,1-trichloroethane concentrations are inhaled 

intentionally by some people to experience these and related effects of intoxication. 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 71 

3. HEALTH EFFECTS 

Inhalation of high 1,1,1-trichloroethane concentrations can produce anesthesia in humans (Dornette and 

Jones 1960). Dornette and Jones (1960) tested the use of 1,1,1-trichloroethane as a general anesthetic in 

50 hospital patients. The effective concentration for induction of anesthesia varied from 10,000 to 

26,000 ppm. Onset of anesthesia was extremely rapid, taking place within 2 minutes of the start of 

exposure. Maintenance of light anesthesia for 2 hours required 6,000–22,500 ppm. Recovery from 

anesthesia occurred within 5 minutes of the end of exposure. In this study, 1,1,1-trichloroethane was coadministered with nitrous oxide and oxygen, and the effect of 1,1,1-trichloroethane without nitrous oxide 

was not measured. 

Central nervous system depression can cause respiratory failure, the most prevalent cause of death in 

humans exposed to high 1,1,1-trichloroethane vapor concentrations (Hall and Hine 1966; Jones and 

Winter 1983; Stahl et al. 1969). Death from inhalation of 1,1,1-trichloroethane is often preceded by 

unconsciousness (Gresham and Treip 1983; Travers 1974). Half of the cases of industrial overexposure 

to 1,1,1-trichloroethane in Great Britain between 1961 and 1980 resulted in unconsciousness; most that 

did not indicate unconsciousness reported other central nervous system symptoms (McCarthy and Jones 

1983). In one industrial accident (Silverstein 1983), two affected men, as well as several of their rescuers, 

fell unconscious. Persistent coma, with no evidence of improvement 6 months later, was reported for a 

17-year-old male who had attempted suicide by inhaling 1,1,1-trichloroethane in typewriter correction 

fluid (del Amo et al. 1996). 

Two studies of long-term occupational exposures found no exposure-related neurological effects. In the 

first study, the highest exposure ranged from 200 to 990 ppm (Maroni et al. 1977). No exposure-related 

effects were found, based on the results of subjective questionnaires, neurological examinations, and 

psychological tests. The authors reported that definite conclusions as to 1,1,1-trichloroethane's 

neurotoxicity in humans could not be drawn due to the small study population (seven or eight subjects per 

group) and what the authors felt was a relatively short exposure duration (6.7-year average). In the 

second study, workers exposed to 1–46 ppm of 1,1,1-trichloroethane were also exposed to low 

concentrations of toluene (1–4 ppm) and xylene (0–7 ppm) (Cherry et al. 1983). No differences were 

found between exposed and unexposed workers in tests of reaction time and cognition. Subjective 

responses indicated greater deterioration of mood in exposed workers, but this may not have been related 

to exposure. The 1,1,1-trichloroethane concentrations to which workers were exposed in this study were 

lower than those producing effects in experimental studies. A recent study of 28 subjects occupationally 

exposed to high (near anesthetic levels) unspecified concentrations of 1,1,1-trichloroethane over a period 

of 10 years revealed deficits in memory and in several components of balance (Kelafant et al. 1994); it 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 72 

3. HEALTH EFFECTS 

was the investigators' opinion that the overall evidence was suggestive of toxic exposure. Deficits in 

memory, attention, and concentration were diagnosed in a 45-year-old male who had been heavily 

exposed to 1,1,1-trichloroethane, as well as dichloromethane, for 15 years (Garnier et al. 1991). Although 

the patient’s brain function slowly improved following removal from exposure, lingering memory deficit 

was noted 5 years later. 

The principal neurological effects observed in animals exposed to 1,1,1-trichloroethane are signs of 

central nervous system depression, such as impaired performance in behavioral tests, ataxia, and 

unconsciousness, and are similar to those seen in humans. Relatively subtle behavioral effects in several 

species of animals have been reported following acute-duration exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane 

concentrations in the 700–14,000 ppm range (Balster et al. 1982, 1997; Bowen and Balster 1996, 1998; 

Bowen et al. 1996a, 1996b; DeCeaurriz et al. 1983; Geller et al. 1982; Horiguchi and Horiguchi 1971; 

HSIA 1991b; Kjellstrand et al. 1985a, 1990; Moser and Balster 1985, 1986; Moser et al. 1985; Mullin and 

Krivanek 1982; Páez-Martínez et al. 2003; Warren et al. 1997, 1998, 2000; Wiley et al. 2002; Woolverton 

and Balster 1981; You et al. 1994). These behavioral changes were readily reversible and generally 

involved effects on neuromuscular tests or learned behaviors. Studies using operant conditioning reflect 

effects of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in animals that are comparable to psychological changes in humans. 

Behavioral changes are generally considered to indicate neurological effects. 

Neurophysiological changes have also been reported during acute-duration inhalation exposure to 

1,1,1-trichloroethane (HSIA 1991b). Exposure of rats to 2,000 ppm produced readily apparent changes in 

flash-evoked potential (FEP) and electroencephalogram (EEG), and more subtle changes in the 

somatosensory-evoked potential (SEP) when the rats were tested during exposure. Exposure to 

1,000 ppm produced similar, but less marked, changes in the same measures. Continuous exposure of 

mice to moderate (500 ppm) concentrations of 1,1,1-trichloroethane for 4 days resulted in a withdrawal 

syndrome characterized by handling-induced seizures and reduced threshold to pentylenetetrazol-induced 

seizures after exposure ceased (Evans and Balster 1993). This effect could be prevented by central 

nervous system depressants, but not by anticonvulsants. 

Acute-duration exposure to high 1,1,1-trichloroethane concentrations produced intoxication and 

incoordination in rats and mice (Adams et al. 1950; Bowen et al. 1996a, 1996b; Clark and Tinston 1982; 

Hougaard et al. 1984; Lazarew 1929), and elevation of the threshold for pentetrazole-induced seizures in 

mice (DeCeaurriz et al. 1981). Exposure to 23,000 ppm produced ataxia, followed by unconsciousness 

and death due to respiratory failure in mice (Woolverton and Balster 1981). A progression from ataxia to 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 73 

3. HEALTH EFFECTS 

lethargy, loss of motor function, and prostration produced by 1,1,1-trichloroethane has been observed in a 

variety of species, including rats, mice, dogs, and monkeys (Adams et al. 1950; Bonnet et al. 1980; Dow 

Chemical Co. 1988; Gehring 1968; Krantz et al. 1959; Lazarew 1929; Torkelson et al. 1958). 

A comprehensive 13-week neurotoxicity study in rats included grip strength measures, a battery of 

observational measures, an electrophysiological test battery, and a neuropathology examination (Mattsson 

et al. 1993). The only notable finding was a significant deficit in forelimb grip performance in both male 

and female rats exposed to high levels (2,000 ppm) that persisted at least 7 weeks beyond the end of the 

exposure period. Histopathological and electrophysiological studies found no evidence of neuropathy in 

the forelimb that might account for this result. The authors hypothesized that sedative properties of 

1,1,1-trichloroethane may have been responsible by allowing the animals to become more relaxed and, 

consequently, more habituated to the test procedure. No effects were found at moderate levels (630 ppm). 

The lack of neurophysiological effects at concentrations that produced such effects in the acute-duration 

study by HSIA (1991b) reflects the fact that testing was performed during exposure in the acute-duration 

study and 65 hours after the end of exposure in the intermediate-duration study. 

Histopathological changes in the brain and spinal cord are not characteristic of 1,1,1-trichloroethane 

exposure and have not been reported when these structures have been examined (Herd et al. 1974; Krantz 

et al. 1959; Mattsson et al. 1993; Prendergast et al. 1967; Quast et al. 1978, 1988); however, researchers 

who have subjected gerbils to continuous, intermediate-duration exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane have 

reported changes in the brain that indicate physical damage. Four months after exposure had been 

discontinued, there was a significant increase in the level of glial fibrillary acid (GFA) protein in the 

sensorimotor cerebral cortex following exposure to 210 ppm of 1,1,1-trichloroethane (Rosengren et al. 

1985). Since this protein is the main protein subunit of astroglial filaments and is found mainly in 

fibrillary astrocytes, an increase in its occurrence indicates the formation of astroglial fibrils, which are 

formed in response to brain injury. Therefore, increased GFA protein is associated with astrogliosis and 

central nervous system damage. These changes produced by 1,1,1-trichloroethane in this study were 

irreversible, or at least persistent. An intermediate-duration inhalation MRL of 0.7 ppm was derived for 

1,1,1-trichloroethane based on the results of this study, as described in the footnote in Table 3-1. A 

second study, in which gerbils were exposed to 70 ppm of 1,1,1-trichloroethane by the same protocol, was 

conducted by Karlsson et al. (1987). DNA content was used to measure cell density in different parts of 

the brain following exposure. Significantly decreased DNA content was found in the posterior cerebellar 

hemisphere, anterior cerebellar vermis, and hippocampus. These results could be caused by decreased 

cell density, possibly because of cell loss either by cell death or inhibition of nonneuronal cell acquisition 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 74 

3. HEALTH EFFECTS 

in these areas, but the significance of these changes is uncertain. These methods of ascertaining physical 

damage to the brain have not been applied to other species. 

1,1,1-Trichloroethane also produced changes in brain metabolism in rats and mice. Folbergrova et al. 

(1984) found a number of changes in cerebral cortical metabolism in rats exposed to high levels. 

Decreased glucose consumption and blood flow have also been documented in rats (Hougaard et al. 

1984). Exposure of rats and mice to low-to-moderate 1,1,1-trichloroethane concentrations resulted in 

altered brain levels of cyclic nucleotides (Nilsson et al. 1986a, 1986b; You and Dallas 2000). The 

importance of the effects on cyclic nucleotides may lie in their altered capacity to act as secondary 

messengers within the cells, although the toxicological significance of this effect is unknown. No effect 

on the levels of protein, glutathione, acid proteinase, or ribonucleic acid (RNA) in the brain was found in 

rats acutely exposed to low concentrations of 1,1,1-trichloroethane (Savolainen et al. 1977). Continuous 

exposure to 1,200 ppm, but not lower doses, of 1,1,1-trichloroethane for 30 days altered the fatty acid 

composition of ethanolamine phosphoglyceride isolated from the cerebral cortex in rats (Kyrklund and 

Haglid 1991; Kyrklund et al. 1988). 

1,1,1-Trichloroethane may share discriminate-stimulus properties with both pentobarbital and ethanol 

(Rees et al. 1987a, 1987b). Rees et al. (1987a) trained mice to press one lever in response to 

pentobarbital injection and another in response to saline injection. In this way, mice could "tell" the 

investigator when they were injected with pentobarbital. Upon inhalation of 1,1,1-trichloroethane for 

20 minutes, there was a concentration-dependent increase in the percentage of time mice pressed the 

pentobarbital lever, indicating that the mice were generalizing the effects of pentobarbital to those of 

1,1,1-trichloroethane. The results were similar in the second study (Rees et al. 1987b), in which the mice 

were trained to discriminate between ethanol and saline, and then exposed to 1,1,1-trichloroethane. These 

studies suggest that mice did not discriminate between the neurological effects of moderate to high 

concentrations of 1,1,1-trichloroethane and those of pentobarbital and ethanol. 

The highest NOAEL values and all reliable LOAEL values for neurological effects in each species and 

duration category are recorded in Table 3-1 and plotted in Figure 3-1. The acute depressive effect of 

1,1,1-trichloroethane in both humans and animals progresses from subtle behavioral effects at low-tomoderate concentrations to unconsciousness at high concentrations. There is evidence to suggest that 

1,1,1-trichloroethane does not produce permanent neurological effects in humans. A study in gerbils, 

however, has produced evidence of lasting physical damage to the nervous system (astrogliosis) following 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 75 

3. HEALTH EFFECTS 

prolonged continuous exposure to low concentrations (210 ppm) of this chemical. More data are needed 

to determine whether these results/observations are relevant for determining human risk. 

3.2.1.5 Reproductive Effects 

Limited information is available regarding the reproductive toxicity of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in humans, 

and exposure levels have not been quantified. Taskinen et al. (1989) conducted a case-control 

epidemiology study to investigate the relationship between adverse pregnancy outcomes (spontaneous 

abortions and congenital malformations) and occupational exposure of fathers to organic solvents, 

including 1,1,1-trichloroethane, during spermatogenesis for the 80 days prior to conception. No 

relationship was found between exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane and adverse pregnancy outcomes. An 

apparent decrease in fertility (as measured by number of menstrual cycles required for wife to become 

pregnant) was noted in Finnish male workers with exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane, but the difference 

from controls was not statistically significant (Sallmén et al. 1998). 

Studies in several animal species found no evidence that 1,1,1-trichloroethane has adverse reproductive 

effects. Histological examination of male and female reproductive tissues following acute-, 

intermediate-, and chronic-duration exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane revealed no exposure-related 

changes in rats, mice, or rabbits (Adams et al. 1950; Calhoun et al. 1981; Eben and Kimmerle 1974; 

Quast et al. 1988; Torkelson et al. 1958; Truffert et al. 1977); however, varying degrees of testicular 

degeneration were observed in male guinea pigs exposed to 5,000 ppm 1,1,1-trichloroethane for 45 days 

(Adams et al. 1950). One intermediate-duration study used blood chemistry analyses to determine 

reproductive effects. Continuous exposure to moderate levels of 1,1,1-trichloroethane vapor had no effect 

on butyrylcholinesterase activity in mice, which suggests that exposure did not have any effect on 

testosterone activity (Kjellstrand et al. 1985b). Testosterone appears to play a major role in regulating 

butyrylcholinesterase activity, and, although activity of this enzyme may change in the absence of an 

effect on testosterone, it is unlikely that an effect on testosterone levels would not be reflected by a 

change in butyrylcholinesterase activity. 

The highest NOAEL values for reproductive effects in each species and duration category are recorded in 

Table 3-1 and plotted in Figure 3-1. Based on the existing data, the reproductive system does not appear 

to be a target of 1,1,1-trichloroethane toxicity following inhalation exposure; however, the reproductive 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 76 

3. HEALTH EFFECTS 

toxicity of this chemical cannot be evaluated fully due to the limited human data available and the lack of 

inhalation studies of reproductive function in animals. 

3.2.1.6 Developmental Effects 

Several case-control epidemiology studies investigated the relationship between adverse pregnancy 

outcomes (spontaneous abortions and/or congenital malformations) and maternal exposure to solvents, 

including 1,1,1-trichloroethane (Lindbohm et al. 1990; Taskinen et al. 1989; Windham et al. 1991). No 

clear evidence of a relationship between exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane and adverse pregnancy 

outcomes was found in any of these studies. 

The potential developmental toxicity of inhaled 1,1,1-trichloroethane has been examined in rats and mice. 

Schwetz et al. (1975) exposed pregnant females of both species to moderate concentrations of 1,1,1-trichloroethane on days 6–15 of gestation. The only significant finding was an increase in absolute liver 

weight of maternal rats but not of maternal mice. Indices of embryo/fetotoxicity were comparable to 

controls. York et al. (1982) exposed female rats to 2,100 ppm of 1,1,1-trichloroethane for 2 weeks prior 

to mating and/or throughout pregnancy. There were no signs of maternal toxicity in any test group. A 

significant decrease in fetal body weight was observed in groups exposed either before and during 

pregnancy or during pregnancy only. Fetal body weights were not affected in the group exposed to 

1,1,1-trichloroethane before pregnancy only. A significant increase in the incidence of delayed 

ossification and soft-tissue anomalies was observed only in the group that was exposed during both the 

premating period and gestation. Pup survival and weight gain were not affected by treatment, and neither 

was pup performance on neurobehavioral tests. There was no evidence of gross lesions upon necropsy at 

12 months. Exposure of pregnant rats to 6,000 ppm of 1,1,1-trichloroethane during gestation days 6–15 

decreased fetal weight and delayed ossification of the cervical centrum (BRRC 1987a). Signs of maternal 

toxicity at this concentration included hypoactivity during exposure, perioral wetness, decreased food 

consumption, and increased water consumption. Maternal toxicity may have contributed to the 

fetotoxicity observed. Maternal toxicity and fetotoxicity were not observed in rats exposed to 3,000 ppm. 

Pregnant rabbits exposed to 6,000 ppm of 1,1,1-trichloroethane during gestation days 6–18 had decreased 

weight gain during exposure (BRRC 1987b). A significant increase in the incidence of extra ribs was 

noted in the fetuses; however, this is an anomaly often associated with maternal toxicity, regardless of the 

test agent. No other evidence of embryotoxicity or teratogenicity was observed in this study. 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 77 

3. HEALTH EFFECTS 

Exposure of pregnant mice to 1,1,1-trichloroethane at a concentration of 2,000 ppm for 17 hours/day on 

gestation days 12–17 resulted in significantly reduced litter and postnatal pup weights, overt 

developmental delays (pinnae detachment, incisor eruption, eye opening), and impaired performance in 

behavioral tests (righting reflex, forelimb grip strength, negative geotaxis, inverted screen climbing) 

(Jones et al. 1996). There were no clinical signs of maternal toxicity and no statistically significant 

effects on number of litters, gestation length, litter size, number of live male or female pups per litter, or 

spontaneous motor activity, relative to controls. Other pregnant mice were exposed to 8,000 ppm 

3 times/day for 60 minutes on gestation days 12–17 (Jones et al. 1996). Dams were nearly anesthetized 

during exposure and exhibited mild tremors and gait abnormalities during observational battery testing. 

Significantly reduced postnatal pup weight, developmental delays (pinnae detachment, incisor eruption, 

eye opening), and impaired performance in behavioral tests (righting reflex, forelimb grip strength, 

negative geotaxis, rooting reflex) were noted. In a similar study of pregnant rats, exposed to 7,000 ppm 

of 1,1,1-trichloroethane 3 times per day for 60 minutes on gestation days 13–19, maternal weight gain 

was significantly reduced during the exposure period and dams exhibited clinical signs that included 

salivation, lacrimation, and abnormal gait (Coleman et al. 1999). Litters were completely resorbed in two 

of nine exposed dams and significant increases in gestation length were noted. Developmental effects 

included increased mortality at birth, decreased litter weight, and significant deficits in coordination, 

muscle strength, and spontaneous motor activity. 

The highest NOAEL values and all reliable LOAEL values for developmental effects in each species and 

duration category are recorded in Table 3-1 and plotted in Figure 3-1. These data suggest that 1,1,1-trichloroethane is not a potent developmental toxin. Minor developmental effects characteristic of 

developmental delay were reported only at high doses and were usually accompanied by maternal 

toxicity. 

3.2.1.7 Cancer 

In case-control studies, occupational exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane was not found to be associated 

with astrocytic brain cancer (Heineman et al. 1994), renal cell carcinoma (Dosemeci et al. 1999), 

pancreatic cancer (Kernan et al. 1999), or esophageal or stomach cancer (Rohr Indus Inc. 1986, 1987). 

There was no significant correlation between release of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in 26 Florida counties in 

1987 and age adjusted incidence of childhood brain tumors in these counties in 1992–1993 (Mulla 1996). 

Statistically significantly increased standardized incidence ratios for cancer of the nervous system and 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 78 

3. HEALTH EFFECTS 

multiple myeloma were reported in male and female Finnish workers exposed to 1,1,1-trichloroethane 

(Anttila et al. 1995). However, the finding is based on only three cases of nervous system tumors and two 

cases of multiple myeloma, and most of the workers were exposed to other solvents as well. An increased 

risk of multiple myeloma was also observed in a cohort of female workers in Utah, but no association was 

found between non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma and 1,1,1-trichloroethane exposure in these workers (Spirtas et 

al. 1991). The results, however, are questionable because only two cases of multiple myeloma were 

observed and the women were also exposed to many other chemicals. Based on the limited human data, it 

is not known whether inhaled 1,1,1-trichloroethane presents a human carcinogenicity concern. 

A study of 1,1,1-trichloroethane vapor carcinogenicity in Fischer 344 rats and B6C3F1 mice was 

conducted by Quast et al. (1988). Animals were chronically exposed to moderate to high concentrations 

(150–1,500 ppm) of the chemical. In rats, no significant differences in survival were observed between 

groups. Body weights of treated and control rats were comparable except for a slight but significant 

decrease in high-dose females. Slight microscopic changes were seen in the livers of high-dose male and 

female rats at 6, 12, and 18 months, but these effects were not distinguishable from normal geriatric 

changes at 24 months. In mice, no significant differences in survival, growth, or incidence of 

nonneoplastic lesions were observed between groups. Pairwise comparisons between control and treated 

groups revealed no differences in the incidence of tumors in rats or mice. Two positive dose-related 

trends were statistically significant, but neither was considered treatment related. In male rats, a positive 

trend was evident for the incidence of benign bilateral interstitial cell tumors of the testes, a highly 

spontaneous tumor in the strain of rats tested. This trend disappeared when all interstitial cell tumors 

were combined and re-analyzed. A dose-related statistically significant trend was found for an increase in 

the combined incidence of benign adenomas and cystadenomas in the lacrimal gland of female mice, but 

the incidences were statistically comparable to concurrent controls as well as within the historical control 

range. The authors point out there was no increase in the incidence of lymphoreticular proliferative 

processes in either species in this study. This study adequately demonstrated no evidence of 

carcinogenicity by the inhalation route at the exposure levels used, which approach the maximum 

tolerated dose (MTD). An apparent increase in the occurrence of immunoblastic lymphosarcomas of the 

lung was reported in rats tested in an oral carcinogenicity study (Maltoni et al. 1986), described in 

Section 3.2.2.8. 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 79 

3. HEALTH EFFECTS 

3.2.2 Oral Exposure 

3.2.2.1 Death 

A single report of human oral exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane was found in the literature. A man 

survived after accidentally drinking a single .600 mg/kg dose of 1,1,1-trichloroethane (Stewart and 

Andrews 1966). Clinical signs of toxicity were limited to a burning sensation in the throat, nausea, and 

incapacitating vomiting and diarrhea. 

Torkelson et al. (1958) reported acute oral LD50 values of 12,300 and 10,300 mg/kg for male and female 

rats, respectively. LD50 values for other species include 11,240 mg/kg for mice, 9,470 mg/kg for guinea 

pigs, and 5,660 mg/kg for rabbits (Torkelson et al. 1958). A more recent study reported LD50 values of 

17,148 and 12,996 mg/kg for male and female mice, respectively (Kinkead and Wolfe 1992). In 6-week 

studies, lethality was produced by gavage doses of 5,620 mg/kg/day in rats and 10,000 mg/kg/day in mice 

(NCI 1977). Repeated gavage doses of 2,500 mg/kg/day resulted in high rates of mortality within 50 days 

(Bruckner et al. 2001). Larger doses (≥5,000 mg/kg/day) for shorter time periods (11 days or less) were 

even more lethal (Bruckner et al. 2001). In chronic studies, effects on survival occurred at much lower 

doses. Survival decreased in rats exposed to 750 mg/kg/day and mice exposed to 2,807 mg/kg/day by 

gavage (NCI 1977). Chronic oral exposure to 500 mg/kg/day of 1,1,1-trichloroethane by gavage did not 

affect rat survival (Maltoni et al. 1986). Survival of rats and mice was not affected by administration of 

1,1,1-trichloroethane in the diet at concentrations as high as 80,000 ppm (approximate doses as high as 

5,000 and 23,000 mg/kg/day, respectively) for 13 weeks (NTP 2000). 

Exposure to high oral doses of 1,1,1-trichloroethane can be lethal to animals and, presumably, to humans. 

The levels associated with decreased survival in animals appeared to decrease as exposure duration 

increased. 

Reliable LD50 values and LOAEL values for death are recorded in Table 3-2 and plotted in Figure 3-2. 

3.2.2.2 Systemic Effects 

The highest NOAEL values and all LOAEL values from each reliable study for each systemic effect in 

each species and duration are recorded in Table 3-2 and plotted in Figure 3-2. 
a

Key to

Figure

Table 3-2 Levels of Significant Exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane - Oral

Species

(Strain)

LOAEL

System 

NOAEL

(mg/kg/day)

Less Serious

(mg/kg/day)

Serious

(mg/kg/day)

ReferenceChemical Form

Exposure/

Duration/

Frequency

(Route)

ACUTE EXPOSUREDeath

1

758

4000 M Bruckner et al. 2001

4000

Rat(SpragueDawley)

Once(GO)

2

778

500 M Bruckner et al. 2001

500

5000 M (3/15 died)

5000

Rat(SpragueDawley)

11 dd 1-5, 8-111x/d(GO)

3

713

17148 M (LD50) Kinkead and Wolfe 199

17148

12996 F (LD50)

12996

Rat(SpragueDawley)

once(GO)

4

2

10300 F (LD50) Torkelson et al. 1958

10300

Rat(NS)

once(G)

5

3

11240 (LD50) Torkelson et al. 1958

11240

Mouse(NS)

once(G)

6

5

9470 M (LD50) Torkelson et al. 1958

9470

Gn Pig(NS)

once(G)

7

4

5660 F (LD50) Torkelson et al. 1958

5660

Rabbit(NS)

once(G)

Systemic

8

777

Hepatic 4000 M Bruckner et al. 2001

4000

Rat(SpragueDawley)

Once(GO)

Renal 4000 M

4000

Bd Wt 4000 M

4000
a

Key to

Figure

Table 3-2 Levels of Significant Exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane - Oral (continued)

Species

(Strain)

LOAEL

System 

NOAEL

(mg/kg/day)

Less Serious

(mg/kg/day)

Serious

(mg/kg/day)

ReferenceChemical Form

Exposure/

Duration/

Frequency

(Route)

9

779

Hepatic 10000 M Bruckner et al. 2001

10000

Rat(SpragueDawley)

11 dd 1-5, 8-111x/d(GO)

Bd Wt 500 M

500

5000 M (14% reduced terminal

body weight)

5000

10

76

Hepatic 1650 Platt and Cockrill 1969

1650

Rat(NS)

7 d1 x/d(GO)

Bd Wt 1650

1650

11

77

Hepatic 1330 M (ED50 for increased Tyson et al. 1983

SGOT)

1330

Rat(SpragueDawley)

once(GO)

12

78

Hepatic 1370 M Vainio et al. 1976

1370

Rat(Wistar)

1 d(GO)

Neurological

13

505

600 M Stewart and Andrews 1

600

Human once

14

780

500 M Bruckner et al. 2001

500

5000 M (hyperexcitability

followed by narcosis)

5000

Rat(SpragueDawley)

11 dd 1-5, 8-111x/d(GO)
a

Key to

Figure

Table 3-2 Levels of Significant Exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane - Oral (continued)

Species

(Strain)

LOAEL

System 

NOAEL

(mg/kg/day)

Less Serious

(mg/kg/day)

Serious

(mg/kg/day)

ReferenceChemical Form

Exposure/

Duration/

Frequency

(Route)

15

428

705 F (altered EEG, FEP, and Spencer et al. 1990

SEP)

705

Rat(Fischer 344)

4 d1 x/d(GO)

INTERMEDIATE EXPOSUREDeath

16

789

500 M Bruckner et al. 2001

500

2500 M (5/15 died)

2500

Rat(SpragueDawley)

13 wk5 d/wk1 x/d1x/d(GO)

17

96

5620 F (2/10 died) NCI 1977

5620

Rat(OsborneMendel)

6 wk5 d/wk(GO)

18

98

10000 (8/10 died) NCI 1977

10000

Mouse(B6C3F1)

6 wk5 d/wk(GO)

Systemic

19

783

Hepatic 500 M Bruckner et al. 2001

500

2500 M (induction of serum liver

enzymes)

2500

Rat(SpragueDawley)

13 wk5 d/wk1 x/d1x/d(GO)

Bd Wt 500 M

500

2500 M (reduced body weight)

2500

20

97

Bd Wt 3160 NCI 1977

3160

5620 F (unspecified decrease in

body weight gain)

5620

Rat(OsborneMendel)

6 wk5 d/wk(GO)
a

Key to

Figure

Table 3-2 Levels of Significant Exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane - Oral (continued)

Species

(Strain)

LOAEL

System 

NOAEL

(mg/kg/day)

Less Serious

(mg/kg/day)

Serious

(mg/kg/day)

ReferenceChemical Form

Exposure/

Duration/

Frequency

(Route)

21

773

Hepatic 2500 F NTP 2000

2500

5000 F (decreased absolute and

relative liver weight)

5000

Rat(F344/N)

Continuous13 wk(F)

Bd Wt 2400 M

2400

4800 M (10% decreased final

body weight)

4800

22

99

Bd Wt 5620 NCI 1977

5620

Mouse(B6C3F1)

6 wk5 d/wk(GO)

23

788

Bd Wt 1770 M NTP 2000

1770

b

2820 F

2820

3500 M (>10% decreased

terminal body weight)

3500

5600 F (>10% decreased

terminal body weight)

5600

Mouse(B6C3F1)

Continuous13 wk(F)

Neurological

24

782

500 M Bruckner et al. 2001

500

2500 M (hyperexcitability,

narcosis)

2500

Rat(SpragueDawley)

13 wk5 d/wk1 x/d1x/d(GO)

Reproductive

25

230

2.96 F NTP 1988a; George et 

2.96

Rat(SpragueDawley)

70 dad libitum(W)

26

774

2400 M NTP 2000

2400

4800 M (10% reduction in

epididymal spermatozoalconcentration)

4800

Rat(F344/N)

Continuous13 wk(F)
a

Key to

Figure

Table 3-2 Levels of Significant Exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane - Oral (continued)

Species

(Strain)

LOAEL

System 

NOAEL

(mg/kg/day)

Less Serious

(mg/kg/day)

Serious

(mg/kg/day)

ReferenceChemical Form

Exposure/

Duration/

Frequency

(Route)

27

79

1000 Lane et al. 1982

1000

Mouse(Swiss ICR)

25 wkad libitum(W)

28

787

15000 M NTP 2000

15000

22900 F

22900

Mouse(B6C3F1)

Continuous13 wk(F)

Developmental

29

750

Dow Chemical 1993;Maurissen et al. 1994

750

750

Rat(Fischer- 344

Gd 6-21Ld 1-10(GO)

30

231

3.5 F NTP 1988a; George et 

3.5

Rat(CD)

70 dad libitum(W)

31

220

2.4 F NTP 1988b

2.4

Rat(SpragueDawley)

40 dad libitum(W)

32

80

1000 Lane et al. 1982

1000

Mouse(Swiss ICR)

25 wkad libitum(W)

CHRONIC EXPOSUREDeath

33

100

750 (survival decreased by NCI 1977

approximately 50%)

750

Rat(OsborneMendel)

78 wk5 d/wk(GO)
a

Key to

Figure

Table 3-2 Levels of Significant Exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane - Oral (continued)

Species

(Strain)

LOAEL

System 

NOAEL

(mg/kg/day)

Less Serious

(mg/kg/day)

Serious

(mg/kg/day)

ReferenceChemical Form

Exposure/

Duration/

Frequency

(Route)

34

106

2807 F (14% decreased survival) NCI 1977

2807

Mouse(B6C3F1)

78 wk5 d/wk(GO)

Systemic

35

236

Bd Wt 500 F (body weight gain Maltoni et al. 1986

reduced 12% after 80weeks)

500

Rat(SpragueDawley)

104 wk4-5 d/wk(GO)

36

105

Resp 1500 NCI 1977

1500

Rat(OsborneMendel)

78 wk5 d/wk(GO)

Cardio 1500

1500

Gastro 1500

1500

Hemato 1500

1500

Musc/skel 1500

1500

Hepatic 1500

1500

Renal 1500

1500

Dermal 1500

1500

Bd Wt 750 (significant reduction in

body weight gain, but notquantified)

750
a

Key to

Figure

Table 3-2 Levels of Significant Exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane - Oral (continued)

Species

(Strain)

LOAEL

System 

NOAEL

(mg/kg/day)

Less Serious

(mg/kg/day)

Serious

(mg/kg/day)

ReferenceChemical Form

Exposure/

Duration/

Frequency

(Route)

37

110

Resp 5615 NCI 1977

5615

Mouse(B6C3F1)

78 wk5 d/wk(GO)

Cardio 5615

5615

Gastro 5615

5615

Hemato 5615

5615

Musc/skel 5615

5615

Hepatic 5615

5615

Renal 5615

5615

Dermal 5615

5615

Bd Wt 2807 (significant decrease in

body weight gain, but notquantified)

2807

Immuno/ Lymphoret

38

101

1500 NCI 1977

1500

Rat(OsborneMendel)

78 wk5 d/wk(GO)

39

107

5615 NCI 1977

5615

Mouse(B6C3F1)

78 wk5 d/wk(GO)

Neurological

40

102

1500 NCI 1977

1500

Rat(OsborneMendel)

78 wk5 d/wk(GO)

41

108

5615 NCI 1977

5615

Mouse(B6C3F1)

78 wk5 d/wk(GO)
a

Key to

Figure

Table 3-2 Levels of Significant Exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane - Oral (continued)

Species

(Strain)

LOAEL

System 

NOAEL

(mg/kg/day)

Less Serious

(mg/kg/day)

Serious

(mg/kg/day)

ReferenceChemical Form

Exposure/

Duration/

Frequency

(Route)

Reproductive

42

103

1500 NCI 1977

1500

Rat(OsborneMendel)

78 wk5 d/wk(GO)

43a The number corresponds to entries in Figure 3-2.b Study results used to derive an intermediate-duration oral minimal risk level (MRL) of 20 mg/kg/day for 1,1,1-trichloroethane, as described in detail in Appendix A(BMD) analysis was performed on mean final body weight in male and female mice to select a point of departure (2,185 mg/kg/day in female mice), which was dividuncertainty factor of 100 (10 for extrapolation from animals to humans and 10 for human variability).Bd wt = body weight; Cardio = cardiological; d = day(s); Derm = dermal; ED50 = effective dose, 50%; EEG = electroencephalogram; F = female; FEP = flash evokegavage- not specified; Gastro = gastrointestinal; Gd = gestation day; Gn Pig = guinea pig; GO = gavage in oil; Hemato = hematological; Ld = lactation day; LD50 = LOAEL = lowest-observed-adverse-effect level; M = male; Musc/skel = musculoskeletal; NOAEL = no-observed-adverse effect level; resp = respiratory; SEP somatpotential; SGOT = serum glutamate oxaloacetate transaminase; wk = week(s); x = time(s)

109

5615 NCI 1977

5615

Mouse(B6C3F1)

78 wk5 d/wk(GO)
100

1000

10000

100000

Death

6g

5m

1r

2r

2r

3r

3r

4r

7h

Hepatic

8r

9r

10r

11r 12r

Renal

8r

Body Weight

8r

9r

9r

10r

Neurological

13

14r

14r

15r

mg/kg/day

Figure 3-2 Levels of Significant Exposure to 1,1,1-Trichloroethane - Oral

Acute (≤14 days)

c-Cat

d-Dog

r-Rat

p-Pig q-Cow

 -Humans

k-Monkey

m-Mouse

h-Rabbit

a-Sheep

f-Ferret

j-Pigeon

e-Gerbil

s-Hamster

g-Guinea Pig

n-Mink

o-Other

 Cancer Effect Level-Animals

 LOAEL, More Serious-Animals

 LOAEL, Less Serious-Animals

 NOAEL - Animals

 Cancer Effect Level-Humans

 LOAEL, More Serious-Humans

 LOAEL, Less Serious-Humans

 NOAEL - Humans

 LD50/LC50

 Minimal Risk Level

 for effects

 other than

 Cancer

Systemic

88

100

1000

10000

Death

34m

33r

Respiratory

37m

36r

Cardiovascular

37m

36r

Gastrointestinal

37m

36r

Hematological

37m

36r

Musculoskeletal

37m

36r

Hepatic

37m

36r

Renal

37m

36r

Dermal

37m

36r

Body Weight

37m

35r

36r

Immuno/Lymphor

39m

38r

Neurological

41m

40r

Reproductive

43m

42r

mg/kg/day

Figure 3-2 Levels of Significant Exposure to 1,1,1-Trichloroethane - Oral

Chronic (≥365 days)

c-Cat

d-Dog

r-Rat

p-Pig

q-Cow

 -Humans

k-Monkey

m-Mouse

h-Rabbit

a-Sheep

f-Ferret

j-Pigeon

e-Gerbil

s-Hamster

g-Guinea Pig

n-Mink

o-Other

 Cancer Effect Level-Animals

 LOAEL, More Serious-Animals

 LOAEL, Less Serious-Animals

 NOAEL - Animals

 Cancer Effect Level-Humans

 LOAEL, More Serious-Humans

 LOAEL, Less Serious-Humans

 NOAEL - Humans

 LD50/LC50

 Minimal Risk Level

 for effects

 other than

 Cancer

Systemic

 (Continued)
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 91 

3. HEALTH EFFECTS 

No reports were located in which endocrine, ocular, or metabolic effects were associated with oral 

exposure of humans or animals to 1,1,1-trichloroethane. 

Respiratory Effects. No studies were located regarding respiratory effects in humans after oral 

exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane. 

Only one oral study investigated the respiratory effects of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in animals. Chronic oral 

exposure of rats to 1,500 mg/kg/day and mice to 5,615 mg/kg/day by gavage did not affect the incidence 

of lesions in the lungs, trachea, or nasal passages (NCI 1977). NOAEL values derived from this study are 

recorded in Table 3-2 and plotted in Figure 3-2. Based on the negative results in the NCI (1977) study 

and the generally negative results in inhalation studies in which respiratory tissues came into direct 

contact with high levels (see Section 3.2.1.2), 1,1,1-trichloroethane is not expected to produce respiratory 

effects following ingestion in humans. 

Cardiovascular Effects. Electrocardiogram readings were normal 4 hours after a man accidentally 

drank a single 600 mg/kg dose of 1,1,1-trichloroethane (Stewart and Andrews 1966). 

Cardiovascular effects of ingested 1,1,1-trichloroethane have been investigated only by histopathological 

examination of exposed animals. Chronic oral exposure of rats to 1,500 mg/kg/day and mice to 

5,615 mg/kg/day did not affect the incidence of lesions in the heart (NCI 1977). NOAEL values derived 

from this study are recorded in Table 3-2 and plotted in Figure 3-2. 

The usefulness of histopathological heart examinations is limited, considering the findings of serious 

effects on cardiovascular function without pathological lesions in animals after acute exposure to high 

levels of 1,1,1-trichloroethane via inhalation. Therefore, existing data are insufficient to assess 

cardiovascular effects from oral exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane. 

Gastrointestinal Effects. Severe vomiting and diarrhea began 1 hour after ingestion and continued 

for 6 hours in a man who survived after accidentally drinking a single 600 mg/kg dose of 1,1,1-trichloroethane (Stewart and Andrews 1966). The patient reported feeling a burning sensation in his mouth and 

throat immediately after swallowing the dose. 

Gastrointestinal effects of orally administered 1,1,1-trichloroethane were investigated only by 

histopathological examination in animals. Chronic oral exposure of rats to 1,500 mg/kg/day and mice to 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 92 

3. HEALTH EFFECTS 

5,615 mg/kg/day by gavage in oil did not affect the incidence of nonneoplastic lesions in the stomach, 

intestines, and pancreas (NCI 1977). NOAEL values derived from this study are recorded in Table 3-2 

and plotted in Figure 3-2. 

The results of the NCI (1977) study suggest that 1,1,1-trichloroethane does not produce gastrointestinal 

toxicity, while the case report of Stewart and Andrews (1966) shows that swallowing a large, undiluted 

dose of this chemical can produce severe gastrointestinal upset and some irritation of the throat. 

Hematological Effects. Hematological parameters remained within normal limits in tests beginning 

4 hours after exposure in a man who survived after accidentally drinking a single 600 mg/kg dose of 

1,1,1-trichloroethane (Stewart and Andrews 1966). 

Oral exposure of rats and mice to 1,1,1-trichloroethane in the diet at concentrations as high as 80,000 ppm 

(approximate doses as high as 5,000 and 23,000 mg/kg/day in rats and mice, respectively) did not result 

in apparent treatment-related hematological effects (NTP 2000). Chronic oral exposure of rats to 

1,500 mg/kg/day and mice to 5,615 mg/kg/day by gavage in oil did not affect the incidence of 

nonneoplastic lesions in the bone marrow (NCI 1977). NOAEL values derived from this study are 

recorded in Table 3-2 and plotted in Figure 3-2. 

The limited data available suggest that ingested 1,1,1-trichloroethane does not produce hematological 

effects. 

Musculoskeletal Effects. No studies were located regarding musculoskeletal effects in humans after 

oral exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane. 

Only one study investigated musculoskeletal effects in animals exposed to 1,1,1-trichloroethane orally. 

Chronic oral exposure of rats to 1,500 mg/kg/day and mice to 5,615 mg/kg/day by gavage in oil did not 

affect the incidence of nonneoplastic lesions in the muscles or bones (NCI 1977). NOAEL values derived 

from this study are recorded in Table 3-2 and plotted in Figure 3-2. 

Hepatic Effects. Stewart and Andrews (1966) reported a case in which a man survived drinking 

1 ounce (600 mg/kg) of 1,1,1-trichloroethane. Serum transaminase levels remained within normal limits, 

but serum bilirubin levels became slightly elevated after 48 hours. Increased serum bilirubin levels may 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 93 

3. HEALTH EFFECTS 

result from reduced biliary excretion (i.e., cholestatic liver damage). Alternatively, hyperbilirubinemia 

may result from diminished hepatic conjugative metabolism of bilirubin. 

Elevated SGOT levels, often seen in conjunction with hepatic damage and damage of other tissues, were 

reported in rats given a single oral dose of 1,330 mg/kg 1,1,1-trichloroethane (Tyson et al. 1983). Levels 

of SGPT, which is more specific for liver damage, remained unchanged in this study, however. Similar 

results in rats (little change in SGPT activity) were reported by others (Xia and Yu 1992). There were no 

indications of 1,1,1-trichloroethane-induced liver damage in rats given a single gavage dose of 

4,000 mg/kg/day or repeated gavage doses as high as 10,000 mg/kg/day (Bruckner et al. 2001). Data 

regarding the effect of 1,1,1-trichloroethane on the activity of rat liver enzymes are inconclusive. 

Increased liver microsomal and cytoplasmic protein content were found, although they were not 

accompanied by increases in activity of enzymes or increased liver weight (Platt and Cockrill 1969). 

Reduced levels of cytochrome P-450 and epoxide hydratase, suggesting inhibition of these enzymes, was 

reported in another study (Vainio et al. 1976). Bruckner et al. (2001) found some evidence in rats of 

enzyme induction at low doses and inhibition at high doses. In an intermediate-duration study, mild liver 

effects (small increases in SGPT and ornithine carbamyl transferase [OCT]) occurred at 5,000 mg/kg/day 

(Bruckner et al. 2001). Relative liver weight was increased by approximately 11% (p<0.05) in rats 

administered 1,1,1-trichloroethane by oral gavage for 21 days, but there were no histopathological signs 

of hepatotoxicity (NTP 1996). Decreased liver weights in female rats administered 80,000 ppm 

(5,000 mg/kg/day) of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in the diet for 13 weeks were attributed to reduced body 

weights, not adverse liver effects (NTP 2000). No liver effects were seen in similarly treated male rats, or 

in male or female mice receiving doses as high as 15,000 and 23,000 mg/kg/day, respectively. Chronic 

gavage administration of 1,1,1-trichloroethane did not affect the incidence of nonneoplastic lesions in the 

livers of rats or mice (NCI 1977). The highest NOAEL values and all reliable LOAEL values for hepatic 

effects in each species and exposure duration category are recorded in Table 3-2 and plotted in Figure 3-2. 

Human and animal studies suggest that large amounts of ingested 1,1,1-trichloroethane may produce mild 

hepatotoxicity; however, whether 1,1,1-trichloroethane is an inducer or inhibitor of biotransformation 

enzymes following oral exposure is unclear. 

Renal Effects. BUN levels were not elevated 4 hours after a man accidentally ingested a single 

600 mg/kg dose of 1,1,1-trichloroethane (Stewart and Andrews 1966). 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 94 

3. HEALTH EFFECTS 

No effects on kidney weight or histology were found in rats given a single gavage dose of 

4,000 mg/kg/day, repeated doses of 10,000 mg/kg/day, or intermediate-duration exposure to 

5,000 mg/kg/day (Bruckner et al. 2001). There was a slight transient increase in BUN in the rats 

repeatedly given 10,000 mg/kg/day (Bruckner et al. 2001). Urinalysis performed on male rats 

administered 165 mg/kg/day of 1,1,1-trichloroethane by gavage for 21 days revealed significant increases 

in mean urinary protein and SGOT, but no histopathological evidence of renal damage (NTP 1996). The 

statistical significance of this finding is questionable since it was based on only four surviving rats. Male 

rats administered ≥10,000 ppm (600 mg/kg/day) of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in the diet for 13 weeks 

exhibited kidney lesions indicative of hyaline droplet nephropathy (NTP 2000); this effect is specific to 

male rats and is not a human health concern. Chronic gavage exposure of rats to 1,500 mg/kg/day and 

mice to 5,615 mg/kg/day did not affect the incidence of nonneoplastic lesions in the kidneys (NCI 1977). 

NOAEL values derived from these studies are recorded in Table 3-2 and plotted in Figure 3-2. 

Data from animals suggest that the kidney is not a target of 1,1,1-trichloroethane taken orally. Sensitive 

tests of renal function have not apparently been performed, however, in animals ingesting 1,1,1-trichloroethane. 

Dermal Effects. No studies were located regarding dermal effects in humans after oral exposure to 

1,1,1-trichloroethane. 

Only one study investigated dermal effects following oral exposure in animals. Chronic oral exposure by 

gavage of rats to 1,500 mg/kg/day and mice to 5,615 mg/kg/day of 1,1,1-trichloroethane did not affect the 

incidence of nonneoplastic skin lesions (NCI 1977). NOAEL values derived from this study are recorded 

in Table 3-2 and plotted in Figure 3-2. The scarcity of data regarding dermal effects in humans or 

animals after oral exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane precludes assessing potential injury of this tissue. 

Body Weight Effects. No studies were located regarding body weight effects in humans after oral 

exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane. 

Several studies monitored body weight in animals dosed orally with 1,1,1-trichloroethane. Reduced body 

weight gain was produced in rats by repeated doses ≥5,000 mg/kg/day in short-term studies and 

≥2,500 mg/kg/day in intermediate-duration studies (Bruckner et al. 2001). NTP (2000) fed male and 

female rats and mice diets containing microencapsulated 1,1,1-trichloroethane for 13 weeks at 

concentrations ranging from 5,000 to 80,000 ppm. Final mean body weights of the 40,000- and 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 95 

3. HEALTH EFFECTS 

80,000-ppm male rats were significantly lower (5 and 10% lower, respectively) than vehicle controls. 

The final mean body weight of the 80,000-ppm female rats was also significantly lower (4% lower) than 

that of vehicle controls. In similarly treated male and female mice, reduced body weight gain was 

observed at 1,1,1-trichloroethane concentrations ≥5,000 and 10,000 ppm, respectively (doses of 

approximately 850 and 2,850 mg/kg/day, respectively) (NTP 2000). An intermediate-duration oral MRL 

of 20 mg/kg/day was derived for 1,1,1-trichloroethane based on the results of this study, as described in 

the footnote in Table 3-2. In another study, reduced body weight gain was reported at 5,620 mg/kg/day in 

rats exposed for 6 weeks and 750 mg/kg/day in rats exposed for 78 weeks (NCI 1977). Body weight gain 

in rats was reduced by an even lower dose (500 mg/kg/day) in a second chronic study, but only after 

80 weeks of exposure (Maltoni et al. 1986). In mice, 5,620 mg/kg/day did not affect body weight in a 

6-week study, but 2,807 mg/kg/day was sufficient to reduce body weight gain in a 78-week study (NCI 

1977). These limited data on the effects of orally administered 1,1,1-trichloroethane on body weight gain 

in animals suggest time- and dose-response relationships. 

The highest NOAEL values and all reliable LOAEL values for body weight effects in each species and 

duration category are recorded in Table 3-2 and plotted in Figure 3-2. 

3.2.2.3 Immunological and Lymphoreticular Effects 

No studies were located regarding immunological effects in humans after oral exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane. 

Immunological effects in animals were investigated only by histopathological examination of certain 

tissues. There was no effect on the incidence or type of nonneoplastic lesions in the thymus or spleen of 

rats or mice after chronic gavage exposure to high doses of 1,1,1-trichloroethane (NCI 1977). NOAEL 

values derived from this study are recorded in Table 3-2 and plotted in Figure 3-2. The scarcity of data 

pertaining to immunological effects in humans or animals after oral exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane 

precludes an assessment of immunotoxicity. 

3.2.2.4 Neurological Effects 

A thorough neurological examination (details not reported) found no abnormalities in a man who had 

ingested 600 mg/kg of 1,1,1-trichloroethane 4 hours earlier (Stewart and Andrews 1966). 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 96 

3. HEALTH EFFECTS 

Acute oral exposure of rats to 1,1,1-trichloroethane (705 mg/kg/day) did not result in behavior or 

appearance changes that could be detected after 2 days by a battery of observational measures, but did 

produce distinct neurophysiological alterations after 4 days. These alterations included marked changes 

in the flash-evoked potential (FEP) and electroencephalogram (EEG) recordings. Such effects are similar 

to those seen after inhalation exposure, and smaller changes in the somatosensory-evoked potential (SEP) 

(Spencer et al. 1990). No significant changes in tissue levels of monoamine neurotransmitters and 

metabolites were found in the brain of rats given single oral doses of 3,250 mg/kg of 1,1,1-trichloroethane 

and sacrificed 2 hours later (Kanada et al. 1994). Rats given high oral doses of 1,1,1-trichloroethane 

(≥2,500 mg/kg/day) exhibited a short period of hyperactivity, followed by a period of prolonged narcosis 

after daily dosing in acute- and intermediate-duration studies (Bruckner et al. 2001). No clinical signs of 

neurotoxicity were seen in rats and mice receiving 1,1,1-trichloroethane in the diet at concentrations as 

high as 80,000 ppm (doses as high as 4,800 and 5,000 mg/kg/day in males and females, respectively) for 

13 weeks (NTP 2000). Neurological effects were investigated by histopathological examination of the 

brain and nerves in a chronic study (NCI 1977). There was no effect on the incidence or type of lesions in 

the brain or nerves of rats or mice after chronic gavage exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane at doses as high 

as 1,500 and 5,615 mg/kg/day, respectively (NCI 1977). Failure to detect neural lesions by routine 

histopathology in this study does not rule out the occurrence of neurological effects following chronic 

oral exposure since physical changes in the brain did not accompany residual neurological effects seen in 

inhalation studies. 

Reliable NOAEL and LOAEL values for neurological effects in each species and duration category are 

recorded in Table 3-2 and plotted in Figure 3-2. Limited information is available regarding the 

neurological effects of 1,1,1-trichloroethane following oral exposure, but the observation of narcosis in 

the studies by Bruckner et al. (2001) and the results of the acute neurophysiology study in rats suggest 

that the neurotoxicity of orally administered 1,1,1-trichloroethane may be similar to that observed 

following inhalation exposure. 

