Getting Ready 

to Pay for College

What Students and Their

Parents Know About the Cost

of College Tuition and What

They Are Doing to Find Out

Statistical Analysis Report

U.S. Department of Education

Institute of Education Sciences

NCES 2003–030
U.S. Department of Education 

Institute of Education Sciences 

NCES 2003–030 

Getting Ready 

to Pay for College 

What Students and Their 

Parents Know About the Cost 

of College Tuition and What 

They Are Doing to Find Out 

Statistical Analysis Report 

September 2003 

Laura J. Horn 

Xianglei Chen 

MPR Associates, Inc. 

Chris Chapman 

National Center for

Education Statistics
U.S. Department of Education 

Rod Paige 

Secretary 

Institute of Education Sciences 

Grover G. Whitehurst 

Director 

National Center for Education Statistics 

Val Plisko 

Associate Commissioner 

The National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) is the primary federal entity for collecting, analyzing, and 

reporting data related to education in the United States and other nations. It fulfills a congressional mandate 

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NCES activities are designed to address high priority education data needs; provide consistent, reliable, 

complete, and accurate indicators of education status and trends; and report timely, useful, and high quality 

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September 2003 

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Suggested Citation 

U.S. Department of Education. National Center for Education Statistics. Getting Ready to Pay for College: What 

Students and Their Parents Know About the Cost of College Tuition and What They Are Doing to Find Out, NCES 

2003–030, by Laura J. Horn, Xianglei Chen, and Chris Chapman. Washington, DC: 2003. 

For ordering information on this report, write: 

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ED Pubs 

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Jessup, MD 20794-1398 

or call toll free 1-877-4ED-PUBS; or order online at: http://www.edpubs.org

Content Contact: 

Chris Chapman 

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nhes@ed.gov 

http://nces.ed.gov/nhes
iii 

Executive Summary 

Findings from surveys of adults in general 

(Ikenberry and Hartle 1998) and of parents of 

college-age children (Miller 1997) suggest that 

Americans place a high value on obtaining a 

college education, but that they have difficulty 

estimating college costs. This study uses data from 

the Parent and Youth Surveys of the 1999 National 

Household Education Surveys Program (NHES: 

1999) to investigate how much “college-bound”1

students in grades 6 through 12 and their parents 

know about the cost of attending college, and the 

relationships between their knowledge of college 

costs and how they go about preparing for 

college.2 It examines whether parents had started 

to save for their children’s education, gathered 

information on financial aid, and knew about 

various tax credits to help offset costs. Students 

were asked about discussions they had with 

parents or teachers/counselors to learn about 

college costs, academic requirements, and 

financial aid availability. 

The base sample of this report consists of 7,910 

6th- through 12th-grade students who participated 

in the Youth Survey of NHES:1999. Parent data 

used in this report were collected through the 

Parent Survey of NHES:1999 from the parents of 

these students. Because of this sample design, the 

data can be used to analyze both students’ own 

plans and their parents’ plans for students’ 

postsecondary education. Findings can be 

generalized to all 6th- through 12th-graders, but 

 

1This term is applied to all students who reported plans to 

attend any type of postsecondary institution. 

2Parent reports are limited to information provided by parents 

of the sampled 6th- through 12th-grade students interviewed 

for the survey. 

not to all parents of 6th- through 12th-graders. 

Student and parent cost estimates are compared 

against price data collected directly from 

postsecondary institutions. 

Almost All Plan to Attend College 

In 1999, the vast majority of 6th- through 12thgraders (94 percent) and their parents (96 percent) 

responded “yes” to the question “Do you think 

(you/your child) will attend school after high 

school?” Ninety-one percent of both students and 

their parents agreed that the students would attend 

college or some other type of postsecondary 

institution. Among students and parents who 

reported such plans, 45 percent of students and 

roughly one-half of parents thought the students 

would attend a 4-year college, while 17 percent of 

students and one-quarter of parents reported plans 

for students to attend a 2-year institution. The 

remainder (39 percent of students and 25 percent 

of parents) were undecided about the kind of 

postsecondary institution the student would 

attend.3

Acquiring Cost Information 

High school students (in 9th through 12th 

grades) with plans to attend college and parents of 

6th- through 12th-graders who also reported 

postsecondary plans for their children were asked 

if they had obtained information about what it 

would cost to attend. Eighteen percent of students 

and 30 percent of parents had done so. While 

 

3Readers should keep in mind that the data collected from 

parents are representative of parents of the sampled students 

and not of all parents. 
Executive Summary

iv 

students in 11th and 12th grades were more likely 

to have acquired cost information than their 9thand 10th-grade counterparts, just 52 percent of 

11th- and 12th-graders had acquired such 

information (figure A). A similar picture emerges 

when looking at the responses of their parents, 

with students in 11th and 12th grade more likely to 

have parents who had acquired cost information 

than students in 9th and 10th grades. An additional 

11 percent of students in grades 11 and 12 thought 

they could accurately estimate tuition and fees, 

and an additional 17 percent of 11th- and 12th-

 

Figure A.—Among 9th- through 12th-graders and their parents who reported plans for the student to attend 

Figure A.—postsecondary education, the percentage distributions according to whether they had obtained 

Figure A.—college cost information, could estimate the costs, or could do neither: 1999 

STUDENTS

PARENTS

NOTE: Detail may not sum to total because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Youth Survey and Parent Survey of the 1999

National Household Education Surveys Program (NHES:1999).

Grades 9–10

15%

16%

69%

Neither

Could estimate

Obtained cost 

information

Grades 11–12

52%

11%

Obtained cost 37%

information

Could estimate

Neither

Grades 9–10

47%

27%

27%

Neither

Could 

estimate

Obtained cost 

information

Grades 11–12

29%

17%

54%

Obtained cost 

information

Could 

estimate

Neither
 Executive Summary 

v 

graders had parents who thought they could 

accurately estimate tuition and fees. Considering 

both students and their parents jointly, about 38 

percent of 11th- and 12th-grade students had 

either acquired information about college prices 

or thought they could estimate costs, and had 

parents who reported the same. 

The likelihood of having knowledge of 

college prices increased with household income 

and parents’ education for both students and 

parents. In addition, parents of White students 

were more likely than parents of either Black or 

Hispanic students, and White students more 

likely than Hispanic students, to report 

knowledge of college costs. Those individuals 

who are potentially least able to afford college 

were also most likely to lack information about 

the cost of attending. 

How Well Students and Parents 

Estimate 1 Year’s College Tuition 

Students and parents who reported that they 

had either obtained college cost information or 

that they could accurately estimate the cost of 

tuition were then asked to provide an estimate of 

“1 year’s tuition and mandatory fees” at the type 

of college the students planned to attend.4

Overall, both students and parents substantially 

overestimated tuition amounts, especially for 

public institutions.5 For example, the average 

 

4The use of the terms “tuition” or “fees” is arbitrary. Some 

institutions only charge tuition, some only fees, and some 

both. For simplicity, the term “tuition” was used in the text 

to refer to tuition and/or fees. 

5If undecided about 2- or 4-year institutions (about 39 

percent of students and 25 percent of parents), estimates of 

public 4-year institutions were requested. If undecided 

about attending a public or private institution (about 14 

percent of students and 10 percent of parents), estimates of 

public institutions were requested. If undecided about instate or out-of-state attendance (about 4 percent of students 

and 3 percent of parents), estimates of in-state tuition were 

requested. 

yearly tuition that in-state undergraduates were 

charged at public 4-year institutions in 1998–99 

was $3,247 (The College Board 1999).6 On 

average, students close to the age of enrollment 

(i.e., 11th- and 12th-graders) who planned to 

attend public 4-year institutions in-state and 

their parents estimated the yearly tuition to be 

between $5,000 and $6,000 ($5,799 for students 

and $5,366 for their parents) (figure B). 

The distribution of tuition levels (also shown 

in figure B) illustrates how students and their 

parents overestimate tuition costs. While less 

than one-tenth of 1 percent of all students 

enrolled in public 4-year institutions (in-state) 

were charged $8,000 per year or more in tuition, 

approximately one-quarter of 11th- and 12thgrade students and their parents expected they 

would have to pay this much for a college 

education at 4-year in-state public institutions. 

The vast majority of students attending such 

institutions paid less than $5,000 in tuition per 

year. Similar patterns, but more modest 

differences, were found for private 4-year 

institutions (figure C). While 20 percent of 

undergraduates were charged $20,000 or more in 

annual tuition, 38 percent of 11th- and 12thgraders and 27 percent of their parents thought it 

would cost at least $20,000 annually to attend. 

However, when looking only at the overall 

average, no difference could be detected 

between parents’ estimates ($14,506) and the 

actual average tuition for private 4-year colleges 

($14,709). Thus, parents of children who 

planned to attend private 4-year institutions 

appeared to be more aware of the costs at these 

institutions than their counterparts whose 

 

6The average yearly tuition reported does not take into 

account any financial aid students may have received that 

offset tuition. At the time the analyses were done for this 

report, data were not available from the 1998 Integrated 

Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS). Data from 

IPEDS are typically used for analysis of college costs. The 

equivalent estimate from the 1998 IPEDS is $3,229. 
Executive Summary

vi 

children planned to attend comparable public 

colleges. 

Because college tuition varies substantially 

from state to state (U.S. Department of 

Education 2002), further analyses were 

conducted to determine how accurately students 

and their parents could estimate tuition for the 

type of institution students planned to attend 

within their state of residence. Accurate 

estimates were defined as those within 25 

percent of the actual state average.7 As shown in 

figure D, one-quarter of 11th- and 12th-graders 

and about one-third (31 percent) of their parents 

were able to provide accurate estimates. 

 

7The analysis also included accuracy levels at 15 percent 

and 50 percent of actual amounts with similar results (see 

appendix C). 

Moreover, both students and their parents were 

much more likely to overestimate than to 

underestimate tuition. Finally, 37 percent of 

11th- and 12th-graders and 29 percent of their 

parents could not estimate yearly tuition for the 

type of college the students hoped to attend. 

In looking at all students included in the 

survey (i.e., 6th- through 12th-graders) who 

were planning to attend postsecondary 

education, the likelihood of being able to 

estimate tuition accurately increased with 

household income. For their parents, both 

household income and parents’ education level 

(i.e., the higher the level, the more likely they 

were to estimate accurately) were associated 

with the ability to estimate tuition and fees. 

1

Does not include those who reported room and board in their estimates. Includes respondents who were undecided about where to attend but

estimated tuition and fees for public 4-year institutions in their state.

2

Does not include room and board costs.

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Youth Survey and Parent Survey of the 1999 National Household

Education Surveys Program (NHES:1999). Actual tuition and fees published in The College Board (1998), Trends in College Pricing.

Figure B—Among 11th- and 12th-graders and their parents who reported plans for the student to attend a public in-state

4-year institution, and who provided an estimate of tuition and fees, the percentage distributions of estimated

tuition and fees for 1 year and the actual tuition and fees paid by undergraduates in 1998–99

Students’ estimates1

Average: $5,366

25.3%

25.5%

10.8%

13.5%

16.3%

8.6%

Parents’ estimates1

Average: $5,799

24.3%

26.0%

11.4%

11.1%

21.5%

5.7%

Actual tuition and fees2

Average: $3,247

$8,000 or more

$5,000–7,999

$4,000–4,999

$3,000–3,999

$2,000–2,999

Less than $2,000

0%

6.0%

19.0%

25.8%

39.0%

10.2%
 Executive Summary 

vii 

Getting Ready for College 

Students and parents were asked separate 

questions in NHES:1999 about their 

preparations for college. Their responses provide 

information about parents’ plans for paying for 

their children’s college education and how 

actively students acquired information about the 

academic and financial requirements for 

attending college. 

Parents’ Plans to Pay for Their 

Children’s College Education 

Parents were asked if they had started saving 

for their child’s postsecondary education or 

making other financial plans, if they had 

gathered information about financial aid, and 

whether they knew about the Lifelong Learning 

and/or HOPE Scholarship tax credits. The 

likelihood of parents reporting that they had 

begun saving or making other financial 

preparations to pay for their child’s college 

education increased with household income. 

Parental planning was also related to students’ 

academic standing in school: as grade-point 

average increased, so did the likelihood that 

parents reported saving money, gathering 

information about financial aid, and knowing 

about college tax credits. No relationship was 

detected between the proximity of a student 

starting postsecondary education and their 

parents’ plans to pay for it. Focusing on students 

who intended to go to college, 63 percent of 

11th- and 12th-graders and 59 percent of 9thand 10th-graders had parents who had made 

some financial preparations. The apparent 

difference was not statistically significant. 

Figure C—Among 11th- and 12th-graders and their parents who reported plans for the student to attend a private 4-year

institution, and who provided an estimate of tuition and fees, the percentage distributions of estimated tuition

and fees for 1 year and the actual tuition and fees paid by undergraduates in 1998–99

1

Does not include those who reported room and board in their estimates.

2

Does not include room and board costs.

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Youth Survey and Parent Survey of the 1999 National Household

Education Surveys Program (NHES:1999). Actual tuition and fees published in The College Board (1998), Trends in College Pricing.

Actual tuition and fees2

Average: $14,709

Less than $4,000

$4,000–7,999

$8,000–11,999

$12,000–15,999

$20,000 or more

$16,000–19,999

19.6%

16.8%

27.4%

20.5%

10.2%

5.6%

Students’ estimates1

Average: $16,539

37.8%

13.3%

25.0%

12.9%

6.0%

5.0%

Parents’ estimates1

Average: $14,506

26.9%

21.8%

17.1%

14.5%

14.5%

5.2%
Executive Summary

viii 

Figure D—Among 9th- through 12th-graders and their parents who reported plans for the student to attend postsecondary

education, the percentage distributions according to the accuracy of tuition estimates for 1 year’s tuition and fees

at the type of college the student planned to attend: 1999

1

An accurate estimate was defined as one within 25 percent of the average for the type of institution the student planned to attend in their state of

residence.

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Youth Survey and Parent Survey of the 1999 National Household

Education Surveys Program (NHES:1999). Actual tuition amounts from the 1998 Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS).

PARENTS

Grades 9–10 Grades 11–12

26%

22%

6%

47%

31% 29%

11%

29%

STUDENTS

Grades 9–10 Grades 11–12

16%

10%

5%

69%

37%

11%

28% 24%

Could not estimate

Underestimated

Overestimated

Accurately estimated1

Similarly, there was not a detectable difference 

between the percentage of college-bound 9thand 10th-graders (59) and the percentage of 

college bound 6th- through 8th-graders (57) with 

parents who had made financial preparations. 

A similar percentage (58 percent) of collegebound 11th- and 12th-graders’ parents had 

sought information about financial aid 

availability, and about one-third (34 percent) 

were aware of the Lifelong Learning and/or 

HOPE Scholarship tax credits. Awareness of at 

least one of the tax credits increased with 

household income and parents’ education levels. 

Students’ Discussions With Parents and 

Teachers/Counselors8

Students were asked if they had discussed 

with their parents or teachers (including 

counselors) the type of college to attend and the 

academic and cost requirements of that college. 

Students were also asked if they had sought 

information about the availability of financial 

aid. Nearly three-quarters of students (74 

percent) reported that they had discussed the 

academic requirements of attending college with 

 

8Students were asked if these discussions had occurred 

during the 1998–99 school year. 
 Executive Summary 

ix 

parents or teachers/counselors. And just over 

two-thirds (69 percent) reported having 

conversations about the type of college they 

expected to attend. However, half or fewer 

reported discussing college costs or financial aid 

with parents or teachers/counselors. As might be 

expected, the likelihood of reporting such 

discussions increased as students approached 

college age. By 11th and 12th grade, over 90 

percent of students reported having discussions 

about academic requirements or the type of 

college to attend, and about three-quarters (71 to 

75 percent) reported discussions about college 

costs and financial aid. 

Students’ discussions about aspects of 

college had little relationship to either household 

income or parents’ education levels. However, 

there was a positive relationship between 

students knowing what type of institution they 

wanted to attend and the likelihood of a student 

discussing college cost requirements with their 

parents or their teachers/counselors. A positive 

relationship was also found between students 

assuming a role in family decisionmaking and 

the likelihood of students discussing college cost 

requirements with their parents or their 

teachers/counselors. In other words, as the 

likelihood of students’ knowing where they 

wanted to attend college or how involved they 

were in family decisionmaking increased, so did 

their likelihood of discussing college cost 

requirements. On the other hand, no association 

between student discussions of college cost 

requirements and either their household income 

or their parents’ education was detected. 

Factors Related to Information 

Gathering and College Cost 

Awareness and Estimates 

To determine what factors independently 

related to students’ and parents’ awareness of 

college costs, a multivariate analysis was 

conducted. “Cost awareness” used in the context 

of this report means students or parents had 

either obtained college cost information or 

reported that they thought they could estimate 

the cost of tuition and fees. 

The multivariate analysis of students’ and 

parents’ cost awareness controlled for 

interrelated variables, that reflected student 

characteristics, family background, students’ 

high school experiences (including GPA), and 

parents’ involvement in their children’s school. 

After applying such controls, a number of 

variables remained significantly related to cost 

awareness (figure E). 

For instance, there were positive relationships 

between students’ and parents’ cost awareness 

and students’ grade level (11th- and 12thgraders and their parents were more aware than 

9th- and 10th-graders and their parents); parents’ 

education levels (college graduates were more 

aware than others); and reporting plans to attend 

private 4-year colleges or universities (compared 

with public 4-year institutions). 

In some cases, results differed for students 

and parents. For example, Black students were 

more likely than White students to report cost 

awareness, while for parents the opposite was 

true: parents of Black students were less likely 

to be knowledgeable about costs than parents of 

White students. Although cost awareness among 

students was not associated with household 

income, there was a positive relationship 

between cost awareness and household income 
Executive Summary

x 

among their parents: those with household 

incomes over $75,000 were more likely to be 

knowledgeable about the costs than households 

with incomes of $50,000 or less. In addition, 

male students were more cost aware than female 

students, but students’ sex was not associated 

with parents’ cost awareness. Parents’ level of 

involvement in the schools was associated with 

their cost awareness, but not with students’ 

awareness. 

Finally, some variables pertained only to 

students or parents. If students had talked with 

their parents or with teachers/counselors about 

college cost requirements or about financial aid, 

they were more likely to be aware of college 

costs. Similarly, if parents had talked to 

someone or read financial aid materials, or if 

they knew about the availability of either the 

Lifelong Learning or HOPE Scholarships, they 

were more likely to be aware of college costs. 

If cost awareness were high, one would 

expect a corresponding ability to accurately 

estimate tuition for the type of institution the 

student planned to attend. In fact, nearly 

identical results were found for students’ and 

parents’ cost awareness and ability to estimate 

the costs. That is, most variables related to cost 

awareness also were related to the ability to 

estimate 1 year’s tuition accurately. 

In the end, even after applying statistical 

controls, the results indicate that the level of 

awareness students and parents possess about 

the costs of attending college is positively 

related to either household income or parents’ 

education levels (or both). However, it is 

important to note that, regardless of family 

background, if parents had sought information 

about financial aid availability or if they knew 

about other means of offsetting costs (through 

Figure E.—Among 6th- through 12th-graders and their

Figure E.—parents, factors associated with increased cost

Figure E.—awareness or the ability to estimate accurately

Figure E.—tuition and fees: 1999

Student Parent Student Parent

Grade in school

 11th- and 12th-graders

 (vs. lower grades) !! !!

Students’ gender

 Males (vs. females) ! !

Students’ race/ethnicity

 Blacks (vs. whites) ! !

 Whites (vs. blacks) ! !

 Whites (vs. Hispanics) !

Parents’ education

 Bachelor’s degree

 (vs. less education) !! !

Household income

 $75,000+ (vs. <=$50,000) ! !

 $75,000+ (vs. <=$25,000) !

Type of institution planning for

 4-year private

 (vs. 4-year public) !! !!

Parent involvement in school

 High (vs. low) !

Student talked with parents

 or teachers about

 college cost requirements ! † ! †

Student talked with parents

 or teachers about

 financial aid ! † †

Parents talked to someone/read 

 information about financial aid † ! † !

Parents knew of Lifelong Learning 

 or HOPE Scholarship tax credits † ! † !

† Not applicable.

1

Had either obtained college cost information or reported they could

estimate tuition and fees.

2

An accurate estimate was defined as one within 25 percent of average

for the type of institution the student planned to attend in the state of

residence.

NOTE: Sample includes students and their parents who reported plans for

student to attend postsecondary education. Each check indicates an

attribute associated with increased cost awareness or the ability to

accurately estimate tuition. For example, in the first line under “students’

race/ethnicity” Black students were more cost aware and were more

likely than White students to provide an accurate tuition esimate. The

opposite was found for parents.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education 

Statistics, Youth Survey and Parent Survey of the 1999 National Household Education Surveys Program (NHES:1999). Actual tuition amounts

from the 1998 Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS).

Cost Accurate estiawareness1 mates of tuition2
 Executive Summary 

xi 

tax credits), they were much more likely to 

know what it would cost to send their child to 

the college the child planned to attend. 

Similarly, if students had talked to parents or 

teachers/counselors about college costs, they too 

were better able to estimate the tuition of the 

college they planned to attend. 

Conclusions 

The public places a high premium on getting 

a college education (Ikenberry and Hartle 1998; 

Miller 1997). However, recent media attention 

on rising college costs (“Paying for College” 

2002), combined with a general lack of 

knowledge about the affordability of many 

colleges (e.g., the average tuition at public 4-

year colleges was $3,000 a year in 1998), may 

unnecessarily discourage some students and 

their parents from preparing for college. 

The results of this analysis reveal that many 

middle and high school students and to a lesser 

extent, their parents, do not have an accurate 

idea of what it costs to attend college. Even 

among 11th- and 12th-graders who intended to 

enroll in college, roughly half of both students 

and their parents reported having knowledge of 

college costs. When asked to estimate 1 year’s 

tuition, more students and their parents 

overestimated than underestimated the average 

amount. Furthermore, nearly 40 percent of 11thand 12th-graders and nearly 30 percent of their 

parents could not estimate the cost of 1 year’s 

tuition. 

Not surprisingly, the younger the students 

were, the less aware they or their parents were of 

college costs. At a time when students still have 

the opportunity to plan for college and take 

requisite college preparatory courses (i.e., 9thand 10th-grade), 69 percent of 9th- and 10thgraders and 47 percent of their parents could not 

estimate what it would cost to attend. It is 

possible that many students, with the 

encouragement of their parents, plan to attend no 

matter what the cost. However, the findings of 

this study also demonstrated a significant 

knowledge gap between lower and higher 

income families and between parents who ended 

their education at high school graduation and 

those who were college graduates.9 Thus, the 

students and parents who can least afford college 

and who would be most affected by the financial 

burden were also the least aware of how much it 

costs to attend. 

On the other hand, regardless of parents’ 

education and household income, students who 

were involved in family decisionmaking were 

more likely to seek out information about 

college academic requirements and financial aid 

through discussions with parents and 

teachers/counselors. 

Similarly, regardless of income and education 

levels, parents who were involved in their 

children’s school were more likely to have 

begun saving for their college education. In 

addition, compared with parents who reported 

low involvement in their children’s school, 

highly involved parents were more aware of 

college costs.

 

9Parents’ education levels and household income are often 

highly correlated, and families where neither parent 

attended college are disproportionately represented among 

lower income groups. For example, in NHES:1999, 89 

percent of students whose parents did not attend college 

were from families where the household income was 

$25,000 or less, whereas 69 percent of students with 

college-educated parents were from families where the 

household income was above $75,000. 
xii 

Foreword 

This study uses data from the Parent and Youth Surveys of the 1999 National Household 

Education Surveys Program (NHES:1999) to investigate how much college-bound students in 

grades 6 through 12, and their parents, know about the cost of attending college, and the 

relationships between their knowledge of college costs and how they go about preparing for 

college. It examines whether parents had started to save for their children’s education, gathered 

information on financial aid, and knew about various tax credits to help offset costs. Students 

were asked about discussions they had with parents or teachers/counselors to learn about college 

costs, academic requirements, and financial aid availability. The base sample of this report 

consists of 7,910 6th- through 12th-grade students who participated in the Youth Survey of 

NHES:1999. Parent data were collected through the Parent Survey of NHES:1999 from the 

parents of these students. 
xiii 

Acknowledgments 

The authors would like to thank Val Plisko, Marilyn Seastrom, Jerry West, Shelley Burns, 

Bruce Taylor, Jim Griffith, and John Wirt from the National Center for Education Statistics, and 

David Miller and Leslie Scott of the Education Statistics Services Institute for their thoughtful 

reviews of this report. We would also like to thank the following reviewers of the final report for 

their constructive comments and insightful recommendations: Daniel Goldenberg (Policy and 

Program Studies Service), David Bergeron (Office of Postsecondary Education), Melissa 

Clinedinst (Institute of Higher Education Policy), and Eric Smith (Superintendent of Schools, 

Ann Arundel County Public Schools). 

xv 

Table of Contents 

Page 

Executive Summary .................................................................................................................. iii

Foreword.................................................................................................................................... xii

Acknowledgments...................................................................................................................... xiii 

List of Tables.............................................................................................................................. xvi

List of Figures............................................................................................................................ xx

Introduction............................................................................................................................... 1

Data and Methods..................................................................................................................... 5

Study Sample and Methods................................................................................................... 5 

Expectations for College ........................................................................................................... 7

Where Students Will Attend ................................................................................................. 7 

Reasons for Not Planning to Attend...................................................................................... 13 

What Students and Parents Know About the Cost of Postsecondary Education Tuition.. 17

Acquiring Information About College Costs ........................................................................ 17 

How Well Students and Parents Estimate 1 Year’s College Tuition .................................... 23 

Making Preparations for College............................................................................................. 41

Parents’ Plans to Pay for Their Children’s College Education ............................................ 41 

Students’ Preparations........................................................................................................... 48 

Summary and Conclusions....................................................................................................... 55 

Bibliography .............................................................................................................................. 57

Appendix A—Glossary ............................................................................................................. 61

Appendix B—Technical Notes and Methodology .................................................................. 73

Appendix C—Supplemental Tables ........................................................................................ 79

Appendix D—Standard Error Tables..................................................................................... 93
xvi 

List of Tables 

Table Page 

Text Tables 

1 Number and percentage of 6th- through 12th-graders and percentage of their parents 

who reported plans for the student to attend postsecondary education, by selected 

student, family, and parent characteristics: 1999 ............................................................ 8 

2 Number and percentage distribution of students according to the postsecondary 

institution type students plan to attend as reported by students and parents: 1999......... 10 

3 Number and percentage distributions of 6th- through 12th-graders according to the 

postsecondary institution students plan to attend as reported by students and parents, 

by selected student, family, and parent characteristics: 1999 ......................................... 11 

4 Number of students and percentage of consistent and inconsistent reports between 

6th- through 12th-graders and their parents regarding the level of institution students 

plan to attend, by selected student, family, and parent characteristics: 1999 ................. 14 

5 Percentage distributions of 6th- through 12th-graders and their parents according to 

the various reasons given for student not continuing education: 1999 ........................... 16 

6 Number and percentage of 6th- through 12th-graders and their parents who reported 

that they had obtained cost information or could accurately estimate tuition and fees 

at the postsecondary institution students planned to attend, by selected student, 

family, and parent characteristics: 1999.......................................................................... 18 

7 Number and percentage of 6th- through 12th-graders and their parents who reported 

they had either obtained cost information or could estimate tuition and fees, by 

selected student, family, and parent characteristics: 1999 .............................................. 20 

8a Sixth- through 12th-graders’ and their parents’ estimates of the amount of tuition and 

mandatory fees and tuition and fees plus room and board, according to students’ 

grade level, and the actual average tuition and fees paid in 1998–99 by type of 

institution students planned to attend, by selected student, family, and parent 

characteristics: 1999........................................................................................................ 24 

8b Ninth- through 12th-graders’ and their parents’ average estimates for tuition and 

mandatory fees according to whether they had obtained information or could estimate 

costs, by type of institution students planned to attend: 1999......................................... 26 
 List of Tables 

xvii 

Table Page 

9 Number and percentage distributions of 6th- through 12th-graders and their parents, 

according to the accuracy of their reported estimates of tuition and mandatory fees for 

the postsecondary institution students planned to attend, by selected student, family, 

and parent characteristics: 1999 ...................................................................................... 29 

10 Logistic regression results (in odds ratios) of 6th- through 12th-graders’ and their 

parents’ knowledge about college costs and whether they could accurately estimate 

tuition and fees: 1999 ...................................................................................................... 34

11 Number and percentage of 6th- through 12th-graders’ parents who reported having 

taken various steps to prepare to pay for their children’s postsecondary education, by 

selected student, family, and parent characteristics: 1999 .............................................. 42 

12 Logistic regression results (in odds ratios) of parents’ preparations to pay for their 

children’s postsecondary education: 1999 ...................................................................... 46 

13 Number and percentage of 6th- through 12th-graders who reported discussing various 

issues relating to postsecondary education with their parents or school 

teacher/counselors, by selected student, family, and parent characteristics: 1999 ......... 49 

14 Logistic regression results (in odds ratios) of 6th- through 12th-graders’ discussions 

about various issues regarding postsecondary education with their parents or school 

teachers/counselors: 1999 ............................................................................................... 52 

Appendix Tables 

C1 Percentage distributions of 6th- through 12th-graders and their parents, according to 

the accuracy of their reported estimates of tuition and mandatory fees for the 

postsecondary institution students planned to attend, by selected student, family, and 

parent characteristics: 1999............................................................................................. 80 

C2 Percentage distributions of 6th- through 12th-graders and their parents, according to 

the accuracy of their reported estimates of tuition and mandatory fees for the 

postsecondary institution students planned to attend, by selected student, family, and 

parent characteristics: 1999............................................................................................. 83 

C3 Logistic regression coefficients and standard errors for table 10: 6th- through 12thgraders’ and their parents’ knowledge about college costs and whether they could 

accurately estimate tuition and fees: 1999 ...................................................................... 86 

C4 Logistic regression coefficients and standard errors for table 12: Parents’ preparations 

to pay for their children’s postsecondary education: 1999 ............................................. 89 
List of Tables

xviii 

Table Page 

C5 Logistic regression coefficients and standard errors for table 14: 6th- through 12thgraders’ discussions about various issues regarding postsecondary education with 

their parents or school teachers/counselors: 1999........................................................... 91 

D1 Standard errors for table 1: Percentage of 6th- through 12th-graders and percentage of 

their parents who reported plans for the student to attend postsecondary education, by 

selected student, family, and parent characteristics: 1999 .............................................. 94 

D2 Standard errors for table 2: Percentage distributions of students according to the 

postsecondary institution type students plan to attend as reported by students and 

parents: 1999 ................................................................................................................... 96 

D3 Standard errors for table 3: Number and percentage distributions of 6th- through 

12th-graders according to the postsecondary institution students plan to attend as 

reported by students and parents, by selected student, family, and parent 

characteristics: 1999........................................................................................................ 97 

D4 Standard errors for table 4: Number of students and percentage of consistent and 

inconsistent reports between 6th- through 12th-graders and their parents regarding the 

level of institution students plan to attend, by selected student, family, and parent 

characteristics: 1999........................................................................................................ 99 

D5 Standard errors for table 5: Percentage distributions of 6th- through 12th-graders and 

their parents according to the various reasons given for student not continuing 

education: 1999 ............................................................................................................... 101 

D6 Standard errors for table 6: Percentage of 6th- through 12th-graders and their parents 

who reported that they had obtained cost information or could accurately estimate 

tuition and fees at the postsecondary institution students planned to attend, by 

selected student, family, and parent characteristics: 1999 .............................................. 102 

D7 Standard errors for table 7: Percentage of 6th- through 12th-graders and their parents 

who reported they had either obtained cost information or could estimate tuition and 

fees, by selected student, family, and parent characteristics: 1999................................. 104 

D8a Standard errors for table 8a: Sixth- through 12th-graders’ and their parents’ estimates 

of the amount of tuition and mandatory fees and tuition and fees plus room and board, 

according to students’ grade level, and the actual average tuition and fees paid in 

1998–99 by type of institution students planned to attend, by selected student, family, 

and parent characteristics: 1999 ...................................................................................... 106 

D8b Standard errors for table 8b: Ninth- through 12th-graders’ and their parents’ average 

estimates for tuition and mandatory fees according to whether they had obtained 

information or could estimate costs, by type of institution students planned to attend: 

1999................................................................................................................................. 107 
 List of Tables 

xix 

Table Page 

D9 Standard errors for table 9: Percentage distributions of 6th- through 12th-graders and 

their parents, according to the accuracy of their reported estimates of tuition and 

mandatory fees for the postsecondary institution students planned to attend, by 

selected student, family, and parent characteristics: 1999 .............................................. 108 

D10 Standard errors for table 10: Logistic regression results (in odds ratios) of 6ththrough 12th-graders’ and their parents’ knowledge about college costs and whether 

they could accurately estimate tuition and fees: 1999..................................................... 111 

D11 Standard errors for table 11: Percentage of 6th- through 12th-graders’ parents 

who reported having taken various steps to prepare to pay for their children’s 

postsecondary education, by selected student, family, and parent characteristics: 

1999................................................................................................................................. 114 

D12 Standard errors for table 12: Logistic regression results (in odds ratios) of parents’ 

preparations to pay for their children’s postsecondary education: 1999......................... 116 

D13 Standard errors for table 13: Percentage of 6th- through 12th-graders who reported 

discussing various issues relating to postsecondary education with their parents or 

school teacher/counselors, by selected student, family, and parent characteristics: 

1999................................................................................................................................. 118 

D14 Standard errors for table 14: Logistic regression results (in odds ratios) of 6ththrough 12th-graders’ discussions about various issues regarding postsecondary 

education with their parents or school teachers/counselors: 1999 .................................. 120 

DC1 Standard errors for table C1: Percentage distributions of 6th- through 12th-graders 

and their parents, according to the accuracy of their reported estimates of tuition and 

mandatory fees for the postsecondary institution students planned to attend, by 

selected student, family, and parent characteristics: 1999 .............................................. 122 

DC2 Standard errors for table C2: Percentage distributions of 6th- through 12th-graders 

and their parents, according to the accuracy of their reported estimates of tuition and 

mandatory fees for the postsecondary institution students planned to attend, by 

selected student, family, and parent characteristics: 1999 .............................................. 125 
xx 

List of Figures 

Figure Page 

Executive Summary Figures 

A Among 9th- through 12th-graders and their parents who reported plans for the student 

to attend postsecondary education, the percentage distributions according to whether 

they had obtained college cost information, could estimate the costs, or could do 

neither: 1999.................................................................................................................... iv 

B Among 11th- and 12th-graders and their parents who reported plans for student to 

attend a public in-state 4-year institution, and who provided an estimate of tuition and 

fees, the percentage distributions of estimated tuition and fees for 1 year and the 

actual tuition and fees paid, by undergraduates in 1998–99 ........................................... vi 

C Among 11th- and 12th-graders and their parents who reported plans for the student to 

attend a private 4-year institution, and who provided an estimate of tuition and fees, 

the percentage distributions of estimated tuition and fees for 1 year and the actual 

tuition paid, by undergraduates in 1998–99.................................................................... vii 

D Among 9th- through 12th-graders and their parents who reported plans for the student 

to attend postsecondary education, the percentage distributions according to the 

accuracy of tuition estimates for 1 year’s tuition and fees at the type of college the 

student planned to attend: 1999....................................................................................... viii 

E Among 6th- through 12th-graders and their parents, factors associated with increased 

cost awareness or the ability to estimate accurately tuition and fees: 1999.................... x 

Text Figures 

1 Among 11th- and 12th-graders and their parents who reported plans for the student to 

attend postsecondary education, the percentage distributions according to their 

knowledge of college costs: 1999 ................................................................................... 22 

2 Among 11th- and 12th-graders and their parents who reported plans for the student to 

attend a public in-state 4-year institution, and who provided an estimate of tuition and 

fees, the percentage distribution of estimated tuition and fees for 1 year and the actual 

tuition and fees paid by undergraduates in 1998–99....................................................... 27 
 List of Figures 

xxi 

Figure Page 

3 Among 11th- and 12th-graders and their parents who reported plans for the student to 

attend a private 4-year institution, the percentage distributions of estimated tuition 

and fees for 1 year and the actual tuition and fees paid by undergraduates in 

1998–99........................................................................................................................... 28 

Appendix Figures 

DA Standard errors for figure A: Among 9th- through 12th-graders and their parents who 

reported plans for the student to attend postsecondary education, the percentage 

distributions according to whether they had obtained college cost information, could 

estimate the costs, or could do neither: 1999 .................................................................. 128 

DB Standard errors for figure B: Among 11th- and 12th-graders and their parents who 

reported plans for the student to attend a public 4-year institution, and who provided 

an estimate of tuition and fees, the percentage distributions of estimated tuition and 

fees for 1 year and the actual tuition paid by undergraduates in 1998–99...................... 129 

DC Standard errors for figure C: Among 11th- and 12th-graders and their parents who 

reported plans for the student to attend a private 4-year institution, and who provided 

an estimate of tuition and fees, the percentage distributions of estimated tuition and 

fees for 1 year and the actual tuition paid by undergraduates in 1998–99...................... 130 

DD Standard errors for figure D: Among 9th- through 12th-graders and their parents who 

reported plans for the student to attend postsecondary education, the percentage 

distributions according to the accuracy of tuition estimates for 1 year’s tuition and 

fees at the type of college the student planned to attend: 1999....................................... 131 

D1 Standard errors for figure 1: Among 11th- and 12th-graders and their parents who 

reported plans for the student to attend postsecondary education, the percentage 

distributions according to their knowledge of college costs: 1999 ................................. 132 

D2 Standard errors for figure 2: Among 11th- and 12th-graders and their parents who 

reported plans for the student to attend a public 4-year institution, the percentage 

distribution of estimated tuition and fees for 1 year and the actual tuition paid by 

undergraduates in 1998–99 ............................................................................................. 133 

D3 Standard errors for figure 3: Among 11th- and 12th-graders and their parents who 

reported plans for the student to attend a private 4-year institution, the percentage 

distribution of estimated tuition and fees for 1 year and the actual tuition paid by 

undergraduates in 1998–99 ............................................................................................. 134 

1 

Introduction 

In a national survey of 2,000 randomly selected adults conducted by The College Board in 

1997, a majority of respondents (58 percent) agreed with the statement: “A college education is 

so important that, regardless of how much it costs, I am going to make sure that my children go 

to college” (Ikenberry and Hartle 1998). A similar survey reported that 84 percent of parents 

with college-bound children believed that a college education is either indispensable (34 percent) 

or very valuable (50 percent) (Miller 1997). In addition, the Miller study reported that nearly all 

parents (97 percent) agreed with the statement: “A college education will enrich the quality of 

my child’s life.” Judging from the findings of these studies Americans place a premium on 

obtaining a college education. Correspondingly, college enrollment has increased substantially 

over time. Between 1981 and 2002, for example, the proportion of high school graduates who 

enrolled in college right after graduation increased from 54 percent to 65 percent (U.S. 

