NBSIR 78-1424

ICST/IAT Automation Project

Bibliography and Brief Review

of Literature on Machine-Tool

Measurements for Automatic

Control

Carol F. Vezzetti, J. Franklin Mayo-Wells, John S. Hilten, and

Paul S. Lederer

Electronic Technology Division

Institute for Applied Technology

National Bureau of Standards

Washington, D C. 20234

April 1978

Prepared for Office of Developmental Automation and Control Technology,

Institute for Computer Sciences and Technology,

National Bureau of Standards

NBSIR 78-1424

ICST/IAT AUTOMATION PROJECT

BIBLIOGRAPHY AND BRIEF REVIEW

OF LITERATURE ON MACHINE-TOOL

MEASUREMENTS FOR AUTOMATIC

CONTROL

Carol F. Vezzetti, J. Franklin Mayo-Wells, John S. Hilten, and

Paul’S. Lederer

Electronic Technology Division

Institute for Applied Technology

National Bureau of Standards

Washington, D C. 20234

April 1978

This is an interim report. The work described constitutes the first stage of a more complex effort, results and conclusions are not necessarily those that

would be included in a summary report.

Prepared for Office of Developmental Automation and Control Technology,

Institute for Computer Sciences and Technology,

National Bureau of Standards

Contribution of the National Bureau of Standards, not subject to copyright

U S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE, Juanita M. Kreps, Secretary

Dr. Sidney Harman, Under Secretary

Jordan J. Baruch, Assistant Secretary for Science and Technology

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS, Ernest Ambler, Director

Bibliography and Brief Review of Literature

on Machine-Tool Measurements for Automatic Control

Carol F. Vezzetti, J. Franklin Mayo-Wells

John S. Hilten, and Paul S. Lederer

Electronic Technology Division

Institute for Applied Technology

Washington, D.C. 2023^

ABSTRACT

An English-language literature survey focused on machine-tool

measurement related to wear was undertaken to ascertain the types of sensors used and measurements made by investigators throughout the

world in support of machine-tool automation. The resulting review

and bibliography constitute this document.

> Key words: adaptive control; bibliography; control; cutting

force; dynamic; force; load; machine tool; measurement; review;

tool wear; torque.

1 . PURPOSE

This brief review with accompanying bibliography was prepared to provide

background information for the experimental investigation described in the

companion document NBSIR 78 - 1 4 2

3

1 and for other work relating to the identification of suitable control inputs and calibration needs for automated, discretepart batch manufacturing.

2. SCOPE

Increasing interest in the automation of manufacturing processes, and in

particular the goal of an "automatic factory", has resulted in a substantial

number of papers concerned with in-shop, real time (on-line) measurement of

machining parameters. Reflecting the interests of the Components and

Applications Section, the bibliography emphasizes reports relating to the

measurement of cutting forces and torques in machining operations, especially

as these measurements contribute to the determination of tool wear, and a brief

review is provided for these topics. Other topics discussed in the referenced

documents include machine-tool practice and theory, automatic control of machine

tools as a generic problem, and more specific interests such as chip formation,

mach i nab i 1 i ty of stock materials, chatter measurement and reduction, and tool

life.

hilten, J. S., Vezzetti, C. F., Mayo-Wells, J. F. , and Lederer, P. S.,

Experimental Investigation of Drill-Bit Wear, NBSIR 78-1423 (February 1978).
- 2

-

The bibliography (section 6), not intended to be exhaustive, has been

arbitrarily limited to reports published in the English language, or for

which abstracts in English are available. Most of the papers referenced were published after 1965-

2 . 1 Sou rces

References were obtained from several sources. With the cooperation of

the NBS Library, a computer search of the COMPENDEX, I NSPEC-PHYS I CS , INSPECELEC&COMPUT, and NTIS files on the Lockheed Information Systems data base was conducted. The search prescription terms were: MACHIN- + TOOL- + MEASUREMENT-

+ FORCE- or TORQUE- or VIBRATION-. (The hyphen indicates that any suffix may

be added to the root term given.)

In addition, the following journals and other sources were reviewed for more recent references of interest:

Applied Science and Technology Index, 1975~1976;

Engineering Index, Janua ry-Ma rch 1977;

Metals Abstracts, January 1 976-Februa ry 1977;

Annals of the International Institute of Production Engineering Research

(CIRP) , Volumes 1 8 , 20-22;

Proceedings of the North American Metal-Working Research Conference, 1974;

Journal of Engineering for Industry, January 1 974-February 1977; and

Manufacturing Engineering and Management, January 1 974-February 1 977

3- tool wear

Several comprehensive surveys on tool wear have been published recently.

A 1975 state-of-the-art survey by N. H. Cook et at. [45]* includes a matrix

chart that lists the parameters that have been measured for various specific

cutting processes, and identifies the organizations in which the work was carried out. This survey incorporates 84 "annotated references", that is,

report citations with short summaries. (Most of these references have been

incorporated into the bibliography.) Also in 1975, on-line tool-wear measurement work of the past decade was reviewed by M. P. Groover in a paper published

by the Society of Manufacturing Engineers [77]. This survey divides reported

work into seven <. 'asses of measured variables or measurement principles and

discusses the work in each class as a unit.

As explained in both these surveys, direct, in situ measurement of tool wear has not been achieved except in a few instances [67, 128 ], and therefore

most determinations of tool wear that have been reported are inferred from

measurements of other parameters.

3.1 Cutting-Force Measurement Methods - The cutting force developed during

conventional three-dimensional machining may be considered to be the resultant

of several components, of which the most significant are the main cutting

force, defined as the force on the tool in the direction of the cut; the feed

*Figures in brackets indicate the literature references in section 6.2.
-3-

force required to advance the tool into the work; and the reaction force on the

tool in a direction perpendicular to the working surface. For purposes of

determining tool wear, the most common measurements are of cutting force and

feed force. A compilation of measuring systems suitable for dynamic cuttingforce measurements is given in a 1 968 paper by Blankenstein [27].