3.2.2.5 Reproductive Effects 

No studies were located regarding reproductive effects in humans after oral exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane. 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 97 

3. HEALTH EFFECTS 

Limited information is available regarding reproductive effects in animals following oral exposure to 

1,1,1-trichloroethane. A multigeneration reproduction study was conducted in mice by Lane et al. (1982). 

Male and female mice were exposed to 1,1,1-trichloroethane (1,000 mg/kg/day) in their drinking water. 

In the parental and F1 generations, exposure began prior to mating and was continued through gestation 

and lactation. Exposure usually precedes mating by the length of the sperm cycle in studies of this type, 

but the duration of premating exposure for the parental generation was abbreviated in this study. 

Treatment did not affect maternal survival, body weight, or reproductive performance. In another study, 

rats were exposed to 1,1,1-trichloroethane in the drinking water from before mating through lactation at 

concentrations resulting in daily doses as high as 3 mg/kg (George et al. 1989; NTP 1988a). Maternal 

survival, body weight, fertility, and the duration of gestation were not affected. Reduced epididymal 

spermatozoal concentration was noted in male rats and mice administered 1,1,1-trichloroethane in the diet 

at a concentration of 80,000 ppm (approximate doses of 4,800 and 15,000 mg/kg/day) for 13 weeks. NTP 

(2000) considered the slight reduction in epididymal sperm count to represent a treatment-related effect, 

which has also been correlated with reduced fertility (Chapin et al. 1997). There were no other 

indications of adverse male reproductive effects and no signs of altered estrus in similarly-treated female 

rats and mice (NTP 2000). In a chronic-duration study in rats and mice, there was no effect on the 

incidence or type of nonneoplastic lesions in the prostate, seminal vesicles, testes, or epididymis in males, 

or the uterus or ovary in females (NCI 1977). 

The highest NOAEL values for reproductive effects in each species and duration category are recorded in 

Table 3-2 and plotted in Figure 3-2. There is limited evidence that oral exposure to high doses of 

1,1,1-trichloroethane may influence sperm production in animals. 

3.2.2.6 Developmental Effects 

The possible relationship between developmental effects and exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane in the 

drinking water was investigated in a series of epidemiology studies (Deane et al. 1989; Wrensch et al. 

1990a, 1990b). A leak in an underground storage tank resulted in contamination of well water with 

1,1,1-trichloroethane and other chemicals. Levels of 1,1,1-trichloroethane were far higher than levels of 

other chemicals (1,700 ppb when first detected, reaching a maximum of 8,800 ppb after the well was 

closed). An excess of miscarriages and birth defects occurred in one exposed community but not in 

another. Hydrogeological modeling of water and contaminant distribution within the exposed 

communities showed that the leak was probably not responsible for the excessive adverse pregnancy 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 98 

3. HEALTH EFFECTS 

outcomes in the one community, because estimated exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane was lower than in 

the other community. Average estimated exposure, in fact, was lower in areas reporting births with 

malformations than in those without. A related study, conducted on a larger scale, found an excess of 

major cardiac anomalies during the exposure period in the service area of the water company with the 

contaminated well, compared to the rest of the county (Santa Clara, California) (Swan et al. 1989). 

Detailed analysis of the temporal and spatial distribution of cases, however, did not support the 

hypothesis that contamination of the well produced these adverse effects. In a more recent report, no 

statistically significant effects were seen in a 3-year assessment of birth outcome among northern New 

Jersey residents of 75 towns where some water supplies were contaminated with 1,1,1-trichloroethane and 

other chemicals (Bove et al. 1995). 

Lane et al. (1982) investigated the developmental effects of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in mice in a 

multigeneration reproduction study modified to allow screening for teratogenic and dominant lethal 

effects. Mice of either sex were exposed to 1,1,1-trichloroethane in their drinking water. Exposure for 

the initial test mice and the subsequent F1 generation began before mating and continued throughout 

gestation and lactation. Exposure is usually intended to precede mating by the length of the sperm cycle; 

however, in this study, the duration of premating exposure for the parental generation was abbreviated. 

No maternal toxicity was reported. There were no treatment-related embryotoxic or fetotoxic effects in 

either the F1 or F2 generation. Pup survival and body weight were also unaffected. There was no 

increase in the frequency of dominant lethal factors or in the incidence of skeletal or visceral 

malformations in either generation. 

The developmental effects of 1,1,1-trichloroethane were also studied in rats (George et al. 1989; NTP 

1988a, 1988b). Doses of up to 3 mg/kg/day of the chemical were administered in these studies to allow 

comparison with preliminary results of an earlier study (Dapson et al. 1984; Hutcheon et al. 1985) that 

reported increased incidences of cardiovascular anomalies at these doses. In the first study (NTP 1988a), 

1,1,1-trichloroethane was added to the drinking water of male and female rats before mating and through 

lactation. Exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane had no effect on pup survival or body weight, or on the 

incidence of malformed pups. Particular attention was paid to developmental effects on the 

cardiovascular system. There was a high incidence of patent ductus arteriosus among pups that died on 

postnatal day 1 (10/28 exposed versus 0/8 control). Patent ductus arteriosus was found in only one 

treated pup (from the low-concentration group) sacrificed on postnatal day 4. No cardiovascular 

anomalies of any type were found in treated pups sacrificed on postnatal day 21, which was the time that 

Dapson et al. (1984) reported effects. The authors explain that patent ductus arteriosus is not unexpected 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 99 

3. HEALTH EFFECTS 

in pups at the earlier time points (days 1 and 4), but do not address the apparent difference between 

treated and control groups on day 1. Most of the pups with patent ductus arteriosus were in the low-dose 

group; incidence was lower in the two higher-dose groups, and the effects were not statistically 

significant. These results suggest that 1,1,1-trichloroethane did not affect the development of patent 

ductus arteriosus in these rats. 

In the second study (NTP 1988b), rats were exposed to 1,1,1-trichloroethane in the drinking water from 

premating through gestation at concentrations resulting in daily doses as high as 2.5 mg/kg. Dams were 

sacrificed on day 20 of gestation, and the fetuses were given comprehensive teratological examinations. 

No embryotoxic or fetotoxic effects were reported. There was no effect on the incidence of external, 

visceral, or skeletal malformations. No cardiovascular abnormalities of any type were seen. 

A study was designed to examine the neurobehavioral effects of 1,1,1-trichloroethane on the offspring of 

rats treated with the test material by gavage on gestation day 6 through lactation day 10 (Dow Chemical 

Co. 1993; Maurissen et al. 1994). The doses used were 75, 250, and 750 mg 1,1,1-trichloroethane/kg/day. The end points examined included body weight, physical maturation landmarks, motor 

activity, functional observation battery, brain measurements and neuropathology, and evaluation of 

learning capacity, task performance, and short-term memory. Although sporadic differences between 

treated animals and controls were found with some tests, these were either not statistically significant or 

not dose-related, suggesting that the highest dose tested, 750 mg/kg/day, was a NOAEL for the study. 

The highest NOAEL values for developmental effects in each species are recorded in Table 3-2 and 

plotted in Figure 3-2. The weight of evidence in experimental animal studies suggests that 1,1,1-trichloroethane is not a developmental toxicant when administered orally; however, this conclusion is 

limited by the use of low doses in some of the studies. Epidemiology studies found no evidence that 

exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane was responsible for the cluster of adverse pregnancy outcomes in Santa 

Clara County, California. 

3.2.2.7 Cancer 

Isacson et al. (1985) investigated the relationship between the presence of organic chemicals, including 

1,1,1-trichloroethane, in drinking water and the incidence of cancer in Iowa residents. The authors 

contrasted towns that had detectable quantities of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in the water supply with those that 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 100 

3. HEALTH EFFECTS 

did not and found no difference in the incidence of bladder, colon, lung, rectum, breast, or prostate cancer 

in people over 55 years of age. 1,1,1-Trichloroethane levels >0.1 μg/L (but unspecified) were detectable 

in this study. Assuming the average adult weighs 70 kg and drinks 2 liters of water per day, a 

concentration of 0.1 μg/L would produce a dose of approximately 0.000003 mg/kg/day. The authors 

concede that their data are not sensitive enough to support conclusions regarding the apparent lack of 

association between 1,1,1-trichloroethane in the water supply and cancer risk in humans. No other studies 

were located regarding risks of cancer in humans after oral exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane. 

NCI (1977) conducted a bioassay for carcinogenicity of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in rats and mice. The test 

animals were exposed to high gavage doses of the chemical (750 or 1,500 mg/kg/day for rats and 2,807 or 

5,615 mg/kg/day for mice) for 78 weeks. All animals were necropsied and the tissues were examined 

histologically. The incidence and type of neoplasms observed were similar to those seen in untreated 

controls. Vehicle controls were not used in this study. There was a significant dose-related decrease in 

survival of both rats and mice. Among rats, no males and only 2–4% females survived to the end of the 

experiment. Among mice, 22–30% of treated males and 26–46% of treated females survived. Because 

the high rate of early mortality may have lowered the incidence of late-appearing tumors, the authors did 

not consider this study an adequate test of 1,1,1-trichloroethane carcinogenicity in either species. 

A screening-type study using only one gavage dose level (500 mg/kg/day for 104 weeks) and a less-thanoptimal sample size (50 per sex in the vehicle controls, 40 per sex in the treatment group) reported an 

apparent increase in leukemia incidence in rats (Maltoni et al. 1986). Survival appeared comparable 

between control and treatment groups, but no statistical analysis was performed. Body weight was 

reduced in females after 80 weeks of the experiment. Although tumor incidences were not analyzed 

statistically, an apparent increase in the total incidence of rats with leukemias occurred, with 13/80 in 

treated rats and 4/100 in vehicle controls. The increase was due mainly to an increased incidence of 

immunoblastic lymphosarcomas in the lungs (seven in treated rats and one in controls). The biological 

and statistical significance of this finding cannot be determined because of the inherent limitations of the 

experimental design. The authors stated that, although definite conclusions could not be drawn based on 

this study, the results called for further experimentation to assess the carcinogenicity of 1,1,1-trichloroethane. 

The inability to identify associations between human oral exposure and cancer incidence, as well as the 

limitations of the animal studies (i.e., high rate of early mortality, one dose level, small sample size), limit 

the assessment of potential carcinogenic effects in humans after oral exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane. 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 101 

3. HEALTH EFFECTS 

3.2.3 Dermal Exposure 

Occupational exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane frequently involves both inhalation of and dermal contact 

with the chemical. There are many case reports of effects in individuals after occupational exposure to 

high levels of 1,1,1-trichloroethane, but inhalation appears to be the primary route of exposure in most of 

these cases. Although dermal exposure may have contributed to the effects observed, these cases are 

discussed under Inhalation Exposure in Section 3.2.1. In a few cases, dermal exposure appeared to be 

more important, and these are discussed below. In all cases, except for superficial skin effects, any 

potential effect would likely be similar to inhalation effects at similar circulating blood levels. 

3.2.3.1 Death 

No studies were located regarding death in humans after dermal exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane. 

Very high dose levels were required to cause death in animals after dermal exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane. Exposure to 15,800 mg/kg under a cuff killed <50% of the rabbits tested (Torkelson et al. 1958). 

Acute dermal exposure to lower doses did not cause death in rabbits or guinea pigs (Kinkead and Leahy 

1987; Torkelson et al. 1958; Wahlberg and Boman 1979). Repeated-exposure studies employing doses 

up to 280 mg/kg/day (covered) or 500 mg/kg/day (uncovered) did not reveal any effect on mortality in 

rats or rabbits (Torkelson et al. 1958; Viola et al. 1981). 

These limited data suggest that dermal exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane is lethal only at very high doses 

that could not be experienced under foreseeable circumstances. The LOAEL for death in acutely exposed 

rabbits is recorded in Table 3-3. 

3.2.3.2 Systemic Effects 

The highest NOAEL values and all LOAEL values from each reliable dermal study for each systemic 

effect in each species and duration are recorded in Table 3-3. 

No reports were located in which musculoskeletal, endocrine, or metabolic effects were associated with 

oral exposure of humans or animals to 1,1,1-trichloroethane. 
Table 3-3 Levels of Significant Exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane - Dermal

Species

(Strain)

Exposure/

Duration/

Frequency

(Route) System NOAEL Less Serious 

LOAEL

Serious

ReferenceChemical Form

ACUTE EXPOSURE

Death

(NS)Rabbit

9

1 d24 hr/d 15800 (under 50% mortality)

mg/kg/day

mg/kg/day

Torkelson et al. 1958 

Systemic

Human

89

1 d5 min/d Dermal 30 M (mild erythema)

mg/kg/day

mg/kg/day

Wahlberg 1984a 

Human

93

10 d1 x/d Dermal 2

mg/kg/day

mg/kg/day

Wahlberg 1984b 

(NS)Gn Pig

88

1 d1/4 - 16 hr/d Dermal 1300 (epidermal degeneration

mg/kg/day

mg/kg/day

Kronevi et al. 1981 

(NS)Gn Pig

92

10 d1x/d Dermal 220 (edema at application

site)

mg/kg/day

mg/kg/day

Wahlberg 1984b 

(NS)Gn Pig

84

1 d Bd Wt 7360 (30% reduction in body

weight gain)

mg/kg/day

mg/kg/day

Wahlberg and Boman 1

(NewZealand)Rabbit

238

1 d24 hr/d Bd Wt 2680 M

mg/kg/day

mg/kg/day

Kinkead and Leahy 198
Table 3-3 Levels of Significant Exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane - Dermal (continued)

Species

(Strain)

Exposure/

Duration/

Frequency

(Route) System NOAEL Less Serious 

LOAEL

Serious

ReferenceChemical Form

(NS)Rabbit

94

1 d Ocular 50

mg/kg/day

mg/kg/day

Marzulli and Ruggles 19

(NS)Rabbit

91

10 d1x/d Dermal 35 (edema at application

site)

mg/kg/day

mg/kg/day

Wahlberg 1984b 

INTERMEDIATE EXPOSURE

Systemic

(Wistar)Rat

87

22 d16 x Gastro 280 M

mg/kg/day

mg/kg/day

Viola et al. 1981 

Hepatic 280 M (increased SGOT, OCT,

GGT; hepatocellulardamage)

mg/kg/day

mg/kg/day

Renal 280 M

mg/kg/day

mg/kg/day

Bd Wt 280 M (60% decrease in body

weight gain)

mg/kg/day

mg/kg/day
Table 3-3 Levels of Significant Exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane - Dermal (continued)

Species

(Strain)

Exposure/

Duration/

Frequency

(Route) System NOAEL Less Serious 

LOAEL

Serious

ReferenceChemical Form

(NS)Rabbit

14

90 d5 d/wk Resp 500 M

mg/kg/day

mg/kg/day

Torkelson et al. 1958 

Cardio 500 M

mg/kg/day

mg/kg/day

Gastro 500 M

mg/kg/day

mg/kg/day

Hemato 500 M

mg/kg/day

mg/kg/day

Hepatic 500 M

mg/kg/day

mg/kg/day

Renal 500 M

mg/kg/day

mg/kg/day

Dermal 15 M (mild skin irritation)

mg/kg/day

mg/kg/day

Bd Wt 500

mg/kg/day

mg/kg/day

Immuno/ Lymphoret

(NS)Rabbit

11

90 d5 d/wk 500 M

mg/kg/day

mg/kg/day

Torkelson et al. 1958 
Table 3-3 Levels of Significant Exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane - Dermal (continued)

Species

(Strain)

Exposure/

Duration/

Frequency

(Route) System NOAEL Less Serious 

LOAEL

Serious

ReferenceChemical Form

Neurological

(NS)Rabbit

12

90 d5 d/wk 500 F

mg/kg/day

mg/kg/day

Torkelson et al. 1958 

Reproductive

(NS)Rabbit

Bd wt = body weight; Cardio = cardiological; d = day(s); Derm = dermal; Gastro = gastrointestinal; GGT = gamma-glutalmyl transferase; NOAEL = no-observed-advNS = not specified; OCT = orthinine carbamyl transferase; resp = respiratory; SGOT = serum glutamate oxaloacetate transaminase; wk = week(s); x = time(s)

13

90 d5 d/wk 500 M

mg/kg/day

mg/kg/day

Torkelson et al. 1958 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 106 

3. HEALTH EFFECTS 

Respiratory Effects. No studies were located regarding respiratory effects in humans after dermal 

exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane. 

Respiratory effects in animals were investigated by pathological examination of the lungs in one study. 

Dermal exposure for 90 days to 500 mg/kg/day of 1,1,1-trichloroethane (uncovered) had no effect on lung 

weight or the incidence of gross or microscopic lung lesions in rabbits (Torkelson et al. 1958). A 

NOAEL derived from this study is recorded in Table 3-3. 

Cardiovascular Effects. No studies were located regarding cardiovascular effects in humans after 

dermal exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane. 

Cardiovascular effects in animals were investigated by histopathological examination in one study. 

Intermittent 90-day dermal exposure to 500 mg/kg/day of 1,1,1-trichloroethane (uncovered) had no effect 

on heart weight or the incidence of heart lesions in rabbits (Torkelson et al. 1958). A NOAEL derived 

from this study is recorded in Table 3-3. Much higher doses may be required to produce effects by the 

dermal route; high vapor concentrations were required to produce cardiotoxic effects by inhalation 

exposure (see Section 3.2.1.2), and percutaneous absorption of 1,1,1-trichloroethane is much slower and 

less complete than pulmonary absorption. 

Gastrointestinal Effects. No studies were located regarding gastrointestinal effects in humans after 

dermal exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane. 

Gastrointestinal effects were not seen in animals dermally exposed to 1,1,1-trichloroethane. Rats exposed 

to 280 mg/kg/day of 1,1,1-trichloroethane under an occlusive dressing for 3 weeks showed no evidence of 

pancreatic damage, as determined by histopathological examination and serum lipase and amylase levels 

(Viola et al. 1981). Rabbits exposed to 500 mg/kg/day without occlusion for 90 days had no gross or 

microscopic lesions in the stomach or intestines (Torkelson et al. 1958). 

These limited animal data suggest that dermal exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane will not result in 

gastrointestinal effects in humans. The NOAEL values for gastrointestinal effects in rats and rabbits are 

recorded in Table 3-3. 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 107 

3. HEALTH EFFECTS 

Hematological Effects. No studies were located regarding hematological effects in humans after 

dermal exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane. 

One study of hematological effects in dermally-exposed animals was located. Hematological parameters, 

including red blood cell count, white blood cell count, and hemoglobin, were unaffected by dermal 

exposure to 500 mg/kg/day of 1,1,1-trichloroethane (uncovered) for 90 days in rabbits (Torkelson et al. 

1958). A NOAEL derived from this study is recorded in Table 3-3. The scarcity of human and animal 

data limits the assessment of hematological effects that may be caused by dermal exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane. 

Hepatic Effects. No studies were located regarding hepatic effects in humans after dermal exposure 

to 1,1,1-trichloroethane. 

Mild hepatic effects have been reported in animals after dermal exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane. Levels 

of SGOT, ornithine carbamyl transferase, and gamma-glutamyl transferase, enzymes released into the 

serum from damaged hepatocytes, were significantly increased in rats dermally exposed to 280 mg/kg/day 

of 1,1,1-trichloroethane under occlusion in a 3-week study (Viola et al. 1981). Levels of SGPT, another 

indicator of hepatic damage, were not affected. Histopathological effects, including damage to 

hepatocytes (fatty degeneration and mitochondrial swelling) and the presence of small focal intralobular 

inflammatory infiltrates, were seen in the exposed rats. A study in which rabbits were dermally exposed 

to higher doses of 1,1,1-trichloroethane for a longer period (but without occlusion) did not reveal 

histopathological effects in the liver or changes in liver weight (Torkelson et al. 1958). 

Animal data suggest that dermal exposure to high doses of 1,1,1-trichloroethane may result in liver 

effects. Although too little information exists to allow a detailed evaluation, skin absorption is not likely 

to be a problem for foreseeable exposures. The NOAEL and LOAEL values for hepatic effects are 

recorded in Table 3-3. 

Renal Effects. No studies were located regarding renal effects in humans after dermal exposure to 

1,1,1-trichloroethane. 

Renal effects were investigated in two animal studies. Histopathological examination of the kidneys 

found no lesions following repeated dermal exposure to 280 mg/kg/day (covered) in rats or 

500 mg/kg/day (uncovered) in rabbits (Torkelson et al. 1958; Viola et al. 1981). 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 108 

3. HEALTH EFFECTS 

The scarcity of human and animal data limits the assessment of renal effects that may be caused by 

dermal exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane. The NOAEL values for renal effects in rats and rabbits are 

recorded in Table 3-3. 

Dermal Effects. Dermal exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane causes reversible effects in humans, which 

increase from mild irritation to chemical burns as exposure duration increases. Volunteers who immersed 

their thumbs in beakers of undiluted 1,1,1-trichloroethane for 30 minutes reported mild burning pain after 

.10 minutes of exposure (Stewart and Dodd 1964). Following exposure, mild erythema and fine scaling 

were visible on the thumb. The scaling was easily rinsed and the erythema disappeared within 1 hour. 

Similar results were obtained when the entire hand was immersed in the beaker, except that the burning 

sensation began earlier, became more intense, and then was replaced by a feeling of cold that continued 

10 minutes after exposure ended. When the subject repeatedly alternated immersion in 1,1,1-trichloroethane with exposure to air, intense cold was produced by evaporation of 1,1,1-trichloroethane from the 

skin. The hand remained cold for 45 minutes after the end of exposure. 

Brief dermal exposure to a small amount of 1,1,1-trichloroethane covered with a glass disk produced an 

immediate increase in blood flow that dropped back to pre-exposure levels after 1 hour (Wahlberg 

1984a). Slight, transient erythema was visible from 10 to 20 minutes following exposure. The subject 

reported mild stinging and burning sensations. None of these effects were found when a smaller amount 

of 1,1,1-trichloroethane was allowed to spread freely on the subject's skin, probably due to rapid 

evaporation of the chemical (Wahlberg 1984a). Repeated uncovered application of a small amount had 

no effect on skin-fold thickness and produced no visible dermal reaction (Wahlberg 1984b). 

One case of allergic contact dermatitis from 1,1,1-trichloroethane was located in the literature (Ingber 

1991). A worker whose job included using 1,1,1-trichloroethane to clean metal plates developed severe 

acute hand eczema soon after starting the job. The eczema persisted throughout 3 years of employment. 

Patch tests at that time showed a positive reaction to 1,1,1-trichloroethane. The eczema disappeared after 

a few weeks when contact with 1,1,1-trichloroethane was avoided. The possibility of the allergic reaction 

to being caused by 1,1,1-trichloroethane stabilizer was not discussed. 

Assessments of the skin irritancy of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in animals reveal slight to moderate reactions. 

Based on single-application studies in rabbits, 1,1,1-trichloroethane was ranked as a moderate skin irritant 

by Duprat et al. (1976). A single application of 1,1,1-trichloroethane to the mouse ear resulted in 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 109 

3. HEALTH EFFECTS 

significantly increased ear thickness approximately 1 hour following treatment (Iyadomi et al. 2000). 

Torkelson et al. (1958), however, reported only slight reddening and scaliness of rabbits' skin following a 

single application. Irritation observed following repeated application of the compound for 10 days was 

only slightly more noticeable and quickly disappeared after the end of treatment (Torkelson et al. 1958). 

Skin-fold thickness increased 41–81% in rabbits and guinea pigs exposed repeatedly to dermal 

applications of 1,1,1-trichloroethane, and visible erythema and edema were present within 24–72 hours of 

the original exposure (Wahlberg 1984b). Intermediate-duration exposure to doses ranging from 15 to 

500 mg/kg/day produced only slight, reversible irritation at the application site (Torkelson et al. 1958). 

Lack of dose and exposure methodology information makes it difficult to compare the results of these 

studies, but the weight of evidence suggests that 1,1,1-trichloroethane is not a strong dermal irritant in 

animals. 

Kronevi et al. (1981) studied cellular changes produced in the intact skin of guinea pigs by exposure to 

1 mL of undiluted 1,1,1-trichloroethane under a cover glass for durations ranging from 15 minutes to 

16 hours. No gross effects were observed, indicating that the overall irritation produced was minor, but a 

host of degenerative changes in the epidermis, including karyopyknosis, karyolysis, perinuclear edema, 

and spongiosis, was found by histological examination. Focal junctional separation and cellular 

infiltration were observed in the upper part of the dermis. Effects were seen within 15 minutes of 

exposure, and some were still evident 16 hours later. 

Exposure to 4,000 ppm 1,1,1-trichloroethane in the air for 4 hours caused the fur coat of mice to become 

dull (Evans and Balster 1993). This effect was most likely caused by direct contact of the chemical with 

the skin (see also Section 3.2.1.2). 

Although extended dermal contact with relatively concentrated 1,1,1-trichloroethane may cause irritation 

and burning sensations of the skin of humans, most evidence in humans and animals indicates that this 

compound is not a strong skin irritant. There is one report of a 1,1,1-trichloroethane formulation acting as 

a skin sensitizer in humans. The highest NOAEL values and all reliable LOAEL values for dermal effects 

in each species and duration category are recorded in Table 3-3. 

Ocular Effects. Individuals briefly exposed to high 1,1,1-trichloroethane vapor concentrations 

reported mild eye irritation (Stewart et al. 1961). This effect was most likely due to direct contact of the 

chemical with the eye. 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 110 

3. HEALTH EFFECTS 

Ocular administration of 1,1,1-trichloroethane caused only mild eye irritation in rabbits (Duprat et al. 

1976; Krantz et al. 1959; Marzulli and Ruggles 1973; Torkelson et al. 1958). The study by Marzulli and 

Ruggles (1973) was a survey in which 10 laboratories conducted the Draize eye test in rabbits using 

1,1,1-trichloroethane and reported little or no eye irritation. 

Although eye irritation produced by direct application of 1,1,1-trichloroethane seems to be minor, mice 

exposed continuously to 4,000 ppm 1,1,1-trichloroethane in the air for 4 hours exhibited eye irritation 

during exposure (Evans and Balster 1993). The highest NOAEL values and all reliable LOAEL values 

for ocular effects in each species and duration category are recorded in Table 3-3. 

Body Weight Effects. No studies were located regarding body weight effects in humans after dermal 

exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane. 

Animal studies have investigated the effect of topical 1,1,1-trichloroethane application on body weight. 

Acute exposure to 7,360 mg/kg of 1,1,1-trichloroethane (covered) decreased body weight gain in guinea 

pigs (Wahlberg and Boman 1979). A lower dose had no effect on body weight in rabbits (Kinkead and 

Leahy 1987). Intermediate exposure to 280 mg/kg/day under occlusion reduced growth in rats (Viola et 

al. 1981). Exposure to a higher dose for a longer period did not affect rabbit body growth, but 1,1,1-trichloroethane was applied uncovered in this study (Torkelson et al. 1958). Food consumption was not 

monitored in these studies. Effects of 1,1,1-trichloroethane on body weight may have been produced by 

effects on appetite and food intake secondary to central nervous system depression, rather than 

physiological effects on growth and development. 

The scarcity of human and animal data limits the assessment of body weight effects caused by dermal 

exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane. The NOAEL and LOAEL values for body weight changes are 

recorded in Table 3-3. 

3.2.3.3 Immunological and Lymphoreticular Effects 

One report of a worker who developed allergic contact dermatitis to a formulation of 1,1,1-trichloroethane 

(Ingber 1991) is discussed in more detail under Dermal Effects in Section 3.2.3.2. 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 111 

3. HEALTH EFFECTS 

In animals, immunological effects following dermal exposure were investigated only by histopathological 

examination. No lesions or weight changes were found in the spleens of rabbits exposed to moderate 

1,1,1-trichloroethane levels (500 mg/kg/day; no occlusion) in a 90-day study (Torkelson et al. 1958). The 

NOAEL value derived from this study is recorded in Table 3-3. The scarcity of human and animal data 

precludes the assessment of potential effects on immune system tissues and function after dermal 

exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane. 

3.2.3.4 Neurological Effects 

Three women developed peripheral neuropathy after frequent, prolonged dermal contact with 

formulations of 1,1,1-trichloroethane and other chemicals at their workplace (Howse et al. 1989; Liss 

1988). The women initially complained of numbness in their limbs, and subsequent nerve conduction 

studies showed alterations in peripheral nerve activity. The effect was diagnosed as primarily a distal 

sensory peripheral neuropathy. These cases were unusual because the effect was greater in the hands than 

in the feet, the reverse of most peripheral neuropathies. Sural nerve biopsies in two of the women 

performed 3–4 years after diagnosis revealed chronic neuropathy (axonopathy and myelinopathy) (Liss 

1988). The authors did not establish a causal relationship with 1,1,1-trichloroethane. Two more recent 

cases of peripheral neuropathy were reported following exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane used as a 

degreasing agent (House et al. 1994, 1996). 

Dermal studies including tests of neurological function in animals were not located. Neurological effects 

were investigated by histopathological examination of the brain in one study. The value of these data is 

limited, however, since physical changes in the brain have not been found to accompany serious 

neurological effects in high level inhalation studies. No lesions or weight changes were found in the 

brains of rabbits exposed to 500 mg/kg/day of 1,1,1-trichloroethane (no occlusion) in a study of 

intermediate duration (Torkelson et al. 1958). The NOAEL value derived from this study is recorded in 

Table 3-3. These data are not sufficient for assessing the neurotoxicity of 1,1,1-trichloroethane after 

dermal exposure to the compound. 

3.2.3.5 Reproductive Effects 

No studies were located regarding reproductive effects in humans after dermal exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane. 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 112 

3. HEALTH EFFECTS 

Reproductive effects following dermal exposure were investigated only by histopathological examination 

in animals. No lesions or weight changes were found in the testes of rabbits exposed to 500 mg/kg/day of 

1,1,1-trichloroethane (no occlusion) in a study of intermediate duration (Torkelson et al. 1958). The 

NOAEL value derived from this study is recorded in Table 3-3. The absence of human data, tests in 

female laboratory animals, and evaluation of reproductive function prevents an acceptable assessment of 

possible reproductive effects from dermally administered 1,1,1-trichloroethane. 

3.2.3.6 Developmental Effects 

No studies were located regarding developmental effects in humans or animals after dermal exposure to 

1,1,1-trichloroethane. 

3.2.3.7 Cancer 

No studies were located regarding cancer in humans or animals after dermal exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane. 

3.3 GENOTOXICITY 

The genotoxic effects of 1,1,1-trichloroethane have been studied extensively. The results are summarized 

in Tables 3-4 and 3-5. Although most tests of mutagenicity in the Ames Salmonella assay produced 

negative results, those conducted in a desiccator, to minimize evaporation and maximize exposure, were 

mostly positive (Gocke et al. 1981; Nestmann et al. 1980, 1984; Simmon et al. 1977). These results 

indicate that 1,1,1-trichloroethane may be mutagenic in Salmonella. The results were negative in other 

tests of genotoxicity in bacteria and fungi (see Table 3-5). 1,1,1-Trichloroethane is a relatively volatile 

compound; therefore, a high evaporation rate could result in lower doses reaching the microorganisms 

and thus affect the outcome of genotoxicity tests. This explanation may account for the largely negative 

results observed in tests with bacteria and fungi. On the other hand, many compounds more volatile than 

1,1,1-trichloroethane are positive in these studies. A weakly positive result was obtained in a test for 

induction of deletions via intrachromosomal recombination in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae 

(Brennan and Schiestl 1998). 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 113 

3. HEALTH EFFECTS 

Table 3-4. Genotoxicity of 1,1,1-Trichloroethane In Vivo 

Species (test system) End point Results Reference 

Tradescantia Pigmentation change in plant + Schairer et al. 1983 

stamen hairs 

Allium Chromosomal aberrations + Rank and Nelson 1994 

Drosophila melanogaster Sex linked recessive lethal – Gocke et al. 1981 

mutations 

Drosophila melanogaster Mitotic recombination – Vogel and Nivard 1993 

Mouse erythrocytes Micronucleus test – Tsuchimoto and Matter 1981 

Mouse bone marrow Micronucleus test – Gocke et al. 1981; Katz et al. 

1981; Mackay 1990; 

Salamone et al. 1981 

Mouse liver DNA adducts (+) Turina et al. 1986 

Mouse liver DNA unwinding – Taningher et al. 1991 

– = negative; + = positive; (+) = weakly positive; DNA = deoxyribonucleic acid 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 114 

3. HEALTH EFFECTS 

Table 3-5. Genotoxicity of 1,1,1-Trichloroethane In Vitro 

Results 

Species (test With Without 

system) End point activation activation Reference 

Prokaryotic organisms: 

Salmonella Reverse – – Baker and Bonin 1981; Brooks and 

typhimurium on mutation Dean 1981; Ichinotsubo et al. 1981b; 

plates Legault et al. 1994; MacDonald 1981; 

Martire et al. 1981; MerschSundermann 1989; Nagao and 

Takahashi 1981; Nestmann et al. 

1980; Quillardet et al. 1985; Richold 

and Jones 1981; Rowland and Severn 

1981; Simmon and Shepherd 1981; 

Trueman 1981; Venitt and CroftonSleigh 1981 

S. typhimurium in Reverse – – Falck et al. 1985; Suovaniemi et al. 

liquid mutation 1985 

S. typhimurium on Reverse + + Gocke et al. 1981; Nestmann et al. 

plates in dessicator mutation 1980, 1984; Simmon et al. 1977 

– – Milman et al. 1988 

S. typhimurium Fluctuation – – Gatehouse 1981; Hubbard et al. 1981 

S. typhimurium Forward – No data Skopek et al. 1981 

mutation 

– – Roldan-Arjona et al. 1991 

S. typhimurium umu-test – – Nakamura et al. 1987; Ono et al. 

1991a, 1991b 

Rec-assay for – – Kada 1981 

DNA repair 

Escherichia coli Reverse – – Matsushima et al. 1981 

mutation 

E. coli Differential killing – – Green 1981; Tweats 1981 

E. coli Lambda – – Thomson 1981 

prophage 

induction 

E. coli Gene induction – No data Quillardet et al. 1985 

E. coli Growth inhibition (+) – Rosenkranz et al. 1981 

E. coli DNA damage No data – Legault et al. 1994 

Vibrio fischeri DNA damage No data – Legault et al. 1994 

Eukaryotic organisms:

 Fungi: 

Schizosaccharo- Forward – – Loprieno 1981 

myces pombe mutation 

Aspergillus Forward No data – Crebelli and Carere 1987 

nidulans mutation 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 115 

3. HEALTH EFFECTS 

Table 3-5. Genotoxicity of 1,1,1-Trichloroethane In Vitro 

Results 

Species (test With Without 

system) End point activation activation Reference 

A. nidulans 

A. nidulans 

Saccharomyces 

cerevisiae 

S. cerevisiae 

S. cerevisiae 

S. cerevisiae 

S. cerevisiae 

S. cerevisiae 

Mammalian cells: 

 HeLa cells 

 Mouse hepatocytes 

 Rat hepatocytes 

Rat hepatocytes 

 Human 

lymphoblasts 

 L5178Y mouse 

lymphoma cells 

 Chinese hamster 

ovary cells 

 Chinese hamster 

ovary cells 

 Human peripheral 

lymphocytes

 Baby hamster

kidney cells 

Mitotic 

aneuploidy 

Mitotic crossing 

over 

Reversion 

Mitotic 

aneuploidy 

Mitotic crossing 

over 

DNA repair 

Mitotic gene 

conversion 

Gene deletions 

Unscheduled 

DNA synthesis 

Unscheduled 

DNA synthesis 

Unscheduled 

DNA synthesis 

Degranulation of 

endoplasmic 

reticulum 

Gene locus 

mutation 

Forward 

mutation 

Chromosome 

aberrations 

Sister chromatid 

exchange 

Sister chromatid 

exchange 

Cell 

transformation 

No data 

No data 

– 

No data 

– 

– 

– 

– 

No data 

– 

No data 

No data 

No data 

No data 

? 

– 

(+) 

– 

? 

No data 

– 

+ 

– 

– 

– 

– 

No data 

– 

– 

– 

(+) 

– 

+ 

– 

+ 

– 

– 

– 

+ 

No data 

– 

– 

No data 

+ 

Cerebelli and Carere 1987; Crebelli et 

al. 1988 

Crebelli and Carere 1987 

Mehta and von Borstel 1981 

Whittaker et al. 1990 

Parry and Sharp 1981 

Kassinova et al. 1981 

Sharp and Parry 1981a 

Jagannath et al. 1981; Sharp and 

Parry 1981b; Zimmerman and Scheel 

1981 

Brennan and Schiestl 1998 

Martin and McDermid 1981 

Milman et al. 1988 

Althaus et al. 1982; Milman et al.1988; 

Shimada et al. 1985; Williams et al. 

1989 

Fey et al. 1981 

Penman and Crespi 1987 

Myhr and Caspary 1988 

Mitchell et al. 1988b 

Galloway et al. 1987 

Perry and Thomson 1981 

Galloway et al. 1987 

Lindahl-Kiessling et al. 1989 

Styles 1981 

Daniel and Dehnel 1981 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 116 

3. HEALTH EFFECTS 

Table 3-5. Genotoxicity of 1,1,1-Trichloroethane In Vitro 

Results 

Species (test With Without 

system) End point activation activation Reference 

Rat embryo cells Cell No data + Price et al. 1978 

F1706 transformation 

 Hamster embryo Cell No data + Hatch et al. 1982, 1983 

cells transformation 

 Mice BALB/c-3T3 Cell No data + Milman et al. 1988 

cells transformation Tu et al. 1985; 

Calf thymus Binding to DNA – No data DiRenzo et al. 1982 

– = negative; + = positive; (+) = weakly positive; ? = equivocal; DNA = deoxyribonucleic acid 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 117 

3. HEALTH EFFECTS 

Most assays of genotoxicity in mammalian cells have been negative, but 1,1,1-trichloroethane did 

produce chromosomal aberrations in Chinese hamster ovary cells in vitro (Galloway et al. 1987). In vivo 

micronucleus tests for chromosomal aberrations were all negative (Gocke et al. 1981; Katz et al. 1981; 

HSIA 1990; Salamone et al. 1981; Tsuchimoto and Matter 1981). Positive or weakly positive results 

were reported in assays for unscheduled DNA synthesis in mouse hepatocytes (Milman et al. 1988); 

degranulation of endoplasmic reticulum, which measures the ability of a compound to displace polysomes 

from endoplasmic reticulum in rat hepatocytes in vitro (Fey et al. 1981); and formation of DNA adducts 

(binding of the compound to DNA) in mouse liver in vivo (Turina et al. 1986). Tests of cell 

transformation in rat embryo cells, hamster embryo cells, baby hamster kidney cells, and mouse 

BALB/c-3T3 cells were almost all positive (Daniel and Dehnel 1981; Hatch et al. 1982, 1983; Milman et 

al. 1988; Price et al. 1978; Tu et al. 1985). Cell transformation systems are believed to be similar to the 

process of neoplastic transformation in vivo. 

In summary, the existing genotoxicity data are largely negative, although 1,1,1-trichloroethane was 

mutagenic in a few assays with Salmonella, induced chromosomal aberrations in a Chinese hamster ovary 

cell assay, and was positive in most mammalian cell transformation assays. In addition, positive results 

may have been produced by stabilizers and not 1,1,1-trichloroethane itself. Therefore, a firm conclusion 

regarding the genotoxic potential of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in humans is not possible. 

3.4 TOXICOKINETICS 

Upon first exposure, 1,1,1-trichloroethane is rapidly and efficiently absorbed by the lung, skin (under 

conditions to prevent evaporation), and gastrointestinal tract of humans and animals. As the duration of 

inhalation exposure increases, the percentage of absorption decreases because steady-state levels are 

approached in the blood and tissues, and 1,1,1-trichloroethane is metabolized at a low rate. Animal 

studies have demonstrated that, once absorbed, 1,1,1-trichloroethane is distributed by the blood to tissues 

and organs throughout the body, including to developing fetuses, with preferential distribution to fatty 

tissues. The predominant pathway of elimination of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in humans and animals, 

regardless of route of exposure, is exhalation of the unchanged compound. When exposure ceases, the 

compound is rapidly cleared from the body. In animal studies, only trace amounts of the compound 

remain in tissues within days of the termination of short-term exposure. 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 118 

3. HEALTH EFFECTS 

1,1,1-Trichloroethane is metabolized oxidatively, at low rates, to trichloroethanol and trichloroacetic acid 

by the cytochrome P-450 mixed-function oxidase system. These metabolites are excreted in the urine, 

and other minor metabolites (carbon dioxide [CO2] and acetylene) are excreted in expired air. 

(The acetylene is formed by reductive dechlorination of 1,1,1-trichloroethane under conditions of low 

oxygen supply.) Experiments with animals and humans have demonstrated that only small fractions of 

absorbed 1,1,1-trichloroethane doses (<10%) are metabolized, regardless of the route of exposure. The 

toxicokinetic behavior of 1,1,1-trichloroethane has the same qualitative pattern in humans, rats, and mice; 

however, some quantitative differences among these species have been observed, including a higher 

blood:air partition coefficient and an increased rate of metabolism in mice compared with rats and 

humans. Physiologically-based pharmacokinetic models have been developed to describe the kinetic 

behavior of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in mice, rats, and humans; these models have been used to make 

interspecies and interroute extrapolations in estimating 1,1,1-trichloroethane exposure levels in humans 

that will produce (or not produce) toxic effects (Bogen and Hall 1989; Dallas et al. 1989; Leung 1992; 

Nolan et al. 1984; Reitz et al. 1988; USAF 1990). 

3.4.1 Absorption 

3.4.1.1 Inhalation Exposure 

Data from experiments in which humans were exposed for short periods to 1,1,1-trichloroethane vapors 

indicate that the compound is rapidly and extensively absorbed by the respiratory system. 1,1,1-Trichloroethane was detected in the arterial blood of men within .10 seconds after exposure to 250 or 

350 ppm (Astrand et al. 1973). When subjects held single breaths of air containing radiolabeled 1,1,1-trichloroethane for 15–40 seconds, alveolar concentrations decreased to between 10 and 20% of the initial 

concentrations, indicating extensive absorption upon initial exposure (Morgan et al. 1972a, 1972b). The 

extent of absorption of inhaled 1,1,1-trichloroethane decreases with continued exposure to the compound, 

as concentrations in alveolar air, blood, and tissues attain near equilibrium or steady state. Average lung 

retentions of 25–30% were measured in humans exposed to 35–350 ppm for 4–6 hours (i.e., the 

concentration of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in expired air after 4–6 hours of exposure equaled 70–75% of the 

inspired concentration) (Monster et al. 1979; Nolan et al. 1984). Physical exercise during 0.5–4-hour 

exposures increased systemic absorption of 1,1,1-trichloroethane, due to increased alveolar ventilation 

and cardiac output (Astrand et al. 1973; Monster et al. 1979). While steady-state levels in blood are 

approached within the first hours after exposure begins (Astrand et al. 1973; Monster et al. 1979; Nolan et 

al. 1984), Nolan et al. (1984) predicted, using a physiologically-based kinetic model, that 12 consecutive 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 119 

3. HEALTH EFFECTS 

6-hour daily exposures (presumably to concentrations of 350 ppm) would be required for 1,1,1-trichloroethane in body tissues to reach 95% of steady state. Absorption is expected to be relatively low after 

steady state is reached, because the initial extensive absorption of 1,1,1-trichloroethane is the result of 

blood and tissue loading (which in turn are affected by respective blood:air and tissue:blood partition 

coefficients), tissue volumes and blood flows, and low metabolism. Blood:air partition coefficients for 

humans, rats, and mice were 2.53, 5.76, and 10.8, respectively (Reitz et al. 1988), meaning that small 

rodents will experience greater systemic uptake than humans, with mice receiving the highest dose. Mice 

also have the highest respiratory and circulatory rates, two additional factors that significantly influence 

systemic absorption of 1,1,1-trichloroethane. 1,1,1-Trichloroethane is poorly metabolized in humans and 

animals (see Section 3.4.3). 

Animal experiments provide supporting evidence that inhaled 1,1,1-trichloroethane is rapidly and 

extensively absorbed and that the absorption, during short-term exposures, is influenced by ventilation 

rate. In rats exposed to 50 or 500 ppm, percentage uptake decreased from .80% at the onset of exposure 

to .50% after 2 hours of exposure to 50 or 500 ppm. 1,1,1-Trichloroethane was detected in arterial blood 

within 2 minutes of the onset of exposure and approached steady-state concentrations within 2 hours 

(Dallas et al. 1989). In anesthetized dogs under regulated respiration conditions, 1,1,1-trichloroethane 

was detected in arterial blood within 2 minutes of the onset of exposure to 700, 1,500, or 3,000 ppm. 

Arterial blood concentrations approached steady-state levels within 1 hour at 700 ppm, but not at 1,500 or 

3,000 ppm; absorption increased with increases in pulmonary ventilation rate (Hobara et al. 1982, 1983a, 

1983b). 

3.4.1.2 Oral Exposure 

Data regarding the rate or extent of absorption of ingested 1,1,1-trichloroethane in humans are not 

available, but based on extensive animal data, it is anticipated that oral absorption of 1,1,1-trichloroethane 

will be extensive in humans. Animal experiments indicate that 1,1,1-trichloroethane is rapidly and 

completely absorbed by the gastrointestinal tract. Maximum levels of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in venous 

blood of rats were detected within 10–15 minutes of gavage administration of a 14.2 mg/kg dose in water 

(Reitz et al. 1988). In experiments in which rats were given an 8-hour free access to drinking water 

containing [2-

14C]-labeled 1,1,1-trichloroethane, radioactivity in expired air, urine, and selected tissues 

(assayed 56 hours following cessation of access to the labeled water) represented 95.2% of the average 

dose of 116 mg/kg, indicating nearly complete absorption of the administered dose (Reitz et al. 1988). In 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 120 

3. HEALTH EFFECTS 

experiments with rats and mice given single gavage doses of radiolabeled 1,1,1-trichloroethane in 

vegetable oil ranging from 100 to 3,000 mg/kg, dose-recovery in expired air ranged from 90 to 97% (RTI 

1987). Nearly complete absorption of orally administered 1,1,1-trichloroethane was also indicated in 

experiments in which rats or mice were pretreated with daily doses of the compound in corn oil for 

4 weeks (3,000 and 1,000 mg/kg/day for rats and mice, respectively) before radiolabeled compound was 

administered to measure absorption and elimination. Radioactivity in expired air and urine (collected for 

48 hours after administration) accounted for 88–98% of the administered doses (Mitoma et al. 1985). 

Absorption from the gastrointestinal tract is more rapid for 1,1,1-trichloroethane given in water than in 

vegetable oils, because the oils act as a reservoir for the chemical in the gut, so that most of the chemical 

remains in the oil in the gut until the oil is digested and absorbed. 

3.4.1.3 Dermal Exposure 

1,1,1-Trichloroethane is absorbed through human skin. The compound was detected in alveolar air of 

volunteers during 30-minute skin absorption experiments (Stewart and Dodd 1964). The skin was 

exposed to the undiluted compound by thumb or hand immersion or topical application to the hand. The 

amount of 1,1,1-trichloroethane absorbed depended on the surface area of exposed skin and the method of 

exposure (i.e., immersion or topical application). 1,1,1-Trichloroethane concentrations in blood and 

alveolar air were 3–4 μg/mL and 2–5 ppm, respectively, immediately following the last of three daily, 

2-hour exposures of 12.5 cm2

 areas of covered forearm skin in experiments with other subjects (Fukabori 

et al. 1977). A dermal absorption rate of 56 nmol 1,1,1-trichloroethane/minute/cm2

 was calculated for 

human subjects exposed for 3 minutes to liquid 1,1,1-trichloroethane (neat) on a 3-cm2

 area of forearm 

skin (Kezic et al. 2001). A maximum absorption rate of 0.005 nmol/hour into the blood was reported for 

volunteers whose forearm and hand (approximately 1,000 cm2

 of surface area) were exposed to 1,1,1-trichloroethane vapors (concentration of about 38,000 ppm) for 20 minutes (Kezic et al. 2000). Dermal 

absorption rates were 45.7 nmol/minute/cm2

 in mice after 2.92-cm2 areas of skin were exposed to 

undiluted compound for 15 minutes under occluded conditions to prevent evaporative loss (Tsuruta 

1975). In rats, .30% of a 2 mL volume of undiluted 1,1,1-trichloroethane was absorbed by a 3.1-cm2 

area of skin in 24 hours under occluded conditions (Morgan et al. 1991). It should be noted that under 

occluded conditions, which prevent evaporation, concentrated 1,1,1-trichloroethane will defat the skin 

and promote its own systemic absorption by disrupting the stratum corneum, the actual barrier to 

penetration. These are not conditions likely to occur in exposed people, however. There is no 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 121 

3. HEALTH EFFECTS 

information available on the extent and rapidity of percutaneous absorption of 1,1,1-trichloroethane from 

aqueous solutions, a far more likely source of dermal contact, albeit at much lower dose rates. 

1,1,1-Trichloroethane vapors will be absorbed through exposed skin to some extent, although absorption 

through the respiratory tract will predominate during whole-body exposure. Quantitative examination of 

the relative magnitudes of percutaneous and respiratory absorption in humans equipped with respiratory 

protection showed that a whole-body exposure to 600 ppm 1,1,1-trichloroethane for 3.5 hours would 

deliver a dermal dose equivalent to an absorbed inhalation dose from exposure to only .0.6 ppm over the 

same period (Riihimaki and Pfaffli 1978). 

3.4.2 Distribution 

3.4.2.1 Inhalation Exposure 

No studies were located regarding the distribution of 1,1,1-trichloroethane to human tissues after 

inhalation exposure. Nevertheless, 30 autopsies revealed detectable levels of the compound in 

subcutaneous and renal fat, liver, lung, and muscle (Alles et al. 1988). 

Animal studies indicate that inhaled 1,1,1-trichloroethane is distributed by the blood to tissues and organs 

throughout the body, with preferential distribution to fatty tissues. 1,1,1-Trichloroethane is rapidly 

cleared from tissues after exposure ceases (Holmberg et al. 1977; Schumann et al. 1982a; Takahara 

1986b). Concentrations of 1,1,1-trichloroethane were higher in the liver than in the blood, kidneys, and 

brain of mice exposed to 10–10,000 ppm for 0.5–24 hours (fatty tissues were not analyzed separately) 

(Holmberg et al. 1977). In mice exposed to 1,000 ppm for 1 hour, tissue concentrations immediately after 

exposure displayed the following order: fat > liver > kidney > spleen = blood > lung = heart = brain 

(Takahara 1986b). In mice and rats exposed to 150 or 1,500 ppm 1,1,1-trichloroethane for 6 hours, 

concentrations were much (.11–26-fold) higher in fatty tissue than concentrations in the liver and 

kidneys immediately following exposure (Schumann et al. 1982a). In male dogs that were exposed to 

10,000 ppm of 1,1,1-trichloroethane for 3 minutes (4 times at 4-hour intervals), wet weight concentrations 

of 1,1,1-trichloroethane, 4 hours after the last exposure, showed the following order: abdominal fat > 

renal fat > brain ≈ liver ≈ kidney ≈ lungs (Katagiri et al. 1997). Experiments in which pregnant mice 

were exposed by inhalation to 1,1,1-trichloroethane showed that the compound also is distributed to 

fetuses (Shimada 1988; Danielsson et al. 1986). Following a 1-hour exposure of pregnant mice to 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 122 

3. HEALTH EFFECTS 

1,000 ppm, concentrations of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in maternal organs, fetuses, and placentas ranked in 

the following order: fat > blood > kidney > liver > placenta > brain > fetus (Shimada 1988). 