Department of Education 2001; U.S. Department of Labor 2003). 

Over the last 20 years, the cost of attending higher education has risen considerably, 

outpacing growth in median household income as well the cost of most other goods and services 

(Davis 1997; U.S. Department of Education 2002). In 1977 the total cost of a public 4-year 

education represented roughly 13 percent of the median household income. By 1992, it had 

increased to 16 percent, and by 1995, it was 17 percent. Similarly, over the same time period, the 

cost of attending a private 4-year college was 34 percent, 41 percent, and 43 percent of median 

household income, respectively (Davis 1997). More recent data indicate that in the 10-year 

period ending in 2002, average tuition at both public and private 4-year institutions rose 38 

percent after adjusting for inflation (The College Board 2003). 

Rising college costs have received much media attention.1 However, the media tends to 

focus on the cost of high priced selective colleges and universities.2 This may help explain why, 

according to The College Board study, nearly three-quarters (71 percent) of respondents believed 

a “4-year college is not affordable for most Americans” (Ikenberry and Hartle 1998, p. 7). 

Paradoxically, 85 percent believed they could meet the price of a public 4-year college and 70 

percent reported that it was likely that they would be able to meet the price of a private 4-year 

college. When asked to estimate the average cost of college tuition, respondents overestimated 

 

1For example, “Paying for College” (2002). 

2For example, “The $35,000 Question” (2002). 
Introduction

2 

the cost of tuition at a public 4-year college by 212 percent and the cost of a private 4-year 

college by 31 percent. Even parents with children in college overestimated tuition and fees at 

public 4-year colleges. Parents in the Miller (1997) study also had difficulty estimating college 

costs. However, there was no relationship between the ability to accurately estimate the cost and 

the value placed on a college education. The findings of these studies suggest that Americans in 

general and even parents of college-age children are uninformed about the cost of higher 

education. In addition, disadvantaged families—those in which neither parent had attended 

college or those with low incomes—tended to be the least informed about college costs 

(Ikenberry and Hartle 1998). 

Using the Parent and Youth Surveys of the 1999 National Household Education Surveys 

Program (NHES:1999), a nationally representative study of American households, this report 

examines how much both students and their parents know about the cost of a college education. 

Students in grades 6 through 12 and their parents were asked the same questions regarding 

whether or not they had obtained information about college costs and, if not, whether they could 

accurately estimate the cost of 1 year’s tuition and fees. Those who had obtained information or 

who believed they could estimate the price of tuition were then asked to provide an estimate of 1 

year’s tuition and fees for the type of institution the student expected to attend. Verification 

questions were asked to determine if respondent estimates included costs besides tuition and fees 

in their estimates. 

Not only do the NHES surveys allow for comparisons between students’ and parents’ 

awareness of college costs but parents also reported whether they were financially preparing for 

their children’s education and whether they knew about the various tax credits and scholarships 

available to help offset the cost of college. Students were asked about their discussions with 

parents or teachers/counselors about college requirements and financial aid information. Using 

the NHES data, this report analyzes students’ and their parents’ knowledge of college costs and 

examines their college preparation activities. The report addresses the following questions. 

1) What were students and their parents’ expectations for students pursuing college and 

how well do they agree? What reasons did students and parents give for the students 

not planning to attend college? 

2) Among 6th- through 12th-graders who planned to attend postsecondary education, 

what did students and their parents know about the cost of tuition and fees? How did 

students and parents acquire information on college costs? What student, family, and 

parent characteristics were associated with greater awareness of college costs? 

3) Among 6th- through 12th-graders who planned to attend postsecondary education, 

what plans were students and their parents making for postsecondary education? Were 

parents preparing financially to pay for their children’s education? How 

knowledgeable were they about available tax credits? Were students seeking 
 Introduction 

3 

information in preparation to attend college, such as discussing college academic 

requirements, costs, and financial aid with parents or teachers? What student, family, 

and parent characteristics were associated with taking these steps to prepare for 

college? 

5 

Data and Methods 

The data for this report are drawn from the Youth and Parent Surveys of the 1999 National 

Household Education Surveys Program (NHES:1999), a data collection system of the National 

Center for Education Statistics (NCES). Surveys in the NHES program collect data on educationrelated topics that are best gathered from individuals or families rather than educational 

institutions (see appendix B for a detailed description of the surveys). 

The Parent Survey was conducted between January and April 1999. Interviews were 

completed with parents or guardians of 24,600 children from birth through 20 years old.3 The 

interview items covered a variety of educational topics, each appropriate for certain age groups 

of children. This report focuses on the section pertaining to parents’ plans for their children’s 

postsecondary education, expectations of the related education and costs, and preparation for 

paying for their children’s education after high school. 

The Youth Survey was conducted with children in grades 6 through 12 whose parents had 

completed a Parent Survey. A total of 7,913 children completed the interview. This report 

focuses on the interview items that are related to youth’s plans for postsecondary education. 

Some interview items on the Youth Survey are identical to those on the Parent Survey, which 

allows for comparisons of students’ and parents’ responses. 

In all tables presenting student and parent responses, the estimated student population of 

interest, based on a weighted N of survey respondents, is presented in the first column “Number 

of Students (in thousands).” 

Study Sample and Methods 

The base sample of this report consists of all students who participated in the Youth 

Survey.4 As described above, these students are 6th- through 12th-graders whose parents 

completed the Parent Survey (a total of 7,910 students), and therefore, can be used to analyze 

 

3The respondents who participated in the Parent Survey of NHES:1999 were the parents/guardians who were most 

knowledgeable about the education of the sampled children. Although most respondents were parents (95 percent), some were 

brothers, sisters, grandparents, aunts, uncles, cousins, or other relatives. Since these nonparental guardians represent such a small 

percentage of the sample, there are not enough cases to analyze these groups separately. They were included in the group 

identified as children’s parents in this report. 

4Three students whose grade level could not be determined were excluded from the analysis. 
Data and Methods

6 

both students’ own plans and their parents’ plans for students’ postsecondary education. For this 

report, if both students and their parents expected the students to attend postsecondary education 

after high school in 1999, they were included in the analysis sample used to examine knowledge 

about college costs and preparation activities (a total of 7,285 students). Families in which either 

students or parents reported no college expectations (a total of 625 students) were excluded 

because they were not asked any further questions on postsecondary education. 

Key variables used in the report included student demographic characteristics (sex, 

race/ethnicity, household income, and language spoken most at home by student); educational 

experiences of students (grade in school, school type, average GPA [grade-point average], and 

whether a student has been held back any grades); parents’ education level; and language parents 

speak most in the home. In addition, two composite variables were created to measure students’ 

participation in family decisions, and level of parent involvement in children’s school. All of the 

variables used in the analysis are described in the glossary in appendix A. 

In addition to providing descriptive tabular comparisons, this report includes multivariate 

analyses to determine which of the above factors were independently related to students’ and 

parents’ college cost awareness. In other words, holding all background and educational 

characteristics constant, which factors were related to students’ and parents’ awareness of 

college costs and their ability to estimate accurately the cost of attending? 
7 

Expectations for College 

Obtaining some type of postsecondary education was a common goal for most students and 

parents in 1999.5 A large majority—94 percent of 6th- through 12th-graders and 96 percent of 

their parents—responded “yes” to the question: “Do you think (you/your child) will attend 

school after high school” (table 1). There was little disagreement between students and their 

parents on whether or not the students would pursue postsecondary education after high school: 

91 percent of both students and parents agreed that the students would attend. These students, 

sometimes identified as “college bound” in this report, are the focus of the subsequent 

analyses.6,7

Where Students Will Attend 

Students in grades 6 through 12 and their parents who reported postsecondary education 

plans for the students were asked which type of postsecondary institution they expected the 

students to attend. Both students and parents expressed a greater interest in 4-year colleges and 

universities than either 2-year or vocational/technical institutions. For example, in 1999, 45 

percent of college-bound students in grades 6 through 12 reported that they expected to attend a 

4-year college after high school, compared with 17 percent who planned to attend a 2-year or 

vocational/technical institution (table 2). Among students’ parents, 50 percent expected their 

children to attend a 4-year college, compared with about one-quarter who expected their children 

to attend a 2-year or vocational/technical institution. 

Both students and parents expressed greater interest in a public 4-year institution than a 

comparable private college. Among students, 24 percent of those planning to attend college 

thought that they would attend a public 4-year institution, compared with 7 percent who expected 

to attend a comparable private institution. Similarly, 29 percent of their parents expected their 

 

5It should be noted that students may have siblings who had attended or were attending college, which would affect parents’ and 

students’ knowledge of costs. However, siblings’ college attendance could not be determined from the data. 

6Excluded were students for whom either the student or the parent reported no postsecondary education plans (9 percent). 

Excluded students were more likely to be male, non-English speaking, Hispanic, home schooled, or attending a public school. 

They were also somewhat disadvantaged in terms of their schooling experiences (e.g., more likely to have had lower GPAs and 

repeated a school grade) and family backgrounds (e.g., more likely to have come from low-income families, non-Englishspeaking families, and families with parents with low educational attainment). These results are not presented in the report and 

are available from the authors. 

7Approximately 4 percent of these students planned to attend noncollegiate vocational or technical institutions. 
Expectations for College

8 

Table 1.—Number and percentage of 6th- through 12th-graders and percentage of their parents who reported plans

Table 1.—for the student to attend postsecondary education, by selected student, family, and parent characteristics:

Table 1.—1999

Number of 

students Student but Parent but 

(in thousands) Student Parent Both not parent not student 

 Total 27,286 93.6 95.8 90.9 2.7 4.9 

Grade in school

 6 through 8 11,793 94.9 96.7 92.4 2.5 4.3 

 9 and 10 8,081 91.5 94.3 88.3 3.3 6.0 

 11 and 12 7,412 93.7 96.1 91.5 2.2 4.6 

Student’s sex

 Male 13,817 91.3 94.4 87.7 3.7 6.7 

 Female 13,470 95.9 97.3 94.3 1.6 3.1 

Student’s race/ethnicity

 White, non-Hispanic 18,100 94.0 96.0 91.7 2.3 4.3 

 Black, non-Hispanic 4,167 93.9 95.9 90.7 3.2 5.3 

 Hispanic 3,528 90.1 94.0 86.0 4.1 8.0 

 Other, non-Hispanic 1,490 95.5 98.0 93.5 2.1 4.5 

Language spoken most at home by student

 English 25,257 93.7 95.9 91.2 2.6 4.7 

 Other 2,029 91.5 95.1 87.6 3.9 7.6 

Average GPA across all subjects1 

 Mostly F/D’s 1,423 66.2 85.9 59.3 7.0 26.6 

 Mostly C’s 5,689 86.5 92.1 81.5 5.0 10.6 

 Mostly B’s 10,452 96.4 96.8 94.1 2.3 2.7 

 Mostly A’s 9,366 98.9 99.0 98.3 0.6 0.8 

Repeated any grades since kindergarten1 

 Yes 3,748 80.9 87.8 74.0 6.9 13.8 

 No 23,182 95.6 97.3 93.8 1.8 3.5 

School type

 Public 24,623 93.3 95.8 90.6 2.7 5.2 

 Private 2,308 96.9 98.6 96.0 0.9 2.6 

 Home school2 356 93.8 83.6 82.0 11.8 # 

See footnotes at end of table.

Postsecondary education expected by

Student, family, or parent 

characteristic
 Expectations for College 

9 

Table 1.—Number and percentage of 6th- through 12th-graders and percentage of their parents who reported plans

Table 1.—for the student to attend postsecondary education, by selected student, family, and parent characteristics:

Table 1.—1999—Continued

Number of 

students Student but Parent but 

(in thousands) Student Parent Both not parent not student 

Parents’ education

 Less than high school 2,514 81.9 91.3 77.3 4.7 14.0 

 High school only 7,245 90.4 94.7 87.3 3.1 7.3 

 Some postsecondary education 8,228 95.8 96.1 92.8 3.0 3.3 

 College graduate 4,375 96.9 97.9 95.2 1.7 2.7 

 Graduate school 4,924 97.6 97.7 96.3 1.3 1.4 

Household income

 $25,000 or less 8,220 89.3 93.8 85.2 4.1 8.6 

 $25,001 to $50,000 8,503 94.0 95.4 91.0 2.9 4.3 

 $50,001 to $75,000 5,079 95.5 97.1 93.8 1.7 3.3 

 More than $75,000 5,484 97.7 98.4 96.7 1.0 1.7 

Language most spoken at home by parents

 English 25,226 93.8 95.9 91.2 2.6 4.7 

 Other 2,061 91.0 95.3 87.5 3.5 7.8 

#Too few sample cases.

1

This question was not asked of homeschoolers who attended public or private school less than 9 hours per week.

2

Homeschoolers include children schooled at home who attended public or private schools less than 9 hours per week.

NOTE: Sample in table includes 6th- through 12th-graders and their parents among whom the student and/or parent reported plans for

the student to attend postsecondary education.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Youth Survey and Parent Survey of the 1999

National Household Education Surveys Program (NHES:1999).

Postsecondary education expected by

Student, family, or parent 

characteristic
Expectations for College

10 

children to attend a public 4-year institution, compared with 11 percent who expected their 

children to attend a comparable private institution. 

The type of institution that students planned to attend varied considerably depending on the 

characteristics and background of students. In general, students with higher GPAs and no history 

of grade retention (i.e., being held back a grade) were more likely than their counterparts to 

choose a 4-year college and less likely to choose a 2-year institution (table 3). Both students and 

their parents were more likely to make plans for a 4-year college and less likely to choose a 2-

year college as household income and parents’ education increased. 

Thirty-nine percent of students with plans to attend postsecondary education were 

undecided about the type of institution they hoped to attend. However, students’ expectations 

became more definite as they approached college age. Among college-bound 6th- through 8thgraders, 58 percent reported that they were undecided about the type of institution they would 

attend (table 3). This percentage declined to 34 percent for 9th- and 10th-graders and even 

further to 14 percent for 11th- and 12th-graders. A similar pattern was observed among parents: 

Table 2.—Number and percentage distribution of students according to the postsecondary institution type

Table 2.—students plan to attend as reported by students and parents: 1999

Number Number 

(in thousands) Percent (in thousands) Percent 

 Total 24,811 100.0 24,811 100.0 

4-year institution

 Total 11,076 44.6 12,408 50.0 

 Public 5,988 24.1 7,248 29.2 

 Private 1,677 6.8 2,626 10.6 

 Undecided, 4-year 3,412 13.8 2,534 10.2 

2-year 4,101 16.5 6,303 25.4 

Undecided for the type of institution 9,634 38.8 6,100 24.6 

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Sample in table includes 6th- through 12th-graders and their parents

among whom both the student and parent reported plans for student to attend postsecondary education.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Youth Survey and Parent Survey of the 1999

National Household Education Surveys Program (NHES:1999).

Reported by student Reported by parent

Institution type
 Expectations for College 

11 

Table 3.—Number and percentage distributions of 6th- through 12th-graders according to the postsecondary 

Table 3.—institution students plan to attend as reported by students and parents, by selected student, family,

Table 3.—and parent characteristics: 1999

Table 3—

Number of 

students 

(in 

thousands) 4-year 2-year Undecided 4-year 2-year Undecided 

 Total 24,811 44.6 16.5 38.8 50.0 25.4 24.6 

Grade in school

 6 through 8 10,896 33.8 8.3 57.9 47.6 17.7 34.7 

 9 and 10 7,133 49.4 17.0 33.6 48.6 29.7 21.7 

 11 and 12 6,782 57.0 29.3 13.7 55.3 33.2 11.5 

Student’s sex

 Male 12,113 42.7 17.6 39.7 46.4 28.4 25.3 

 Female 12,698 46.5 15.5 38.0 53.5 22.6 23.9 

Student’s race/ethnicity

 White, non-Hispanic 16,605 45.7 16.4 38.0 52.3 26.9 20.8 

 Black, non-Hispanic 3,777 45.8 15.4 38.9 50.9 23.3 25.8 

 Hispanic 3,035 35.7 19.5 44.8 33.1 24.3 42.6 

 Other, non-Hispanic 1,393 49.1 15.2 35.7 57.3 15.4 27.3 

Language spoken most at home by student

 English 23,034 45.3 16.3 38.4 † † † 

 Other 1,777 36.2 19.4 44.5 † † † 

Average GPA across all subjects1 

 Mostly F/D’s 844 26.3 19.9 53.9 27.1 37.5 35.4 

 Mostly C’s 4,638 32.7 24.3 43.1 31.3 41.0 27.8 

 Mostly B’s 9,835 42.4 18.3 39.3 46.8 26.7 26.5 

 Mostly A’s 9,202 55.2 10.4 34.4 65.4 14.5 20.1 

Repeated any grades since kindergarten1 

 Yes 2,774 32.7 25.2 42.2 32.1 38.2 29.8 

 No 21,745 46.4 15.4 38.3 52.5 23.5 24.0 

School type

 Public 22,304 43.9 17.3 38.8 48.2 26.2 25.7 

 Private 2,215 54.0 8.7 37.4 70.3 15.5 14.2 

 Home school2 292 30.8 18.9 50.3 35.6 43.4 21.0 

See footnotes at end of table.

Student, family, or parent 

characteristic

Reported by student Reported by parent
Expectations for College

12 

35 percent of 6th- through 8th-graders’ parents were undecided about the type of institution their 

child would attend, compared to 22 percent of 9th- and 10th-graders’ parents and 12 percent of 

11th- and 12th-graders’ parents. 

Whether or not students and parents were undecided about where students would attend 

postsecondary education varied with their family background and income. As household income 

and parents’ education increased, the likelihood of students and parents being undecided about 

where the students would attend college declined. In addition, Hispanic students were more 

likely than White students to be undecided, as were non-English-speaking students compared to 

their English-speaking counterparts. 

Table 3.—Number and percentage distributions of 6th- through 12th-graders according to the postsecondary 

Table 3.—institution students plan to attend as reported by students and parents, by selected student, family,

Table 3.—and parent characteristics: 1999—Continued

Number of 

students 

(in 

thousands) 4-year 2-year Undecided 4-year 2-year Undecided 

Parents’ education

 Less than high school 1,942 34.1 20.5 45.5 24.8 17.7 57.5 

 High school only 6,328 36.7 20.0 43.2 35.0 32.0 33.1 

 Some postsecondary 

 education 7,635 41.9 18.9 39.3 47.0 32.0 21.1 

 College graduate 4,165 51.8 12.8 35.5 66.9 18.4 14.7 

 Graduate school 4,741 57.8 9.8 32.4 70.5 15.4 14.2 

Household income

 $25,000 or less 7,002 37.6 19.8 42.6 35.8 27.4 36.8 

 $25,001 to $50,000 7,742 42.3 17.5 40.2 46.8 27.3 26.0 

 $50,001 to $75,000 4,764 47.5 16.9 35.7 55.1 28.0 17.0 

 More than $75,000 5,304 54.7 10.5 34.8 68.9 17.8 13.3 

Language most spoken at home by parents

 English 23,007 † † † 51.4 26.0 22.7 

 Other 1,803 † † † 32.5 18.4 49.2 

†Not applicable.

1

This question was not asked of homeschoolers who attended public or private school less than 9 hours per week.

2

Homeschoolers include children schooled at home who attended public or private schools less than 9 hours per week.

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Sample in table includes 6th- through 12th-graders and their parents among 

whom both student and parent reported plans for student to attend postsecondary education.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Youth Survey and Parent Survey of the 1999

National Household Education Surveys Program (NHES:1999).

Student, family, or parent 

characteristic

Reported by student Reported by parent
 Expectations for College 

13 

Students’ academic standing in school was also related to the uncertainty about where they 

would attend postsecondary education. Specifically, as students’ grade-point average (GPA) 

increased, the likelihood of students and parents being undecided about where students would 

attend declined. 

Agreement Between Students and Parents 

While most students and parents agreed about students’ plans to attend postsecondary 

education, they often disagreed about whether students would attend a 4-year or 2-year 

institution. Roughly half (53 percent) of students and parents agreed on the type of institution 

(table 4). Among students and parents who disagreed, parents tended to have higher 

expectations. Twenty-nine percent of students had parents who thought the student would attend 

a 4-year institution when the student reported plans to attend a 2-year institution. The estimate of 

paired student and parent reports that disagreed in the other direction was smaller. Eighteen 

percent of students had parents who thought the student would attend a 2-year institution when 

the student reported plans to attend a 4-year institution. 

Student/parent disagreement, however, decreased with the students’ grade level; 54 percent 

of students in grades 6 to 8 disagreed with parents with respect to the level of institution they 

would attend. This percentage declined to 49 percent among students in grades 9 and 10 and 34 

percent among students in grades 11 and 12. 

The consistency between students’ and parents’ expectations also varied across different 

student groups. In particular, White students were more likely to agree with parents than 

Hispanic students. Student/parent agreement increased as GPA, household income, and parents’ 

education increased; agreement also was higher for students who had not repeated a grade. 

Reasons for Not Planning to Attend 

The small percentage of students (6 percent) and parents (4 percent) who did not report 

postsecondary education plans for the students were asked their main reason why they did not 

plan to attend college after high school. Among various reasons, “lack of interest in school” was 

one of the most frequently cited reasons by both students and parents (37 percent of students and 

48 percent of parents) (table 5).8 The next most common reasons cited by students were “needing 

or wanting to work” (20 percent) and “other” (17 percent). Few differences were detected among 

other reasons provided by parents. 

 

8There were two exceptions to this pattern: the proportion of students reporting “lack of interest” (37 percent) was not 

significantly different from the proportion reporting “needs to work” (20 percent) or “other” reasons (17 percent) for not 

continuing their education. 
Expectations for College

14 

Table 4.—Number of students and percentage of consistent and inconsistent reports between 6th- through 

Table 4.—12th-graders and their parents regarding the level of postsecondary institution students plan to

Table 4.—attend, by selected student, family, and parent characteristics: 1999

Number of Parents Students 

students 4-year/ 4-year/ 

(in students parents 

thousands) Total 4-year 2-year Undecided Total 2-year 2-year 

 Total 24,811 53.2 30.2 9.6 13.3 46.8 29.2 17.6 

Grade in school

 6 through 8 10,896 46.5 21.0 3.1 22.4 53.6 37.8 15.8 

 9 and 10 7,133 50.8 30.9 10.2 9.7 49.2 27.7 21.5 

 11 and 12 6,782 66.4 44.5 19.6 2.4 33.6 17.0 16.5 

Student’s sex 

 Male 12,113 52.3 28.2 10.7 13.4 47.7 29.7 18.0 

 Female 12,698 54.0 32.2 8.6 13.2 46.0 28.8 17.3 

Student’s race/ethnicity

 White, non-Hispanic 16,605 54.7 32.4 10.5 11.8 45.3 29.7 15.6 

 Black, non-Hispanic 3,777 49.9 30.5 6.8 12.6 50.1 30.6 19.5 

 Hispanic 3,035 48.8 16.2 9.5 23.1 51.2 25.9 25.3 

 Other, non-Hispanic 1,393 53.3 34.7 7.1 11.5 46.7 27.1 19.6 

Language spoken most at home by student

 English 23,034 53.1 31.1 9.9 12.2 46.9 29.8 17.1 

 Other 1,777 53.6 19.8 6.6 27.3 46.4 21.5 24.9 

Average GPA across all subjects1 

 Mostly F/D’s 844 42.4 9.7 11.4 21.3 57.7 36.1 21.6 

 Mostly C’s 4,638 44.7 15.2 14.8 14.7 55.3 32.9 22.5 

 Mostly B’s 9,835 52.2 26.9 10.6 14.7 47.8 28.7 19.1 

 Mostly A’s 9,202 59.7 43.5 5.8 10.3 40.3 26.9 13.5 

Repeated any grades since kindergarten1 

 Yes 2,774 47.6 16.8 15.1 15.8 52.4 31.4 21.0 

 No 21,745 54.0 32.1 8.9 13.0 46.1 28.8 17.3 

School type

 Public 22,304 52.6 28.8 10.1 13.7 47.4 28.9 18.5 

 Private 2,215 59.4 45.5 4.5 9.4 40.6 30.6 10.1 

 Home school2 292 47.8 21.5 12.3 14.0 52.2 40.0 12.2 

See footnotes at end of table.

Student, family, or parent 

characteristic 

Percent of consistent reports Percent of inconsistent reports 
 Expectations for College 

15 

Among students and parents who reported no plans for postsecondary education, some 

expressed concern about the cost of higher education. For example, 10 percent of students and 11 

percent of parents thought that “the high cost of college tuition and fees” was the major reason 

that students would not continue their education after high school. Several other reasons were 

cited, including “poor grades” (3 percent of students and 5 percent of parents), “joining the 

military” (10 percent of students and 6 percent of parents), and “not sure of future plans” (2 

percent of students and 1 percent of parents). 

Table 4.—Number of students and percentage of consistent and inconsistent reports between 6th- through 

Table 4.—12th-graders and their parents regarding the level of postsecondary institution students plan to

Table 4.—attend, by selected student, family, and parent characteristics: 1999—Continued

Number of Parents Students 

students 4-year/ 4-year/ 

(in students parents 

thousands) Total 4-year 2-year Undecided Total 2-year 2-year 

Parents’ education

 Less than high school 1,942 50.3 12.8 6.8 30.6 49.7 18.4 31.4 

 High school only 6,328 48.5 19.0 12.0 17.4 51.5 28.9 22.6 

 Some postsecondary education 7,635 50.4 26.6 12.2 11.7 49.6 31.9 17.8 

 College graduate 4,165 56.2 41.6 6.6 8.1 43.8 32.1 11.7 

 Graduate school 4,741 62.5 48.4 6.2 7.9 37.5 27.1 10.4 

Household income

 $25,000 or less 7,002 48.9 19.3 10.3 19.4 51.1 27.4 23.7 

 $25,001 to $50,000 7,742 52.6 27.5 10.6 14.5 47.4 29.2 18.2 

 $50,001 to $75,000 4,764 55.2 35.1 11.2 8.9 44.8 30.1 14.7 

 More than $75,000 5,304 57.8 44.4 6.0 7.5 42.2 30.8 11.4 

Language most spoken at home by parents

 English 23,007 53.6 31.4 9.8 12.4 46.4 29.7 16.6 

 Other 1,803 47.2 15.8 7.2 24.3 52.8 22.5 30.3 

1

This question was not asked of homeschoolers who attended public or private school less than 9 hours per week.

2

Homeschoolers include children schooled at home who attended public or private schools less than 9 hours per week.

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Sample in table includes 6th- through 12th-grade students and their parents

among whom both student and parent reported plans for student to attend postsecondary education.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Youth Survey and Parent Survey of the 1999

National Household Education Surveys Program (NHES:1999).

Student, family, or parent 

characteristic 

Percent of consistent reports Percent of inconsistent reports 
Expectations for College

16 

Table 5.—Percentage distributions of 6th- through 12th-graders and their parents according to the various

Table 5.—reasons given for student not planning to continue education beyond high school: 1999

Reasons for not continuing education

beyond high school Reported by student Reported by parent 

 Total 100.0 100.0 

Main reason

 Not interested/tired of going to school 37.4 47.5 

 Needs/wants to work 19.7 7.3 

 Joining the military 9.9 6.0 

 Cost too high/cannot afford 9.8 10.9 

 Poor grades/unable to get in 3.1 5.0 

 Not sure of future plans 2.0 1.4 

 Has a disability # 10.4 

 Other 17.3 11.6 

#Too few sample cases.

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Sample in table includes 6th- through 12th-graders and their parents

among whom either the student or parent did not expect the student to enroll in postsecondary education after high school.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Youth Survey and Parent Survey of the 

1999 National Household Education Surveys Program (NHES:1999).
17 

What Students and Parents Know About the Cost of 

Postsecondary Education Tuition 

Acquiring Information About College Costs 

This section includes only students and their parents who reported postsecondary education 

plans for the students (91 percent of the sample). These students and their parents were asked if 

they had obtained information about the cost of tuition and fees at the type of institution the 

student planned to attend. Eighteen percent of students and 30 percent of parents had done so 

(table 6). For those students and their parents who said they had not obtained information about 

costs, a follow-up question was asked to determine if they thought they could estimate the cost of 

a year’s tuition at the type of institution the student planned to attend. In addition to those who 

said they had obtained information, another 15 percent of students said they thought they could 

estimate the tuition and another 24 percent of parents thought they could do the same. Combined, 

33 percent of students had either obtained information about tuition costs or thought they could 

estimate the cost of tuition where they planned to attend school. These respondents are 

sometimes referred to as being cost aware. Fifty-four percent of their parents had obtained such 

information or thought they could estimate tuition costs.9

Students in grades 11 and 12 were more likely than students in grades 9 and 10 to have 

obtained cost information or to think they could estimate 1 year’s tuition. A similar pattern was 

observed among parents, with students in higher grades more likely than students in lower grades 

to have parents who had obtained cost information or thought they could estimate tuition costs. 

Roughly half of 11th- and 12th-graders (52 percent) and their parents (54 percent) had obtained 

cost information, and an additional 11 percent of the students and 17 percent of their parents 

thought they could estimate the costs. When analyzing students paired with their parents, about 

one-half of 11th- and 12th-grade students who had gathered information about costs at the type 

of institution students planned to attend or could estimate costs also had parents who had done 

the same (table 7). 

At each grade level, students’ parents were more likely to have gathered cost information 

or to be able to estimate the tuition of their children’s higher education than the students 

themselves. By the 11th- and 12th-grades, 63 percent of students and 71 percent of their parents 

 

9The combined percentages are shown in table 7. 
What Students and Parents Know About College Costs

18 

Table 6.—Number and percentage of 6th- through 12th-graders and their parents who reported that they had

Table 6.—obtained cost information or could accurately estimate tuition and fees at the postsecondary 

Table 6.—institution students planned to attend, by selected student, family, and parent characteristics: 1999

Have obtained information Could estimate cost

Number of about cost of tuition and fees of tuition and fees

students 

(in 

thousands) Students Parents Both Students Parents Both 

 Total 24,811 18.4 29.7 11.1 14.9 24.4 4.6 

Grade in school

 6 through 8 10,896 (1

) 16.5 (1) 16.4 27.6 4.8 

 9 and 10 7,133 15.0 27.0 5.8 16.3 26.5 5.7 

 11 and 12 6,782 51.7 53.9 34.6 11.2 17.2 3.0 

Student’s sex 

 Male 12,113 17.6 27.6 9.9 17.3 25.1 5.6 

 Female 12,698 19.2 31.8 12.3 12.7 23.9 3.6 

Student’s race/ethnicity

 White, non-Hispanic 16,605 19.4 33.0 12.4 14.3 28.0 5.2 

 Black, non-Hispanic 3,777 17.6 25.2 8.8 17.9 16.8 3.1 

 Hispanic 3,035 11.7 18.1 5.3 14.5 14.8 2.4 

 Other, non-Hispanic 1,393 23.5 28.9 14.8 14.7 24.3 5.9 

Language spoken most at home by student

 English 23,034 19.0 30.9 11.6 14.9 25.3 4.8 

 Other 1,777 11.5 15.0 4.7 15.1 12.7 2.3 

Average GPA across all subjects2 

 Mostly F/D’s 844 8.1 20.7 2.9 13.8 15.0 2.4 

 Mostly C’s 4,638 16.7 24.7 8.5 13.2 23.0 3.5 

 Mostly B’s 9,835 17.8 28.8 10.0 15.0 24.4 4.9 

 Mostly A’s 9,202 21.1 34.1 14.5 16.1 26.2 5.2 

Repeated any grades since kindergarten2 

 Yes 2,774 16.3 25.0 9.1 12.4 20.0 3.0 

 No 21,745 18.8 30.4 11.4 15.4 25.0 4.8 

School type

 Public 22,304 18.4 29.2 10.9 14.9 23.8 4.4 

 Private 2,215 19.3 35.4 13.4 15.8 31.0 7.2 

 Home school3 292 13.5 29.1 8.6 6.0 22.1 # 

Type of college student planned to attend

 4-year 11,076 29.8 37.1 18.8 17.4 25.5 5.9 

 2-year 4,101 31.1 34.1 16.5 11.3 18.6 2.0 

 Undecided 9,634 # 19.4 # 13.7 25.8 4.2 

See footnotes at end of table.