In machining operations in which the tool rotates, such as drilling, milling,

grinding, and the like, the main cutting force is often measured as the torque

developed in the tool or imposed on the workpiece. Machining torque has been

measured by a number of methods. Conventional methods of measuring stress, such

as the use of strain gages cemented to'.the tool shaft or spindle or to the fixture restraining the workpiece [23,24] have been employed. Other direct methods

for measuring torque include the use of piezoelectric [182] and magnetic [ 1 1 6

]

dynamometers. A common indirect method involves measurement of the electrical

power consumed by the drive motor [63,123]. A less common direct method depends

on the magneto-st r i ct ion effect and has been applied to milling. A special tool

spindle plated with a magnetic material is required. Tensile and compressive

stresses on the spindle surface are produced when the spindle transmits torque

from the machine drive to the rotating cutter. As a result of the presence of

these stresses at 45 deg to the spindle axis, the magnetic permeability becomes

anisotropic, and the magnetic coupling between an exciting coil and a sensing

coil is unbalanced. The unbalance induces an output signal proportional to the

torque applied to the spindle. In the apparatus described, spindle deflection

is also measured (magnetically with a separate deflection-sensing coil); the

deflection signal is used as input for adaptive control of feed rate [1293-

All of the above methods have the disadvantage that slip rings, or their equivalent, are required for electrical contact (the disadvantage arises because slip

rings are sources of noise that interferes with the desired signal). In machining operations in which the tool is stationary, such as with the lathe, the

main cutting force has usually been determined by measuring deflections of the

tool itself or of the tool holder [57,110].

Forces for all types of conventional machining methods are also commonly

determined through deflection measurements of tool [11] or workpiece fixture

[159], as appropriate. These measurements have been made using strain gages

[42 , 57 ] and piezoelectric [182] or magnetic [191] transducers. There is at

least one commercially available line of piezoelectric transducer systems

designed for measuring cutting forces during machining operations [102,164]. A

number of workers have made use of a cantilever design of workpiece fixture or

tool holder to improve the sensitivity of the measurements [14,87].

3-2 Vibration Methods of Tool-Wear Measurements — A number of schemes, some commercially available [100], are based on the observation that a worn tool

produces different sounds compared to those produced by a sharp one [190].

The vibrations in the tool or workpiece or the sound generated during cutting

are recorded and analyzed to develop a signature for the individual machining

operation [90]. Changes in signature may be interpreted as indicators of tool wear (or, in extreme cases, of catastrophic failure). Several investigators

believe that the spectral energy distribution of the vibration signal shifts

to emphasize high frequencies as the tool wears [190]. Vibration signatures

are also used to detect incipient malfunctions in machine tools and to monitor

machine condition [37,72,99].
-4-

3-3 Temperature Methods of Tool-Wear Measurement —Temperature rise and rate

of rise have both been reported as means for determining tool wear. In some embodiments, the thermal emf generated between the tool and workpiece is used

directly as an indicator [**2,68]; in others, "remote" thermocouples inserted

into the tool near the cutting edge are used [23,113]. Work has also been

reported in which infrared sensing of tool temperatures has been attempted

[70,189].

3.** Electrical Resistance Methods of Tool-Wear Measurement — Const r i ct ion

resistance between the workpiece and the tool changes as the wear land (and,

therefore, the area of contact) increases; this phenomenon has been employed

as an indicator of tool wear [56,68], In other related methods, a resistive

element .[ 1 8 7 ] or a resistance network [

1 65 ] is attached to the flank surface

of the tool. As the tool wears, insulating and resistive material is also

eroded, thus changing the resistance of the element or network. A disadvantage

of these measurement methods when applied to rotating cutters is the necessity

for slip rings.

3-5 Other Methods of Measuring Tool Wear —Tools with radioactive material

implanted in the wear zone have been investigated for tool-wear measurement.

The activity of the chips is monitored, giving an indication of the amount

of tool material worn away [83]. A modification of this method using a small

implanted radioactive particle has been proposed; the position of the particle

would be carefully controlled and the activity of the tool would be measured

following a cycle of use. Activity would be expected to drop to background

levels when the particle was completely worn away [46].

Methods for measuring tool wear by optical means have been applied to

operations with a rotating cutter and have required that the tool be removed

for measurements of the wear land or other tool dimensions with a toolmaker's

microscope [ 1 08 ] . However, a few on-line optical measuring schemes have been

reported for use in machining operations in which an interrupted cut makes

the cutting face of the tool available for direct examination for some fraction of each tool revolution [67]. At least one of these methods uses a vidicon camera and a remote video display [ 128 ].

4. DRILLING MEASUREMENTS

Because the experimental approach of the Components and Applications Section

has been to instrument a drill press, it is of interest to this work to identify

several important papers specifically devoted to drilling operations.

R. A. Williams, in his paper "A Study of the Drilling Process" [ 1 9**] , introduces

a geometric model of drilling action from which he derives equations capable

of predicting drilling forces and torques for a given drilling operation in a given material, although the workpiece factor is empirical. Comparison of predicted with experimental results shows reasonable agreement for the limited

workpiece specimens. Williams provides 19 references which have not been

repeated in the bibliography. In the paper "Sensing of Drill Wear and Prediction

of Drill Life" [168], K. Subramanian and N. H. Cook discuss the use of torque,

feed force, and power as indicators of tool conditions. Relations are derived

for expressing torque and feed force as functions of wear-land geometry and
-5-

hence of drill wear. Workpiece hardness is identified as a particularly

crucial parameter with respect to drill bit condition. An interesting paper

by V. Solaja and J. Stanic, "Selected Results from a Project on Drilling" [160],

summarizes work carried out at the University of Belgrade for the Yugoslavian

metal-working industry. This group reports the development of a mathematical

model adequate for the prediction of drill-bit life for a given application.

Several of the detailed reports are available, but in the Serbo-Croatian

1 anguage

.