3.4.2.2 Oral Exposure 

No studies were located regarding the distribution of 1,1,1-trichloroethane to human tissue after oral 

exposure to the compound. Ingested 1,1,1-trichloroethane, however, is probably widely distributed 

among tissues, with preferential accumulation in fatty tissues, based on results of animal studies. 

Distribution of 1,1,1-trichloroethane to tissues will be governed by several factors, including tissue blood 

flow rate, tissue volume, and tissue:blood partition coefficient, the latter factor being probably the most 

important. Following gavage administration of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in vegetable oil to rats (100, 300, or 

1,000 mg/kg) or mice (300, 1,000, or 3,000 mg/kg), the compound was distributed to tissues throughout 

the body, with preferential accumulation in fatty tissues (RTI 1987). 

3.4.2.3 Dermal Exposure 

No studies were located regarding the distribution of 1,1,1-trichloroethane among human or animal 

tissues following dermal exposure; however, dermally applied 1,1,1-trichloroethane, once absorbed, is 

probably widely distributed among tissues, with preferential accumulation in fatty tissues, based on 

results from oral and inhalation studies with animals. 

3.4.2.4 Other Routes of Exposure 

Measurements of the tissue distribution of 14C-1,1,1-trichloroethane or its metabolites in rats or mice 

24 hours after an intravenous injection indicate a distribution pattern similar to that after oral or inhalation 

exposure; adipose tissue contained higher concentrations than skeletal muscle, liver, or skin tissue (RTI 

1987). 

3.4.3 Metabolism 

Metabolism appears to play a relatively minor role in the overall disposition of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in 

humans and animals. Only a small fraction of the absorbed dose (<10%) is metabolized; a large fraction 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 123 

3. HEALTH EFFECTS 

of the absorbed dose is excreted unchanged in exhaled air, regardless of the exposure route. In humans 

exposed to 70 or 145 ppm 1,1,1-trichloroethane in air for 4 hours, an estimated 60–80% of the absorbed 

compound was excreted unchanged in exhaled breath (Monster et al. 1979). Metabolites in urine, 

trichloroethanol and trichloroacetic acid, collected for 70 hours postexposure represented approximately 

2 and 0.5%, respectively, of the 1,1,1-trichloroethane initially absorbed. In humans exposed to 35 or 

350 ppm for 6 hours, >91% of absorbed 1,1,1-trichloroethane was excreted unchanged by the lungs, 5– 

6% was metabolized and excreted as trichloroethanol and trichloroacetic acid, and <1% remained in the 

body after 9 days (Nolan et al. 1984). 

In rats and mice dosed by gavage with 1,1,1-trichloroethane in vegetable oil 5 days/week for 4 weeks, 

followed by a single dose of 14C-labeled compound, 85.1 and 92.3% of the doses (3,000 and 4,000 mg/kg 

in rats and mice, respectively) were recovered as unchanged compound in expired air; respective recovery 

percentages of metabolite fractions (48 hours after administration) in rats and mice were 0.9 and 2.0% as 

CO2, 2.1 and 3.4% as metabolites in urine, and 1.2 and 0.7% as presumed metabolites remaining in the 

carcasses (Mitoma et al. 1985). Similarly, exhalation of unchanged compound was the predominant 

pathway for elimination of absorbed 1,1,1-trichloroethane, accounting for >90% of doses administered in 

drinking water studies with rats (Reitz et al. 1988) and in inhalation studies with rats and mice (Schumann 

et al. 1982a). Comparison of metabolic disposition in mice and rats indicated that mice metabolized 2– 

3 times more 1,1,1-trichloroethane on a body weight basis; however, in both species, metabolism was a 

dose-dependent, saturable process that represented a minor route of elimination (Schumann et al. 1982a, 

1982b). 

Analysis of urine following human and animal exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane identified 

trichloroethanol, trichloroethanol glucuronide, and trichloroacetic acid as major metabolites of 1,1,1-trichloroethane; CO2, identified in exhaled breath, is the other major metabolite (Kawai et al. 1991; Mitoma 

et al. 1985; Monster et al. 1979; Nolan et al. 1984; Reitz et al. 1988; Schumann et al. 1982a). Figure 3-3 

illustrates a general metabolic scheme for 1,1,1-trichloroethane. The initial oxidation step is thought to be 

catalyzed by the microsomal cytochrome P-450 mixed-function oxidase system. In vitro reaction 

mixtures containing rat hepatic microsomes and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (reduced 

form) (NADPH) oxidize 1,1,1-trichloroethane to trichloroethanol. 1,1,1-Trichloroethane metabolism 

significantly increased when microsomes from rats pretreated with phenobarbital, an inducer of certain 

isozymes of cytochrome P-450, were used. This finding provides supporting evidence of the involvement 

of this enzyme system in the metabolism, albeit limited, of 1,1,1-trichloroethane (Ivanetich and Van den 

Honert 1981; Koizumi et al. 1983). The pathway for conversion of trichloroethanol to trichloroacetic acid 
Cl H 

Cl C C H 

Cl H 

1,1,1-Trichloroethane 

Cl H 

Cl C C OH Glucuronide 

Conjugates Cl H

Trichloroethanol

Cl O

Cl C C OH CO2 

Cl 

Trichloroacetic acid 

3. HEALTH EFFECTS 

Figure 3-3. Metabolic Scheme for 1,1,1-Trichloroethane 

1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 124 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 125 

3. HEALTH EFFECTS 

presumably involves the intermediate formation of chloral hydrate and may involve alcohol and aldehyde 

dehydrogenases or cytochrome P-450 mixed-function oxidases (Casciola and Ivanetich 1984; Ivanetich 

and Van den Honert 1981). Although trichloroacetic acid or chloral hydrate were not detected as in vitro 

metabolic products of 1,1,1-trichloroethane with rat hepatic microsomal cytochrome P-450 preparations 

(Ivanetich and Van den Honert 1981; Koizumi et al. 1983), in vitro production of chloral hydrate from 

1,1,1-trichloroethane was demonstrated in reaction mixtures containing rat nuclei cytochrome 

P-450 preparations (Casciola and Ivanetich 1984). 

In vivo and in vitro evidence from rat experiments suggests that, under conditions of low oxygen supply, 

1,1,1-trichloroethane can be reductively dechlorinated, to a limited extent, to radical intermediates and 

eventually to acetylene (Durk et al. 1992); in these experiments, exhaled acetylene accounted for <1% of 

metabolized 1,1,1-trichloroethane. The reductive dechlorination of 1,1,1-trichloroethane appears to be 

mediated by cytochrome P-450, since putative induction by phenobarbital treatment accelerated the in 

vitro and in vivo metabolic formation of acetylene. The reductive metabolic pathway is not indicated in 

Figure 3-3, because it apparently represents a very minor metabolic pathway. 

Repeated exposure of mice and rats to 1,1,1-trichloroethane apparently does not increase the relative 

importance of metabolism to the in vivo disposition of the compound (Schumann et al. 1982b), even 

though another research group reported that hepatic microsomes from rats exposed continuously for 

10 days to 800 ppm of 1,1,1-trichloroethane displayed greater in vitro enzymatic activities for 1,1,1-trichloroethane oxidation than microsomes from fresh-air controls (Koizumi et al. 1983). Schumann et al. 

(1982b) found that repeated exposure of rats or mice to 1,500 ppm unlabeled 1,1,1-trichloroethane for 

16 months did not alter the routes of excretion, the extent of metabolism, or the concentration of 

radioactivity in tissues after a 6-hour inhalation exposure to 1,500 ppm [2–14C]-1,1,1-trichloroethane, 

compared with age-matched animals subjected to single 6-hour exposures. In general, studies regarding 

the effects of 1,1,1-trichloroethane on hepatic enzyme induction are inconclusive. Although Koizumi et 

al. (1983) and others (Bruckner et al. 2001; Fuller et al. 1970; Lal and Shah 1970) reported that 1,1,1-trichloroethane induced hepatic cytochrome P-450 enzyme levels in rats, others observed no effects 

(Toftgaard et al. 1981; Wang et al. 1996) or inhibitory effects (Nakahama et al. 2000; Savolainen et al. 

1977) in rats exposed to 1,1,1-trichloroethane. 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 126 

3. HEALTH EFFECTS 

3.4.4 Elimination and Excretion 

3.4.4.1 Inhalation Exposure 

After acute exposure, most inhaled 1,1,1-trichloroethane is rapidly excreted unchanged in expired air of 

humans and animals. Within 1 hour of administration, humans exhaled 44% of the radioactivity they had 

inhaled from a single breath of radiolabeled 1,1,1-trichloroethane (Morgan et al. 1970). Humans exposed 

to 70 or 145 ppm for 4 hours exhaled 60–80% of inhaled 1,1,1-trichloroethane unchanged during a 

150-hour period after exposure (Monster et al. 1979). Other humans exposed to 35 or 350 ppm for 

6 hours exhaled >91% of absorbed 1,1,1-trichloroethane as the unchanged compound within 9 days of 

exposure (Nolan et al. 1984). Similar observations were made in studies of rats (Ikeda and Ohtsuji 1972; 

Schumann et al. 1982a, 1982b), mice (Schumann et al. 1982a, 1982b), and anesthetized dogs (Hobara et 

al. 1982). Nolan et al. (1984) described the temporal elimination pattern for 1,1,1-trichloroethane in 

blood and expired air of humans as "triexponential" and estimated half-lives of 44 minutes, 5.7 hours, and 

53 hours for the initial, intermediate, and terminal phases, respectively. Raymer et al. (1991) used a 

two-compartment model to fit experimental observations of the temporal decrease in 1,1,1-trichloroethane 

concentrations in human breath samples collected for 4 hours after exposure to contaminated 

atmospheres; elimination half-lives ranged from 0.00 to 0.17 hours for the first compartment and from 

1.80 to 6.08 hours for the second compartment. 

Exhalation of CO2 and urinary excretion of metabolites (trichloroethanol and trichloroacetic acid) 

represent minor elimination pathways for inhaled 1,1,1-trichloroethane. Nevertheless, observed 

correlations between urinary concentrations of 1,1,1-trichloroethane metabolites and exposure 

concentrations indicate that urine analysis may be a useful method of exposure assessment (Caperos et al. 

1982; Ghittori et al. 1987; Imbriani et al. 1988; Kawai et al. 1991; Mizunuma et al. 1995; Seki et al. 

1975). Estimated half-lives for the elimination of trichloroethanol and trichloroacetic acid from human 

blood after inhalation exposures to 1,1,1-trichloroethane were 10–27 hours for trichloroethanol and 70– 

85 hours for trichloroacetic acid (Monster et al. 1979; Nolan et al. 1984). The long half-life of 

trichloroacetic acid is due to binding of this metabolite to plasma proteins. Daily occupational exposure 

to 1,1,1-trichloroethane progressively increased urinary metabolite levels during the workweek, while 

levels decreased over the weekend (Seki et al. 1975). This observation is consistent with observations of 

the rapid clearance of 1,1,1-trichloroethane and its metabolites from animal tissues after inhalation 

exposure (Dallas et al. 1989; Holmberg et al. 1977; Schumann et al. 1982a, 1982b; Takahara 1986a). 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 127 

3. HEALTH EFFECTS 

3.4.4.2 Oral Exposure 

Humans eliminate ingested 1,1,1-trichloroethane in their exhaled breath (Stewart and Andrews 1966), but 

no studies were located that quantified excretion rates or the extent of excretion. The pattern of 

elimination is expected to be similar to that of inhaled 1,1,1-trichloroethane (i.e., exhalation of unchanged 

1,1,1-trichloroethane should be the predominant route of excretion; exhalation of CO2 and urinary 

excretion of other metabolites are minor routes). This pattern has been observed in animals after 

inhalation (see Section 3.4.4.1) and oral exposure (Mitoma et al. 1985; Reitz et al. 1988; RTI 1987). In 

rats exposed to 1,1,1-trichloroethane in drinking water for 8 hours (total dose of 116 mg/kg), the primary 

route of excretion was rapid elimination of unchanged 1,1,1-trichloroethane in expired air; only 3% of the 

ingested dose was metabolized (Reitz et al. 1988). Essentially all of the ingested 1,1,1-trichloroethane 

was excreted within 30 hours. Similar results were obtained in gavage studies with rats and mice 

(Mitoma et al. 1985; RTI 1987). Excretion via the mother’s milk does not appear to be a significant route 

of excretion for 1,1,1-trichloroethane. Approximately 0.04% of an orally-administered dose of 1,1,1-trichloroethane was excreted in the 24-hour milk of lactating goats (Hamada and Tanaka 1995). 

3.4.4.3 Dermal Exposure 

The pattern of excretion in humans after dermal exposure is expected to be similar to that of inhaled 

1,1,1-trichloroethane: rapid exhalation of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in expired air is the major excretion route; 

exhalation of CO2 and urinary excretion of other metabolites are minor routes (see Section 3.4.4.1). 

Several studies have measured 1,1,1-trichloroethane in the expired breath of humans after (and during) 

short-term dermal exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane (Fukabori et al. 1977; Riihimaki and Pfaffli 1978; 

Stewart and Dodd 1964), but 1,1,1-trichloroethane exhalation as a percentage of absorbed dose was not 

quantitated in these studies. 

Results in animals given 1,1,1-trichloroethane injections indicate that excretion patterns in animals are 

similar regardless of route. In mice given intraperitoneal injections of 1,1,1-trichloroethane, 88% of the 

dose was excreted unchanged in expired air and 1% was excreted as metabolites in urine (Takahara 

1986b). In rats given intraperitoneal injections, 98.7% of the dose was exhaled as unchanged 1,1,1-trichloroethane (Hake et al. 1960). Within 24 hours of intravenous injection of radiolabeled 1,1,1-trichloroethane, exhalation of radioactivity accounted for 91 and 80% of the administered doses in rats and mice, 

respectively; only trace amounts of radioactivity remained in the tissues after 24 hours (RTI 1987). In 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 128 

3. HEALTH EFFECTS 

dogs, 60–70% of intravenously injected 1,1,1-trichloroethane was excreted in expired air within 1 hour 

(Hobara et al. 1981). 

3.4.5 Physiologically Based Pharmacokinetic (PBPK)/Pharmacodynamic (PD) Models 

Physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) models use mathematical descriptions of the uptake and 

disposition of chemical substances to quantitatively describe the relationships among critical biological 

processes (Krishnan et al. 1994). PBPK models are also called biologically based tissue dosimetry 

models. PBPK models are increasingly used in risk assessments, primarily to predict the concentration of 

potentially toxic moieties of a chemical that will be delivered to any given target tissue following various 

combinations of route, dose level, and test species (Clewell and Andersen 1985). Physiologically based 

pharmacodynamic (PBPD) models use mathematical descriptions of the dose-response function to 

quantitatively describe the relationship between target tissue dose and toxic end points. 

PBPK/PD models refine our understanding of complex quantitative dose behaviors by helping to 

delineate and characterize the relationships between: (1) the external/exposure concentration and target 

tissue dose of the toxic moiety, and (2) the target tissue dose and observed responses (Andersen and 

Krishnan 1994; Andersen et al. 1987). These models are biologically and mechanistically based and can 

be used to extrapolate the pharmacokinetic behavior of chemical substances from high to low dose, from 

route to route, between species, and between subpopulations within a species. The biological basis of 

PBPK models results in more meaningful extrapolations than those generated with the more conventional 

use of uncertainty factors. 

The PBPK model for a chemical substance is developed in four interconnected steps: (1) model 

representation, (2) model parameterization, (3) model simulation, and (4) model validation (Krishnan and 

Andersen 1994). In the early 1990s, validated PBPK models were developed for a number of 

toxicologically important chemical substances, both volatile and nonvolatile (Krishnan and Andersen 

1994; Leung 1993). PBPK models for a particular substance require estimates of the chemical substancespecific physicochemical parameters, and species-specific physiological and biological parameters. The 

numerical estimates of these model parameters are incorporated within a set of differential and algebraic 

equations that describe the pharmacokinetic processes. Solving these differential and algebraic equations 

provides the predictions of tissue dose. Computers then provide process simulations based on these 

solutions. 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 129 

3. HEALTH EFFECTS 

The structure and mathematical expressions used in PBPK models significantly simplify the true 

complexities of biological systems. If the uptake and disposition of the chemical substance(s) are 

adequately described, however, this simplification is desirable because data are often unavailable for 

many biological processes. A simplified scheme reduces the magnitude of cumulative uncertainty. The 

adequacy of the model is, therefore, of great importance, and model validation is essential to the use of 

PBPK models in risk assessment. 

PBPK models improve the pharmacokinetic extrapolations used in risk assessments that identify the 

maximal (i.e., the safe) levels for human exposure to chemical substances (Andersen and Krishnan 1994). 

PBPK models provide a scientifically sound means to predict the target tissue dose of chemicals in 

humans who are exposed to environmental levels (for example, levels that might occur at hazardous waste 

sites) based on the results of studies where doses were higher or were administered in different species. 

Figure 3-4 shows a conceptualized representation of a PBPK model. 

If PBPK models for 1,1,1-trichloroethane exist, the overall results and individual models are discussed in 

this section in terms of their use in risk assessment, tissue dosimetry, and dose, route, and species 

extrapolations. 

Literature search revealed a PBPK model for 1,1,1-trichloroethane in rats, mice, and humans (Reitz et al. 

1988) that was based on a four-compartment model developed for styrene (Ramsey and Andersen 1984). 

Adaptations of the Reitz et al. (1988) model were presented by others (Bogen and Hall 1989; Dobrev et 

al. 2001, 2002; Poet et al. 2000). 

Reitz et al. (1988) 1,1,1-Trichloroethane Biokinetics Model 

Description of the Model. Reitz et al. (1998) developed a four-compartment model for rats, mice, 

and humans, which predicts the behavior of inhaled 1,1,1-trichloroethane in liver, rapidly perfused tissue, 

slowly perfused tissue, and fat. Tissue volumes and blood and airflow rates employed in the model are 

listed in Table 3-6. The percentage of cardiac output directed to the fat compartments was adjusted for 

interspecies differences in fat content. Tissue:blood partition coefficients (Table 3-6) were used to 

calculate the 1,1,1-trichloroethane concentration in venous blood leaving the tissue and were estimated 

with rat blood, liver, fat, and muscle tissue using a vial-equilibration technique. Blood:air partition 

coefficients were determined with human and mouse blood. Metabolism was restricted to the liver and 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 130 

3. HEALTH EFFECTS 

Figure 3-4. Conceptual Representation of a Physiologically Based Pharmacokinetic (PBPK) Model for a Hypothetical Chemical Substance 

Lungs 

Liver 

Fat 

Slowly 

perfused 

tissues 

Richly 

perfused 

tissues 

Kidney 

Skin 

V 

E 

N 

O 

U 

S 

B 

L 

O 

O 

D 

A 

R 

T 

E 

R 

I 

A 

L 

B 

L 

O 

O 

D 

Vmax Km 

Ingestion 

Inhaled chemical Exhaled chemical 

GI 

Tract 

Feces 

Urine

 Chemicals in air 

contacting skin 

Source: adapted from Krishnan et al. 1994 

Note: This is a conceptual representation of a physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) model for a 

hypothetical chemical substance. The chemical substance is shown to be absorbed via the skin, by inhalation, or by 

ingestion, metabolized in the liver, and excreted in the urine or by exhalation. 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 131 

3. HEALTH EFFECTS 

Table 3-6. Parameters Used in the Physiologically Based Pharmacokinetic Model 

for 1,1,1-Trichloroethane Developed by Reitz et al. (1988) 

Human Rat Mouse 

Weights 

Body weight (kg) 83.0 0.215 0.029 

 Liver (%) 3.1 4.0 4.0 

Rapidly perfused (%) 3.7 5.0 5.0 

Slowly perfused (%) 61.1 75.0 78.0 

 Fat (%) 23.1 7.0 4.0 

Flows (L/hour) 

 Alveolar ventilation 348.0 5.11 1.26 

Cardiac output (COP) 348.0 5.11 1.26 

Liver (% COP) 24.0 24.0 24.0 

Rapidly perfused (% COP) 49.0 53.0 56.0 

Slowly perfused (% COP) 18.0 18.0 18.0 

Fat (% COP) 9.0 5.0 2.0 

Partition coefficients 

Blood/air 2.53 5.76 10.8 

Liver/air 8.6 8.6 8.6 

 Rapidly perfused/air 8.6 8.6 8.6 

 Slowly perfused/air 3.15 3.15 3.15 

Fat/air 263 263 263 

Biochemical constantsa

 VmaxC 0.419 0.419 0.419 

 Km (mg/L) 5.75 5.75 5.75 

 Ka (hour-1) (1st -order rate — 1.25 — 

constant for GI absorption 

a

VmaxC and Km were obtained for the rat from the blood level data of Schumann et al. (1982a) by computer 

optimization. VmaxC is an allometric measure of maximum velocity of metabolism showing the following relationship 

with maximum enzyme rate: Vmax = VmaxC x (body weight) 0.7. 

COP = cardiac output 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 132 

3. HEALTH EFFECTS 

was described by Michaelis-Menten kinetics. Metabolic kinetic constants (Vmax and Km; Table 3-6) 

were estimated by optimization of the model with 1,1,1-trichloroethane blood concentration data for rats 

exposed by inhalation to 150 or 1,500 ppm for 6 hours (Schumann et al. 1982a). The model was designed 

to be applicable to exposures via drinking water, bolus gavage, and intravenous administration as well. 

For drinking water exposures, uptake of 1,1,1-trichloroethane from the gastrointestinal tract and transfer 

to the liver was assumed to follow zero-order kinetics. Simulation of gavage administration assumed 

first-order absorption from the gastrointestinal tract, with a rate constant of 1.25/hour. Both oral (drinking 

water or gavage) and intravenous administration assumed direct transfer to the liver. 

Validation of the Model. Predictions based on the model were compared to observed values for 

experimentally-determined end exposure 1,1,1-trichloroethane blood levels, amount of 1,1,1-trichloroethane metabolized, and concentrations of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in fat or liver of rats and mice following 

exposure via drinking water or inhalation, and on observed values of the amount of 1,1,1-trichloroethane 

metabolized in human volunteers following inhalation exposure. Model predictions agreed reasonably 

well with the empirical observations (Reitz et al. 1988). 

Bogen and Hall (1989) adapted the Reitz et al. (1988) rat model to gerbils using a scaling factor and 

presented a five-compartment model (liver, richly perfused tissues, poorly perfused tissues, fat, and skin) 

for a 70-kg adult male subject using reference values from EPA (1988m) for tissue-specific volumes, 

blood perfusion rates, and cardiac output. Values for skin were assumed to be 6% of reference values for 

poorly perfused tissues. Poet et al. (2000) modified the PBPK model of Reitz et al. (1988) to include a 

separate skin compartment. Dobrev et al. (2001, 2002) presented a model for mixed exposures to trichloroethylene, tetrachloroethylene, and 1,1,1-trichloroethane. 

Fisher et al. (1997) modeled the excretion of 1,1,1-trichlorethane (and other volatile organic chemicals) 

via the breast milk. Model simulations predicted a low degree (<1%) of lactational transfer of 1,1,1-trichloroethane. However, model predictions were not validated with empirical data. 

3.5 MECHANISMS OF ACTION 

3.5.1 Pharmacokinetic Mechanisms 

1,1,1-Trichloroethane is rapidly and extensively absorbed from the lungs (Astrand et al. 1973; Dallas et 

al. 1989; Hobara et al. 1982, 1983a, 1983b; Monster et al. 1979; Morgan et al. 1972a, 1972b; Nolan et al. 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 133 

3. HEALTH EFFECTS 

1984), skin (Fukabori et al. 1977; Morgan et al. 1991; Riihimaki and Pfaffli 1978; Stewart and Dodd 

1964; Tsuruta 1975) and gastrointestinal tract (Mitoma et al. 1985; Reitz et al. 1988; RTI 1987; Stewart 

and Andrews 1966). The lipophilic nature of 1,1,1-trichloroethane, the rates of absorption upon various 

routes of exposure, and the rates at which the chemical leaves the body in expired air when exposure is 

terminated all suggest that 1,1,1-trichloroethane is very likely transported across cellular membranes by 

passive diffusion. No known specific intermediary molecules influence the distribution of 1,1,1-trichloroethane among tissues in the body. The lipophilicity and volatility of 1,1,1-trichloroethane, along with the 

low rates at which it is metabolized, appear to be the most important factors influencing distribution 

within and elimination from the body. The compound is widely distributed by the blood among tissues, 

with preferential accumulation in fatty tissues, and is rapidly cleared following exposure cessation 

(Holmberg et al. 1977; RTI 1987; Schumann et al. 1982a, 1982b; Takahara 1986b). 

As presented in detail in Section 3.4.3, only a small percentage of 1,1,1-trichloroethane absorbed across 

the lung is metabolized; most of the absorbed dose is excreted unchanged from the lung. For example, a 

6-hour exposure to 35 or 350 ppm of 1,1,1-trichloroethane resulted in the metabolism of approximately 

5–6% of the absorbed dose, which was excreted in the urine as trichloroethanol or trichloroacetic acid 

(Nolan et al. 1984). More than 90% was excreted unchanged from the lungs and <1% remained in the 

body after 9 days. Analysis of urine following human and animal exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane 

identified trichloroethanol, trichloroethanol glucuronide, and trichloroacetic acid as major metabolites of 

1,1,1-trichloroethane; CO2, identified in exhaled breath, is another metabolite (Kawai et al. 1991; Mitoma 

et al. 1985; Monster et al. 1979; Nolan et al. 1984; Reitz et al. 1988; Schumann et al. 1982a). Figure 3-3 

illustrates a general metabolic scheme for 1,1,1-trichloroethane. The initial oxidation step is thought to be 

catalyzed by the microsomal cytochrome P-450 mixed-function oxidase system. The pathway for 

conversion of trichloroethanol to trichloroacetic acid presumably involves the intermediate formation of 

chloral hydrate and may involve alcohol and aldehyde dehydrogenases or cytochrome P-450 mixedfunction oxidases (Casciola and Ivanetich 1984; Ivanetich and Van den Honert 1981). The pattern of 

elimination following oral or dermal exposure is expected to be similar to that of inhaled 1,1,1-trichloroethane (i.e., exhalation of unchanged 1,1,1-trichloroethane should be the predominant route of excretion; 

exhalation of CO2 and urinary excretion of other metabolites are minor routes). 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 134 

3. HEALTH EFFECTS 

3.5.2 Mechanisms of Toxicity 

The mechanism by which high levels of 1,1,1-trichloroethane produces mild to moderate hepatotoxic 

effects in humans and animals is only partially understood. Studies of more potent hepatotoxic 

chlorinated alkanes (including carbon tetrachloride, chloroform, and 1,1,2-trichloroethane) have clearly 

demonstrated an involvement of cytochrome P-450-mediated dechlorination in the production of liver 

injury (Plaa 1986). It has been hypothesized that the production of free radicals via the homolytic 

cleavage of the carbon-chlorine bond in these hepatotoxic chlorinated alkanes occurs in the endoplasmic 

reticulum of hepatocytes, and that the free radicals react with unsaturated lipids and proteins in the 

endoplasmic reticulum, producing lipid peroxidation and covalent binding. These actions lead to 

morphological and functional changes in this organelle and, eventually, to cellular dysfunction 

(triglyceride accumulation) and necrosis (Plaa 1986). The potency of the 1,1,2- isomer of trichloroethane 

to produce liver injury is markedly greater than that of the 1,1,1- isomer (Carlson 1973; Takahara 1986c). 

This difference has been associated with differences in the metabolic activation of the two isomers. 

1,1,2-Trichloroethane is metabolized to a much greater extent than 1,1,1-trichloroethane in mice and rats 

after gavage administration. Urinary excretion of metabolites accounted for >70% of the administered 

doses of the 1,1,2- isomer; in contrast, >85% of the administered 1,1,1- isomer dose was excreted 

unchanged in expired air (Mitoma et al. 1985). In experiments with rat liver microsomes, Van Dyke and 

Wineman (1971) observed that 9.8% of the chloride was enzymatically removed from the 1,1,2- isomer, 

compared with <0.5% removal of chloride from the 1,1,1- isomer in the same period. The difference in 

extent of metabolism of the 1,1,2- and 1,1,1- isomers explains the difference in hepatotoxicity of the two 

compounds (i.e., the 1,1,2- isomer is more potent because greater quantities of reactive metabolites are 

produced from it); however, whether the mild hepatotoxicity of 1,1,1-trichloroethane is mediated by a 

metabolite or by the compound itself is unclear. Carlson (1973) reported that rats pretreated with 

phenobarbital displayed signs of liver injury (increased levels of SGPT and SGOT and decreased activity 

of glucose-6-phosphatase) immediately following a 2-hour exposure to 11,600 ppm 1,1,1-trichloroethane; 

these signs were not apparent in nonpretreated rats exposed to the same 1,1,1-trichloroethane 

concentration or in rats that had received only the phenobarbital pretreatment. This suggests that 

metabolic activation is involved in the expression of 1,1,1-trichloroethane's hepatotoxicity. Phenobarbital 

pretreatment did not potentiate the hepatotoxicity of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in rats following intraperitoneal 

injection of 2 mL 1,1,1-trichloroethane/kg (approximately 2.6 mg/kg) (Cornish et al. 1973), but this 

apparent contrast to the results of Carlson (1973) may reflect differences in exposure scenarios. 
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Acute exposures to high 1,1,1-trichloroethane concentrations can cause sudden death in humans due to 

ventricular fibrillation, myocardial depression, or respiratory arrest. Animal studies show that 

arrhythmias (that can lead to ventricular fibrillation) can be produced by exogenously administered 

epinephrine during or immediately after inhalation exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane (Carlson 1981; Clark 

and Tinston 1973; Reinhardt et al. 1973; Trochimowicz et al. 1974). 1,1,1-Trichloroethane is one of the 

most potent of the volatile organic compounds that induce arrhythmias. The studies indicate that the 

arrhythmias are not caused directly by 1,1,1-trichloroethane, but result from its sensitization of the heart 

to epinephrine. The basis for the sensitization is not completely understood, but evidence suggests that 

the sensitization is produced by 1,1,1-trichloroethane itself and not by its metabolites. Carlson (1981) 

reported that pretreatment of rabbits with phenobarbital (thereby increasing 1,1,1-trichloroethane 

metabolism) did not increase the incidence of epinephrine-induced arrhythmias during 1-hour exposures 

to 5,600 ppm, and that treatment with cytochrome P-450 inhibitors (SKF-525A and Lilly 18947) 

(decreasing the metabolism of 1,1,1-trichloroethane) 30 minutes before exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane 

increased the incidence of epinephrine-induced cardiac arrhythmias. The arrhythmogenicity of 1,1,1-trichloroethane and other halogenated hydrocarbons may involve intercellular communication inhibition, 

presumably through parent-compound modification of gap junctions between cardiac myocytes. 

Toraason et al. (1992) demonstrated that a series of halogenated hydrocarbons, including 1,1,1-trichloroethane, inhibited the transfer of a fluorescent probe between adjacent cultured cardiac myocytes isolated 

from neonatal rats (an assay for gap junction communication) and that the inhibition was not affected by 

pretreating the cells with SKF-525A. Toraason et al. (1992) noted that the ability of the compounds to 

inhibit intercellular communication paralleled their ability to sensitize the heart to epinephrine-induced 

arrhythmias. 

Acute exposure to high concentrations of 1,1,1-trichloroethane (≈10,000–26,000 ppm) lowered blood 

pressure in humans and animals within minutes of exposure (Herd et al. 1974; Kobayashi et al. 1988; 

McLeod et al. 1987; Wright and Strobl 1984). Studies with anesthetized dogs associated the decrease in 

blood pressure with peripheral vasodilation at the lower end of the effective concentration range and with 

decreased heart rate and myocardial contractility at higher concentrations (Herd et al. 1974; Kobayashi et 

al. 1988). Intravenous administration of phenylephrine (an agent that putatively constricts peripheral 

vasculature) or calcium counteracted the blood pressure-reducing effects of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in 

anesthetized dogs (Herd et al. 1974). Herd et al. (1974) hypothesized that 1,1,1-trichloroethane, because 

of its lipophilic nature, may produce cardiotoxic effects through an interference with membranedependent processes such as adenosine triphosphate (ATP) production by cardiac mitochondria and 

calcium mobilization during myocardial contraction. More recently, Toraason et al. (1990) demonstrated 
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3. HEALTH EFFECTS 

a reversible, concentration-dependent inhibitory effect of 1,1,1-trichloroethane on the contractility (i.e., 

decreased beating frequency) of cultured rat heart cells. Hoffman et al. (1992, 1994) showed that 

1,1,1-trichloroethane inhibits calcium mobilization during excitation-contraction coupling in isolated 

ventricular myocytes from rat neonates, and hypothesized that myocardial depression following exposure 

to 1,1,1-trichloroethane results from reduced intracellular calcium concentration during systole. 

Respiratory arrest due to central nervous system depression has been proposed as a possible explanation 

for sudden deaths following acute exposure to high concentrations of 1,1,1-trichloroethane (Adams et al. 

1950; Jones and Winter 1983; Torkelson et al. 1958). In general, the actions of 1,1,1-trichloroethane are 

very similar to other central nervous system depressants. The mechanism by which acute exposures to 

high concentrations of 1,1,1-trichloroethane depress the central nervous system is thought to involve 

interactions of the parent compound with lipids and/or proteins in neural membranes that lead to 

dysfunction (Evans and Balster 1991). In general, the highly lipophilic nature of chlorinated 

hydrocarbons, such as 1,1,1-trichloroethane, allows them to cross the blood-brain barrier readily and 

partition into lipids in neuronal membranes. This property allows them to interfere with neural membrane 

function, bringing about central nervous system depression, behavioral changes, and anesthesia (Klaassen 

et al. 1996). 

1,1,1-Trichloroethane-induced hepatic, neurological, and cardiac effects may be related to the interaction 

of 1,1,1-trichloroethane with proteinaceous components of membranes, as suggested by demonstrations 

that 1,1,1-trichloroethane inhibits the activity of membrane-bound enzymes such as acetylcholinesterase 

and magnesium-activated ATPase in human red blood cells and rat synaptosomes (Korpela 1989; Korpela 

and Tähti 1986, 1987; Tähti and Korpela 1986). Such an interaction could be responsible for the 

observed 1,1,1-trichloroethane-induced alterations in membrane permeability that have been 

demonstrated in brain synaptosomes (Nilsson 1987; Robinson et al. 2001) and dorsal root ganglion 

neurons (Okuda et al. 2001a, 2001b), cardiac myocytes (Hoffmann et al. 1992, 1994; Toraason et al. 

1990), and rat heart and liver mitochondria (Herd and Martin 1975). Altered calcium permeability has 

been demonstrated to cause reduced contractility of cardiac myocytes (Hoffmann et al. 1992, 1994; 

Torasson et al. 1990) and uncoupled oxidative phosphorylation leading to reduced cellular respiration and 

ATP production in rat heart and liver mitochondria (Herd and Martin 1975; Ogata and Hasegawa 1981; 

Takano and Miyazaki 1982). 
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3.5.3 Animal-to-Human Extrapolations 

Species-specific differences in pharmacokinetic properties of inhaled 1,1,1-trichloroethane have been 

demonstrated. Nolan et al. (1984) reported 2.5- and 3-fold greater absorption in rats and mice, 

respectively, relative to humans following equivalent inhalation exposures. Measured blood levels in the 

rats and mice were 3.5- and 17.3-fold higher than humans, and the amount of 1,1,1-trichloroethane 

metabolized was 4.3-fold higher in rats and 11.4-fold higher in mice than humans. These results indicate 

that humans would have to be exposed to 1,1,1-trichloroethane vapor concentrations much higher than 

those of rats and mice in order to achieve similar blood levels. Although pharmacokinetic differences are 

readily apparent, species-specific differences in pharmacodymanics have not been elucidated. 

3.6 TOXICITIES MEDIATED THROUGH THE NEUROENDOCRINE AXIS 

Recently, attention has focused on the potential hazardous effects of certain chemicals on the endocrine 

system because of the ability of these chemicals to mimic or block endogenous hormones. Chemicals 

with this type of activity are most commonly referred to as endocrine disruptors. However, appropriate 

terminology to describe such effects remains controversial. The terminology endocrine disruptors, 

initially used by Thomas and Colborn (1992), was also used in 1996 when Congress mandated the EPA to 

develop a screening program for “...certain substances [which] may have an effect produced by a 

naturally occurring estrogen, or other such endocrine effect[s]...”. To meet this mandate, EPA convened a 

panel called the Endocrine Disruptors Screening and Testing Advisory Committee (EDSTAC), and in 

1998, the EDSTAC completed its deliberations and made recommendations to EPA concerning endocrine 

disruptors. In 1999, the National Academy of Sciences released a report that referred to these same types 

of chemicals as hormonally active agents. The terminology endocrine modulators has also been used to 

convey the fact that effects caused by such chemicals may not necessarily be adverse. Many scientists 

agree that chemicals with the ability to disrupt or modulate the endocrine system are a potential threat to 

the health of humans, aquatic animals, and wildlife. However, others think that endocrine-active 

chemicals do not pose a significant health risk, particularly in view of the fact that hormone mimics exist 

in the natural environment. Examples of natural hormone mimics are the isoflavinoid phytoestrogens 

(Adlercreutz 1995; Livingston 1978; Mayr et al. 1992). These chemicals are derived from plants and are 

similar in structure and action to endogenous estrogen. Although the public health significance and 

descriptive terminology of substances capable of affecting the endocrine system remains controversial, 

scientists agree that these chemicals may affect the synthesis, secretion, transport, binding, action, or 

elimination of natural hormones in the body responsible for maintaining homeostasis, reproduction, 
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3. HEALTH EFFECTS 

development, and/or behavior (EPA 1997b). Stated differently, such compounds may cause toxicities that 

are mediated through the neuroendocrine axis. As a result, these chemicals may play a role in altering, 

for example, metabolic, sexual, immune, and neurobehavioral function. Such chemicals are also thought 

to be involved in inducing breast, testicular, and prostate cancers, as well as endometriosis (Berger 1994; 

Giwercman et al. 1993; Hoel et al. 1992). 

1,1,1-Trichloroethane does not appear to act on the neuroendocrine axis, although the database of 

information is limited. In an acute-duration study, no histopathological changes were seen in the adrenals 

of rats after a single 2-hour exposure to up to 15,000 ppm 1,1,1-trichloroethane (Cornish and Adefuin 

1966). Plasma corticosterone levels were statistically significantly decreased in rats after inhalation 

exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane at a concentration of 3,500 ppm for 30 minutes or 5,000 ppm for 10 or 

30 minutes; the highest exposure level also resulted in significantly reduced plasma adrenocorticotropic 

hormone (Pise et al. 1998). Additional information regarding the potential for 1,1,1-trichloroethane to act 

as an endocrine disruptor was not located. 

3.7 CHILDREN’S SUSCEPTIBILITY 

This section discusses potential health effects from exposures during the period from conception to 

maturity at 18 years of age in humans, when all biological systems will have fully developed. Potential 

effects on offspring resulting from exposures of parental germ cells are considered, as well as any indirect 

effects on the fetus and neonate resulting from maternal exposure during gestation and lactation. 

Relevant animal and in vitro models are also discussed. 

Children are not small adults. They differ from adults in their exposures and may differ in their 

susceptibility to hazardous chemicals. Children’s unique physiology and behavior can influence the 

extent of their exposure. Exposures of children are discussed in Section 6.6, Exposures of Children. 

Children sometimes differ from adults in their susceptibility to hazardous chemicals, but whether there is 

a difference depends on the chemical (Guzelian et al. 1992; NRC 1993). Children may be more or less 

susceptible than adults to health effects, and the relationship may change with developmental age 

(Guzelian et al. 1992; NRC 1993). Vulnerability often depends on developmental stage. There are 

critical periods of structural and functional development during both prenatal and postnatal life and a 

particular structure or function will be most sensitive to disruption during its critical period(s). Damage 
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3. HEALTH EFFECTS 

may not be evident until a later stage of development. There are often differences in pharmacokinetics 

and metabolism between children and adults. For example, absorption may be different in neonates 

because of the immaturity of their gastrointestinal tract and their larger skin surface area in proportion to 

body weight (Morselli et al. 1980; NRC 1993); the gastrointestinal absorption of lead is greatest in infants 

and young children (Ziegler et al. 1978). Distribution of xenobiotics may be different; for example, 

infants have a larger proportion of their bodies as extracellular water and their brains and livers are 

proportionately larger (Altman and Dittmer 1974; Fomon 1966; Fomon et al. 1982; Owen and Brozek 

1966; Widdowson and Dickerson 1964). The infant also has an immature blood-brain barrier (Adinolfi 

1985; Johanson 1980) and probably an immature blood-testis barrier (Setchell and Waites 1975). Many 

xenobiotic metabolizing enzymes have distinctive developmental patterns. At various stages of growth 

and development, levels of particular enzymes may be higher or lower than those of adults, and 

sometimes unique enzymes may exist at particular developmental stages (Komori et al. 1990; Leeder and 

Kearns 1997; NRC 1993; Vieira et al. 1996). Whether differences in xenobiotic metabolism make the 

child more or less susceptible also depends on whether the relevant enzymes are involved in activation of 

the parent compound to its toxic form or in detoxification. There may also be differences in excretion, 

particularly in newborns who all have a low glomerular filtration rate and have not developed efficient 

tubular secretion and resorption capacities (Altman and Dittmer 1974; NRC 1993; West et al. 1948). 

Children and adults may differ in their capacity to repair damage from chemical insults. Children also 

have a longer remaining lifetime in which to express damage from chemicals; this potential is particularly 

relevant to cancer. 

Certain characteristics of the developing human may increase exposure or susceptibility, whereas others 

may decrease susceptibility to the same chemical. For example, although infants breathe more air per 

kilogram of body weight than adults breathe, this difference might be somewhat counterbalanced by their 

alveoli being less developed, which results in a disproportionately smaller surface area for alveolar 

absorption (NRC 1993). 

No information was located regarding potential age-related differences in susceptibility to 1,1,1-trichloroethane in humans. Delays in developmental milestones (pinnae detachment, incisor eruption, and eye 

opening) and impaired performance in neurobehavior tests were noted in mouse pups of dams exposed to 

1,1,1-trichloroethane during later stages of gestation at levels that did not result in apparent maternal 

toxicity (Jones et al. 1996). These results suggest that developing organisms may be more susceptible 

than adults to the toxic effects of 1,1,1-trichloroethane. 
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3. HEALTH EFFECTS 

3.8 BIOMARKERS OF EXPOSURE AND EFFECT 

Biomarkers are broadly defined as indicators signaling events in biologic systems or samples. They have 

been classified as markers of exposure, markers of effect, and markers of susceptibility (NAS/NRC 

1989). 

Due to a nascent understanding of the use and interpretation of biomarkers, implementation of biomarkers 

as tools of exposure in the general population is very limited. A biomarker of exposure is a xenobiotic 

substance or its metabolite(s) or the product of an interaction between a xenobiotic agent and some target 

molecule(s) or cell(s) that is measured within a compartment of an organism (NAS/NRC 1989). The 

preferred biomarkers of exposure are generally the substance itself or substance-specific metabolites in 

readily obtainable body fluid(s) or excreta. However, several factors can confound the use and 

interpretation of biomarkers of exposure. The body burden of a substance may be the result of exposures 

from more than one source. The substance being measured may be a metabolite of another xenobiotic 

substance (e.g., high urinary levels of phenol can result from exposure to several different aromatic 

compounds). Depending on the properties of the substance (e.g., biologic half-life) and environmental 

conditions (e.g., duration and route of exposure), the substance and all of its metabolites may have left the 

body by the time samples can be taken. It may be difficult to identify individuals exposed to hazardous 

substances that are commonly found in body tissues and fluids (e.g., essential mineral nutrients such as 

copper, zinc, and selenium). Biomarkers of exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane are discussed in 

Section 3.8.1. 

Biomarkers of effect are defined as any measurable biochemical, physiologic, or other alteration within an 

organism that, depending on magnitude, can be recognized as an established or potential health 

impairment or disease (NAS/NRC 1989). This definition encompasses biochemical or cellular signals of 

tissue dysfunction (e.g., increased liver enzyme activity or pathologic changes in female genital epithelial 

cells), as well as physiologic signs of dysfunction such as increased blood pressure or decreased lung 

capacity. Note that these markers are not often substance specific. They also may not be directly 

adverse, but can indicate potential health impairment (e.g., DNA adducts). Biomarkers of effects caused 

by 1,1,1-trichloroethane are discussed in Section 3.8.2. 

A biomarker of susceptibility is an indicator of an inherent or acquired limitation of an organism's ability 

to respond to the challenge of exposure to a specific xenobiotic substance. It can be an intrinsic genetic or 

other characteristic or a preexisting disease that results in an increase in absorbed dose, a decrease in the 
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3. HEALTH EFFECTS 

biologically effective dose, or a target tissue response. If biomarkers of susceptibility exist, they are 

discussed in Section 3.10, Populations That Are Unusually Susceptible. 

3.8.1 Biomarkers Used to Identify or Quantify Exposure to 1,1,1-Trichloroethane 

Environmental levels of 1,1,1-trichloroethane have been correlated with levels in expired air, blood, and 

urine. After extensive studies, a significant correlation was observed between the environmental 

exposure of humans to 1,1,1-trichloroethane and levels of the chemical in expired air in various U.S. 

locations during various seasons (Hartwell et al. 1987a; Wallace et al. 1982, 1984b, 1985, 1987a, 1987b, 

1987c). Levels of 1,1,1-trichloroethane and its metabolites, trichloroethanol and trichloroacetic acid, 

have been quantified in the blood, expired air, and urine of workers exposed to 50 ppm 1,1,1-trichloroethane for 1 week (Monster 1986). Immediately following exposure, urine levels of trichloroethane and 

trichloroacetic acid were 4.9 and 2.5 mg/g creatinine, respectively. At 5–15 minutes after exposure, 

1,1,1-trichloroethane levels in the blood and expired air were 0.9 mg/L and 210 mg/m3

, respectively. The 

blood levels of trichloroethanol and trichloroacetic acid were 0.16 and 2.3 mg/L, respectively. For 

comparison, the baseline level of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in the blood of unexposed, normal subjects was 

0.0002 mg/L (range <0.0001–0.0034 mg/L) and the blood level of trichloroacetic acid was 0.0214 mg/L 

(Hajimiragha et al. 1986). Studies of 1,1,1-trichloroethane levels in expired air or its metabolites in the 

urine have established a linear correlation between urinary trichloroethanol concentrations and 

environmental 1,1,1-trichloroethane levels or 1,1,1-trichloroethane levels absorbed through the lungs 

(Ghittori et al. 1987; Imbriani et al. 1988; Mizunuma et al. 1995; Monster 1986; Pezzagno et al. 1986; 

Seki et al. 1975; Stewart et al. 1961). Data from Imbriani et al. (1988) are presented in Figure 3-5. 

Monster (1986) proposed that the best method for estimating occupational exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane was to determine the levels of 1,1,1-trichloroethane and trichloroacetic acid in blood after work on 

Fridays. Results of Mizunuma et al. (1995) indicated that urinary levels of 1,1,1-trichloroethane (as 

parent compound) were more closely correlated to 1,1,1-trichloroethane in the ambient air of a group of 

50 solvent workers than the major urinary metabolites, trichloroethanol and trichloroacetic acid. Among 

four adult volunteers (two males and two females) exposed to several different concentrations of 1,1,1-trichloroethane vapors for various exposure durations, levels of parent compound in alveolar air and blood 

were more closely correlated with exposure level than urinary levels of parent compound or 1,1,1-trichloroethane metabolites (Laparé et al. 1995). 
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3. HEALTH EFFECTS 

Figure 3-5. Scatter Diagram Relating Time-Weighted Average of Environmental 

Concentration and Urinary Concentration of 1,1,1-Trichloroethane in 

Exposed Workers 

ln Curinary (urinary concentration) 7.5 

7 

6.5 

6 

5.5 

5 

4.5 

4 

3.5 

3 

4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5 8

ln Cbreathing (time-weighted average concentration in the breathing zone) 

a 

b 

c 

d 

e 

TLV-TWA 

BEEL 

Scatter diagram relating the time-weighted average (TWA) of the environmental concentration (in the breathing zone) 

(Cbreathing) and the urinary concentration (Curinary) of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in the exposed workers (Experiment II). The 

regression line (Curinary=0.45xCbreathing+12.6; r=0.95; N=60) is also drawn.

a Curinary value at Cbreathing = 1,900 mg/m3

 (threshold limit value [TLV] -TWA) 

b 95% lower confidence limit = biological exposure limit 

c hypothetical value of Curinary in an occupationally exposed subject 

d one-sided upper confidence limit (at 95%) of Curinary

e one-sided lower confidence limit (at 95%) of Curinary

Classification system: 

1 d<b (or d/b<1) = compliance exposure 

2 e>b (or e/b>1) = noncompliance exposure

3 any individual which cannot be classified in 1 or 2 = possible overexposure 

The Cbreathing and Curinary values are shown in 1n numbers to allow all data in a same diagram. The TLV-TWA is 

19,900 mg/m3

 (anti-ln 7.549). 

The biological equivalent exposure limit (BEEL) is 805 μ/L (anti-ln 6.690). 

Source: Adapted from Imbriani et al. 1988 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 143 

3. HEALTH EFFECTS 

The length of time between 1,1,1-trichloroethane exposure and the measurement of breath, blood, or urine 

levels is critical to the accurate evaluation of the magnitude of exposure. Up to 90% of the 1,1,1-trichloroethane absorbed by any route is rapidly excreted unchanged in the expired air (Monster et al. 1979; 

Morgan et al. 1970, 1972b; Nolan et al. 1984; Stewart et al. 1961, 1969). Most of the remaining 10% is 

accounted for as the urinary metabolites trichloroethanol and trichloroacetic acid. Furthermore, 1,1,1-trichloroethane is rapidly eliminated from the body; ≥99% is eliminated within 50 hours (Astrand et al. 