Student, family, or parent 

characteristic
 What Students and Parents Know About College Costs 

19 

Table 6.—Number and percentage of 6th- through 12th-graders and their parents who reported that they had

Table 6.—obtained cost information or could accurately estimate tuition and fees at the postsecondary 

Table 6.—institution students planned to attend, by selected student, family, and parent characteristics: 1999

Table 6.——Continued

Have obtained information Could estimate cost

Number of about cost of tuition and fees of tuition and fees

students 

(in 

thousands) Students Parents Both Students Parents Both 

Student plays role in family decisions

 Hardly ever 1,025 17.8 21.9 9.8 14.6 21.3 4.0 

 Sometimes 11,662 15.3 24.7 8.1 14.7 23.8 4.0 

 Often 12,124 21.5 35.2 14.2 15.2 25.4 5.2 

Parents’ education

 Less than high school 1,942 10.8 8.4 3.4 14.6 6.1 0.9 

 High school only 6,328 17.6 19.9 8.1 12.8 16.6 3.0 

 Some postsecondary education 7,635 17.4 30.7 10.4 13.9 25.4 3.9 

 College graduate 4,165 20.0 37.8 13.7 16.8 34.1 6.7 

 Graduate school 4,741 23.1 42.9 17.2 17.8 32.5 7.5 

Household income

 $25,000 or less 7,002 15.3 20.1 6.8 14.1 14.7 2.1 

 $25,001 to $50,000 7,742 17.8 28.3 10.7 14.4 21.9 4.4 

 $50,001 to $75,000 4,764 21.2 32.9 12.5 14.7 33.0 5.8 

 More than $75,000 5,304 21.0 41.8 16.3 17.0 33.2 7.1 

Language most spoken at home by parents

 English 23,007 19.1 31.1 11.6 15.1 25.4 4.8 

 Other 1,803 10.6 12.9 4.9 12.9 12.1 2.1 

Parent involvement in school2 

 Low level 4,471 20.6 24.9 9.8 13.9 19.3 3.6 

 Medium level 13,600 17.8 29.1 11.3 15.0 25.5 4.8 

 High level 6,448 17.5 38.6 12.6 16.8 29.0 5.6 

Type of college parents reported the child planned to attend

 4-year 12,408 23.0 41.5 16.7 16.6 27.3 5.6 

 2-year 6,303 21.1 35.3 11.0 12.3 18.7 2.8 

 Undecided 6,100 6.5 # # 14.2 24.5 4.4 

#Too few sample cases. 

1

This question was asked only of students in grades 9 to 12, but it was asked of 6th- through 8th-graders’ parents.

2

This question was not asked of homeschoolers who attended public or private school less than 9 hours per week.

3

Homeschoolers include children schooled at home who attended public or private schools less than 9 hours per week.

NOTE: Sample in table includes 6th- through 12th-graders and their parents among whom both student and parent reported plans for 

student to attend postsecondary education.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Youth Survey and Parent Survey of the 1999

National Household Education Surveys Program (NHES:1999).

Student, family, or parent 

characteristic
What Students and Parents Know About College Costs

20 

Table 7.—Number and percentage of 6th- through 12th-graders and their parents who reported they had 

Table 7.—either obtained cost information or could estimate tuition and fees, by selected student, family, 

Table 7.—and parent characteristics: 1999

Have obtained information about or

could estimate the cost of tuition and fees

Number of 

students 

(in thousands) Students Parents Both1

|||||||

 Total 24,811 33.4 54.2 22.9 

Grade in school

 6 through 8 10,896 16.4 44.1 8.0 

 9 and 10 7,133 31.3 53.5 19.9 

 11 and 12 6,782 62.8 71.1 50.1 

Student’s sex 

 Male 12,113 34.9 52.6 23.6 

 Female 12,698 31.9 55.6 22.4 

Student’s race/ethnicity

 White, non-Hispanic 16,605 33.8 60.9 25.6 

 Black, non-Hispanic 3,777 35.5 41.9 18.4 

 Hispanic 3,035 26.2 32.9 12.4 

 Other, non-Hispanic 1,393 38.2 53.2 27.2 

Language spoken most at home by student

 English 23,034 33.9 56.2 23.8 

 Other 1,777 26.6 27.7 11.3 

Average GPA across all subjects2 

 Mostly F/D’s 844 21.9 35.7 7.8 

 Mostly C’s 4,638 29.9 47.7 18.3 

 Mostly B’s 9,835 32.7 53.2 22.2 

 Mostly A’s 9,202 37.2 60.3 27.8 

Repeated any grades since kindergarten2 

 Yes 2,774 28.7 45.0 17.2 

 No 21,745 34.1 55.4 23.9 

School type

 Public 22,304 33.4 53.0 22.5 

 Private 2,215 35.1 66.3 28.7 

 Home school3 292 19.4 51.1 10.5 

Type of college student planned to attend

 4-year 11,076 47.1 † 35.1 

 2-year 4,101 42.4 † 26.6 

 Undecided 9,634 13.7 † 7.5 

See footnotes at end of table.

Student, family, or parent 

characteristic
 What Students and Parents Know About College Costs 

21 

Table 7.—Number and percentage of 6th- through 12th-graders and their parents who reported they had 

Table 7.—either obtained cost information or could estimate tuition and fees, by selected student, family, 

Table 7.—and parent characteristics: 1999—Continued

Have obtained information about or

Number of could estimate the cost of tuition and fees

students/ 

parents 

(in thousands) Students Parents Both1

|||||||

Student plays role in family decisions

 Hardly ever 1,025 32.5 43.1 18.5 

 Sometimes 11,662 30.0 48.5 18.9 

 Often 12,124 36.7 60.6 27.2 

Parents’ education

 Less than high school 1,942 25.4 14.5 7.3 

 High school only 6,328 30.4 36.5 15.6 

 Some postsecondary education 7,635 31.3 56.1 21.1 

 College graduate 4,165 36.8 71.9 30.2 

 Graduate school 4,741 40.9 75.4 35.8 

Household income

 $25,000 or less 7,002 29.5 34.8 13.7 

 $25,001 to $50,000 7,742 32.2 50.2 21.7 

 $50,001 to $75,000 4,764 35.9 65.9 26.8 

 More than $75,000 5,304 37.9 75.0 33.4 

Language most spoken at home by parents

 English 23,007 34.1 56.5 24.0 

 Other 1,803 23.4 25.0 10.2 

Parent involvement in school2

 Low level 4,471 34.4 44.2 20.2 

 Medium level 13,600 32.8 54.6 22.9 

 High level 6,448 34.4 67.6 27.8 

Type of college parents expected the child to attend

 4-year 12,408 † 68.9 32.1 

 2-year 6,303 † 54.0 20.8 

 Undecided 6,100 † 24.5 6.6 

†Not applicable.

1

This column includes cases where the parent and student responded differently (i.e., parent obtained information and student 

estimated cost or vice versa) so will not match the sum of columns 3 and 6 in table 6 which only includes cases where students 

and parents responded the same.

2

This question was not asked of homeschoolers who attended public or private school less than 9 hours per week.

3

Homeschoolers include children schooled at home who attended public or private schools less than 9 hours per week.

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Sample in table includes 6th- through 12th-graders and their parents

among whom both student and parent reported plans for student to attend postsecondary education.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Youth Survey and Parent Survey of the 

1999 National Household Education Surveys Program (NHES:1999).

Student, family, or parent 

characteristic
What Students and Parents Know About College Costs

22 

had either obtained information about college costs or could estimate them. Figure 1 displays the 

combined college cost awareness of 11th- and 12th-graders and their parents. Nearly threequarters of students and/or their parents had knowledge of college costs: 36 percent of either 

students or parents, plus 35 percent of both students and parents had obtained college cost 

information. An additional 13 percent reported that either the student or parent could estimate 

college costs. The remaining 16 percent of students and parents could neither estimate costs nor 

had obtained cost information.10 With respect to the relationship between subsequent college 

enrollment and cost awareness, these data cannot indicate whether it is more important for 

 

10The percentage of 11th- and 12th-grade students and their parents shown in figure 1 where both had obtained information (35 

percent) or both could estimate costs (3 percent) does not add to the percentage shown in the “both” column of table 7 (50 

percent). In table 7, if a student reported obtaining cost information and his or her parent did not, but his or her parent reported 

the ability to estimate cost, that was counted as both respondents having some source of cost knowledge. In figure 1, this studentparent pair response would not have been counted since they reported having different sources of cost knowledge. 

Figure 1.—Among 11th- and 12th-graders and their parents who reported plans for the student to attend

Figure 1.—postsecondary education, the percentage distributions according to their knowledge of college

Figure 1.—costs: 1999

NOTE: Detail may not sum to total because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Youth Survey and Parent Survey of the 1999

National Household Education Surveys Program (NHES:1999).

Student and

parent

Student

or parent

16.4%

Both student

and parent

34.6%

Either student

or parent

36.3%

Had obtained cost 

information

9.8%

3.0%

Could estimate 

costs

Student and parent could

do neither
 What Students and Parents Know About College Costs 

23 

students or their parents to be knowledgeable. Nor is it possible to disentangle the timing of 

knowledge, that is, whether students inform parents or vice-versa. Presumably, information 

travels in both directions. Therefore, the analysis examining factors that are associated with 

college cost awareness is done separately for parents and students. 

For both students and their parents, the percentage with knowledge of college costs was 

higher among those households with higher incomes and among those households with higher 

levels of parent education (table 7). Racial/ethnic group differences were also apparent, with 

parents of White students more likely to have such knowledge than parents of either Black or 

Hispanic students. Among students, Whites (34 percent) also were more likely than Hispanic 

students (26 percent) to be aware of college costs, but no difference was detected between Black 

students and White students in their likelihood of reporting knowledge of college costs. These 

results taken together, suggest that those individuals who are more disadvantaged 

socioeconomically, and potentially least able to afford college, are also those most likely to lack 

information about the price of attending.11

How Well Students and Parents Estimate 1 Year’s College Tuition 

Students in grades 6 through 12 and their parents who reported that they had either 

obtained college cost information or that they could accurately estimate the cost of tuition were 

then asked to provide an estimate of “1 year’s tuition and mandatory fees” at the type of college 

the students planned to attend.12 About one-half of the students (48 percent) and just under onehalf their parents (44 percent) provided estimates that included room and board in addition to 

tuition and fees (estimates not shown in tables). For comparisons with student and parent 

estimates, price data provided by postsecondary institutions were used to develop two sets of 

estimates, one for tuition and fees only, and one that included room and board (see the glossary 

in appendix A for a detailed description of the variables). 

On the whole, both students and parents overestimated tuition and fee amounts. This was 

especially apparent for those planning to attend public institutions. For example, the average 

yearly in-state tuition and fees that undergraduates were charged at public 4-year institutions in 

1998–99 was $3,247 (The College Board 1999; table 8a).13 Yet, students close to the age of 

 

11Minority individuals and those from families where neither parent attended college are disproportionately represented in lower 

income groups (Horn, Peter, and Rooney 2002) and are therefore considered disadvantaged. 

12Those who were undecided were asked to provide an estimate of 1 year’s tuition at a public institution at the level (4-year or 2-

year) they thought the student would attend. If they were undecided about the level of institution to attend, they were asked to 

give an estimate of tuition and fees at public 4-year colleges in their state. 

13This amount represents published tuition and fees and does not take into consideration any financial aid or tuition discounts 

provided to students by the institution. The value is weighted by student enrollment so that schools with large enrollments are

weighted more heavily than schools with smaller enrollments. 
What Students and Parents Know About College Costs

24 

Table 8a.—Sixth- through 12th-graders’ and their parents’ estimates of tuition and mandatory fees and tuition and

Table 8a.—fees plus room and board, according to students’ grade level, and the actual average tuition and fees paid

Table 8a.—in 1998–99 by type of institution students planned to attend, by selected student, family, and parent

Table 8a.—characteristics: 1999

Actual 

tuition 

Students Students Students Students and 

Grades 6 Grades 6 Grades Grades in grades 6 in grades 6 in grades in grades fees in 

through 12 through 8 9 and 10 11 and 12 through 12 through 8 9 and 10 11 and 12 1998–991

4-year

 Public (in-state) $5,642 $4,955 $7,192 $5,366 $6,241 $6,873 $6,032 $5,799 $3,247 

 Private 18,843 # 18,142 16,539 16,421 17,255 17,336 14,506 14,709 

 Undecided, 4-year2 14,593 10,649 17,260 # 9,100 9,160 8,992 # 3,247 

2-year3 4,652 4,110 3,043 5,276 3,621 3,642 3,214 3,933 1,554 

Undecided for any2 9,231 10,039 8,030 # 8,306 8,373 7,706 9,561 3,247 

4-year

 Public (in-state) 11,006 9,871 12,783 10,562 9,847 10,033 10,907 9,148 7,789 

 Private 20,928 # 21,582 21,436 22,546 22,128 23,471 22,218 20,463 

 Undecided, 4-year2 13,315 13,776 13,211 12,896 12,476 13,791 11,208 10,892 7,789 

2-year3 6,996 # # 7,650 5,692 4,587 # 6,778 — 

Undecided for any2 10,800 10,288 11,253 11,952 13,103 13,900 11,656 12,682 7,789 

#Too few sample cases.

—Not available.

1

Weighted by student enrollment so that schools with large enrollments are weighted more heavily than those with small enrollments. 2

Asked to estimate tuition and fees for public 4-year institutions in their state.

3

Includes respondents who indicated they would attend a 2-year institution, including a community college, junior college, or vocational/

technical institution. Because 91 percent of students enrolled in 2-year institutions attend a public 2-year college (Kojaku and Nuñez

1998) the actual amount of tuition and fees listed is for public 2-year institutions. 4

Forty-eight percent of students and 44 percent of parents included room and board in their estimates.

NOTE: Sample in table includes 6th- through 12th-graders and their parents who reported that the student planned to attend

postsecondary education and who were able to estimate tuition and fee amounts at the institution student planned to attend.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Youth Survey and Parent Survey of the 1999

National Household Education Surveys Program (NHES:1999). Actual tuition and fees published in The College Board (1999), Trends

in College Pricing. 

Institution type

Tuition and fees only

Tuition, fees, and room and board4

reported by students in

Tuition and fees

reported by parents of

Tuition and fees
 What Students and Parents Know About College Costs 

25 

college enrollment (i.e., 11th- and 12th-graders) who planned to attend public 4-year institutions 

estimated the yearly tuition to be notably higher at $5,366, as did their parents at $5,799. 

Similarly, for 2-year institutions, 11th- and 12th-graders’ average estimate for tuition and fees 

was $5,276 and their parents’ was $3,933, compared to the actual average of $1,554. 

In table 8b, tuition estimates for high school students only (9th- through 12th-graders) and 

their parents who had obtained information are compared to tuition estimates of those who had 

not obtained such information. Due to small sample sizes, the only comparisons that could be 

made for both students and parents were for public institutions. Parents who had obtained cost 

information reported lower tuition estimates for public 4-year in-state tuition ($5,183) than did 

parents who had not obtained information ($7,930). The same was not found for students. 

Paradoxically, students who had obtained cost information among those planning to attend a 2-

year institution estimated higher tuition amounts ($5,037) than those who estimated the amount 

without having obtained information ($3,131). It is possible that some students planned to attend 

a private for-profit vocational institution (which are relatively costly to attend compared to 

public 2-year institutions) and these students may have been more likely than those planning to 

attend public institutions to have obtained cost information. On the other hand, the tuition 

estimates of parents who had obtained cost information about 2-year institutions did not differ 

significantly in the amount of tuition reported from those of parents who estimated the amount 

without having obtained cost information. 

The distribution of tuition levels, as shown in figure 2, illustrates how students and their 

parents overestimate tuition costs by comparing price information provided by public 4-year 

institutions for in-state tuition and fees to cost estimates provided by students who planned to 

attend such institutions and their parents. While less than one-tenth of 1 percent of all students 

were enrolled in public 4-year institutions where in-state tuition and fees totaled $8,000 or more 

in 1998–99, 25 percent of 11th- and 12th-grade students and 24 percent of their parents expected 

they would have to pay this much for a 4-year in-state public university education. In 1998–99, 

over 90 percent of students attended institutions where tuition totaled less than $5,000 per year. 

Similar patterns, but more modest differences, were found for private 4-year institutions among 

students (figure 3). For example, while 20 percent of undergraduates attended private 4-year 

institutions with tuition and fees of $20,000 or more in 1998–99, 38 percent of 11th- and 12thgraders thought it would cost at least $20,000 annually to attend. However, when looking at the 

overall average cost estimates, no difference was detected between the parents’ tuition and fee 

cost estimate of $14,506 and the average tuition and fee price of $14,709 charged by private 4-

year colleges. Thus, parents of children who planned to attend private 4-year institutions 

provided an accurate tuition and fee estimate while their counterparts whose children planned to 

attend public 4-year institutions overestimated this cost. 
What Students and Parents Know About College Costs

26 

Table 8b.—Ninth- through 12th-graders’ and their parents’ average estimates for tuition and mandatory fees 

Table 8b.—according to whether they had obtained information or could estimate costs, by type of 

Table 8b.—institution students plan to attend: 1999

Tuition and fees reported by

Students Students Parents Parents 

All who obtained who could All who obtained who could 

students information estimate parents information estimate 

4-year

 Public (in-state) $5,736 $5,709 $5,901 $5,896 $5,183 $7,930 

 Private 17,073 17,013 # 15,732 16,480 # 

 Undecided, 4-year1 17,366 # 17,366 9,023 # 9,023 

2-year 4,703 5,037 3,131 3,614 3,706 3,405 

Undecided for any1 8,268 # 8,268 8,210 # 8,210 

4-year

 Public (in-state) 11,148 11,184 10,936 9,776 9,682 10,085 

 Private 21,478 21,436 # 22,737 22,754 22,672 

 Undecided, 4-year1 13,071 # 13,071 11,102 # 11,102 

2-year 7,290 7,562 # 6,231 7,059 4,902 

Undecided for any1 11,547 # 11,547 12,056 # 12,056 

#Too few sample cases.

1

Asked to estimate tuition and fees for 4-year public institutions in their state. 2

Forty-eight percent of students and 44 percent of parents included room and board in their estimates.

NOTE: Sample in table includes 9th- through 12th-graders and their parents who reported that the student planned to attend

postsecondary education and who were able to estimate tuition and fee amounts at the institution student planned to attend.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Youth Survey and Parent Survey of the

1999 National Household Education Surveys Program (NHES:1999).

Tuition, fees, and room and board2

Tuition and fees only 

Tuition and fees reported by 

Institution type
 What Students and Parents Know About College Costs 

27 

Because college tuition and fees vary substantially from state to state, students’ and 

parents’ tuition estimates were compared to the average tuition and fees for the type of institution 

they planned to attend within their state of residence. If students or parents were undecided about 

the type of institution, they were asked to provide an estimate for a public institution at the level 

students were planning to attend (4-year or 2-year). If undecided on the level, they were asked to 

provide an estimate of tuition and fees at public 4-year colleges in their state (see the glossary in 

appendix A for a full description of how the accuracy estimates were constructed).14 

 

14Actual average out-of-state fees were not available so students and parents of students who planned to attend out-of-state 

public 4-year institutions were excluded from this part of the analysis. However, when determining overall accuracy of estimates 

in the next section (i.e., who estimated within 25 percent of actual), out-of-state tuition was estimated by doubling the in-state 

Figure 2—Among 11th- and 12th-graders and their parents who reported plans for the student to attend a public

in-state 4-year institution, and who provided an estimate of tuition and fees, the percentage distributions

of estimated tuition and fees for 1 year and the actual tuition and fees paid by undergraduates in

1998–99

1

Does not include those who reported room and board in their estimates. Includes respondents who were undecided about where

to attend but estimated tuition and fees for public 4-year institutions in their state.

2

Does not include room and board costs.

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Youth Survey and Parent Survey of the 1999

National Household Education Surveys Program (NHES:1999). Actual tuition and fees published in The College Board (1998),

Trends in College Pricing.

$8,000 or more

$5,000–7,999

$4,000–4,999

$3,000–3,999

$2,000–2,999

Less than $2,000

Students’ estimates1

Average: $5,366

25.3%

25.5%

10.8%

13.5%

16.3%

8.6%

Parents’ estimates1

Average: $5,799

24.3%

26.0%

11.4%

11.1%

21.5%

5.7%

Actual tuition and fees2

Average: $3,247

0%

6.0%

19.0%

25.8%

39.0%

10.2%
What Students and Parents Know About College Costs

28 

Accurate estimates were identified as those that fell within 25 percent of the actual state 

average.15 As shown in table 9, 16 percent of 6th- through 12th-graders and 26 percent of their 

parents provided accurate estimates. Both students and parents were more likely to overestimate 

than underestimate tuition amounts. The same was found for students approaching college age: 

about one-quarter (24 percent) of 11th- and 12th-graders and about one-third (31 percent) of their 

parents were able to provide estimates within 25 percent of the actual tuition. Similarly, both 

 

tuition for the students’ or parents’ state of residence. This is a rough approximation of out-of-state fees based on College Board 

data (The College Board 2000, Table 6). 

15In addition to using the 25 percent threshold, tests were also conducted using a 15 percent and 50 percent threshold to 

determine if tightening or loosening the range of responses considered to be accurate had notable effects on the results. For the 

most part, patterns in the data found using the 25 percent threshold were also found using the alternative thresholds. Tables 

showing 15 percent and 50 percent thresholds are presented in appendix C. 

Figure 3—Among 11th- and 12th-graders and their parents who reported plans for the student to attend a

private 4-year institution, and who provided an estimate of tuition and fees, the percentage distributions

of estimated tuition and fees for 1 year and the actual tuition and fees paid by undergraduates in

1998–99

1

Does not include those who reported room and board in their estimates. Includes respondents who were undecided about where

to attend but estimated tuition and fees for public 4-year institutions in their state.

2

Does not include room and board costs.

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Youth Survey and Parent Survey of the 1999

National Household Education Surveys Program (NHES:1999). Actual tuition and fees published in The College Board (1998),

Trends in College Pricing.

Parents’ estimates1

Average: $14,506

26.9%

21.8%

17.1%

14.5%

14.5%

5.2%

Students’ estimates1

Average: $16,539

37.8%

13.3%

25.0%

12.9%

6.0%

Less than $4,000 5.0%

$4,000–7,999

$8,000–11,999

$12,000–15,999

$20,000 or more

$16,000–19,999

Actual tuition and fees2

Average: $14,709

19.6%

16.8%

27.4%

20.5%

10.2%

5.6%
 What Students and Parents Know About College Costs 

29 

Table 9.—Number and percentage distributions of 6th- through 12th-graders and their parents, according to 

Table 9.—the accuracy of their reported estimates of tuition and mandatory fees for the postsecondary 

Table 9.—institution students plan to attend, by selected student, family, and parent characteristics: 1999

Estimated Estimated 

Number tuition tuition 

of within Could within Could 

students (in 25% of Over- Under- not 25% of Over- Under- not 

thousands) actual1d estimated estimated estimate actual1d estimated estimated estimate 

 Total 24,811 16.3 11.9 5.2 66.6 26.0 21.0 7.1 45.8 

Grade in school

 6 through 8 10,896 11.4 2.9 2.2 83.6 22.9 15.6 5.7 55.9 

 9 and 10 7,133 16.4 10.4 4.5 68.7 26.2 21.6 5.7 46.5 

 11 and 12 6,782 24.0 28.1 10.7 37.2 31.0 29.1 11.1 28.9 

Student’s sex 

 Male 12,113 17.2 12.4 5.3 65.1 25.9 20.0 6.7 47.4 

 Female 12,698 15.3 11.5 5.1 68.1 26.2 22.0 7.5 44.4 

Student’s race/ethnicity

 White, non-Hispanic 16,605 16.7 11.8 5.3 66.2 30.0 23.2 7.7 39.1 

 Black, non-Hispanic 3,777 18.6 11.5 5.5 64.5 19.3 14.6 8.0 58.1 

 Hispanic 3,035 12.3 9.6 4.3 73.8 14.0 15.4 3.6 67.1 

 Other, non-Hispanic 1,393 13.8 19.2 5.2 61.8 23.4 23.9 6.0 46.8 

Language spoken most at home by student

 English 23,034 16.6 12.1 5.1 66.1 †d †d †d †d

 Other 1,777 11.3 9.4 5.8 73.4 †d †d †d †d

Average GPA across all subjects2 

 Mostly F/D’s 844 13.0 5.8 3.1 78.1 13.8 15.5 6.4 64.3 

 Mostly C’s 4,638 12.6 10.9 6.5 70.1 20.6 18.7 8.4 52.3 

 Mostly B’s 9,835 16.2 11.8 4.8 67.3 25.8 20.3 7.1 46.8 

 Mostly A’s 9,202 18.6 13.4 5.2 62.8 30.0 23.6 6.7 39.7 

Repeated any grades since kindergarten2 

 Yes 2,774 12.1 11.4 5.2 71.4 20.0 17.8 7.1 55.0 

 No 21,745 16.8 12.1 5.2 65.9 26.7 21.5 7.2 44.6 

School type

 Public 22,304 16.0 12.1 5.3 66.6 24.9 21.0 7.1 47.0 

 Private 2,215 19.1 11.4 4.7 64.9 36.8 21.7 7.8 33.7 

 Home school3 292 12.6 3.6 3.3 80.6 33.4 13.6 4.2 48.9 

See footnotes at end of table.

Student, family, or 

parent characteristic

Student Parent
What Students and Parents Know About College Costs

30 

Table 9.—Number and percentage distributions of 6th- through 12th-graders and their parents, according to 

Table 9.—the accuracy of their reported estimates of tuition and mandatory fees for the postsecondary 

Table 9.—institution students plan to attend, by selected student, family, and parent characteristics: 1999

Table 9.——Continued

Estimated Estimated 

Number tuition tuition 

of within Could within Could 

students (in 25% of Over- Under- not 25% of Over- Under- not 

thousands) actual1d estimated estimated estimate actual1d estimated estimated estimate 

Type of college student planned to attend

 4-year public 5,988 16.6 26.1 9.3 48.0 †d †d †d †d

 4-year private 1,677 29.7 26.1 17.6 26.6 †d †d †d †d

 Undecided, 4-year 3,412 25.7 # # 74.3 †d †d †d †d

 2-year 4,101 8.6 23.3 10.5 57.6 †d †d †d †d

 Undecided for any 9,634 13.7 # # 86.3 †d †d †d †d

Student plays role in family decisions

 Hardly ever 1,025 15.2 11.6 5.7 67.5 †d †d †d †d

 Sometimes 11,662 15.0 10.2 4.8 70.1 †d †d †d †d

 Often 12,124 17.6 13.6 5.5 63.3 †d †d †d †d

Talked with parent/teacher about the cost

 Yes 12,522 21.7 18.1 7.4 52.8 †d †d †d †d

 No 12,288 10.8 5.7 2.9 80.6 †d †d †d †d

Talked with parent/teacher about financial aid

 Yes 10,638 20.9 18.4 7.8 52.9 †d †d †d †d

 No 14,173 12.9 7.2 3.2 76.8 †d †d †d †d

Parents’ education

 Less than high school 1,942 13.6 7.5 4.3 74.6 7.2 5.0 2.2 85.5 

 High school only 6,328 14.7 10.6 5.1 69.6 17.5 13.8 5.1 63.5 

 Some postsecondary 

 education 7,635 14.8 11.0 5.5 68.7 23.9 24.0 8.2 43.9 

 College graduate 4,165 17.9 13.3 5.6 63.2 37.5 24.9 9.4 28.1 

 Graduate school 4,741 20.3 15.8 4.8 59.1 38.4 28.8 8.2 24.6 

Household income

 $25,000 or less 7,002 13.7 9.7 6.1 70.5 14.9 14.4 5.5 65.2 

 $25,001 to $50,000 7,742 15.4 11.3 5.5 67.8 23.7 19.3 7.2 49.8 

 $50,000 to $75,000 4,764 17.0 14.0 4.9 64.1 32.9 24.4 8.6 34.1 

 More than $75,000 5,304 20.2 13.9 3.8 62.1 38.1 29.1 7.8 25.0 

See footnotes at end of table.

Student, family, or 

parent characteristic

Student Parent
 What Students and Parents Know About College Costs 

31 

Table 9.—Number and percentage distributions of 6th- through 12th-graders and their parents, according to 

Table 9.—the accuracy of their reported estimates of tuition and mandatory fees for the postsecondary 

Table 9.—institution students plan to attend, by selected student, family, and parent characteristics: 1999

Table 9.——Continued

Estimated Estimated 

Number tuition tuition 

of within Could within Could 

students (in 25% of Over- Under- not 25% of Over- Under- not 

thousands) actual1d estimated estimated estimate actual1d estimated estimated estimate 

Language most spoken at home by parents

 English 23,007 †d †d †d †d 27.2 21.8 7.4 43.5 

 Other 1,803 †d †d †d †d 10.9 10.8 3.3 75.0 

Parent involvement in school 

 Low level 4,471 15.6 13.7 5.1 65.6 20.5 17.1 6.7 55.8 

 Medium level 13,600 16.3 11.2 5.3 67.2 26.9 20.5 7.2 45.4 

 High level 6,448 17.3 12.2 4.9 65.7 31.1 28.8 7.8 32.4 

Talked to someone/read materials on financial aid

 Yes 9,448 †d †d †d †d 33.7 28.1 10.0 28.2 

 No 15,363 †d †d †d †d 21.3 16.6 5.4 56.7 

Heard of Lifetime Learning and/or HOPE Scholarship tax credit

 Yes 7,314 †d †d †d †d 32.7 25.0 8.5 33.8 

 No 17,497 †d †d †d †d 23.3 19.3 6.6 50.9 

Type of college parent expected student to attend

 4-year public 7,248 †d †d †d †d 25.2 35.3 9.9 29.6 

 4-year private 2,626 †d †d †d †d 40.3 29.6 16.9 13.2 

 Undecided, 4-year 2,534 †d †d †d †d 46.0 # # 54.0 

 2-year 6,303 †d †d †d †d 14.6 29.7 9.7 46.1 

 Undecided for any 6,100 †d †d †d †d 24.5 # # 75.5 

#Too few sample cases.

†Not applicable.

1

An accurate estimate was defined as one within 25 percent of the actual average cost for the type of postsecondary institution the

students intended to attend in their state of residence.

2

This question was not asked of homeschoolers who attended public or private school less than 9 hours per week.

3

Homeschoolers include children schooled at home who attended public or private schools less than 9 hours per week.

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Sample in table includes 6th- through 12th-graders and their parents among 

whom both student and parent reported plans for student to attend postsecondary education.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Youth Survey and Parent Survey of the 1999

National Household Education Surveys Program (NHES:1999). Actual tuition amounts from the 1998 Integrated Postsecondary

Education Data System (IPEDS).

Student, family, or 

parent characteristic

Student Parent
What Students and Parents Know About College Costs

32 

students and parents were more likely to overestimate than to underestimate tuition. Perhaps of 

greater concern was the relatively large percentage—37 percent of 11th- and 12th-graders and 29 

percent of parents—who could not estimate the yearly tuition for the type of college the students 

hoped to attend. For both students and parents, as household income and parents’ education 

levels increased, so did the likelihood that cost estimates within 25 percent of actual costs would 

be reported.

Multivariate Analysis Results 

The above analyses showed that students’ and parents’ awareness of college costs was 

associated with many student, parent, and family characteristics. The patterns of relationships 

raise a number of questions about the factors related to students’ and parents’ knowledge about 

the cost of college tuition and fees. For example, were students from families with higher 

incomes more aware of college costs because their parents were more likely to be better educated 

(therefore better informed about the cost of college) or because they were more likely to be high 

academic achievers (therefore better prepared for college)? Were White students more likely 

than Black and Hispanic students to have parents who were aware of college costs because they 

were in families with higher incomes and therefore potentially more able to afford college? Did 

parents of students who planned to attend private 4-year institutions provide more accurate 

college estimates than parents of students who planned to attend public 4-year institutions 

because they were more likely to seek information about the cost (e.g., talked to someone or read 

materials on financial aid)? To take into account the interrelationship of the independent 

variables posed by these questions, two parallel logistic regression equations were developed to 

determine the association between each factor and the outcomes of interest. The first equation 

explores the likelihood of either obtaining cost information or being able to provide an estimate 

of college tuition costs (referred to as “cost awareness”). The first equation, therefore, indicates 

the likelihood of students or parents being cost aware (yes/no). The second equation explores the 

likelihood of providing an accurate estimate of tuition at the institution the student planned to 

attend. An accurate estimate was defined as an estimate within 25 percent of the actual cost. Both 

regression equations included independent variables that reflected student characteristics (e.g., 

grade in school, sex, race/ethnicity), family background (e.g., parent’s education, household 

income), students’ high school experiences (e.g., average GPA, had they repeated grades), 

parents’ involvement in children’s school, and students’ and parents’ expectations for types of 

college attended. The regression equations show the relationship between each individual 

variable in the equation and the outcome of interest, after taking into account the variation of 

other variables in the equation. Equations for students and parents were run separately. 
 What Students and Parents Know About College Costs 

33 

The results are shown in table 10. The numbers displayed in the table are odds ratios, 

which indicate the relative odds of having knowledge of costs (columns 1 and 2) or providing 

accurate estimates of tuition (columns 3 and 4) in relation to a comparison group (in italics). 

Asterisks indicate statistically significant differences. An odds ratio that is less than 1.0 means 

the odds of a particular group are lower than the odds of the comparison group, while those that 

are greater than 1.0 mean the opposite. Take, for example, the first row representing “Grade in 

school” and the first column representing students’ knowledge of college costs. The odds ratio 

for students in grades 6 to 8 is 0.22. This means that the odds of 6th- through 8th-graders having 

knowledge about tuition costs are 22 percent of the odds for 11th- and 12th-graders; in other 

words, the odds of 6th- through 8th-graders having knowledge of college costs were 78 percent 

lower than the odds of 11th- and 12th-graders. 

Equation 1: Knowledge of College Costs16

While students’ grade level was associated with increased odds of reporting knowledge of 

college costs (i.e., 11th- and 12th-graders and their parents had higher odds than their 

counterparts in lower grades and their parents), other variables also had clear relationships with 

cost awareness. For both students and parents, one of the factors clearly related to cost awareness 

was having plans to attend a private 4-year college (versus a public 4-year college). Students and 

parents who reported plans for students to attend a private 4-year institution had more than 

double the odds of being knowledgeable about college costs than their counterparts planning to 

 

16The logistic regression for students’ knowledge of college costs can be expressed in the following equation: 

 Log [Y / (1-Y)] = B0+B1X1+ . . . +B14X14

Where Y is whether the student had knowledge about college costs. X1 through X14 are the student’s grade in school, the 

student’s sex, the student’s race/ethnicity, the language spoken most at home by the student, the student’s average letter grade 

across all subjects, if the student had repeated any grades since kindergarten, the control of the school attended by the student 

(public or private), the type of postsecondary institution the student expected to attend, the extent to which the student played a 

role in family decisions, if the student had talked with a parent or teacher about the cost of attending a postsecondary institution, 

if the student had talked with a parent or teacher about financial aid, the highest level of education attained by the student’s 

parents, the income of the student’s household, and the level of involvement in the student’s school by the student’s parents. Bi

 is 

the regression coefficient for the corresponding independent variable Xi

. 

The logistic regression for parents’ knowledge of college costs can be expressed in the following equation: 

 Log [Y / (1-Y)] = B0+B1X1+ . . . +B13X13

Where Y is whether the student’s parents had knowledge about college costs. X1 through X13 are the student’s grade in school, 

the student’s sex, the student’s race/ethnicity, the language spoken most at home by the student’s parents, the student’s average 

letter grade across all subjects, if the student had repeated any grades since kindergarten, the control of the school attended by the 

student (public or private), the type of postsecondary institution the parents expected the student to attend, if the student’s parents 

had talked to someone or read about financial aid, if the student’s parents had heard of the Lifetime Learning and/or HOPE 

Scholarship tax credits, the highest level of education attained by the student’s parents, the income of the student’s household, 

and the level of involvement in the student’s school by the student’s parents. Bi

 is the regression coefficient for the corresponding 

independent variable Xi

. 
What Students and Parents Know About College Costs

34 

Table 10.—Logistic regression results (in odds ratios) of 6th- through 12th-graders’ and their parents’ knowledge

Table 10.—about college costs and whether they could accurately estimate tuition and fees: 1999 

Student Parent Student Parent 

Grade in school

 6 through 8 0.22* 0.40* 0.41* 0.56* 

 9 and 10 0.39* 0.56* 0.62* 0.80* 

 11 and 12 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 

Student’s sex

 Male 1.45* 0.91 1.28* 1.03 

 Female 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 

Student’s race/ethnicity

 Other, non-Hispanic 1.13 0.88 0.72 0.62* 

 Hispanic 0.91 0.83 0.86 0.71* 

 Black, non-Hispanic 1.35* 0.65* 1.33* 0.75* 

 White, non-Hispanic 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 

Language spoken most at home by student

 Other 0.86 † 0.78 † 

 English 1.00 † 1.00 † 

Average GPA across all subjects 

 Mostly A’s 1.20 1.02 1.11 1.24 

 Mostly B’s 1.01 1.03 1.02 1.31 

 Mostly C’s 0.92 1.02 0.81 1.20 

 Mostly F/D’s 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 

Repeated any grades since kindergarten 

 Yes 0.78* 1.08 0.74* 1.08 

 No 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 

School type1 

 Public 1.15 1.14 1.04 0.89 

 Private 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 

See footnotes at end of table.