5. CONCLUSIONS

A brief examination of the literature describing machine-tool measurements,

particularly as such measurements may be applied to adaptive control of machining

operations, shows little unanimity in either the choice of methods or the interpretation of measurement results. A more careful review of the work to date

changes the picture but little. Those who address the question agree that the

in situ measurement of tool wear required by automatic control systems is not

a generally solved problem. Nevertheless, vibration-signature methods making

use of digital processing show promise of being applicable to many machining

operations without requiring modification of machine tool or fixturing, and the

interpretation of measurements of force, torque, and power appears to rest on a developing and expanding understanding of specific machining operations. Indeed,

embodiments of these approaches are commercially available as components and as at least one system [116].

Many measurements of various quantities have been made, but many gaps

remain to be filled in the matrix of possible useful measurement knowledge

for diverse operations. Because in the literature reviewed few investigators

reported ranges of variables such as measurand magnitude and frequency, it

is difficult to develop any global picture of what has been done. Most

mechanical parameters have been measured in the frequency range 0 to 5 kHz,

but beyond that rather meager statement, little that is general can be said.

As the measurement methodology itself is in a state of development, the

conclusion from reviewing the literature that calibration needs have not been

broadly addressed comes as no surprise. Although some workers report static

calibrations of their specific measuring means, these calibrations usually

employ methods suitable for the laboratory but not for the machine-shop floor.

Dynamic calibrations are almost totally lacking. Methods such as the use of

instrumented or calibrated artifacts for directly comparing measurement results

from different measurement systems or from a single system applied successively

to several individual machine tools have not been reported.

As machine-tool measurement systems move out of the laboratory into commercial use with adaptive and other control systems, the need for calibration of

the basic sensing means and for methods of determining sensor performance will

become a marketplace issue. As has happened before in many fields, there is

a real danger that calibration methods will not be available to match the

technology

.
- 6

-

6. BIBLIOGRAPHY

The following references are arranged alphabetically by author. The

titles of papers are given as they appear in the source material; the abstracts

are largely composed of sentences excerpted from the material. In some cases

these sentences identify specific commercial materials or apparatus. These

identifications have not been deleted as they may constitute useful information

for the work referenced. As no part of this work was carried out by the

National Bureau of Standards, and hence the Bureau performed no evaluations of

the identified materials and apparatus, in no case does identification imply

recommendation or endorsement, nor is any statement implied concerning the

suitability of identified items for any purpose.

A tabular guide precedes the references, and lists the subject matter or measurands, the measuring process, the measurement methods or transducers

employed, and other comments including identification of where the work was carried

out. Entries in the guide are grouped into 13 Measurand or Subject Matter categories as follows: control, dimension, drilling"] force (including torque) , mach i nab i 1 i ty , machine-tool technology, power, telemetering, temperature, tool

life, tool wear, vibration, and wear land. Arrangement of entries within a category is arbitrary. Entries representing references discussing more than one subject or measurand as a principal topic appear in each applicable category. Secondary topics, including topics of peripheral interest to the

bibliography (such as chatter), are identified in parentheses in the Measurand

or Subject Matter co 1 umn

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CD

CD

O

Force

(axially

downward,

radial,

and

tangential

Gear

shaping

Strain

gage

Jadavpur

University,

India

forces;

tool:

high-speed

steel;

workpiece:

cast

iron)
Measurand

or

Subject

Hatter

Process

Methods

and

Transducer

Types

Type

of

Publication

and

Source

Reference

(With

Explanatory

Material

(References

are

Papers

Unless

Number

in

Parentheses)

Otherwise

Identified)

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Aachen,

Germany
Machine-tool

technology

(recent

developments)

Review - 13 -

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control

system
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wear;

tool:

cemented

carbide)

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ron-constantan

thermocouple
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(distribution

within

tool)

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melting-point

powders

Nagoya

University,

Japan

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(caused

by

thermoelectricity)

Michigan

Technical

University,
Tool

wear

(adaptive

control)

Milling

Seismic

Air

Force

Materials

Laboratory;

Bendix

Corporation,

U.S.A. - 16 - c u

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Milling

Mechanical

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Laboratory,

196

Japan
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Measurand

or

Subject

Matter

Process

Methods

and

Transducer

Types

Type

of

Publication

and

Source

Reference

(With

Explanatory

Material

(References

are

Papers

Unless

Number

in

Parentheses)

Otherwise

Identified)

18-

CO

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Wear

land

(optimization

of

machining;

workpiece:

Milling

Optical,

photomultiplier

Queen's

University

of

Belfast,

medium

carbon

steel)

Northern

Ireland
-19-

Final Report on Development of Adaptive Control Techniques for Numerically

Controlled Milling Machines, Air Force Materials Laboratory Report, ML-TDR

64-279 (August 1964) and AFML-TR-68-265 (September 1968).

An extensive research program is described in which an equation was developed for flank wear rate as a function of metal removal rate, toolchip thermocouple output, and rate of change of torque.

Dynamic Torque Measurement: A QC Boost, Manu. Eng. Manage. 68^, No. 3, 29

(March 1972)

.

An electronic torque assurance system provides laboratory accuracy

on the production floor. Its promise: to upgrade reliability of assembly

line fastening operations. Torque tensions of 85 ±5 f

t • 1 b (115 ±7 N-m) are required for 3/4-in hex-head bolts. The system may be extended to

crankshaft boring stations. (Used in Chrysler's Trenton engine plant.)

Adaptive Control May Be An Answer, Production, No. 3, 72 (1973).

Feed rate is varied in accordance with power consumption or cutting

force. System has been fitted to milling machines, deep-drilling machines

or broaching machines.

Probleme Bei Der Beurteilung Des Dynamischen Verhaltens Spanender

Werkzeugmasch i nen (Problems Involved in the Assessment of the Dynamic

Behavior of Meta 1 -Cutt i ng Machine Tools), Ind.-Anz. 96_, No. 78, 1799"

1805 (September 20, 1974).

An approach is proposed for the determination of the dynamic behavior

of meta 1 -cut t i ng machine tools based on dynamic resilience measurements.

12 refs. In German .

Microprocessors Turn to Torque Monitoring, Instrum. Contr. Syst. 47_, 30

(October 1974).