1973; Monster et al. 1979; Nolan et al. 1984; Stewart et al. 1961). See Section 3.4 for more information 

regarding the pharmacokinetics of 1,1,1-trichloroethane. The appearance of trichloroacetic acid in urine 

is not unique to 1,1,1-trichloroethane, as it has also been identified as a urinary metabolite of 

trichloroethylene and tetrachloroethylene (Monster 1988). If exposure is known to be solely to 1,1,1-trichloroethane, trichloroacetic acid levels in the urine may be a useful biomarker of exposure, because of 

the relatively long half-life of trichloroacetic acid. 

3.8.2 Biomarkers Used to Characterize Effects Caused by 1,1,1-Trichloroethane 

The central nervous system is apparently the most sensitive tissue to 1,1,1-trichloroethane exposure. 

Decreased psychomotor performance, altered EEG recordings, ataxia, and anesthesia have been observed 

in humans after acute exposure (Dornette and Jones 1960; Mackay et al. 1987; Muttray et al. 2000; Sot et 

al. 1975; Torkelson et al. 1958). Mild hepatic effects and decreased blood pressure have also been noted 

(Cohen and Frank 1994; Croquet et al. 2003; Dornette and Jones 1960; Stewart et al. 1961; Texter et al. 

1979). Numerous animal studies provide supporting evidence for the sensitivity of the central nervous 

system to acute and intermediate-duration exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane. Adverse cardiovascular 

effects and mild hepatic effects have also been observed in animals. Indices of central nervous system, 

hepatic, and cardiovascular effects are of limited value as biomarkers, since many other lipophilic 

chemicals (including some likely to be present at the same sites as 1,1,1-trichloroethane) may cause 

similar effects in these target organs. 

No specific biomarkers of effects caused by 1,1,1-trichloroethane were found in the literature. Additional 

information regarding the effects of exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane can be found in OTA (1990) and 

ATSDR (1990). For a more detailed discussion of the health effects caused by 1,1,1-trichloroethane see 

Section 3.2. 
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3. HEALTH EFFECTS 

3.9 INTERACTIONS WITH OTHER CHEMICALS 

Although there are no reports of chemical interactions in humans, several animal studies have identified 

possible interactions between 1,1,1-trichloroethane and other chemicals. 

Ethanol, when given orally to mice at doses of 0.125–2.0 g/kg, potentiated both the lethality and 

behavioral effects (inverted screen test) of inhaled 1,1,1-trichloroethane at concentrations ranging from 

≈200 to 10,000 ppm (Woolverton and Balster 1981). In another study, a 3-day pretreatment of mice with 

ethanol enhanced 1,1,1-trichloroethane-induced liver toxicity, as indicated by an assay of liver function 

(bromosulfophthalein retention in plasma), but not an assay of liver damage (SGPT levels) (Klaassen and 

Plaa 1966). Other studies, using only serum enzyme levels to assay liver damage (SGPT or SGOT), 

found that ethanol markedly and consistently enhanced the hepatotoxicity of more potent chlorinated 

compounds such as carbon tetrachloride or trichloroethylene, but had no effect on the hepatotoxicity of 

1,1,1-trichloroethane (Cornish and Adefuin 1966; Klaassen and Plaa 1967). Ethanol may potentiate the 

hepatotoxicity of chlorinated alkanes because of its ability to induce cytochrome P450IIE1 (Ikatsu and 

Nakajima 1992). The available data indicate that ethanol can enhance the acute neurobehavioral effects 

of 1,1,1-trichloroethane, but will not cause 1,1,1-trichloroethane to produce severe liver damage 

(necrosis) like that caused by other chlorinated alkanes such as carbon tetrachloride or 1,1,2-trichloroethane. 

Co-exposure of control or ethanol-treated rats to inhaled concentrations of 10 ppm carbon tetrachloride 

and 200 ppm 1,1,1-trichloroethane did not produce changes in several indices of liver damage (SGPT, 

SGOT, and liver malondialdehyde) compared with exposure to 10 ppm carbon tetrachloride alone (Ikatsu 

and Nakajima 1992). This indicates that 1,1,1-trichloroethane may be protective against hepatotoxic 

effects of cytotoxic haloalkanes. In contrast, co-exposure of ethanol-treated rats to 10 ppm carbon 

tetrachloride and 10–50 ppm chloroform produced liver damage that was greater than the additive effects 

of exposure to each component alone; this synergistic interaction was not observed in rats fed a diet 

without ethanol (Ikatsu and Nakajima 1992). Extrapolation of these results to humans suggests that 

heavy drinkers exposed to mixtures of carbon tetrachloride and chloroform may have a greater risk of 

developing liver damage than those exposed to either chlorinated alkane alone. The results, however, 

provide no evidence for a synergistic interaction between carbon tetrachloride and 1,1,1-trichloroethane 

that would enhance the hepatotoxicity of either compound. In experiments with isolated rat hepatocytes, 

concomitant exposure to chloroform, but not co-exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane, potentiated carbon 

tetrachloride-induced lipid peroxidation (Kefalas and Stacey 1991). 
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3. HEALTH EFFECTS 

Ketones and ketogenic substances (i.e., substances metabolized to ketones or that produce ketosis in the 

body) potentiate the hepatotoxicity of certain chlorinated alkanes including carbon tetrachloride, 

chloroform, and 1,1,2-trichloroethane (Plaa 1988). Although the mechanism of this potentiation is not 

fully understood, Plaa (1988) has proposed enhanced bioactivation of the toxicant through cytochrome 

P-450 induction. Studies with mice, however, found that treatment with acetone or isopropanol (which is 

metabolized to acetone) did not enhance the hepatotoxicity of 1,1,1-trichloroethane, but enhanced the 

threshold doses of chloroform, 1,1,2-trichloroethane, and trichloroethylene to elevate SGPT (Traiger and 

Plaa 1974). Single intraperitoneal doses of 1,1,1-trichloroethane (1.0 mL/kg) did not produce liver 

damage (assayed either as elevation in SGPT or in concentrations of liver triglycerides) in control mice or 

in mice with alloxan-induced diabetes (i.e., that were in a state of ketosis) (Hanasono et al. 1975). Other 

studies examining the influence of agents that enhance cytochrome P-450 metabolism have provided 

mixed results. The cytochrome P-450 mixed-function oxidase inducer, phenobarbital, enhanced the 

hepatotoxicity of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in the rat study by Carlson (1973) but not in that of Cornish et al. 

(1973). In general, the available data suggest that ketones, ketogenic substances, or cytochrome P-450 

inducers will not potentiate 1,1,1-trichloroethane hepatotoxicity. 

Concurrent injections of nicotine potentiate the lethality produced by intraperitoneal injection of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in mice (Priestly and Plaa 1976). Although no explanation has been given for the effect of 

nicotine, stimulation of the sympathetic nervous system and release of epinephrine from the adrenal 

medulla might enhance cardiac arrhythmias. 

3.10 POPULATIONS THAT ARE UNUSUALLY SUSCEPTIBLE 

A susceptible population will exhibit a different or enhanced response to 1,1,1-trichloroethane than will 

most persons exposed to the same level of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in the environment. Reasons may include 

genetic makeup, age, health and nutritional status, and exposure to other toxic substances (e.g., cigarette 

smoke). These parameters result in reduced detoxification or excretion of 1,1,1-trichloroethane, or 

compromised function of organs affected by 1,1,1-trichloroethane. Populations who are at greater risk 

due to their unusually high exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane are discussed in Section 6.7, Populations 

With Potentially High Exposures. 
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3. HEALTH EFFECTS 

Limited data from animal studies (Woolverton and Balster 1981) indicate that alcohol drinkers may be 

more susceptible to the acute neurobehavioral effects of 1,1,1-trichloroethane. Moderate to heavy alcohol 

drinkers may be more susceptible to the hepatotoxicity of some chlorinated alkanes, such as carbon 

tetrachloride, chloroform, and 1,1,2-trichloroethane, due to ethanol induction of hepatic cytochrome 

P-450 isozymes involved in the activation of these compounds to intermediate hepatotoxic metabolites. 

Available animal studies (Cornish and Adefuin 1966; Klaassen and Plaa 1966, 1967), however, have not 

demonstrated that ethanol ingestion will potentiate the hepatotoxicity of 1,1,1-trichloroethane. 

Furthermore, evidence indicates that ethanol does not cause 1,1,1-trichloroethane and carbon tetrachloride 

to interact synergistically to produce hepatotoxic effects, although such an interaction has been 

demonstrated for ethanol, carbon tetrachloride, and chloroform (Ikatsu and Nakajima 1992). The 

available data suggest that alcohol ingestion is not likely to significantly potentiate the hepatotoxicity of 

1,1,1-trichloroethane. 

Diabetics consistently in a state of ketosis may be more susceptible to the hepatotoxicity of certain 

chlorinated alkanes including carbon tetrachloride, chloroform, and 1,1,2-trichloroethane, due to a 

potentiation from increased ketone levels in the body. Animal studies indicate that the ketone 

potentiation of the hepatotoxicity of chlorinated alkanes involves an enhancement of the metabolic 

production of hepatotoxic intermediate metabolites. Available data, however, indicate that ketones do not 

appreciably potentiate the hepatotoxicity of 1,1,1-trichloroethane (Plaa 1986, 1988). Thus, diabetics in a 

state of ketosis are not likely to be more susceptible to the hepatotoxicity of 1,1,1-trichloroethane than the 

population at large. 

Because 1,1,1-trichloroethane is associated with some cardiovascular effects (see Section 3.2.1.2), 

persons with compromised heart conditions may be at additional risk around high exposure levels of 

1,1,1-trichloroethane and should be restricted to some lower level of exposure. 

Although no data are available that address this issue, it is possible that individuals with impaired 

respiratory function (e.g., emphysema, poor perfusion) might excrete less 1,1,1-trichloroethane in a given 

period than other people, since most of a single dose is expired (Monster et al. 1979; Nolan et al. 1984). 

In situations of prolonged exposure, such as living near a hazardous waste site, this might contribute to 

accumulation of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in the body. People with respiratory disease might, therefore, 

constitute a more susceptible population. 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 147 

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Young people might be unusually susceptible to 1,1,1-trichloroethane, since the nervous system continues 

to develop in humans after birth and this chemical may produce residual neurological effects. 

Developmental toxicity data in humans are not available to address this question. Neurobehavioral 

testing of exposed rat pups was negative in one study (York et al. 1982). Delays in developmental 

milestones (pinnae detachment, incisor eruption, and eye opening) and impaired performance in 

neurobehavior tests were noted in mouse pups of dams exposed to 1,1,1-trichloroethane during later 

stages of gestation at levels that did not result in apparent maternal toxicity (Jones et al. 1996). These 

results suggest that developing organisms may be more susceptible than adults to the toxic effects of 

1,1,1-trichloroethane. However, Jones et al. (1996) reported delays in developmental milestones (pinnae 

detachment, incisor eruption, and eye opening) and impaired neurobehavioral performance in mouse pups 

of dams exposed to 1,1,1-trichloroethane during later stages of gestation. These results indicate that 

children might be more susceptible to 1,1,1-trichloroethane than adults. 

3.11 METHODS FOR REDUCING TOXIC EFFECTS 

This section will describe clinical practice and research concerning methods for reducing toxic effects of 

exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane. However, because some of the treatments discussed may be 

experimental and unproven, this section should not be used as a guide for treatment of exposures to 

1,1,1-trichloroethane. When specific exposures have occurred, poison control centers and medical 

toxicologists should be consulted for medical advice. The following texts provide specific information 

about treatment following exposures to halogenated hydrocarbon solvents, such as 1,1,1-trichloroethane: 

Ellenhorn MJ, Schonwald S, Ordog G, et al., eds. 1997. Medical toxicology: Diagnosis and treatment of 

human poisoning. 2nd edition. Baltimore, MD: Williams & Wilkins, 1436-1440. 

Parraga M, West JM. 1998. Hydrocarbons. In: Viccellio P, ed. Emergency toxicology. 2nd edition. 

Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott-Raven Publishers, 299-313. 

3.11.1 Reducing Peak Absorption Following Exposure 

Ingested 1,1,1-trichloroethane is rapidly absorbed by the gastrointestinal tract of humans and animals 

(Mitoma et al. 1985; Reitz et al. 1988; RTI 1987; Stewart and Andrews 1966). To minimize absorption 

following ingestion, several treatments have been suggested, including administration of milk or water to 

dilute the gastrointestinal tract contents, gastric lavage, and administration of emesis-inducing compounds 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 148 

3. HEALTH EFFECTS 

or activated charcoal (Goldfrank et al. 1990; Stutz and Janusz 1988). Butter or some other food high in 

lipids might be given. The lipids will serve to delay substantially, and possibly diminish, systemic 

absorption of 1,1,1-trichloroethane. It should be noted, however, that upon induction of emesis, there is 

the possibility of aspiration of 1,1,1-trichloroethane into the lungs, which may result in pneumonia. 

Therefore, treatment via stomach pump has been recommended. Due to rapid absorption of 1,1,1-trichloroethane by the gut, any measures to retard absorption must be taken very rapidly. 

Inhaled 1,1,1-trichloroethane is rapidly absorbed and expired, predominantly unchanged, through the 

lungs (see Section 3.4). The rapidity with which inhaled 1,1,1-trichloroethane is absorbed (Astrand et al. 

1973; Morgan et al. 1972a, 1972b) indicates that assisted ventilation or positive pressure ventilation 

techniques will not prevent the absorption of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in the lung and emphasizes the 

importance of removing the subject from the contaminated atmosphere. Nevertheless, such techniques 

have been suggested to help eliminate the compound from the body (Bronstein and Currance 1988). 

The volatility of 1,1,1-trichloroethane is likely to limit absorption of the dermally applied compound, 

even though dermal absorption under conditions that prevent evaporation is rapid and extensive (Fukabori 

et al. 1977; Morgan et al. 1991; Stewart and Dodd 1964; Tsuruta 1975). Washing the skin with soapy 

water has been suggested to reduce the absorption of dermally applied 1,1,1-trichloroethane (Bronstein 

and Currance 1988; Goldfrank et al. 1990; Stutz and Janusz 1988). Ethyl or isopropyl alcohol also could 

be used to dilute 1,1,1-trichloroethane on the skin. Flushing the exposed eye with large quantities of 

water or saline for 15–30 minutes has been suggested to prevent absorption and soothe irritation 

(Bronstein and Currance 1988; Stutz and Janusz 1988). 

3.11.2 Reducing Body Burden 

When exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane ceases, regardless of route of exposure, the compound is rapidly 

cleared from the body, predominantly by exhalation of unchanged 1,1,1-trichloroethane in expired air (see 

Section 3.4.). Very little metabolism of the compound takes place, and despite a preferential distribution 

of absorbed 1,1,1-trichloroethane to fatty tissues, significant retention does not occur without continued 

exposure. Thus, continued ventilation by the lungs will eliminate the compound from the body. 

Suggested methods to assist in lung ventilation include orotracheal and nasotracheal intubation for airway 

control and positive pressure ventilation techniques (Bronstein and Currance 1988; Ellenhorn and 

Barceloux 1988). 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 149 

3. HEALTH EFFECTS 

3.11.3 Interfering with the Mechanism of Action for Toxic Effects 

Suggested methods to treat the effects of acute exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane are primarily supportive, 

rather than active, and are not generally directed against a particular mechanism of action (Bronstein and 

Currance 1988; Ellenhorn and Barceloux 1988; Ellenhorn et al. 1997; Goldfrank et al. 1990; Herd et al. 

1974; Stutz and Janusz 1988; Parraga and West 1998). Suggested methods of treatment include removing 

the subject from the source of exposure, ventilation assistance, gastric dilution and lavage for ingested 

material, oxygen administration, and skin washing. Continuous cardiac monitoring is routine for exposed 

patients. These methods rely on the body's ability to eliminate rapidly 1,1,1-trichloroethane and its 

metabolites. Mechanisms of action, however, are discussed in this section in relation to the possible 

development of interfering treatment methods. 

The mechanism by which 1,1,1-trichloroethane and other organic solvents depress the central nervous 

system is poorly understood, but is thought to involve interactions of the parent compound with lipids 

and/or proteinaceous components of neural membranes (Evans and Balster 1991). No known methods 

specifically counteract the central nervous system effects of 1,1,1-trichloroethane. Because the specific 

cellular or biochemical nature of central nervous system depression is poorly understood, it is difficult to 

propose any method to interfere with this effect of 1,1,1-trichloroethane, other than to prevent further 

exposure to the compound so that it can be cleared from the body. 

The acute cardiotoxic effects of 1,1,1-trichloroethane (reduced blood pressure and increased sensitization 

to epinephrine-induced arrhythmias) appear to be mediated by the compound and not its metabolites 

(Carlson 1973; Toraason et al. 1990, 1992) and have been associated with the ability of 1,1,1-trichloroethane to interfere with membrane-mediated processes including calcium mobilization during myocardial 

contraction (Herd et al. 1974; Hoffman et al. 1992; Toraason et al. 1990) and gap junction communication 

between myocardial cells (Toraason et al. 1992). The administration of epinephrine to counteract 

1,1,1-trichloroethane-induced cardiovascular depression has been cautioned against, because of the risk of 

arrhythmias and ventricular fibrillation (Bronstein and Currance 1988; Goldfrank et al. 1990; Herd et al. 

1974). Herd et al. (1974) demonstrated that intravenous injection or infusion of calcium (as calcium 

gluconate) or phenylephrine protected against 1,1,1-trichloroethane-induced blood pressure reduction in 

anesthetized dogs and suggested more detailed study to assess whether these compounds could be used 

routinely to resuscitate exposed individuals. Exogenous calcium appears to counteract the influence of 
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3. HEALTH EFFECTS 

1,1,1-trichloroethane on calcium mobilization during myocardial contraction (Herd et al. 1974; Hoffman 

et al. 1992; Toraason et al. 1990). Evidence indicates that phenylephrine counteracts 1,1,1-trichloroethane-induced vasodilation without influencing myocardial function (Herd et al. 1974). Further studies 

examining these active methods of treatment were not located. 

Unlike more potent chlorinated alkanes such as carbon tetrachloride or 1,1,2-trichloroethane, it is not 

clear whether the hepatotoxicity of 1,1,1-trichloroethane is due to a metabolite or the parent compound 

(see Section 3.5). If metabolites produced by cytochrome P-450 oxidation or dechlorination is 

responsible for the hepatotoxicity, administering cytochrome P-450 inhibitors (e.g., SKF-525A) may 

inhibit the development of toxic effects on the liver. Clinical or animal studies examining the use of such 

an approach and the possibility of side effects, however, were not located. 

3.12 ADEQUACY OF THE DATABASE 

Section 104(I)(5) of CERCLA, as amended, directs the Administrator of ATSDR (in consultation with the 

Administrator of EPA and agencies and programs of the Public Health Service) to assess whether 

adequate information on the health effects of 1,1,1-trichloroethane is available. Where adequate 

information is not available, ATSDR, in conjunction with the National Toxicology Program (NTP), is 

required to assure the initiation of a program of research designed to determine the health effects (and 

techniques for developing methods to determine such health effects) of 1,1,1-trichloroethane. 

The following categories of possible data needs have been identified by a joint team of scientists from 

ATSDR, NTP, and EPA. They are defined as substance-specific informational needs that if met would 

reduce the uncertainties of human health assessment. This definition should not be interpreted to mean 

that all data needs discussed in this section must be filled. In the future, the identified data needs will be 

evaluated and prioritized, and a substance-specific research agenda will be proposed. 

3.12.1 Existing Information on Health Effects of 1,1,1-Trichloroethane 

The existing data on health effects of inhalation, oral, and dermal exposure of humans and animals to 

1,1,1-trichloroethane are summarized in Figure 3-6. The purpose of this figure is to illustrate the existing 

information concerning the health effects of 1,1,1-trichloroethane. Each dot in the figure indicates that 

one or more studies provide information associated with that particular effect. The dot does not 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 151 

3. HEALTH EFFECTS 

Figure 3-6. Existing Information on Health Effects of 1,1,1-Trichloroethane 

Death

Acute 

Intermediate 

Chronic 

Immunologic/Lymphoretic 

Neurologic 

Reproductive 

Developmental 

Genotoxic 

Cancer 

Systemic 

Human 

Inhalation 

Oral 

Dermal 

Death

Acute 

Intermediate 

Chronic 

Immunologic/Lymphoretic 

Neurologic 

Reproductive 

Developmental 

Genotoxic 

Cancer 

Systemic 

Animal 

Inhalation 

Oral 

Dermal 

Existing Studies 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 152 

3. HEALTH EFFECTS 

necessarily imply anything about the quality of the study or studies, nor should missing information in 

this figure be interpreted as a “data need”. A data need, as defined in ATSDR’s Decision Guide for 

Identifying Substance-Specific Data Needs Related to Toxicological Profiles (Agency for Toxic 

Substances and Disease Registry 1989), is substance-specific information necessary to conduct 

comprehensive public health assessments. Generally, ATSDR defines a data gap more broadly as any 

substance-specific information missing from the scientific literature. 

Several case studies have documented the lethality of high concentrations of inhaled 1,1,1-trichloroethane. Experimental studies, as well as case reports, have reported on acute systemic and neurological 

effects. Chronic systemic, neurological, developmental, and reproductive effects have been investigated 

in epidemiology studies. Health effects caused by other routes of administration have not been as well 

studied in humans. One case study regarding oral exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane reported acute 

systemic effects and investigated potential neurological effects. Developmental effects and cancer from 

exposure to drinking water were investigated by epidemiology studies. The effects of dermal exposure 

are discussed in case reports regarding peripheral neuropathy and dermal sensitization in workers and in 

controlled studies regarding skin irritation. 

As indicated in Figure 3-6, many aspects of the health effects resulting from inhalation, ingestion, and 

dermal exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane have been studied in animals. Except for genotoxicity, each of 

the end points has been investigated in animals exposed to 1,1,1-trichloroethane by the inhalation and oral 

routes. Fewer end points have been studied following dermal exposure. 

3.12.2 Identification of Data Needs 

Acute-Duration Exposure. The primary target organs of 1,1,1-trichloroethane toxicity have been 

identified from human and animal studies. The central nervous system appears to be the most sensitive 

target organ after inhalation exposure. Decreased psychomotor performance, altered EEG, ataxia, and 

anesthesia have been observed in humans after inhalation exposure (Dornette and Jones 1960; Gamberale 

and Hultengren 1973; Mackay et al. 1987; Muttray et al. 2000; Sot et al. 1975; Stewart et al. 1961, 1969; 

Torkelson et al. 1958). Cardiovascular effects (decreased blood pressure and arrhythmias) and mild 

hepatic effects (increased serum enzyme levels, fatty liver, cholestasis) have also been observed (Cohen 

and Frank 1994; Croquet et al. 2003; Dornette and Jones 1960; Guberan et al. 1976; Halevy et al. 1980; 

Hodgson et al. 1989; Krantz et al. 1959; MacDougall et al. 1987; Stewart 1971; Stewart et al. 1961; 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 153 

3. HEALTH EFFECTS 

Texter et al. 1979; Travers 1974). Developmental toxicity studies in rats and rabbits indicated that 

1,1,1-trichloroethane can cause mild developmental delays and effects in the offspring at high levels 

(usually accompanied by significant maternal toxicity) (BRRC 1987a, 1987b; Jones et al. 1996; York et 

al. 1982). Acute oral studies have determined lethal levels in animals and have shown that ingested 

1,1,1-trichloroethane produces neurological effects and reduced body weight gain in animals, and perhaps 

mild liver effects as well (Bruckner et al. 2001; Spencer et al. 1990; Torkelson et al. 1958; Tyson et al. 

1983). The only human data on ingested 1,1,1-trichloroethane was a single case report (Stewart and 

Andrews 1966). The distribution of 1,1,1-trichloroethane to the central nervous system after oral 

administration has not been investigated, but is likely to be similar to that following inhalation exposure. 

In an oral study of rats and mice, however, a significant concentration of 1,1,1-trichloroethane or its 

metabolites was found in the liver, a possible target organ (RTI 1987). Data from dermal studies indicate 

only that concentrated 1,1,1-trichloroethane is a skin irritant (Duprat et al. 1976; Stewart and Dodd 1964; 

Torkelson et al. 1958; Wahlberg 1984a, 1984b). Pharmacokinetic data based on dermal exposures are 

limited; however, 1,1,1-trichloroethane is absorbed following dermal exposure (Fukabori et al. 1977; 

Kezic et al. 2000, 2001; Stewart and Dodd 1964; Tsuruta 1975). Therefore, the central nervous system 

and the liver are likely to be target organs after sufficient dermal exposure, although doses required to 

produce effects would be difficult to predict. Data from inhalation studies in humans were sufficient to 

derive an acute-duration inhalation MRL based on decreased psychomotor performance (Mackay et al. 

1987). An acute-duration oral MRL was not derived due to lack of adequate data. 

Populations near hazardous waste sites might be exposed to 1,1,1-trichloroethane for brief periods. 

1,1,1-Trichloroethane is a frequent contaminant of drinking water supplies, although doses of 1,1,1-trichloroethane ingested by persons living near waste sites are generally significantly lower than doses 

shown experimentally to cause central nervous system depression or cardiac arrhythmias. Nevertheless, 

valuable information could be gathered from acute oral animal toxicity studies with neurological and 

cardiovascular end points. Similarly, acute dermal studies have focused on death and skin irritation, but 

have not determined the doses that might produce other effects. This information might be useful because 

dermal exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane is common among workers in certain industries, including those 

who clean up toxic waste sites. Route-to-route extrapolation of existing inhalation data using PBPK 

models might be a useful approach to assessing health risk from acute-duration oral or dermal exposure to 

1,1,1-trichloroethane. Such models are useful in predicting tissue levels of a given chemical and its 

metabolites following exposure by various routes. 
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Intermediate-Duration Exposure. No studies were located regarding intermediate-duration 

exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane in humans. Data from animal studies indicate that the primary target 

organs of 1,1,1-trichloroethane after intermediate-duration inhalation exposure are the central nervous 

system and the liver. Behavioral effects, decreased activity, and unconsciousness have been reported in 

animals (Mattsson et al. 1993; Moser et al. 1985; Torkelson et al. 1958), as have chemical changes 

indicative of physical damage to the brain (Rosengren et al. 1985). Mild hepatic effects such as increased 

liver weight and fatty changes also have been reported (Adams et al. 1950; Calhoun et al. 1981; McNutt 

et al. 1975; Torkelson et al. 1958). Liver necrosis was reported in one study (McNutt et al. 1975). 

Decreased body weight gain was reported in several studies (Adams et al. 1950; Bruckner et al. 2001; 

NTP 2000; Prendergast et al. 1967). Reproductive and developmental effects also have been investigated 

following oral exposure (George et al. 1989; Lane et al. 1982; NTP 1988a, 1988b). Intermediate-duration 

dermal exposure studies revealed only mild hepatic effects and skin irritation (Torkelson et al. 1958; 

Viola et al. 1981). Pharmacokinetic data to help identify potential target organs after dermal exposure 

were not located. 

Inhalation data were sufficient to derive an intermediate MRL based on chemical changes suggesting 

physical damage in the brain of gerbils (Rosengren et al. 1985). Data from the oral study of NTP (2000) 

were sufficient to derive an intermediate-duration oral MRL based on reduced body weight gain in female 

mice. Additional intermediate-duration oral studies could be designed to assess more subtle neurological 

effects in animals exposed to 1,1,1-trichloroethane via the oral exposure route. Intermediate-duration 

dermal studies that attempt to determine NOAEL and LOAEL values for systemic and other neurological 

effects would be valuable, because populations near hazardous waste sites might be exposed to 1,1,1-trichloroethane by this route for intermediate periods. Route-to-route extrapolation of existing inhalation 

data using PBPK models might be a useful approach to assessing health risk from intermediate-duration 

oral or dermal exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane. 

Chronic-Duration Exposure and Cancer. The information provided in the limited number of 

chronic-duration exposure studies in humans is insufficient to define threshold effect levels. Chronicduration inhalation and oral studies in animals have not defined threshold effect levels for most end 

points, although LOAEL values were reported for decreased body weight in rats and mice (Maltoni et al. 

1986; NCI 1977; Quast et al. 1988). No studies of chronic-duration dermal exposure in humans or 

animals were located. Pharmacokinetic studies after acute oral exposure indicate that the liver is a 

potential target organ; the mild liver effects observed in chronic-duration animal studies are supportive 

(Quast et al. 1988). Existing pharmacokinetic data, however, are not sufficient to identify other target 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 155 

3. HEALTH EFFECTS 

organs after chronic oral, inhalation, or dermal exposure, even though relatively high exposure levels 

have been tested. 

MRL values were not derived for chronic-duration inhalation exposure studies because target organs 

could not be identified. Similarly, a chronic oral MRL was not derived due to lack of adequate data. 

Because populations near hazardous waste sites might be chronically exposed to 1,1,1-trichloroethane, 

studies that attempt to determine target organs and threshold effect levels for inhalation, oral, and dermal 

exposure would be valuable. 

Two-year cancer bioassays have been performed following both inhalation and oral exposure. The results 

of one oral study indicate that 1,1,1-trichloroethane may have increased the occurrence of immunoblastic 

lymphosarcoma in rats (Maltoni et al. 1986). Definite conclusions or implications could not be drawn 

based on this report, however, since experimental procedures were compromised, only one dose level was 

used and only a small number of rats responded. Although no effects were found in a well-designed 

inhalation study at exposure levels ≤1,500 ppm (Quast et al. 1988), a follow-up chronic inhalation 

bioassay incorporating higher doses, an oral bioassay using several dose levels, larger study groups, and 

use of more than one species would allow more definitive assessment of 1,1,1-trichloroethane's 

carcinogenic potential. 

Genotoxicity. No studies were located regarding the genotoxic potential of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in 

humans. Existing genotoxicity studies indicate that 1,1,1-trichloroethane may be weakly mutagenic in 

Salmonella (Gocke et al. 1981; Nestmann et al. 1980, 1984; Simmon et al. 1977), induce deletions via 

intrachromosomal recombination in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae (Brennan and Schiestl 1998), 

transform mammalian cells in vitro (Daniel and Dehnel 1981; Hatch et al. 1982, 1983; Milman et al. 

1988; Price et al. 1978; Tu et al. 1985), and form DNA adducts in the mouse liver in vivo (Turina et al. 

1986). Numerous tests of other genotoxic effects have mostly been negative; however, only a few of 

these studies made an effort to prevent loss of 1,1,1-trichloroethane due to volatility. Studies designed to 

account for this property would allow a more complete assessment of genotoxicity. Valuable information 

also would be provided by tests of chromosomal aberrations in peripheral lymphocytes from humans 

known to have been exposed to 1,1,1-trichloroethane. In addition, genotoxicity testing of 1,1,1-trichloroethane metabolites might be useful. 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 156 

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Reproductive Toxicity. An epidemiology study found no relationship between adverse pregnancy 

outcomes and occupational exposure of fathers to 1,1,1-trichloroethane during spermatogenesis (Taskinen 

et al. 1989). Limited information regarding reproductive toxicity in animals was located. A multigeneration reproduction study of rats exposed to 1,1,1-trichloroethane in drinking water found no 

reproductive effects (Lane et al. 1982). Histological evaluation of reproductive organs and tissues after 

inhalation exposure of rats and mice revealed no lesions attributable to 1,1,1-trichloroethane exposure 

(Adams et al. 1950; Calhoun et al. 1981; Eben and Kimmerle 1974; Quast et al. 1988; Torkelson et al. 

1958; Truffert et al. 1977). However, testicular degeneration was observed in guinea pigs exposed to 

1,1,1-trichloroethane vapors (Adams et al. 1950). Reduced epididymal spermatozoal concentration was 

noted in male rats and mice administered 1,1,1-trichloroethane in the diet at a concentration of 

80,000 ppm (approximate doses of 4,800 and 15,000 mg/kg/day) for 13 weeks, but there were no other 

indications of adverse male reproductive effects and no signs of altered estrus in similarly-treated female 

rats and mice (NTP 2000). There are no pharmacokinetic data in humans to help evaluate potential 

reproductive effects. Reproductive function has not been assessed in animals after inhalation or dermal 

exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane; however, available toxicokinetic data do not suggest route-specific 

target organs. Nevertheless, an inhalation study of reproductive function in animals would be valuable 

for assessing reproductive toxicity, since inhalation is the predominant route of exposure for humans to 

1,1,1-trichloroethane, and reproductive toxicity of 1,1,1-trichloroethane has not been extensively assessed 

in humans or animals. 

Developmental Toxicity. No relationship between maternal exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane and 

adverse pregnancy outcomes (spontaneous abortions/congenital malformations) was found in human 

epidemiology studies (Deane et al. 1989; Lindbohm et al. 1990; Swan et al. 1989; Taskinen et al. 1989; 

Windham et al. 1991; Wrensch et al. 1990a, 1990b). Some studies in animals indicate that 1,1,1-trichloroethane is a potential developmental toxicant in quite high doses. Minor skeletal anomalies (delayed 

ossification and extra ribs in rats and rabbits, respectively, and decreased fetal body weight in rats) have 

been reported after inhalation exposure of pregnant rats or rabbits during major organogenesis (BRRC 

1987a, 1987b; York et al. 1982). These exposures were at concentrations that also produced significant 

maternal toxicity in two of the studies (BRRC 1987a, 1987b). Delays in developmental milestones 

(pinnae detachment, incisor eruption, and eye opening) and impaired performance in neurobehavior tests 

were noted in mouse pups of dams exposed to 1,1,1-trichloroethane vapors during later stages of gestation 

at levels that did not result in apparent maternal toxicity (Jones et al. 1996). No neurological effects were 

reported in the offspring of rats gavaged with 1,1,1-trichloroethane during gestation and lactation (Dow 

Chemical Co. 1993). A multigeneration developmental study of oral 1,1,1-trichloroethane exposure 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 157 

3. HEALTH EFFECTS 

reported no teratogenic effects in rats (Lane et al. 1982). Although developmental studies by the dermal 

route are lacking, available pharmacokinetic data do not suggest route-specific target organs. Route-toroute extrapolation of existing inhalation and oral data using PBPK models might be a useful approach to 

assessing the risk of adverse developmental effects from dermal exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane. 

Additional developmental toxicity studies of inhalation or oral 1,1,1-trichloroethane exposure that 

investigate neurological effects at lower doses of exposure might by useful. 

Immunotoxicity. No studies were located regarding the immunotoxicity of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in 

humans. Information regarding the lymphoreticular system was limited to reports of spleen congestion in 

subjects acutely exposed to high levels of 1,1,1-trichloroethane (Gresham and Treip 1983; Stahl et al. 

1969). Exposed mice were not more susceptible to bacterial infection than unexposed control mice after a 

single inhalation exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane (Aranyi et al. 1986). Very limited information exists 

regarding histology and function of tissues of the lymphoreticular system after 1,1,1-trichloroethane 

exposure by any route. Histological evaluation of lymphoreticular tissues, including lymph nodes, 

thymus, and spleen, revealed no lesions attributable to 1,1,1-trichloroethane exposure (Adams et al. 1950; 

Calhoun et al. 1981; Kjellstrand et al. 1985b; Prendergast et al. 1967; Torkelson et al. 1958). 

Although available studies do not suggest that 1,1,1-trichloroethane induces immunotoxicity, 

comprehensive immunotoxicity assessments have not been performed. Therefore, an acute- or 

intermediate-duration exposure study including a comprehensive evaluation of lymphoid tissues and 

blood components would provide valuable information regarding potential immunotoxicity. 

Neurotoxicity. The central nervous system is apparently the primary target organ of 1,1,1-trichloroethane toxicity. Behavioral effects, altered EEG recordings, ataxia, unconsciousness, and death have been 

reported in human and animal studies (Balster et al. 1982, 1997; Bowen and Balster 1996, 1998; Bruckner 

et al. 2001; Clark and Tinston 1982; DeCeaurriz et al. 1983; del Amo et al. 1996; Dornette and Jones 

1960; Evans and Belster 1993; Gamberale and Hultengren 1973; Garnier et al. 1991; Gehring 1968; HSIA 

1991b; Kelafant et al. 1994; Mackay et al. 1987; Mattsson et al. 1993; Moser and Balster 1985, 1986; 

Muttray et al. 2000; Páez-Martínez et al. 2003; Spencer et al. 1990; Stewart et al. 1961, 1969; Sullivan 

1994; Torkelson et al. 1958; Warren et al. 1997, 1998; Wiley et al. 2002; Winek et al. 1997; Woolverton 

and Balster 1981; You et al. 1994). Neurochemical changes following prolonged inhalation exposure, 

suggesting morphological damage to the brain, have been reported in gerbils (Rosengren et al. 1985). 

Respiratory depression appears to cause death in humans and animals. Most studies were conducted by 

inhalation exposure, but limited data on oral exposure were also available, including a study in which no 
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3. HEALTH EFFECTS 

neurological effects were reported in the offspring of rats treated during gestation and lactation (Dow 

Chemical Co. 1993) (see Developmental Toxicity). Neurological effects have not been reported after 

dermal exposure. 

Additional in-depth studies of the effects of 1,1,1-trichloroethane on neurological structure and function 

might provide important information regarding the mechanisms and reversibility of 1,1,1-trichloroethaneinduced neurological dysfunction. Studies to follow-up on the reported changes in GFA protein 

following 1,1,1-trichloroethane exposure may be helpful. Acute-, intermediate-, and chronic-duration 

exposure studies by the oral route, including comprehensive histological evaluations and nervous system 

function tests, would provide information regarding the dose-response relationship for this route of 

exposure. An acute-duration dermal exposure to assess the potential for neurotoxicity by this route would 

also be useful, although toxicokinetic data available do not suggest route-specific target organs. Route-toroute extrapolation of existing inhalation and oral data using PBPK models might be a useful approach to 

assessing the risk of adverse neurological effects from dermal exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane. 

Populations residing near hazardous waste sites or in occupational settings might be exposed to 1,1,1-trichloroethane. Well-designed and controlled epidemiology studies of these populations may provide 

useful information on the potential for 1,1,1-trichloroethane at relevant exposure levels to produce 

neurological disturbances in humans. 

Epidemiological and Human Dosimetry Studies. Epidemiology studies have investigated the 

relationship between long-term exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane and systemic, neurological, 

reproductive, developmental, and cancer effects in humans, but no health effects associated with exposure 

have been reported. These studies, however, are limited in design and scope and do not provide definitive 

conclusions regarding the health effects of 1,1,1-trichloroethane exposure. More extensive studies might 

provide a definitive assessment of the health hazards of chronic 1,1,1-trichloroethane exposure in humans, 

especially for occupationally exposed populations. If such effects are identified, human dosimetry studies 

may be able to correlate 1,1,1-trichloroethane levels in human tissues or fluids with chronic health effects. 

The usefulness of such studies on individuals living near hazardous waste sites is questionable since 

exposure is relatively low and the half-life of 1,1,1-trichloroethane and its metabolites too short. Acute 

experimental studies in humans have established inhalation exposure levels associated with acute 

neurological effects. Subpopulations potentially exposed to 1,1,1-trichloroethane include people residing 

near hazardous waste sites where the chemical is stored, people who encounter it in the workplace (either 

in its manufacture or application), and people who use household products that contain it. It should be 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 159 

3. HEALTH EFFECTS 

mentioned, however, that as a result of Title VI of the Clean Air Act, potential human exposure to 

1,1,1-trichloroethane is expected to be gradually reduced (see Chapter 6). 

Biomarkers of Exposure and Effect. 

Exposure. Known biomarkers of 1,1,1-trichloroethane exposure include blood, breath, and urine levels 

of the chemical and its two major metabolites, trichloroethanol and trichloroacetic acid. Metabolism of 

trichloroethylene and perchloroethylene also produces trichloroethanol and trichloroacetic acid; therefore, 

these metabolites are not unique to 1,1,1-trichloroethane (Monster 1988). Environmental 1,1,1-trichloroethane levels are significantly correlated with the levels in blood, breath, and urine (Hartwell et al. 1987a; 

Mizunuma et al. 1995; Monster 1986; Wallace et al. 1982, 1984b, 1985, 1987a, 1987b, 1987c). 1,1,1-Trichloroethane is rapidly cleared from the body after exposure (Astrand et al. 1973; Monster et al. 1979; 

Nolan et al. 1984; Stewart et al. 1961). The two metabolites have a much longer half-life in the body than 

the parent compound. Therefore, 1,1,1-trichloroethane levels in the blood, breath, and urine may be used 

as biomarkers only if they are measured during or shortly after exposure. The two metabolites are more 

useful as biomarkers for a somewhat longer period after exposure. Because 1,1,1-trichloroethane's halflife in the body is short, and because hematological profiles and clinical chemistry parameters are not 

usually affected, the further development of biomarkers based on easily-obtained biological fluids may 

not be useful. 

Effect. No specific biomarkers of effect for 1,1,1-trichloroethane were located in the literature. The 

central nervous system is apparently the most sensitive organ in humans and animals, and neurotoxicity 

(decreased psychomotor performance, ataxia, and unconsciousness) is observed after short-term highlevel exposure. Development of specific biomarkers of effect would facilitate medical surveillance, 

which could lead to early detection of adverse effects. 

Absorption, Distribution, Metabolism, and Excretion. The absorption, metabolism, and 

elimination of 1,1,1-trichloroethane have been studied extensively in humans and animals. Distribution 

has not been as well studied. 1,1,1-Trichloroethane is rapidly and efficiently absorbed by the lung, skin 

(under conditions to prevent evaporation), and gastrointestinal tract of humans and animals (Astrand et al. 

1973; Fukabori et al. 1977; Kezic et al. 2000, 2001; Monster et al. 1979; Nolan et al. 1984; Reitz et al. 

1988; RTI 1987; Stewart and Andrews 1966; Stewart and Dodd 1964; Tsuruta 1975). As duration of 

inhalation exposure increases in humans and animals, the percentage net absorption decreases, because 

steady-state levels are approached in the blood and tissues, and 1,1,1-trichloroethane is metabolized at a 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 160 

3. HEALTH EFFECTS 

low rate. A study with humans equipped with respirators indicated that, during exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane vapors in the atmosphere, absorbed doses from inhaled 1,1,1-trichloroethane are much 

larger than doses from dermal absorption (Riihimaki and Pfaffli 1978). Animal studies demonstrated 

that, once absorbed, 1,1,1-trichloroethane is distributed by the blood to tissues and organs throughout the 

body, including developing fetuses, with preferential distribution to fatty tissues (Holmberg et al. 1977; 

Katagiri et al. 1997; Schumann et al. 1982a; Takahara 1986b). Human data regarding the compound's 

distribution consist of observations that detectable levels were found in subcutaneous fat, kidney fat, liver, 

lung, and muscle in 30 autopsy cases (Alles et al. 1988). The predominant pathway of 1,1,1-trichloroethane elimination by humans and animals, regardless of exposure route, is exhalation of the unchanged 

compound (Mitoma et al. 1985; Monster et al. 1979; Nolan et al. 1984; Reitz et al. 1988; RTI 1987; 

Schumann et al. 1982a, 1982b). When exposure ceases, the compound rapidly clears from the body. 

Only trace amounts of the compound remained in animal tissues within days of short-term exposure. 

Further studies in humans regarding extent and rates of absorption and elimination with dermal exposure 

to aqueous 1,1,1-trichloroethane solutions or suspensions under conditions allowing evaporation from the 

skin may provide useful information on dermal contact with contaminated water. 

Experiments with animals and humans have demonstrated that only small fractions of absorbed 1,1,1-trichloroethane doses (<10%) are metabolized, regardless of the exposure route (Mitoma et al. 1985; 

Monster et al. 1979; Nolan et al. 1984; Schumann et al. 1982a, 1982b). 1,1,1-Trichloroethane is 

metabolized oxidatively to trichloroethanol and trichloroacetic acid by a concentration-dependent, 

saturable process that appears to involve the cytochrome P-450 mixed-function oxidase system. These 

metabolites have been detected in urine excreted from exposed humans and animals; other minor 

metabolites (CO2 and acetylene, the latter formed by the reductive dechlorination of 1,1,1-trichloroethane 

under conditions of low oxygen supply) are eliminated in expired air. 

The hepatotoxicity of 1,1,1-trichloroethane is quite low compared to other chlorinated hydrocarbons, 

including 1,1,2-trichloroethane. The relatively low toxicity of 1,1,1-trichloroethane may be due to its 

relatively low metabolism rate, since the more hepatotoxic halocarbons are extensively metabolized. 

Whether the mild effects of repeated 1,1,1-trichloroethane exposure are evoked by the parent compound 

or the limited quantities of metabolites produced is not known, however. The available data indicate that 

the acute effects on central nervous and cardiovascular systems are caused by 1,1,1-trichloroethane and 

not its metabolites. The interference of 1,1,1-trichloroethane with membrane-mediated processes, due to 

lipophilicity, may be responsible for the acute effects on these systems; several cellular and biochemical 

processes appear to be affected by 1,1,1-trichloroethane. Additional studies regarding absorption, 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 161 

3. HEALTH EFFECTS 

metabolism, and elimination of 1,1,1-trichloroethane do not appear necessary. A better understanding of 

the distribution of absorbed 1,1,1-trichloroethane following inhalation or oral exposure could be achieved 

using a well-designed toxicokinetics study. 

Comparative Toxicokinetics. The toxicokinetic pattern of 1,1,1-trichloroethane is qualitatively 

similar in humans, rats, and mice. There are major quantitative differences, however, including a higher 

blood:air partition coefficient, higher respiratory and circulatory rates, and increased rate of metabolism 

in mice. This comparison has led to a suggestion that rats may be a better model for humans than mice. 

Physiologically-based pharmacokinetic models have been developed to describe the kinetic behavior of 

1,1,1-trichloroethane in mice, rats, and humans; these models have been used to make interspecies and 

interroute extrapolations in estimating 1,1,1-trichloroethane exposure levels in humans that will produce 

(or not produce) toxic effects (Bogen and Hall 1989; Dallas et al. 1989; Dobrev et al. 2001, 2002; Leung 

1992; Nolan et al. 1984; Poet et al. 2000; Reitz et al. 1988; USAF 1990). Further research verifying the 

metabolic constants and other input parameters (partition coefficients, tissue values and blood flows, 

cardiac output, and respiratory volumes) used in these models might improve the accuracy and utility of 

the models in interspecies extrapolations. In addition, verification of the models should also be 

performed at lower doses than those used to calibrate them. 

Methods for Reducing Toxic Effects. Suggested methods to treat the effects of acute exposure to 

1,1,1-trichloroethane and other halogenated hydrocarbons are generally supportive and rely on the body's 

ability to eliminate rapidly 1,1,1-trichloroethane and its metabolites. Animal studies indicate that 

intravenous injection or infusion of calcium gluconate or phenylephrine are protective against acute blood 

pressure reduction caused by exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane (Herd et al. 1974). Further animal testing 

is needed to assess whether these compounds might be used to resuscitate individuals exposed to high 

concentrations of 1,1,1-trichloroethane. 

Children’s Susceptibility. Data needs relating to both prenatal and childhood exposures, and 

developmental effects expressed either prenatally or during childhood, are discussed in detail in the 

Developmental Toxicity subsection above. 

No information was located regarding potential age-related differences in susceptibility to 1,1,1-trichloroethane in humans. Delays in developmental milestones and impaired performance in neurobehavior tests 

in mouse pups of dams exposed to 1,1,1-trichloroethane vapors during later stages of gestation (Jones et 

al. 1996) indicate that developing organisms may be more susceptible than adults to the toxic effects of 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 162 

3. HEALTH EFFECTS 

1,1,1-trichloroethane. Additional well-designed animal studies should be performed to adequately assess 

the potential for age-related increased susceptibility to 1,1,1-trichloroethane. 

Child health data needs relating to exposure are discussed in Section 6.8.1, Identification of Data Needs: 

Exposures of Children. 

3.12.3 Ongoing Studies 

One ongoing study pertaining to 1,1,1-trichloroethane was located in a search of the Federal Research in 

Progress database (FEDRIP 2005). 

Dr J. Zacny of the University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois is developing a human laboratory model of 

inhalant abuse by studying potential determinants of abuse liability of inhalants (including 1,1,1-trichloroethane) in healthy volunteers. 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 163 

4. CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL INFORMATION 

4.1 CHEMICAL IDENTITY 

Information regarding the chemical identity of 1,1,1-trichloroethane is located in Table 4-1. 

4.2 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES 

Information regarding the physical and chemical properties of 1,1,1-trichloroethane is located in 

Table 4-2. 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 164 

4. CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL INFORMATION 

Table 4-1. Chemical Identity of 1,1,1-Trichloroethane 

Characteristic Information Reference 

Chemical name 1,1,1-Trichloroethane CAS 2004 

Synonyms(s) Methylchloroform CAS 2004 

 Methyltrichloromethane CAS 2004 

 1,1,1-TCE 

 Trichloromethylmethane 

α-Trichloromethane 

Registered trade name(s) Chlorothene NU OHM/TADS 1994 

 Aerothene TT 

Chemical formula CCl3CH3 CAS 2004 

Chemical structure Cl H 

Cl C C H 

Cl H 

Identification numbers: 

CAS registry 71-55-6 CAS 2004 

 NIOSH RTECS KJ2975000 RTECS 2004 

EPA hazardous waste U226, F002 HSDB 2005 

 OHM/TADS 8100101 OHM/TADS 1994 

DOT/UN/NA/IMCO shipping UN 2831, IMO 6.1 HSDB 2005 

HSDB 157 HSDB 2005 

NCI C04626 HSDB 2005 

CAS = Chemical Abstracts Services; DOT/UN/NA/IMCO = Department of Transportation/United Nations/North 

America/International Maritime Dangerous Goods Code; EPA = Environmental Protection Agency; 

HSDB = Hazardous Substances Data Bank; NCI = National Cancer Institute; NIOSH = National Institute for 

Occupational Safety and Health; OHM/TADS = Oil and Hazardous Materials/Technical Assistance Data System; 

RTECS = Registry of Toxic Effects of Chemical Substances 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 165 

4. CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL INFORMATION 

Table 4-2. Physical and Chemical Properties of 1,1,1-Trichloroethane 

Property Information Reference 

Molecular weight 133.4 CAS 2004 

Color Colorless Archer 1979; Sax and 

Lewis 1987 

Physical state Liquid Merck 1989 

Melting point -30.4 °C Weast 1988 

-33.0 °C Archer 1979 

Boiling point 74.1 °C Budavari 1989 

Density: 

at 20 °C 1.3390 g/mL Weast 1988 

at 25 °C 1.3299 g/mL Riddick et al. 1986 

at 30 °C 1.32096 g/mL Riddick et al. 1986 

Odor Ethereal, chloroform-like Archer 1979; Aviado et al. 