Odds ratio of

having knowledge about cost

Odds ratio of 

estimating accurately 

Student, family, or parent characteristic
 What Students and Parents Know About College Costs 

35 

Table 10.—Logistic regression results (in odds ratios) of 6th- through 12th-graders’ and their parents’ knowledge

Table 10.—about college costs and whether they could accurately estimate tuition and fees: 1999—Continued 

Student Parent Student Parent 

Type of college student expected to attend

 Undecided for any 0.27* † 1.49* † 

 2-year 0.66* † 0.49* † 

 Undecided, 4-year 0.40* † 2.40* † 

 4-year private 2.45* † 1.99* † 

 4-year public 1.00 † 1.00 † 

Student plays role in family decisions

 Often 0.95 † 0.85 † 

 Sometimes 0.89 † 0.79 † 

 Hardly ever 1.00 † 1.00 † 

Talked with parent/teacher about the cost of college

 Yes 2.01* † 1.86* † 

 No 1.00 † 1.00 † 

Talked with parent/teacher about financial aid

 Yes 1.21* † 1.17 † 

 No 1.00 † 1.00 † 

Parents’ education

 Less than high school 0.67* 0.18* 1.07 0.23* 

 High school only 0.80* 0.36* 0.99 0.51* 

 Some postsecondary education 0.80* 0.66* 0.93 0.68* 

 College graduate or graduate school 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 

Household income

 $25,000 or less 0.87 0.48* 0.76* 0.58* 

 $25,001 to $50,000 0.90 0.54* 0.83 0.75* 

 $50,001 to $75,000 0.86 0.77* 0.84 0.99 

 More than $75,000 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 

Language most spoken at home by parents

 Other † 0.80 † 0.78 

 English † 1.00 † 1.00 

See footnotes at end of table.

Odds ratio of Odds ratio of 

Student, family, or parent characteristic

having knowledge about cost estimating accurately 
What Students and Parents Know About College Costs

36 

Table 10.—Logistic regression results (in odds ratios) of 6th- through 12th-graders’ and their parents’ knowledge 

Table 10.—about college costs and whether they could accurately estimate tuition and fees: 1999—Continued

Student Parent Student Parent 

Parent involvement in school

 High level 1.03 1.51* 0.96 0.99 

 Medium level 1.02 1.17 0.97 1.04 

 Low level 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 

Type of college parents reported child planned to attend

 Undecided for any † 0.25* † 1.99* 

 2-year † 0.62* † 0.61* 

 Undecided, 4-year † 0.39* † 3.51* 

 4-year private † 2.38* † 1.73* 

 4-year public † 1.00 † 1.00 

Parents talked to someone/read materials on financial aid

 Yes † 2.08* † 1.53* 

 No † 1.00 † 1.00 

Parents heard of Lifetime Learning and/or HOPE Scholarship tax credits

 Yes † 1.34* † 1.25* 

 No † 1.00 † 1.00 

*p<.05.

†Not applicable.

1

Homeschoolers who attended public or private schools less than 9 hours per week were not asked school related items. They

were excluded from this analysis. Those who attended school 9 or more hours per week were assigned to the kind of school

they attended.

NOTE: Sample in table includes 6th- through 12th-graders and their parents among whom both student and parent reported 

plans for student to attend postsecondary education. The numbers displayed in the table are odds ratios, which indicate the

relative odds of a comparison group to a control group of being cost aware. Odds ratios less than 1 mean the odds of the

comparison group (e.g., 6th- through 8th-graders) are lower than the odds of the control group (e.g., 11th- and 12th-graders) 

of either having knowledge of costs (columns 1 and 2) or accurately estimating costs (columns 3 and 4), while odds ratios

greater than 1 mean the opposite.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Youth Survey and Parent Survey of the

1999 National Household Education Surveys Program (NHES:1999). Actual tuition amounts are from the 1998 Integrated

Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS).

Odds ratio of Odds ratio of 

Student, family, or parent characteristic

having knowledge about cost estimating accurately 
 What Students and Parents Know About College Costs 

37 

attend a public 4-year institution. Similarly, both students and parents who talked to someone or 

read materials about financial aid also increased their odds of being aware of costs. 

Parents’ educational attainment and parents’ involvement in children’s school also played a 

role in cost awareness. Students who had college-educated parents were more knowledgeable 

about college costs than those who had parents with lower levels of educational attainment. 

College-educated parents were also more likely to report knowledge of costs than their 

counterparts with lower levels of educational attainment. In addition, parents who were highly 

involved with their children’s school (as reported by parents) were more likely to be 

knowledgeable about college costs than those with low levels of involvement. There was no 

relationship detected between the level of parental involvement and student’s knowledge, 

however. 

Results differed for students and parents in other respects. For example, household income 

was positively related to parents’ awareness of college costs, but not to students’ awareness. 

Conversely, while male students were more likely than female students to report knowledge of 

college costs, students’ sex had no relationship with parents’ likelihood of doing so. Different 

results were found with respect to students’ race/ethnicity. Specifically, the odds that Black 

students had some knowledge of costs were about one-third higher than for White students, 

though the odds that the parents of Black students had some knowledge of costs were lower than 

those of parents of White students. 

Some items were asked only of students or parents but not both. If students talked with 

their parents or with teachers/counselors about what it costs to go to college, they were more 

likely to be aware of the costs of the type of college they planned to attend. Similarly, if parents 

knew about the availability of either the Lifelong Learning or HOPE Scholarships (see appendix 

A for definition), they were more likely to have acquired cost information. 
What Students and Parents Know About College Costs

38 

Equation 2: Estimating the Cost of 1 Year’s Tuition17

The results for the second equation were nearly identical to those in the first. Most 

variables related to whether or not students and parents reported either acquiring cost 

information or having knowledge of college costs were similarly related to students’ and parents’ 

ability to accurately estimate 1 year’s tuition. However, there was one notable reversal for 

students with respect to parents’ education and household income. Parents’ education was 

strongly associated with students’ knowledge of costs, but was not associated with their ability to 

estimate 1 year’s tuition at the type of college they planned to attend. Conversely, household 

income was not related to students’ cost awareness, but was somewhat related to their ability to 

estimate 1 year’s tuition. In particular, the odds that students from households with relatively low 

incomes ($25,000 or less) could accurately estimate 1 year’s tuition were 24 percent lower than 

those for students from households with relatively high incomes (more than $75,000). For 

parents, on the other hand, both parental education and household income were associated with 

their likelihood of having knowledge about college costs and their ability to accurately estimate 

college costs. Compared with parents with lower levels of education and lower incomes, those 

with college educations and high incomes were more knowledgeable about college costs and 

able to accurately estimate the costs. 

In summary, after applying statistical controls for the associations with all variables 

included in the analysis, the results indicate that the awareness students and parents have about 

the costs of attending college and their ability to accurately estimate tuition amounts are 

 

17The logistic regression for whether the student accurately estimated the cost of tuition can be expressed in the following 

equation: 

 Log [Y / (1-Y)] = B0+B1X1+ . . . +B14X14

Where Y is whether the student accurately estimated the cost of tuition. X1 through X14 are the student’s grade in school, the 

student’s sex, the student’s race/ethnicity, the language spoken most at home by the student, the student’s average letter grade 

across all subjects, if the student had repeated any grades since kindergarten, the control of the school attended by the student 

(public or private), the type of postsecondary institution the student expected to attend, the extent to which the student played a 

role in family decisions, if the student had talked with a parent or teacher about the cost of attending a postsecondary institution, 

if the student had talked with a parent or teacher about financial aid, the highest level of education attained by the student’s 

parents, the income of the student’s household, and the level of involvement in the student’s school by the student’s parents. Bi

 is 

the regression coefficient for the corresponding independent variable Xi. 

The logistic regression for the student’s parents accurately estimated the cost of tuition can be expressed in the following 

equation: 

 Log [Y / (1-Y)] = B0+B1X1+ . . . +B13X13

Where Y is whether the student’s parents had knowledge about college costs. X1 through X13 are the student’s grade in school, 

the student’s sex, the student’s race/ethnicity, the language spoken most at home by the student’s parents, the student’s average 

letter grade across all subjects, if the student had repeated any grades since kindergarten, the control of the school attended by the 

student (public or private), the type of postsecondary institution the parents expected the student to attend, if the student’s parents 

had talked to someone or read about financial aid, if the student’s parents had heard of the Lifetime Learning and/or HOPE 

Scholarship tax credits, the highest level of education attained by the student’s parents, the income of the student’s household, 

and the level of involvement in the student’s school by the student’s parents. Bi

 is the regression coefficient for the corresponding 

independent variable Xi

. 
 What Students and Parents Know About College Costs 

39 

positively related to either household income or parents’ education levels (or both). However, 

regardless of family background, if parents had sought information about financial aid 

availability or if they knew about other means of offsetting costs (through tax credits), they were 

more likely to estimate accurately the cost of tuition. Similarly, if students had talked to parents 

or teachers/counselors about college costs, they too were better able to estimate the tuition at the 

college they planned to attend.

41 

Making Preparations for College 

In the Youth Survey and Parent Survey of NHES:1999, students in grades 6 through 12 and 

their parents were asked separate questions to determine how actively they were preparing for 

students to attend college. Parents were asked if they had been saving or making other financial 

preparations to send their children to college. These same parents were also asked if they had 

sought information about financial aid and whether they knew about tax incentives—in 

particular, the Lifelong Learning and HOPE Scholarships—designed to help send their children 

to college. Students were asked if they had discussed with parents or teachers (including 

counselors) which colleges to attend, the academic requirements for admission, college costs, 

and financial aid availability. 

Parents’ Plans to Pay for Their Children’s College Education 

Not all parents who expected their children to go to college after high school had begun 

planning for how to pay for college; 59 percent reported that they had begun to save money or 

make other financial plans for their children’s postsecondary education, and 38 percent had 

talked with someone or read materials about financial aid (table 11).18 Three-in-ten parents (30 

percent) were aware of the Lifetime Learning and/or the HOPE Scholarship tax credits designed 

to help families pay for their children’s college education. Even among parents of students who 

were nearing college enrollment (i.e., 11th- and 12th-graders), 63 percent reported that they had 

started saving, 58 percent had talked with someone or read materials about financial aid, and 34 

percent had heard about the Lifetime Learning and/or the HOPE Scholarship tax credit. 

The type of institution parents expected their children to attend was associated with 

whether or not parents had begun planning to pay for college. Compared with their counterparts 

who expected their children to attend a 2-year institution, and compared to those who were 

undecided about the type of institution, parents who expected their children to attend a 4-year 

institution were more likely to have saved or made other financial preparations. They were also 

more likely to have sought financial aid information and to know about tax credits. 

 

18It is important to keep in mind that the unit of analysis in the 1999 NHES is the student and not the parent. For example, the 

statement, “..., 59 percent reported that they had begun to save money or make other financial plans for their children’s 

postsecondary education, ...” should actually be stated as, “..., 59 percent of 6th- through 12th-grade students whose parents 

expected them to go to college had parents who had begun to save money or make other financial plans for their children’s 

postsecondary education,...” Parent or parents is used for ease of presentation. 
Making Preparations for College

42 

Table 11.—Number and percentage of 6th- through 12th-graders’ parents who reported having taken various

Table 11.—steps to prepare to pay for their children’s postsecondary education, by selected student, family,

Table 11.—and parent characteristics: 1999

Have heard 

Have started Have talked to of Lifetime 

Number of saving money/ someone/read Learning and/or 

students making other materials on HOPE Scholarship 

(in thousands) financial plans financial aid tax credits 

 Total 24,811 59.4 38.1 29.5 

Grade in school

 6 through 8 10,896 57.4 27.4 27.8 

 9 and 10 7,133 59.4 35.4 28.2 

 11 and 12 6,782 62.5 58.1 33.5 

Student’s sex

 Male 12,113 59.8 36.5 28.4 

 Female 12,698 59.0 39.6 30.5 

Student’s race/ethnicity

 White, non-Hispanic 16,605 64.5 39.8 31.8 

 Black, non-Hispanic 3,777 52.3 41.3 24.1 

 Hispanic 3,035 37.7 23.9 21.5 

 Other, non-Hispanic 1,393 64.4 40.1 33.8 

Average GPA across all subjects1 

 Mostly F/D’s 844 38.5 25.1 19.2 

 Mostly C’s 4,638 51.1 34.1 24.6 

 Mostly B’s 9,835 58.6 38.0 28.7 

 Mostly A’s 9,202 66.1 41.7 33.2 

Repeated any grades since kindergarten1 

 Yes 2,774 46.0 35.3 20.8 

 No 21,745 61.0 38.6 30.4 

School type

 Public 22,304 58.6 37.8 28.9 

 Private 2,215 67.1 42.2 32.7 

 Home school2 292 62.3 29.7 46.2 

Student plays role in family decisions

 Hardly ever 1,025 51.2 30.0 21.7 

 Sometimes 11,662 56.9 37.0 29.4 

 Often 12,124 62.4 39.8 30.3 

See footnotes at end of table.

Student, family, or parent 

characteristic
 Making Preparations for College 

43 

Table 11.—Number and percentage of 6th- through 12th-graders’ parents who reported having taken various

Table 11.—steps to prepare to pay for their children’s postsecondary education, by selected student, family,

Table 11.—and parent characteristics: 1999—Continued

Have heard 

Have started Have talked to of Lifetime 

Number of saving money/ someone/read Learning and/or 

students making other materials on HOPE Scholarship 

(in thousands) financial plans financial aid tax credits 

Parents’ education

 Less than high school 1,942 27.2 15.9 17.8 

 High school only 6,328 47.5 31.3 21.3 

 Some postsecondary education 7,635 58.4 39.9 29.5 

 College graduate 4,165 73.4 45.0 38.1 

 Graduate school 4,741 77.7 47.2 37.6 

Household income

 $25,000 or less 7,002 38.3 31.7 20.8 

 $25,001 to $50,000 7,742 57.2 38.4 28.0 

 $50,001 to $75,000 4,764 69.5 43.0 33.3 

 More than $75,000 5,304 81.2 41.7 39.7 

Language most spoken at home by parents

 English 23,007 62.0 39.9 30.1 

 Other 1,803 26.2 14.9 21.6 

Parent involvement in school1 

 Low level 4,471 44.2 30.2 24.4 

 Medium level 13,600 61.6 38.4 30.7 

 High level 6,448 74.2 49.0 31.8 

Type of college parents expected the child to attend

 4-year 12,408 68.6 45.9 34.5 

 2-year 6,303 54.7 36.8 26.2 

 Undecided 6,100 45.4 23.4 22.7 

1

This question was not asked of homeschoolers who attended public or private school less than 9 hours per week.

2

Homeschoolers include children schooled at home who attended public or private schools less than 9 hours per week.

NOTE: Sample in table includes 6th- through 12th-graders’ parents for whom both students and parents reported plans for

student to attend postsecondary education.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Youth Survey and Parent Survey of the

1999 National Household Education Surveys Program (NHES:1999).

Student, family, or parent 

characteristic
Making Preparations for College

44 

Both parents’ education and household income were positively related to whether they 

prepared financially. The higher the level of parents’ education, or household income, the more 

likely students’ parents were to report saving or making other financial preparations. 

Parents who reported saving or making plans to pay for college also varied with student 

race/ethnicity, language spoken in the home, and whether students attended private or public 

schools. Specifically, compared with parents of White students, parents of Black students and 

parents of Hispanic students were less likely to have started saving money or to have made other 

financial plans for their children’s postsecondary education. Both groups also were less likely 

than parents of White students to have heard of one or both of the tax credits. Parents of Hispanic 

students were less likely than parents of White students to have talked to someone or read 

materials on financial aid. Non-English-speaking parents were less likely to be aware of one or 

both of the tax credits than their English-speaking counterparts and to have saved or made any 

financial preparations for their children’s postsecondary education. Finally, parents of private 

school students were more likely than parents of public school students to report saving money 

or making other financial plans for their children’s postsecondary education. 

Parents’ saving or making plans to pay was also related to students’ academic standing in 

school. Parents of students with higher grades and students who had never been held back a 

grade were more likely than parents of lower performing students or retained students to have 

started saving or making other financial plans to send their children to college. 

Finally, how involved parents were in their children’s school was associated with their 

likelihood of saving or making plans to pay for their children’s college education. Highly and 

moderately involved parents were more likely than those who reported low involvement to have 

started saving money or making other financial plans for their children’s postsecondary 

education; they were also more likely to have talked with someone or read materials about 

financial aid, and to have heard of one or both of the tax credits that might be used to offset 

college costs. 
 Making Preparations for College 

45 

Findings From the Multivariate Analysis19

The multivariate results for exploring parents’ financial preparation activities are displayed 

in table 12. After all other factors were taken into account, students’ grade level in school 

remained significantly related to parents’ planning activities. Specifically, parents of 11th- and 

12th-graders had higher odds of acquiring financial aid information or being aware of tax credits 

than did their counterparts with children in grades 6 through 8 or grades 9 and 10. Parents of 

11th- and 12th-graders also had higher odds of saving or making other plans for their children’s 

education than parents of 6th-through 8th-graders, but no difference was detected between 

parents of 6th-through 8th-graders and parents of 9th- and 10th-graders in the odds of such 

saving or planning. 

The odds of parents reporting that they had begun to save or make other financial 

preparations to pay for their child’s college education increased with the resources available to 

them. Both household income and parents’ education levels were positively related to all three 

indicators of parents’ planning. Parents with lower levels of education (e.g., high school or 

below) and lower incomes (e.g., $25,000 or less) were less likely than their college-educated or 

high-income counterparts to have begun saving money for their children’s postsecondary 

education or to have heard of the Lifetime Learning and/or the HOPE Scholarship tax credits.20

Conversely, presumably related to their greater need, parents with incomes of $75,000 or less 

were more likely than those whose incomes exceeded $75,000 to have sought financial aid 

information. 

Whether parents had started saving or planning for how to pay for college was also related 

to the language parents spoke at home and how involved they were in their children’s school. 

The higher the level of involvement, the higher the odds that parents had begun saving money or 

making other financial plans and had sought information about financial aid. Non-Englishspeaking parents were less likely than their English-speaking counterparts to have begun saving 

 

19In table 12, there are three separate logistic regressions with a common set of independent variables. Each regression can be 

expressed in the following equation: 

 Log [Y / (1-Y)] = B0+B1X1+ . . . +B11X11

Where Y is whether the student’s parents started to save money or make other financial plans (first regression), whether the 

student’s parents talked with someone or read materials about financial aid (second regression), or whether the student’s parents 

heard of Lifetime Learning and/or HOPE Scholarship tax credits (third regression). X1 through X11 are student’s grade in school, 

the student’s sex, the student’s race/ethnicity, the student’s average letter grade across all subjects, if the student had repeated any 

grades since kindergarten, the control of the school attended by the student (public or private), the highest level of education 

attained by the student’s parents, the income of the student’s household, the language spoken most at home by the student’s 

parents, the level of involvement in the student’s school by the student’s parents, and the type of postsecondary institution the 

parents expected the student to attend. Bi

 is the regression coefficient for the corresponding independent variable Xi. 

20However, there was no significant difference between parents with some college or postsecondary vocation/technical education 

and those who were college graduates with respect to seeking financial aid information. 
Making Preparations for College

46 

Table 12.—Logistic regression results (in odds ratios) of parents preparations to pay for their children’s 

Table 12.—postsecondary education: 1999

Have heard 

Have started Have talked to of Lifetime 

Student, family, or parent characteristic saving money/ someone/read Learning and/or 

making other materials on HOPE Scholarship 

financial plans financial aid tax credits 

Grade in school

 6 through 8 0.79* 0.25* 0.82* 

 9 and 10 0.92 0.39* 0.82* 

 11 and 12 1.00 1.00 1.00 

Student’s sex

 Male 1.08 0.91 0.94 

 Female 1.00 1.00 1.00 

Student’s race/ethnicity

 Other, non-Hispanic 1.31 1.16 1.18 

 Hispanic 0.98 1.05 0.83 

 Black, non-Hispanic 1.07 1.30* 0.92 

 White, non-Hispanic 1.00 1.00 1.00 

Average GPA across all subjects

 Mostly A’s 1.50* 1.24 1.26 

 Mostly B’s 1.38 1.19 1.18 

 Mostly C’s 1.17 1.08 1.09 

 Mostly F/D’s 1.00 1.00 1.00 

Repeated any grades since kindergarten

 Yes 0.85 1.02 0.79* 

 No 1.00 1.00 1.00 

School type1

 Public 1.40* 1.14 1.10 

 Private 1.00 1.00 1.00 

Parents’ education

 Less than high school 0.44* 0.36* 0.61* 

 High school only 0.57* 0.62* 0.62* 

 Some postsecondary education 0.69* 0.87 0.85* 

 College graduate or graduate school 1.00 1.00 1.00 

See footnotes at end of table.
 Making Preparations for College 

47 

Table 12.—Logistic regression results (in odds ratios) of parents preparations to pay for their children’s 

Table 12.—postsecondary education: 1999—Continued

Have heard 

Have started Have talked to of Lifetime 

Student, family, or parent characteristic saving money/ someone/read Learning and/or 

making other materials on HOPE Scholarship 

financial plans financial aid tax credits 

Household income

 $25,000 or less 0.29* 1.35* 0.60* 

 $25,001 to $50,000 0.45* 1.27* 0.74* 

 $50,001 to $75,000 0.63* 1.22* 0.83* 

 More than $75,000 1.00 1.00 1.00 

Language most spoken at home by parents

 Other 0.47* 0.40* 1.14 

 English 1.00 1.00 1.00 

Parent involvement in school

 High level 2.25* 2.28* 1.04 

 Medium level 1.58* 1.52* 1.16 

 Low level 1.00 1.00 1.00 

Type of college parents expected the child to attend

 Undecided for any 0.67* 0.57* 0.73* 

 2-year 0.80* 0.72* 0.78* 

 Undecided, 4-year 0.98 0.71* 0.72* 

 4-year private 1.07 1.28* 1.06 

 4-year public 1.00 1.00 1.00 

*p<.05.

1

Homeschoolers who attended public or private schools less than 9 hours per week were not asked school related items. They

were excluded from this analysis. Those who attended school 9 or more hours per week were assigned to the kind of school they

attended.

NOTE: Sample in table includes 6th- through 12th-graders’ parents who reported plans for student to attend postsecondary 

education. The numbers displayed in the table are odds ratios, which indicate the relative odds of a comparison group to a

control group of making financial preparations. Odds ratios less than 1 mean the odds of the comparison group (e.g., parents

of 6th- through 8th-graders) are lower than the odds of the control group (e.g., parents of 11th- and 12th-graders) of being

financially prepared while odds ratios are greater than 1 mean the opposite.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Youth Survey and Parent Survey of the 1999

National Household Education Surveys Program (NHES:1999).
Making Preparations for College

48 

or making other financial plans and to have talked with someone or read materials about 

financial aid. 

The type of college that parents expected their children to attend also made a difference. 

Compared with parents who expected their children to attend a public 4-year institution, those 

who were undecided about the type of college their children would attend had lower odds of 

engaging in any of the three planning activities with one exception. There was no measurable 

difference in terms of saving money or making other financial plans between parents expecting 

their children to attend a public 4-year institution and those who were either undecided about 

what type of 4-year institution their children would attend or those who expected their children 

to attend a private 4-year college. However, the odds that parents sought information about 

financial aid were 28 percent higher for parents planning to send their children to a private 4-year 

institution than for parents planning to send their children to a public 4-year institution. 

Logically, this might be expected because of the higher tuition of private 4-year colleges. 

Students’ Preparations 

Indicators of students’ preparations for college included whether or not students reported 

having discussions during the school year with parents or teachers/counselors regarding college 

academic requirements, where to attend, the costs, and financial aid availability. Nearly threequarters (74 percent) of college-bound students in grades 6 through 12 reported having 

discussions either with their parents or with their teachers/counselors about the academic 

requirements for college, and 69 percent had discussions regarding the type of postsecondary 

institution they might attend (table 13). Roughly half (51 percent) of 6th- through 12th-graders 

had sought information about college costs, and 43 percent reported discussing financial aid 

availability with parents or teachers/counselors. 

As students approached the end of high school, the likelihood of reporting such discussions 

with parents or teachers/counselors increased. Among 11th- and 12th-graders, 93 percent 

reported discussing academic requirements for college, and 91 percent reported discussing where 

they expected to attend with their parents or teachers/counselors, compared with about 57 

percent of 6th- through 8th-graders in each case. Similarly, three-quarters (75 percent) of 

college-bound 11th- and 12th-graders had talked with their parents or teachers/counselors about 

college costs, and 71 percent had discussed financial aid availability, compared with 36 and 27 

percent, respectively, of 6th- through 8th-graders. 

Female students were more likely than male students to discuss various topics with their 

parents or teachers/counselors. Students who had decided which type of college to attend also 
 Making Preparations for College 

49 

Table 13.—Number and percentage of 6th- through 12th-graders who reported discussing various issues 

Table 13.—relating to postsecondary education with their parents or school teacher/counselors, by selected 

Table 13.—student, family, and parent characteristics: 1999

Number of Academic Type of Cost of 

students requirements college to tuition and Financial 

(in thousands) for college attend fees aid 

 Total 24,811 73.7 69.3 50.5 42.9 

Grade in school

 6 through 8 10,896 56.7 56.4 36.0 27.4 

 9 and 10 7,133 81.1 68.7 49.7 39.6 

 11 and 12 6,782 93.3 90.6 74.6 71.1 

Student’s sex

 Male 12,113 72.2 67.5 49.1 40.8 

 Female 12,698 75.2 71.0 51.8 44.9 

Student’s race/ethnicity

 White, non-Hispanic 16,605 72.4 69.5 49.0 41.1 

 Black, non-Hispanic 3,777 77.2 70.2 53.9 47.9 

 Hispanic 3,035 75.4 64.8 52.9 45.8 

 Other, non-Hispanic 1,393 76.2 74.1 53.2 44.7 

Language spoken most at home by student

 English 23,034 73.4 69.5 50.3 42.3 

 Other 1,777 78.0 66.7 52.2 50.4 

Average GPA across all subjects1 

 Mostly F/D’s 844 68.1 60.9 39.1 36.4 

 Mostly C’s 4,638 74.6 68.2 46.2 37.4 

 Mostly B’s 9,835 73.4 68.0 50.7 44.1 

 Mostly A’s 9,202 74.1 72.3 53.7 45.1 

Repeated any grades since kindergarten1 

 Yes 2,774 72.1 66.3 46.3 43.6 

 No 21,745 73.9 69.8 51.1 42.9 

School type

 Public 22,304 74.0 69.2 50.7 43.1 

 Private 2,215 70.8 71.6 49.5 41.7 

 Home school2 292 74.0 59.2 43.0 36.6 

Type of college student expected to attend

 4-year 11,076 83.8 82.0 61.2 52.7 

 2-year 4,101 83.7 76.9 56.8 49.8 

 Undecided 9,634 57.9 51.5 35.4 28.6 

See footnotes at end of table.

Student, family, or parent 

characteristic
Making Preparations for College

50 

were more likely than their undecided counterparts to report such discussions. Students’ 

perception of their role in family decisionmaking also was positively related to the likelihood 

that they had discussions with parents or teachers/counselors. Students who were often active in 

family decisions were more likely to discuss various issues with their parents or 

teachers/counselors than those who reported participating sometimes or hardly ever. 

Some characteristics were associated with the likelihood of discussing a particular topic but 

not others. For example, Hispanic and Black students were more likely than White students to 

Table 13.—Number and percentage of 6th- through 12th-graders who reported discussing various issues 

Table 13.—relating to postsecondary education with their parents or school teacher/counselors, by selected 

Table 13.—student, family, and parent characteristics: 1999—Continued

Number of Academic Type of Cost of 

students requirements college to tuition and Financial 

(in thousands) for college attend fees aid 

Student plays role in family decisions

 Hardly ever 1,025 63.1 57.2 37.0 33.2 

 Sometimes 11,662 70.2 65.9 47.0 38.6 

 Often 12,124 78.0 73.6 54.9 47.8 

Parents’ education

 Less than high school 1,942 75.7 62.8 51.6 48.7 

 High school only 6,328 72.3 66.7 48.5 42.8 

 Some postsecondary education 7,635 72.1 68.2 49.3 42.6 

 College graduate 4,165 75.5 72.5 54.2 43.0 

 Graduate school 4,741 75.9 74.4 51.2 41.0 

Household income

 $25,000 or less 7,002 74.2 66.1 49.7 46.1 

 $25,001 to $50,000 7,742 70.7 67.9 49.4 42.4 

 $50,001 to $75,000 4,764 75.9 72.1 51.9 43.2 

 More than $75,000 5,304 75.5 73.0 51.7 39.0 

Parent involvement in school1 

 Low level 4,471 76.2 66.7 49.5 45.8 

 Medium level 13,600 73.1 69.8 50.7 41.8 

 High level 6,448 71.7 72.2 51.8 42.4 

1

This question was not asked of homeschoolers who attended public or private school less than 9 hours per week.

2

Homeschoolers include children schooled at home who attended public or private schools less than 9 hours per week.

NOTE: Sample in tables includes students who reported plans to attend postsecondary education.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Youth Survey and Parent Survey of the 1999

National Household Education Surveys Program (NHES:1999).

Student, family, or parent 

characteristic
 Making Preparations for College 

51 

discuss financial aid availability with their parents or teachers/counselors, but there were no such 

differences detected with respect to discussions about cost of tuition and fees. Non-Englishspeaking students were more likely than their English-speaking counterparts to discuss issues of 

academic requirements and financial aid, but no differences were detected with respect to 

discussions about costs or the type of institution to attend. Students with higher grades were 

more likely than those with lower grades to consult parents or teachers/counselors about the type 

of postsecondary institution to attend, about the cost of tuition, and about the availability of 

financial aid, but the same pattern did not hold for discussions of academic requirements. 

Students from higher income families or whose parents had more education were more likely 

than students from lower income families or from those whose parents had less education to 

consult parents or teachers/counselors about the type of postsecondary institution to attend. 

Similar patterns with respect to income and parents’ education were not found for discussions 

concerning academic requirements or cost of tuition and fees. 

Findings From the Multivariate Analysis21

Three factors were consistently related to students’ discussions concerning college 

preparation. After holding related variables constant, student’s grade level in school, 

expectations for the type of postsecondary institution to attend, and perceived role in family 

decisions all influenced the likelihood of students reporting such discussions (table 14). 

Consistent with previously reported findings, 11th- and 12th-graders were more likely than 6ththrough 10th-graders to discuss various issues either with their parents or with 

teachers/counselors. This strongly suggests that students at the end of high school with plans to 

attend college feel a greater need to plan for postsecondary education than their younger peers. 

Information about academic requirements, college type, costs, and financial aid is important for 

planning. 

 

21In table 14, there are four separate logistic regressions with a common set of independent variables. Each regression can be 

expressed in the following equation: 

 Log [Y / (1-Y)] = B0+B1X1+ . . . +B12X12

Where Y is whether the student discussed the academic requirements for college with parents or school teachers/counselors (first 

regression), whether the student discussed the type of college to attend (second regression), whether the student discussed the

cost of tuition and fees (third regression), or whether the student discussed financial aid (fourth regression). X1 through X12 are 

the student’s grade in school, the student’s sex, the student’s race/ethnicity, the language spoken most at home by the student, the 

student’s average letter grade across all subjects, if the student had repeated any grades since kindergarten, the control of the 

school attended by the student (public or private), the type of postsecondary institution the student expected to attend, the extent 

to which the student played a role in family decisions, the highest level of education attained by the student’s parents, the income 

of the student’s household, and the level of involvement in the student’s school by the student’s parents. Bi

 is the regression 

coefficient for the corresponding independent variable Xi

. 
Making Preparations for College

52 

Table 14.—Logistic regression results (in odds ratios) of 6th- through 12th-graders’ discussions about

Table 14.—various issues regarding postsecondary education with their parents or school teachers/counselors: 

Table 14.—1999

Academic Type of Cost of 

requirements college to tuition and Financial 

for college attend fees aid 

Grade in school

 6 through 8 0.13* 0.18* 0.23* 0.17*

 9 and 10 0.35* 0.26* 0.37* 0.28*

 11 and 12 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 

Student’s sex

 Male 0.90 0.90 0.98 0.93 

 Female 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 

Student’s race/ethnicity

 Other, non-Hispanic 1.22 1.26 1.15 0.99 

 Hispanic 1.24 0.99 1.44* 1.13 

 Black, non-Hispanic 1.45* 1.18 1.40* 1.37*

 White, non-Hispanic 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 

Language spoken most at home by student

 Other 1.41* 1.18 1.00 1.39*

 English 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 

Average GPA across all subjects

 Mostly A’s 0.95 0.95 1.31 1.12 

 Mostly B’s 0.93 0.84 1.18 1.06 

 Mostly C’s 1.08 0.96 1.01 0.79 

 Mostly F/D’s 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 

Repeated any grades since kindergarten

 Yes 0.86 0.92 0.82 0.97 

 No 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 

School type1

 Public 1.18 1.05 1.14 1.00 

 Private 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 

Type of college student expected to attend

 Undecided for any 0.37* 0.29* 0.46* 0.50*

 2-year 0.72* 0.58* 0.69* 0.65*

 Undecided, 4-year 0.74* 0.63* 0.66* 0.69*

 4-year private 1.06 1.70* 1.37* 1.20 

 4-year public 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 

See footnotes at end of table.

Student, family, or parent characteristic
 Making Preparations for College 

53 

Students who were undecided about the type of college they would attend or who planned 

to attend a 2-year institution had lower odds of discussing college issues with parents or 

teachers/counselors than those who expected to attend a public 4-year institution. Students’ role 

in family decisions and parental involvement in students’ school were also important influences 

on whether students discussed postsecondary education when controlling for all other related 

variables. Students who were often or sometimes involved in family decisionmaking were more 

Table 14.—Logistic regression results (in odds ratios) of 6th- through 12th-graders’ discussions about

Table 14.—various issues regarding postsecondary education with their parents or school teachers/counselors: 

Table 14.—1999—Continued

Academic Type of Cost of 

requirements college to tuition and Financial 

for college attend fees aid 

Student plays role in family decisions

 Often 2.26* 2.05* 2.07* 1.92*

 Sometimes 1.73* 1.72* 1.72* 1.45*

 Hardly ever 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 

Parents’ education

 Less than high school 1.00 0.79 1.09 1.23 

 High school only 0.92 0.91 1.00 1.10 

 Some postsecondary education 0.89 0.92 1.02 1.10 

 College graduate or graduate school 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 

Household income

 $25,000 or less 0.91 0.91 0.99 1.41*

 $25,001 to $50,000 0.80* 0.91 1.00 1.28*

 $50,001 to $75,000 0.96 0.96 1.01 1.17 

 More than $75,000 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 

Parent involvement in school

 High level 1.09 1.52* 1.36* 1.17 

 Medium level 1.12 1.38* 1.27* 1.07 

 Low level 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 

*p<.05.

1

Homeschoolers who attended public or private schools less than 9 hours per week were not asked school related items. They

were excluded from this analysis. Those who attended school 9 or more hours per week were assigned to the kind of school they

attended.

NOTE: Sample in tables includes students who reported plans to attend postsecondary education. The numbers displayed in the

table are odds ratios, which indicate the relative odds of a comparison group to a control group of making financial preparations.