A d-c strain-gage transducer on the torque tool sends a low level

voltage, which is related to the actual torque characteristics of each

fastening operation, back to its associated torque controller module

via a sh i el ded cab 1 e

.

Torque-Controlled Drilling, Manu. Eng. Manage. _74, 26-27 (May 1975).

Cincinnati Milacron has developed a continuous monitoring control

system that automatically lowers the feedrate whenever torque on the

tool reaches a preset limit, or motor power exceeds the rated amount.

Proc. Third NSF/RANN Grantees' Conference on Production Research and

Industrial Automation, Cleveland, Ohio, October 28-29, 1975, NSF-RA-T75-036, (National Science Foundation, Wash., D.C., 1975).

NC/CAM —The New Industrial Revolution, Proc. of the Thirteenth Annual

Meeting and Technical Conference, Cincinnati, Ohio, March 28-31, 1976

(Numerical Control Society, Inc., Glenview, 111., 1976).

Cutting Forces Determine Wear on Lathe Tools, Iron Age 217, No. 14, 41-42

(April 5, 1976).

Tool life is governed by flank wear and by cratering at low and high

cutting speeds, respectively. Adaptive control of lathe operations uses
- 20 -

cutting force (continuously determined using electronic circuitry and

fed into a process computer) as an indirect measure of tool wear. To

determine mach i nab i 1 i ty of a material, measurement of cutting force is

preferred to the method of increasing cutting speed to the rate that causes flank failure.

10. Machine Tools Embrace New Technology, Mach. Des. 48_, No. 19, 70-77

(August 26 ,

1 976)

Today's machine tool — with new controls, new drives, and a dash of

space-age electronics — is quite different from yesterday's product.

11. Abdelmoneim, M. Es., and Scrutton, R. F., Tool Edge Roundness and Stable

Build-Up Formation in Finish Machining, J. Eng. Ind., Trans. ASME 96 , 1258-1267 (November 197^).

The results of cutting-force measurements during machining without

a sizable unstable build-up edge are compared with results of a theoretical analysis. Tools were mounted individually in a lathe-tool dynamometer

which was secured to the ram of a milling machine.

12. Akgerman, N., and Frisch, J., The Use of a Cutting Force Spectrum for

Tool Wear Compensation During Turning, Proc. 12th Int. Mach. Tool Des.

Res. Conf., Manchester, Engl., September 1 5 ~ 1 7 , 1971, pp. l - 9 (MacMillan

and Co., Ltd., Lond., Engl., 1972).

A model is developed relating the reduction of rake face area as a tool wears to cutting force. Cutting forces are measured continuously.

A linear relation was found to exist between the cutting force and the

depth of cut.

13- Alberti, N., Noto La Diega, S., and Passannanti, A., Some Observations on Metal Cutting with Reference to the Mechanical Characteristics of WorkPiece Materials, Ann. C I RP 20, No. 1, 1

_ 1 6 (1971).

It is possible to obtain theoretical results more closely related

to experimental data, if the mechanical properties of the materials are interpreted unconventionally.

1A. Albrecht, P., Dynamics of the Metal -Cutt ing Process, J. Eng. Ind., Trans.

ASME 87 , k2S~kk] (November 1 96 5 ) - An experimental setup has been built featuring a special design of

a tool dynamometer particularly suitable for the measurement of dynamic

response of the cutting forces. A cutting tool is activated by a hydraulic shaker. The tool dynamometer, a double cantilever, carrying

tension-compression strain gages, has a right-angle knee. The cutting

edge is located at the knee of the cantilever while the cutting tool is

attached to the end of the cantilever.

15. Alvei id, B., Cutting Temperature Thermo-Electrical Measurements, Ann.

C IRP J[8, 5

i+7-55 /

4 (1970) . The objective is to work out a plan for good, standard i zable equipment

for measuring cutting temperatures. Development of the equipment, which

is based on the workpiece-tool thermocouple method is described.

16. Metals Handbook, 8th Edition, Volume 3: Machining, American Society for

Metals, Metals Park, Ohio (1972).
-21 -

17- Auble, R. E., and Kimmet, G. J., Method and Apparatus for Monitoring

Condition of Cutting Blades, U.S. Patent No. 3, 809, 820 (197*0.

The power consumption of the drive motor is monitored, and a frequency spectrum of the monitored power consumption is obtained.

Power-consumption frequency spectrum is integrated to obtain wear-rate

index value, which is compared with previous wear-rate index value.

18. Bailey, S. J., Solid-State Strain Techniques Help Put Force Measurement

On-Line, Contr. Eng. 22_, 26-29 (June 1975).

The article briefly lays the groundwork for understanding the concept of force and then examines some of the related instrument trends

that emerge in today's marketplace. About a dozen commercially available transducers are described briefly.

19- Bake, D. , et al. , Development of New Sensors for Geometrical A-C Systems

for Lathes, Z. Wirschaft. Fertigung, No. 1, 68 (1973).

The development of measuring devices for gaging workpiece dimensions

and shapes is described.

20. Baldwin, R., Inspecting Machine Tool Geometry I n terf eromet r i ca 1

1 y , ElectroOpt. Syst. Des., 36-39 (October 1976).

With automation, dimensional accuracy of machined parts has become

increasingly dependent on the geometry of the machine that produced

them. A straightness interferometer using small optical flats to measure

straightness over a long travel is discussed.

21. Barrow, G., and Spencer, R. M., Some Factors Influencing the Reliability

of Tool Life Tests, Ann. C I RP ]_8, 199-206 (1970).

Techniques for determining the effect on thermoelectric tool wear

of variations in headstock and tailstock resistance are described. The

results obtained indicate that the large variations in tool life obtained

cannot be attributed solely to thermoelectric tool wear. It is suggested

that differences in the dynamic characteristics of the lathes used have

considerable influence on tool life.

22. Bath, M., and Sharp, R., In-Process Control of Lathe Improves Accuracy

and Productivity, (Proc. 9th Int. Mach. Tool Des. Res. Conf., Birmingham,

Engl., September 1968), Book, Advances in Machine Tool Design and Research

1968, pp. 1209-1221 (Pergamon Press Inc., Elmsford, N.Y., 1969).