1976 

Odor threshold: 

 Water No data 

Air 120 ppm Amoore and Hautala 1983; 

500 ppm Reist and Rex 1977 

Solubility: 

Water at 25 °C 0.1495% (w/w) (1,500 mg/L) Horvath 1982 

Organic solvent(s) Soluble in alcohol, ether, Archer 1979; Weast 1988 

chloroform; miscible with other 

chlorinated solvents, soluble in 

common organic solvents 

Partition coefficients: 

 Log Kow 2.49 Hansch and Leo 1985 

 Log Koc 2.03 Friesel et al. 1984 

2.02 Chiou et al. 1979 

Vapor pressure at 20 °C 124 mm Hg Boublik et al. 1984 

16.4 1kPa Riddick et al. 1986 

Henry's law constant: 

at 20 °C 6.3x10-3 atm Chiou et al. 1980 

at 30 °C 17.2x10-3 atm Gossett 1987 

Autoignition temperature 537 °C HSDB 2004 

Flashpoint None Archer 1979 

Flammability limits 8–10.5% Archer 1979 

Conversion factors: 

ppm (v/v) to mg/m3

 in air (20 °C) 

mg/m3

 to ppm (v/v) in air (20 °C) 

1 ppm = 5.4 mg/m3 

1 mg/m3 = 0.185 ppm 

Chiou et al. 1980 

Explosive limits 7.5–12.5% in air NIOSH 1990 

CAS = Chemical Abstracts Services; HSDB = Hazardous Substances Data Bank; NIOSH = National Institute for 

Occupational Safety and Health; v/v = volume by volume; wt/wt = weight by weight 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 166 

4. CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL INFORMATION 

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1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 167 

5. PRODUCTION, IMPORT/EXPORT, USE, AND DISPOSAL 

5.1 PRODUCTION 

According to the 1990 amendments to the Clean Air Act and the Montreal Protocol, U.S. production of 

1,1,1-trichloroethane was to be cut incrementally, eventually being completely phased out by January 

2002. However, during the period beginning on January 1, 2002 and ending on January 1, 2005, 

production of limited amounts of 1,1,1-trichloroethane may be authorized by the Administrator for use in 

essential applications, or for the export to developing countries (EPA 2004m). The total production 

volumes of 1,1,1-trichloroethane fell from 720 million pounds in 1992 to 450 million pounds in 1993 

(CMR 1995). Despite the proposed phase-out, 1,1,1-trichloroethane was still being manufactured in the 

United States in 2002 in a production volume range of 100–500 million pounds (EPA 2002). Today, the 

only significant use of 1,1,1 trichloroethane is in the production of CFC-142. Since these laws have been 

passed, the projected amount of 1,1,1 trichloroethane has decreased from 300 million pounds in 2000 to a 

projected 125 million pounds in 2005 (HSIA 2004). Two chemical companies are listed as domestic 

manufacturers in 2005 (SRI 2005): Vulcan Materials Co. Chemicals Division in Geismer, Louisiana and 

PPG Industries in Lake Charles, Louisiana. The estimated total production capacity at each of the 

facilities in 2005 (in millions of pounds) is 350 for PPG's plant in Lake Charles, Louisiana and 160 for 

Vulcan's plant in Geismar, Louisiana (estimated total capacity of 510 million pounds as of February 1, 

2005) (SRI 2005). 

Besides the above producers of 1,1,1-trichloroethane, Table 5-1 reports the number of facilities in each 

state that manufacture and process 1,1,1-trichloroethane, the intended use of the product, and the range of 

maximum amounts of 1,1,1-trichloroethane stored on site. The data reported in Table 5-1 are derived 

from the Toxics Release Inventory (TRI) (TRI03 2005). Only certain types of facilities were required to 

report to the TRI databank of EPA. Hence, this is not an exhaustive list. 

The most common method for industrial preparation of 1,1,1-trichloroethane is the reaction of 

hydrochloric acid with vinyl chloride (obtained from 1,2-dichloroethane) to obtain 1,1-dichloroethane, 

followed by either thermal or photochemical chlorination. Other methods include the catalyzed addition 

of hydrogen chloride to 1,1-dichloroethylene, and the direct chlorination of ethane itself, followed by 

separation from the other products produced (Archer 1979). Commercial grades of 1,1,1-trichloroethane 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 168 

5. PRODUCTION, IMPORT/EXPORT, USE, AND DISPOSAL 

Table 5-1. Facilities that Produce, Process, or Use 1,1,1-Trichloroethane 

Minimum Maximum 

Number of amount on site amount on site 

Statea facilities in poundsb in poundsb Activities and usesc 

AK 1 10,000 99,999 12 

AL 48 0 9,999,999 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 

AR 42 0 999,999 2, 3, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 

AZ 43 0 999,999 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 

CA 224 0 499,999,999 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14 

CO 40 0 999,999 1, 2, 3, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 

CT 61 0 49,999,999 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13 

DE 17 100 99,999 2, 3, 4, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12 

FL 56 0 49,999,999 1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 

GA 64 0 99,999,999 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13 

HI 2 1,000 99,999 12 

IA 46 0 999,999 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13 

ID 12 100 99,999 2, 3, 6, 10, 11, 12 

IL 130 0 499,999,999 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13 

IN 85 0 99,999,999 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 

KS 54 0 9,999,999 2, 3, 4, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 

KY 47 0 9,999,999 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 

LA 48 0 99,999,999 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13 

MA 69 0 999,999 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 

MD 40 0 49,999,999 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13 

ME 24 0 999,999 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12 

MI 91 0 99,999,999 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13 

MN 64 0 9,999,999 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 

MO 67 0 499,999,999 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 

MS 46 100 999,999 1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 

MT 1 1,000 9,999 10 

NC 76 0 99,999,999 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 

ND 10 0 99,999 10, 11, 12 

NE 26 100 999,999 2, 3, 7, 10, 11, 12 

NH 28 0 99,999 2, 3, 6, 7, 9, 10, 11, 12 

NJ 92 0 49,999,999 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13 

NM 16 100 99,999 2, 3, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12 

NV 7 100 99,999 7, 11, 12 

NY 77 0 49,999,999 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13 

OH 110 0 49,999,999 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 

OK 34 100 49,999,999 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 

OR 29 100 99,999 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 

PA 89 0 49,999,999 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 

PR 28 0 49,999,999 2, 3, 4, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 169 

5. PRODUCTION, IMPORT/EXPORT, USE, AND DISPOSAL 

Table 5-1. Facilities that Produce, Process, or Use 1,1,1-Trichloroethane 

Minimum Maximum 

Number of amount on site amount on site 

Statea facilities in poundsb in poundsb Activities and usesc 

RI 31 0 999,999 2, 3, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 

SC 52 0 9,999,999 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 

SD 9 1,000 99,999 10, 11, 12 

TN 67 0 999,999 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 

TX 131 0 499,999,999 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13 

UT 34 0 9,999,999 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12 

VA 41 0 99,999,999 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 

VI 3 10,000 999,999 10, 11 

VT 11 1,000 99,999 2, 3, 8, 10, 11, 12 

WA 36 0 999,999 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14 

WI 65 0 9,999,999 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13 

WV 10 1,000 999,999 9, 11, 12 

WY 5 0 9,999 2, 3, 10, 11, 12 

a

Post office state abbreviations used b

Amounts on site reported by facilities in each state c

Activities/Uses: 

1. Produce 6. Impurity 11. Chemical Processing Aid 

2. Import 7. Reactant 12. Manufacturing Aid 

3. Onsite use/processing 8. Formulation Component 13. Ancillary/Other Uses 

4. Sale/Distribution 9. Article Component 14. Process Impurity 

5. Byproduct 10. Repackaging 

Source: TRI03 2005 (Data are from 2003) 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 170 

5. PRODUCTION, IMPORT/EXPORT, USE, AND DISPOSAL 

usually contain some inhibitor, such as nitromethane, methyl ethyl ketone, toluene, 1,4-dioxane, butylene 

oxide, 1,3-dioxolane, or secondary butyl alcohols (Archer 1979; OHM/TADS 1992). 

5.2 IMPORT/EXPORT 

According to the Commerce Department's National Trade Data Bank (NTDB 1994), the following 

amounts of 1,1,1-trichloroethane (in pounds with kg in parentheses) were exported from the United States 

during the period 1989–1993: 124.3 million (56.4 million) in 1989; 114.6 million (52.0 million) in 1990; 

162.4 million (73.7 million) in 1991; 139.7 million (63.4 million) in 1992; and 75.8 million (34.4 million) 

in 1993. The amount of 1,1,1-trichloroethane exported has declined since 1991. Because 1,1,1-trichloroethane has been classified as an ozone-depleting chemical, its export and import is regulated by Sections 

601–607 of the Clean Air Act. 1,1,1-Trichloroethane may not be imported into the United States; 

however, under section 604(e) of the Clean Air Act, 1,1,1-trichloroethane may be produced domestically 

for export to developing countries that are parties to the Montreal Protocol and are operating under 

article 5 of such Protocol until January 1, 2012 (EPA 2004m). No recent data were found regarding 

amounts of 1,1,1-trichloroethane exported from the United States. 

5.3 USE 

1,1,1-Trichloroethane was developed initially as a safer solvent to replace other chlorinated and 

flammable solvents. Currently 1,1,1, trichloroethane is almost entirely used as a precursor for 

hydrofluorocarbons (HSIA 2004). In 1995, 1,1,1,trichloroethane was used for: hydrochlorofluorocarbon 

(HCFC) intermediate (60%), vapor degreasing and cold cleaning 25% (through 1995), adhesives 5%, 

coatings and inks 3%, textiles 2%, and electronics and miscellaneous 5% (CMR 1995). During the period 

beginning on January 1, 2002 and ending on January 1, 2005, the Administrator may authorize the use of 

limited amounts of 1,1,1-trichloroethane for essential applications such as medical devices and aviation 

safety. An example is its use for nondestructive testing for metal fatigue and corrosion of existing 

airplane engines and airplane parts susceptible to metal fatigue. These applications have no safe and 

effective substitute available. 

1,1,1-Trichloroethane was used as a solvent for adhesives (including food packaging adhesives) and in 

metal degreasing, pesticides, textile processing, cutting fluids, aerosols, lubricants, cutting oil 

formulations, drain cleaners, shoe polishes, spot cleaners, printing inks, and stain repellents, among other 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 171 

5. PRODUCTION, IMPORT/EXPORT, USE, AND DISPOSAL 

uses. It was used in industry primarily for cold-cleaning, dip cleaning, bucket cleaning, and vapor 

degreasing operations of items such as precision instruments, molds, electrical equipment, motors, 

electronic components and instruments, missile hardware, paint masks, photographic film, printed circuit 

boards, generators, switchgears, semiconductors, high vacuum equipment, fabrics, and wigs. It was also 

used for on-site cleaning of printing presses, food packaging machinery, and molds. 1,1,1-Trichloroethane was also used as a chemical intermediate in the production of hydrochlorofluorocarbons and vinyl 

chloride. It was formerly used as a food and grain fumigant (Archer 1979; Aviado et al. 1976, 1980; 

Budavari 1989; Sax and Lewis 1987; Stewart 1983; WHO 1992). 

1,1,1-Trichloroethane was used extensively in household products. In a "shopping basket" survey, 

1,1,1-trichloroethane was found in 216 of 1,159 common household products chosen as likely to contain 

solvents at concentrations >0.1% by weight (Sack et al. 1992). In a similar study, 1,1,1-trichloroethane 

was found in 32 of 67 categories (1,026 brands sampled) of common household products at 

concentrations >1% by weight; trace amounts were listed in all 67 categories (EPA 1987l; Maklan et al. 

1987). Some of the several commonly used household items that may contain 1,1,1-trichloroethane are 

shown in Table 5-2. 1,1,1-Trichloroethane is emitted during use of items prevalent in the average home 

(Pleil and Whiton 1990; Wallace et al. 1987b). 

5.4 DISPOSAL 

1,1,1-Trichloroethane has been identified as a hazardous waste by EPA, and disposal of this waste is 

regulated under the Federal Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA). Specific information 

regarding federal regulations on 1,1,1-trichloroethane disposal on land, in municipal solid waste landfills, 

in incinerators, and during underground injection is available in the Code of Federal Regulations (EPA 

1992b, 1992c, 1992d, 1992e). Disposal of 1,1,1-trichloroethane can be accomplished through its 

destruction in a high temperature incinerator equipped with a hydrochloric acid scrubber. The destruction 

and removal efficiency (DRE) for 1,1,1-trichloroethane in hazardous wastes must attain 99.99% (Carroll 

et al. 1992). Potential methods of incineration include liquid injection, rotary kiln, and fluidized bed 

incineration (Carroll et al. 1992; HSDB 2005). Product residues and sorbent media may be packaged in a 

17H epoxy-lined drum, encapsulated in an organic polyester resin, and disposed of at an approved EPA 

disposal site (OHM/TADS 1992). Other methods that have shown promise for the destruction of 

1,1,1-trichloroethane are homogeneous sonochemical treatment for aqueous wastes (Cheung et al. 1991) 

and a combination of ozonation and ultraviolet treatment for groundwater (Kusakabe et al. 1991). From a 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 172 

5. PRODUCTION, IMPORT/EXPORT, USE, AND DISPOSAL 

Table 5-2. 1,1,1-Trichloroethane in Common Household Productsa 

Product Concentration (percent w/w)b 

Adhesive cleaners 0.1–95.0 

Adhesives 0.2–121.1 

Aerosol spray paint 0.2–1.0 

Battery terminal protectors 37.1 

Belt lubricants 11.4–72 

Brake cleaners 0.4–75.6 

Carburetor cleaners 0.2–0.3 

Circuit board cleaners NS 

Door spray lubricants 95.6 

Drain cleaner (nonacid) 97.8 

Electric shaver cleaners 2.5–20.3 

Engine degreasers 0.2 

Fabric finishes 77.9–85.1 

Gasket removers/adhesives 0.2–1.0 

General purpose spray degreasers 0.1–71.4 

General purpose liquid cleaners 72.7–126.7 

Ignition wire driers 24.3–43.6 

Lubricants 0.1–104.5 

Miscellaneous nonautomotive 12.5–67.5 

Miscellaneous automotive 0.3–0.4 

Oven cleaners 97 

Paint removers/strippers 0.1–25.7 

Primers 1.2–61.8 

Rust removers 0.7 

Silicone lubricants 0.2–91.1 

Specialized aerosol cleaners 0.2–83.8 

Spot removers 10.5–110.8 

Spray shoe polish 11.4–62.3 

Stereo/record player cleaners 0.7 

Suede protectors 4.8–118.5 

Tape recorder cleaners 0.2–101.5 

Tire cleaners 0.1–90.3 

Transmission cleaner/lubricant 113 

TV/computer screen cleaners 0.3 

Typewriter correction fluid 6–110 

VCR cleaners 97.8 

Video disk cleaners 0.6 

Water repellents 0.2–116.2 

Wood cleaners 12.3–20.4 

Woodstain/varnishes/finishes 0.1–21.4 

a

1,1,1-Trichloroethane is no longer used in common household products. b

Average recovery from spiked samples: 97±13% 

w/w = weight per weight 

Source: Adapted from Frankenberry et al. 1987; Maklan et al. 1987 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 173 

5. PRODUCTION, IMPORT/EXPORT, USE, AND DISPOSAL 

laboratory feasibility study, it was concluded that the in situ biodegradation of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in 

soils by methane-oxidizing bacteria was not a viable bioremediation method (Broholm et al. 1991). 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 174 

5. PRODUCTION, IMPORT/EXPORT, USE, AND DISPOSAL 

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1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 175 

6. POTENTIAL FOR HUMAN EXPOSURE 

6.1 OVERVIEW 

1,1,1-Trichloroethane has been identified in at least 823 of the 1,662 hazardous waste sites that have been 

proposed for inclusion on the EPA National Priorities List (NPL) (HazDat 2005). However, the number 

of sites evaluated for 1,1,1-trichloroethane is not known. The frequency of these sites can be seen in 

Figure 6-1. Of these sites, 815 are located within the United States, 5 are located in the Commonwealth 

of Puerto Rico (not shown), 2 are located in the Virgin Islands (not shown), and 1 is located in Guam (not 

shown). 

1,1,1-Trichloroethane is a synthetic compound that is released to the environment by human industrial 

activity. It was released to the environment by process and fugitive emissions during its manufacture, 

formulation, and use in both consumer and industrial products. Because 1,1,1-trichloroethane is volatile 

and was used as a solvent in many products, it was most frequently found in the atmosphere due to 

volatilization during production and use. 1,1,1-Trichloroethane is an ozone depleting substance and has 

been listed as a class I substance under Section 602 of the Clean Air Act. Class I substances have an 

ozone depletion potential (ODP) of ≥0.2 and include chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), halons, carbon 

tetrachloride, 1,1,1-trichloroethane, and methyl bromide. Although recent estimates have yielded an ODP 

of 0.12 for 1,1,1-trichloroethane, it is still listed as a class I substance. Under Section 604 of the Clean 

Air Act as amended in 1990, all production and use of 1,1,1-trichloroethane was scheduled to cease as of 

January 1, 2002. However, 1,1,1-trichloroethaene may still be used for essential applications such as 

medical devices and aviation safety (for the testing of metal fatigue and corrosion of existing airplane 

engines and other parts susceptible to corrosion) until January 1, 2005. 1,1,1-Trichloroethane (and other 

class I substances) may also be produced domestically for export to developing countries as specified in 

Section 604(e) of the Clean Air Act. This exception to the phase-out is scheduled to end by 

January 1, 2012 for 1,1,1-trichloroethane (EPA 2004m). In 2002, 1,1,1-trichloroethane was still being 

manufactured in the United States in 2002 in a production volume range of 100–500 million pounds. The 

projected amount of 1,1,1-trichloroethane has decreased from 300 million pounds in 2000 to 125 million 

pounds in 2005 (HSIA 2004). 1,1,1-Trichloroethane is no longer used in common household products. 

The current likelihood of exposure of the general population to 1,1,1-trichloroethane is remote. Possible 

routes of exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane were inhalation, dermal contact, or through the ingestion of 

either contaminated water or food. Exposure by inhalation was expected to predominate. 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 176 

6. POTENTIAL FOR HUMAN EXPOSURE 

Figure 6-1. Frequency of NPL Sites with 1,1,1-Trichloroethane Contamination 

Frequency of

NPL Sites

1-2

3-4

5-7

8-19

Derived from HazDat 2005 20-59

60-77
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 177 

6. POTENTIAL FOR HUMAN EXPOSURE 

The general population was exposed to 1,1,1-trichloroethane because of its prevalence in common 

household products. Indoor air concentrations were determined to be greater than nearby outdoor 

concentrations, probably as a result of its presence in a myriad of consumer products in the past. 

Occupational exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane could have occurred by inhalation or dermal contact 

during its manufacture and formulation, during its use as a cleaner of manufactured components, and 

during the application of the numerous paints, resins, adhesives, and cleaners containing it as a solvent. 

At hazardous waste sites, inhalation is expected to be the predominant route of exposure; however, 

ingestion of contaminated water may occur also. 

The dominant environmental fate process for 1,1,1-trichloroethane is volatilization to the atmosphere. 

Once in the atmosphere, reaction with photochemically-produced hydroxyl radicals is expected to be the 

most important transformation process for 1,1,1-trichloroethane; the estimated atmospheric lifetime for 

this process is about 6 years. This long atmospheric lifetime allows about 15% of 1,1,1-trichloroethane to 

migrate to the stratosphere, where it may be degraded by lower wavelength ultraviolet light, not available 

in the troposphere, to produce atomic chlorine. The chlorine atoms produced in the stratosphere by this 

process may react with ozone causing the erosion of the ozone layer. However, direct photochemical 

degradation of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in the troposphere should not occur. The moderate water solubility 

of 1,1,1-trichloroethane suggests that rain washout can occur; however, 1,1,1-trichloroethane removed 

from the atmosphere by this process would be expected to re-volatilize. The lengthy half-life for 

1,1,1-trichloroethane in the troposphere allows it to be carried great distances from its original point of 

release, and it has been found in remote places far from any known source of release. 

If released to soil, 1,1,1-trichloroethane should display high mobility and the potential for leaching into 

groundwater. Volatilization from soil surfaces to the atmosphere is expected to be an important fate 

process. Although data regarding biodegradation of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in soil are lacking, it is not 

expected to be an important fate process. 1,1,1-Trichloroethane is not expected to undergo aerobic 

biodegradation, but there is some experimental evidence that biodegradation may occur under anaerobic 

conditions. 

Once released to surface water, 1,1,1-trichloroethane is expected to undergo volatilization to the 

atmosphere. Neither adsorption to sediment nor bioconcentration in aquatic organisms is recognized as 

an important removal process. Aerobic biodegradation of 1,1,1-trichloroethane can occur in the presence 

of methane-oxidizing bacteria. If released to groundwater, biodegradation of 1,1,1-trichloroethane under 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 178 

6. POTENTIAL FOR HUMAN EXPOSURE 

anaerobic conditions is known to occur; however, it appears to be a slow process under most 

environmental conditions. 

1,1,1-Trichloroethane may very slowly undergo abiotic degradation in soil or water by elimination of 

hydrochloric acid (HCl) to form 1,1-dichloroethene, which also can be considered a pollutant, or it can 

undergo hydrolysis to form the naturally occurring acetic acid. Direct photochemical degradation is not 

expected to be an important fate process. 

6.2 RELEASES TO THE ENVIRONMENT 

The Toxics Release Inventory (TRI) data should be used with caution because only certain types of 

facilities are required to report (EPA 2005). This is not an exhaustive list. Manufacturing and processing 

facilities are required to report information to the TRI only if they employ >10 full-time employees; if 

their facility is included in Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) Codes 10 (except 1011, 1081, and 

1094), 12 (except 1241), 20–39, 4911 (limited to facilities that combust coal and/or oil for the purpose of 

generating electricity for distribution in commerce), 4931 (limited to facilities that combust coal and/or 

oil for the purpose of generating electricity for distribution in commerce), 4939 (limited to facilities that 

combust coal and/or oil for the purpose of generating electricity for distribution in commerce), 4953 

(limited to facilities regulated under RCRA Subtitle C, 42 U.S.C. section 6921 et seq.), 5169, 5171, and 

7389 (limited S.C. section 6921 et seq.), 5169, 5171, and 7389 (limited to facilities primarily engaged in 

solvents recovery services on a contract or fee basis); and if their facility produces, imports, or processes 

≥25,000 pounds of any TRI chemical or otherwise uses >10,000 pounds of a TRI chemical in a calendar 

year (EPA 2005). 

The manufacture and use of 1,1,1-trichloroethane was scheduled to be phased out by 2002. Since the 

declines in emissions closely follow the declines in production and use, the emissions of 1,1,1-trichloroethane to the atmosphere should show a corresponding decline (EPA 2004m). 

6.2.1 Air 

Estimated releases of 114,373 pounds (~51.9 metric tons) of 1,1,1-trichloroethane to the atmosphere from 

46 domestic manufacturing and processing facilities in 2003, accounted for about 86% of the estimated 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 179 

6. POTENTIAL FOR HUMAN EXPOSURE 

total environmental releases from facilities required to report to the TRI (TRI03 2005). These releases are 

summarized in Table 6-1. 

A correlation of data from the EPA Air Toxics Emission Inventory with industrial source codes (SIC 

codes), shows that volatile emissions of 1,1,1-trichloroethane are associated with 122 different industrial 

classifications that run the gamut from manufacturing and formulation to secondary uses (Pacific 

Environmental Services, Inc. 1987). Release of 1,1,1-trichloroethane, in most cases, is an expected result 

of its use (Spence and Hanst 1978). Small amounts of 1,1,1-trichloroethane are also released to the 

atmosphere from coal-fired power plants (Garcia et al. 1992), from incineration of hospital wastes (Green 

et al. 1992; Walker and Cooper 1992), incineration of military nerve agents (Mart and Henke 1992), 

incineration of industrial wastes containing certain plastics and waste solvents (Nishikawa et al. 1992, 

1993), and incineration of municipal waste water sludge (Vancil et al. 1991). 1,1,1-Trichloroethane 

contained in consumer products was released into the atmosphere during the application, drying, or curing 

of these products. 1,1,1-Trichloroethane can enter the atmosphere via the air-stripping treatment of waste 

water. Volatilization, which accounts for ≈100% of removal in waste water, occurs during this process 

(Kincannon et al. 1983a). Volatilization from waste lagoons is also likely (Shen 1982). 

Precise quantitative data on 1,1,1-trichloroethane air emissions are lacking. A large proportion of total 

production probably found its way into the atmosphere. Estimates for 1984 suggest that 100.4 kilotons 

(220 million pounds) were released during use by the European Economic Community (EEC) and other 

western European countries, a figure representing some 70% of total consumption in Europe (Herbert et 

al. 1986). Global estimates indicate that 1,497 million pounds (679 million kg) of 1,1,1-trichloroethane 

were released to the atmosphere in 1988 (Midgley 1989). A comparison of TRI data for 1992 and 2003 

(115 million pounds and 114,373 pounds, respectively) shows that the nationwide emission of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in the atmosphere has decreased by over 98% during this period. A 36% reduction in 

atmospheric emissions was observed in Irvine, California, from 1989 to 1990 (Brown and Hart 1992). 

Most processes that use 1,1,1-trichloroethane result in some fugitive emissions. For example, the release 

of 1,1,1-trichloroethane from an industrial solvent recycling facility was 16.7% of the throughput (Balfour 

et al. 1985). 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 180 

6. POTENTIAL FOR HUMAN EXPOSURE 

Table 6-1. Releases to the Environment from Facilities that Produce, Process, or 

Use 1,1,1-Trichloroethanea

Reported amounts released in pounds per yearb 

Total release 

Statec RFd Aire Waterf Landh Otheri On-sitej

 Off-sitek On- and off-site 

AR 2 158 No data 0 0 158 0 158 

CA 6 338 No data 1 0 338 1 339 

IL 2 10 No data 250 250 10 500 510 

IN 5 513 No data 0 1 513 1 514 

KS 1 500 No data 5 0 500 5 505 

KY 2 13,903 2 0 0 13,905 0 13,905 

LA 5 56,230 15 561 0 56,804 2 56,806 

MI 1 56 No data 0 0 56 0 56 

MO 2 11,210 0 0 0 11,210 0 11,210 

MS 1 500 No data 0 0 500 0 500 

NE 1 5 No data 0 0 5 0 5 

NJ 1 0 15 0 0 15 0 15 

NM 1 1,150 No data 250 0 1,150 250 1,400 

OH 4 3,231 5 250 0 3,236 250 3,486 

OR 1 0 No data 0 0 0 0 0 

PA 2 5 No data 255 0 5 255 260 

SC 1 486 No data 0 0 486 0 486 

TN 1 0 No data No data No data No data 0 0 

TX 4 789 3 0 0 792 0 792 

UT 2 25,209 No data 0 833 25,209 833 26,042 

VA 1 81 No data 0 0 81 0 81 

Total 46 114,373 40 1,572 1,084 114,972 2,097 117,069 

a

The TRI data should be used with caution since only certain types of facilities are required to report. This is not an 

exhaustive list. Data are rounded to nearest whole number. b

Data in TRI are maximum amounts released by each facility. c

Post office state abbreviations are used. d

Number of reporting facilities. e

The sum of fugitive and point source releases are included in releases to air by a given facility. f

Surface water discharges, waste water treatment-(metals only), and publicly owned treatment works (POTWs) (metal 

and metal compounds). 

g

Class I wells, Class II-V wells, and underground injection. h

Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) subtitle C landfills; other on-site landfills, land treatment, surface 

impoundments, other land disposal, other landfills. i

Storage only, solidification/stabilization (metals only), other off-site management, transfers to waste broker for 

disposal, unknown 

j

The sum of all releases of the chemical to air, land, water, and underground injection wells. k

Total amount of chemical transferred off-site, including to POTWs. 

RF = reporting facilities; UI = underground injection 

Source: TRI03 2005 (Data are from 2003) 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 181 

6. POTENTIAL FOR HUMAN EXPOSURE 

6.2.2 Water 

Estimated releases of 40 pounds of 1,1,1-trichloroethane to surface water from 46 domestic 

manufacturing and processing facilities in 2003, accounted for about 0.04% of the estimated total 

environmental releases from facilities required to report to the TRI (TRI03 2005). These releases are 

summarized in Table 6-1. 

1,1,1-Trichloroethane can be released to surface water from the waste water of industries in any of the 

numerous industrial classifications that used or produced this compound. The STORET database for 

values registered in the years 1980–1988 shows that 1,1,1-trichloroethane tested positive in 12% of 

effluent samples with maximum, median, and mean concentrations of 6,500, 8.0, and 171 mg/L, 

respectively (STORET 1988). Higher concentrations of 1,1,1-trichloroethane have been found in surface 

waters near known industrial sources, such as effluent outfalls or disposal sites, compared to the levels 

found upstream from these sources (see Table 6-2) (Dreisch et al. 1980; Hall 1984; Kaiser and Comba 

1986; Kaiser et al. 1983; Wakeham et al. 1983a). 

1,1,1-Trichloroethane has been found in samples from four U.S. cities measured in the National Urban 

Runoff Program (Cole et al. 1984). 1,1,1-Trichloroethane has been found in the effluent from water 

treatment plants and municipal waste water (Comba and Kaiser 1985; Corsi et al. 1987; DeWees et al. 

1992; Feiler et al. 1979; Lue-Hing et al. 1981; McCarty and Reinhard 1980; Namkung and Rittman 1987; 

Otson 1987; Pincince 1988; Rogers et al. 1987; Vancil et al. 1991; Young 1978; Young et al. 1983). 

1,1,1-Trichloroethane can enter groundwater from various sources. Contamination as a result of 

industrial activity has occurred (Dever 1986; Hall 1984). Leachate from landfills has percolated into 

groundwater (Barker 1987; Plumb 1987). The measured soil sorption coefficient (Koc) value of 2.02 

(Chiou et al. 1980; Gossett 1987) suggests that 1,1,1-trichloroethane released to soil can leach into 

groundwater. Measurements of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in drinking water from probability-based population 

studies (Wallace et al. 1984a, 1987a, 1988), indicate the potential for exposure from drinking water. 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 182 

6. POTENTIAL FOR HUMAN EXPOSURE 

Table 6-2. Detection of 1,1,1-Trichloroethane in Water and Sediments 

Sampling 

Number 

of 

Concentration (ppb) 

Media type/location dates Samples Range Mean Reference 

Surface water: 

 Ohio River 1978–1979 22 ND–0.57a NS Dreisch et al. 1980 

(Huntington, WV) 

 Schuylkill Creek 33 ND–0.28 NS 

(Philadelphia, PA) 

 Niagara River 1981 17 ND–0.017b 0.007 Kaiser et al. 1983 

 Lake Ontario 82 ND–0.180 NS 

Lake St. Clair, 1984 64 0–0.112b

 0.052 Kaiser and Comba 

Canada 1986 

 Brazos River, TX 1981–1982 10 ND–0.61a 0.1 McDonald et al. 

1988 

 Quinnipiac River 1980 5 ND–9.7a

 2.6 Hall 1984 

(Southington, CT) 

Valley of the 1979 NS ND–9.4a Stonebraker and 

Drums, KY (on-site Smith 1980 

standing water) 

Lang Property, NJ 1985 NS 9a EPA 1987e 

 Pacific Ocean 1975 NS 0.00062–0.0105c Su and Goldberg 

1976 

 Summit National, 1987 EPA 1988b 

OH (NPL site) 

on-site 3 5–66 13 

off-site 6 ND–29 4.8 

Sediments: 

 Lake Pontchartrain, 1980 NS ND–0.01d Ferrario et al. 1985 

LA 

Pacific Ocean (Los 1981 2 <0.5 Young et al. 1983 

Angeles) 

Detroit River, MI 1982 2 1–2e NS Fallon and Horvath 

1985 

 Summit National, 1987 7 50–2,500f

 670f EPA 1988b 

OH (NPL site) onsite pond sediment 

Groundwater: 

 CERCLAg 1981–1984 178 NS Plumb 1987 

hazardous waste 

sites 

 Landfill Sites, NS NS ND–2.8a

 NS Barker 1987 

Ontario, Canada 

 Southington, CT 1980 28 ND–11,000a

 NS Hall 1984 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 183 

6. POTENTIAL FOR HUMAN EXPOSURE 

Table 6-2. Detection of 1,1,1-Trichloroethane in Water and Sediments 

Number Concentration (ppb)

Sampling of 

Media type/location dates Samples Range Mean Reference 

New Jersey 1980–1982 315 NS NS Fusillo et al. 1985 

 Montgomery 1983 4 <10–1,600a NS Dever 1986 

County, MD 

 Hastings, NE 1984 15 ND–12.1a NS Fischer et al. 1987 

 Hastings, NE 1984 15 ND–12.1a NS Fischer et al. 1987 

U.S. cities

 Population 1981–1982 280 ND–18a Westrick et al. 1984

<10,000 

(random 

samples) 

Population 321 ND–8.2 

<10,000 

(nonrandom)

h 

Population 186 ND–3.1 

>10,000 

(random 

samples) 

Population 158 ND–21 

>10,000 

(nonrandom)

h 

 Minnesotai

 1983 20 ND–470a NS Sabel and Clark 

1984 

Lang property, NJ 1985 NS 8,200a EPA 1987c 

 Marshall landfill, 

COj 

1983 NS ND–350a EPA 1986b 

 Forest Waste 1983 NS 130a EPA 1986c 

Disposal Site 

 Genesee County, 

MIj 

Palmer, MA PSC 1987 NS 

Resources, Inc. 

(NPL site) 

on-site NS 40,000k Massachusetts 

off-site NS 3,700k Department of 

Public Health 1989 

 Idaho National 1987 112 ND–140a Mann and Knobel 

Eng. Lab, ID 1988 

9 Urban land-use 1991 208 ND–230a NS Kolpin et al. 1997 

studies 

Drinking water: 

Old Love Canal, 1978 9 0.010–0.120b Barkley et al. 1980 

NY 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 184 

6. POTENTIAL FOR HUMAN EXPOSURE 

Table 6-2. Detection of 1,1,1-Trichloroethane in Water and Sediments 

Number Concentration (ppb)

Sampling of 

Media type/location dates Samples Range Mean Reference 

Bayonne/Elizabeth, 1980 Wallace et al. 1984a

NJ 

home 75 0.03–3.50l 0.02 

work 45 0.02–1.60 0.07 

 Research Triangle 

Park, NC 

home 30 0.02–1.90 

work 18 0.02–0.89 

New Jersey 1981 NS–5.3 0.6 Wallace et al. 1987a

 1982 NS–2.6 0.2 

1983 NS–1.6 0.2 

 North Carolina 1982 NS–0.05 0.03 

 North Dakota 1982 NS–0.07 0.04 

Los Angeles, CA February 1984 117 NS 0.15a Wallace et al. 1988 

Los Angeles, CA June 1984 52 NS 0.08a 

Contra Costa, CA May 1984 71 NS 0.09a 

Drinking water wells 

(groundwater): 

Maine NS NS NS–5,440 NS Burmaster 1982 

 New York NS–5,100 

 Connecticut NS–1,600 

 New Jersey NS–965 

 Nassau County, NS–310 9 

NY 

Suffolk County, NY 1976–1986 

 public wells 575 NS–900a

 16.5 Zaki 1986 

 private wells 19,000 NS–12,200 23.8 

Wisconsin 1980–1984 Krill and Sonzogni 

1986 

 community wells 1,174 NS 

 private wells 617 NS 

 Rock River 1985 NS NS–3.2 EPA 1986d 

Terrace, ILj

 South Brunswick, 1977 NS 150–1,500 Althoff et al. 1981 

NJ 

 Sewage Sludge 

United States (Site 1978 2 23–99a Feiler et al. 1980 

NS) 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 185 

6. POTENTIAL FOR HUMAN EXPOSURE 

Table 6-2. Detection of 1,1,1-Trichloroethane in Water and Sediments 

Number Concentration (ppb)

Sampling of 

Media type/location dates Samples Range Mean Reference 

 Forest Wate 1983 NS 25a EPA 1986c 

Disposal Site, MIj 

 Vestal, NYj 1985–1986 2 25–47a 36a ATSDR 1988 

Urban runoff: 

 Washington, DC; NS–1982 NS 1.6–10a NS Cole et al. 1984 

Denver, CO 

Rapid City, SD 

Lake 

Quinsigamond, MA 

Rain: 

Los Angeles, CA 1982 1 0.069b

 Kawamura and 

Kaplan 1983

 Beaverton, OR 1982 21 0.128–0.924m 0.434 Rasmussen et al. 

1983 

Snow: 

Mt. Hood, OR 1981–1982 25 0.063–0.128m 0.091 Rasmussen et al. 

1983 

California 1975 2 0.0006–0.0062c Su and Goldberg 

1976 

Alaska 1 0.027 

a

Data reported in μg/L; converted to ppb using the conversion factor 1 ppb=1 μg/L b

Data reported in ng/L; converted to ppb using the conversion factor 1 ppb=1,000 ng/L c

Data reported in pg/mL; converted to ppb using the conversion factor 1 ppb=1,000 pg/mL d

Data reported in ng/g; converted to ppb using the conversion factor 1 ppb=1 ng/g e

Data reported in mg/kg; converted to ppb using the conversion factor 1 ppb=0.001 mg/kg f

Data reported in μg/kg; converted to ppb using the conversion factor 1 ppb=1 μg/kg 

g

Comprehensive Emergency Response, Compensation, and Liability Act h

Nonrandom sites were chosen by states/municipalities in an attempt to identify problem areas. i

Site near municipal solid waste site 

j

NPL site 

k

Data reported in ppm; converted to ppb using the conversion factor 1 ppb=0.001 ppm l

Data reported in ng/mL; converted to ppb using the conversion factor 1 ppb=1 ng/mL mData reported in ppt; converted to ppb using the conversion factor 1 ppb=1,000 ppt 

Post office state abbreviations used 

ND = not detected; NPL = National Priorities List; NS = not specified 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 186 

6. POTENTIAL FOR HUMAN EXPOSURE 

6.2.3 Soil 

Estimated releases of 1,572 pounds (~0.71 metric tons) of 1,1,1-trichloroethane to soils from 46 domestic 

manufacturing and processing facilities in 2003, accounted for about 14.4% of the estimated total 

environmental releases from facilities required to report to the TRI (TRI03 2005). These releases are 

summarized in Table 6-1. 

Data on soil contamination by 1,1,1-trichloroethane are lacking in the literature, which is what one would 

expect based on the TRI03 (2005) data given in Table 6-1. Due to its decreased production because of the 

impending phase-out of 1,1,1-trichloroethane, there should be few emissions to soils. Land application of 

sewage sludge that may contain minute amounts of 1,1,1-trichloroethane may slightly elevate the level of 

1,1,1-trichloroethane in agricultural soil, but the level is not expected to be of environmental concern in 

the majority of cases (Wilson et al. 1994). The most likely routes for soil contamination are through 

accidental spills, the contamination of soil by landfill leachates, leaching of contaminated surface waters 

from treatment/storage lagoons, wet deposition, and possibly by the percolation of contaminated 

rainwater through soil. 

6.3 ENVIRONMENTAL FATE 

6.3.1 Transport and Partitioning 

1,1,1-Trichloroethane is a volatile organic compound with moderate water solubility (1,500 mg/L at 

25 °C) (Horvath 1982). The experimental Henry's law constants measured for this compound range from 

6.3x10-3 to 17.2x10-3 atm m3

/mol at 25 °C (Chiou et al. 1980; Gossett 1987; Tse et al. 1992); this suggests 

that volatilization from water should be the dominant fate process. Volatilization of 1,1,1-trichloroethane 

from water has readily occurred in the laboratory, in the field, and during waste water treatment (Dilling 

1977; Dilling et al. 1975; Kincannon et al. 1983b; Piwoni et al. 1986; Wakeham et al. 1983b). 

Volatilization of 1,1,1-trichloroethane also has occurred from soil and from the groundwater of 

unconfined aquifers to the soil (Kreamer 1984; Piwoni et al. 1986). 

Based on the experimental values for the log octanol/water partition coefficient (Kow), 2.49 (Hansch and 

Leo 1985), and log Koc, in the range of 2.02–2.26 (Chiou et al. 1979; Friesel et al. 1984; Park and Lee 

1993), 1,1,1-trichloroethane would be expected to show high mobility in soil and readily leach into 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 187 

6. POTENTIAL FOR HUMAN EXPOSURE 

groundwater (Lyman et al. 1990; Swann et al. 1983). In surface waters, 1,1,1-trichloroethane would not 

be expected to show appreciable adsorption to sediment or suspended organic material. An experimental 

bioconcentration factor (BCF) of 9 (bluegill sunfish) has been determined for 1,1,1-trichloroethane 

(Barrows et al. 1980), suggesting that in fish and other aquatic organisms, uptake from water should not 

be an important fate process. 

1,1,1-Trichloroethane has a vapor pressure of 123 mm Hg at 20 °C (see Table 4-2), which means that it 

exists in the vapor phase in the atmosphere (Eisenreich et al. 1983). Since this compound has moderate 

water solubility (see Table 4-2), vapor phase 1,1,1-trichloroethane will be removed from the air via 

washout by rain and transported to the terrestrial surface. It has been identified in rainwater (Jung et al. 

1992; Kawamura and Kaplan 1983; Pluemacher and Renner 1993; Rasmussen et al. 1983). 1,1,1-Trichloroethane removed by rain water would be expected to re-volatilize rapidly to the atmosphere. 

Because of its long half-life of ≈4 years in the atmosphere (see Section 6.3.2.1), tropospheric 1,1,1-trichloroethane will be transported to the stratosphere, where it will participate in the destruction of the 

ozone layer. It will also undergo long-distance transport from its sources of emissions to other remote 

and rural sites. This is confirmed by the detection of this synthetic chemical in forest areas of Northern 

and Southern Europe and in remote sites (Ciccioli et al. 1993). 

6.3.2 Transformation and Degradation 

6.3.2.1 Air 

The dominant atmospheric fate process for 1,1,1-trichloroethane is predicted to be degradation by 

interaction with photochemically-produced hydroxyl radicals. Earlier experimental rate constants for this 

gas-phase reaction ranged from 2.8x10-14

 to 1.06x10-14 cm3/mol-sec (20–30 °C) (Butler et al. 1978; Chang 

and Kaufman 1977; Cox et al. 1976; Crutzen et al. 1978; Howard and Evenson 1976; Jeong et al. 1984). 

More recent work indicates that this rate constant ranges from 0.95x10-14

 cm3/mol-sec to 

1.2x10-14

 cm3/mol-sec (Finlayson-Pitts et al. 1992; Jiang et al. 1992; Lancar et al. 1993; Talukdar et al. 

1992). 1,1,1-Trichloroethane is degraded via H-atom abstraction to CCl3CH2· and reacts with O2 to yield 

the peroxy radical (CCl3CH2O2) (DeMore 1992; Spence and Hanst 1978). Using an estimated 

atmospheric hydroxyl (OH·) radical concentration of 5.0x105

 mol/cm3 (Atkinson 1985), the more recent 

rate constants translate to a calculated lifetime or residence time of ≈6 years. The estimated atmospheric 

lifetime of 1,1,1-trichloroethane which incorporates all removal processes, was also estimated to be 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 188 

6. POTENTIAL FOR HUMAN EXPOSURE 

≈6 years (Prinn et al. 1987; Prinn et al. 1992). This indicates that the predominant tropospheric sink of 

1,1,1-trichloroethane is through its reaction with OH radicals. 

Photolytic degradation experiments have been performed in the presence of NO and NO2; 1,1,1-trichloroethane underwent <5% degradation in 24 hours in the presence of NO (Dilling et al. 1976). In a smog 

chamber experiment in the presence of NOx, 1,1,1-trichloroethane showed a disappearance rate of 0.1% 

per hour (Dimitriades and Joshi 1977). Other studies have also concluded that 1,1,1-trichloroethane has 

low potential to form ozone as a result of photochemical reaction in the presence of NOx (AnderssonSkoeld et al. 1992; Derwent and Jenkin 1991). 

Under laboratory conditions designed to mimic atmospheric smog conditions, direct photochemical 

irradiation of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in the presence of elemental chlorine was performed. 1,1,1-Trichloroethane was the least reactive and thus the most stable of all chloroethanes under these conditions (Spence 

and Hanst 1978). 

Direct photochemical degradation of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in the troposphere is not expected to be an 

important fate process, because there is no chromophore for absorption of ultraviolet light (>290 nm) 

found in sunlight at tropospheric altitudes (Hubrich and Stuhl 1980; VanLaethem-Meuree et al. 1979). A 

laboratory experiment performed in sealed Pyrex ampules showed loss of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in 

2 weeks under the influence of sunlight; however, catalysis by the Pyrex surface was probably responsible 

for the enhanced reactivity (Buchardt and Manscher 1978). 

The relatively long tropospheric residence time for 1,1,1-trichloroethane suggests that migration to the 

stratosphere should be important. An estimated 11–15% of 1,1,1-trichloroethane released to the 

atmosphere is expected to survive and migrate to the stratosphere (Prinn et al. 1987; Singh et al. 1992). In 

the stratosphere, chlorine atoms produced from 1,1,1-trichloroethane by ultraviolet light may interact with 

ozone contributing to the destruction of the stratospheric ozone layer. Compared to CFC-11 

(trichlorofluoromethane), the steady-state ozone depletion potential of 1,1,1-trichloroethane has been 

estimated to be 0.1–0.16 (Gibbs et al. 1992; Solomon and Albritton 1992). 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 189 

6. POTENTIAL FOR HUMAN EXPOSURE 

6.3.2.2 Water 

Slow biodegradation of 1,1,1-trichloroethane can occur under both anaerobic and aerobic conditions. 

Anaerobic degradation of 1,1,1-trichloroethane is thought to occur predominantly through reductive 

dechlorination by methane-producing bacteria (Vargas and Ahlert 1987; Vogel and McCarty 1987) and 

by sulfate-reducing organisms (Cobb and Bouwer 1991; Klecka 1990). Determined experimental halflives for anaerobic degradation using mixed culture bacteria ranged from 1 day to 16 weeks in the 

laboratory (Bouwer and McCarty 1983a, 1984; Hallen et al. 1986; Parsons et al. 1985; Vogel and 

McCarty 1987; Wood et al. 1985), based on a study from an injection well, after 3 months of injection, 

the predicted half-life of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in an aquifer was 200–300 days (Bouwer and McCarty 

1984). Results obtained in a grab sample study of an aquifer suggest that anaerobic biodegradation of 

1,1,1-trichloroethane will not occur (Wilson et al. 1983); however, the spiked concentration of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in the study, 1 mg/L, was in a range determined to be toxic to microorganisms (Barth and 

Bunch 1979; Benson and Hunter 1977; Vargas and Ahlert 1987). Another grab sample study, performed 

using more realistic concentrations, indicates that 1,1,1-trichloroethane slowly degrades under anaerobic 

conditions to 1,1-dichloroethane in groundwater (Parsons and Lage 1985; Parsons et al. 1985). However, 

when mixed anaerobic cultures were provided with acetate as primary substrate, the biodegradation of 

secondary substrate 1,1,1-trichloroethane occurred even without acclimation at concentrations exceeding 

1 mg/L (Hughes and Parkin 1992). A laboratory study showed that anaerobic biodegradation of 1,1,1-trichloroethane did not occur under denitrification conditions even after 8 weeks of incubation (Bouwer and 

McCarty 1983b). 

Aerobic biodegradation in surface water and groundwater is not likely to be an important fate process 

since experimental studies did not indicate significant aerobic degradation of 1,1,1-trichloroethane 

(Klecka et al. 1990; Mudder and Musterman 1982; Nielson et al. 1990; Wilson and Pogue 1987). One 

study showed that 1,1,1-trichloroethane underwent aerobic degradation in the presence of Fe+2/porphyrin 

solution (82% in 21 days), thought to be a catalyzed reductive chlorination (Klecka and Gonsior 1984). It 

is difficult to interpret these results in terms of the potential for environmental significance. One study 

reported that 1,1,1-trichloroethane underwent moderate biodegradation with significant concomitant 

volatilization (Tabak et al. 1981); however, experimental details are not sufficient to rule out loss due 

solely to volatilization. Halogenated aliphatic hydrocarbons, including 1,1,1-trichloroethane, act as 

cometabolic substrates for certain aerobic chemotrophs. In such cases, the organisms grow on another 

substrate and the enzymes induced under the particular growth conditions fortuitously biodegrade the 

halogenated aliphatics (Leisinger 1992). Such aerobic biodegradation of 1,1,1-trichloroethane up to a 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 190 

6. POTENTIAL FOR HUMAN EXPOSURE 

concentration of 1.2 mg/L was observed with methane-oxidizing (methanotrophic) bacteria isolated from 

an aquifer (Arvin 1991). 

Anaerobic biodegradation proceeds via reductive dechlorination (Leisinger 1992; McCarty 1993). The 

major product from the anaerobic degradation of 1,1,1-trichloroethane has been identified as 1,1-dichloroethane, which slowly degrades to chloroethane in a secondary reaction (Hallen et al. 1986; Vogel and 

McCarty 1987). Therefore, total biodegradation of 1,1,1-trichloroethane is feasible by combining 

anaerobic dehalogenation with subsequent aerobic treatment (Leisinger 1992). Aerobic biodegradation of 

1,1,1-trichloroethane, on the other hand, proceeds via substitutive and oxidative mechanisms with the 

production of trichloroethyl alcohol, which is further oxidized to chloride, carbon dioxide, and water 

(McCarty 1993). 

Products from the abiotic degradation of 1,1,1-trichloroethane have also been identified. Acetic acid can 

arise from the hydrolysis of 1,1,1-trichloroethane (calculated half-life of 1.2 years at 25 °C and pH 7). 

Elimination of HCl can produce 1,1-dichloroethene (Hallen et al. 1986; Parsons et al. 1985; Vogel and 

McCarty 1987). The calculated half-life for this reaction is 4.8 years at 25 °C and pH 7 (Ellenrieder and 

Reinhard 1988). The half-lives of abiotic degradation of 1,1,1-trichloroethane by reaction with 

nucleophiles, such as HS- and S2O2

-

, which might be present in water, should be insignificant compared to 

the other processes described (Haag and Mill 1988). A 2.8 mmol aqueous solution of 1,1,1-trichloroethane reacted with ozone (concentration 1 mg/L) with a half-life of >32 days at 22 °C and a pH of 

7 (Yao and Haag 1991). Therefore, reaction with ozone will not be an important process for the 

transformation of 1,1,1-trichloroethane present in natural bodies of water. 

6.3.2.3 Sediment and Soil 

Data are lacking on the degradation of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in soil. In a grab sample experiment, 

anaerobic degradation of 1,1,1-trichloroethane occurred slowly in soil (16% in 6 days) (Henson et al. 

1988). If the microorganisms in the soil were first activated by using methane as a nutrient source, 

46% of 1,1,1-trichloroethane degraded during the same period under aerobic conditions (Henson et al. 

1988). Incubation of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in soil under aerobic conditions resulted in no measurable 

biodegradation (Klecka 1990). 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 191 

6. POTENTIAL FOR HUMAN EXPOSURE 

6.4 LEVELS MONITORED OR ESTIMATED IN THE ENVIRONMENT 

Reliable evaluation of the potential for human exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane depends in part on the 

reliability of supporting analytical data from environmental samples and biological specimens. 