Odds ratios less than 1 mean the odds of the comparison group (e.g., 6th- through 8th-graders) are lower than the odds of the

control group (e.g., 11th- and 12th-graders) of discussing college matters with parents or teachers/counselors, while odds ratios

greater than 1 mean the opposite.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Youth Survey and Parent Survey of the 1999

National Household Education Surveys Program (NHES:1999).

Student, family, or parent characteristic
Making Preparations for College

54 

likely than those who were rarely involved to discuss various issues relating to postsecondary 

education with their parents or teachers/counselors. Similarly, students whose parents were 

highly involved in their schooling had greater odds of discussing what type of college to attend 

and the costs of college with their parents or teachers/counselors, compared with students with 

parents who reported low involvement. Also, students from lower income families were more 

likely than those from high-income families to report having discussions about financial aid with 

parents or teachers/counselors. 

Finally, students’ race/ethnicity remained a significant variable even after controlling for 

related variables. Black students were more likely than White students to discuss such issues as 

academic requirements, college costs, and financial aid with their parents or teachers/counselors. 

Hispanic students were more likely than White students to discuss college costs with their 

parents or teachers. 
55 

Summary and Conclusions 

The results of this study suggest that many college-bound students and their parents do not 

have an accurate idea of what it costs to attend college. In this study, even among students close 

to college age (11th- and 12th-graders) with intentions of enrolling in college, roughly one-half 

of the students (52 percent) and their parents (54 percent) had not obtained information about 

what it costs to attend college. When asked to estimate 1 year’s college tuition at the type of 

institution the student planned to attend, large proportions of both students (28 percent) and their 

parents (29 percent) overestimated the amount. Furthermore, 37 percent of 11th- and 12thgraders and 29 percent of their parents could not estimate the amount of 1 year’s tuition. 

Not surprisingly, the younger the students were, the less aware they or their parents were of 

college costs. Yet in 9th and 10th grade, when students who expect to attend college should be 

taking requisite college preparatory courses, 69 percent of students and 46 percent of their 

parents could not estimate what it would cost to attend college. 

Tabular findings of this study also demonstrated that for both students and their parents, the 

percentage with knowledge of college costs was higher among those in households with higher 

incomes and among those from households with higher levels of parent education. However, 

while the association between socioeconomic status indicators (i.e., household income and 

parents’ education) and cost awareness was significant and consistent for parents of 6th- through 

12th-graders, it was less so for students. After holding key variables constant,22 household 

income was not associated with students’ college cost awareness. Specifically, household income 

was not associated with students’ likelihood of reporting they had either obtained college cost 

information or could estimate tuition and fees. Similarly, parents’ education did not influence 

students’ ability to provide accurate estimates of tuition. For parents, on the other hand, both 

indicators of socioeconomic status were related to parents’ cost awareness and their ability to 

accurately estimate tuition and fees. 

In addition, the results showed that regardless of parents’ education and household income, 

students who were involved in family decisionmaking were much more likely to seek out 

information about college including where to attend, academic requirements, and cost, as well as 

 

22Including students’ grade in school, sex, race/ethnicity, language spoken most at home, average GPA, repeating a grade, school 

type, type of college expected to attend, role in family decisionmaking, talking with parents or teachers or counselors about 

various issues on postsecondary education, parents’ education, parent involvement in school. 
Summary and Conclusions

56 

financial aid availability through discussions with parents and teachers/counselors. Students who 

had discussions about college costs and financial aid availability were also more aware of college 

costs (i.e., they had obtained cost information about the type of college they would attend or they 

could estimate tuition accurately). Similarly, regardless of income and education levels, parents 

who were very involved in their children’s school were more likely to have made financial 

preparations to pay for their children’s college education and to have sought information about 

financial aid. Involved parents were also more aware of college costs though they were not more 

likely to estimate tuition amounts accurately. 
57 

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The College Board. (2000). College Cost and Financial Handbook. Washington, DC: The 

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Menard, S. (1995). Applied Logistic Regression Analysis. Sage University Paper series on 

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Nolin, M.J., Montaquila, J., Lennon, J., Kleiner, B., Kim, K., Chapman, C., Chandler, K., 

Creighton, S., and Bielick, S. (2000a). National Household Education Survey of 1999: Data 

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61 

Appendix A—Glossary 

This glossary describes the variables used in this report. In the index below, the variables are organized by general 

topic and, within topic, listed in the order they appear in the report. The glossary is organized in similar fashion. 

Glossary Index 

SURVEY VARIABLES

EXPECTATIONS FOR COLLEGE

Postsecondary education expected by 

parent ....................................................... SEAFTRHS 

Postsecondary education expected by 

student.......................................................FCPOSTHS 

Student-reported reasons for not 

attending postsecondary education ......... YSNOTREA 

Parent-reported student reasons for not 

attending postsecondary education ..........PSNOTREA 

STUDENT CHARACTERISTICS

Sex ..........................................................................SEX 

Language spoken most at home by 

student........................................................... CSPEAK 

Repeated any grade since kindergarten.......SEREPEAT 

FAMILY/PARENT CHARACTERISTICS

Household income .......................................HINCOME 

PARENTS’ FINANCIAL PREPARATIONS AND 

KNOWLEDGE

Talked to someone/read materials on 

financial aid ............................................... PSFINAID 

Saving for child’s postsecondary 

education...................................................PSAVMON 

DERIVED VARIABLES

STUDENT CHARACTERISTICS

Average GPA across all subjects .......................STGPA 

School type ................................................ SCHLKIND 

Student role in family decisions...................... STROLE 

Students’ grade in school..........................ALLGRADE 

Race/ethnicity ........................................... RACEETHN 

DERIVED VARIABLES, CONTINUED

EXPECTATIONS FOR COLLEGE

Level of institution student expected to 

attend ..............................................................STPSER 

Level of institution parent expected 

student to attend.............................................PARSER 

KNOWLEDGE ABOUT COST

Parents’ knowledge about the cost of 

tuition and fees ........................................PARKWTUI 

Students’ knowledge about the cost of 

tuition and fees ............................................. STKWUI 

Tuition and fees estimated by students...........STESTUI 

Tuition and fees estimated by parents .........PARESTUI 

Accuracy of parents’ estimate of 

college tuition ............................................ PARTUI25 

Accuracy of students’ estimate of 

college tuition ............................................... STTUI25 

FAMILY/PARENT CHARACTERISTICS

Parents’ education .................................... PARGRADE 

Parents’ level of involvement in child’s 

school ............................................................PARINV 

Language spoken most at home by 

parent......................................................LANGUAGE 

STUDENTS’ DISCUSSION OF VARIOUS 

POSTSECONDARY EDUCATION TOPICS

Academic requirements for college.............TALKACA 

Type of college planning to attend ............ TALKTYPE 

Cost of tuition and fees................................ TALKCOS 

Financial aid ................................................. TALKAID 

PARENTS’ KNOWLEDGE OF TAX CREDITS

Knowledge of HOPE Scholarship and/or 

Knowledge of Lifetime Learning tax 

credit...........................................................PSTAXCD 
Appendix A—Glossary 

DAS Variable 

62 

SURVEY VARIABLES

Postsecondary education expected by parent SEAFTRHS

Indicates response to the question “Do you think (CHILD) will attend school after high school?” 

Yes 

No 

Postsecondary education expected by student FCPOSTHS

Indicates response to the question, “Do you think you will attend school after high school?” 

Yes 

No 

Student-reported reasons for not attending postsecondary education YSNOTREA 

Student response to the question “There are many reasons why young people decide not to attend school after high 

school. What is your main reason?” 

Cost too high/cannot afford 

Needs/wants to work 

Poor grades/unable to get in 

Not interested/tired of going to school/bored with school/dislikes school 

Has a disability (physical/learning/emotional) 

Joining the military 

Not sure of future plans 

Other 

Parent-reported student reasons for student not attending postsecondary education PSNOTREA

Parent’s response to the question “There are many reasons why young people decide not to attend school after high 

school. What is the main reason for [child]?” 

Cost too high/cannot afford 

Needs/wants to work 

Poor grades/unable to get in 

Not interested/tired of going to school/bored with school/dislikes school 

Has a disability (physical/learning/emotional) 

Joining the military 

Not sure of future plans 

Other 

Sex SEX 

Indicates student’s sex as reported in the Parent Survey. 

Male 

Female
Appendix A—Glossary 

DAS Variable

63 

Language spoken most at home by student CSPEAK 

Indicates response, as reported in the Parent Survey, to the question “What language does (child) speak most at 

home?” For this analysis, the responses were aggregated into the following categories: 

English Includes English only 

Other Includes Spanish, English and Spanish equally, English and 

another language equally 

Repeated any grade since kindergarten SEREPEAT 

Indicates response, as reported in the Parent Survey, to the question, “Since starting kindergarten, has (child) 

repeated any grades?” 

Yes 

No 

Household income HINCOME 

Indicates response to the following question asked in the Parent Survey, “In studies like this, households are 

sometimes grouped according to income. What was the total income of all persons in your household over the past 

year, including salaries or other earnings, interest, retirement, and so on for all household members? Was it...” 

For this analysis, the responses were aggregated into the following categories: 

$25,000 or less 

$25,001 to $50,000 

$50,001 to $75,000 

More than $75,000 

Talked to someone/read materials on financial aid PSFINAID 

Indicates response to the following question asked in the Parent Survey, “Have you (or [child]’s [mother/stepmother/foster mother/father/stepfather/foster father/grandmother/grandfather/aunt/uncle/cousin] [or (the) other 

adult(s) in your household]) talked with someone or read any materials from schools or financial institutions about 

sources of financial aid for (child)’s education after high school?” 

Yes 

No 

Saving for child’s postsecondary education PSAVMON

Indicates response to the following question asked in the Parent Survey, “Have you started saving money or making 

any other financial plans to pay for (child’s) education after high school?” 

Yes 

No 
Appendix A—Glossary 

DAS Variable

64 

DERIVED VARIABLES

Average GPA across all subjects STGPA

This variable was created by combining the responses from the following questions asked on the Parent Survey: 

1. “Overall, across all subjects the child takes at school, does the child get mostly: A’s, B’s, C’s, D’s, F’s,” or “Does 

child’s school not give these grades?” (SEGRADES) 

2. Those who responded “child’s” school does not give these grades were asked: “Would you describe (child’s) 

work at school as: excellent, above average, average, below average, or failing?” Excellent was considered 

equivalent to A’s; Above average to B’s; Average to C’s; Below average to D’s; and Failing to F’s. 

(SEGRADEQ) 

For this analysis, the responses were aggregated as follows: 

Mostly F/D’s 

Mostly C’s 

Mostly B’s 

Mostly A’s 

School type SCHLKIND 

This variable was created by recoding questions asked in the Parent Survey. 

1. Does [child] go to a public or private school (SPUBLIC)? 

Public 

Private 

2. Some parents decide to educate their children at home rather than send them to school. Is (child) being schooled at 

home (HOMESCHL)? 

Yes 

No 

NOTE: For this analysis, responses were coded as public, private, or home schooled. Those who reported being 

home schooled or those who spent less than 9 hours per week at public or private school were coded as home 

schooled. 

Students’ role in family decisions STROLE 

Students were asked the following three questions which focused on how much input they had into family issues: 

1. Talk over important family decisions with you often, sometimes, or hardly ever (FEFAMDEC)?; 

2. Listen to your side of an argument often, sometimes, or hardly ever (FEYRSIDE)?; and 

3. Let you have a say in making up rules that concern you often, sometimes, or hardly ever (FERULES)? 

All three variables had 3 categories with “1” meaning “often,” “2” meaning “sometimes,” and “3” meaning “hardly 

ever.” The variables were summed, and those with a score of 3 or 4 were coded as “often having a role in family 
Appendix A—Glossary 

DAS Variable

65 

decisions;” those with scores of 5, 6, or 7 were recoded as “sometimes having a role;” and those with a score of 8 or 

9 were coded as “hardly ever having a role.” 

Students’ grade in school ALLGRADE

Indicates students’ grade level as reported in the Parent Survey. The variable was derived from two variables that 

asked: 

1. What grade or year is (child) attending (GRADE)? 

2. (What grade would [child] be in if [he/she] were attending [school/a school with regular grades]/What grade or 

year is [child] attending) (GRADEEQ)? 

For this analysis, the responses were aggregated into the following categories: 

Grades 6 through 8 

Grades 9 and 10 

Grades 11 and 12 

Race/ethnicity RACEETHN 

Indicates student’s race/ethnicity as reported in the Parent Survey. If the respondent to the Parent Interview 

designates the child’s ethnicity as Hispanic, RACEETHN is Hispanic regardless of whether race was classified as 

White, Black, or another race. RACEETHN was created using three variables that asked: 

1. Is (child)... 

White 

Black 

American Indian or Alaskan Native 

Asian or Pacific Islander 

Some other race? 

2. A probe was used if the respondent answered “Some other race” with the following categories: (COTHRAC) 

Hispanic/Latino/Mexican/Spanish/Puerto Rican 

More than one race/biracial/multiracial 

Other 

3. Otherwise, respondents were asked, “Is (he/she) of Hispanic origin?” (CHISPAN) 

Yes 

No 

The values for RACEETHN are: 

White, non-Hispanic 

Black, non-Hispanic 

Hispanic 

All other races (American Indian or Alaska Native, Asian or Pacific Islander, biracial, multiracial), 

non-Hispanic 
Appendix A—Glossary 

DAS Variable

66 

Type of institution student expected to attend STPSER

This variable was created by combining several questions on the type of institution students planned to attend after 

high school: 

1. Do you think you will graduate from a 4-year college (FCGRADCO)? 

2. Will you start your college education at a 2-year school or a 4-year school, or have you not thought about this yet 

(YSSTART)? 

Students expecting to begin their education at a 2-year school were separated from those planning to begin in a 4-

year school. (Students planning to attend a 2-year school were subsequently asked: Are you more likely to attend a 

vocational or technical school, a 2-year community college, a junior college, some other type of school, or have you 

not thought about this yet (YSOTHTYP). However, because they were not asked to designate public or private 

sector, which is most related to cost, they were grouped together into 2-year institution.) 

3. Are you more likely to attend a public or private 4-year college, or have you not thought about this yet 

(YSCOLTYP)? 

This question was used to separate those planning to attend a public 4-year institution from those planning to attend 

a private 4-year institution. Those who were undecided were coded separately. 

The categories used in this analysis are as follows: 

4-year institution 

 4-year public 

 4-year private 

 Undecided for the type of 4-year institution 

2-year institution 

Undecided about type of institution 

Level of institution parents expected student to attend PARSER

This variable was created by combining the following questions on the type of institution parents expected students 

would attend after high school. It is equivalent to the student variable STPSER and was constructed using analogous 

parent variables (SECOLLEG, PSSTART, PSCOLTYP). 

Students’ knowledge about the cost of tuition and fees STKWTUI

Students expecting to attend postsecondary education were asked if they had obtained information about the cost of 

the college or vocational school they expected to attend after high school. 

1. Students expecting to attend a 4-year institution were asked, “Have you gotten information about the cost of 

tuition and mandatory fees at a specific (in-state public/out-of-state public/private) college?” (YSCOLTUI) 

2. Students expecting to attend a 2-year institution were asked, “Have you gotten information about the cost of 

tuition and mandatory fees at a specific (vocational or technical school/2-year community college/junior 

college/school)?” YSOTHTUI 

Those who indicated that they had not obtained this information were asked if they “could or could not give a fairly 

accurate estimate” of the cost of a specific college they expected to attend, including the following: 
Appendix A—Glossary 

DAS Variable

67 

3. Students who knew which kind of 4-year institution they expected to attend were asked, “Do you think you could 

or could not give a fairly accurate estimate of the cost of 1 year’s tuition and mandatory fees at (an in-state 

public/an out-of-state public/a private) college that you might attend?” (YSCESTUI) 

4. Students who were undecided about the type of institution (2-year or 4-year) and/or expected to attend a 4-year 

school but were undecided about the sector (public or private) were asked, “Do you think you could or could not 

give a fairly accurate estimate of the average cost of 1 year’s tuition and mandatory fees at a public 4-year college 

in your state?” (YS4YRTUI) 

5. Students who knew which kind of 2-year institution they expected to attend were asked, “Do you think you could 

or could not give a fairly accurate estimate of the cost of 1 year’s tuition and mandatory fees at a (vocational or 

technical school/2-year community college/junior college/school) in your state that you might attend?” 

(YSOESTUI) 

6. Students who expected to attend a 2-year institution but who were not sure which kind were asked, “Do you think 

you could or could not give a fairly accurate estimate of the average cost of 1 year’s tuition and mandatory fees at 

a 2-year community college in your state?” (YS2YRTUI) 

For this analysis, responses were aggregated as follows: 

Had obtained information about the cost; 

Had not obtained information but thought they could estimate the cost; and 

Could not estimate (i.e., neither had they obtained information nor could they estimate). 

For the regression analyses, this variable was recoded into a dummy with a code of “1” for students who had 

knowledge about the cost (i.e., either obtained information or could guess) and “0” for those who had no idea. 

Parents’ knowledge about the cost of tuition and fees PTKWUI

This variable was created by combining the following questions on the cost of postsecondary education. It is 

equivalent to the student variable STKWTUI and was constructed using analogous student variables (PSCOLTUI, 

PSOTHTUI, PSCESTUI, PS4YRTUI, PSOESTUI, and PS2YRTUI). 

Tuition and fees estimated by students STESTUI 

Indicates tuition and fees estimated by students. This composite variable was created by combining the Student 

Survey variables23 listed below. 

1. Students expecting to attend a 4-year institution and who had obtained information about the cost of attending the 

institution were asked, “What is the cost of 1 year’s tuition and mandatory fees at that college?” (YSCOLAMT) 

2. Students expecting to attend a 4-year institution but who had not obtained tuition information were asked if they 

could estimate the cost of 1 year’s tuition and mandatory fees at that institution. Those who said they could were 

asked, “About how much would that be?” (YSCESAMT) 

3. Students who were undecided about the type of institution (2-year or 4-year) and/or were expecting to attend a 4-

year institution but were undecided about the sector (public or private), and who said they could estimate the cost 

of 1 year’s tuition and mandatory fees at a public 4-year in-state institution were asked, “About how much would 

that be?” (YS4YRAMT) 

 

23The estimate given by some respondents also included other fees such as room and board. These individuals were identified 

with a dichotomous variable that indicated whether student’s estimate included tuition and fees only or included other fees. 
Appendix A—Glossary 

DAS Variable

68 

4. Students who expected to attend a specific 2-year institution and who had obtained information about the cost of 

attending the institution were asked, “What is the cost of 1 year’s tuition and mandatory fees at that school?” 

(YSOTHAMT) 

5. Students expecting to attend a specific 2-year institution but who had not obtained tuition information were asked 

if they could estimate the cost of 1 year’s tuition and mandatory fees at that institution. Those who said they could 

were asked, “About how much would that be?” (YSOESAMT) 

6. Students who were undecided about the kind of 2-year institution they would attend were asked if they could 

estimate the cost of 1 year’s tuition and mandatory fees at a public 2-year in-state community college. Those who 

said they could were asked, “About how much would that be?” (YS2YRAMT) 

Tuition and fees estimated by parents PARESTUI 

Indicates tuition and fees estimated by parents. It is equivalent to the student variable STESTUI and was constructed 

using analogous parent variables (PSCOLAMT, PSCESAMT, PS4YRAMT, PSOTHAMT, PSOESAMT, and 

PS2YRAMT). 

Accuracy of students’ estimates of college tuition STTUI25 

This variable was developed by comparing students’ estimates of tuition and mandatory fees (and in some cases 

including room and board) with the average actual amount for the type of institution they planned to attend within 

their state of residence. The actual tuition data were obtained from the Digest of Education Statistics 1999 (U.S. 

Department of Education 2000) which were based on tuition and fees from the Integrated Postsecondary Education 

System (IPEDS) survey. Accuracy of the estimates was determined at three levels: 15, 25, and 50 percent of the 

actual average. The report shows the results for 25 percent. This level was chosen to allow for variation in tuition 

within states. When using the within 25 percent of actual average threshold, estimates were considered accurate if 

within 25 percent of the actual average, an overestimate if over 25 percent higher than the actual average, and an 

underestimate if more than 25 percent lower than the actual average. Similar logic applies to the use of the 15 

percent and 50 percent thresholds. The detailed steps for the construction of this variable were described below. 

1. First, the 1998–99 average college tuitions were calculated from the 1997–98 national and state average 

undergraduate tuition and fees and room and board rates paid by full-time-equivalent students in institutions of 

higher education based on the Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System survey and published in the 

Digest of Education Statistics 1999 (U.S. Department of Education 2000), taking into account the following 

inflation rates between 1998–99 and 1999–2000 academic school years,24 which came from the College Board 

report in 1999.25

Type of institution Tuition & fees Room & Board 

4-year public 3.3% 2.9% 

4-year private 4.3% 3.0% 

2-year 3.3% 2.9% 

2. If students expected to attend a public 4-year institution in their state, students’ estimates were compared with the 

average tuition and fees for public 4-year institutions within their state of residence. For student estimates that 

included room and board, the estimates were compared with the average in-state tuition and fees plus in-state 

room and board fees for public 4-year institutions. 

 

24The 1998–99 college tuition was not available from IPEDS 1998 at the time this report was written. Had IPEDS been available, 

the inflation factors for 4-year public tuition and fees would have been 3.8 percent and for room and board 5.1 percent, for 4-year 

private they would have been 4.7 percent and 4.0 percent (respectively), and for 2-year institutions they would have been 1.7 

percent and 3.4 percent (respectively). 

25The release can be obtained from the College Board web site at http://www.collegeboard.org/press.
Appendix A—Glossary 

DAS Variable

69 

3. If students expected to attend a public 4-year institution outside of their state, the average in-state tuition and fees 

for public 4-year institutions were doubled and then compared with parents’ estimates. For student estimates that 

included room and board, the estimates were compared with the doubled average tuition and fees plus national 

average room and board fees for public 4-year institutions. 

4. If students expected to attend a private 4-year institution, parents’ estimates were compared with the average 

tuition and fees for private 4-year institutions within their state of residence. For student estimates that included 

room and board, the estimates were compared with the average in-state tuition and fees plus in-state room and 

board fees for private 4-year institutions. 

5. If students expected to attend a 2-year institution, estimates were compared with the average tuition and fees for 

public 2-year institutions within their state of residence. For student estimates that included room and board, the 

estimates were compared with the average in-state 2-year tuition and fees plus national average room and board 

fees for public 4-year institutions (the only comparable data available). 

6. If undecided or the student planned to attend a 4-year institution but was undecided about the specific sector, 

students’ estimates were compared with the average tuition and fees for public 4-year institutions within their 

state of residence (because these individuals were asked to provide an estimation for a public 4-year institution). 

7. If students expected to attend a 2-year institution but were undecided about the specific type, students’ estimates 

were compared with the average tuition and fees for 2-year public institutions within their state of residence 

(because these individuals were asked to provide an estimation for a public 2-year institution). 

Estimates for 4-year institution costs were derived from 6 variables: YSCOLAMT; YSCOLINC; YSCESAMT; 

YSCESINC; YS4YRAMT; and YS4YRINC. Estimates for 2-year institution costs were also derived from 6 

variables: YSOTHAMT; YSOTHINC; YSOESAMT; YSOESINC; YS2YRAMT; and YS2YRINC. The exact 

wording of YSCOLAMT, YSCESAMT, YS4YRAMT, YSOTHAMT, YSOESAMT, and YS2YRAMT are provided 

above. YSCOLINC, YSCESINC, YS4YRINC, YSOTHINC, YSOESINC, and YS2YRINC were all questions that 

asked, “Is that tuition and mandatory fees only, or does that also include other fees such as room and board?” 

Accuracy of parents’ estimates of college tuition PARTUI25 

Indicates the accuracy of parents’ estimates of college tuition. For more information see STTUI25. Estimates for 4-

year institution costs were derived from 6 variables: PSCOLAMT; PSCOLINC; PSCESAMT; PSCESINC; 

PS4YRAMT; and PS4YRINC. Estimates for 2-year institution costs were also derived from 6 variables: 

PSOTHAMT; PSOTHINC; PSOESAMT; PSOESINC; PS2YRAMT; and PS2YRINC. 

Parents’ education PARGRADE 

Indicates parents’ highest educational attainment as reported in the Parent Survey. PARGRADE was derived from 

four variables: 

1. What is the highest grade or year of school that (you/(child)’s (mother/stepmother/foster mother)) completed 

(MOMGRADE)? 

Up through 8th grade 

9th through 11th grade 

12th grade but no diploma 

High school diploma/equivalent 

Vocational/technical program after high school but no vocational/technical diploma 

Vocational/technical diploma after high school 

Some college but no degree 

Associate’s degree (AA, AS) 

Bachelor’s degree (BA, BS) 
Appendix A—Glossary 

DAS Variable

70 

Graduate or professional school but no degree 

Master’s degree (MA, MS) 

Doctorate degree (PhD, EdD) 

Professional degree beyond bachelor’s degree (medicine/MD; dentistry/DDS; law/JD/LLB; etc.) 

2. (Do you/Does the mom) have a high school diploma or its equivalent, such as a GED (MOMDIPL)? 

Yes 

No 

3. What is the highest grade or year of school that (you/[child]’s [father/stepfather/foster father]) completed 

(DADGRADE)? 

4. (Do you/Does the dad) have a high school diploma or its equivalent, such as a GED (DADDIPL)? 

Yes 

No

The values for PARGRADE are: 

Less than high school 

High school graduate or equivalent 

Vocational/technical degree or some college 

College graduate 

Graduate or professional school 

Parents’ level of involvement in school PARINV

This composite variable was created by combining questions from the Parent Survey that asked whether they had 

attended various school-sponsored activities during the school year. Those activities are as follows: 

“Since (the beginning of this school year/September), have you (or [child]’s [mother/stepmother/foster mother/ 

father/stepfather/foster father/grandmother/grandfather/aunt/uncle/cousin] [or (the) other adult(s) in your 

household])... 

1. attended a general school meeting, for example, a back to school night or a meeting of a parent-teacher 

organization (FSMEETNG)? 

2. gone to a regularly scheduled parent-teacher conference with (child)’s teacher (FSATCNFN)? 

3. attended a school or class event, such as a play, sports event, or science fair because of (child) (FSSPORT)? 

4. acted as a volunteer at the school or served on a committee (FSVOLNTR)? 

All four variables were recoded into dummies with “0” meaning “no” and “1” meaning “yes” and then summed. For 

this analysis, the results were aggregated into the following categories: 

Low level Scores of 0 or 1 

Medium level Scores of 2 or 3 

High level Score of 4 
Appendix A—Glossary 

DAS Variable

71 

Language spoken most at home by parent LANGUAGE 

This variable describes whether the language spoken most often at home by the parent(s)/guardian(s) in the 

household is English. LANGUAGE was created using the variables MOMLANG, MOMSPEAK, DADLANG, and 

DADSPEAK. 

English Both/only parent(s)/main language at home is English 

Other Including those who spoke English and another language equally 

Academic requirements for college TALKACA 

One of four composite variables that indicate whether students discussed various postsecondary topics with their 

parents (parents could include other adults in the household) or with teachers or counselors in the current school 

year. This variable indicates whether students discussed academic requirements for college or vocational school. 

The chart below shows the survey variables used to create the composite variables. 

Discussion item 

Composite 

variable name 

Discussed with 

parents 

Discussed with 

teacher/counselor 

Academic requirements for college or 

vocational school 

TALKACA YSREQFAM YSREQTEA 

Financial aid for education after high school TALKAID YSAIDFAM YSAIDTEA 

Cost of postsecondary education TALKCOS YSCOSFAM YSCOSTEA 

Type of college or vocational school they 

would like to attend 

TALKTYPE YSATTFAM YSATTTEA 

For TALKACA: 

1. YSREQFAM asked, “Students begin to talk about future education at different ages. This school year, have you 

discussed the academic requirements for college or vocational school after high school with ([your parents]/[your 

mother/stepmother/foster mother/father/stepfather/foster father/grandmother/grandfather/aunt/uncle/cousin]/ 

[adult respondent]/[or mother/step-mother/foster mother/father/stepfather/foster father/grandmother/grandfather/ 

aunt/uncle/cousin] [or (the) other adult(s) in your household])?” 

2. YSREQTEA asked, “How about with a teacher or counselor at school?” 

For TALKAID: 

3. YSAIDFAM asked, “This school year, have you talked with ([your parents]/[your mother/stepmother/foster 

mother/father/stepfather/foster father/grandmother/grandfather/aunt/uncle/cousin]/[adult respondent]/[or mother/ 

stepmother/foster mother/father/stepfather/foster father/grandmother/grandfather/aunt/uncle/cousin] [or (the) other 

adult(s) in your household]) about financial aid for education after high school?” 

4. YSAIDTEA asked, “How about with a teacher or counselor at school?” 

For TALKCOS: 

5. YSCOSFAM asked, “This school year, have you talked with ([your parents]/[your mother/stepmother/foster 

mother/father/stepfather/foster father/grandmother/grandfather/aunt/uncle/cousin]/[adult respondent]/[or mother/ 

stepmother/foster mother/father/stepfather/foster father/grandmother/grandfather/aunt/uncle/cousin] [or (the) other 

adult(s) in your household]) about the cost of education after high school?” 

6. YSCOSTEA asked, “How about with a teacher or counselor at school?” 

For TALKTYPE: 

7. YSATTFAM asked, “This school year, have you discussed with ([your parents]/[your mother/stepmother/foster 

mother/father/stepfather/foster father/grandmother/grandfather/aunt/uncle/cousin]/[adult respondent]/[or mother/ 

stepmother/foster mother/father/stepfather/foster father/grandmother/grandfather/aunt/uncle/cousin] [or (the) other 

adult(s) in your household]) which colleges or vocational schools you would like to attend after high school?” 

8. YSATTTEA asked, “How about with a teacher or counselor at school?” 
Appendix A—Glossary 

DAS Variable

72 

Students who reported discussing a particular topic with at least one of these adults got a score of “1”; otherwise, 

they got a score of “2.” 

Type of college to attend TALKTYPE 

One of four composite variables that indicate whether students discussed various postsecondary topics with their 

parents (parents could include other adults in the household) or with teachers or counselors in the current school 

year. This variable indicates whether students discussed the type of college or vocational school they would like to 

attend. For more information, see TALKACA. 

Cost of tuition and fees TALKCOS 

One of four composite variables that indicate whether students discussed various postsecondary topics with their 

parents (parents could include other adults in the household) or with teachers or counselors in the current school 

year. This variable indicates whether students discussed the cost of postsecondary education. For more information, 

see TALKACA. 

Financial aid TALKAID 

One of four composite variables that indicate whether students discussed various postsecondary education topics 

with their parents (parents could include other adults in the household) or with teachers or counselors in the current 

school year. This variable indicates whether students discussed financial aid for education after high school. For 

more information, see TALKACA. 

Knowledge of HOPE Scholarship and/or Lifetime Learning Tax Credit PSTAXCD 

Combines two parent items asking if parents have heard of HOPE Scholarship (PSHOPE) or Lifetime Learning Tax 

Credit (PSLIFE). A positive response to either was coded as “Yes.” The HOPE Scholarship applies to students in 

the first two years of college (or other eligible post-secondary training). Taxpayers are eligible for a tax credit equal 

to 100 percent of the first $1,000 of tuition and fees and 50 percent of the second $1,000 (the amounts are indexed 

for inflation after 2001). The Lifetime Learning Tax Credit applies to students beyond the first two years of college, 

or taking classes part-time to improve or upgrade job skills. Through 2002, the family was eligible to receive a 20 

percent tax credit for the first $5,000 of tuition and fees, and thereafter, 20 percent of the first $10,000. The credit is 

available on a per-taxpayer (family) basis. Both tax credits are phased out at the higher income levels.
73 

Appendix B—Technical Notes and Methodology 

Data Sources 

The data for this report come from the Youth Survey and the Parent Survey of the 1999 

National Household Education Surveys Program (NHES:1999). The NHES:1999 is a telephone 

survey conducted by the U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics 

(NCES). Data collection took place from early January through early April of 1999. When 

appropriately weighted, the sample is nationally representative of all civilian, 

noninstitutionalized persons in the 50 states and the District of Columbia. The sample was 

selected using random digit dialing (RDD) methods, and the data were collected using computerassisted telephone interviewing (CATI) technology. Three different surveys were fielded as part 

of the NHES:1999. Apart from the Parent and Youth surveys, there was also an Adult Education 

Survey. A Screener was also used to sample household members for the three surveys. As it 

relates here, the Screener was used to determine whether any children of the appropriate ages or 

grades lived in the household, to collect information on each household member, and to identify 

the appropriate parent respondent for the sampled child (see Nolin et al. 2000a, b, and c for more 

information). 

In the NHES:1999 Parent Survey, data were collected about children from birth through 

age 20 as of December 31, 1998. In order to be eligible, children aged 7 or older had to be 

enrolled in school or home school in the 12th grade or below at the time of interview. The 

respondent for the Parent Survey was the adult living in the household who was the most 

knowledgeable about the child’s care and education. Typically, this was the mother of the child; 

however, the respondent could be a father, stepparent, adoptive parent, foster parent, 

grandparent, another relative, or nonrelative guardian.26 Subjects in the Parent Survey were 

routed to one of six questionnaire paths: infant, preschool, elementary school, middle/junior 

high, senior high, or home school. This report focused on the middle school/junior high school 

path, which was administered to parents of children who were attending grades 6 through 8; the 

senior high school path, which was administered to parents of youth attending grades 9 through 

12; and the home school path, which was administered to parents of children not attending 

 

26The respondents who participated in the Parent Survey of NHES:1999 were the parents/guardians who were most 

knowledgeable about the education of the sampled children. Although most respondents were parents (95 percent), some were 

children’s brothers, sisters, grandparents, aunts, uncles, cousins, or other relatives. Since these nonparental guardians account for 

a small percentage of the sample (5 percent), they were included in the group identified as children’s parents. 
Appendix B—Technical Notes and Methodology 

74 

school but who were in the equivalent of 6th- through 12th-grade and were being instructed at 

home. All these questionnaire paths collected data about plans for postsecondary education, 

which is the core focus of this report. 

In the NHES:1999 Youth Survey, data were collected from students in grades 6 through 12, 

for whom there was a completed Parent Survey. Subjects were routed to one of two 

questionnaire paths: middle school/junior high school or senior high school. The middle 

school/junior high school path was administered to those students who were attending grades 6 

through 8. The senior high school path was administered to those attending grades 9 through 12. 

Homeschoolers in the middle school/junior high school and senior high school paths skipped the 

questions referring to schools. More information about the survey can be found in the National 

Household Education Surveys Program of 1999: Data File User’s Manual, Volumes I–III (Nolin 

et al. 2000a, b, c). 

Response Rates 

For the NHES:1999 survey, Screeners were completed by 57,278 households. A sample of 

27,333 children birth through 12th grade was selected for the Parent Survey. This sample 

included 10,131 youth in grades 6 through 12. The response rate for the Screener was 74 percent. 

The completion rate for the Parent Survey, or the percent of eligible sampled children for whom 

interviews were completed, was 88 percent, or 24,600 interviews. Thus, the overall response rate 

for the Parent Survey was 65 percent (the product of the Screener response rate and the Parent 

Survey completion rate). An interview with a sampled youth was attempted only after the 

interview with his or her parent had been completed. The completion rate for youth in grades 6 

through 12 was 76 percent. Thus, the overall response rate for the Youth Survey was 56 percent 

(the product of the Screener completion rate and the Youth Survey completion rate). This report 

is based on a subset of respondent households where both student and parents expected the 

student to attend college after high school. The unweighted number of cases included in this 

analysis is 7,285. Among them, 3,313 were in grades 6 through 8 and 3,972 were in grades 9 

through 12. 

To detect and correct for potential nonresponse bias, a nonresponse bias analysis was 

conducted on the Youth Survey data and on the Parent Survey data (Nolin et al. 2000d). 

Nonresponse bias was not detected in either data set. 