Dimensional accuracy of a lathe workpiece is improved by monitoring

errors that arise from tool wear, machine misalignment, workpiece deflection, and tool settings. Pneumatic gages with pressure and displacement

transducers are used. Tool wear is monitored by a gage placed close to

the tool, measuring the distance between the tool post and the workpiece

surface. A feedback control system is used to correct the errors either

continuously or in steps.

23. Beadle, B. R., and Bollinger, J. G., Computer Adaptive Control of a Machine Tool, Ann. C I RP J_^, 61-65 (1971).

A method of investigating various techniques of adaptively controlling

the metal removal process is presented. The method uses a hybrid computer

for data collection and machine tool control.

Spindle torque is measured by a semiconductor strain-gage bridge on the drive shaft; spindle speed is measured by a variable reluctance pick-up
- 22 -

mounted near a drive gear; cutter forces are measured along three axes by

a milling dynamometer on which the workpiece is mounted; and tool tempera

ture is sensed by a thermocouple and te 1 emete red by an FM transmitter.

2k. Bed i n i , R. , Lisini, G. G., and Pinotti, P. C., Experiments on Adaptive

Control of a Milling Machine, J. Eng. I nd . , Trans. ASME £

8 , No. 1,

239 - 2A5 (February 1976).

The machine tool employed is an Olivetti NC machining center provided with a CNZ control unit. The bending moment acting on the cutter

was measured using a wire strain-gage bridge mounted on the tool holder.

The torque measurement was performed using a Vibrometer TG 10 torquemeter mounted on the shaft of the d-c spindle motor.

25- Bhattacharyya , A., and Dev, S. R., Forces During the Process of GearShaping, Ann. C I RP 2_0, No. 1, 3 3 ~ 3 ^ (1971).

An A -6 type Fellows Gear Shaper has been used. All blank materials

were cast iron having an average hardness of 1 60 HB. All cutters were

of high-speed steel. A specially built dynamometer uses six strain gages

two each to measure ax i a 1

y-downwa rd power component, radial force component, and the tangential force component.

26. Billett, R. A., Studies of Cutting Temperature Control Applied to A

Lathe Spindle Speed, (Proc. 9th Int. Mach. Tool Des. Res. Conf .

,

Birmingham, Engl., September 1 968 ) , Book, Advances in Machine Tool

Design and Research 1968, pp. 1273-1287 (Pergamon Press Inc., Elmsford,

N.Y., 1969).

The wear rate of tools is related to temperature at the tool -work

interface. Cutting speed is varied so as to maintain constant cutting

temperature and hence constant tool -wear rate. Temperature is measured

using a thermocouple in the insulated tool. Thermal EFM is also used

as an index of mach i nab1 i ty and of the cooling property of the cutting

fluid.

27- B1 ankenste in , Dr. I. B., Development of a 3“Component Cutting-Reaction

Meter, Ind. Anz. 8^, Ausgabe "Werkzeugmasch i ne und Fer t i gun-S techn i

,

11 Teil 1: Spangebende Formung, Verlog W. Girardet, Essen (October 22,

1968). (Translation 20-055E, Kistler Instrumente AG, Switz.).

Describes the development and function of a 3-component cuttingreaction meter with piezoelectric measuring transducers. Includes

chart of known ex i st i ng cutt i ng-react ion meters suitable for dynamic

investigations. 27 refs.

28. Bollinger, J. G., Computer Control of Machine Tools, Ann. C I RP 2

, No. 2, 215-218 (1972)

The intent of this paper is to focus on the problem of actual

manipulation of machinery by the computer and to illustrate how the

potential for direct computer manipulation of machine tools is growing and the factors that will influence its future impact.

29. Bollinger, J. G., and Ewald, D. L., Spectral Analysis of Modulation

Phenomena for Determining Physical Behavior, Proc. 2nd N. Amer. Metalwork Res. Conf., Madison, Wisconsin, May 20-22, 197**, pp. 666-681

(Society of Manufacturing Engineers, Dearborn, Mich., 197*0.
-23-

The use of spectral analysis of a wide variety of transduced

signals is finding extensive application in manufacturing. The monitoring of tool-wear conditions, identification of failure modes of

tools and machinery, and the analysis of process states are all

examples of current applications. The objective of this paper is to

outline the analytical nature of these modulation principles and to

relate various modulation forms to the graphical output of typical

spectrum analyzers.

30. Boothroyd, G., Eagle, J. M., and Chisholm, A. W. J., Effect of Tool

Flank Wear on the Temperatures Generated During Metal Cutting (Proc.

8th Int. Mach. Tool Des. Res. Conf., Manchester, Engl., September

1967), Book, Advances in Machine Tool Design and Research 1967,

pp. 667 - 68 O (Pergamon Press Inc., Elmsford, N.Y., 1 968 )

.

31. Boothroyd, G., and Rusek, P., Maximum Rate of Profit Criteria in

Machining, J. Eng. Ind., Trans. ASME 9^, 21 7“2 2 0 (February 1976).

In the present paper it is shown that a condition can be determined in which the profit obtained within a given period is maximized

and that this can be used as a single criterion replacing those

previously employed; this condition will be referred to as maximum

efficiency. Nomographs are given for optimum tool-life equations

for carbides and high-speed steel.

32. Bott, J. C., Expert Opinion — Don't Baby NC Turning Machines, Automation,

85-86 (September 1975)

-

Neglect of the fundamentals of good machining practice and failure

to prepare properly for NC turning are most significant causes of low

machine-tool productivity.

33- Braun, S., Fast Dynamic Tests for On-Line Measurements on Machine Tools,

Ann. C I RP 22_, No. 1, 113-114 (1973).

Methods for extracting dynamic data outlined in this paper are aimed at overcoming two types of empirical difficulty encountered if

the actual cutting forces during machining are used as system inputs:

(l) the requirement for relatively long averaging times to permit stabilization of computed results and (2) the complexity of analysis

resulting from motion between machine-tool members that are ideally

fixed relative to each other. The methods include use of a pseudorandom test signal, signal extraction by time-domain averaging, and

pref i 1 ter i ng .