Concentrations of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in unpolluted atmospheres and in pristine surface waters are often 

so low as to be near the limits of current analytical methods. In reviewing data on 1,1,1-trichloroethane 

levels monitored or estimated in the environment, it should also be noted that the amount of chemical 

identified analytically is not necessarily equivalent to the amount that is bioavailable. The analytical 

methods available for monitoring 1,1,1-trichloroethane in a variety of environmental media are detailed in 

Chapter 7. 

The manufacture and use of 1,1,1-trichloroethane was scheduled to be phased out by 2002 under the 

Clean Air Act (EPA 2004m). Since it is no longer in use domestically, the levels estimated in the 

environment, other than near point sources, should drop to insignificant amounts. 

6.4.1 Air 

1,1,1-Trichloroethane has been identified in urban, rural, and indoor air throughout the United States at 

concentrations shown in Table 6-3. Due to the nature of 1,1,1-trichloroethane's use, volatilization to the 

atmosphere is a predictable outcome, and thus, its widespread detection is not unexpected. It is the only 

chlorinated ethane regularly seen as a background pollutant in the troposphere (Spence and Hanst 1978). 

For the year 1980, an estimated global atmospheric quantity of 1,1,1-trichloroethane, based on absolute 

concentrations obtained over a 3-year period, was 2.58x109 kg (5,690 million pounds) (Prinn et al. 1983). 

An estimated average concentration of 0.14 ppb in 1980, based on a characterization of its sources, 

abundance, and atmospheric sinks, was also reported (Ramanathan et al. 1985). The data indicate that the 

average atmospheric concentration of 1,1,1-trichloroethane was 0.13 ppb for the middle of 1988 (Khalil 

and Rasmussen 1989). Based on absolute concentrations obtained over a 12-year period, a global 

atmospheric concentration of 157 ppt (0.157 ppb) was estimated for 1,1,1-trichloroethane in the middle of 

1990 (Prinn et al. 1992). Atmospheric measurements at several surface stations made between 1978 and 

1990 indicated that the global average concentration of 1,1,1-trichloroethane increased at a rate of 

4.4±0.2% over this time period (Prinn et al. 1992). 

The measured concentration of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in urban air have typically ranged from 0.1 to 1 ppb; 

however, levels ≤1,000 ppb have been observed in large urban areas or near hazardous waste sites. 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 192 

6. POTENTIAL FOR HUMAN EXPOSURE 

Table 6-3. Detection of 1,1,1-Trichloroethane in Air 

Sampling Number of Concentration (ppb) 

Media type/location dates samples Range Mean Reference 

Urban air: 

El Monte, CA 1982–1983 NS 0.8–6.6a 2.1 Shikiya et al. 1984 

Los Angeles, CA 1983 0.8–2.4 NS 

Dominguez Hills, CA 0.6–2 NS 

 Riverside, CA 0–0.8 NS 

 Research Triangle 1980 61 0.0024–43.7b 0.83 Wallace et al. 1984a 

Park, NC 

 Houston, TX 1980 0.134–1.499c 0.353 Singh et al. 1992 

St. Louis, MO 0.132–0.896 0.235 

 Denver, CO 0.171–2.699 0.713 

 Riverside, CA 0.205–1.349 0.747 

Staten Island, NY 1981 0.221–1.427 0.468 

 Pittsburgh, PA 0.158–1.595 0.486 

 Chicago, IL 0.241–0.909 0.476 

Iberville Parish, LA 1977 11 ND–1.61b

 0.31 Pellizzari 1982 

 Kib–Buc Disposal Site, 1977 4 ND–22.0 

NJ 

Rutherford, NJ 1978 150 ND–6.3 0.17 Bozzelli and 

Kebbekus 1979 

Rutherford, NJ (North) 29 ND–3.6 0.55 

Rutherford, NJ (Clifton) 26 ND–trace

 Newark, NJ 110 ND–7.8 0.39 

 Bridgewater, NJ 22 ND–0.83 0.05 

Los Angeles Basin 1972 59 0.01–2.30 0.37 Simmonds et al. 1974 

Los Angeles, CA 1984 23 NS–3.70 0.74 Pellizzari et al. 1986 

Los Angeles, CA 1979 0.224–5.144c 1.028 Singh et al. 1981 

 Phoenix, AZ 0.197–2.813 0.823 

 Oakland, CA 0.142–0.967 0.290 

 New Jersey 

fall (day) 1981 86 ND–86b

 0.60d Wallace et al. 1985, 

fall (night) 

summer 1982 

86e

60 

ND–7.3 0.68 

0.93 

1987a; Hartwell et al. 

1984b 

winter 1983 8 0.26 

 Bozeman, MN 1976e

 1 0.15 Taketomo and 

Grimsrud 1977 

Seagirt, NJ 1974 NS 0.044–0.20 0.10 Lillian et al. 1975 

New York, NY 0.10–1.6 0.61 

Sandy Hook, NJ 0.030–0.330 0.15 

Delaware City, DE 0.03–0.30 0.10 

 Baltimore, MD 0.044–0.21 0.12 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 193 

6. POTENTIAL FOR HUMAN EXPOSURE 

Table 6-3. Detection of 1,1,1-Trichloroethane in Air 

Sampling Number of Concentration (ppb) 

Media type/location dates samples Range Mean Reference 

 Wilmington, OH 0.030–0.35 0.097 

 Bayonne, NJ 1973 0.075–14.4 1.59 

 Greensboro, NC 1982 32 11.1b Wallace et al. 1987a 

Devils Lake, ND 24 0.009b 

La Jolla, CA 1974–1976 23 0.13–1.1 0.00037 Su and Goldberg 

1976 

 California coast 1974 5 0.14–0.30 0.00019 

(marine air) 

 Washington, DC 1974 1 0.5 

 Los Angeles 1974 1 3.4 

(Chinatown), CA 

Santa Monica, CA 1974 1 1.3 

Orange County, CA 1974 3 0.37–0.68

 Chicago, IL 1974 2 0.37–0.68

 Greensboro, NC 1980 20 NS–9.81b 0.33 Hartwell et al. 1984a 

Baton Rouge, LA 198 127 NS–13.5 0.11 Pellizzari et al. 1984a, 

1986 

 Houston, TX 1981 11 NS–1.41 0.47 

 Bayonne/Elizabeth, NJ 1980 165 0.133–131b Wallace et al. 1984a 

 Bayonne/Elizabeth, NJ 1981 80–90 NS–87b 1.68 Wallace et al. 1985 

 Chicago, IL 1986–1990 103 NS 0.61b 

St. Louis, IL 83 0.72b Sweet and Vermette 

1992 

 Hawthorne, CA 1987–1990 NS 0.8–7.0 NS Hisham and Grosjean 

0.8–18.0 1991 

 Long Beach, CA 2.2–14.7 

2.2–9.9 

 Anaheim, CA 0.5–8.5 

13.2–22.2 

Los Angeles, CA 2.7–6.3 

8.3–14.0 

 Burbank, CA 1.2–6.1 

7.1–28.4 

 Azusa, CA 3.2–17.1 

 Claremont, CA 3.3–15.0 

Los Angeles, CA 1.7–6.5 

 Ventura, CA 0.5–2.7 

West Los Angeles, CA 1.6–2.2 

Los Angeles, CA 0.5–0.9 

(UCLA) 

 Malibu, CA 0.5–1.6 

Northeast Los Angeles, 0.8–7.2 

CA 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 194 

6. POTENTIAL FOR HUMAN EXPOSURE 

Table 6-3. Detection of 1,1,1-Trichloroethane in Air 

Sampling Number of Concentration (ppb) 

Media type/location dates samples Range Mean Reference 

 Burbank, CA 0.5–5.7 

0.13–1.17 

Los Angeles, CA February 24 NS 6.3b Wallace et al. 1988 

1984 

Los Angeles, CA May 1984 23 1.1b 

Contra Costa, CA June 1984 10 0.52b

 Hawthorne, CA 1987–1990 NS NS Hisham and Grosjean 

fall 12.9 1991 

summer 3.4 

 Long Beach, CA 

fall 6.3 

summer 8.5 

 Anaheim, CA 

fall 16.9 

summer 3.0 

Los Angeles, CA 

fall 9.9 

summer 4.5 

 Burbank, CA 

fall 18.5 

summer 3.1 

 Washington, DC 1989 5 0.28–0.42b

 0.35b EPA 1990b 

Los Angeles, CA 1987 51 NS 1.09b,f Hartwell et al. 1992 

(winter) 

 Columbus, OH June–July NS 0.72 Spicer et al. 1996 

1989 

Baton Rouge, LA Sept 1996– NS NS 0.124 Mohamed et al. 2002 

Aug1997 

 Brownsville, TX Sept 1996– NS NS 0.107 

Aug1997 

Brattleboro, VT Sept 1996– NS NS 0.097 

Aug1997 

Burlington, VT Sept 1996– NS NS 0.094 

Aug1997 

Camden, NJ Sept 1996– NS NS 0.13 

Aug1997 

El Paso, TX Sept 1996– NS NS 0.097 

Aug1997 

Garyville, LA Sept 1996– NS NS 0.116 

Aug1997 

Hahnville, LA Sept 1996– NS NS 0.122 

Aug1997 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 195 

6. POTENTIAL FOR HUMAN EXPOSURE 

Table 6-3. Detection of 1,1,1-Trichloroethane in Air 

Sampling Number of Concentration (ppb) 

Media type/location dates samples Range Mean Reference 

Port Neches, TX Sept 1996– NS NS 0.12 

Aug1997 

Rutland, VT Sept 1996– NS NS 0.098 

Aug1997 

Underhill, VT Sept 1996– NS NS 0.084 

Aug1997 

Winooski, VT Sept 1996– NS NS 0.101 

Aug1997 

Rural air: 

 Pullmam, WA 1974–1975 NS NS 0.100c

 Grimsrud and 

Rasmussen1975 

 Eastern, WA 1976 389 0.090c

–0.18 0.135 Cronn et al. 1983 

Stanford Hills, CA 1975 75 0.0776c Singh et al. 1977 

 Point Reyes, CA 300 NS 0.0903 

 Pacific NW, USA 1975 0.087c Rasmussen et al. 

1976 0.098 1981 

1977 0.107 

1978 0.117 

1979 0.135 

1980 0.156 

 Antarctica 1975 0.045 

1976 0.057 

1977 0.070 

1978 0.085 

1979 0.095 

1980 0.102 

Pt. Barrow, AL 1980–1982 NS 0.150–0.172c

 0.152 Khalil and 

(0.168)

g Rasmussen 1983 

 Midland, MI 1975 7 0.0916–0.188h

 0.104 Russell and Shadoff 

1977 

Old Love Canal, NY 1978 9 ND–0.989h Barkley et al. 1980 

 White Face Mountains, 1974 NS 0.032–0.13 0.067 Lillian et al. 1975 

NY 

Mt Hood, OR 1981–1982 7 0.104–0.179 0.156 Rasmussen et al. 

1983 

 Beaverton, OR 1982 7 0.154–0.363 0.202 

Mt. Cuyamaca, CA 1975 1 0.41 Su and Goldberg 

1976 

 Montgomery Pass, NE 10.34 

 Lytton Lake, CA 10.07 

 Champain, IL 1986–1990 23 NS 0.2b Sweet and Vermette 

1992 

 Chattanooga, TN 1986–1987 30 0.18–9.6b

 3.98b Parkhurst et al. 1988 

San Nicolas Island, CA 1987 NS 0.55–0.57 NS Hisham and Grosjean 

1991 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 196 

6. POTENTIAL FOR HUMAN EXPOSURE 

Table 6-3. Detection of 1,1,1-Trichloroethane in Air 

Sampling Number of Concentration (ppb) 

Media type/location dates samples Range Mean Reference 

Kanawha Valley, WV NSe 353.6b Cohen et al. 1989 

Minnesota at 25 sites 1991–1998 3,648 0.28 Pratt et al. 2000 

Indoor Air: 

Old Love Canal, NY 

1978 9 ND–0.220h 14 Barkley et al. 1980 

 Bozeman, MN NSe

 8 0.12–0.73 Taketomo and 

Grimsrud 1977 

 Greensboro, NC 1980 20 NS–28.7b 1.15 Hartwell et al. 1984a; 

Pellizzari et al. 1986 

Baton Rouge, LA 1981 27 NS–45.0 0.28 

 Houston, TX 1981 11 NS–5.73.7 

 Elizabeth/Bayonne, NJ 1981 25 NS–163b 2.96 Pellizzari et al. 1986 

1982 71 NS–22.2 1.83 

1983 9 NS–31.53.7 

Los Angeles, CA 

winter 1984 25 NS–37.0 4.44 

summer 1984 23 NS–17.4 1.46 

 Antioch-W. Pittsburgh, 

CA 

Public access 1984 16 NS–2.590.78 Wallace et al. 1987c 

buildings 

Recently 1983–1985 70.55–7.5b 0.36–18.3 

constructed building 30.73–69.6 

after occupancy 

Elderly home NS NS 0.12–22.6 NS Pellizzari et al. 1984b 

Los Angeles, CA 1987 51 Hartwell et al. 1992 

kitchen NS 1.78b 

living area NS 2.33b 

Chattanooga, TN 1986 Parkhurst et al. 1988 

residential 34 0.37–37b

 5.1b 

public buildings 37 0.92–50b

 13b

 Dallas, TX Gallagher and Kurt 

incubator air in an 1990 

intensive care 1988 460,000– 95,000i 

nursery 160,000i 

 Washington DC, U.S. EPA 1990b 

EPA headquarters: 

Waterside Mall 51 0.42–4.8b

 1.6b

Crystal City 5 0.56–0.70b

 0.61b

Fairchild 5 1.2–1.3b

 1.2b
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 197 

6. POTENTIAL FOR HUMAN EXPOSURE 

Table 6-3. Detection of 1,1,1-Trichloroethane in Air 

Sampling Number of Concentration (ppb) 

Media type/location dates samples Range Mean Reference 

Neenah, WI, telephone 1987 Shields and Weschler 

switching office 1992 

second floor break NS NS 0.17b

room 

second floor break 1 NS 0.11b

room 

NS NS 0.056b

1 NS 0.26b

 Southern California 1986 Hisham and Grosjean 

museums 1991 

El Pueblo 1.2–5.1 NS 

LACMA 2.9–3.9 NS 

Page >30 NS 

Getty 3.7–4.8 NS 

Southwest 2.2–7.3 NS 

Personal air: 

Chapel Hill, NC 1978 172.65–19.6b 15.0 Zweidinger et al. 1983 

Beaumont, TX 11 1.51–196 33 Wallace et al. 1982 

New Jersey 1981 Wallace et al. 1987a 

fall (day) 346–48 ND–6,040b

 3.5d 

New Jersey Wallace et al. 1985 

fall (night) 339–41 ND–1520 3.5 

fall (summer) 1982 148 1.7d

winter 1983 48 4.0 

Bayonne/Elizabeth, NJ 1980 165 (9) 0.13–130b 1.7 Wallace et al. 1984a 

 Research Triangle 61 (3) 0.024–43.2 0.82 

Park, NC 

 Bayonne/Elizabeth, NJ 1981 339–348 NS–61,100 22.2 Wallace et al. 1984b, 

1985 

Devils Lake, ND 1982 24 4.6b Wallace et al. 1987a 

 Greensboro, NC 1982 24 5.9b 

Los Angeles, CA February 110 NS 17.8b Wallace et al. 1988 

1984 

Los Angeles, CA May 1984 50 NS 8.1b

Contra Costa, CA June 1984 67 NS 2.9b

Los Angeles, CA 1987 51 NS 2.6b,f Hartwell et al. 1992 

Near waste/landfill site: 

 Hamilton, OH 1983 NS 0.36–23.8b NS Levine et al. 1985 

 Elizabeth, NJ 1980 NS ND–330 NS 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 198 

6. POTENTIAL FOR HUMAN EXPOSURE 

Table 6-3. Detection of 1,1,1-Trichloroethane in Air 

Sampling Number of Concentration (ppb) 

Media type/location dates samples Range Mean Reference 

New Jersey (NPLHS) 1983 

Site A 24 ND–4.49 0.38 Laregina et al. 1986 

Site B 15 ND–1.84 0.51 Harkov et al. 1985 

Site C 14 ND–18.97 3.04 

Site D 14 ND–2.89 0.57 

Site E 15 ND–1.22 0.84 

Landfill LF 15 ND–7.15 1.29 

New Jersey 1976 4 ND–22.2 9.0 Pellizzari 1982 

California 1984–1986 NS ND–3,600i NS Wood and Porter 

1987 

Stanislaus County, CA 1987 Hodgson et al. 1992 

on site NS <10–13,000 NS 

outside (nearby NS NS 0.3 

residential home) 

inside (nearby NS NS 0.7 

residential home 

[basement]) 

20 Class II landfills: 

Long Island, NY 1982 Walsh et al. 1988 

on site 140i

nearby residential 1 

homes 

nearby school 1 

Troposphere 

Western Pacific Region Blake et al. 1997 

114–165 °E longitude 

latitudes >25 °N 

7–12.6 km Sept–Oct 175 0.108–0.166c 0.125c

1991 

Feb–Mar 274 0.078–174c

 0.119c

1994 

2–7 km Sept–Oct 309 0.107–0.188c

 0.126c

1991 

Feb–Mar 347 0.111–0.377c

 0.127c

1994 

0–2 km Sept–Oct 149 0.695–0.114c

 0.137c

1991 

Feb–Mar 134 0.128–0.550c

 0.133c

1994 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 199 

6. POTENTIAL FOR HUMAN EXPOSURE 

Table 6-3. Detection of 1,1,1-Trichloroethane in Air 

Sampling Number of Concentration (ppb) 

Media type/location dates samples Range Mean Reference 

Western Pacific Region 

114–165 °E longitude 

latitudes <25 °N 

7–12.6 km Sept–Oct 233 0.104–0.145c 0.124c 

1991 

Feb–Mar 454 0.100–0.134c

 0.122c 

1994 

2–7 km Sept–Oct 243 0.104–0.162c

 0.122c 

1991 

Feb–Mar 341 0.111–0.133c

 0.123c 

1994 

0–2 km Sept–Oct 172 0.102–0.194c

 0.124c 

1991 

Feb–Mar 178 0.117–0.189c

 0.127c 

1994 

a

Monthly mean b

Data reported in μg/m3; converted to ppb using the conversion factor 1 ppb=5.4 μg/m3 

c

Data reported in ppt; converted to ppb using the conversion factor 1 ppb=1,000 ppt d

Weighted geometric mean e

Date of study not given f

Data reported as median 

g

Summer (winter) h

Data reported in ng/m3; converted to ppb using the conversion factor 5,400 ng/m3=1 ppb i

Data reported in ppm; converted to ppb using the conversion factor 0.001 ppm=1 ppb 

Post office state abbreviations used 

ND = not detected; NS = not specified 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 200 

6. POTENTIAL FOR HUMAN EXPOSURE 

Representative monitoring data on the concentration of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in air can be found in 

Table 6-3. These historic levels measured in the ambient atmosphere are expected to drop over time as 

the ban on the production and use of 1,1,1-trichloroethane is phased in. Rural levels of 1,1,1-trichloroethane are typically <0.2 ppb. The long atmospheric lifetime of 1,1,1-trichloroethane allows the 

compound to be carried a considerable distance from its initial point of release; detectable levels have 

been measured in numerous remote areas throughout the world and are shown in Table 6-3 (Class and 

Ballschmiter 1986; DeBortoli et al. 1986; Guicherit and Schulting 1985; Hov et al. 1984; Ohta et al. 

1976; Rasmussen et al. 1982). The mean background concentration of 1,1,1-trichloroethane over 

subarctic North America in the summer of 1990 was 0.155 ppb (Wofsy et al. 1994). During a period of 

arctic haze, the concentration of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in the polluted Arctic air was 2–15% higher than in 

clean air over the Arctic (Khalil and Rasmussen 1993). The mean concentration of 1,1,1-trichloroethane 

in the troposphere over northwestern Pacific region (114–165 °E longitude) was found to range from 

0.12 to 0.13 ppb (Blake et al. 1997, Table 6-3 Mohamed et al. 2002). The concentrations of 1,1,1-trichloroethane near industrial facilities emitting 1,1,1-trichloroethane were found to be only marginally 

higher than those measured at sites away from facilities emitting 1,1,1-trichloroethane. 

The concentration of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in indoor air is variable, and seems to depend on individual 

practices, season, outdoor concentration, age of building, and building air-exchange characteristics 

(Cohen et al. 1989; Hartwell et al. 1987a, 1987b, 1992; Hisham and Grosjean 1991; Lioy et al. 1991; 

Wallace 1986; Wallace et al. 1986a, 1986b, 1988, 1989, 1991). For example, college students monitored 

simultaneously on the same campus were found to have levels of personal exposure varying by as much 

as two orders of magnitude (Wallace et al. 1982; Zweidinger et al. 1983). Further, two studies suggest 

that buildings with air conditioning may have higher levels of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in indoor air (Cohen 

et al. 1989; Hisham and Grosjean 1991). 1,1,1-Trichloroethane has been found at levels ≤70 ppb in 

newly constructed buildings (Wallace et al. 1987b). The concentration of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in new 

and recently renovated buildings was as high as 290 ppb (Rothweiler et al. 1992). New carpet and other 

new building materials that contain 1,1,1-trichloroethane may be responsible for higher levels in new and 

renovated buildings. During normal periods (no renovation or construction), the levels of total volatile 

organics are inversely proportional to the air exchange rate of the building (Shields and Weschler 1992). 

Higher levels of 1,1,1-trichloroethane are expected to be found in indoor air during winter than any other 

season (Wallace et al. 1991). The effect of outdoor air on indoor air was demonstrated by the detection of 

higher levels of 1,1,1-trichloroethane during outdoor stagnation conditions when the levels were higher 

compared to levels under non-stagnation conditions (Lioy et al. 1991). Representative data taken from 

five geographic areas located throughout the United States report indoor concentrations of 0.3–4.4 ppb 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 201 

6. POTENTIAL FOR HUMAN EXPOSURE 

and outdoor concentrations of 0.11–0.92 ppb (Pellizzari et al. 1986). Several studies have determined the 

presence of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in products expected to be in most households (Section 6.5) (EPA 

1987l; Maklan et al. 1987; Sack et al. 1992; Spicer et al. 1987). An EPA Region V (Minnesota, 

Wisconsin, Michigan, Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio) National Human Exposure Assessment Survey 

(NHEXAS) detected a mean concentration of 1,1,1-trichloroethane to be 1.15 ppb in indoor air samples 

collected from residential areas from July 1995 to May 1997 (Bonanno et al. 2001). The maximum 

concentration of trichloroethane detected in the same study was 34 ppb. 

A study of air toxics in New York City showed levels of 1,1,1-trichloroethane ranging from 0.093 to 

0.139 ppb for outdoor air with the highest concentrations in the summer. Indoor home and personal air 

had higher concentrations in the winter with ranges of 0.242–0.990 and 0.203–0.368 ppb, respectively 

(Kinney et al. 2002). 

1,1,1-Trichloroethane has also been a contaminant of air in many other countries. A recent study in India 

found 1,1,1-trichloroethane in the air at various residential, traffic intersections, and gasoline stations in 

Delhi (Srivastava 2005). Mean concentrations of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in indoor air of Nagoya, Japan and 

indoor and outdoor air of Uppsala, Sweden were 0.803, 0.123, and 0.318, respectively (Sakai 2004). 

6.4.2 Water 

1,1,1-Trichloroethane has been identified in surface water, groundwater, drinking water, effluent, rain, 

snow, and urban runoff. The amount of the chemical detected in surface and groundwater depends upon 

the location of the sampling point. Concentrations in surface water removed from point-source emissions 

such as industrial waste water, hazardous waste sites, and spill locations are usually <1 ppb. In random 

samples of groundwater taken in the United States, concentrations have ranged from 0 to 18 ppb. 

Groundwater samples obtained near sources of release to soil or the ground have been as high as 

11,000 ppb. Drinking water from surface or groundwater sources contained 1,1,1-trichloroethane 

concentrations of 0.01–3.5 ppb. 

Data on the occurrence of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in water are presented in Table 6-2. Data on the 

concentration of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in effluent can be found in Table 6-4. 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 202 

6. POTENTIAL FOR HUMAN EXPOSURE 

Table 6-4. Detection of 1,1,1-Trichloroethane in Effluent 

Sampling Number of Concentration (ppb) 

Media type/location dates samples Range Mean Reference 

Industrial waste water: 

 Textile plants 1975 64 2–300a NS Rawlings and 

Deangelis 1979 

Municipal waste water: 

Los Angeles, CA 1978 NS 

primary 340a

 Young 1978 

secondary <10 Young et al. 1983 

Los Angeles, CA 

primary 130 

secondary 180 

Orange County, CA 

primary 4,000 

secondary <10 

San Diego, CA 

primary 68 

Water factory 21 McCarty and 

influent 1976 50 <0.3–38a

 4.794 Reinhard 1980 

Orange County, CA 1978 

effluent 51 0.1–1.2 0.07 

influent 28 0.3–15 2.9 

effluent 17 <0.1–41 0.14 

Chicago, IL, Calumet plant 1980 2 Lue-Hing et al. 1981 

influent 14a 

effluent <10 

John Egan plant 1 11 

influent <10 

effluent 

 Denver, CO 

reuse influent 1985–1986 14 1.70–6.9a 3.74 Rogers et al. 1987 

Landfill leachates: 

 Collegeville, PAb

 1983c NS 1–60 NS Varma 1985 

 Minnesotad

 1983 6 ND–7.6a Sabel and Clark 1984 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 203 

6. POTENTIAL FOR HUMAN EXPOSURE 

Table 6-4. Detection of 1,1,1-Trichloroethane in Effluent 

Sampling Number of Concentration (ppb) 

Media type/location dates samples Range Mean Reference 

Nuclear power plant 

emissions: 

 Denver, CO 1989 Sturges and Taylor 

downwind 6 0.06–0.623e

 0.27e 1990 

upwind 8 0.088–0.251e

 0.137e 

a

Data reported in μg/L; converted to ppb using the conversion factor 1 ppb=1 μg/L b

National Priority Hazardous Waste Site c

Date of study not given d

Municipal Solid Waste site e

Data reported in ppt; converted to ppb using the conversion factor 1 ppb=1,000 ppt 

Post office state abbreviations used 

ND = not detected; NS = not specified 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 204 

6. POTENTIAL FOR HUMAN EXPOSURE 

1,1,1-Trichloroethane was found in groundwater at hazardous waste sites in 18.9% of 178 sites from the 

Comprehensive Emergency Response, Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA) database, making it 

the seventh most frequently detected compound in this study (Plumb 1987). It was found in water 

samples from 42 of 357 Contract Laboratory Program (CLP) sites; the concentration range of the mean 

values was 1.75–1,100 ppb (Viar 1987). 

In 1997, 1,1,1-trichloroethane was found in the Colorado River Basin in 6 of the 25 sites tested, with a 

maximum concentration of 4.51 μg/L (Apodaca 2002). 

6.4.3 Sediment and Soil 

Monitoring data on the occurrence of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in soil are not as extensive as for water or air, 

which precludes an estimate of typical levels found in soil. The reported levels of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in 

soils are shown in Table 6-5. In two grab soil samples taken in 1980 from two former sludge lagoons of a 

solvent recovery operation at Southington, Connecticut, the measured concentrations of 1,1,1-trichloroethane were 23,000 and 120,000 ppb (Hall 1984). The limited data on the concentration of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in soil may be due to its rapid volatilization from soil, its ability to leach through soil, or 

both. The concentrations of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in sediments are shown in Table 6-2. The mean 

concentration of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in sediments from a river passing through an industrial area in 

Japan was 0.4 ppb, although it was not detected in the river water or in the sediment of a river passing 

through a non-industrial area (Grotoh et al. 1992). 

6.4.4 Other Environmental Media 

Limited data on the occurrence of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in other media were located. 1,1,1-Trichloroethane has been found in raw, processed, and prepared food products. These data are presented in 

Table 6-6. 1,1,1-Trichloroethane has been found in fish and shrimp taken from the Pacific Ocean at 

average concentrations of 2.7 and <0.3 ppm, respectively (Young et al. 1983). It has also been detected in 

clams and oysters from Lake Pontchartrain, Louisiana, with mean concentrations ranging from 39 to 

310 ppm (Ferrario et al. 1985) and from a polluted river in Japan at concentrations ranging from 0.6 to 

1.8 ppb wet weight (wt/wt) (Grotoh et al. 1992). 1,1,1-Trichloroethane was detected in 2 of 265 tableready foods of FDA Total Diet Study at an average concentration of 12.7 ppb (Heikes et al. 1995). 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 205 

6. POTENTIAL FOR HUMAN EXPOSURE 

Table 6-5. Detection of 1,1,1-Trichloroethane in Soils 

Sampling Number of Concentration (ppb) 

Media type/location dates samples Range Mean Reference 

Urban: 

 Southington, CT 1980 2 23,000–120,000a Hall 1984 

National Priorities List: 

Lang property, NJ 1985 EPA 1987e 

surface NS ND–980b

 322 

subsurface NS ND–140 71 

 Gallaway Ponds site, 1984 NS 13,000c EPA 1987d 

TN 

1,1,1-Trichloroethane producer/user: 

Plant A 1976–1977 4 0.06–0.68 Battelle Labs 

1977 

 Plant B 2 0.45–0.94

 Plant C 2 0.13–0.28

 Plant D 2 0.14–1.0 

 User A 2 0.40–0.65 

Summit National, OH 1987 EPA 1988b 

(NPL site) 

on-site surface 31 3d

–51,000b 2,216b 

on-site subsurface 5 10–43,000b

 8,391b 

(2–4 feet) 

on-site subsurface 2 5–2,800d,b 561b 

(4–6 feet) 

on-site subsurface 15 4d

–230,000b 10,252b 

(6–8 feet) 

Residence near a landfill: 

Stanislaus County, CA September NS 1.4–11 4.9 Hodgson et al. 

1987 1992 

October 1987 2.8–9.4 6.1 

a

Data reported in μg/L; converted to ppb using the conversion factor 1 ppb=1 μg/L b

Data reported in μg/kg; converted to ppb using the conversion factor 1 ppb=1 μg/kg c

Data reported in ppm; converted to ppb using the conversion factor 1 ppb=0.001 ppm d

Data were estimated. 

Post office state abbreviations used 

ND = not detected; NS = not specified 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 206 

6. POTENTIAL FOR HUMAN EXPOSURE 

Table 6-6. Detection of 1,1,1-Trichloroethane in Foods 

Sampling Concentration (ppb) 

Type Food dates Range Mean Reference 

Unprepared, uncooked, off-the-shelf 

Split peas NS 3 Daft 1987 

Allspice 16,000 

Pickling spice 549 

Celery seed 909 

Tea 10 

Dumplings (dry) 7 

Instant hot cereal 421 

Ready-to-eat cereals 4 

Cake mix (golden) 8 

Cake mix (yellow) 87 

Pancake mix 16 

Breaded fish 2 

Onion rings (precooked) 76 

Intermediate 

Yellow corn meal 1984 3.8 Heikes and Hopper 

1986 

Fudge brownie mix 2.9–3.0 0.74 

Yellow cake mix 7.3 Daft 1988 

Fresh 

 Nectarine 1985–1986 NSa Takeoka et al. 1988 

Cooked, aroma

 Beef NS NSa Galt and MacLeod 1984 

Prepared 

 Bakers cheese NS 1.3b

 Uhler and Diachenko 

1987 

Cottage cheese NS 2.7–10.6 6.4 

Ricotta cheese ND–30.6 3.0 

Mozzarella (skim milk) 9.5–37.3 1.2 

Vanilla ice cream 2.7–10.6 

Chocolate ice cream ND–30.6 

Butter pecan ice cream 9.5–37.3 

Butter ND–7,500 Miller and Uhler 1988 

Cooked, aroma 

Baked potatoes NS ND Coleman et al. 1981 

Ice 

 Commercial machine 1975 (NS) 0.0039c Su and Goldberg 1976 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 207 

6. POTENTIAL FOR HUMAN EXPOSURE 

Table 6-6. Detection of 1,1,1-Trichloroethane in Foods 

Sampling Concentration (ppb)

Type Food dates Range Mean Reference

Cereals 

 Shredded wheat NS 4b Daft 1988 

Raisin bran 6 

Granola, plain 22 

Oat ring 6 

Rolled oats, cooked 35 

Farina, cooked 8 

Corn grits, cooked 3 

Vegetables

 Peas, cooked NS 1b

 Daft 1988 

Peas, canned 2 

Corn, boiled 2 

Onion rings, cooked 9 

French fries, cooked 2 

Mashed potatoes 6 

Sweet potatoes, candied 3 

Cream of potato soup 2 

Catsup 2 

Baked goods 

 Cornbread NS 3b

 Daft 1988 

Biscuits, baking powder 2 

Blueberry muffins 11 

Saltine crackers 7 

Corn chips 9 

Pancakes 3 

Potato chips 8 

Macaroni and cheese 2 

Chocolate cake/icing 40 

Yellow cake 40 

Coffeecake, frozen 14 

Donuts, cake, plain 17 

Sweet roll, Danish 29 

Cookies, chocolate chip 8 

Cookies, sandwich 28 

Apple pie, frozen 14 

Nuts/nut products 

Peanut butter, creamy NS 10b

 Daft 1988 

Peanuts, dry roasted 24 

Pecans 228 

Dairy products

 Whole milk NS 1b

 Daft 1988 

Chocolate milk 5 

Milkshake, chocolate 152 

Yogurt, strawberry 2 

Cheese, processed 8 

Cheese, cheddar 16 

White sauce 10 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 208 

6. POTENTIAL FOR HUMAN EXPOSURE 

Table 6-6. Detection of 1,1,1-Trichloroethane in Foods 

Sampling Concentration (ppb) 

Type Food dates Range Mean Reference 

Margarine, stick 13 

Butter, stick 18 

Cream, half & half 4 

Ice cream, chocolate 4 

Instant pudding, chocolate 1 

 Ice cream sandwich 15 

Ice milk, vanilla 520 

Butter Nov 20–27 1.0–4 1.82 Miyahara et al. 1995 

1992 

Margarine ND–74 5.29 

Milk ND 

Ice cream ND–3.2 0.88 

Yogurt, plain ND–1.2 0.06 

Ice milk ND–0.9 0.2 

Sugars, jams, candy 

Candy, milk chocolate NS 15b

 Daft 1988 

Meats, meat dishes 

Beef, ground, fried NS 8b

 Daft 1988 

Beef, chuck roast 6 

Beef, sirloin, cooked 10 

Pork, ham, cured 5 

Pork chop, cooked 76 

Pork, sausage, cooked 7 

Pork, bacon, cooked 2 

Pork roast, loin, cooked 3 

Lamb chop, cooked 7 

Veal cutlet, cooked 8 

Chicken, pieced, fried 14 

Frankfurters, cooked 33 

Bologna 8b 

Salami 8 

Tuna, canned in oil 3 

Shrimp, breaded, fried 3 

Fish sticks, cooked 12 

Pizza, cheese, cooked 8 

One-fourth pound hamburger 27 

Meatloaf, beef 15 

Chicken noodle casserole 4 

Lasagna 2 

Potpie, chicken 6 

Frozen dinner, chicken 10 

Brown gravy 2 

Infant/toddler blends 

 Oatmeal, applesauce, NS 6b

 Daft 1988 

banana 

Fruits 

Apple, red, raw NS 3b

 Daft 1988 

Grapes, purple/green 2 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 209 

6. POTENTIAL FOR HUMAN EXPOSURE 

Table 6-6. Detection of 1,1,1-Trichloroethane in Foods 

Sampling Concentration (ppb) 

Type Food dates Range Mean Reference 

Raisins, dried 16 

Prunes, dried 21 

Avocado, raw 32 

Grapefruit juice 4 

Lemonade 11 

Clear beverages 

 Grape juice NS 3b

 Daft 1988 

Whiskey, 80 proof 2 

a

Detected in sample; no quantitative results given b

Data reported in ng/g; converted to ppb using the conversion factor 1 ppb=1 ng/g c

Data reported in pg/mL; converted to ppb using the conversion factor 1 ppb=1,000 pg/mL 

ND = not detected; NS = not specified 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 210 

6. POTENTIAL FOR HUMAN EXPOSURE 

1,1,1-Trichloroethane has been detected in four shoe and leather glues in Denmark in the concentration 

range 0.1–2.7% (wt/wt) (Rastogi 1992). Six samples of glues manufactured in the United States and 

Europe, which were used for assembling various consumer goods and toys, contained 1,1,1-trichloroethane in the concentration range of 0.002–97.5% (wt/wt) (Rastogi 1993). In various brands of imported 

typing correction fluids in Singapore, the equilibrium vapor phase concentration of 1,1,1-trichloroethane 

ranged from <1 to 95% (v/v) (Ong et al. 1993). 

6.5 GENERAL POPULATION AND OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE 

Although the manufacture and use of 1,1,1-trichloroethane was scheduled to be phased out by 2002 under 

amendments made to Section 604 of the Clean Air Act (EPA 2004m); it is still being manufactured in the 

United States by two producers with production volumes of at least 100 million pounds as of 2002 (EPA 

2002; SRI 2003). Its relatively long atmospheric half-life and continued production suggest that the 

general population may be expected to have continued exposure to this compound into the foreseeable 

future. 

The ubiquitous occurrence, in the past, of low levels of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in ambient air and other 

environmental samples, together with the fact that many consumer products previously used to contain 

this chemical, suggests that much of the general population of the United States was exposed to low 

levels of 1,1,1-trichloroethane. This exposure could have occurred occupationally, environmentally, or as 

a result of the use of commercial products that contain 1,1,1-trichloroethane. 1,1,1-Trichloroethane has 

been detected in the blood, milk, breath, and urine of humans. An EPA Region V (Minnesota, Wisconsin, 

Michigan, Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio) National Human Exposure Assessment Survey (NHEXAS) 

detected a mean concentration of 1,1,1-trichloroethane to be 0.05 ppb in blood samples collected from 

July 1995 to May 1997 (Bonanno et al. 2001). The maximum concentration of trichloroethane detected in 

the same study was 2.7 ppb. Data on human body burdens associated with this compound can be found in 

Table 6-7. Table 5-2 provides a sampling of consumer products containing 1,1,1-trichloroethane. The 

levels of this chemical in human breath have been correlated with its levels in personal air by probabilitybased population studies (Wallace et al. 1985, 1986c, 1987a, 1988). 

If the average urban concentration of 1,1,1-trichloroethane is taken to be 1 ppb and the average rural 

concentration is taken to be 0.1 ppb, then daily non-occupational intakes of 108 and 10.8 μg/day, 

respectively, can be obtained based on an average human air intake of 20 m3

/day. In areas where 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 211 

6. POTENTIAL FOR HUMAN EXPOSURE 

Table 6-7. Detection of 1,1,1-Trichloroethane in Human Samples 

Sampling Number of Concentration (ppb) 

Media type/location dates samples Range Mean Reference 

Adipose tissue: 

 United States 1984 46 ND–830a 48 Stanley 1986a, 

1986b 

Blood/serum: 

New Orleans 250 ND–26 NS Antoine et al. 1986 

Old Love Canal 1978 9 0.24–1.8b Barkley et al. 1980 

 Denver 1976 3 1,300–2,700c 1,800 Gunter et al. 1977 

U.S. NHANES III NS 126 ND–0.0106d 0.0035 Ashley et al. 1995 

Non-smokers 

U.S. NHANES III NS 42 ND–0.0132d 0.0052 

Smokers 

U.S. NHANES III NS 574 NS 0.34 Ashley et al. 1994 

Non-occupationally 

exposed 

Milk: 

Bridgeville, PA; Bayonne, 12 NS Pellizzari et al. 1982 

NJ; Jersey City, NJ; Baton 

Rouge, LA 

Breath: 

 Chicago, IL 387 0.0018d Krotosznski et al. 

1979 

Texas 10 ND–140 (μg/hour) 40 Conkle et al. 1975 

Old Love Canal, NY 1978 9 Trace–0.513e Barkley et al. 1980 

Chapel Hill, NC 1978 17 1.1–8.72f 81.81 Zweidinger et al. 

1983 

 Beaumont, TX 17 0.081–29.6 15.97 

 New Jersey 

fall 1981 322 1.2f Wallace et al. 1987a 

summer 1982 110 0.95 

winter 1983 49 0.37 

Devils Lake, ND 1980 23 1.7 Wallace et al. 1984a 

48(9) 0.022–16.0f

 0.88 

 Bayonne/Elizabeth, NJ 1981 295–339 ND–95 0.88g Wallace et al. 1985 

17(3) 0.053–1.4 0.11 

Los Angeles, CA 1984 Wallace et al. 1987d 

winter 112–115 1.17g,f 

spring 51 0.70 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 212 

6. POTENTIAL FOR HUMAN EXPOSURE 

Table 6-7. Detection of 1,1,1-Trichloroethane in Human Samples 

Sampling Number of Concentration (ppb) 

Media type/location dates samples Range Mean Reference 

 Antioch-Pittsburgh, PA 66–69 0.017 Wallace et al. 

 Elizabeth-Bayonne, NJ 1981 295–339 NS–96.2 2.78 1984b, 1985, 1986b, 

1987a 

 Elizabeth-Bayonne, NJ 1981 48 0.022–15.7 Wallace et al. 1984a 

Research Triangle Park, 1981 17 0.054–1.142 

NC 

Urine: 

Old Love Canal, NY 1978 9 0.03–0.180 100 Barkley et al. 1980 

a

Data in ng/g; 1 ppb=1 ng/g b

Data in ng/mL; 1 ppb=1 ng/mL c

Data in mg/dL; 1 ppb=0.00001 mg/dL d

Data in ng/L; 1 ppb=1000 ng/L e

Data in ng/m3; 1 ppb=5400 ng/m3 

f

Data in μg/m3; 1 ppb=5.4 μg/m3 

g

Weighted geometric mean 

Post office state abbreviations used 

ND = not detected; NHANES = National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey; NS = not specified 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 213 

6. POTENTIAL FOR HUMAN EXPOSURE 

1,000 ppb have been measured, the daily intake using this methodology would be 108 mg. However, 

Wallace et al. (1984a) have determined that the mean daily air exposure for 12 subjects from urban New 

Jersey and Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, was 370 mg. Further, the mean daily intake from all 

sources (air, food, and water) was between 50 and 1,000 mg/day for 1,1,1-trichloroethane (Wallace et al. 

1984a). 

1,1,1-Trichloroethane has been detected in newly constructed buildings (Wallace et al. 1987b). 

1,1,1-Trichloroethane was found in 216 of 1,159 common household products preselected to contain 

solvents at concentrations >0.1% by weight (Sack et al. 1992). In a similar study, 1,1,1-trichloroethane 

was found in all 67 categories of household products (1,026 brands tested) likely to be in the average U.S. 

home (EPA 1987l; Maklan et al. 1987). The categories of these common household products are given in 

Table 5-2. The occurrence of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in 62% of the effluent samples taken from a 

community septic tank also suggests the presence of this compound in household products (De Walle et 

al. 1985). 

Human exposure could occur directly via ingestion of contaminated water, but also indirectly through the 

inhalation of 1,1,1-trichloroethane that has volatilized from contaminated tap water. Based on a 

theoretical concentration of 1 mg/L (ppm) of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in tap water, the average estimated air 

concentrations for the entire house, bathroom, and shower stall were 2.3x10-4, 5.1x10-3, and 

2.6x10-2 mg/L, respectively (McKone 1987). For a tap water concentration of 20 mg/L, the estimated 

daily exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane was 20.0 mg from ingestion and 22.8 mg from inhalation while 

showering (Foster and Chrostowski 1986). The Total Exposure Assessment Methodology (TEAM) 

studies demonstrated that levels of personal air exposure determined using samples obtained on the same 

day could vary by orders of magnitude for subjects living in the same municipality, most likely as a result 

of variances in consumer practices and occupation (Hartwell et al. 1987a, 1987b, 1992; Wallace 1986, 

1987; Wallace et al. 1986a, 1986b, 1988, 1989; Zweidinger et al. 1983). The maximum exposure levels 

of 1,1,1-trichloroethane during personal activities were: 185 ppb when visiting the dry cleaners, 18.5 ppb 

when working in a chemistry lab, 12 ppb when working as a lab technician, 48 ppb when using household 

cleaners, 20 ppb when using pesticides, and 20 ppb when using paint (Wallace et al. 1989). Exposure of 

the general population from the use of commercial products may be more significant than exposure 

resulting from industrial release. 

According to the National Occupational Exposure Survey (NOES) conducted by NIOSH between 1981 

and 1983, it has been statistically estimated that ≈2,528,300 workers in the United States were potentially 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 214 

6. POTENTIAL FOR HUMAN EXPOSURE 

exposed to 1,1,1-trichloroethane (NIOSH 1990). The largest number of workers is exposed in the 

following types of industries/services: sewing machine operators in apparel industry; registered nurses, 

maids, janitors and cleaners in hospitals; electricians, technicians, assemblers, installers, machinists and 

repairers in electrical and electronic industry; and janitors and cleaners in building maintenance service. 

From the existing monitoring data, it appears that most occupational exposure occurs by inhalation. 

Specific industrial applications of 1,1,1-trichloroethane that might result in elevated levels of exposure are 

processes involving the degreasing and cleaning of fabricated metal parts (Gunter et al. 1977; Kominsky 

1976; Levy and Meyer 1977; Markel 1977), manufacture of electronic components (Giles and Philbin 

1976), mixing and application of commercial resins (Giles 1976), and spray painting and spray gluing 

(Whitehead et al. 1984). Table 6-8 lists occupations in which 1,1,1-trichloroethane has been detected in 

the air. Other occupations where workers can be exposed to 1,1,1-trichloroethane include automotive 

assembly plants (Nelson et al. 1993), kraft pulp mills (Rosenberg et al. 1991), and fuel cell assembly 

plants (NIOSH 1993). In a survey (1990–1991) of a fuel cell assembly plant, the levels of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in some of the personal breathing zone and general area samples were found to exceed the NIOSH 

short-term exposure limit of 350 ppm (NIOSH 1993). More current worker information was not 

available; however, since the production and use of 1,1,1-trichloroethane is being phased out, exposures 

would be expected to decrease. Exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane should be limited to those workers who 

are still involved in the manufacture and production of this compound or the limited uses as allowed for 

essential applications in the medical industry and aviation industry or the export of 1,1,1-trichloroethane 

as specified under Section 604 of the Clean Air Act. 

6.6 EXPOSURES OF CHILDREN 

This section focuses on exposures from conception to maturity at 18 years in humans. Differences from 

adults in susceptibility to hazardous substances are discussed in Section 3.7, Children’s Susceptibility. 

Children are not small adults. A child’s exposure may differ from an adult’s exposure in many ways. 

Children drink more fluids, eat more food, breathe more air per kilogram of body weight, and have a 

larger skin surface in proportion to their body volume. A child’s diet often differs from that of adults. 

The developing human’s source of nutrition changes with age: from placental nourishment to breast milk 

or formula to the diet of older children who eat more of certain types of foods than adults. A child’s 

behavior and lifestyle also influence exposure. Children crawl on the floor, put things in their mouths, 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 215 

6. POTENTIAL FOR HUMAN EXPOSURE 

Table 6-8. Occupational Air Levels of 1,1,1-Trichloroethane 

Sampling Concentration (ppb) 

Location/occupation dates Range Mean Reference 

Bozeman, MT 1976 

Auto repair garage 2.2 Taketomo and 

Grimsrud 1977 

Bookstore 6.7 

 Restaurant 0.2 

 Department store 0.8–1.7 

Newspaper press room 2.2 

 Grocery store 1.9–21 

 Dry cleaner 1.8–14.4 

Chemistry building (academic) 0.1–1.2 

Tampa, FL 

Telephone central office 1979 27–65 Oblas et al. 1979, 

1980 

Hobbs, NM 

Telephone business office 50 

Waltham, MA

 Laboratory air 4.5 

Organic solvent recycling plant 1984 ND–20,000a

 3,110 Kupferschmid and 

Perkins 1986 

Booth spray painting/gluing 1981 NS–22,000a 1,200 Whitehead et al. 

1984 

Screw machine manufacturing 1976 12,000–99,800b Markel 1977 

company, AR 

Rifle scope producer, Denver, CO 1976 7,700–478,000b Gunter et al. 1977 

Heating and cooling coil 1976 1,460–16,600b Levy and Meyer 

manufacturing, IL 1977 

Electric apparatus manufacturing, PA 1975 2,500–79,500a Giles 1976 

Electrical resistor manufacturing, PA 1976 6,000–83,000a Giles and Philbin 

1976 

Valve part manufacturer, IN 1976 4,000–37,000a Kominsky 1976 

Aircraft manufacturer, GA 1983–1984 ND–23,000a Salisbury et al. 1986 

Sport racket manufacturer, CO 1985 NS Pryor 1987 

Nail manufacturer, CO 1987 7,510–406,000b NIOSH 1987 

Fiber manufacturer, IL 1986 59–115b Daniels et al. 1988 

Men's shirt company, IN 1974 Nord 1974 

Film optical shops, NY 1979 500–1,320,000b Peter and Edelbrock 

1980 

Joint/shaft manufacturer, IN 1979 800–1,300a McQuilkin et al. 

1979 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 216 

6. POTENTIAL FOR HUMAN EXPOSURE 

Table 6-8. Occupational Air Levels of 1,1,1-Trichloroethane 

Sampling Concentration (ppb) 

Location/occupation dates Range Mean Reference 

Battery manufacturer, CO 1979 9,160–36,400b NIOSH 1980a 

Typesetter/photographer, GA 1979 3,900–4,600a NIOSH 1980b 

Graphic services, OH 1979 <1,000a NIOSH 1980c 

Welding shop 1979 3,200–4,799a Vegella 1979 

Suitcase manufacturer, CO 1978 500–756,000a Apol and Singal 

1979 

Ski/tennis racquet manufacturing, 1979 22,500–85,800b Gunter 1979 

CO 

Sewer workers, OH 1981 1,000–40,000a McGlothlin and 

Cone 1983 

Solar cell producer, CA 1979 ND–74,000b Briggs and Garrison 

1982 

Medical therapeutic system 1979 400–3,600a NIOSH 1980d 

manufacturing, CO 

Navigation information products, CO 1981 549–2,750b Gunter 1983 

Tractor manufacturer, ND 1979 ND–62,600a NIOSH 1980e 

U.S. Department of the Treasury, DC 1982 NS Lee 1984 

School district print shop, OR 1983 100a Apol and Helgerson 

1983 

Electrical maintenance company, OH 1981 123,000–385,000b Kominsky and 

Lipscomb 1985 

Electrical commutators 1983 ND–4a Almaguer 1985 

manufacturers, IL 

Crystal fabricator, CO 1984 366–2700b Gunter and Thoburn 

1986 

Silk screening of textiles, KS 1975 ND–75,000b Hervin 1975 

Aluminum vane manufacturers, OH 1976 74,000–396,000a Giles 1977 

Catapult cylinder manufacturers, OH 1975 2,400–18,400a Giles 1977 

Chemical recovery plant, OH 1980 1,900–4,500b Albrecht 1980 

Pump manufacturer, NY 1978–1979 ND–2,930 Fannick 1980 

Uranium company, WY 1980 ND–155,000b Gunter 1980 

Theater, NY 1985 458–10,700b Fannick 1986 

a

Data reported in ppt; converted to ppb using the conversion factor 1 ppb=1,000 ppt b

Data reported in mg/m3; converted to ppb using the conversion factor 1 ppb=0.0054 mg/m3 

Post office state abbreviations used 

ND = not detected; NS = not specified 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 217 

6. POTENTIAL FOR HUMAN EXPOSURE 

sometimes eat inappropriate things (such as dirt or paint chips), and spend more time outdoors. Children 

also are closer to the ground, and they do not use the judgment of adults to avoid hazards (NRC 1993). 