For most of the data items collected in the NHES:1999, the item nonresponse (the failure to 

complete some items in an otherwise completed interview) was very low. Most items used in this 

analysis have response rates of 90 percent or more. Items in this report that have a response rate 
Appendix B—Technical Notes and Methodology 

75 

of less than 95 percent are cost of tuition at a specific 4-year college estimated by parents, and 

household income. Through a procedure known as hot-deck imputation (Kalton and Kasprzyk 

1986), responses were imputed for missing values (i.e., “don’t know” or “refused” for items not 

specifically designated to have those as legitimate response categories, or “not ascertained”). As 

a result, no missing values remain. 

Accuracy of Estimates 

The estimates in this report are derived from a survey sample and are subject to two 

broad classes of error—nonsampling and sampling errors. Nonsampling errors occur not only in 

sample surveys but also in complete censuses of entire populations. Nonsampling errors can be 

attributed to a number of sources: inability to obtain complete information about all students or 

all households in the sample (some students or households refused to participate, or students 

participated but answered only certain items); ambiguous definitions; differences in interpreting 

questions; inability or unwillingness to give correct information; mistakes in recording or coding 

data; and other errors of collecting, processing, sampling, and imputing missing data. Although 

nonsampling errors due to questionnaire and item nonresponse can be reduced somewhat by the 

adjustment of sample weights and imputation procedures, correcting nonsampling errors or 

gauging the effects of these errors is usually difficult. 

Sampling errors occur because observations are made only on samples of students, not on 

entire populations. The sample of telephone households selected for the NHES:1999 is just one 

of many possible samples that could have been selected. Therefore, estimates produced from the 

NHES:1999 sample may differ from estimates that would have been produced from other 

samples. This type of variability is called sampling error because it arises from using a sample of 

households with telephones, rather than all households with telephones. 

The standard error is a measure of the variability due to sampling when estimating a 

statistic. Standard errors can be used as a measure of the precision expected from a particular 

sample. The probability that a complete census count would differ from the sample estimate by 

less than 1 standard error is about 68 percent. The chance that the difference would be less than 

1.65 standard errors is about 90 percent, and that the difference would be less than 1.96 standard 

errors, about 95 percent. Standard errors for all of the estimates are presented in appendix C. 

In addition to properly weighting the responses, special procedures for estimating the 

statistical significance of the estimates were used because the data were collected using a 

complex sample design. Complex sample designs, like that used in the NHES, result in data that 

violate some of the assumptions that are normally required to assess the statistical significance of 
Appendix B—Technical Notes and Methodology 

76 

the results. Frequently, the sampling errors of the estimates from the survey are larger than 

would be expected if the sample was a simple random sample and the observations were 

independent and identically distributed random variables. The jackknife replication method was 

used to estimate variances that reflected the actual sample design used in the NHES:1999 

(Wolter 1985). 

Statistical Tests 

Differences discussed in this report are significant at the 95 percent confidence level or 

higher, and where a lack of difference is noted, the significance of the difference is below this 

threshold. The Student’s t statistic was used to test the likelihood that the differences between the 

two independent estimates were larger than would be expected due to sampling error. The 

Student’s t values can be computed for comparisons using the estimates in the tables with the 

following formula: 

t = E1− E2

(se1)

2 + (se2 )2 (1) 

where E1 and E2 are the estimates to be compared and se1 and se2 are their corresponding 

standard errors. This formula is valid only for independent estimates. When the estimates are not 

independent (for example, when comparing any estimates that are parts of a percentage 

distribution to the whole), a covariance term must be added to the denominator of the t-test 

formula. Because the actual covariances were not known, it was assumed that the estimates were 

perfectly negatively correlated. Consequently, 2*(se1*se2) was added to the denominator of the ttest formula for dependent estimates. 

( ) ( ) ( ) 2( * ) 1 2

2

2

2

1

1 2

se se se se

E E

t

+ +

− = (2) 

Generally, whether a difference is considered statistically significant is determined by 

calculating a t value for the difference between a pair of proportions or means, and comparing 

this value to published tables of values at certain critical levels, called alpha levels. The alpha

level is an a priori statement of the probability of inferring that a difference exists when, in fact, 

it does not. The alpha level used in this report is .05; differences discussed in the text have been 

tested and found significant at this level. 

In order to make proper inferences and interpretations from the statistics, several points 

must be kept in mind. First, comparisons resulting in large t statistics may appear to merit special 

note. However, this is not always the case, because the size of the t statistic depends not only on 
Appendix B—Technical Notes and Methodology 

77 

the observed differences in the two estimates being compared, but also on the standard error of 

the difference. Thus, a small difference between two groups with a much smaller standard error 

could result in a large t statistic, but this small difference is not necessarily substantively 

noteworthy. 

Second, when multiple statistical comparisons are made, it becomes increasingly likely 

that a finding of a statistically significant difference is erroneous. Even when there is no 

difference in the population, at an alpha level of .05, there is still a 5 percent chance of 

concluding that an observed t value representing one comparison in the sample is large enough to 

be statistically significant. As the number of comparisons increases, so does the risk of making 

such an error in inference. 

To guard against errors of inference based upon multiple comparisons, the Bonferroni 

procedure to correct significance tests for multiple contrasts was used in this report (Hochberg 

and Tamhane 1987). This method corrects the significance (or alpha) level for the total number 

of contrasts made with a particular classification variable. For each classification variable, there 

are K possible contrasts (or nonredundant pairwise comparisons), where K=(N*(N–1)/2) and N 

is the number of categories in the variable. For example, because socioeconomic status has 3 

categories (N=3) and there are (3*2)/2=3 possible comparisons among the categories. The 

Bonferroni procedure divides the alpha level for a single t test (for example, .05) by the number 

of possible pairwise comparisons in order to provide a new alpha that adjusts for all possible 

multiple comparisons. 

Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)

When averages of a continuous variable were examined relative to a variable with ordered 

categories, Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was used to test for a linear relationship between the 

two variables. To do this, ANOVA equations included orthogonal linear contrasts corresponding 

to successive levels of the independent variable. The variance between the means, and the 

unweighted sample sizes were used to partition total sum of squares into within- and betweengroup sums of squares. These were used to create mean squares for the within- and betweengroup variance components and their corresponding F statistics, which were then compared with 

published values of F for a significance level of .05.27 Significant values of both the overall F

and the F associated with the linear contrast term were required as evidence of a linear 

relationship between the two variables. 

 

27More information about ANOVA and significance testing using the F statistic can be found in any standard textbook on 

statistical methods in the social and behavioral sciences. 
Appendix B—Technical Notes and Methodology 

78 

Multivariate Analysis 

Many of the independent variables included in the analyses in this report are related, and to 

some extent, the pattern of differences found in the descriptive analyses reflects this covariation. 

To take into account the interrelationship of the independent variables, logistic regression was 

used to determine the association of each factor on the outcomes of interest. That is, a logistic 

regression was used to determine whether or not specific student and family characteristics were 

associated with parents’ or student’s knowledge about the college cost and steps parents or 

students took to make preparations for college, taking into account other characteristics. Because 

all outcome variables are dichotomous variables (1=yes and 0=no), a logistic regression was 

used to perform multivariate analysis. In order to take into account the complex sampling of 

NHES:1999, SUDAAN, a software application that is based on the Taylor series approximation 

method, was used for logistic regressions (Shah et al. 1995). Examining the correlation 

coefficients among all the independent variables revealed that multicollinearity did not appear to 

be a problem. The highest correlation observed was between parents’ education levels and 

household income (r=0.49). 

The odds ratio generated by a logistic regression can be used to estimate the probability of 

some types of people having an outcome compared to a control group of people. Odds ratios of 

greater than 1 mean that those in the noncontrol group are more likely to have the outcome than 

those in the control group and odds ratios of less than 1 mean those in the noncontrol group are 

less likely to have the outcome than those in the control group. For example, the first column of 

table 10 shows student odds ratios for having knowledge about the cost of college. In that table, 

male students have an odds ratio of 1.43 meaning they are more likely than those in the control 

group, females, to have knowledge about college costs. Another interpretation is that the odds of 

males having knowledge about college costs are 43 percent higher than the odds of females 

having knowledge about college costs (Menard 1995). 
79 

Appendix C—Supplemental Tables 
Appendix C—Supplemental Tables 

80 

Table C1.—Percentage distributions of 6th- through 12th-graders and their parents, according to the accuracy of 

Table C1.—their reported estimates of tuition and mandatory fees for the postsecondary institution students planned 

Table C1.—to attend, by selected student, family, and parent characteristics: 1999

Estimated Estimated

tuition Could tuition Could

within 15% Over- Under- not within 15% Over- Under- not

of actual1 estimated estimated estimate of actual1 estimated estimated estimate

 Total 14.1 12.9 6.4 66.6 21.5 23.7 9.0 45.8

Grade in school

 6 through 8 10.8 3.1 2.5 83.6 20.2 17.1 6.8 55.9

 9 and 10 14.5 11.0 5.8 68.7 21.5 24.4 7.6 46.5

 11 and 12 19.0 30.5 13.2 37.2 23.8 33.4 13.9 28.9

Student’s sex

 Male 15.2 13.3 6.4 65.1 21.4 22.7 8.6 47.4

 Female 13.1 12.5 6.3 68.1 21.7 24.6 9.4 44.4

Student’s race/ethnicity

 White, non-Hispanic 14.2 12.9 6.7 66.2 24.8 26.6 9.5 39.1

 Black, non-Hispanic 16.3 12.6 6.6 64.5 15.4 15.6 10.9 58.1

 Hispanic 11.5 9.9 4.8 73.8 11.5 16.6 4.8 67.1

 Other, non-Hispanic 12.9 19.3 5.9 61.8 20.9 26.3 6.1 46.8

Language spoken most at home by student

 English 14.4 13.1 6.4 66.1 † † † †

 Other 10.1 9.9 6.6 73.4 † † † †

Average GPA across all subjects2 

 Mostly F/D’s 12.3 6.5 3.1 78.1 12.5 16.7 6.4 64.3

 Mostly C’s 11.1 11.5 7.3 70.1 16.6 20.6 10.5 52.3

 Mostly B’s 14.1 12.8 5.8 67.3 20.8 23.2 9.2 46.8

 Mostly A’s 15.9 14.5 6.9 62.8 25.7 26.3 8.3 39.7

Repeated any grades since kindergarten2 

 Yes 10.8 12.0 5.8 71.4 16.2 20.1 8.7 55.0

 No 14.6 13.1 6.5 65.9 22.2 24.1 9.0 44.6

School type

 Public 13.9 12.9 6.5 66.6 20.7 23.5 8.8 47.0

 Private 16.4 13.2 5.6 64.9 30.4 25.4 10.5 33.7

 Home school3 11.6 3.8 4.0 80.6 20.2 24.3 6.7 48.9

See footnotes at end of table.

Student, family, or parent 

characteristic

Percent of students Percent of students whose parents
Appendix C—Supplemental Tables 

81 

Table C1.—Percentage distributions of 6th- through 12th-graders and their parents, according to the accuracy of 

Table C1.—their reported estimates of tuition and mandatory fees for the postsecondary institution students planned 

Table C1.—to attend, by selected student, family, and parent characteristics: 1999—Continued

Estimated Estimated

tuition Could tuition Could

within 15% Over- Under- not within 15% Over- Under- not

of actual1 estimated estimated estimate of actual1 estimated estimated estimate

Type of college student planned to attend

 4-year public 11.8 28.2 12.0 48.0 † † † †

 4-year private 20.8 30.7 21.8 26.6 † † † †

 Undecided, 4-year 25.7 # # 74.3 † † † †

 2-year 6.2 24.1 12.1 57.6 † † † †

 Undecided for any 13.7 # # 86.3 † † † †

Student plays role in family decisions

 Hardly ever 14.3 11.9 6.4 67.5 † † † †

 Sometimes 13.3 10.9 5.8 70.1 † † † †

 Often 14.9 14.9 6.9 63.3 † † † †

Talked with parent/teacher about the cost

 Yes 18.3 19.7 9.3 52.8 † † † †

 No 9.9 6.0 3.5 80.6 † † † †

Talked with parent/teacher about financial aid

 Yes 17.7 19.9 9.6 52.9 † † † †

 No 11.5 7.7 4.0 76.8 † † † †

Parents’ education

 Less than high school 11.9 8.3 5.2 74.6 6.5 5.2 2.8 85.5

 High school only 12.8 11.8 5.9 69.6 14.6 15.5 6.4 63.5

 Some postsecondary education 12.8 11.7 6.8 68.7 19.7 26.5 9.9 43.9

 College graduate 16.0 13.9 6.9 63.2 31.1 28.5 12.2 28.1

 Graduate school 17.2 17.2 6.5 59.1 31.5 33.4 10.5 24.6

Household income

 $25,000 or less 12.2 10.3 6.9 70.5 12.6 15.6 6.6 65.2

 $25,001 to $50,000 13.6 11.9 6.7 67.8 19.6 21.5 9.1 49.8

 $50,001 to $75,000 13.6 15.2 7.1 64.1 28.5 27.0 10.4 34.1

 More than $75,000 17.8 15.6 4.6 62.1 29.9 34.5 10.6 25.0

See footnotes at end of table.

Percent of students Percent of students whose parents

Student, family, or parent 

characteristic
Appendix C—Supplemental Tables 

82 

Table C1.—Percentage distributions of 6th- through 12th-graders and their parents, according to the accuracy of 

Table C1.—their reported estimates of tuition and mandatory fees for the postsecondary institution students planned 

Table C1.—to attend, by selected student, family, and parent characteristics: 1999—Continued

Estimated Estimated

tuition Could tuition Could

within 15% Over- Under- not within 15% Over- Under- not

of actual1 estimated estimated estimate of actual1 estimated estimated estimate

Language most spoken at home by parents

 English † † † † 22.5 24.6 9.4 43.5

 Other † † † † 9.7 11.5 3.8 75.0

Parent involvement in school 

 Low level 13.6 14.2 6.6 65.6 17.2 18.5 8.5 55.8

 Medium level 14.0 12.3 6.6 67.2 22.3 23.1 9.2 45.4

 High level 15.5 13.3 5.6 65.7 25.6 32.9 9.1 32.4

Talked to someone/read materials on financial aid

 Yes † † † † 26.9 32.4 12.5 28.2

 No † † † † 18.2 18.3 6.8 56.7

Heard of Lifetime Learning/HOPE Scholarship

 Yes † † † † 27.8 28.1 10.3 33.8

 No † † † † 18.9 21.8 8.4 50.9

Type of college parent expected student to attend

 4-year public † † † † 18.2 39.6 12.7 29.6

 4-year private † † † † 27.6 37.1 22.1 13.2

 Undecided, 4-year † † † † 46.0 # # 54.0

 2-year or vocational/technical † † † † 10.2 32.2 11.5 46.1

 Undecided for any † † † † 24.5 # # 75.5

#Too few sample cases.

†Not applicable.

1

An accurate estimate was defined as one within 15 percent of the actual average cost for the type of postsecondary institution student 

intended to attend in their state of residence.

2

This question was not asked of homeschoolers who attended public or private school less than 9 hours per week.

3

Homeschoolers include children schooled at home who attended public or private schools less than 9 hours per week.

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Sample in table includes 6th- through 12th-graders and their parents among 

whom both student and parent reported plans for student to attend postsecondary education.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Youth Survey and Parent Survey of the 1999

National Household Education Surveys Program (NHES:1999). Actual tuition amounts from the 1998 Integrated Postsecondary

Education Data System (IPEDS).

Student, family, or parent 

characteristic

Percent of students Percent of students whose parents
Appendix C—Supplemental Tables 

83 

Table C2.—Percentage distributions of 6th- through 12th-graders and their parents, according to the accuracy of 

Table C2.—their reported estimates of tuition and mandatory fees for the postsecondary institution students 

Table C2.—planned to attend, by selected student, family, and parent characteristics: 1999

Estimated Estimated

tuition Could tuition Could

within 50% Over- Under- not within 50% Over- Under- not

of actual1 estimated estimated estimate of actual1 estimated estimated estimate

 Total 21.1 9.5 2.8 66.6 34.7 16.2 3.3 45.8

Grade in school

 6 through 8 12.6 2.4 1.4 83.6 28.7 12.2 3.2 55.9

 9 and 10 20.9 8.4 2.0 68.7 34.3 17.4 1.8 46.5

 11 and 12 35.1 22.0 5.8 37.2 44.7 21.2 5.2 28.9

Student’s sex

 Male 22.2 10.0 2.7 65.1 33.8 15.4 3.4 47.4

 Female 20.1 9.0 2.8 68.1 35.5 16.9 3.2 44.4

Student’s race/ethnicity

 White, non-Hispanic 21.8 9.2 2.8 66.2 39.7 17.7 3.5 39.1

 Black, non-Hispanic 22.6 9.8 3.1 64.5 26.6 11.4 4.0 58.1

 Hispanic 16.0 8.0 2.2 73.8 18.4 13.0 1.5 67.1

 Other, non-Hispanic 20.2 15.0 2.9 61.8 32.1 18.2 2.9 46.8

Language spoken most at home by student

 English 21.5 9.6 2.8 66.1 † † † †

 Other 16.3 7.6 2.7 73.4 † † † †

Average GPA across all subjects2 

 Mostly F/D’s 15.2 5.6 1.1 78.1 17.4 13.7 4.6 64.3

 Mostly C’s 17.1 9.1 3.7 70.1 29.5 14.4 3.8 52.3

 Mostly B’s 20.5 9.7 2.5 67.3 34.0 16.1 3.1 46.8

 Mostly A’s 24.5 10.0 2.7 62.8 39.5 17.6 3.2 39.7

Repeated any grades since kindergarten2 

 Yes 16.2 10.2 2.3 71.4 27.6 14.7 2.7 55.0

 No 21.8 9.5 2.8 65.9 35.6 16.4 3.4 44.6

School type

 Public 20.9 9.7 2.8 66.6 33.4 16.3 3.4 47.0

 Private 23.9 8.6 2.6 64.9 47.2 16.2 2.9 33.7

 Home school3 14.4 3.0 2.1 80.6 37.0 10.3 3.8 48.9

See footnotes at end of table.

Student, family, or parent 

characteristic

Percent of students Percent of students whose parents
Appendix C—Supplemental Tables 

84 

Table C2.—Percentage distributions of 6th- through 12th-graders and their parents, according to the accuracy of 

Table C2.—their reported estimates of tuition and mandatory fees for the postsecondary institution students 

Table C2.—planned to attend, by selected student, family, and parent characteristics: 1999—Continued

Estimated Estimated

tuition Could tuition Could

within 50% Over- Under- not within 50% Over- Under- not

of actual1 estimated estimated estimate of actual1 estimated estimated estimate

Type of college student planned to attend

 4-year public 26.3 20.7 5.0 48.0 † † † †

 4-year private 51.2 13.7 8.5 26.6 † † † †

 Undecided, 4-year 25.7 # # 74.3 † † † †

 2-year 15.0 21.6 5.9 57.6 † † † †

 Undecided for any 13.7 # # 86.3 † † † †

Student plays role in family decisions

 Hardly ever 20.3 8.5 3.7 67.5 † † † †

 Sometimes 18.8 8.4 2.8 70.1 † † † †

 Often 23.5 10.6 2.6 63.3 † † † †

Talked with parent/teacher about the cost

 Yes 29.2 14.3 3.8 52.8 † † † †

 No 13.0 4.6 1.8 80.6 † † † †

Talked with parent/teacher about financial aid

 Yes 28.9 14.2 4.0 52.9 † † † †

 No 15.4 6.0 1.8 76.8 † † † †

Parents’ education

 Less than high school 17.3 6.2 1.8 74.6 10.1 3.6 0.8 85.5

 High school only 18.2 9.3 2.9 69.6 22.4 11.6 2.5 63.5

 Some postsecondary education 19.3 8.7 3.3 68.7 33.8 18.7 3.7 43.9

 College graduate 24.0 9.8 3.0 63.2 47.4 20.0 4.5 28.1

 Graduate school 27.0 12.1 1.7 59.1 51.5 20.1 3.8 24.6

Household income

 $25,000 or less 17.9 8.2 3.4 70.5 19.9 11.8 3.2 65.2

 $25,001 to $50,000 20.5 8.9 2.8 67.8 31.7 15.4 3.1 49.8

 $50,001 to $75,000 22.1 11.2 2.5 64.1 42.8 19.6 3.5 34.1

 More than $75,000 25.3 10.6 2.1 62.1 51.3 20.1 3.6 25.0

See footnotes at end of table.

Percent of students Percent of students whose parents

Student, family, or parent 

characteristic
Appendix C—Supplemental Tables 

85 

Table C2.—Percentage distributions of 6th- through 12th-graders and their parents, according to the accuracy of 

Table C2.—their reported estimates of tuition and mandatory fees for the postsecondary institution students 

Table C2.—planned to attend, by selected student, family, and parent characteristics: 1999—Continued

Estimated Estimated

tuition Could tuition Could

within 50% Over- Under- not within 50% Over- Under- not

of actual1 estimated estimated estimate of actual1 estimated estimated estimate

Language most spoken at home by parents

 English † † † † 36.3 16.7 3.5 43.5

 Other † † † † 14.1 9.5 1.4 75.0

Parent involvement in school 

 Low level 20.8 11.0 2.6 65.6 27.7 13.2 3.3 55.8

 Medium level 21.0 9.1 2.8 67.2 35.3 15.9 3.4 45.4

 High level 22.6 8.8 3.0 65.7 42.8 21.8 3.1 32.4

Talked to someone/read materials on financial aid

 Yes † † † † 45.7 21.0 5.0 28.2

 No † † † † 27.9 13.2 2.3 56.7

Heard of Lifetime Learning and/or HOPE Scholarship tax credits

 Yes † † † † 44.4 18.1 3.8 33.8

 No † † † † 30.6 15.4 3.1 50.9

Type of college parent expected student to attend

 4-year public † † † † 38.8 28.0 3.6 29.6

 4-year private † † † † 63.7 15.6 7.6 13.2

 Undecided, 4-year † † † † 46.0 # # 54.0

 2-year † † † † 23.2 25.0 5.8 46.1

 Undecided for any † † † † 24.5 # # 75.5

#Too few sample cases.

†Not applicable.

1

An accurate estimate was defined as one within 50 percent of the actual average cost for the type of postsecondary institution student 

intended to attend in their state of residence.

2

This question was not asked of homeschoolers who attended public or private school less than 9 hours per week.

3

Homeschoolers include children schooled at home who attended public or private schools less than 9 hours per week.

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Sample in table includes 6th- through 12th-graders and their parents among 

whom both student and parent reported plans for student to attend postsecondary education.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Youth Survey and Parent Survey of the 1999

National Household Education Surveys Program (NHES:1999). Actual tuition amounts from the 1998 Integrated Postsecondary

Education Data System (IPEDS).

Student, family, or parent 

characteristic

Percent of students Percent of students whose parents
Appendix C—Supplemental Tables 

86 

Table C3.—Logistic regression coefficients and standard errors for table 10: 6th- through 12th-graders’ and their

Table C3.—parents’ knowledge about college costs and whether they could accurately estimate tuition and fees

b s.e. b s.e. b s.e. b s.e. 

 Intercept 0.20 0.34 1.73 0.27 -1.58 0.38 -0.76 0.30 

Grade in school

 6 through 8 -1.52 0.09 -0.92 0.09 -0.90 0.11 -0.58 0.09 

 9 and 10 -0.94 0.09 -0.58 0.10 -0.48 0.11 -0.22 0.10 

 11 and 12 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

Student’s sex

 Male 0.37 0.07 -0.09 0.07 0.25 0.08 0.03 0.07 

 Female 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

Student’s race/ethnicity

 Other, non-Hispanic 0.12 0.16 -0.13 0.15 -0.32 0.18 -0.48 0.16 

 Hispanic -0.09 0.13 -0.18 0.12 -0.16 0.15 -0.34 0.13 

 Black, non-Hispanic 0.30 0.11 -0.44 0.10 0.28 0.12 -0.28 0.12 

 White, non-Hispanic 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

Language spoken most at home by student

 Other -0.15 0.18 † † -0.24 0.20 † †

 English 0.00 0.00 † † 0.00 0.00 † †

Average GPA across all subjects 

 Mostly A’s 0.18 0.24 0.02 0.20 0.10 0.26 0.22 0.25 

 Mostly B’s 0.01 0.23 0.03 0.19 0.02 0.26 0.27 0.24 

 Mostly C’s -0.08 0.24 0.02 0.20 -0.21 0.27 0.19 0.25 

 Mostly F/D’s 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

Repeated any grades since kindergarten 

 Yes -0.25 0.12 0.07 0.11 -0.30 0.15 0.08 0.13 

 No 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

School type1

 Public 0.14 0.13 0.13 0.13 0.04 0.13 -0.12 0.12 

 Private 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

See footnotes at end of table.

Having knowledge about the cost Estimating the cost accurately

Student, family, or parent

characteristic

Student Parent Student Parent
Appendix C—Supplemental Tables 

87 

Table C3.—Logistic regression coefficients and standard errors for table 10: 6th- through 12th-graders’ and their

Table C3.—parents’ knowledge about college costs and whether they could accurately estimate tuition and fees

Table C3.——Continued 

b s.e. b s.e. b s.e. b s.e. 

 Undecided for any -1.29 0.10 † † 0.40 0.11 † †

 2-year -0.41 0.11 † † -0.71 0.16 † †

 Undecided, 4-year -0.92 0.12 † † 0.88 0.13 † †

 4-year private 0.89 0.14 † † 0.69 0.15 † †

 4-year public 0.00 0.00 † † 0.00 0.00 † †

Student plays role in family decisions

 Often -0.05 0.18 † † -0.16 0.21 † †

 Sometimes -0.11 0.18 † † -0.24 0.21 † †

 Hardly ever 0.00 0.00 † † 0.00 0.00 † †

Talked with parent/teacher about the cost of college

 Yes 0.70 0.08 † † 0.62 0.09 † †

 No 0.00 0.00 † † 0.00 0.00 † †

Talked with parent/teacher about financial aid

 Yes 0.19 0.08 † † 0.16 0.09 † †

 No 0.00 0.00 † † 0.00 0.00 † †

Parents’ education

 Less than high school -0.40 0.18 -1.69 0.18 0.06 0.20 -1.47 0.22 

 High school only -0.22 0.10 -1.02 0.10 -0.01 0.11 -0.66 0.11 

 Some postsecondary education -0.22 0.09 -0.41 0.09 -0.07 0.10 -0.39 0.08 

 College graduate or graduate school 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

Household income

 $25,000 or less -0.14 0.13 -0.73 0.12 -0.27 0.14 -0.54 0.13 

 $25,001 to $50,000 -0.10 0.10 -0.62 0.10 -0.19 0.11 -0.29 0.10 

 $50,001 to $75,000 -0.15 0.11 -0.26 0.11 -0.17 0.12 -0.01 0.10 

 More than $75,000 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

Parent involvement in school

 High level 0.03 0.12 0.41 0.11 -0.04 0.13 -0.01 0.11 

 Medium level 0.02 0.09 0.16 0.08 -0.03 0.10 0.04 0.09 

 Low level 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

See footnotes at end of table.

Student, family, or parent

characteristic

Having knowledge about the cost Estimating the cost accurately

Student Parent Student Parent
Appendix C—Supplemental Tables 

88 

Table C3.—Logistic regression coefficients and standard errors for table 10: 6th- through 12th-graders’ and their

Table C3.—parents’ knowledge about college costs and whether they could accurately estimate tuition and fees

Table C3.——Continued 

b s.e. b s.e. b s.e. b s.e. 

 Other † † -0.22 0.18 † † -0.25 0.18 

 English † † 0.00 0.00 † † 0.00 0.00

Parent involvement in school

 High level 0.03 0.12 0.41 0.11 -0.04 0.13 -0.01 0.11 

 Medium level 0.02 0.09 0.16 0.08 -0.03 0.10 0.04 0.09 

 Low level 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

Type of college parents expected the child to attend

 Undecided for any † † -1.40 0.10 † † 0.68 0.10 

 2-year † † -0.49 0.10 † † -0.49 0.11 

 Undecided, 4-year † † -0.94 0.11 † † 1.26 0.11 

 4-year private † † 0.87 0.16 † † 0.55 0.12 

 4-year public † † 0.00 0.00 † † 0.00 0.00

Parents talked to someone/read materials on financial aid

 Yes † † 0.73 0.08 † † 0.43 0.08 

 No † † 0.00 0.00 † † 0.00 0.00

Parents heard of Lifetime Learning and/or HOPE Scholarship tax credits

 Yes † † 0.29 0.08 † † 0.22 0.08 

 No † † 0.00 0.00 † † 0.00 0.00

†Not applicable.

1

Homeschoolers who attended public or private schools less than 9 hours per week were not asked school related items. They

were excluded from this analysis. Those who attended school 9 or more hours per week were assigned to the kind of school they

attended.

NOTE: An estimation within 25 percent of the actual average cost for the type of postsecondary institution student expected to

attend in their state of residence was considered an accurate estimate. For those planning to attend a public school out-of-state,

the public school tuition in the student’s state was doubled before comparisons were made.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Youth Survey and Parent Survey of the 1999

National Household Education Surveys Program (NHES:1999). Actual tuition amounts were from the 1998 Integrated

Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS).

Student, family, or parent

characteristic

Having knowledge about the cost Estimating the cost accurately

Student Parent Student Parent
Appendix C—Supplemental Tables 

89 

Table C4.—Logistic regression coefficients and standard errors for table 12: Parents’ preparations to pay for their

Table C4.—childrens’ postsecondary education

Student, family, or parent 

characteristic

b s.e. b s.e. b s.e. 

 Intercept 0.72 0.24 -0.02 0.26 -0.40 0.25 

Grade in school

 6 through 8 -0.24 0.08 -1.38 0.08 -0.20 0.08 

 9 and 10 -0.08 0.09 -0.95 0.08 -0.19 0.09 

 11 and 12 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

Student’s sex

 Male 0.08 0.07 -0.09 0.07 -0.07 0.06 

 Female 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

Student’s race/ethnicity

 Other, non-Hispanic 0.27 0.16 0.14 0.15 0.16 0.14 

 Hispanic -0.02 0.11 0.04 0.12 -0.18 0.12 

 Black, non-Hispanic 0.06 0.10 0.27 0.10 -0.09 0.10 

 White, non-Hispanic 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

Average GPA across all subjects

 Mostly A’s 0.40 0.18 0.22 0.21 0.23 0.20 

 Mostly B’s 0.33 0.17 0.17 0.21 0.17 0.20 

 Mostly C’s 0.16 0.18 0.07 0.21 0.09 0.20 

 Mostly F/D’s 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

Repeated any grades since kindergarten

 Yes -0.16 0.10 0.02 0.11 -0.23 0.11 

 No 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

School type1

 Public 0.34 0.12 0.13 0.11 0.09 0.11 

 Private 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

Parents’ education

 Less than high school -0.81 0.16 -1.03 0.19 -0.50 0.17 

 High school only -0.56 0.09 -0.48 0.10 -0.47 0.10 

 Some postsecondary education -0.37 0.09 -0.13 0.08 -0.16 0.08 

 College graduate or graduate school 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

See footnotes at end of table.

Have started

saving money/

Have heard of

Lifetime Learning and/

Have talked to

someone/read

making other

financial plans

or HOPE scholarship

tax credits

materials on

financial aid
Appendix C—Supplemental Tables 

90 

Table C4.—Logistic regression coefficients and standard errors for table 12: Parents’ preparations to pay for their

Table C4.—childrens’ postsecondary education—Continued

Student, family, or parent 

characteristic

b s.e. b s.e. b s.e. 

Household income

 $25,000 or less -1.25 0.12 0.30 0.12 -0.52 0.11 

 $25,001 to $50,000 -0.80 0.10 0.24 0.09 -0.30 0.09 

 $50,001 to $75,000 -0.46 0.11 0.20 0.09 -0.19 0.09 

 More than $75,000 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

Language most spoken at home by parents

 Other -0.76 0.16 -0.93 0.19 0.13 0.16 

 English 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

Parent involvement in school

 High level 0.81 0.11 0.83 0.11 0.04 0.10 

 Medium level 0.46 0.08 0.42 0.08 0.15 0.08 

 Low level 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

Type of college parents expected the child to attend

 Undecided for any -0.40 0.09 -0.55 0.10 -0.31 0.09 

 2-year -0.22 0.09 -0.32 0.09 -0.25 0.09 

 Undecided, 4-year -0.02 0.12 -0.34 0.11 -0.33 0.11 

 4-year private 0.07 0.13 0.25 0.11 0.06 0.11 

 4-year public 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

1

Homeschoolers who attended public or private schools less than 9 hours per week were not asked school related items. They

were excluded from this analysis. Those who attended school 9 or more hours per week were assigned to the kind of school they

attended.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Youth Survey and Parent Survey of the 1999

National Household Education Surveys Program (NHES:1999).

Have heard of

saving money/ someone/read Lifetime Learning and/

Have started Have talked to

making other materials on or Hope scholarship

financial plans financial aid tax credits
Appendix C—Supplemental Tables 

91 

Table C5.—Logistic regression coefficients and standard errors for table 14: 6th- through 12th-graders’ discussions

Table C5.—about various issues regarding postsecondary education with their parents or school teachers/counselors

Student, family, or parent 

characteristic

b s.e. b s.e. b s.e. b s.e. 

 Intercept 2.27 0.34 2.13 0.32 0.20 0.29 0.31 0.30 

Grade in school

 6 through 8 -2.07 0.13 -1.71 0.12 -1.48 0.09 -1.76 0.09 

 9 and 10 -1.04 0.14 -1.35 0.12 -1.00 0.09 -1.29 0.09 

 11 and 12 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

Student’s sex

 Male -0.11 0.07 -0.11 0.07 -0.02 0.06 -0.08 0.07 

 Female 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

Student’s race/ethnicity

 Other, non-Hispanic 0.20 0.17 0.23 0.15 0.14 0.15 -0.01 0.14 

 Hispanic 0.22 0.13 -0.01 0.12 0.36 0.11 0.12 0.11 

 Black, non-Hispanic 0.37 0.12 0.16 0.11 0.33 0.10 0.32 0.10 

 White, non-Hispanic 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

Language spoken most at home by student

 Other 0.35 0.17 0.17 0.15 0.00 0.14 0.33 0.14 

 English 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

Average GPA across all subjects

 Mostly A’s -0.05 0.21 -0.06 0.19 0.27 0.20 0.12 0.20 

 Mostly B’s -0.07 0.20 -0.17 0.19 0.16 0.20 0.06 0.19 

 Mostly C’s 0.07 0.21 -0.04 0.20 0.01 0.20 -0.24 0.20 

 Mostly F/D’s 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

Repeated any grades since kindergarten

 Yes -0.15 0.12 -0.08 0.12 -0.20 0.10 -0.03 0.11 

 No 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

School type1

 Public 0.17 0.12 0.05 0.12 0.13 0.11 0.00 0.12 

 Private 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

See footnotes at end of table.

Academic

requirements

for college

Type of

college to

attend

Cost of

tuition and

fees

Financial

aid
Appendix C—Supplemental Tables 

92 

Table C5.—Logistic regression coefficients and standard errors for table 14: 6th- through 12th-graders’ discussions

Table C5.—about various issues regarding postsecondary education with their parents or school teachers/counselors

Table C5.——Continued

Student, family, or parent 

characteristic

b s.e. b s.e. b s.e. b s.e. 