34. Bryan, J., Brooks, H. , Lamb, J., and Willett, G., Influence of Airborne

Noise on the Structures of Precision Machine Tools and Gaging, SME Tech.

Paper MR74-936 (Society of Manufacturing Engineers, Dearborn, Mich.,

1974).

Results of tests on the sensitivity of a diamond turning machine

and a Talystep surface finish analyzer to acoustic vibration are presented. Resonant peaks of vibration greater than 4 yin (0.1 ym)

peak-to-va 1 1 ey were observed between the turning-machine tool post

and spindle at moderate sound levels.
-24-

35- Burnham, M. W. , True Tool Path Considerations, SME Tech. Paper MR76-901

(Society of Manufacturing Engineers, Dearborn, Mich., 1976).

Some sources of error in the true tool path during cutting are discussed using 6061 aluminum as an example. An analysis of the relative

stiffness of various components in the cutting process results in a graph

predicting the tool path error. Methods available for calculating the

influence of the cutting forces and the part-machine stiffnesses are described. Experimental approaches to assessing the relation between

cutting force and depth of cut are also given.

36. Burrus, B. M. , Applications of the D i mens iona 1 -Measu r i ng Laser Interferometer in the Oak Ridge Y - 1 2 Plant Gage Laboratory, prepared for the

U.S. Energy Research and Development Administration under U.S. Government

Contract W-7405 ENG 26.

The report describes and illustrates some applications of the

d i mens i ona 1 -measu r i ng laser interferometer in use in the Y - 1 2 Plant for

several years. Illustrations of on-the-job applications are presented.

37. Carmody, T., Measurement of Vibration as a Diagnostic Tool, Trans. Inst.

Mar. Eng. 94., Pt. 6, 147-159 (1972).

The technique makes use of the fact that all rotating machines

vibrate to some degree or other. Two parameters of vibration are normally used for diagnostic work: the amplitude (i.e., displacement

velocity or acceleration of the element being measured) and the frequency at which it occurs, the amplitude of vibration giving an indication of the machine's condition and the frequency at which it occurs,

identifying its probable source. Although vibration monitoring of

machinery is. a relatively new technique, it is potentially one of the

most cost-effective of the various nondestructive test techniques at

present ava i 1 ab 1 e

38. Cao, G. C., Cutting Phenomena Interpretation in Machine-Workpiece-Tool

System, Ann. C I RP 2j), No. 1, 25-26 (1971).

This study is the fourth stage of research work on the analysis of

phenomena which appear in chip formation. Experimental quick-stop

tests on Ni-Fe-C alloys were performed to study the influence of the

cutting parameters on the formation of the chip. A recording of the

cutting forces is included.

39- Chand raseka ran , H., and Hagarajan, R. , Influence of Flank Wear on the

Stresses in a Cutting Tool, ASME Paper 76 -WA/Prod 30 (American Society

of Mechanical Engineers, N.V., N.Y., 1976).

The experimental procedure included using a photoelastic tool

(epoxy resin) to machine a soft metal (lead). The whole setup was interposed between the polarizer and analyzer of a photoelastic bench. (28

references.) Experimental detail is described in a paper by S. R. Venkatesan and H. Chand raseka ran . (Reference 188.)

40. Colwell, L. V., Methods for Sensing Rate of Tool Wear, Ann. CIRP 1

> 647-651 (1971).

Changes in the magnitude, ratio, and phase difference of machining

force components are due to flank wear, rounding of cutting edge, workpiece rigidity, and coolant effectiveness. Hence, suitable force sensors with rap i d- respon se circuitry can be used to provide an indication of wear.
-25-

*4l . Colwell, L. V. , Tracking Tool Deterioration by Computer (During Actual

Machining), Ann. CIRP 23, No. 1, 29 - 30 (197*0.

Measurements of cutting force components are used to monitor tool wear. A force ratio of the cutting force components in a turning operation was designated as a measure of tool dullness during the starting

and dwell phases of cutting and at various depths of cut.

*42. Colwell, L. V., Cutting Temperature Versus Tool Wear, Ann. CIRP 2 *4

, No. 1, 73 (1975).

Cutting forces and temperatures are sensed during turning cuts on

a numerically controlled lathe. Force sensing is accomplished with a two-component, strain-gage dynamometer which provides analog signals for

the feeding component, Fn, and the power component, Fc, as measured in

the direction of cutting velocity. A tool-work thermocouple senses temperature

.

*43. Colwell, L. V., Progress Report on Temperature Sensing, Diagnostics

Sensing in Machining Operations, Project #320357 (University of Michigan,

Ann Arbor, Mich., April 1975).

Deterioration during machining was monitored by measuring temperature

and force. It was found that cutting temperature, measured by the toolwork thermocouple method, can provide a sensitive indication of tool wear. Both cutting temperature and forces change significantly for changing

thickness of cut and the gage dynamometer.

*4*4. Colwell, L. V., Mazur, J. C., and Angel 1, J., Progress Report, Diagnostic

Sensing in Machining Operations, Project #320357 (University of Michigan,

Ann Arbor, Mich., May 1975).

Cutting force components and their ratios are used as a measure of

tool dullness. Other potentially useful information contained in cutting

force signals is: l) chip-breaking behavior, 2) crater wear, 3) build-up

edge behavior, and *4 ) seizure on the tool flank.

*45 . Cook, N. H., Subramanian, K. , and Basile, S. A., Survey of the State of

Art of Tool Wear Sensing Techniques prepared for the National Science

Foundation under Grant Gl-5**86l (Massachusetts Institute of Technology,

Cambridge, Mass., September 1975).

Documents the existing types of tool-wear sensors. The criteria

used to define tool life are discussed. Description of past and present

R&D efforts, patents, and available tool-wear sensing systems are presented. A tool-wear sensing matrix was prepared to establish which

physical sensing phenomena have been studied relative to specific cutting processes. An annotated bibliography is included.