Exposures of the embryo or fetus to volatile organic compounds such as 1,1,1-trichloroethane may occur 

if the expectant mother is exposed. A newborn infant may be exposed by breathing contaminated air and 

through ingestion of mother’s milk that can contain small amounts of 1,1,1-trichloroethane. Children 

may be exposed through accidental ingestion of products containing 1,1,1-trichloroethane. Older children 

and adolescents may be exposed to 1,1,1-trichloroethane in their jobs or hobbies, or through deliberate 

solvent abuse by “sniffing". Epidemiological studies and case reports discussing reproductive and/or 

developmental toxicity of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in humans have been reviewed in Chapter 3. 

Young children often play close to the ground and frequently play in dirt, which increases their dermal 

exposure to toxicants in dust and soil. They also tend to ingest soil, either intentionally through pica or 

unintentionally through hand-to-mouth activity. Children, thus, may be orally and dermally exposed to 

1,1,1-trichloroethane present as a contaminant in soil and dust. 1,1,1-Trichloroethane has a log organic 

carbon-water partition coefficient of 2.03, indicating low adsorption to soil (Chiou et al. 1979; Friesel et 

al. 1984). Most of the 1,1,1-trichloroethane present in the upper layers of the soil is volatilized to air 

within 24 hours (vapor pressure =124 mm Hg at 25 °C; Boublik et al. 1984). The rapid volatilization of 

1,1,1-trichloroethane results in inhalation being the most likely route of exposure. 

Children breathe in more air per kilogram of body weight than an adult. Therefore, a child in the same 

micro-environment as an adult is likely to be exposed to more 1,1,1-trichloroethane from ambient air. 

Young children are closer to the ground or floor because of their height. The 1,1,1-trichloroethane vapors 

being heavier than air (vapor density=4.63 g/mL; HSDB 2005) tend to concentrate near the ground. The 

children, therefore, are at a greater risk of exposure than adults during accidental spills of 1,1,1-trichloroethane. 

Children may also be exposed to fumes of 1,1,1-trichloroethane by working with or playing near sources. 

Children’s exposure also occurs through accidental ingestion and inhalation of the chemicals into the 

lungs. Children are also exposed to higher concentrations of 1,1,1-trichloroethane (0.1–1 ppb, Table 6-3) 

in urban areas compared to children living in rural areas (concentrations typically <0.2 ppb, Table 6-3). 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 218 

6. POTENTIAL FOR HUMAN EXPOSURE 

Animal studies demonstrated that, once absorbed, 1,1,1-trichloroethane is distributed by the blood to 

tissues and organs throughout the body, including developing fetuses, with preferential distribution to 

fatty tissues (Holmberg et al. 1977; Katagiri et al. 1997; Schumann et al. 1982a; Takahara 1986b). 

There are no existing studies that have monitored the level of exposure from 1,1,1-trichloroethane to 

children. Most uses of 1,1,1-trichloroethane are associated with occupational purposes, so it is unlikely 

that children will receive significant doses. Under extreme conditions where products containing high 

concentrations of 1,1,1-trichloroethane are used in the presence of children in an enclosed area with little 

or no ventilation, children could receive significant exposure. There are studies that examine the 

exposure to children from parents= work clothes, skin, hair, tools, or other objects removed from the 

workplace (NIOSH 1995); however, this type of Atake home@ or secondary exposure is unlikely due to the 

high volatility of 1,1,1-trichloroethane. Additional exposure from consumer products can occur, but is 

unlikely to be significant, although little data are available at this time. 

It is not known whether children differ in their weight-adjusted intake of 1,1,1-trichloroethane. However, 

children drink more fluids per kg of body weight than adults (NRC 1993) and 1,1,1-trichloroethane has 

been detected in drinking water (Section 6.4.2, Table 6-2). 

6.7 POPULATIONS WITH POTENTIALLY HIGH EXPOSURES 

The general population is potentially exposed to low levels of 1,1,1-trichloroethane through the ingestion 

of contaminated water or food and by breathing air contaminated with this compound. Since most 

applications and uses of 1,1,1-trichloroethane have been or are currently being discontinued, human 

exposure is expected to decrease accordingly. The manufacture and use of 1,1,1-trichloroethane was 

scheduled to be phased out by 2002 under the Clean Air Act (EPA 2004m). Since it is no longer in use, 

the exposure of the general population should drop to insignificant levels over time. Low levels of 

contamination in drinking water sources have been documented (Althoff et al. 1981; Barkley et al. 1980; 

Burmaster 1982; EPA 1986a; Krill and Sonzogni 1986; Wallace et al. 1984a; Zaki 1986). According to 

Table 6-2, levels of 0.01–12,220 ppb 1,1,1-trichloroethane have been found in drinking water sources. 

1,1,1-Trichloroethane was used as a component of adhesives for food packaging, and this practice may 

have contributed to human exposure by ingestion (Miller and Uhler 1988). Airtight, highly-insulated 

houses are likely to have high indoor concentrations from use of household products containing 1,1,1-tri-
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 219 

6. POTENTIAL FOR HUMAN EXPOSURE 

chloroethane. Very high levels of exposure are expected to occur for those who intentionally inhale 

1,1,1-trichloroethane for its euphoric/narcotic properties. 

Workers who are still involved in processes using this compound may encounter high exposure levels. 

Occupations in which 1,1,1-trichloroethane has been found in the air are given in Table 6-8; however, it is 

noted that many of these occupational exposures are no longer expected to occur today since the 

production and use of 1,1,1-trichloroethane is being phased out. Analysis of these data shows that 

ambient air concentrations in industries using 1,1,1-trichloroethane are up to 4 orders of magnitude higher 

than what is typically found in urban air. 

1,1,1-Trichloroethane was used in some adhesive remover pads of incubators in intensive care nurseries, 

and there is evidence that infants in incubators could be exposed to high concentrations of 1,1,1-trichloroethane (Gallagher and Kurt 1990). This use of 1,1,1-trichloroethane has been discontinued. 

6.8 ADEQUACY OF THE DATABASE 

Section 104(i)(5) of CERCLA, as amended, directs the Administrator of ATSDR (in consultation with the 

Administrator of EPA and agencies and programs of the Public Health Service) to assess whether 

adequate information on the health effects of 1,1,1-trichloroethane is available. Where adequate 

information is not available, ATSDR, in conjunction with NTP, is required to assure the initiation of a 

program of research designed to determine the health effects (and techniques for developing methods to 

determine such health effects) of 1,1,1-trichloroethane. 

The following categories of possible data needs have been identified by a joint team of scientists from 

ATSDR, NTP, and EPA. They are defined as substance-specific informational needs that if met would 

reduce the uncertainties of human health assessment. This definition should not be interpreted to mean 

that all data needs discussed in this section must be filled. In the future, the identified data needs will be 

evaluated and prioritized, and a substance-specific research agenda will be proposed. 

6.8.1 Identification of Data Needs 

Physical and Chemical Properties. The physical and chemical properties of 1,1,1-trichloroethane 

are well documented, and additional information in this area does not appear necessary. Only one BCF 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 220 

6. POTENTIAL FOR HUMAN EXPOSURE 

for 1,1,1-trichloroethane was located in the available literature (Barrows et al. 1980). This value is, 

however, consistent with what would be expected based on the other physical and chemical properties of 

1,1,1-trichloroethane. 

Production, Import/Export, Use, Release, and Disposal. According to the Emergency 

Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act of 1986, 42 U.S.C. Section 11023, industries are required 

to submit substance release and off-site transfer information to the EPA. The TRI, which contains this 

information for 2003, became available in May of 2005. This database is updated yearly and should 

provide a list of industrial production facilities and emissions. 

Historical data on the production, use, release, and disposal of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in the United States 

are well represented in the literature. The past production volumes of 1,1,1-trichloroethane manufactured 

in the United States are known. For example, total U.S. production volumes of 1,1,1-trichloroethane were 

720 million pounds in 1992 and 450 million pounds in 1993 (CMR 1995). According to the 1990 

amendments to the Clean Air Act and the Montreal Protocol, future U.S. production was to be cut 

incrementally until a total phase-out by January 1, 2002 (EPA 2004m). However, current data suggests 

that large quantities of 1,1,1-trichloroethane are still being produced domestically, and information 

regarding the current production volumes as well as export volumes are important to assess the potential 

for exposure. 1,1,1-Trichloroethane was still being manufactured in the United States in 2002 in a 

production volume range of >100–<500 million pounds (EPA 2002). Today, the only significant use of 

1,1,1 trichloroethane is in the production of CFC-142. Since these laws have been passed, the projected 

amount of 1,1,1 trichloroethane has decreased from 300 million pounds in 2000 to a projected 125 million 

pounds in 2005 (HSIA 2004). The past use of 1,1,1-trichloroethane is well-documented. It was used 

extensively in industrial applications, and it was found in numerous consumer products for the home. 

Mandates on production, however, are expected to decrease the use of 1,1,1-trichloroethane and 

subsequent potential exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane. Currently, 1,1,1, trichloroethane is almost entirely 

used as a precursor for hydrofluorocarbons (HSIA 2004). 

There are a few food monitoring studies in the literature that provide several examples of food 

contamination with 1,1,1-trichloroethane. The ubiquitous nature of 1,1,1-trichloroethane suggests that 

additional information in this area would allow a complete determination of the levels of human exposure 

to this chlorinated solvent. The release of 1,1,1-trichloroethane to the environment is well established 

since there are numerous studies that indicate the presence of this compound in environmental media. 

However, recent quantitative data regarding releases to air, soil, or water are lacking. 1,1,1-Trichloro-
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 221 

6. POTENTIAL FOR HUMAN EXPOSURE 

ethane is listed on the TRI (TRI02 2004). Methods for the disposal of 1,1,1-trichloroethane exist (Carroll 

et al. 1992; Cheung et al. 1991; HSDB 2004; Kusakabe et al. 1991; OHM/TADS 1992. Data on the 

removal of 1,1,1-trichloroethane from waste streams during biological treatment processes are lacking. 

Information on the amount of 1,1,1-trichloroethane disposed of annually is scarce. Rules and regulations 

governing the disposal of 1,1,1-trichloroethane exist (EPA 1992a, 1992b, 1992c, 1992d). Because large 

quantities of 1,1,1-trichloroethane continue to be produced in the United States, quantitative data 

regarding releases to the environment may be beneficial. 

Environmental Fate. Data on the environmental fate of 1,1,1-trichloroethane are well represented in 

the literature. The partitioning of 1,1,1-trichloroethane from soil or water to the atmosphere is well 

established, and there is sufficient evidence to indicate that the compound can leach into groundwater 

(Lyman et al. 1990; Swann et al. 1983). The relatively slow rate of degradation and the major routes of 

1,1,1-trichloroethane degradation in all environmental compartments have been established. The 

relatively long persistence of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in the atmosphere indicates that a significant portion of 

this compound migrates to the stratosphere (Prinn et al. 1987; Singh et al. 1992). Data on the biodegradation of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in soil are lacking. Additional data regarding the environmental fate of 

1,1,1-trichloroethane do not appear necessary. 

Bioavailability from Environmental Media. Numerous toxicokinetic and toxicity studies in 

humans and animals have demonstrated the bioavailability of 1,1,1-trichloroethane from air and drinking 

water. Although some data on the bioavailability of 1,1,1-trichloroethane from air to mammalian skin 

(Mattie et al. 1994), and from air to other mammalian tissues (blood, muscle, liver) (Connell et al. 1993) 

are available, no studies on the bioavailability of 1,1,1-trichloroethane from food or soil were located. 

Some of the important routes of exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane for residents near waste sites will be 

inhalation of airborne dusts, ingestion of soil (children) and dermal contact with contaminated soil 

(mostly children). Therefore, it would be helpful to develop reliable data for the bioavailability of 

1,1,1-trichloroethane from dust as a result of inhalation of contaminated airborne dust, from soil as a 

result of ingestion of soil, and from soil as a result of dermal contact with soil. 

Food Chain Bioaccumulation. 1,1,1-Trichloroethane is not believed to bioconcentrate in fish and 

aquatic organisms (Barrows et al. 1980); thus, it is not expected to biomagnify in the food chain. There 

are limited data regarding food chain biomagnification of 1,1,1-trichloroethane. 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 222 

6. POTENTIAL FOR HUMAN EXPOSURE 

Exposure Levels in Environmental Media. Reliable monitoring data for the levels of 

1,1,1-trichloroethane in contaminated media at hazardous waste sites are needed so that the information 

obtained on levels of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in the environment can be used in combination with the known 

body burden of 1,1,1-trichloroethane to assess the potential risk of adverse health effects in populations 

living in the vicinity of hazardous waste sites. 

Volumes of data exist on levels of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in environmental media, with the exception of 

levels in soil samples. Continued monitoring of environmental media is warranted. Blind monitoring at 

this stage, however, might be replaced with methods that allow both the continued determination of the 

environmental burden of 1,1,1-trichloroethane and correlation with human burden, like that performed in 

the TEAM studies (Hartwell et al. 1987a, 1987b, 1992; Wallace 1986, 1987; Wallace et al. 1986a, 1986b, 

1988, 1989; Zweidinger et al. 1983). These and other studies have estimated human intake of 1,1,1-trichloroethane from environmental media. For members of the general population near hazardous waste 

sites, total exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane will include exposure from environmental media and 

exposure from consumer products. 

Reliable monitoring data for the levels of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in contaminated media at hazardous waste 

sites are needed so that the information obtained on levels of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in the environment can 

be used in combination with the body tissue/fluid levels of 1,1,1-trichloroethane to assess the potential 

risk of adverse health effects in populations living in the vicinity of hazardous waste sites. 

Exposure Levels in Humans. 1,1,1-Trichloroethane has been detected in human tissues and 

expired air. Due to the past use of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in common household products, the potential for 

exposure of the general population may have been significantly higher inside the home. However, 

1,1,1-trichloroethane is no longer used in common household products and the current likelihood of 

exposure of the general population to 1,1,1-trichloroethane is remote. However, continued monitoring of 

1,1,1-trichloroethane-exposed workers is necessary for assessing the need to conduct health studies on 

these populations. 

Exposures of Children. Children are at a greater risk of inhalation exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane 

as they breathe in more air per kilogram of body weight than an adult. They also spend more time closer 

to ground because of their height. 1,1,1-Trichloroethane vapors, being heavier than air, tend to 

concentrate closer to the ground, thereby increasing the risk for children. No data are available on the 

exposure of the children to 1,1,1-trichloroethane present in the air. 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 223 

6. POTENTIAL FOR HUMAN EXPOSURE 

A study on usefulness of intervention methods in cases of inhalant abuse by pregnant women would be 

helpful. More research is needed to rule out concomitant risk factors and to identify specific chemicals 

and patterns of use associated with adverse effects. 

Means of protecting young children from ingestion of home products containing 1,1,1-trichloroethane 

need study and action. Child-proof containers and clearer warnings to parents should be considered to 

avoid unwanted exposure. 

Child health data needs relating to susceptibility are discussed in Section 3.12.2, Identification of Data 

Needs: Children’s Susceptibility. 

Exposure Registries. No exposure registries for 1,1,1-trichloroethane were located. This substance 

is not currently one of the compounds for which a subregistry has been established in the National 

Exposure Registry. The substance will be considered in the future when chemical selection is made for 

subregistries to be established. The information that is amassed in the National Exposure Registry 

facilitates the epidemiological research needed to assess adverse health outcomes that may be related to 

exposure to this substance. 

6.8.2 Ongoing Studies 

The Federal Research in Progress (FEDRIP 2004) database provides additional information obtainable 

from a few ongoing studies that may fill in some of the data needs identified in Section 6.8.1. 

Researchers at Physical Optics Corporation (POC) proposes to develop a group-specific active optical 

chemical sensor for halohydrocarbons (including trichloroethylene, dichloroethylene, perchloroethylene, 

and 1,1,1-trichloroethane) that can be interfaced with a cone penetrometer for subsurface applications. 

No liquid chemical substances will be used in the final sensor design, enabling simple fiber optic-based 

downhole deployment. 

Researchers at University of Washington, College of Forest Resources propose to test the ability of 

several plant strains to take up and transform various chlorinated hydrocarbons, including carbon 

tetrachloride, chloroform, bischloromethane, 1,1,1-trichloroethane, perchloroethylenes, trichloroethylene, 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 224 

6. POTENTIAL FOR HUMAN EXPOSURE 

dichloromethanes, and vinyl chloride using laboratory mass balance reactors. They will identify the 

mechanisms involved in the chlorinated hydrocarbon oxidation in poplar and use molecular methods to 

enhance that activity. 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 225 

7. ANALYTICAL METHODS 

The purpose of this chapter is to describe the analytical methods that are available for detecting, 

measuring, and/or monitoring 1,1,1-trichloroethane, its metabolites, and other biomarkers of exposure and 

effect to 1,1,1-trichloroethane. The intent is not to provide an exhaustive list of analytical methods. 

Rather, the intention is to identify well-established methods that are used as the standard methods of 

analysis. Many of the analytical methods used for environmental samples are the methods approved by 

federal agencies and organizations such as EPA and the National Institute for Occupational Safety and 

Health (NIOSH). Other methods presented in this chapter are those that are approved by groups such as 

the Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC) and the American Public Health Association 

(APHA). Additionally, analytical methods are included that modify previously used methods to obtain 

lower detection limits and/or to improve accuracy and precision. 

7.1 BIOLOGICAL MATERIALS 

In the analysis of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in biological materials, a key factor in the determination is the 

sample matrix under consideration. In the broadest sense, this can be broken down into liquid samples 

(e.g., blood or urine), solid samples (which would include adipose tissue, liver samples), and expired air 

samples. After 1,1,1-trichloroethane has been recovered from the sample matrix, a number of similar 

techniques can then be used to complete the analysis. A synopsis of these methods can be found in 

Table 7-1. In general, the methods for determining the metabolites of 1,1,1-trichloroethane are the same 

as those used for the parent compound, with slight modifications (Nolan et al. 1984). 

The quantification of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in blood and urine samples can be achieved by the initial use 

of purge and trap methodology (Antoine et al. 1986; Barkley et al. 1980). This technique involves the 

liberation of the volatile chlorinated hydrocarbon by bubbling an inert gas through the sample matrices at 

elevated temperatures (≈50–95 °C). Higher temperature increases the vapor pressure of the compound, 

and the bubbling action serves, essentially, to increase the gas-liquid partition, and thus volatilize the 

compound of interest. The gaseous sample is collected on an adsorption tube, which frequently uses a 

polymeric sorbent such as Tenax GC. 

At this point, the sample is analyzed by gas chromatography (GC), the analytical method of choice for 

volatile halogenated hydrocarbons. Information on the analysis of these samples by GC is presented in 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 226 

7. ANALYTICAL METHODS 

Table 7-1. Analytical Methods for Determining 1,1,1-Trichloroethane in Biological 

Samples 

Sample Analytical Percent 

matrix Preparation method method Limit recovery Reference 

Exhaled air Collection in Tedlar HRGC/MS 0.1 μg/m3 87–94 Barkley et al. 1980; 

bag; adsorption on Wallace et al. 1984a, 

Tenax GC; thermal 1985, 1987a 

desorption 

Exhaled air Collection in charcoal GC/FID 2 mg/m3 (for 89–120 Glaser and Arnold 

cloth wafers; 50 L sample) 1989 

desorption in carbon 

disulfide 

Exhaled air Collection into canister HRGC/MS 3.3 μg/m3

 (for 94–98 Raymer et al. 1990 

by portable spirometer; 300 L sample) 

aliquot injection into a 

cryogenic trap 

Urine Purging at 50 °C; HRGC/MS No data No data Barkley et al. 1980 

trapping on Tenax GC; 

thermal desorption into 

GC 

Adipose Purging at 95 °C; HRGC/MS 0.01 mg/kg No data Stanley 1986a,1986b 

tissue trapping on Tenax GC; 

thermally desorption at 

250 °C 

Blood Purging at 50 °C; HRGC/MS No data No data Antoine et al. 1986; 

trapping on Tenax GC; Barkley et al. 1980 

thermal desorption 

Blood Purging at 30 °C; HRGC/MS 0.049 μg/L 147 Ashley et al. 1992 

trapping on Tenax GC; 

thermal desorption into 

GC 

Blood Static headspace HRGC/FID <0.1 mg/L 214 (at Dills et al. 1991 

0.5 mg/L) 

Liver, kidney, Homogenization with GC/ECD 1 ng 85.5–91.3 Chen et al. 1993 

brain, heart, ice-cold saline and isolung, octane; vortexing and 

perirenal fat centrifugation; isoand skeletal octane layer withdrawn 

muscle for head space analysis 

Milk Purging at 70°C; HRGC/MS No data No data Pellizzari et al. 1982 

trapping in Tenax GC; 

thermal desorption 

ECD = electron capture detector; FID = flame ionization detector; GC = gas chromatography; HRGC = high 

resolution gas chromatography; MS = mass spectrometry 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 227 

7. ANALYTICAL METHODS 

Section 7.2, with a discussion of the advantages and disadvantages of each method. The technique of 

Antoine et al. (1986) showed a 5% variance on a series of 2 ppb spiked samples, and the analysis had a 

linear response ranging from 0.5 to 50 ppb. Although infra-red spectrometry has less sensitivity than 

electron capture detectors (ECD), Hall electroconductivity detectors (HECD), and mass spectrometric 

detectors (MS), it has been used to quantify the levels of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in biological samples 

(IARC 1979). 

The concentration of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in solid samples can be determined by headspace techniques, 

which involve analysis of the air above a heated sample in either a dynamic or a static system. In a static 

system, an aliquot of the atmosphere above the sample is obtained and analyzed by direct GC. In a 

dynamic system, an inert gas is passed over the top of a heated, rapidly stirred suspension of sample in 

water (Stanley 1986a, 1986b). The gas stream is then passed through an adsorption tube, trapping the 

volatile compounds. For adipose tissue, the detection limits were 0.01 mg/kg and the average recovery 

for spiked samples (concentration range 0.15–0.44 μg/20 g tissue) was 105%, with a precision of 

11.8% (Stanley 1986a, 1986b). 

In biological samples, losses during the sample preparation stage (weighing, transferring, etc.) can arise 

due to the volatility of 1,1,1-trichloroethane or from an incomplete recovery from the biological matrix. 

Samples should be analyzed shortly after they are obtained. Otherwise, they should be carefully stored at 

low temperature, preferably in a dessicator. Handling and manipulation also should be kept to a 

minimum, preventing both premature loss by volatilization and contamination of the sample through the 

adsorption of vapors from ambient air. The need for blank water with very low levels of volatile organic 

compounds (VOCs) has increased because of the constant improvement in the sensitivity of detection of 

these VOCs. A method that uses distillation in conjunction with helium stripping has been described to 

obtain high purity blank water (Cardinali et al. 1994). 

7.2 ENVIRONMENTAL SAMPLES 

A short description of the methods used for analysis of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in environmental samples is 

presented in Table 7-2. An extensive list of methods for analysis of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in 

environmental samples can be compiled from the literature. Two methods are commonly used for 

collection of 1,1,1-trichloroethane and other volatile organics in ambient and occupational air. One 

method uses adsorbents to trap and concentrate organics in air, and the other method uses passive 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 228 

7. ANALYTICAL METHODS 

Table 7-2. Analytical Methods for Determining 1,1,1-Trichloroethane in 

Environmental Samples 

Sample 

Sample Analytical Detection Percent 

matrix Preparation method method Limit recovery Reference 

Air Charcoal tube GC/FID 18 ppm No data NIOSH 1987 

collection and carbon (NIOSH 

disulfide desorption 1003) 

Ambient air Trapping on adsorbent; HRGC/ECD 0.006 μg/m3 100 Frank and Frank 1988 

thermal desorption (based on 

127 L sample) 

Waste water Purge and trap onto GC/HECD 0.03 μg/L 75±12 EPA 1982c 

adsorbent; desorption (EPA 601) 

into GC column by 

rapid heating 

Waste water Purge and trap onto GC/MS 3.8 μg/L 102±16 EPA 1982a 

adsorbent; thermal (EPA 624) 

desorption 

Solid waste Purge and trap into GC/MS 5 μg/L 113 (at EPA 1986e 

matrices, adsorbent; thermal (EPA-8240 (groundwater) 10 μg/kg) 

groundwater, desorption SW 846) 5 μg/kg (soil 

liquid wastes, and sediment) 

sediment 

Soil Purge and trap onto GC/MS 5 μg/kg No data EPA 1987a 

adsorbent; rapid (EPA 

heating desorption Contract 

Lab) 

Drinking Purge and trap onto GC/HECD 0.003 μg/L 93±8 EPA 1986a 

water adsorbent; backflush to (EPA 502.1) 0.01 μg/L 96±2.6 

cryogenically cooled HRGC/ 

trap HECD (EPA 

502.2) 

Drinking Purge and trap onto GC/MS 0.3 μg/L 105±8.9 EPA 1988c, 1988d 

water, raw adsorbent; backflush to (EPA 524.1) 0.04 μg/L 100±4 

source water packed or cryogenically HRGC/MS 

cooled capillary trap (EPA 524.2) 

Food Heating sample in GC/ECD 0.6–2.4 μg/kg No data Norman 1991 

closed container at (for various 

95 C for 55 minutes; foods) 

analysis of headspace 

gas 

ECD = electron capture detector; EPA = Environmental Protection Agency; FID = flame ionization detector; 

GC = gas chromatography; HECD = Hall Electroconductivity detector; HRGC = high resolution gas chromatography; 

MS = mass spectrometry; NIOSH = National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 229 

7. ANALYTICAL METHODS 

stainless steel canisters (SUMMA canisters). The advantage of SUMMA canisters is that sample 

breakthrough does not occur with this method as it may occur with adsorbent tubes (Hsu et al. 1991). The 

disadvantages of the canister method are its inability to concentrate pollutants during sample collection 

and the potential analytical problems associated with the presence of moisture in the sample (Bianchi and 

Varney 1993). In all methods, however, there is a consensus that after the sample collection and 

preparation stage, mixture separation and quantitative analysis is best done with GC, coupled with an 

assortment of detectors. Standardized methods, with slight alterations, also can be used for determining 

the metabolites of 1,1,1-trichloroethane (Hallen et al. 1986; Parsons et al. 1985; Vogel and McCarty 

1987). 

The analysis of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in occupational air samples can be accomplished by NIOSH method 

1003 (NIOSH 1987). The sample is obtained in the field with a pumping system to pass a measurable 

quantity of air (≈3 L) through a tube loaded with a solid sorbent, such as charcoal. Extraction of the tube 

with the solvent CS2 liberates the 1,1,1-trichloroethane collected, an internal standard is added, and 

quantitation is then achieved by GC. For packed column analysis, an OV-101 column using a flame 

ionization detector (FID) is given as the preferred choice (alternates, including capillary columns, are 

acceptable). For the estimation of low levels of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in ambient air, thermal desorption 

following collection of the sample in an absorbent trap is the method of choice (Frank and Frank 1988). 

Capillary columns are used to separate 1,1,1-trichloroethane from the other components in a mixture. 

Capillary columns provide wider versatility offering superior resolution of components. A comparison of 

capillary and packed column for analysis of volatile organics by GC is available (Clark and Zalikowski 

1990). Narrow-bore capillary columns have high resolving power, but may not be suitable for headspace 

analysis because of easy column saturation (Ohno and Aoyama 1991). Wide-bore capillary columns are 

suitable in such cases (Ohno and Aoyama 1991). Different detectors can be used; ECD, HECD, and MS 

have been described. The MS is the most selective detector, but the HECD is the most sensitive. Both 

closed path and open path Fourier transform infrared spectrometry (FTIR) have recently been used for the 

determination of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in air (Carter et al. 1992; Trocha and Samimi 1993; Xiao and 

Levine 1993). Although the FTIR methods have higher detection limits than the some of the other 

conventional methods, they afford the opportunity of remote monitoring of real-time samples (Xiao and 

Levine 1993). 

In the analysis of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in air, the weakest link in analysis is irreversible adsorption of the 

desired compound to the sorbent material during sample collection. For highly volatile, nonpolar 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 230 

7. ANALYTICAL METHODS 

compounds such as 1,1,1-trichloroethane, complete removal of the substrate may not occur if the 

adsorbent irreversibly adsorbs the substrate. 

The collection methods commonly used for water and aqueous effluents are grab or proportional 

sampling. However, a solid phase microextraction method, which involves exposing a fused silica fiber 

coated with a stationary phase to the aqueous sample until equilibrium is achieved, has been proposed as a 

collection method (Arthur et al. 1992). Analysis for 1,1,1-trichloroethane in municipal and industrial 

waste water is described in EPA method 601—purgeable halocarbons (EPA 1982a). A 5 mL grab sample 

is connected to an apparatus called a purging chamber. This chamber allows for an inert gas to be 

sparged through the water sample, carrying the 1,1,1-trichloroethane onto an adsorbent tube. The 

organics are subsequently desorbed from the adsorbent tube by rapid heating and back flushing into the 

GC column. Analysis is then made by GC elution using an HECD. Detection limits for this method are 

given as 0.03 μg/L, with a 75% average recovery for spiked samples. EPA test method 624, purgeables, 

also can be used for the analysis of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in waste water (EPA 1982a). This method is 

similar to method 601, except that MS is used for quantitation. 

EPA method 502.1 can be used in the analysis of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in finished or raw source water 

(EPA 1986a). This method is analogous to method 601. The detection limit for this method is 

0.003 μg/L, with an average recovery of 93%. 

The EPA guidelines for contract laboratories (EPA 1986c) include methodology for the analysis of 

groundwater and soil samples. The method for water analysis is similar to method 524.1. Detection 

limits for this method are given at 5 μg/kg. 

7.3 ADEQUACY OF THE DATABASE 

Section 104(i)(5) of CERCLA, as amended, directs the Administrator of ATSDR (in consultation with the 

Administrator of EPA and agencies and programs of the Public Health Service) to assess whether 

adequate information on the health effects of 1,1,1-trichloroethane is available. Where adequate 

information is not available, ATSDR, in conjunction with NTP, is required to assure the initiation of a 

program of research designed to determine the health effects (and techniques for developing methods to 

determine such health effects) of 1,1,1-trichloroethane. 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 231 

7. ANALYTICAL METHODS 

The following categories of possible data needs have been identified by a joint team of scientists from 

ATSDR, NTP, and EPA. They are defined as substance-specific informational needs that if met would 

reduce the uncertainties of human health assessment. This definition should not be interpreted to mean 

that all data needs discussed in this section must be filled. In the future, the identified data needs will be 

evaluated and prioritized, and a substance-specific research agenda will be proposed. 

7.3.1 Identification of Data Needs 

Methods for Determining Biomarkers of Exposure and Effect. 

Exposure. The urinary concentration of 1,1,1-trichloroethane can be used as an appropriate biological 

indicator of exposure (Imbriani et al. 1988; Salkinoja-Salonen and Jokela 1991). Both in the 

experimentally exposed subjects and in the occupationally exposed workers, the urinary concentration of 

1,1,1-trichloroethane showed a linear relationship to the corresponding environmental time-weighted 

average concentration with a correlation coefficient of 0.90–0.95 (Imbriani et al. 1988). Levels of 

1,1,1-trichloroethane (as parent compound) in blood and expired air may also serve as biomarkers of 

exposure. Laparé et al. (1995) found closer correlations between 1,1,1-trichloroethane exposure levels 

and levels of parent compound in both blood and expired air than between 1,1,1-trichloroethane exposure 

levels and urinary levels of parent compound or 1,1,1-trichloroethane metabolites. Present analytical 

methods for determination of levels of biomarkers of exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane are adequate; 

additional studies do not appear necessary. 

Effect. There is no known effect of 1,1,1-trichloroethane that can be quantitatively related to its 

exposure. 

Methods for Determining Parent Compounds and Degradation Products in Environmental 

Media. Analytical methodology for determining the levels of 1,1,1-trichloroethane and its biotic/ 

abiotic degradation products such as 1,1-dichloroethene, 1,1-dichloroethane, and chloroethane in 

environmental samples are well established (Hallen et al. 1986; Mehran et al. 1988a; Parsons et al. 1985; 

Vogel and McCarty 1987). Existing methods that provide acceptable detection limits for background 

levels in the environment and for levels at which health effects occur can be found for all types of 

environmental samples. The precision, accuracy, reliability, and specificity of each method are well 

documented, and potential pitfalls have been described. Development of a new methodology to 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 232 

7. ANALYTICAL METHODS 

determine 1,1,1-trichloroethane in environmental samples that would provide both increased speed and 

decreased levels of difficulty may be desirable in situations where environmental monitoring of 1,1,1-trichloroethane is required on a rapid or routine basis. 

7.3.2 Ongoing Studies 

No ongoing studies involving analytical techniques of 1,1,1-trichloroethane were found in a search of the 

Federal Research in Progress database (FEDRIP 2005). 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 233 

8. REGULATIONS AND ADVISORIES 

The international, national, and state regulations and guidelines regarding 1,1,1-trichloroethane in air, 

water, and other media are summarized in Table 8-1. 

ATSDR has derived an MRL of 2 ppm for acute-duration inhalation exposure (14 days or less) to 

1,1,1-trichloroethane, based on a LOAEL of 175 ppm for reduced performance of psychomotor tests in 

human volunteers in a study by Mackay et al. (1987). 

ATSDR has derived an MRL of 0.7 ppm for intermediate-duration inhalation exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane based on a study by Rosengren et al. (1985), which found evidence of astrogliosis (increased glial 

fibrillary acid protein levels) in the brains of gerbils exposed to 210 or 1,000 ppm, but not 70 ppm, of 

1,1,1-trichloroethane continuously for 3 months. 

ATSDR has derived an MRL of 20 mg/kg/day for intermediate-duration oral exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane based on the results of benchmark dose (BMD) modeling of final body weight of mice fed 

1,1,1-trichloroethane in the daily diet for 13 weeks (NTP 2000). 

The EPA does not list a reference concentration or a reference dose for 1,1,1-trichloroethane on the 

Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS 2005). The EPA has classified 1,1,1-trichloroethane as 

group D, not classifiable as to human carcinogenicity, based on no reported human data and inadequate 

animal data (IRIS 2005). 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 234 

8. REGULATIONS AND ADVISORIES 

Table 8-1. Regulations and Guidelines Applicable to 1,1,1-Trichloroethane 

Agency Description Information Reference 

INTERNATIONAL 

Guidelines: 

IARC Carcinogenicity classification Group 3a

 IARC 1999 

WHO Air quality guideline No data WHO 2000 

Drinking water guideline Guideline not WHO 2004 

establishedb 

NATIONAL 

Regulations and Guidelines: 

a. Air 

ACGIH TLV (8-hour TWA) 350 ppm ACGIH 2003 

STEL 450 ppm 

EPA Class I controlled substance for the protection of Yes EPA 2004a 

stratospheric ozone 40CFR82, 

Subpart A, 

Appendix A 

Hazardous air pollutant EPA 2004f 

42USC7412 

NIOSH REL (15-minute ceiling TWA)c

 350 ppm NIOSH 2004 

IDLH 700 ppm 

OSHA PEL (8-hour TWA) for general industry 350 ppm OSHA 2004c 

29CFR1910.1000, 

Table Z-1 

PEL (8-hour TWA) for construction industry 350 ppm OSHA 2004a 

29CFR1926.55, 

Appendix A 

PEL (8-hour TWA) for shipyard industry 350 ppm OSHA 2004b 

29CFR1915.1000, 

Table Z 

b. Water 

EPA Drinking water standard 0.2 ppm EPA 2004b 

(mg/L) 40CFR141.32 

Drinking water standards and health advisories EPA 2004l 

1-Day HA for a 10-kg child 100 mg/L 

10-Day HA for a 10-kg child 40 mg/L 

DWEL 1 mg/L 

Lifetime HA (70-kg adult) 0.2 mg/L 

MCL 0.2 mg/L EPA 2004c 

40CFR141.61 

MCLG 0.2 mg/L EPA 2004d 

40CFR141.50 

FDA Bottled water 0.2 mg/L FDA 2003a 

21CFR165.110 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 235 

8. REGULATIONS AND ADVISORIES 

Table 8-1. Regulations and Guidelines Applicable to 1,1,1-Trichloroethane 

Agency Description Information Reference 

NATIONAL (cont.) 

c. Food 

EPA Revokes tolerances and tolerance exemptions for EPA 2005 

residues of 1,1,1-trichloroethane 69 FR 43918 

FDA Indirect food additive for use only as a FDA 2003b 

component of adhesives 21CFR175.105 

d. Other 

 ACGIH Carcinogenicity classification A4d

 ACGIH 2003

 EPA Carcinogenicity classification Group De IRIS 2004 

RfC No data 

RfD Withdrawn 

Superfund; community right-to-know; toxic 01/01/1987 EPA 2004i 

chemical release reporting; effective date 40CFR372.65 

Superfund; designated as a hazardous substance EPA 2004j 

pursuant to Section 307(a) of the Clean Water 40CFR302.4 

Act, Section 112 of the Clean Air Act, and 

Section 3001 of RCRA 

 Reportable quantity 1,000 pounds 

 RCRA waste no. U226 

TSCA; health and safety data reporting EPA 2004k 

 Effective date 10/04/1982 40CFR716.120 

Sunset date 10/04/1992 

NTP Carcinogenicity classification No data NTP 2005 

STATE 

a. Air 

No data 

b. Water 

Drinking water guidelines and standards 

 Arizona 200 μg/L HSDB 2004 

 Connecticut 200 μg/L 

Maine 200 μg/L 

 Minnesota 600 μg/L 

 New Jersey 30 μg/L 

c. Food 

No data 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 236 

8. REGULATIONS AND ADVISORIES 

Table 8-1. Regulations and Guidelines Applicable to 1,1,1-Trichloroethane 

Agency Description Information Reference 

STATE (cont.) 

d. Other 

No data 

a

Group 3: Not classifiable as to its carcinogenicity to humans. b

Occurs in drinking-water at concentrations well below those at which toxic effects may occur. c

NIOSH recommends that 1,1,1-trichloroethane be treated in the workplace with caution because of their structural 

similarity to the four chloroethanes shown to be carcinogenic in animals. d

A4: Not classifiable as a human carcinogen. e

Group D: Not classifiable as to human carcinogenicity. 

ACGIH = American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists; CFR = Code of Federal Regulations; 

DWEL = drinking water equivalent level; EPA = Environmental Protection Agency; FDA = Food and Drug

Administration; FR = Federal Register; HA = health advisory; HSDB = Hazardous Substances Data Bank;

IARC = International Agency for Research on Cancer; IDLH = immediately dangerous to life or health; 

IRIS = Integrated Risk Information System; MCL = maximum contaminant level; MCLG = maximum contaminant level 

goal; NIOSH = National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health; NTP = National Toxicology Program; 

OSHA = Occupational Safety and Health Administration; PEL = permissible exposure limit; RCRA = Resource 

Conservation and Recovery Act; REL = recommended exposure limit; RfC = reference concentration; 

RfD = reference dose; STEL = short-term exposure limit; TLV = threshold limit values; TSCA = Toxic Substances 

Control Act; TWA = time-weighted average; USC = United States Codes; WHO = World Health Organization 
_______________________ 

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cerevisiae by 42 coded chemicals. Prog Mutat Res 1:481-490. 

Zoeteman BCJ, DeGreef E, Brinkman FJJ. 1981. Persistence of organic contaminants in ground water: 

Lessons from soil pollution incidents in the Netherlands. Sci Total Environ 21:187-202. 

Zoeteman BCJ, Harmsen K, Linders JBHJ, et al. 1980. Persistent organic pollutants in river water and 

ground water of the Netherlands. Chemosphere 9:231-249. 

*Zweidinger R, Erickson M, Cooper S, et al. 1983. Direct measurement of volatile organic compounds 

in breathing-zone air, drinking water, breath, blood and urine. Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental 

Protection Agency. EPA600482015. 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 319 

10. GLOSSARY 

Absorption—The taking up of liquids by solids, or of gases by solids or liquids. 

Acute Exposure—Exposure to a chemical for a duration of 14 days or less, as specified in the 

Toxicological Profiles. 

Adsorption—The adhesion in an extremely thin layer of molecules (as of gases, solutes, or liquids) to the 

surfaces of solid bodies or liquids with which they are in contact. 

Adsorption Coefficient (Koc)—The ratio of the amount of a chemical adsorbed per unit weight of 

organic carbon in the soil or sediment to the concentration of the chemical in solution at equilibrium. 

Adsorption Ratio (Kd)—The amount of a chemical adsorbed by sediment or soil (i.e., the solid phase) 

divided by the amount of chemical in the solution phase, which is in equilibrium with the solid phase, at a 

fixed solid/solution ratio. It is generally expressed in micrograms of chemical sorbed per gram of soil or 

sediment. 

Benchmark Dose (BMD)—Usually defined as the lower confidence limit on the dose that produces a 

specified magnitude of changes in a specified adverse response. For example, a BMD10 would be the 

dose at the 95% lower confidence limit on a 10% response, and the benchmark response (BMR) would be 

10%. The BMD is determined by modeling the dose response curve in the region of the dose response 

relationship where biologically observable data are feasible. 

Benchmark Dose Model—A statistical dose-response model applied to either experimental toxicological 

or epidemiological data to calculate a BMD. 

Bioconcentration Factor (BCF)—The quotient of the concentration of a chemical in aquatic organisms 

at a specific time or during a discrete time period of exposure divided by the concentration in the 

surrounding water at the same time or during the same period. 

Biomarkers—Broadly defined as indicators signaling events in biologic systems or samples. They have 

been classified as markers of exposure, markers of effect, and markers of susceptibility. 

Cancer Effect Level (CEL)—The lowest dose of chemical in a study, or group of studies, that produces 

significant increases in the incidence of cancer (or tumors) between the exposed population and its 

appropriate control. 

Carcinogen—A chemical capable of inducing cancer. 

Case-Control Study—A type of epidemiological study that examines the relationship between a 

particular outcome (disease or condition) and a variety of potential causative agents (such as toxic 

chemicals). In a case-controlled study, a group of people with a specified and well-defined outcome is 

identified and compared to a similar group of people without outcome. 

Case Report—Describes a single individual with a particular disease or exposure. These may suggest 

some potential topics for scientific research, but are not actual research studies. 

Case Series—Describes the experience of a small number of individuals with the same disease or 

exposure. These may suggest potential topics for scientific research, but are not actual research studies. 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 320 

10. GLOSSARY 

Ceiling Value—A concentration of a substance that should not be exceeded, even instantaneously. 

Chronic Exposure—Exposure to a chemical for 365 days or more, as specified in the Toxicological 

Profiles. 

Cohort Study—A type of epidemiological study of a specific group or groups of people who have had a 

common insult (e.g., exposure to an agent suspected of causing disease or a common disease) and are 

followed forward from exposure to outcome. At least one exposed group is compared to one unexposed 

group. 

Cross-sectional Study—A type of epidemiological study of a group or groups of people that examines 

the relationship between exposure and outcome to a chemical or to chemicals at one point in time. 

Data Needs—Substance-specific informational needs that if met would reduce the uncertainties of human 

health assessment. 

Developmental Toxicity—The occurrence of adverse effects on the developing organism that may result 

from exposure to a chemical prior to conception (either parent), during prenatal development, or 

postnatally to the time of sexual maturation. Adverse developmental effects may be detected at any point 

in the life span of the organism. 

Dose-Response Relationship—The quantitative relationship between the amount of exposure to a 

toxicant and the incidence of the adverse effects. 

Embryotoxicity and Fetotoxicity—Any toxic effect on the conceptus as a result of prenatal exposure to 

a chemical; the distinguishing feature between the two terms is the stage of development during which the 

insult occurs. The terms, as used here, include malformations and variations, altered growth, and in utero 

death. 

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Health Advisory—An estimate of acceptable drinking water 

levels for a chemical substance based on health effects information. A health advisory is not a legally 

enforceable federal standard, but serves as technical guidance to assist federal, state, and local officials. 

Epidemiology—Refers to the investigation of factors that determine the frequency and distribution of 

disease or other health-related conditions within a defined human population during a specified period. 

Genotoxicity—A specific adverse effect on the genome of living cells that, upon the duplication of 

affected cells, can be expressed as a mutagenic, clastogenic, or carcinogenic event because of specific 

alteration of the molecular structure of the genome. 

Half-life—A measure of rate for the time required to eliminate one half of a quantity of a chemical from 

the body or environmental media. 

Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health (IDLH)—The maximum environmental concentration of a 

contaminant from which one could escape within 30 minutes without any escape-impairing symptoms or 

irreversible health effects. 

Immunologic Toxicity—The occurrence of adverse effects on the immune system that may result from 

exposure to environmental agents such as chemicals. 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 321 

10. GLOSSARY 

Immunological Effects—Functional changes in the immune response. 

Incidence—The ratio of individuals in a population who develop a specified condition to the total 

number of individuals in that population who could have developed that condition in a specified time 

period. 

Intermediate Exposure—Exposure to a chemical for a duration of 15–364 days, as specified in the 

Toxicological Profiles. 

In Vitro—Isolated from the living organism and artificially maintained, as in a test tube. 

In Vivo—Occurring within the living organism. 

Lethal Concentration(LO) (LCLO)—The lowest concentration of a chemical in air that has been reported 

to have caused death in humans or animals. 

Lethal Concentration(50) (LC50)—A calculated concentration of a chemical in air to which exposure for 

a specific length of time is expected to cause death in 50% of a defined experimental animal population. 

Lethal Dose(LO) (LDLO)—The lowest dose of a chemical introduced by a route other than inhalation that 

has been reported to have caused death in humans or animals. 

Lethal Dose(50) (LD50)—The dose of a chemical that has been calculated to cause death in 50% of a 

defined experimental animal population. 

Lethal Time(50) (LT50)—A calculated period of time within which a specific concentration of a chemical 

is expected to cause death in 50% of a defined experimental animal population. 

Lowest-Observed-Adverse-Effect Level (LOAEL)—The lowest exposure level of chemical in a study, 

or group of studies, that produces statistically or biologically significant increases in frequency or severity 

of adverse effects between the exposed population and its appropriate control. 

Lymphoreticular Effects—Represent morphological effects involving lymphatic tissues such as the 

lymph nodes, spleen, and thymus. 

Malformations—Permanent structural changes that may adversely affect survival, development, or 

function. 

Minimal Risk Level (MRL)—An estimate of daily human exposure to a hazardous substance that is 

likely to be without an appreciable risk of adverse noncancer health effects over a specified route and 

duration of exposure. 

Modifying Factor (MF)—A value (greater than zero) that is applied to the derivation of a Minimal Risk 

Level (MRL) to reflect additional concerns about the database that are not covered by the uncertainty 

factors. The default value for a MF is 1. 

Morbidity—State of being diseased; morbidity rate is the incidence or prevalence of disease in a specific 

population. 

Mortality—Death; mortality rate is a measure of the number of deaths in a population during a specified 

interval of time. 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 322 

10. GLOSSARY 

Mutagen—A substance that causes mutations. A mutation is a change in the DNA sequence of a cell’s 

DNA. Mutations can lead to birth defects, miscarriages, or cancer. 

Necropsy—The gross examination of the organs and tissues of a dead body to determine the cause of 

death or pathological conditions. 

Neurotoxicity—The occurrence of adverse effects on the nervous system following exposure to a 

chemical. 

No-Observed-Adverse-Effect Level (NOAEL)—The dose of a chemical at which there were no 

statistically or biologically significant increases in frequency or severity of adverse effects seen between 

the exposed population and its appropriate control. Effects may be produced at this dose, but they are not 

considered to be adverse. 

Octanol-Water Partition Coefficient (Kow)—The equilibrium ratio of the concentrations of a chemical 

in n-octanol and water, in dilute solution. 

Odds Ratio (OR)—A means of measuring the association between an exposure (such as toxic substances 

and a disease or condition) that represents the best estimate of relative risk (risk as a ratio of the incidence 

among subjects exposed to a particular risk factor divided by the incidence among subjects who were not 

exposed to the risk factor). An OR of greater than 1 is considered to indicate greater risk of disease in the 

exposed group compared to the unexposed group. 

Organophosphate or Organophosphorus Compound—A phosphorus-containing organic compound 

and especially a pesticide that acts by inhibiting cholinesterase. 

Permissible Exposure Limit (PEL)—An Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) 

allowable exposure level in workplace air averaged over an 8-hour shift of a 40-hour workweek. 

Pesticide—General classification of chemicals specifically developed and produced for use in the control 

of agricultural and public health pests. 

Pharmacokinetics—The dynamic behavior of a material in the body, used to predict the fate 

(disposition) of an exogenous substance in an organism. Utilizing computational techniques, it provides 

the means of studying the absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion of chemicals by the body. 

Pharmacokinetic Model—A set of equations that can be used to describe the time course of a parent 

chemical or metabolite in an animal system. There are two types of pharmacokinetic models: data-based 

and physiologically-based. A data-based model divides the animal system into a series of compartments, 

which, in general, do not represent real, identifiable anatomic regions of the body, whereas the 

physiologically-based model compartments represent real anatomic regions of the body. 

Physiologically Based Pharmacodynamic (PBPD) Model—A type of physiologically based doseresponse model that quantitatively describes the relationship between target tissue dose and toxic end 

points. These models advance the importance of physiologically based models in that they clearly 

describe the biological effect (response) produced by the system following exposure to an exogenous 

substance. 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 323 

10. GLOSSARY 

Physiologically Based Pharmacokinetic (PBPK) Model—Comprised of a series of compartments 

representing organs or tissue groups with realistic weights and blood flows. These models require a 

variety of physiological information: tissue volumes, blood flow rates to tissues, cardiac output, alveolar 

ventilation rates, and possibly membrane permeabilities. The models also utilize biochemical 

information, such as air/blood partition coefficients, and metabolic parameters. PBPK models are also 

called biologically based tissue dosimetry models. 

Prevalence—The number of cases of a disease or condition in a population at one point in time. 

Prospective Study—A type of cohort study in which the pertinent observations are made on events 

occurring after the start of the study. A group is followed over time. 

q1*—The upper-bound estimate of the low-dose slope of the dose-response curve as determined by the 

multistage procedure. The q1* can be used to calculate an estimate of carcinogenic potency, the 

incremental excess cancer risk per unit of exposure (usually μg/L for water, mg/kg/day for food, and 

μg/m3

 for air). 