Type of college student expected to attend

 Undecided for any -0.99 0.11 -1.22 0.10 -0.77 0.09 -0.69 0.09 

 2-year -0.33 0.14 -0.55 0.12 -0.38 0.10 -0.43 0.10 

 Undecided, 4-year -0.30 0.14 -0.46 0.12 -0.42 0.10 -0.37 0.11 

 4-year private 0.06 0.20 0.53 0.20 0.31 0.14 0.19 0.14 

 4-year public 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

Student plays role in family decisions

 Often 0.81 0.18 0.72 0.17 0.73 0.17 0.65 0.18 

 Sometimes 0.55 0.18 0.54 0.17 0.54 0.17 0.37 0.18 

 Hardly ever 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

Parents’ education

 Less than high school 0.00 0.18 -0.24 0.17 0.09 0.15 0.21 0.16 

 High school only -0.08 0.11 -0.09 0.10 0.00 0.09 0.09 0.09 

 Some postsecondary education -0.11 0.09 -0.09 0.09 0.02 0.08 0.10 0.08 

 College graduate or graduate school 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

Household income

 $25,000 or less -0.10 0.13 -0.10 0.12 -0.01 0.11 0.34 0.11 

 $25,001 to $50,000 -0.22 0.10 -0.10 0.10 0.00 0.09 0.24 0.10 

 $50,001 to $75,000 -0.04 0.11 -0.04 0.11 0.01 0.09 0.16 0.10 

 More than $75,000 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

Parent involvement in school

 High level 0.08 0.12 0.42 0.11 0.31 0.10 0.16 0.10 

 Medium level 0.11 0.09 0.32 0.08 0.24 0.08 0.07 0.08 

 Low level 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

1

Homeschoolers who attended public or private schools less than 9 hours per week were not asked school related items. They

were excluded from this analysis. Those who attended school 9 or more hours per week were assigned to the kind of school they

attended.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Youth Survey and Parent Survey of the 1999

National Household Education Surveys Program (NHES:1999).

Academic Type of Cost of

requirements college to tuition and Financial

for college attend fees aid
93 

Appendix D—Standard Errors 
Appendix D—Standard Errors 

94 

Table D1.—Standard errors for table 1: Percentage of 6th- through 12th-graders and percentage of their parents who

Table D1.—reported plans for the student to attend postsecondary education, by selected student, family, and parent

Table D1.—characteristics: 1999

Student, family, or

parent characteristic Parent but Student but 

Student Parent Both not student not parent 

 Total 0.37 0.31 0.41 0.25 0.33 

Grade in school

 6 through 8 0.46 0.41 0.53 0.36 0.44 

 9 and 10 0.70 0.62 0.84 0.50 0.61 

 11 and 12 0.72 0.63 0.88 0.43 0.66 

Student’s sex

 Male 0.56 0.49 0.64 0.40 0.49 

 Female 0.39 0.38 0.50 0.29 0.35 

Student’s race/ethnicity

 White, non-Hispanic 0.42 0.39 0.48 0.28 0.38 

 Black, non-Hispanic 1.05 0.75 1.17 0.70 0.99 

 Hispanic 1.21 1.04 1.41 0.92 1.07 

 Other, non-Hispanic 1.79 0.85 1.88 0.85 1.79 

Language spoken most at home by student

 English 0.38 0.31 0.42 0.24 0.34 

 Other 1.63 1.38 2.02 1.35 1.57 

Average GPA across all subjects

 Mostly F/D’s 2.80 2.65 3.08 1.91 2.98 

 Mostly C’s 1.03 0.86 1.07 0.76 0.94 

 Mostly B’s 0.45 0.46 0.57 0.39 0.42 

 Mostly A’s 0.23 0.23 0.30 0.18 0.19 

Repeated any grades since kindergarten

 Yes 1.64 1.45 1.74 1.14 1.44 

 No 0.32 0.31 0.41 0.24 0.30 

School type

 Public 0.42 0.34 0.48 0.27 0.36 

 Private 1.18 0.55 1.23 0.42 1.12 

 Home school 2.50 4.58 4.49 4.31 # 

Parents’ education

 Less than high school 2.25 1.42 2.41 1.08 2.04 

 High school only 0.80 0.61 0.83 0.52 0.72 

 Some postsecondary education 0.47 0.53 0.68 0.49 0.43 

 College graduate 0.66 0.48 0.75 0.42 0.60 

 Graduate school 0.60 0.53 0.72 0.37 0.48 

See footnotes at end of table.

Postsecondary education expected by
Appendix D—Standard Errors 

95 

Table D1.—Standard errors for table 1: Percentage of 6th- through 12th-graders and percentage of their parents who

Table D1.—reported plans for the student to attend postsecondary education, by selected student, family, and parent

Table D1.—characteristics: 1999—Continued

Student, family, or

parent characteristic Parent but Student but 

Student Parent Both not student not parent 

Household income

 $25,000 or less 0.97 0.69 1.05 0.60 0.85 

 $25,001 to $50,000 0.54 0.54 0.62 0.41 0.43 

 $50,001 to $75,000 0.70 0.56 0.78 0.34 0.58 

 More than $75,000 0.37 0.46 0.54 0.44 0.36 

Language most spoken at home by parents

 English 0.38 0.31 0.43 0.25 0.34 

 Other 1.50 1.40 1.96 1.22 1.44 

#Too few sample cases.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Youth Survey and Parent Survey of the 1999

National Household Education Surveys Program (NHES:1999).

Postsecondary education expected by
Appendix D—Standard Errors 

96 

Table D2.—Standard errors for table 2: Percentage distribution of students according to the postsecondary

Table D2.—institution type students plan to attend as reported by students and parents: 1999

Institution type Reported by student Reported by parent 

4-year institution

 Total 0.65 0.72 

 Public 0.59 0.74 

 Private 0.38 0.40 

 Undecided, 4-year 0.47 0.44 

2-year 0.47 0.61 

Undecided for the type of postsecondary institution 0.63 0.52 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Youth Survey and Parent Survey of 

the 1999 National Household Education Surveys Program (NHES:1999).
Appendix D—Standard Errors 

97 

Table D3.—Standard errors for table 3: Percentage distributions of 6th- through 12th-graders according to the

Table D3.—postsecondary institution students plan to attend as reported by students and parents, by selected

Table D3.—student, family, and parent characteristics: 1999

Student, family, or

parent characteristic

4-year 2-year Undecided 4-year 2-year Undecided 

 Total 0.65 0.47 0.63 0.72 0.61 0.52 

Grade in school

 6 through 8 1.03 0.64 1.04 1.07 0.81 0.81 

 9 and 10 1.29 0.90 1.18 1.32 1.30 0.98 

 11 and 12 1.20 1.03 1.05 1.35 1.36 0.92 

Student’s sex

 Male 0.89 0.78 1.00 0.95 0.94 0.82 

 Female 0.94 0.66 0.89 1.00 0.89 0.78 

Student’s race/ethnicity

 White, non-Hispanic 0.89 0.66 0.92 0.91 0.73 0.63 

 Black, non-Hispanic 1.78 1.39 1.70 2.05 1.70 1.46 

 Hispanic 1.82 1.43 1.83 1.70 1.65 1.74 

 Other, non-Hispanic 3.08 2.63 2.94 2.97 2.09 2.70 

Language spoken most at home by student 

 English 0.69 0.49 0.73 † † † 

 Other 2.40 1.98 2.64 † † † 

Average GPA across all subjects

 Mostly F/D’s 2.98 2.92 4.39 4.12 4.32 4.24 

 Mostly C’s 1.55 1.55 1.68 1.52 1.56 1.36 

 Mostly B’s 1.14 0.88 1.03 1.25 1.07 0.93 

 Mostly A’s 1.12 0.73 0.98 1.22 0.87 0.96 

Repeated any grades since kindergarten

 Yes 2.16 1.90 2.18 2.07 2.09 1.95 

 No 0.67 0.47 0.71 0.78 0.64 0.60 

School type

 Public 0.69 0.52 0.67 0.81 0.66 0.61 

 Private 2.21 1.55 1.90 2.20 1.82 1.76 

 Home school 6.97 4.90 6.81 6.92 7.23 4.59 

See footnotes at end of table.

Reported by student Reported by parent 
Appendix D—Standard Errors 

98 

Table D3.—Standard errors for table 3: Percentage distributions of 6th- through 12th-graders according to the

Table D3.—postsecondary institution students plan to attend as reported by students and parents, by selected

Table D3.—student, family, and parent characteristics: 1999—Continued

Student, family, or

parent characteristic

4-year 2-year Undecided 4-year 2-year Undecided 

Parents’ education

 Less than high school 2.31 2.15 2.90 2.65 1.86 2.52 

 High school only 1.24 1.04 1.44 1.35 1.30 1.38 

 Some postsecondary education 1.25 0.98 1.33 1.57 1.34 1.14 

 College graduate 1.60 1.21 1.49 1.75 1.36 1.24 

 Graduate school 1.62 1.09 1.45 1.45 1.05 1.20 

Household income

 $25,000 or less 1.36 1.17 1.48 1.49 1.34 1.39 

 $25,001 to $50,000 1.36 0.84 1.38 1.25 1.01 1.06 

 $50,001 to $75,000 1.44 1.22 1.44 1.76 1.49 1.27 

 More than $75,000 1.31 0.81 1.33 1.48 1.18 1.02 

Language most spoken at home by parents

 English † † † 0.78 0.63 0.55 

 Other † † † 2.26 1.95 2.52 

†Not applicable.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Youth Survey and Parent Survey of the 

1999 National Household Education Surveys Program (NHES:1999).

Reported by student Reported by parent 
Appendix D—Standard Errors 

99 

Table D4.—Standard errors for table 4: Students and percentage of consistent and inconsistent reports between

Table D4.—6th- through 12th-graders and their parents regarding the level of institution students plan to attend,

Table D4.—by selected student, family, and parent characteristics: 1999

Table D4—

Parents Students 

4-year/ 4-year/ 

students parents 

Total 4-year 2-year Undecided Total 2-year 2-year 

 Total 0.70 0.59 0.41 0.45 0.70 0.62 0.48 

Grade in school

 6 through 8 1.10 0.97 0.39 0.82 1.10 0.89 0.68 

 9 and 10 1.35 1.12 0.85 0.82 1.35 1.13 1.12 

 11 and 12 1.38 1.28 1.04 0.46 1.38 1.18 1.04 

Student’s sex

 Male 0.98 0.85 0.61 0.70 0.98 0.92 0.68 

 Female 0.98 0.86 0.56 0.64 0.98 0.85 0.76 

Student’s race/ethnicity

 White, non-Hispanic 0.86 0.78 0.51 0.58 0.86 0.78 0.64 

 Black, non-Hispanic 2.01 1.79 0.88 1.28 2.01 1.70 1.63 

 Hispanic 1.77 1.45 1.09 1.57 1.77 1.49 1.54 

 Other, non-Hispanic 2.65 2.81 1.63 1.75 2.65 2.37 2.80 

Language spoken most at home by student

 English 0.75 0.63 0.43 0.51 0.75 0.64 0.53 

 Other 2.64 1.99 1.30 2.55 2.64 2.13 2.25 

Average GPA across all subjects

 Mostly F/D’s 4.18 2.23 2.30 3.51 4.18 4.30 3.66 

 Mostly C’s 1.88 1.19 1.14 1.20 1.88 1.67 1.53 

 Mostly B’s 1.26 1.08 0.76 0.73 1.26 1.07 0.87 

 Mostly A’s 1.17 1.28 0.57 0.72 1.17 0.97 0.79 

Repeated any grades since kindergarten

 Yes 2.42 1.74 1.54 1.64 2.42 2.10 1.94 

 No 0.71 0.66 0.41 0.47 0.71 0.66 0.47 

School type

 Public 0.74 0.63 0.44 0.50 0.74 0.67 0.51 

 Private 2.43 2.31 1.21 1.66 2.43 2.00 1.30 

 Home school 7.21 6.93 3.94 4.12 7.21 6.69 5.69 

See footnotes at end of table.

Student, family, or parent 

characteristic 

Percent of consistent reports Percent of inconsistent reports 
Appendix D—Standard Errors 

100 

Table D4.—Standard errors for table 4: Students and percentage of consistent and inconsistent reports between

Table D4.—6th- through 12th-graders and their parents regarding the level of institution students plan to attend,

Table D4.—by selected student, family, and parent characteristics: 1999—Continued

Parents Students 

4-year/ 4-year/ 

students parents 

Total 4-year 2-year Undecided Total 2-year 2-year 

Parents’ education

 Less than high school 2.52 1.88 1.20 2.60 2.52 2.13 2.55 

 High school only 1.30 1.01 0.90 1.10 1.30 1.20 1.15 

 Some postsecondary education 1.33 1.06 0.96 0.80 1.33 1.27 1.05 

 College graduate 1.74 1.79 0.84 0.84 1.74 1.45 1.14 

 Graduate school 1.43 1.49 0.90 1.00 1.43 1.25 1.00 

Household income

 $25,000 or less 1.34 1.19 0.99 1.03 1.34 1.24 1.22 

 $25,001 to $50,000 1.24 1.09 0.73 0.91 1.24 1.22 0.93 

 $50,001 to $75,000 1.40 1.50 1.08 0.98 1.40 1.41 1.07 

 More than $75,000 1.36 1.40 0.57 0.84 1.36 1.17 0.93 

Language most spoken at home by parents

 English 0.75 0.64 0.44 0.49 0.75 0.66 0.54 

 Other 2.71 2.07 1.51 2.05 2.71 1.92 2.39 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Youth Survey and Parent Survey of the

1999 National Household Education Surveys Program (NHES:1999).

Student, family, or parent 

characteristic 

Percent of consistent reports Percent of inconsistent reports 
Appendix D—Standard Errors 

101 

Table D5.—Standard errors for table 5: Percentage distributions of 6th- through 12th-graders and their parents

Table D5.—according to the various reasons given for student not planning to continue education beyond high

Table D5.—school: 1999

Reasons for not continuing education Reported by student Reported by parent 

Main reason

 Cost too high/cannot afford 2.22 2.05 

 Needs/wants to work 2.63 1.67 

 Poor grades/unable to get in 0.96 1.17 

 Not interested/tired of going to school 2.87 2.79 

 Has a disability # 1.92 

 Joining the military 2.27 1.62 

 Not sure of future plans 0.88 0.59 

 Other 2.75 1.64 

#Too few sample cases.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Youth Survey and Parent Survey of 

the 1999 National Household Education Surveys Program (NHES:1999).
Appendix D—Standard Errors 

102 

Table D6.—Standard errors for table 6: Percentage of 6th- through 12th-graders and their parents who reported that

Table D6.—they had obtained cost information or could accurately estimate tuition and fees at the postsecondary

Table D6.—institution students planned to attend, by selected student, family, and parent characteristics: 1999

Have obtained information Could estimate cost

about cost of tuition and fees of tuition and fees

Students Parents Both Students Parents Both 

 Total 0.51 0.63 0.41 0.51 0.56 0.28 

Grade in school

 6 through 8 (

1

)- 0.73 (

1

)- 0.67 0.98 0.42 

 9 and 10 0.97 1.51 0.66 1.05 1.32 0.62 

 11 and 12 1.27 1.46 1.16 0.78 0.89 0.42 

Student’s sex

 Male 0.71 0.90 0.49 0.75 0.80 0.45 

 Female 0.74 1.05 0.66 0.75 0.88 0.36 

Student’s race/ethnicity

 White, non-Hispanic 0.64 0.66 0.57 0.60 0.66 0.37 

 Black, non-Hispanic 1.41 1.70 0.92 1.40 1.20 0.62 

 Hispanic 1.23 1.35 0.80 1.12 1.11 0.53 

 Other, non-Hispanic 2.79 2.64 2.30 2.04 2.51 1.28 

Language spoken most at home by student

 English 0.54 0.66 0.44 0.53 0.59 0.30 

 Other 1.66 1.71 1.05 1.57 1.59 0.65 

Average GPA across all subjects

 Mostly F/D’s 2.21 3.40 1.11 2.93 2.68 0.99 

 Mostly C’s 1.24 1.53 0.86 1.14 1.44 0.61 

 Mostly B’s 0.87 0.96 0.74 0.83 1.09 0.44 

 Mostly A’s 0.92 0.92 0.78 0.75 0.93 0.50 

Repeated any grades since kindergarten

 Yes 1.43 1.82 1.17 1.30 1.67 0.66 

 No 0.55 0.66 0.44 0.54 0.58 0.30 

School type

 Public 0.53 0.65 0.43 0.53 0.57 0.28 

 Private 1.80 2.05 1.48 1.69 1.98 1.10 

 Home school 5.10 6.52 5.08 2.78 5.72 # 

Type of college student planned to attend

 4-year 0.87 0.99 0.68 0.79 0.77 0.47 

 2-year 1.58 1.82 1.56 0.98 1.27 0.41 

 Undecided # 0.88 # 0.85 0.98 0.47 

See footnotes at end of table.

Student, family, or parent 

characteristic 
Appendix D—Standard Errors 

103 

Table D6.—Standard errors for table 6: Percentage of 6th- through 12th-graders and their parents who reported that

Table D6.—they had obtained cost information or could accurately estimate tuition and fees at the postsecondary

Table D6.—institution students planned to attend, by selected student, family, and parent characteristics: 1999

Table D6.——Continued

Have obtained information Could estimate cost

about cost of tuition and fees of tuition and fees

Students Parents Both Students Parents Both 

Student plays role in family decisions

 Hardly ever 2.52 2.87 2.19 2.39 2.73 1.27 

 Sometimes 0.73 0.94 0.55 0.73 0.86 0.39 

 Often 0.76 0.87 0.64 0.66 0.82 0.46 

Parents’ education

 Less than high school 1.74 1.83 1.13 2.05 1.01 0.45 

 High school only 1.09 1.17 0.72 0.96 1.00 0.47 

 Some postsecondary education 0.96 1.26 0.87 0.92 1.11 0.38 

 College graduate 1.37 1.77 1.30 1.26 1.56 0.86 

 Graduate school 1.38 1.51 1.17 1.19 1.42 0.73 

Household income

 $25,000 or less 1.12 1.34 0.78 1.04 1.10 0.35 

 $25,001 to $50,000 0.94 1.16 0.84 0.81 0.81 0.45 

 $50,001 to $75,000 1.15 1.40 0.97 1.21 1.39 0.82 

 More than $75,000 1.10 1.53 1.00 1.08 1.70 0.74 

Language most spoken at home by parents

 English 0.54 0.67 0.44 0.53 0.59 0.29 

 Other 1.38 1.50 0.93 1.63 1.35 0.71 

Parent involvement in school

 Low level 1.19 1.19 0.76 1.07 1.12 0.52 

 Medium level 0.65 0.85 0.61 0.69 0.85 0.44 

 High level 1.18 1.65 0.99 1.12 1.47 0.74 

Type of college parents reported the child planned to attend

 4-year 0.75 1.00 0.65 0.66 0.85 0.45 

 2-year 1.26 1.41 1.04 0.95 1.08 0.43 

 Undecided 0.72 # # 1.05 1.17 0.63 

#Too few sample cases.

1

This question was asked only of students in grades 9 to 12, but it was asked of 6th- through 8th-graders’ parents.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Youth Survey and Parent Survey of the 1999

National Household Education Surveys Program (NHES:1999).

Student, family, or parent 

characteristic 
Appendix D—Standard Errors 

104 

Table D7.—Standard errors for table 7: Percentage of 6th- through 12th-graders and their parents who reported they

Table D7.—had either obtained cost information or could estimate tuition and fees, by selected student, family, and

Table D7.—parent characteristics: 1999

could estimate the cost of tuition and fees

Students Parents Both 

 Total 0.58 0.62 0.47 

Grade in school

 6 through 8 0.67 1.01 0.49 

 9 and 10 1.10 1.38 1.04 

 11 and 12 1.20 1.16 1.13 

Student’s sex

 Male 0.88 0.84 0.68 

 Female 0.86 0.94 0.76 

Student’s race/ethnicity

 White, non-Hispanic 0.70 0.69 0.56 

 Black, non-Hispanic 1.76 1.76 1.31 

 Hispanic 1.66 1.69 1.30 

 Other, non-Hispanic 2.88 3.08 2.48 

Language spoken most at home by student

 English 0.60 0.60 0.49 

 Other 2.31 2.28 1.51 

Average GPA across all subjects

 Mostly F/D’s 3.29 3.68 1.56 

 Mostly C’s 1.53 1.77 1.28 

 Mostly B’s 1.10 1.16 1.01 

 Mostly A’s 0.96 1.06 0.96 

 Yes 1.84 2.30 1.50 

 No 0.60 0.68 0.52 

School type

 Public 0.62 0.67 0.52 

 Private 2.13 2.26 1.90 

 Home school 5.35 6.52 5.17 

Type of college student planned to attend

 4-year 0.97 †{{ 0.86 

 2-year 1.81 †{{ 1.81 

 Undecided 0.85 †{{ 0.58 

See footnotes at end of table.

Have obtained information about or

Repeated any grades since kindergarten

Student, family, or parent 

characteristic 
Appendix D—Standard Errors 

105 

Table D7.—Standard errors for table 7: Percentage of 6th- through 12th-graders and their parents who reported they

Table D7.—had either obtained cost information or could estimate tuition and fees, by selected student, family, and

Table D7.—parent characteristics: 1999—Continued

could estimate the cost of tuition and fees

Students Parents Both 

Student plays role in family decisions

 Hardly ever 3.16 3.33 2.62 

 Sometimes 0.86 0.93 0.70 

 Often 0.86 0.82 0.80 

Parents’ education

 Less than high school 2.21 1.96 1.44 

 High school only 1.28 1.37 1.06 

 Some postsecondary education 1.27 1.19 1.03 

 College graduate 1.63 1.75 1.62 

 Graduate school 1.71 1.33 1.65 

Household income

 $25,000 or less 1.56 1.40 1.09 

 $25,001 to $50,000 0.93 1.12 0.94 

 $50,001 to $75,000 1.44 1.35 1.28 

 More than $75,000 1.17 1.15 1.08 

Language most spoken at home by parents

 English 0.60 0.63 0.51 

 Other 2.14 1.92 1.37 

Parent involvement in school

 Low level 1.37 1.28 1.05 

 Medium level 0.84 0.96 0.74 

 High level 1.31 1.48 1.37 

Type of college parents reported the child planned to attend

 4-year †{{ 0.84 0.83 

 2-year †{{ 1.37 1.21 

 Undecided †{{ 1.17 0.68 

†Not applicable.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Youth Survey and Parent Survey of the 

1999 National Household Education Surveys Program (NHES:1999).

Student, family, or parent 

characteristic 

Have obtained information about or
Appendix D—Standard Errors 

106 

Table D8a.—Standard errors for table 8a: Sixth- through 12th-graders’ and parents’ estimates of the amount of 

Table D8a.—tuition and mandatory fees and tuition and fees plus room and board, according to students’ grade 

Table D8a.—level, and the actual average tuition and fees paid in 1998–99 by type of institution students planned 

Table D8a.—to attend, by selected student, family, and parent characteristics: 1999

Students Students Students Students 

Grades 6 Grades 6 Grades Grades in grades 6 in grades 6 in grades in grades 

through 12 through 8 9 and 10 11 and 12 through 12 through 8 9 and 10 11 and 12 

4-year

 Public (in-state) $305 $636 $1,088 $251 $236 $377 $423 $316 

 Private 1,596 # 1,800 663 737 1,326 1,008 872 

 Undecided, 4-year 2,451 2,027 4,281 # 523 625 1,245 # 

2-year 367 657 523 510 209 440 228 436 

Undecided for any 877 1,413 938 # 421 576 901 1,158 

4-year

 Public (in-state) 492 1,971 1,613 388 204 473 460 189 

 Private 701 # 1,741 733 391 944 1,008 818 

 Undecided, 4-year 810 1,671 1,311 988 792 1,348 528 1,001 

2-year 1,579 # # 2,460 518 626 # 890 

Undecided for any 1,084 1,666 1,167 1,564 660 947 800 1,665 

#Too few sample cases.

NOTE: The last column in table 8 displays the actual tuition and fees, which are taken from a universe survey, therefore, no sampling

standard errors are shown here.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Youth Survey and Parent Survey of the 1999

National Household Education Surveys Program (NHES:1999). Actual tuition and fees published in The College Board (1999), Trends

in College Pricing.

Institution type

Tuition and fees only

Tuition, fees, and room and board

reported by students in

Tuition and fees

reported by parents of

Tuition and fees
Appendix D—Standard Errors 

107 

Table D8b.—Standard errors for table 8b: Ninth- through 12th-graders’ and their parents’ average estimates for 

Table D8b.—tuition and mandatory fees according to whether they had obtained information or could estimate 

Table D8b.—costs, by type of institution students planned to attend: 1999

Tuition and fees reported by Tuition and fees reported by

Students Students Parents Parents 

All who obtained who could All who obtained who could 

students information estimate parents information estimate 

4-year

 Public (in-state) $317 $336 $798 $274 $253 $761 

 Private 704 755 # 670 776 # 

 Undecided, 4-year 3,839 # 3,839 939 # 939 

2-year 406 484 366 247 356 263 

Undecided for any 742 # 742 739 # 739 

4-year

 Public (in-state) 509 598 942 225 258 464 

 Private 688 706 # 514 600 929 

 Undecided, 4-year 870 # 870 475 # 475 

2-year 1,783 2,298 # 673 929 842 

Undecided for any 1,060 # 1,060 941 # 941 

#Too few sample cases.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Youth Survey and Parent Survey of the 1999

National Household Education Surveys Program (NHES:1999).

Tuition, fees, and room and board

Tuition and fees only 

Institution type
Appendix D—Standard Errors 

108 

Table D9.—Standard errors for table 9: Percentage distributions of 6th- through 12th-graders and their parents,

Table D9.—according to the accuracy of their reported estimates of tuition and mandatory fees for the 

Table D9.—postsecondary institution students planned to attend, by selected student, family, and parent 

Table D9.—characteristics: 1999

Estimated Estimated

tuition Could tuition Could

within 25% Over- Under- not within 25% Over- Under- not

actual estimated estimated estimate actual estimated estimated estimate

 Total 0.55 0.47 0.29 0.58 0.59 0.60 0.34 0.62

Grade in school

 6 through 8 0.62 0.33 0.34 0.67 0.82 0.80 0.49 1.01

 9 and 10 0.96 0.85 0.52 1.10 1.27 1.23 0.68 1.38

 11 and 12 1.15 1.32 0.82 1.20 1.35 1.38 0.78 1.16

Student’s sex

 Male 0.84 0.64 0.44 0.88 0.74 0.78 0.46 0.84

 Female 0.72 0.64 0.44 0.86 0.92 0.88 0.53 0.94

Student’s race/ethnicity

 White, non-Hispanic 0.63 0.61 0.36 0.70 0.76 0.79 0.46 0.69

 Black, non-Hispanic 1.75 1.12 0.81 1.76 1.63 1.32 0.99 1.76

 Hispanic 1.07 1.16 0.76 1.66 1.20 1.33 0.60 1.69

 Other, non-Hispanic 2.09 2.80 1.13 2.88 2.49 2.56 1.35 3.08

Language spoken most at home by student

 English 0.60 0.51 0.31 0.60 † † † †

 Other 1.37 1.47 1.24 2.31 † † † †

Average GPA across all subjects

 Mostly F/D’s 2.72 1.80 1.17 3.29 2.81 3.32 1.72 3.68

 Mostly C’s 1.14 0.89 0.71 1.53 1.36 1.39 0.88 1.77

 Mostly B’s 0.88 0.73 0.45 1.10 0.96 0.77 0.62 1.16

 Mostly A’s 0.86 0.79 0.51 0.96 1.15 0.98 0.57 1.06

Repeated any grades since kindergarten

 Yes 1.38 1.25 0.94 1.84 1.50 1.72 1.11 2.30

 No 0.57 0.51 0.30 0.60 0.61 0.66 0.38 0.68

School type

 Public 0.55 0.52 0.31 0.62 0.63 0.60 0.35 0.67

 Private 1.90 1.47 1.11 2.13 2.04 1.91 1.18 2.26

 Home school 5.26 1.96 1.74 5.35 7.10 3.84 1.92 6.52

See footnotes at end of table.

Student, family, or parent 

characteristic 

Student Parent
Appendix D—Standard Errors 

109 

Table D9.—Standard errors for table 9: Percentage distributions of 6th- through 12th-graders and their parents,

Table D9.—according to the accuracy of their reported estimates of tuition and mandatory fees for the 

Table D9.—postsecondary institution students planned to attend, by selected student, family, and parent 

Table D9.—characteristics: 1999—Continued

Estimated Estimated

tuition Could tuition Could

within 25% Over- Under- not within 25% Over- Under- not

actual estimated estimated estimate actual estimated estimated estimate

Type of college student planned to attend

 4-year public 1.07 1.42 0.74 1.38 † † † †

 4-year private 2.66 2.20 2.33 2.40 † † † †

 Undecided, 4-year 1.70 # # 1.70 † † † †

 2-year 0.90 1.33 1.04 1.81 † † † †

 Undecided for any 0.85 # # 0.85 † † † †

Student plays role in family decisions

 Hardly ever 2.67 2.06 1.70 3.16 † † † †

 Sometimes 0.72 0.62 0.37 0.86 † † † †

 Often 0.81 0.68 0.48 0.86 † † † †

Talked with parent/teacher about the cost

 Yes 0.94 0.82 0.52 1.02 † † † †

 No 0.65 0.47 0.33 0.86 † † † †

Talked with parent/teacher about aid

 Yes 1.00 0.79 0.57 0.97 † † † †

 No 0.62 0.50 0.32 0.71 † † † †

Parents’ education

 Less than high school 1.92 1.31 1.15 2.21 1.25 1.09 0.79 1.96

 High school only 1.03 0.86 0.48 1.28 1.16 0.96 0.59 1.37

 Some postsecondary education 1.03 0.83 0.58 1.27 0.96 1.16 0.69 1.19

 College graduate 1.26 1.08 0.79 1.63 1.75 1.42 0.98 1.75

 Graduate school 1.27 1.24 0.75 1.71 1.62 1.31 1.00 1.33

Household income

 $25,000 or less 1.14 0.80 0.69 1.56 1.18 0.90 0.63 1.40

 $25,001 to $50,000 0.82 0.80 0.53 0.93 1.08 1.01 0.73 1.12

 $50,001 to $75,000 1.45 0.97 0.72 1.44 1.45 1.24 0.92 1.35

 More than $75,000 1.16 0.91 0.51 1.17 1.47 1.28 0.79 1.15

See footnotes at end of table.

Student Parent

Student, family, or parent 

characteristic 
Appendix D—Standard Errors 

110 

Table D9.—Standard errors for table 9: Percentage distributions of 6th- through 12th-graders and their parents,

Table D9.—according to the accuracy of their reported estimates of tuition and mandatory fees for the 

Table D9.—postsecondary institution students planned to attend, by selected student, family, and parent 

Table D9.—characteristics: 1999—Continued

Estimated Estimated

tuition Could tuition Could

within 25% Over- Under- not within 25% Over- Under- not

actual estimated estimated estimate actual estimated estimated estimate

Language most spoken at home by parents

English † † † † 0.63 0.63 0.37 0.63

Other † † † † 1.36 1.45 1.02 1.92

Parent involvement in school

 Low level 1.14 0.99 0.57 1.37 1.04 0.98 0.70 1.28

 Medium level 0.77 0.59 0.42 0.84 0.73 0.73 0.53 0.96

 High level 1.06 0.96 0.74 1.31 1.64 1.49 0.85 1.48

Talked to someone/read materials on aid

 Yes † † † † 1.16 1.14 0.62 1.05

 No † † † † 0.73 0.67 0.37 0.88

Heard of Lifetime Learning/HOPE Scholarship

 Yes † † † † 1.25 1.22 0.75 1.13

 No † † † † 0.66 0.63 0.41 0.81

Type of college parent expected student to attend

 4-year public † † † † 1.32 1.30 0.86 1.27

 4-year private † † † † 2.36 2.01 1.67 1.38

 Undecided, 4-year † † † † 1.83 # # 1.83

 2-year † † † † 0.94 1.21 0.76 1.37

 Undecided for any † † † † 1.17 # # 1.17

#Too few sample cases.

†Not applicable.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Youth Survey and Parent Survey of the 1999

National Household Education Surveys Program (NHES:1999). Actual tuition amounts from the 1998 Integrated Postsecondary

Education Data System (IPEDS).

Student, family, or parent 

characteristic 

Student Parent
Appendix D—Standard Errors 

111 

Table D10.—Standard errors for table 10: Logistic regression results (in odds ratios) of 6th- through 12th-graders’ 

Table D10.—and their parents’ knowledge about college costs and whether they could accurately estimate tuition

Table D10.—and fees: 1999 

Student Parent Student Parent 

Grade in school

 6 through 8 0.09* 0.09* 0.11* 0.09* 

 9 and 10 0.09* 0.10* 0.11* 0.10* 

 11 and 12 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 

Student’s sex

 Male 0.07* 0.07 0.08* 0.07 

 Female 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 

Student’s race/ethnicity

 Other, non-Hispanic 0.16 0.15 0.18 0.16 

 Hispanic 0.13 0.12 0.15 0.13* 

 Black, non-Hispanic 0.11* 0.10* 0.12* 0.12* 

 White, non-Hispanic 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 

Language spoken most at home by student

 Other 0.18 †{{ 0.20 †{{

 English 1.00 † {{ 1.00 † {{

Average GPA across all subjects

 Mostly A’s 0.24 0.20 0.26 0.25 

 Mostly B’s 0.23 0.19 0.26 0.24 

 Mostly C’s 0.24 0.20 0.27 0.25 

 Mostly F/D’s 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 

Repeated any grades since kindergarten

 Yes 0.12* 0.11 0.15* 0.13 

 No 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 

School type

 Public 0.13 0.13 0.13 0.12 

 Private 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 

See footnotes at end of table.

Student, family, or parent 

characteristic 

Odds ratio of

having knowledge about cost

Odds ratio of

estimating accurately
Appendix D—Standard Errors 

112 

Table D10.—Standard errors for table 10: Logistic regression results (in odds ratios) of 6th- through 12th-graders’ 

Table D10.—and their parents’ knowledge about college costs and whether they could accurately estimate tuition

Table D10.—and fees: 1999—Continued

Student Parent Student Parent 

 Type of college student expected to attend

 Undecided for any 0.10* †{{ 0.11* †{{

 2-year 0.11* †{{ 0.16* †{{

 Undecided, 4-year 0.12* †{{ 0.13* †{{

 4-year private 0.14* †{{ 0.15* †{{

 4-year public 1.00 † {{ 1.00 † {{

Student plays role in family decisions

 Often 0.18 †{{ 0.21 †{{

 Sometimes 0.18 †{{ 0.21 †{{

 Hardly ever 1.00 † {{ 1.00 † {{

Talked with parent/teacher about the cost of college

 Yes 0.08* †{{ 0.09* †{{

 No 1.00 † {{ 1.00 † {{

Talked with parent/teacher about financial aid

 Yes 0.08* †{{ 0.09 †{{

 No 1.00 † {{ 1.00 † {{

Parents’ education

 Less than high school 0.18* 0.18* 0.20 0.22* 

 High school only 0.10* 0.10* 0.11 0.11* 

 Some postsecondary education 0.09* 0.09* 0.10 0.08* 

 College graduate or graduate school 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 

Household income

 $25,000 or less 0.13 0.12* 0.14* 0.13* 

 $25,001 to $50,000 0.10 0.10* 0.11 0.10* 

 $50,001 to $75,000 0.11 0.11* 0.12 0.10 

 More than $75,000 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 

Language most spoken at home by parents

 Other †{{ 0.18 †{{ 0.18 

 English † {{ 1.00 † {{ 1.00 

See footnotes at end of table.

estimating accurately

Odds ratio of Odds ratio of

Student, family, or parent characteristic 

having knowledge about cost
Appendix D—Standard Errors 

113 

Table D10.—Standard errors for table 10: Logistic regression results (in odds ratios) of 6th- through 12th-graders’ 

Table D10.—and their parents’ knowledge about college costs and whether they could accurately estimate tuition

Table D10.—and fees: 1999—Continued

Student Parent Student Parent 

Parent involvement in school

 High level 0.12 0.11* 0.13 0.11 

 Medium level 0.09 0.08 0.10 0.09 

 Low level 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 

Type of college parents reported the child planned to attend

 Undecided for any †{{ 0.10* †{{ 0.10* 

 2-year †{{ 0.10* †{{ 0.11* 

 Undecided, 4-year †{{ 0.11* †{{ 0.11* 

 4-year private †{{ 0.16* †{{ 0.12* 

 4-year public † {{ 1.00 † {{ 1.00 

Parents talked to someone/read materials on financial aid

 Yes †{{ 0.08* †{{ 0.08* 

 No † {{ 1.00 † {{ 1.00 

Parents heard of Lifetime Learning and/or HOPE Scholarship tax credits

 Yes †{{ 0.08* †{{ 0.08* 

 No † {{ 1.00 † {{ 1.00 

*p<.05.