*46 . Cook, N. H., Subramanian, K. , and Basile, S. A., Tool Wear Sensors, Third

NSF/RANN Grantees' Conf. Prod. Res. Ind. Automation, Cleveland, Ohio,

October 28-29, 1975, pp. 23~26 (National Science Foundation, Wash., D.C.,

1975).

The method under investigation involves implantation, or production

in situ, of a very small radioactive zone within the tool -wear zone. After

each cutting cycle the tool's activity is sampled; when the activity drops

abruptly tool wear has reached a specific amount or the tool has failed

catast roph i ca 1 1 y

.
-26-

h~]Corbach, K., Purpose and Application of Vibration Measuring Techniques

in Industrial Practice (Proc. 10th Int. Mach. Tool Des. Res. Conf.,

Manchester, Engl., September 196*9), Book, Advances in Machine Tool

Design and Research 1969, pp. 379~393 (Pergamon Press Inc., Elmsford,

N.Y., 1970).

Because of the fact that dynamic behavior represents the dominant

factor in evaluation of a machine tool's capacity, application of data

from vibration measuring techniques often may help to increase the efficiency of a machine tool. A few examples are demonstrated to show how

several vibration problems may be solved. 9 refs.

^8. Automation, Numerical and Computer Control, Chapter 12 of Tool and

Manufacturing Engineers Handbook, Daniel B. Dallas, Ed., 3rd Edition

(Society of Manufacturing Engineers, Dearborn, Mich., 1976).

This chapter contains 20 references and a bibliography of 21 entries.

kS- DeFilippi, A., and Ippolito, R. , Adaptive Control in Turning: Cutting

Forces and Tool Wear Relationships for P10, P20, P30 Carbides, Ann. C I RP 1

, 377-385 (1969).

Experiments to investigate the use of cutting forces for tool-wear

sensing are carried out. Generally, cutting forces increase with tool

wear; however, the increases are very small (in the same range as variations due to other factors such as depth of cut, variations in composition

of workpiece, etc.) and dependent on the tool-work combination.

50. DeFilippi, A., and Ippolito, R. , Evaluation of the Tool Wear in Frontal

Milling, Paper presented by G. F. Micheleth at the 19th Annual Assembly

Int. Inst. Prod. Eng. Res. (CIRP), Geneva, Switz., September 1976 (Verlay

Technischie Rundschau Hallwag, Bern, Switz., 1969).

Some correlation between cutting forces and tool wear was noted.

51. DeFilippi, A. and Ippolito, R. , Analysis of the Correlation Among: Cutting

Force Variation (vs. Time) — Chip Format ion Parameters — Mach inability,

Ann. C I RP 2J_, No. 1, 29~30 (1972).

Turning tests have been performed on various casts of three different

steels. During the cut, main cutting force, fixed force, and, at the end

of the test, tool wear were measured. The test was 2 minutes and only

feed force increase was considered. It is necessary to have a high cutting

speed to obtain a significant cutting force increase.

52. DeVor, R. E., Anderson, D. L., and Zdeblick, W. J., Tool Life Variation and

Its Influence on the Development of Tool Life Models, ASME Paper 76-WA/Prod

1 (American Society of Mechanical Engineers, N.Y., N.Y., 1976).

An investigation into the nature of the inherent variation of tool

life over a range of cutting conditions for a finish turning process is

presented. In this study, tool life is based upon a fixed amount of wear

on the clearance face of the tool.

53. Doolan, P. , Phadke, M. S., and Wu , S. M. , Computer Design of a Minimum

Vibration Face Milling Cutter Using an Improved Cutting Force Model,

J. Eng. I nd . , Trans. ASME 98 , 807-810 (August 1976).

A small foil resistance strain gage was mounted on the relief face

of the carbide insert. When the cutter was mounted on the machine, the
-27-

plane of the strain gage was nearly parallel to the finished surface

and it measured strain on the insert in the direction approximately

parallel to the tangential cutting force. A special hollow centering

shank drawbar was made through which the strain gage leads are passed

to the top of the spindle head. Cutting force was measured under

fifteen different cutting conditions.

54. Edwin, A., and Vlach, T. , A New Approach to Tool Wear Monitoring, (Proc.

27th Ann. Conf. Instrum. Soc. Amer. , N.Y., October 1972), Book, Advances

in Instrumentation 2J_, Paper 72-626 (Instrument Society of America,

Pittsburgh, Penn., 1972).

The vibration of a cutting head is measured continuously and analyzed

by a power spectrum analyzer. Changes in vibration pattern correspond to

tool wear. The commercial system developed is comprised of a vibration

sensor, analyzer, and a mi n

i -computer . (This system is no longer in

product ion .

)

55- Eisengrein, R. H., Personal Communication, Letter to N. H. Cook, K. Subramanian,

and S. A. Basile, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Mass.

(July 30, 1974).

During a drilling operation, torque was sensed using strain-gage type

dynamometers. Large peak torques were found superimposed on the tool torque.

When the peak torques were 250-300% of tool torque (the peaks repeated 3,

4, or 5 times) tool failure followed. A non-contact type torque sensor is

also under investigation.

56. El Gomayel , Y., and Zakaria, A. A., Tool Condition Monitoring for Adaptive

Control, SME Paper MR-74-143, April 1974.

Uses the const r i ct ion- res i stance method for estimating tool wear

similar to that developed at the Queen's University of Belfast.

57- Ellis, J., The Failure of Carbide Tools When Machining High Strength

Steels, Ann. C I RP 2]_, No. 1, 25-26 (1972).

Force measurements were made using either a cantilever or encastre

strut-type dynamometer with strain gages as the sensing elements. Both

force and wear tests were done either pseudo-orthogona 1

1 y (bar turning

with 90 deg approach angle and small nose radius) or orthogonally (radial

machining of a disc). Flank wear and artificially ground wear lands were

measured on a tool-makers microscope. For accurate predictions of tool

failure, more sophisticated methods of calculating stresses are required,

together with accurate values for tool material properties.