Recommended Exposure Limit (REL)—A National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health 

(NIOSH) time-weighted average (TWA) concentration for up to a 10-hour workday during a 40-hour 

workweek. 

Reference Concentration (RfC)—An estimate (with uncertainty spanning perhaps an order of 

magnitude) of a continuous inhalation exposure to the human population (including sensitive subgroups) 

that is likely to be without an appreciable risk of deleterious noncancer health effects during a lifetime. 

The inhalation reference concentration is for continuous inhalation exposures and is appropriately 

expressed in units of mg/m3 or ppm. 

Reference Dose (RfD)—An estimate (with uncertainty spanning perhaps an order of magnitude) of the 

daily exposure of the human population to a potential hazard that is likely to be without risk of deleterious 

effects during a lifetime. The RfD is operationally derived from the no-observed-adverse-effect level 

(NOAEL, from animal and human studies) by a consistent application of uncertainty factors that reflect 

various types of data used to estimate RfDs and an additional modifying factor, which is based on a 

professional judgment of the entire database on the chemical. The RfDs are not applicable to 

nonthreshold effects such as cancer. 

Reportable Quantity (RQ)—The quantity of a hazardous substance that is considered reportable under 

the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA). Reportable 

quantities are (1) 1 pound or greater or (2) for selected substances, an amount established by regulation 

either under CERCLA or under Section 311 of the Clean Water Act. Quantities are measured over a 

24-hour period. 

Reproductive Toxicity—The occurrence of adverse effects on the reproductive system that may result 

from exposure to a chemical. The toxicity may be directed to the reproductive organs and/or the related 

endocrine system. The manifestation of such toxicity may be noted as alterations in sexual behavior, 

fertility, pregnancy outcomes, or modifications in other functions that are dependent on the integrity of 

this system. 

Retrospective Study—A type of cohort study based on a group of persons known to have been exposed 

at some time in the past. Data are collected from routinely recorded events, up to the time the study is 

undertaken. Retrospective studies are limited to causal factors that can be ascertained from existing 

records and/or examining survivors of the cohort. 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE 324 

10. GLOSSARY 

Risk—The possibility or chance that some adverse effect will result from a given exposure to a chemical. 

Risk Factor—An aspect of personal behavior or lifestyle, an environmental exposure, or an inborn or 

inherited characteristic that is associated with an increased occurrence of disease or other health-related 

event or condition. 

Risk Ratio—The ratio of the risk among persons with specific risk factors compared to the risk among 

persons without risk factors. A risk ratio greater than 1 indicates greater risk of disease in the exposed 

group compared to the unexposed group. 

Short-Term Exposure Limit (STEL)—The American Conference of Governmental Industrial 

Hygienists (ACGIH) maximum concentration to which workers can be exposed for up to 15 minutes 

continually. No more than four excursions are allowed per day, and there must be at least 60 minutes 

between exposure periods. The daily Threshold Limit Value-Time Weighted Average (TLV-TWA) may 

not be exceeded. 

Standardized Mortality Ratio (SMR)—A ratio of the observed number of deaths and the expected 

number of deaths in a specific standard population. 

Target Organ Toxicity—This term covers a broad range of adverse effects on target organs or 

physiological systems (e.g., renal, cardiovascular) extending from those arising through a single limited 

exposure to those assumed over a lifetime of exposure to a chemical. 

Teratogen—A chemical that causes structural defects that affect the development of an organism. 

Threshold Limit Value (TLV)—An American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists 

(ACGIH) concentration of a substance to which most workers can be exposed without adverse effect. 

The TLV may be expressed as a Time Weighted Average (TWA), as a Short-Term Exposure Limit 

(STEL), or as a ceiling limit (CL). 

Time-Weighted Average (TWA)—An allowable exposure concentration averaged over a normal 8-hour 

workday or 40-hour workweek. 

Toxic Dose(50) (TD50)—A calculated dose of a chemical, introduced by a route other than inhalation, 

which is expected to cause a specific toxic effect in 50% of a defined experimental animal population. 

Toxicokinetic—The absorption, distribution, and elimination of toxic compounds in the living organism. 

Uncertainty Factor (UF)—A factor used in operationally deriving the Minimal Risk Level (MRL) or 

Reference Dose (RfD) or Reference Concentration (RfC) from experimental data. UFs are intended to 

account for (1) the variation in sensitivity among the members of the human population, (2) the 

uncertainty in extrapolating animal data to the case of human, (3) the uncertainty in extrapolating from 

data obtained in a study that is of less than lifetime exposure, and (4) the uncertainty in using lowestobserved-adverse-effect level (LOAEL) data rather than no-observed-adverse-effect level (NOAEL) data. 

A default for each individual UF is 10; if complete certainty in data exists, a value of 1 can be used; 

however, a reduced UF of 3 may be used on a case-by-case basis, 3 being the approximate logarithmic 

average of 10 and 1. 

Xenobiotic—Any chemical that is foreign to the biological system. 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE A-1 

APPENDIX A. ATSDR MINIMAL RISK LEVELS AND WORKSHEETS 

The Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA) [42 U.S.C. 

9601 et seq.], as amended by the Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act (SARA) [Pub. L. 99– 

499], requires that the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) develop jointly with 

the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), in order of priority, a list of hazardous substances most 

commonly found at facilities on the CERCLA National Priorities List (NPL); prepare toxicological 

profiles for each substance included on the priority list of hazardous substances; and assure the initiation 

of a research program to fill identified data needs associated with the substances. 

The toxicological profiles include an examination, summary, and interpretation of available toxicological 

information and epidemiologic evaluations of a hazardous substance. During the development of 

toxicological profiles, Minimal Risk Levels (MRLs) are derived when reliable and sufficient data exist to 

identify the target organ(s) of effect or the most sensitive health effect(s) for a specific duration for a 

given route of exposure. An MRL is an estimate of the daily human exposure to a hazardous substance 

that is likely to be without appreciable risk of adverse noncancer health effects over a specified duration 

of exposure. MRLs are based on noncancer health effects only and are not based on a consideration of 

cancer effects. These substance-specific estimates, which are intended to serve as screening levels, are 

used by ATSDR health assessors to identify contaminants and potential health effects that may be of 

concern at hazardous waste sites. It is important to note that MRLs are not intended to define clean-up or 

action levels. 

MRLs are derived for hazardous substances using the no-observed-adverse-effect level/uncertainty factor 

approach. They are below levels that might cause adverse health effects in the people most sensitive to 

such chemical-induced effects. MRLs are derived for acute (1–14 days), intermediate (15–364 days), and 

chronic (365 days and longer) durations and for the oral and inhalation routes of exposure. Currently, 

MRLs for the dermal route of exposure are not derived because ATSDR has not yet identified a method 

suitable for this route of exposure. MRLs are generally based on the most sensitive chemical-induced end 

point considered to be of relevance to humans. Serious health effects (such as irreparable damage to the 

liver or kidneys, or birth defects) are not used as a basis for establishing MRLs. Exposure to a level 

above the MRL does not mean that adverse health effects will occur. 

MRLs are intended only to serve as a screening tool to help public health professionals decide where to 

look more closely. They may also be viewed as a mechanism to identify those hazardous waste sites that 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE A-2 

APPENDIX A 

are not expected to cause adverse health effects. Most MRLs contain a degree of uncertainty because of 

the lack of precise toxicological information on the people who might be most sensitive (e.g., infants, 

elderly, nutritionally or immunologically compromised) to the effects of hazardous substances. ATSDR 

uses a conservative (i.e., protective) approach to address this uncertainty consistent with the public health 

principle of prevention. Although human data are preferred, MRLs often must be based on animal studies 

because relevant human studies are lacking. In the absence of evidence to the contrary, ATSDR assumes 

that humans are more sensitive to the effects of hazardous substance than animals and that certain persons 

may be particularly sensitive. Thus, the resulting MRL may be as much as 100-fold below levels that 

have been shown to be nontoxic in laboratory animals. 

Proposed MRLs undergo a rigorous review process: Health Effects/MRL Workgroup reviews within the 

Division of Toxicology and Environmental Medicine, expert panel peer reviews, and agency-wide MRL 

Workgroup reviews, with participation from other federal agencies and comments from the public. They 

are subject to change as new information becomes available concomitant with updating the toxicological 

profiles. Thus, MRLs in the most recent toxicological profiles supersede previously published levels. 

For additional information regarding MRLs, please contact the Division of Toxicology and 

Environmental Medicine, Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, 1600 Clifton Road NE, 

Mailstop F-32, Atlanta, Georgia 30333. 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE A-3 

APPENDIX A 

MINIMAL RISK LEVEL (MRL) WORKSHEET 

Chemical Name: 1,1,1-Trichloroethane 

CAS Number: 71-55-6 

Date: February 2006 

Profile Status: Final Draft Post-Public Comment 

Route: [X] Inhalation [ ] Oral 

Duration: [X] Acute [ ] Intermediate [ ] Chronic 

Graph Key: 35 

Species: Human 

Minimal Risk Level: 2 [ ] mg/kg/day [X] ppm 

Reference: Mackay CJ, Campbell L, Samuel AM, et al. 1987. Behavioral changes during exposure to 

1,1,1-trichloroethane: Time-course and relationship to blood solvent levels. Am J Ind Med 11:223-240. 

Experimental design: Twelve male volunteers participated in the experiment. Exposures were to 0, 175, 

or 350 ppm of 1,1,1-trichloroethane for 3.5 hours. Each volunteer was exposed to all three exposure 

concentrations in a balanced design, with a minimum of 2 weeks between exposures for any one 

individual. Test performance was assessed immediately before entering the exposure chamber and 20, 

60, 120, and 180 minutes after entry. Tests were conducted for three psychomotor tasks (simple reaction 

time, choice reaction time, and tracking ability) and two cognitive tasks (syntactic reasoning and 

concentration). Volunteers also completed a stress-arousal checklist as part of the test battery. Blood 

levels of 1,1,1-trichloroethane were measured after 0, 20, 60, 120, and 180 minutes of exposure. 

Statistical analysis of variance to determine the main effects of exposure and duration was performed for 

the various tests, but pairwise statistical comparisons were not made. 

Effects noted in study and corresponding doses: The tests for simple reaction time, choice reaction time 

and tracking ability all showed impaired psychomotor performance in volunteers exposed to 1,1,1-trichloroethane concentrations of 175 and 350 ppm. Effects were detected as soon as 20 minutes after the 

start of exposure at both concentrations. The test for simple reaction time appeared to be the most 

sensitive, exhibiting a 10–15% increase over baseline values. Observed performance changes correlated 

with 1,1,1-trichloroethane absolute blood levels. Performance in the cognitive tasks was not adversely 

affected by exposure, and neither was the self-reported mood of the volunteers. None of the subjects 

complained of headache, discomfort, or nausea. 

Dose and end point used for MRL derivation: 175 ppm; decreased performance in psychomotor tests. 

[ ] NOAEL [X] LOAEL 

Although the LOAEL of 175 ppm in the critical study of Mackay et al. (1987) was associated with only a 

3.5-hour exposure period, the acute-duration inhalation MRL is intended to be protective of a continuous 

acute-duration exposure. Data reported by Nolan et al. (1984) and Mackay et al. (1987) indicate that 

blood levels of 1,1,1-trichloroethane approach steady state during 2 hours of continuous inhalation 

exposure in humans. Neurobehavioral performance was correlated with 1,1,1-trichloroethane blood 

levels and there was little additional change in most measures of neurobehavioral performance as 

exposure duration increased from 2 to 3 hours (Mackay et al. 1987). Therefore, the LOAEL of 175 ppm 

was not adjusted for exposure duration. 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE A-4 

APPENDIX A 

Uncertainty Factors used in MRL derivation: 

[X] 10 for use of a LOAEL 

[ ] 10 for extrapolation from animals to humans 

[X] 10 for human variability 

Was a conversion used from ppm in food or water to a mg/body weight dose? No 

If an inhalation study in animals, list the conversion factors used in determining human equivalent dose: 

Other additional studies or pertinent information which lend support to this MRL: Gamberale and 

Hultengren (1973) observed psychophysiological test performance deficits in human subjects exposed to 

250, 350, 450, and 550 ppm of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in consecutive 30-minute periods. All tasks tested 

were affected, including simple reaction time, choice reaction time, and tests for manual dexterity and 

perceptual speed. Statistically significant deficits were found as early as exposure period #2, during 

which the exposure concentration was 350 ppm. Muttray et al. (1999, 2000) found EEG changes 

consistent with increased drowsiness and slight irritant nasal responses in volunteers exposed to 200 ppm. 

In contrast, no psychomotor effects were seen in human volunteers exposed to 1,1,1-trichloroethane 

vapors at concentrations of 400-450 ppm for 4 hours once or twice in a 24-hour period (Salvini et al. 

1971; Savolainen et al. 1981). Laine et al. (1996) found no consistent, statistically significant effects on 

electroencephalogram, visual evoked potential, or equilibrium in a group of 9 healthy male volunteers 

exposed to a constant 200 ppm of 1,1,1-trichloroethane vapors for 3 hours, followed by a 40-minute lunch 

break and a 40-minute afternoon exposure. A conservative approach was followed in the selection of 

Mackay et al. (1987) as the critical study for derivation of an acute-duration inhalation MRL because it 

identified the lowest LOAEL for psychomotor effects in humans following acute-duration inhalation 

exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane and was supported by results of Gamberale and Hultengren (1973) and 

Muttray et al. (1999, 2000). The choice of critical effect (neurological changes) is supported by animal 

studies, although exposure levels eliciting neurobehavioral and neurophysiological effects were much 

higher than those eliciting psychomotor effects in humans. For example, increased motor activity was 

observed in mice exposed to 1,250 ppm of 1,1,1-trichloroethane for 30 minutes (Bowen and Balster 

1996). A 4-hour exposure of mice to 2,064 ppm resulted in impaired swimming behavior (DeCeaurriz et 

al. 1983). Dow Chemical Co. (1990b) reported 1,1,1-trichloroethane-induced alterations in flash evoked 

potential, somatosensory evoked potential, and electroencephalogram in rats exposed to 1,000 ppm for 

6 hours per day on 4 consecutive days. 

Agency Contact (Chemical Manager): Henry Abadin, M.S.P.H.; Daphne Moffett, Ph.D. 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE A-5 

APPENDIX A 

MINIMAL RISK LEVEL (MRL) WORKSHEET 

Chemical Name: 1,1,1-Trichloroethane 

CAS Number: 71-55-6 

Date: February 2006 

Profile Status: Final Draft Post-Public Comment 

Route: [X] Inhalation [ ] Oral 

Duration: [ ] Acute [X] Intermediate [ ] Chronic 

Graph Key: 122 

Species: Gerbil 

Minimal Risk Level: 0.7 [ ] mg/kg/day [X] ppm 

Reference: Rosengren LE, Aurell A, Kjellstrand P, et al. 1985. Astrogliosis in the cerebral cortex of 

gerbils after long-term exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane. Scand J Work Environ Health 11:447-456. 

Experimental design: Groups of Mongolian gerbils (four/sex) were exposed to 70, 210, or 1,000 ppm of 

1,1,1-trichloroethane vapor (cleaning grade, containing 5% dioxane-free stabilizers) continuously for 

3 months. Each exposure group was paired with a control group consisting of eight sex-matched 

littermates of the test group. At the end of the exposure period, all animals were held for 4 months prior 

to sacrifice. Upon sacrifice, brains were weighed and prepared for analyses for the astroglial proteins 

S-100 and glial fibrillary acid (GFA) protein, both of which are biomarkers for astrogliosis. 

Effects noted in study and corresponding doses: Levels of GFA protein in the sensorimotor cerebral 

cortex were significantly increased in gerbils exposed to 210 or 1,000 ppm of 1,1,1-trichloroethane, but 

not those exposed to 70 ppm. Levels of S-100 were not affected by treatment. Total protein levels were 

also unaffected by treatment. Brain weight was significantly reduced in gerbils exposed to 1,000 ppm. 

Dose and end point used for MRL derivation: 70 ppm; biochemical changes (increased GFA protein) in 

the brain indicative of neuronal damage. 

[X] NOAEL [ ] LOAEL 

Uncertainty Factors used in MRL derivation: 

[ ] 10 for use of a LOAEL 

[X] 10 for extrapolation from animals to humans 

[X] 10 for human variability 

Was a conversion used from ppm in food or water to a mg/body weight dose? No 

If an inhalation study in animals, list the conversion factors used in determining human equivalent dose: 

NOAEL = 70 ppm 

For a continuous exposure study, NOAELADJ = NOAEL: 

NOAELADJ = 70 ppm 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE A-6 

APPENDIX A 

For a gas:extra respiratory effect, NOAELHEC = NOAELADJ x LA/LH, where LA/LH is the ratio of 

blood/gas partition coefficients in animals and humans. A blood/gas partition coefficient is not available 

for 1,1,1-trichloroethane in gerbils so the default value of LA/LH = 1 is used: 

NOAELHEC = 70 ppm x 1 = 70 ppm 

The final MRL was calculated to be 0.7 ppm by dividing the concentration of 70 ppm by the uncertainty 

factor of 100 (10 for extrapolation from animals to humans and 10 for human variability). 

Intermediate-duration inhalation MRL = 70 ÷ 100 = 0.7 ppm 

Other additional studies or pertinent information which lend support to this MRL: The choice of 

neurological effects as the critical end point of 1,1,1-trichloroethane toxicity is supported by both human 

and animal studies, which identified the nervous system as a particularly sensitive target of 1,1,1-trichloroethane toxicity following short-term exposures. For example, Gamberale and Hultengren (1973) 

observed psychophysiological test performance deficits in human subjects exposed to 250, 350, 450, and 

550 ppm of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in consecutive 30-minute periods. Mackay et al. (1987) reported 

psychomotor deficits in human subjects exposed to 175 or 350 ppm of 1,1,1-trichloroethane for 3.5 hours. 

Increased motor activity was observed in mice exposed to 1,250 ppm of 1,1,1-trichloroethane for 

30 minutes (Bowen and Balster 1996). A 4-hour exposure of mice to 2,064 ppm resulted in impaired 

swimming behavior (DeCeaurriz et al. 1983). Dow Chemical Co. (1990b) reported 1,1,1-trichloroethaneinduced alterations in flash evoked potential, somatosensory evoked potential, and electroencephalogram 

in rats exposed to 1,000 ppm for 6 hours/day on 4 consecutive days. Mattsson et al. (1993) noted 

decreased forelimb grip strength in rats exposed to 2,000 ppm of 1,1,1-trichloroethane, 6 hours/day, 

5 days/week for 13 weeks. 

Agency Contact (Chemical Manager): Henry Abadin, M.S.P.H.; Daphne Moffett, Ph.D. 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE A-7 

APPENDIX A 

MINIMAL RISK LEVEL (MRL) WORKSHEET 

Chemical Name: 1,1,1-Trichloroethane 

CAS Number: 71-55-6 

Date: February 2006 

Profile Status: Final Draft Post-Public Comment 

Route: [ ] Inhalation [X] Oral 

Duration: [ ] Acute [X] Intermediate [ ] Chronic 

Graph Key: 23 

Species: Mouse 

Minimal Risk Level: 20 [ X] mg/kg/day [ ] ppm 

Reference: NTP. 2000. Technical report on the toxicity studies of 1,1,1-trichloroethane (CAS No. 71-

55-6) administered in microcapsules in feed to F344/N rats and B6C3F1 mice. National Toxicology 

Program. (41) NIH 004402. 

Experimental design: Groups of male and female B6C3F1 mice (10 per group) were fed diets containing 

0 (untreated feed); 0 (microcapsule vehicle in feed); 5,000; 10,000; 20,000; 40,000; or 80,000 ppm of 

microencapsulated 1,1,1-trichloroethane (99% pure) 7 days/week for 13 weeks. Average daily doses 

calculated by the researchers were 850; 1,750; 3,500; 7,370; and 15,000 mg/kg in male mice; and 1,340; 

2,820; 5,600; 11,125; and 23,000 mg/kg in female mice. Clinical signs and body weights were recorded 

weekly. Food consumption was determined every 3–4 days. Water consumption was not reported. 

Vaginal cytology and sperm motility evaluations were performed on all mice in the vehicle control and 

the three highest dose groups of mice. At necropsy, all mice were subjected to gross pathological 

examinations, and the heart, lungs, thymus, liver, right kidney, and right testis were weighed. Mice in 

untreated and vehicle control and high-dose groups were subjected to complete histopathologic 

examinations. 

Effects noted in study and corresponding doses: There were no exposure-related deaths and no 

indications of treatment-related clinical or histopathological effects. Food consumption was slightly 

increased in 1,1,1-trichloroethane-treated groups, relative to untreated and vehicle controls. However, 

final mean body weight and mean body weight gain of all treatment groups of male and female mice were 

lower than those of respective vehicle controls (see Table A-1). The final mean body weights in the 

5,000; 10,000; 20,000; 40,000; and 80,000 ppm groups were 91, 91, 88, 90, and 85% (males) and 97, 93, 

89, 88, and 84% (females) of the respective vehicle control means. As demonstrated in Table A-1, the 

treatment-related effects on final mean body weight and body weight gain reached the level of statistical 

significance in all treated groups of male mice and ≥20,000-ppm female mice, relative to vehicle controls. 

The 10,000-ppm group of female mice exhibited a significantly lower mean body weight gain, but not 

final mean body weight, relative to vehicle controls. NTP (2000) estimated the dose of 10,000 ppm 

(1,750 and 2,820 mg/kg/day in male and female mice, respectively) to represent a NOAEL. According to 

ATSDR policy, a treatment-related change in body weight ≥10% (relative to controls) may be considered 

to represent an adverse effect. Therefore, the 20,000 ppm (3,500 and 5,600 mg/kg/day in males and 

females, respectively) level is considered to represent a LOAEL for decreased mean terminal body weight 

(≥10% lower than control values). 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE A-8 

APPENDIX A 

Table A-1. Body Weight Data for Mice Administered 1,1,1-Trichloroethane in the 

Diet for 13 Weeks 

Males Females 

Dose (ppm) 

Final mean 

body weight 

(g) 

Untreated 

control 

35.4±0.8 

Mean weight 

gain (g) (±SE) 

12.8±0.5 

Percenta 

Final mean 

body weight 

(g) 

28.8±0.9 

Mean weight 

gain (g) 

(±SE) 

10.1±0.8 

Percenta 

Vehicle 

control 

36.9±0.7 13.7±0.5 29.3±0.8 11.2±0.8 

5,000 33.6±0.7b

 11.2±0.5b,d 91 28.4±0.6 9.6±0.7 97 

10,000 33.7±0.6b

 10.8±0.5b,c 91 27.2±0.8 8.7±0.6b,d 93 

20,000 32.7±0.5b,c 9.9±0.4b,c 88 26.0±0.8b,c 7.5±0.7b,c 89 

40,000 33.1±0.5b,c 10.0±0.3b,c 90 25.8±0.7b,c 7.2±0.6b,c 88 

80,000 31.3±0.4b,c 8.7±0.3b,c 85 24.5±0.5b,c 6.2±0.5b,c 84 

a

Percent final mean body weight relative to vehicle control b

Significantly different (p≤0.01) from the vehicle control group c

Significantly different (p≤0.01) from the untreated control group d

Significantly different (p≤0.05) from the untreated control group 

Source: NTP 2000 

Dose and end point used for MRL derivation: 2,185 mg/kg/day (BMDL10) for treatment-related 

decreased terminal body weight in female mice. 

All continuous data models in the EPA Benchmark Dose Software (version 1.3.2) were fit to the terminal 

body weight data for male and female mice in the NTP (2000) study. A 10% change in mean terminal 

body weight relative to the control mean was selected as the benchmark response (BMR) level. A 10% 

change in body weight is the minimal level of change generally considered to be biologically significant, 

according to EPA benchmark dose guidance (EPA 2000). 

Based on the goodness-of-fit statistic, male mouse data were not adequately fit by any of the continuous 

data models. An adequate fit was obtained for the female mouse data using the Hill model (p=0.68; EPA 

benchmark dose guidance recommends a p-value ≥0.1), which yielded BMD and BMDL10 values of 

5,064 and 2,185 mg/kg/day, respectively (see Figure A-1 for a plot of the predicted and observed means). 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE A-9 

APPENDIX A 

Figure A-1. Hill Model Plot of the Observed and Predicted Terminal Mean Body

Weights (in Grams) of Female Mice Given Diets Containing Encapsulated 

1,1,1-Trichloroethane 7 Days/Week for 13 Weeks at Concentrations 

Resulting in Estimated Doses of 0 (Vehicle Controls); 1,340; 2,820; 

5,600; 11,125; or 23,000 mg/kg/day (NTP 2000) 

Hill Model with 0.95 Confidence Level 

23 

24 

25 

26 

27 

28 

29 

30 

31 

Mean Response 

BMDL BMD

Hill 

0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 

dose 

17:05 09/23 2005 

[ ] NOAEL [ ] LOAEL [X] Benchmark 

Uncertainty Factors used in MRL derivation: 

[ ] 10 for use of a LOAEL 

[X] 10 for extrapolation from animals to humans 

[X] 10 for human variability 

Was a conversion used from ppm in food or water to a mg/body weight dose? No, the study authors 

provided the calculated doses. 

If an inhalation study in animals, list the conversion factors used in determining human equivalent dose: 

Other additional studies or pertinent information which lend support to this MRL: Decreased body 

weight appears to be a sensitive effect in other subchronic and chronic studies by oral or inhalation routes 

of exposure, either in the absence of other signs of toxicity (Adams et al. 1950; Bruckner et al. 2001; 

Prendergast et al. 1967) or at doses causing minimal liver lesions (Calhoun et al. 1981; Quast et al. 1978, 

1988). 

Agency Contact (Chemical Manager): Henry Abadin, M.S.P.H.; Daphne Moffett, Ph.D. 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE A-10 

APPENDIX A 

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1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE B-1 

APPENDIX B. USER'S GUIDE 

Chapter 1 

Public Health Statement 

This chapter of the profile is a health effects summary written in non-technical language. Its intended 

audience is the general public, especially people living in the vicinity of a hazardous waste site or 

chemical release. If the Public Health Statement were removed from the rest of the document, it would 

still communicate to the lay public essential information about the chemical. 

The major headings in the Public Health Statement are useful to find specific topics of concern. The 

topics are written in a question and answer format. The answer to each question includes a sentence that 

will direct the reader to chapters in the profile that will provide more information on the given topic. 

Chapter 2 

Relevance to Public Health 

This chapter provides a health effects summary based on evaluations of existing toxicologic, 

epidemiologic, and toxicokinetic information. This summary is designed to present interpretive, weightof-evidence discussions for human health end points by addressing the following questions: 

1. What effects are known to occur in humans? 

2. What effects observed in animals are likely to be of concern to humans? 

3. What exposure conditions are likely to be of concern to humans, especially around hazardous 

waste sites? 

The chapter covers end points in the same order that they appear within the Discussion of Health Effects 

by Route of Exposure section, by route (inhalation, oral, and dermal) and within route by effect. Human 

data are presented first, then animal data. Both are organized by duration (acute, intermediate, chronic). 

In vitro data and data from parenteral routes (intramuscular, intravenous, subcutaneous, etc.) are also 

considered in this chapter. 

The carcinogenic potential of the profiled substance is qualitatively evaluated, when appropriate, using 

existing toxicokinetic, genotoxic, and carcinogenic data. ATSDR does not currently assess cancer 

potency or perform cancer risk assessments. Minimal Risk Levels (MRLs) for noncancer end points (if 

derived) and the end points from which they were derived are indicated and discussed. 

Limitations to existing scientific literature that prevent a satisfactory evaluation of the relevance to public 

health are identified in the Chapter 3 Data Needs section. 

Interpretation of Minimal Risk Levels 

Where sufficient toxicologic information is available, ATSDR has derived MRLs for inhalation and oral 

routes of entry at each duration of exposure (acute, intermediate, and chronic). These MRLs are not 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE B-2 

APPENDIX B 

meant to support regulatory action, but to acquaint health professionals with exposure levels at which 

adverse health effects are not expected to occur in humans. 

MRLs should help physicians and public health officials determine the safety of a community living near 

a chemical emission, given the concentration of a contaminant in air or the estimated daily dose in water. 

MRLs are based largely on toxicological studies in animals and on reports of human occupational 

exposure. 

MRL users should be familiar with the toxicologic information on which the number is based. Chapter 2, 

"Relevance to Public Health," contains basic information known about the substance. Other sections such 

as Chapter 3 Section 3.9, "Interactions with Other Substances,” and Section 3.10, "Populations that are 

Unusually Susceptible" provide important supplemental information. 

MRL users should also understand the MRL derivation methodology. MRLs are derived using a 

modified version of the risk assessment methodology that the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) 

provides (Barnes and Dourson 1988) to determine reference doses (RfDs) for lifetime exposure. 

To derive an MRL, ATSDR generally selects the most sensitive end point which, in its best judgement, 

represents the most sensitive human health effect for a given exposure route and duration. ATSDR 

cannot make this judgement or derive an MRL unless information (quantitative or qualitative) is available 

for all potential systemic, neurological, and developmental effects. If this information and reliable 

quantitative data on the chosen end point are available, ATSDR derives an MRL using the most sensitive 

species (when information from multiple species is available) with the highest no-observed-adverse-effect 

level (NOAEL) that does not exceed any adverse effect levels. When a NOAEL is not available, a 

lowest-observed-adverse-effect level (LOAEL) can be used to derive an MRL, and an uncertainty factor 

(UF) of 10 must be employed. Additional uncertainty factors of 10 must be used both for human 

variability to protect sensitive subpopulations (people who are most susceptible to the health effects 

caused by the substance) and for interspecies variability (extrapolation from animals to humans). In 

deriving an MRL, these individual uncertainty factors are multiplied together. The product is then 

divided into the inhalation concentration or oral dosage selected from the study. Uncertainty factors used 

in developing a substance-specific MRL are provided in the footnotes of the levels of significant exposure 

(LSE) tables. 

Chapter 3 

Health Effects 

Tables and Figures for Levels of Significant Exposure (LSE) 

Tables and figures are used to summarize health effects and illustrate graphically levels of exposure 

associated with those effects. These levels cover health effects observed at increasing dose 

concentrations and durations, differences in response by species, MRLs to humans for noncancer end 

points, and EPA's estimated range associated with an upper- bound individual lifetime cancer risk of 1 in 

10,000 to 1 in 10,000,000. Use the LSE tables and figures for a quick review of the health effects and to 

locate data for a specific exposure scenario. The LSE tables and figures should always be used in 

conjunction with the text. All entries in these tables and figures represent studies that provide reliable, 

quantitative estimates of NOAELs, LOAELs, or Cancer Effect Levels (CELs). 

The legends presented below demonstrate the application of these tables and figures. Representative 

examples of LSE Table 3-1 and Figure 3-1 are shown. The numbers in the left column of the legends 

correspond to the numbers in the example table and figure. 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE B-3 

APPENDIX B 

LEGEND 

See Sample LSE Table 3-1 (page B-6) 

(1) Route of Exposure. One of the first considerations when reviewing the toxicity of a substance 

using these tables and figures should be the relevant and appropriate route of exposure. Typically 

when sufficient data exist, three LSE tables and two LSE figures are presented in the document. 

The three LSE tables present data on the three principal routes of exposure, i.e., inhalation, oral, 

and dermal (LSE Tables 3-1, 3-2, and 3-3, respectively). LSE figures are limited to the inhalation 

(LSE Figure 3-1) and oral (LSE Figure 3-2) routes. Not all substances will have data on each 

route of exposure and will not, therefore, have all five of the tables and figures. 

(2) Exposure Period. Three exposure periods—acute (less than 15 days), intermediate (15– 

364 days), and chronic (365 days or more)—are presented within each relevant route of exposure. 

In this example, an inhalation study of intermediate exposure duration is reported. For quick 

reference to health effects occurring from a known length of exposure, locate the applicable 

exposure period within the LSE table and figure. 

(3) Health Effect. The major categories of health effects included in LSE tables and figures are 

death, systemic, immunological, neurological, developmental, reproductive, and cancer. 

NOAELs and LOAELs can be reported in the tables and figures for all effects but cancer. 

Systemic effects are further defined in the "System" column of the LSE table (see key number 

18). 

(4) Key to Figure. Each key number in the LSE table links study information to one or more data 

points using the same key number in the corresponding LSE figure. In this example, the study 

represented by key number 18 has been used to derive a NOAEL and a Less Serious LOAEL 

(also see the two "18r" data points in sample Figure 3-1). 

(5) Species. The test species, whether animal or human, are identified in this column. Chapter 2, 

"Relevance to Public Health," covers the relevance of animal data to human toxicity and 

Section 3.4, "Toxicokinetics," contains any available information on comparative toxicokinetics. 

Although NOAELs and LOAELs are species specific, the levels are extrapolated to equivalent 

human doses to derive an MRL. 

(6) Exposure Frequency/Duration. The duration of the study and the weekly and daily exposure 

regimens are provided in this column. This permits comparison of NOAELs and LOAELs from 

different studies. In this case (key number 18), rats were exposed to “Chemical x” via inhalation 

for 6 hours/day, 5 days/week, for 13 weeks. For a more complete review of the dosing regimen, 

refer to the appropriate sections of the text or the original reference paper (i.e., Nitschke et al. 

1981). 

(7) System. This column further defines the systemic effects. These systems include respiratory, 

cardiovascular, gastrointestinal, hematological, musculoskeletal, hepatic, renal, and 

dermal/ocular. "Other" refers to any systemic effect (e.g., a decrease in body weight) not covered 

in these systems. In the example of key number 18, one systemic effect (respiratory) was 

investigated. 

(8) NOAEL. A NOAEL is the highest exposure level at which no harmful effects were seen in the 

organ system studied. Key number 18 reports a NOAEL of 3 ppm for the respiratory system, 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE B-4 

APPENDIX B 

which was used to derive an intermediate exposure, inhalation MRL of 0.005 ppm (see 

footnote "b"). 

(9) LOAEL. A LOAEL is the lowest dose used in the study that caused a harmful health effect. 

LOAELs have been classified into "Less Serious" and "Serious" effects. These distinctions help 

readers identify the levels of exposure at which adverse health effects first appear and the 

gradation of effects with increasing dose. A brief description of the specific end point used to 

quantify the adverse effect accompanies the LOAEL. The respiratory effect reported in key 

number 18 (hyperplasia) is a Less Serious LOAEL of 10 ppm. MRLs are not derived from 

Serious LOAELs. 

(10) Reference. The complete reference citation is given in Chapter 9 of the profile. 

(11) CEL. A CEL is the lowest exposure level associated with the onset of carcinogenesis in 

experimental or epidemiologic studies. CELs are always considered serious effects. The LSE 

tables and figures do not contain NOAELs for cancer, but the text may report doses not causing 

measurable cancer increases. 

(12) Footnotes. Explanations of abbreviations or reference notes for data in the LSE tables are found 

in the footnotes. Footnote "b" indicates that the NOAEL of 3 ppm in key number 18 was used to 

derive an MRL of 0.005 ppm. 

LEGEND 

See Sample Figure 3-1 (page B-7) 

LSE figures graphically illustrate the data presented in the corresponding LSE tables. Figures help the 

reader quickly compare health effects according to exposure concentrations for particular exposure 

periods. 

(13) Exposure Period. The same exposure periods appear as in the LSE table. In this example, health 

effects observed within the acute and intermediate exposure periods are illustrated. 

(14) Health Effect. These are the categories of health effects for which reliable quantitative data 

exists. The same health effects appear in the LSE table. 

(15) Levels of Exposure. Concentrations or doses for each health effect in the LSE tables are 

graphically displayed in the LSE figures. Exposure concentration or dose is measured on the log 

scale "y" axis. Inhalation exposure is reported in mg/m3

 or ppm and oral exposure is reported in 

mg/kg/day. 

(16) NOAEL. In this example, the open circle designated 18r identifies a NOAEL critical end point in 

the rat upon which an intermediate inhalation exposure MRL is based. The key number 18 

corresponds to the entry in the LSE table. The dashed descending arrow indicates the 

extrapolation from the exposure level of 3 ppm (see entry 18 in the table) to the MRL of 

0.005 ppm (see footnote "b" in the LSE table). 

(17) CEL. Key number 38m is one of three studies for which CELs were derived. The diamond 

symbol refers to a CEL for the test species-mouse. The number 38 corresponds to the entry in the 

LSE table. 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE B-5 

APPENDIX B 

(18) Estimated Upper-Bound Human Cancer Risk Levels. This is the range associated with the upperbound for lifetime cancer risk of 1 in 10,000 to 1 in 10,000,000. These risk levels are derived 

from the EPA's Human Health Assessment Group's upper-bound estimates of the slope of the 

cancer dose response curve at low dose levels (q1*). 

(19) Key to LSE Figure. The Key explains the abbreviations and symbols used in the figure. 
SAMPLE 

1 → Table 3-1. Levels of Significant Exposure to [Chemical x] – Inhalation 

Key to figurea 

Exposure frequency/ 

Species duration System 

NOAEL (ppm) 

LOAEL (effect) Less serious (ppm) 

Serious (ppm) 

Re

2 → INTERMEDIATE EXPOSURE 3 4 

5 6 7 8 9 10

→ Systemic ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓

→

13 wk 5 d/wk 6 hr/d 

18 RatCHRONIC EXPOSURE 

Resp 3b 10 (hyperplasia) 

Nit

Cancer 

↓

38 39 40 

Rat Rat Mouse 

18 mo 5 d/wk 7 hr/d 89–104 wk 5 d/wk 6 hr/d 79–103 wk 5 d/wk 6 hr/d 

20 10 10 

(CEL, multiple organs) (CEL, lung tumors, nasal tumors) (CEL, lung tumors, hemangiosarcomas) 

WoNTNT

11 

12 → a The number corresponds to entries in Figure 3-1. b Used to derive an intermediate inhalation Minimal Risk Level (MRL) of 5x10-3 ppm; dose adjusted for intermittent exp

by an uncertainty factor of 100 (10 for extrapolation from animal to humans, 10 for human variability). 

1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE B-8 

APPENDIX B 

This page is intentionally blank. 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE C-1 

APPENDIX C. ACRONYMS, ABBREVIATIONS, AND SYMBOLS 

ACGIH American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists 

ACOEM American College of Occupational and Environmental Medicine 

ADI acceptable daily intake 

ADME absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion 

AED atomic emission detection 

AFID alkali flame ionization detector 

AFOSH Air Force Office of Safety and Health 

ALT alanine aminotransferase 

AML acute myeloid leukemia 

AOAC Association of Official Analytical Chemists 

AOEC Association of Occupational and Environmental Clinics 

AP alkaline phosphatase 

APHA American Public Health Association 

AST aspartate aminotransferase 

atm atmosphere 

ATSDR Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry 

AWQC Ambient Water Quality Criteria 

BAT best available technology 

BCF bioconcentration factor 

BEI Biological Exposure Index 

BMD benchmark dose 

BMR benchmark response 

BSC Board of Scientific Counselors 

C centigrade 

CAA Clean Air Act 

CAG Cancer Assessment Group of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 

CAS Chemical Abstract Services 

CDC Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 

CEL cancer effect level 

CELDS Computer-Environmental Legislative Data System 

CERCLA Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act 

CFR Code of Federal Regulations 

Ci curie 

CI confidence interval 

CL ceiling limit value 

CLP Contract Laboratory Program 

cm centimeter 

CML chronic myeloid leukemia 

CPSC Consumer Products Safety Commission 

CWA Clean Water Act 

DHEW Department of Health, Education, and Welfare 

DHHS Department of Health and Human Services 

DNA deoxyribonucleic acid 

DOD Department of Defense 

DOE Department of Energy 

DOL Department of Labor 

DOT Department of Transportation 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE C-2 

APPENDIX C 

DOT/UN/ Department of Transportation/United Nations/ 

NA/IMCO North America/International Maritime Dangerous Goods Code 

DWEL drinking water exposure level 

ECD electron capture detection 

ECG/EKG electrocardiogram 

EEG electroencephalogram 

EEGL Emergency Exposure Guidance Level 

EPA Environmental Protection Agency 

F Fahrenheit 

F1 first-filial generation 

FAO Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations 

FDA Food and Drug Administration 

FEMA Federal Emergency Management Agency 

FIFRA Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act 

FPD flame photometric detection 

fpm feet per minute 

FR Federal Register 

FSH follicle stimulating hormone 

g gram 

GC gas chromatography 

gd gestational day 

GLC gas liquid chromatography 

GPC gel permeation chromatography 

HPLC high-performance liquid chromatography 

HRGC high resolution gas chromatography 

HSDB Hazardous Substance Data Bank 

IARC International Agency for Research on Cancer 

IDLH immediately dangerous to life and health 

ILO International Labor Organization 

IRIS Integrated Risk Information System 

Kd adsorption ratio 

kg kilogram 

kkg metric ton 

Koc organic carbon partition coefficient 

Kow octanol-water partition coefficient 

L liter 

LC liquid chromatography 

LC50 lethal concentration, 50% kill 

LCLo lethal concentration, low 

LD50 lethal dose, 50% kill 

LDLo lethal dose, low 

LDH lactic dehydrogenase 

LH luteinizing hormone 

LOAEL lowest-observed-adverse-effect level 

LSE Levels of Significant Exposure 

LT50 lethal time, 50% kill 

m meter 

MA trans,trans-muconic acid 

MAL maximum allowable level 

mCi millicurie 

MCL maximum contaminant level 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE C-3 

APPENDIX C 

MCLG maximum contaminant level goal 

MF modifying factor 

MFO mixed function oxidase 

mg milligram 

mL milliliter 

mm millimeter 

mmHg millimeters of mercury 

mmol millimole 

mppcf millions of particles per cubic foot 

MRL Minimal Risk Level 

MS mass spectrometry 

NAAQS National Ambient Air Quality Standard 

NAS National Academy of Science 

NATICH National Air Toxics Information Clearinghouse 

NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization 

NCE normochromatic erythrocytes 

NCEH National Center for Environmental Health 

NCI National Cancer Institute 

ND not detected 

NFPA National Fire Protection Association 

ng nanogram 

NHANES National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 

NIEHS National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences 

NIOSH National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health 

NIOSHTIC NIOSH's Computerized Information Retrieval System 

NLM National Library of Medicine 

nm nanometer 

nmol nanomole 

NOAEL no-observed-adverse-effect level 

NOES National Occupational Exposure Survey 

NOHS National Occupational Hazard Survey 

NPD nitrogen phosphorus detection 

NPDES National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System 

NPL National Priorities List 

NR not reported 

NRC National Research Council 

NS not specified 

NSPS New Source Performance Standards 

NTIS National Technical Information Service 

NTP National Toxicology Program 

ODW Office of Drinking Water, EPA 

OERR Office of Emergency and Remedial Response, EPA 

OHM/TADS Oil and Hazardous Materials/Technical Assistance Data System 

OPP Office of Pesticide Programs, EPA 

OPPT Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxics, EPA 

OPPTS Office of Prevention, Pesticides and Toxic Substances, EPA 

OR odds ratio 

OSHA Occupational Safety and Health Administration 

OSW Office of Solid Waste, EPA 

OTS Office of Toxic Substances 

OW Office of Water 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE C-4 

APPENDIX C 

OWRS Office of Water Regulations and Standards, EPA 

PAH polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon 

PBPD physiologically based pharmacodynamic 

PBPK physiologically based pharmacokinetic 

PCE polychromatic erythrocytes 

PEL permissible exposure limit 

pg picogram 

PHS Public Health Service 

PID photo ionization detector 

pmol picomole 

PMR proportionate mortality ratio 

ppb parts per billion 

ppm parts per million 

ppt parts per trillion 

PSNS pretreatment standards for new sources 

RBC red blood cell 

REL recommended exposure level/limit 

RfC reference concentration 

RfD reference dose 

RNA ribonucleic acid 

RQ reportable quantity 

RTECS Registry of Toxic Effects of Chemical Substances 

SARA Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act 

SCE sister chromatid exchange 

SGOT serum glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase 

SGPT serum glutamic pyruvic transaminase 

SIC standard industrial classification 

SIM selected ion monitoring 

SMCL secondary maximum contaminant level 

SMR standardized mortality ratio 

SNARL suggested no adverse response level 

SPEGL Short-Term Public Emergency Guidance Level 

STEL short term exposure limit 

STORET Storage and Retrieval 

TD50 toxic dose, 50% specific toxic effect 

TLV threshold limit value 

TOC total organic carbon 

TPQ threshold planning quantity 

TRI Toxics Release Inventory 

TSCA Toxic Substances Control Act 

TWA time-weighted average 

UF uncertainty factor 

U.S. United States 

USDA United States Department of Agriculture 

USGS United States Geological Survey 

VOC volatile organic compound 

WBC white blood cell 

WHO World Health Organization 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE C-5 

APPENDIX C 

> greater than ≥ greater than or equal to 

= equal to 

< less than ≤ less than or equal to 

% percent α alpha β beta γ gamma δ delta μm micrometer μg microgram

* 

q1 cancer slope factor 

– negative 

+ positive 

(+) weakly positive result 

(–) weakly negative result 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE C-6 

APPENDIX C 

This page is intentionally blank. 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE D-1 

APPENDIX D. INDEX 

absorbed dose............................................................................................................ 122, 127, 133, 140, 160 

acetylcholinesterase ..................................................................................................................................136 

adipose tissue ............................................................................................................................ 122, 225, 227 

adrenals ............................................................................................................................................... 67, 138 

adsorption.................................................................................................. 177, 187, 217, 225, 226, 227, 229 

aerobic....................................................................................................................................... 177, 189, 190 

ambient air .................................................................................................. 11, 141, 210, 217, 219, 227, 229 

anaerobic........................................................................................................................... 177, 178, 189, 190 

behavioral.................................................................................................. 6, 16, 18, 70, 72, 74, 77, 136, 144

bioavailability ...........................................................................................................................................221 

bioconcentration factor .............................................................................................................................187 

biodegradation........................................................................................................... 173, 177, 189, 190, 221 

biomarker .................................................................................................................................... 12, 140, 143 

biomarkers ........................................................................................................ 140, 141, 143, 159, 225, 231

blood cell count................................................................................................................................... 62, 107 

body weight effects ............................................................................................... 15, 19, 20, 68, 94, 95, 110 

breast milk......................................................................................................................................... 132, 214 

cancer ...................................................................... 2, 5, 6, 16, 17, 20, 77, 99, 100, 112, 139, 152, 155, 158 

carcinogen.................................................................................................................................................236 

carcinogenic .................................................................................................................. 17, 21, 100, 155, 236 

carcinogenicity.................................................................................................... 6, 12, 16, 78, 100, 233, 236

carcinoma....................................................................................................................................................77 

cardiac arrhythmia ...................................................................................... 12, 13, 14, 23, 59, 135, 145, 153 

cardiovascular ..................................................................... 59, 61, 91, 98, 99, 106, 143, 146, 149, 153, 160 

cardiovascular effects........................................................................................ 14, 59, 61, 91, 106, 143, 146

central nervous system depression.................................... 12, 13, 20, 24, 59, 68, 70, 72, 110, 136, 149, 153 

chromosomal aberrations .................................................................................................................. 117, 155 

clearance ............................................................................................................................................. 66, 126 

coordination .................................................................................................................... 5, 12, 13, 16, 70, 77

death................................................ 5, 13, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 59, 64, 70, 71, 72, 73, 79, 101, 135, 153, 157 

deoxyribonucleic acid (see DNA)............................................................................................... 64, 113, 116 

dermal effects................................................................................................................ 67, 94, 108, 109, 110 

diarrhea ..................................................................................................................................... 12, 61, 79, 91 

DNA (see deoxyribonucleic acid)..................................... 14, 16, 64, 73, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 140, 155 

endocrine................................................................................................................. 66, 67, 91, 101, 137, 138 

endocrine effects................................................................................................................................... 66, 67 

erythema............................................................................................................................................ 108, 109 

fetus....................................................................................................................................... 6, 122, 138, 217 

gastrointestinal effects ............................................................................................................ 61, 62, 91, 106 

general population..................................................................................... 140, 175, 177, 210, 213, 218, 222 

genotoxic............................................................................................................................. 21, 112, 117, 155 

genotoxicity....................................................................................................................... 112, 117, 152, 155 

groundwater ............................................ 3, 11, 171, 177, 181, 184, 186, 187, 189, 201, 204, 221, 228, 230 

half-life........................................................................ 12, 126, 140, 143, 158, 159, 177, 187, 189, 190, 210 

hematological effects .................................................................................................................... 62, 92, 107 

hepatic effects ......................................................................... 12, 15, 63, 64, 65, 92, 93, 107, 143, 152, 154 
1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE D-2 

D. INDEX 

hydrolysis.......................................................................................................................................... 178, 190 

hydroxyl radical ................................................................................................................................ 177, 187 

hypotension.................................................................................................................................................12 

immune system ................................................................................................................................... 69, 111 

immunological ........................................................................................................................ 21, 69, 95, 111 

immunological effects................................................................................................................... 69, 95, 111 

incoordination .............................................................................................................................................72 

Kow .................................................................................................................................................... 165, 186 

LD50.............................................................................................................................................................79 

leukemia....................................................................................................................................................100 

lymphoreticular............................................................................................................................. 69, 78, 157 

menstrual.....................................................................................................................................................75 

metabolic effects ................................................................................................................................. 91, 101 

milk ........................................................................................................... 127, 147, 206, 207, 208, 210, 217 

musculoskeletal effects ................................................................................................................... 62, 63, 92 

neonatal.....................................................................................................................................................135 

neoplastic ..................................................................................................................................................117 

neurobehavioral............................................................................. 14, 16, 18, 70, 76, 99, 138, 144, 146, 147

neurophysiological.................................................................................................................... 14, 18, 73, 96 

non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma ..........................................................................................................................78 

ocular effects.............................................................................................................................................110 

oxidative phosphorylation.........................................................................................................................136 

partition coefficients ................................................................................................................. 119, 129, 161 

pharmacodynamic .....................................................................................................................................128 

pharmacokinetic........................................................ 118, 128, 129, 130, 137, 139, 143, 154, 156, 157, 161 

placenta .....................................................................................................................................................122 

psychophysiological.............................................................................................................................. 13, 18 

rate constant .............................................................................................................................. 131, 132, 187 

renal effects........................................................................................................................... 66, 93, 107, 108 

retention ............................................................................................................................................ 144, 148 

salivation.....................................................................................................................................................77 

SGOT .......................................................................................................... 15, 63, 64, 93, 94, 107, 134, 144 

SGPT......................................................................................................... 15, 63, 64, 93, 107, 134, 144, 145 

solubility ................................................................................................................................... 177, 186, 187 

toxicokinetic........................................................................................................ 21, 118, 156, 158, 161, 221

tremors ........................................................................................................................................................77 

tumors ........................................................................................................................................... 77, 78, 100 

vapor phase ....................................................................................................................................... 187, 210 

vapor pressure ........................................................................................................................... 187, 217, 225 

volatility .............................................................................................................. 13, 133, 148, 155, 218, 227

volatilization ..................................................................................... 175, 177, 186, 189, 191, 204, 217, 227