†Not applicable.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Youth Survey and Parent Survey 

of the 1999 National Household Education Surveys Program (NHES:1999). Actual tuition amounts are from the 1998 

Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS).

Odds ratio of Odds ratio of

having knowledge about cost estimating accurately

Student, family, or parent characteristic 
Appendix D—Standard Errors 

114 

Table D11.—Standard errors for table 11: Percentage of 6th- through 12th-graders’ parents who reported having

Table D11.—taken various steps to prepare to pay for their children’s postsecondary education, by selected student,

Table D11.—family, and parent characteristics: 1999

Have heard 

Have started Have talked to of Lifetime 

saving money/ someone/read Learning and/or 

making other materials on HOPE Scholarship 

financial plans financial aid tax credits 

 Total 0.69 0.65 0.58 

Grade in school

 6 through 8 1.00 0.83 0.98 

 9 and 10 1.47 1.27 1.14 

 11 and 12 1.18 1.30 1.24 

Student’s sex

 Male 0.96 0.99 0.92 

 Female 1.05 0.94 0.85 

Student’s race/ethnicity

 White, non-Hispanic 0.83 0.75 0.76 

 Black, non-Hispanic 1.79 1.78 1.45 

 Hispanic 1.63 1.49 1.37 

 Other, non-Hispanic 3.29 3.21 3.01 

 Mostly F/D’s 3.69 3.86 2.59 

 Mostly C’s 1.70 1.66 1.47 

 Mostly B’s 1.30 1.16 0.93 

 Mostly A’s 1.04 1.10 1.11 

Repeated any grades since kindergarten

 Yes 2.10 1.96 1.48 

 No 0.71 0.70 0.64 

School type

 Public 0.76 0.68 0.60 

 Private 2.24 2.53 2.02 

 Home school 7.46 6.22 6.69 

Student plays role in family decisions

 Hardly ever 3.42 3.21 2.46 

 Sometimes 1.02 1.02 0.86 

 Often 0.89 0.95 0.92 

See footnotes at end of table.

Average GPA across all subjects

Student, family, or parent 

characteristic 
Appendix D—Standard Errors 

115 

Table D11.—Standard errors for table 11: Percentage of 6th- through 12th-graders’ parents who reported having

Table D11.—taken various steps to prepare to pay for their children’s postsecondary education, by selected student,

Table D11.—family, and parent characteristics: 1999—Continued

Have heard 

Have started Have talked to of Lifetime 

saving money/ someone/read Learning and/or 

making other materials on HOPE Scholarship 

financial plans financial aid tax credits 

Parents’ education

 Less than high school 2.25 1.96 1.82 

 High school only 1.49 1.37 1.03 

 Some postsecondary education 1.26 1.31 1.16 

 College graduate 1.75 1.60 1.81 

 Graduate school 1.59 1.72 1.53 

Household income

 $25,000 or less 1.49 1.61 1.14 

 $25,001 to $50,000 1.26 1.23 1.09 

 $50,001 to $75,000 1.52 1.35 1.45 

 More than $75,000 1.24 1.43 1.37 

Language most spoken at home by parents

 English 0.73 0.68 0.60 

 Other 2.19 1.53 2.03 

Parent involvement in school

 Low level 1.33 1.21 1.14 

 Medium level 1.00 0.85 0.88 

 High level 1.63 1.65 1.47 

Type of college parents expected the child to attend

 4-year 0.95 0.96 0.91 

 2-year 1.41 1.48 1.29 

 Undecided 1.58 1.28 1.14 

NOTE: Sample in table includes 6th- through 12th-graders’ parents for who plans for student to attend postsecondary education.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Youth Survey and Parent Survey of the 1999

National Household Education Surveys Program (NHES:1999).

Student, family, or parent 

characteristic 
Appendix D—Standard Errors 

116 

Table D12.—Standard errors for table 12: Logistic regression results (in odds ratios) of parents’ preparations to pay 

Table D12.—for their children’s postsecondary education: 1999

Table D12.—

Have heard 

Have started Have talked to of Lifetime 

saving money/ someone/read Learning and/or 

making other materials on HOPE scholarship 

financial plans financial aid tax credits 

 Intercept 0.24* 0.26 0.25 

Grade in school

 6 through 8 0.08* 0.08* 0.08* 

 9 and 10 0.09 0.08* 0.09* 

 11 and 12 1.00 1.00 1.00 

Student’s sex

 Male 0.07 0.07 0.06 

 Female 1.00 1.00 1.00 

Student’s race/ethnicity

 Other, non-Hispanic 0.16 0.15 0.14 

 Hispanic 0.11 0.12 0.12 

 Black, non-Hispanic 0.10 0.10* 0.10 

 White, non-Hispanic 1.00 1.00 1.00 

Average GPA across all subjects

 Mostly A’s 0.18* 0.21 0.20 

 Mostly B’s 0.17 0.21 0.20 

 Mostly C’s 0.18 0.21 0.20 

 Mostly F/D’s 1.00 1.00 1.00 

Repeated any grades since kindergarten

 Yes 0.10 0.11 0.11* 

 No 1.00 1.00 1.00 

School type

 Public 0.12* 0.11 0.11 

 Private 1.00 1.00 1.00 

Parents’ education

 Less than high school 0.16* 0.19* 0.17* 

 High school only 0.09* 0.10* 0.10* 

 Some postsecondary education 0.09* 0.08 0.08* 

 College graduate or graduate school 1.00 1.00 1.00 

See footnotes at end of table.

Student, family, or parent characteristic 
Appendix D—Standard Errors 

117 

Table D12.—Standard errors for table 12: Logistic regression results (in odds ratios) of parents’ preparations to pay 

Table D12.—for their children’s postsecondary education: 1999—Continued

Have heard 

Have started Have talked to of Lifetime 

saving money/ someone/read Learning and/or 

making other materials on HOPE scholarship 

financial plans financial aid tax credits 

Household income

 $25,000 or less 0.12* 0.12* 0.11* 

 $25,001 to $50,000 0.10* 0.09* 0.09* 

 $50,001 to $75,000 0.11* 0.09 0.09* 

 More than $75,000 1.00 1.00 1.00 

Language most spoken at home by parents

 Other 0.16* 0.19* 0.16 

 English 1.00 1.00 1.00 

Parent involvement in school

 High level 0.11* 0.11* 0.10 

 Medium level 0.08* 0.08* 0.08 

 Low level 1.00 1.00 1.00 

Type of college parents expected the child to attend

 Undecided for any 0.09* 0.10* 0.09* 

 2-year 0.09* 0.09* 0.09* 

 Undecided, 4-year 0.12 0.11* 0.11* 

 4-year private 0.13 0.11* 0.11 

 4-year public 1.00 1.00 1.00 

*p<.05.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Youth Survey and Parent Survey of the 1999

National Household Education Surveys Program (NHES:1999).

Student, family, or parent characteristic 
Appendix D—Standard Errors 

118 

Table D13.—Standard errors for table 13: Percentage of 6th- through 12th-graders who reported discussing various

Table D13.—issues relating to postsecondary education with their parents or school teacher/counselors, by selected

Table D13.—student, family, and parent characteristics: 1999

Academic Type of Cost of 

requirements college to tuition and Financial 

for college attend fees aid 

 Total 0.65 0.70 0.67 0.65 

Grade in school

 6 through 8 1.12 1.04 1.06 0.98 

 9 and 10 1.11 1.25 1.26 1.24 

 11 and 12 0.68 0.83 1.00 1.33 

Student’s sex

 Male 0.94 1.01 0.99 0.92 

 Female 0.87 0.90 0.97 1.00 

Student’s race/ethnicity

 White, non-Hispanic 0.85 0.83 0.77 0.79 

 Black, non-Hispanic 1.48 1.58 1.90 2.12 

 Hispanic 1.42 1.79 1.79 1.51 

 Other, non-Hispanic 2.64 2.86 3.27 3.06 

Language spoken most at home by student

 English 0.69 0.71 0.68 0.68 

 Other 1.86 2.46 2.51 2.37 

Average GPA across all subjects

 Mostly F/D’s 4.19 3.78 4.24 3.93 

 Mostly C’s 1.42 1.62 1.50 1.53 

 Mostly B’s 1.00 1.12 1.15 1.14 

 Mostly A’s 1.02 0.91 1.18 1.06 

Repeated any grades since kindergarten

 Yes 1.85 2.13 2.16 2.03 

 No 0.66 0.71 0.69 0.75 

School type

 Public 0.70 0.71 0.75 0.71 

 Private 2.02 1.86 2.29 2.24 

 Home school 6.31 6.81 7.51 7.51 

Type of college student expected to attend

 4-year 0.83 0.84 0.97 0.77 

 2-year 1.46 1.68 1.72 1.57 

 Undecided 1.11 1.36 1.02 1.07 

See footnotes at end of table.

Student, family, or parent characteristic 
Appendix D—Standard Errors 

119 

Table D13.—Standard errors for table 13: Percentage of 6th- through 12th-graders who reported discussing various

Table D13.—issues relating to postsecondary education with their parents or school teacher/counselors, by selected

Table D13.—student, family, and parent characteristics: 1999—Continued

Academic Type of Cost of 

requirements college to tuition and Financial 

for college attend fees aid 

Student plays role in family decisions

 Hardly ever 3.46 2.74 3.47 3.65 

 Sometimes 0.90 1.15 0.98 1.05 

 Often 0.96 0.86 0.93 1.00 

Parents’ education

 Less than high school 1.97 2.87 2.10 2.60 

 High school only 1.28 1.28 1.54 1.34 

 Some postsecondary education 1.25 1.30 1.34 1.36 

 College graduate 1.55 1.71 1.76 1.53 

 Graduate school 1.28 1.17 1.67 1.59 

Household income

 $25,000 or less 1.17 1.46 1.40 1.38 

 $25,001 to $50,000 1.17 1.28 1.06 1.12 

 $50,001 to $75,000 1.24 1.33 1.41 1.68 

 More than $75,000 1.31 1.34 1.54 1.34 

Parent involvement in school

 Low level 1.10 1.57 1.39 1.37 

 Medium level 0.88 0.72 0.77 0.87 

 High level 1.65 1.40 1.61 1.73 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Youth Survey and Parent Survey of the 1999

National Household Education Surveys Program (NHES:1999).

Student, family, or parent characteristic 
Appendix D—Standard Errors 

120 

Table D14.—Standard errors for table 14: Logistic regression results (in odds ratios) of 6th- through 12th-graders’

Table D14.—discussions about various issues regarding postsecondary education with their parents or school

Table D14.—teachers/counselors: 1999

Table D14—

Academic Type of Cost of 

requirements college to tuition and Financial 

for college attend fees aid 

Grade in school

 6 through 8 0.13* 0.12* 0.09* 0.09*

 9 and 10 0.14* 0.12* 0.09* 0.09*

 11 and 12 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 

Student’s sex

 Male 0.07 0.07 0.06 0.07 

 Female 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 

Student’s race/ethnicity

 Other, non-Hispanic 0.17 0.15 0.15 0.14 

 Hispanic 0.13 0.12 0.11* 0.11 

 Black, non-Hispanic 0.12* 0.11 0.10* 0.10*

 White, non-Hispanic 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 

Language spoken most at home by student

 Other 0.17* 0.15 0.14 0.14 

 English 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 

Average GPA across all subjects

 Mostly A’s 0.21 0.19 0.20 0.20 

 Mostly B’s 0.20 0.19 0.20 0.19 

 Mostly C’s 0.21 0.20 0.20 0.20 

 Mostly F/D’s 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 

Repeated any grades since kindergarten

 Yes 0.12 0.12 0.10 0.11 

 No 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 

School type

 Public 0.12 0.12 0.11 0.12 

 Private 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 

Type of college student expected to attend

 Undecided for any 0.11* 0.10* 0.09* 0.09*

 2-year 0.14* 0.12* 0.10* 0.10*

 Undecided, 4-year 0.14* 0.12* 0.10* 0.11*

 4-year private 0.20 0.20* 0.14* 0.14 

 4-year public 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 

See footnotes at end of table.

Student, family, or parent characteristic 
Appendix D—Standard Errors 

121 

Table D14.—Standard errors for table 14: Logistic regression results (in odds ratios) of 6th- through 12th-graders’

Table D14.—discussions about various issues regarding postsecondary education with their parents or school

Table D14.—teachers/counselors: 1999—Continued

Table D14—

Academic Type of Cost of 

requirements college to tuition and Financial 

for college attend fees aid 

Student plays role in family decisions

 Often 0.18* 0.17* 0.17* 0.18*

 Sometimes 0.18* 0.17* 0.17* 0.18*

 Hardly ever 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 

Parents’ education

 Less than high school 0.18 0.17 0.15 0.16 

 High school only 0.11 0.10 0.09 0.09 

 Some postsecondary education 0.09 0.09 0.08 0.08 

 College graduate or graduate school 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 

Household income

 $25,000 or less 0.13 0.12 0.11 0.11*

 $25,001 to $50,000 0.10* 0.10 0.09 0.10*

 $50,001 to $75,000 0.11 0.11 0.09 0.10 

 More than $75,000 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 

Parent involvement in school

 High level 0.12 0.11* 0.10* 0.10 

 Medium level 0.09 0.08* 0.08* 0.08 

 Low level 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 

*p<.05.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Youth Survey and Parent Survey of the 1999

National Household Education Surveys Program (NHES:1999).

Student, family, or parent characteristic 
Appendix D—Standard Errors 

122 

Table DC1.—Standard errors for table C1: Percentage distributions of 6th- through 12th-graders and their parents, 

Table DC1.—according to the accuracy of their reported estimates of tuition and mandatory fees for the 

Table DC1.—postsecondary institution students planned to attend, by selected student, family, and parent 

Table DC1.—characteristics: 1999

Estimated Estimated

tuition Could tuition Could

within 15% Over- Under- not within 15% Over- Under- not

of actual estimated estimated estimate of actual estimated estimated estimate

 Total 0.49 0.47 0.30 0.58 0.52 0.57 0.40 0.62

Grade in school

 6 through 8 0.57 0.36 0.37 0.67 0.74 0.79 0.50 1.01

 9 and 10 0.93 0.86 0.60 1.10 1.17 1.24 0.80 1.38

 11 and 12 0.93 1.27 0.83 1.20 1.13 1.37 1.00 1.16

Student’s sex

 Male 0.72 0.64 0.45 0.88 0.74 0.79 0.53 0.84

 Female 0.68 0.66 0.44 0.86 0.79 0.87 0.62 0.94

Student’s race/ethnicity

 White, non-Hispanic 0.58 0.62 0.39 0.70 0.73 0.77 0.54 0.69

 Black, non-Hispanic 1.61 1.15 0.85 1.76 1.34 1.36 1.18 1.76

 Hispanic 1.02 1.16 0.80 1.66 1.16 1.39 0.68 1.69

 Other, non-Hispanic 2.04 2.80 1.23 2.88 2.46 2.72 1.35 3.08

Language spoken most at home by student

 English 0.54 0.51 0.32 0.60 † † † †

 Other 1.33 1.45 1.37 2.31 † † † †

Average GPA across all subjects

 Mostly F/D’s 2.72 1.81 1.17 3.29 2.74 3.30 1.72 3.68

 Mostly C’s 1.12 0.90 0.72 1.53 1.11 1.46 0.91 1.77

 Mostly B’s 0.74 0.79 0.49 1.10 0.92 0.81 0.73 1.16

 Mostly A’s 0.79 0.80 0.54 0.96 1.07 0.98 0.60 1.06

Repeated any grades since kindergarten

 Yes 1.36 1.25 1.00 1.84 1.33 1.82 1.17 2.30

 No 0.52 0.52 0.31 0.60 0.54 0.63 0.45 0.68

School type

 Public 0.50 0.53 0.33 0.62 0.55 0.56 0.40 0.67

 Private 1.75 1.53 1.17 2.13 2.15 1.97 1.42 2.26

 Home school 5.28 1.98 1.89 5.35 6.31 5.94 2.74 6.52

See footnotes at end of table.

Student, family, or parent 

characteristic 

Percent of students Percent of students whose parents
Appendix D—Standard Errors 

123 

Table DC1.—Standard errors for table C1: Percentage distributions of 6th- through 12th-graders and their parents, 

Table DC1.—according to the accuracy of their reported estimates of tuition and mandatory fees for the 

Table DC1.—postsecondary institution students planned to attend, by selected student, family, and parent 

Table DC1.—characteristics: 1999—Continued

Estimated Estimated

tuition Could tuition Could

within 15% Over- Under- not within 15% Over- Under- not

of actual estimated estimated estimate of actual estimated estimated estimate

Type of college student planned to attend

 4-year public 0.97 1.36 0.91 1.38 † † † †

 4-year private 2.56 2.39 2.34 2.40 † † † †

 Undecided, 4-year 1.70 # # 1.70 † † † †

 2-year 0.76 1.35 1.14 1.81 † † † †

 Undecided for any 0.85 # # 0.85 † † † †

Student plays role in family decisions

 Hardly ever 2.43 2.05 1.79 3.16 † † † †

 Sometimes 0.66 0.61 0.39 0.86 † † † †

 Often 0.71 0.70 0.57 0.86 † † † †

Talked with parent/teacher about the cost

 Yes 0.84 0.83 0.56 1.02 † † † †

 No 0.59 0.49 0.35 0.86 † † † †

Talked with parent/teacher about aid

 Yes 0.89 0.82 0.62 0.97 † † † †

 No 0.60 0.50 0.34 0.71 † † † †

Parents’ education

 Less than high school 1.82 1.34 1.21 2.21 1.22 1.09 0.90 1.96

 High school only 0.89 0.87 0.51 1.28 1.04 1.06 0.68 1.37

 Some postsecondary education 0.96 0.85 0.62 1.27 0.86 1.20 0.72 1.19

 College graduate 1.13 1.12 0.90 1.63 1.68 1.56 1.18 1.75

 Graduate school 1.08 1.31 0.84 1.71 1.58 1.40 1.13 1.33

Household income

 $25,000 or less 1.02 0.87 0.71 1.56 0.96 0.99 0.68 1.40

 $25,001 to $50,000 0.71 0.80 0.55 0.93 0.90 1.07 0.72 1.12

 $50,001 to $75,000 1.24 1.03 0.80 1.44 1.54 1.34 1.01 1.35

 More than $75,000 1.07 0.99 0.53 1.17 1.42 1.37 0.98 1.15

Language most spoken at home by parents

 English † † † † 0.56 0.61 0.41 0.63

 Other † † † † 1.32 1.46 1.07 1.92

See footnotes at end of table.

Percent of students Percent of students whose parents

Student, family, or parent 

characteristic 
Appendix D—Standard Errors 

124 

Table DC1.—Standard errors for table C1: Percentage distributions of 6th- through 12th-graders and their parents, 

Table DC1.—according to the accuracy of their reported estimates of tuition and mandatory fees for the 

Table DC1.—postsecondary institution students planned to attend, by selected student, family, and parent 

Table DC1.—characteristics: 1999—Continued

Estimated Estimated

tuition Could tuition Could

within 15% Over- Under- not within 15% Over- Under- not

of actual estimated estimated estimate of actual estimated estimated estimate

Parent involvement in school

 Low level 1.01 1.00 0.70 1.37 0.97 1.06 0.82 1.28

 Medium level 0.70 0.64 0.45 0.84 0.66 0.74 0.60 0.96

 High level 1.00 0.99 0.78 1.31 1.57 1.46 0.88 1.48

Talked to someone/read materials on aid

 Yes † † † † 1.11 1.18 0.73 1.05

 No † † † † 0.70 0.67 0.44 0.88

Heard of Lifetime Learning and/or HOPE Scholarship tax credits

 Yes † † † † 1.17 1.24 0.82 1.13

 No † † † † 0.59 0.61 0.49 0.81

Type of college parent reported student planned to attend

 4-year public † † † † 0.93 1.24 0.93 1.27

 4-year private † † † † 2.00 2.13 1.83 1.38

 Undecided, 4-year † † † † 1.83 # # 1.83

 2-year † † † † 0.90 1.28 0.90 1.37

 Undecided for any † † † † 1.17 # # 1.17

#Too few sample cases.

†Not applicable.

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Sample in table includes 6th- through 12th-graders and their parents among 

whom both student and parent reported plans for student to attend postsecondary education.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Youth Survey and Parent Survey of the 1999

National Household Education Surveys Program (NHES:1999). Actual tuition amounts from the 1998 Integrated Postsecondary

Education Data System (IPEDS).

Percent of students Percent of students whose parents

Student, family, or parent 

characteristic 
Appendix D—Standard Errors 

125 

Table DC2.—Standard errors for table C2: Percentage distributions of 6th- through 12th-graders and their parents, 

Table DC2.—according to the accuracy of their reported estimates of tuition and mandatory fees for the 

Table DC2.—postsecondary institution students planned to attend, by selected student, family, and parent 

Table DC2.—characteristics: 1999

Estimated Estimated

tuition Could tuition Could

within 50% Over- Under- not within 50% Over- Under- not

of actual estimated estimated estimate of actual estimated estimated estimate

 Total 0.60 0.44 0.22 0.58 0.61 0.58 0.27 0.62

Grade in school

 6 through 8 0.62 0.30 0.26 0.67 0.83 0.73 0.38 1.01

 9 and 10 1.08 0.76 0.29 1.10 1.31 1.17 0.35 1.38

 11 and 12 1.19 1.23 0.66 1.20 1.40 1.16 0.60 1.16

Student’s sex

 Male 0.92 0.60 0.32 0.88 0.75 0.74 0.39 0.84

 Female 0.75 0.60 0.32 0.86 1.01 0.80 0.40 0.94

Student’s race/ethnicity

 White, non-Hispanic 0.71 0.54 0.29 0.70 0.74 0.74 0.37 0.69

 Black, non-Hispanic 1.71 1.06 0.66 1.76 1.74 1.17 0.68 1.76

 Hispanic 1.19 1.08 0.49 1.66 1.42 1.23 0.35 1.69

 Other, non-Hispanic 2.42 2.79 0.86 2.88 2.64 2.24 1.10 3.08

Language spoken most at home by student

 English 0.62 0.47 0.24 0.60 † † † †

 Other 1.79 1.36 0.69 2.31 † † † †

Average GPA across all subjects

 Mostly F/D’s 2.83 1.69 0.65 3.29 2.85 3.22 1.59 3.68

 Mostly C’s 1.28 0.86 0.61 1.53 1.72 1.14 0.53 1.77

 Mostly B’s 0.96 0.71 0.30 1.10 1.09 0.77 0.48 1.16

 Mostly A’s 0.95 0.71 0.41 0.96 1.19 0.85 0.47 1.06

Repeated any grades since kindergarten

 Yes 1.52 1.18 0.65 1.84 1.62 1.61 0.72 2.30

 No 0.61 0.49 0.24 0.60 0.68 0.63 0.30 0.68

School type

 Public 0.60 0.49 0.24 0.62 0.66 0.56 0.29 0.67

 Private 2.07 1.27 0.83 2.13 2.25 1.63 0.74 2.26

 Home school 5.31 1.86 1.29 5.35 7.01 3.09 1.88 6.52

See footnotes at end of table.

Student, family, or parent 

characteristic 

Percent of students Percent of students whose parents
Appendix D—Standard Errors 

126 

Table DC2.—Standard errors for table C2: Percentage distributions of 6th- through 12th-graders and their parents, 

Table DC2.—according to the accuracy of their reported estimates of tuition and mandatory fees for the 

Table DC2.—postsecondary institution students planned to attend, by selected student, family, and parent 

Table DC2.—characteristics: 1999—Continued

Estimated Estimated

tuition Could tuition Could

within 50% Over- Under- not within 50% Over- Under- not

of actual estimated estimated estimate of actual estimated estimated estimate

Type of college student planned to attend

 4-year public 1.34 1.28 0.62 1.38 † † † †

 4-year private 2.96 1.57 1.58 2.40 † † † †

 Undecided, 4-year 1.70 # # 1.70 † † † †

 2-year 1.18 1.31 0.73 1.81 † † † †

 Undecided for any 0.85 # # 0.85 † † † †

Student plays role in family decisions

 Hardly ever 2.92 1.85 1.27 3.16 † † † †

 Sometimes 0.76 0.56 0.32 0.86 † † † †

 Often 0.86 0.64 0.34 0.86 † † † †

Talked with parent/teacher about the cost

 Yes 1.02 0.74 0.38 1.02 † † † †

 No 0.71 0.42 0.27 0.86 † † † †

Talked with parent/teacher about aid

 Yes 1.08 0.75 0.45 0.97 † † † †

 No 0.63 0.47 0.25 0.71 † † † †

Parents’ education

 Less than high school 2.06 1.20 0.64 2.21 1.51 0.98 0.49 1.96

 High school only 1.13 0.82 0.41 1.28 1.22 0.88 0.40 1.37

 Some postsecondary education 1.15 0.69 0.46 1.27 1.22 1.08 0.53 1.19

 College graduate 1.49 1.02 0.66 1.63 1.95 1.50 0.80 1.75

 Graduate school 1.43 1.12 0.45 1.71 1.44 1.17 0.66 1.33

Household income

 $25,000 or less 1.23 0.73 0.55 1.56 1.25 0.87 0.54 1.40

 $25,001 to $50,000 0.93 0.72 0.40 0.93 1.19 0.98 0.46 1.12

 $50,001 to $75,000 1.63 0.87 0.48 1.44 1.36 1.14 0.59 1.35

 More than $75,000 1.19 0.89 0.39 1.17 1.59 1.22 0.56 1.15

See footnotes at end of table.

Percent of students Percent of students whose parents

Student, family, or parent 

characteristic 
Appendix D—Standard Errors 

127 

Table DC2.—Standard errors for table C2: Percentage distributions of 6th- through 12th-graders and their parents, 

Table DC2.—according to the accuracy of their reported estimates of tuition and mandatory fees for the 

Table DC2.—postsecondary institution students planned to attend, by selected student, family, and parent 

Table DC2.—characteristics: 1999—Continued

Estimated Estimated

tuition Could tuition Could

within 50% Over- Under- not within 50% Over- Under- not

of actual estimated estimated estimate of actual estimated estimated estimate

Language most spoken at home by parents

 English † † † † 0.64 0.59 0.28 0.63

 Other † † † † 1.70 1.36 0.73 1.92

Parent involvement in school

 Low level 1.15 0.97 0.43 1.37 1.08 0.92 0.50 1.28

 Medium level 0.91 0.59 0.33 0.84 0.74 0.71 0.40 0.96

 High level 1.26 0.84 0.55 1.31 1.83 1.44 0.49 1.48

Talked to someone/read materials on aid

 Yes † † † † 1.18 1.02 0.54 1.05

 No † † † † 0.78 0.63 0.27 0.88

Heard of Lifetime Learning/HOPE Scholarship

 Yes † † † † 1.34 1.04 0.55 1.13

 No † † † † 0.74 0.59 0.34 0.81

Type of college parent reported student planned to attend

 4-year public † † † † 1.45 1.26 0.57 1.27

 4-year private † † † † 2.47 1.53 1.38 1.38

 Undecided, 4-year † † † † 1.83 # # 1.83

 2-year † † † † 1.11 1.13 0.60 1.37

 Undecided for any † † † † 1.17 # # 1.17

#Too few sample cases.

†Not applicable.

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Sample in table includes 6th- through 12th-graders and their parents among 

whom both student and parent reported plans for student to attend postsecondary education.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Youth Survey and Parent Survey of the 1999

National Household Education Surveys Program (NHES:1999). Actual tuition amounts from the 1998 Integrated Postsecondary

Education Data System (IPEDS).

Student, family, or parent 

characteristic 

Percent of students Percent of students whose parents
Appendix D—Standard Errors 

128 

Figure DA.—Standard errors for figure A: Among 9th- through 12th-graders and their parents who

Figure DA.—reported plans for the student to attend postsecondary education, the percentage distributions

Figure DA.—according to whether they had obtained college cost information, could estimate the costs, or

Figure DA.—could do neither: 1999

STUDENTS

PARENTS

NOTE: Detail may not sum to total because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Youth Survey and Parent Survey of the

1999 National Household Education Surveys Program (NHES:1999).

Grades 9–10

15%

16%

69% Neither

(1.10)

Could 

estimate

(1.05)

Obtained cost 

information

(0.97)

Grades 11–12

52%

11%

Obtained cost 37%

information

(1.30)

Could estimate

(0.78)

Neither

(1.20)

Grades 9–10

47%

27%

27% Neither

(1.38)

Could 

estimate

(1.32)

Obtained cost 

information

(1.50)

Grades 11–12

29%

17%

54%

Obtained 

cost 

information

(1.46)

Could 

estimate

(0.89)

Neither

(1.46)
Appendix D—Standard Errors 

129 

Figure DB—Standard errors for figure B: Among 11th- and 12th-graders and their parents who reported plans for the

student to attend a public in-state 4-year institution, and who provided an estimate of tuition and fees, the

percentage distributions of estimated tuition and fees for 1 year and the actual and fees tuition paid by

undergraduates in 1998–99

1

Does not include those who reported room and board in their estimates. Includes respondents who were undecided about where to attend but

estimated tuition and fees for public 4-year institutions in their state.

2

Does not include room and board costs. The survey is a universe, so there are no sampling standard errors associated with the percentages.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Youth Survey and Parent Survey of the 1999 National Household

Education Surveys Program (NHES:1999). Actual tuition and fees published in The College Board (1998), Trends in College Pricing.

$8,000 or more

$5,000–7,999

$4,000–4,999

$3,000–3,999

$2,000–2,999

Less than $2,000

Actual tuition and fees2

Average: $3,247

0%

6.0%

19.0%

25.8%

39.0%

10.2%

Parents’ estimates1

Average: $5,799

24.3% (2.88)

26.0% (3.29)

11.4% (2.28)

11.1% (2.68)

21.5% (3.16)

5.7% (1.35)

Students’ estimates1

Average: $5,366

25.3% (3.23)

25.5% (3.33)

10.8% (2.14)

13.5% (3.10)

16.3% (2.63)

8.6% (2.40)
Appendix D—Standard Errors 

130 

Figure DC—Standard errors for figure C: Among 11th- and 12th-graders and their parents who reported plans for the

student to attend a private 4-year institution, and who provided an estimate of tuition and fees, the percentage

distributions of estimated tuition and fees for 1 year and the actual tuition and fees paid by undergraduates

in 1998–99

1

Does not include those who reported room and board in their estimates.

2

Does not include room and board costs. The survey is a universe, so there are no sampling standard errors associated with the percentages.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Youth Survey and Parent Survey of the 1999 National Household

Education Surveys Program (NHES:1999). Actual tuition and fees published in The College Board (1998), Trends in College Pricing.

Less than $4,000

$4,000–7,999

$8,000–11,999

$12,000–15,999

$20,000 or more

$16,000–19,999

Parents’ estimates1

Average: $14,506

26.9% (6.48)

21.8% (6.09)

17.1% (5.81)

14.5% (5.12)

14.5% (4.16)

5.2% (3.34)

Students’ estimates1

Average: $16,539

37.8% (6.00)

13.3% (5.17)

25.0% (6.12)

12.9% (4.01)

6.0% (3.65)

5.0% (3.01)

Actual tuition and fees2

Average: $14,709

19.6%

16.8%

27.4%

20.5%

10.2%

5.6%
Appendix D—Standard Errors 

131 

Figure DD—Standard errors for figure D: Among 9th- through 12th-graders and their parents who reported plans for the

student to attend postsecondary education, the percentage distributions according to the accuracy of tuition

estimates for 1 year’s tuition and fees at the type of college the student planned to attend: 1999

1

An accurate estimate was defined as one within 25 percent of the average for the type of institution the student planned to attend in their state of

residence.

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Youth Survey and Parent Survey of the 1999 National Household

Education Surveys Program (NHES:1999). Actual tuition amounts from the 1998 Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS).

PARENTS

Grades 9–10 Grades 11–12

26%

(1.3) 22%

(1.2)

6%

(0.7)

47%

(1.4) 31%

(1.4) 29%

(1.4)

11%

(0.8)

29%

(1.2)

STUDENTS

Grades 9–10 Grades 11–12

16%

(1.0) 10%

(0.9) 5%

(0.5)

69%

(1.1)

37%

(1.2)

11%

(0.8)

28%

(1.3) 24%

(1.2)

Could not estimate

Underestimated

Overestimated

Accurately estimated1
Appendix D—Standard Errors 

132 

Figure D1.—Standard errors for figure 1: Among 11th- and 12th-graders and their parents who reported

Figure D1.—plans for the student to attend postsecondary education, the percentage distributions according

Figure D1.—to their knowledge of college costs: 1999

NOTE: Detail may not sum to total because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Youth Survey and Parent Survey of the 1999

National Household Education Surveys Program (NHES:1999).

Student and

parent

(0.42)

Student

or parent

(0.82)

16.4%

Both student

and parent

34.6%

(1.16)

Either student

or parent

36.3%

(1.10)

Obtained cost 

information

9.8%

3.0%

Could estimate 

costs

Student and parent could

do neither

(1.01)
Appendix D—Standard Errors 

133 

Figure D2 —Standard errors for figure 2: Among 11th- and 12th-graders and their parents who reported plans for the

student to attend a public in-state 4-year institution, and who provided an estimate of tuition and fees, the

percentage distributions of estimated tuition and fees for 1 year and the actual and fees tuition paid by

undergraduates in 1998–99

1

Does not include those who reported room and board in their estimates. Includes respondents who were undecided about where to attend but

estimated tuition and fees for public 4-year institutions in their state.

2

Does not include room and board costs. The survey is a universe, so there are no sampling standard errors associated with the percentages.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Youth Survey and Parent Survey of the 1999 National Household

Education Surveys Program (NHES:1999). Actual tuition and fees published in The College Board (1998), Trends in College Pricing.

$8,000 or more

$5,000–7,999

$4,000–4,999

$3,000–3,999

$2,000–2,999

Less than $2,000

Actual tuition and fees2

Average: $3,247

0%

6.0%

19.0%

25.8%

39.0%

10.2%

Parents’ estimates1

Average: $5,799

24.3% (2.88)

26.0% (3.29)

11.4% (2.28)

11.1% (2.68)

21.5% (3.16)

5.7% (1.35)

Students’ estimates1

Average: $5,366

25.3% (3.23)

25.5% (3.33)

10.8% (2.14)

13.5% (3.10)

16.3% (2.63)

8.6% (2.40)
Appendix D—Standard Errors 

134 

Figure D3—Standard errors for figure 3: Among 11th- and 12th-graders and their parents who reported plans for the

student to attend a private 4-year institution, and who provided an estimate of tuition and fees, the percentage

distributions of estimated tuition and fees for 1 year and the actual tuition and fees paid by undergraduates

in 1998–99

1

Does not include those who reported room and board in their estimates.

2

Does not include room and board costs. The survey is a universe, so there are no sampling standard errors associated with the percentages.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Youth Survey and Parent Survey of the 1999 National Household

Education Surveys Program (NHES:1999). Actual tuition and fees published in The College Board (1998), Trends in College Pricing.

Less than $4,000

$4,000–7,999

$8,000–11,999

$12,000–15,999

$20,000 or more

$16,000–19,999

Parents’ estimates1

Average: $14,506

26.9% (6.48)

21.8% (6.09)

17.1% (5.81)

14.5% (5.12)

14.5% (4.16)

5.2% (3.34)

Students’ estimates1

Average: $16,539

37.8% (6.00)

13.3% (5.17)

25.0% (6.12)

12.9% (4.01)

6.0% (3.65)

5.0% (3.01)

Actual tuition and fees2

Average: $14,709

19.6%

16.8%

27.4%

20.5%

10.2%

5.6%