58. Enache, St., and Stajescu, E. , Contribution Concernant 1' Establ i ssement

Experimental des Forces de Coupe au Tournage, Ann. C I RP 22, Vol. 1, 9~10

(1973).

The dynamometer uses "capteurs resistifs." In French .

59- Essel, K. , and Hansel, W. , Development of Sensors for Process Control

Systems in the Field of Production Engineering, Gesellschaft fur

Kerforschung MBH, Karlsruhe, PDV-Report KFK-PDV 4 1 , May 1975.

An account is given of the development of sensors for measuring

characteristic values of turning, milling, drilling, and grinding,

-
- 28 -

processes, sensors for tool wear, tool-work distances, cutting force

components, and surface roughness are represented in detail. Sensor

performance is specified.

60. Etheridge, R. A., and Hsu, T. C., The Specific Wear Rate in Cutting

Tools and Its Application to the Assessment of Mach i nab i 1 i ty , Ann.

CIRP 18, 107-117 (1970)

In this paper a definition of tool wear site is proposed which

is applicable to both crater and flank wear. The derivation of this

quantity from wear curves is demonstrated and its application to the

assessment of mach i nab

1 i ty is discussed.

61. Feinberg, B., Adaptive Control: Trainability Adds a New Dimension,

Manu. Eng. Manage. 6_7, No. 6 , 18-22 (December 1971).

An adaptive system that learns from experience enhances the

viability of adaptive process control. Bendix does it by adding a training loop and on-line nondestructive inspection capability.

A surface grinding machine is fitted with transducers for measuring

spindle speed, torque, and vibration.

62. Field, C. F., Colloquim on Engineering Applications of Spectral Analysis,

Inst. Elect. Eng. (London, January 1969).

A vertical mill was used and tests were limited to determining

the relative deflection of two points on the machine whilst face

milling. With a measure of cutting force in the same axis, it was

intended to cross-correlate force and deflection and ultimately arrive

at an estimation of frequency response. This was expected to provide

quantitative information with respect to resonant frequencies and their

damp i ngs

63. Frecka, T. R., and V i swanathan , T., Torque Controlled Drilling, SME

Paper MR-75-177 (Society of Manufacturing Engineers, Dearborn, Mich.,

1977) . A simple control system derives torque from measurement of horsepower and spindle speed. The system was developed by Cincinnati

Milacron for NC machining centers and turret drills.

6*4. French, D., and Quinn, G., A Computer Program for Optimization of

Cutting Conditions for Turning and Milling, Proc. 2nd N. Amer. Metalwork

Res. Conf., Madison, Wise., May 20-22, 197*4 (Society of Manufactu r i ng

Engineers, Dearborn, Mich., 197*t).

This paper describes a digital computer program to calculate the

optimum cutting conditions for turning and milling operations.

65 . Friedman, M. Y., and Tipnis, V. A., Cutting Rate-Tool Life Character i st i

Functions for Material Removal Processes, Part 1: Theory, J. Eng. Ind.,

Trans. ASME 98, *48 1 -*486 (May 1976).

This concept enables a comprehensive development of a theory for

economic optimization and encompassing commonly used criteria of cost,

production rate, and profit rate in machining when more than one cutting

variable is involved. The analysis of the theory is carried out for one

and two independent cutting variables. See also V. A. Tipnis for Part 2

( reference 178 ).
-29-

66. Frisch, J., and Mahr, P. F., On the Use of Analog Digital Conversion

During DNC-Metal Cutting, Proc. N. Amer. Metalwork Res. Conf., Hamilton,

Ont., Can., May 1973 (Society of Manu f ac t ur i ng Engineers, Dearborn, Mich.,

1973)

•

Workpiece diameter, spindle misalignment and cutting forces were monitored during metal turning to compensate for tool wear and generate

a cylinder of constant diameter within tolerances. A non -con tac t i ng

displacement gage monitors the workpiece diameter and moves the cross

feed to compensate for sensed errors.

67- Frost-Smith, E. H., and Marten, H. R., Optimization of the Machining

Process and Overall System Concepts, Paper presented at one-day

conference on Adaptive Control of Machine Tools, Macclesfield, England,

April 1 970.

A photomultiplier is used to convert an optical image of the wear

land on the clearance face of the cutter to an electrical signal; and,

by electronic timing and logic circuits, the size of the wear land can

be inferred. The accuracy which can be achieved when cutting a medium

carbon steel workpiece is very satisfactory and so far, there is no reason to doubt the commercial possibility of the system.

68. Frost-Smith, E.H., Optimization of the Machining Process and Overall

Systems Concepts, Ann. C I RP J_9, 3 8 5

_ 3 9 (1971).

This paper shows that to get maximum benefit from optimizing the

cutting process, it is necessary to study the overall workshop process.

Two new methods of measuring wear characteristic are reported. The

const r i ct ion- res i stance method of measuring cutter wear in process is

described briefly. Use of force measurements and tool-work thermocouple measurements is also discussed.

69 . Gaevskii, Y. S., System for Optimizing Machine Tool Control Programs,

Mach. Tool kk , No. 6, 10-12 (1973) [Stanki Instrum. (USSR), No. 6,

6-7 (1973)].

Describes a system for modifying a NC machine control program by

automatic correction of the cutting process relationships. Correction

is done by comparing information in the computer memory with data

obtained when machining the first few components of a batch.

70. Gaudreau, M., An On-Line Technique for Tool Wear Measurement, M. S. Thesis, Massachuse t t s Institute of Technology (June 1975)

-

Describes instrumentation proposed for on-line experiments on a transfer machine. The variables and methods proposed for measurement

are: electrical power - wattmeter; feed force - pressure sensors; tool

temperature - fiber optic infrared sensors; workpiece temperature - thermocouple; vibration - accelerometer; torque - dynamometer.

71. Gautschi, G. H., Cutting Forces in Machining and Their Routine Measurement

with Mu 1 1

i -Componen t Piezoelectric Force Transducers, Proc. 12th Int.

Mach. Tool Des. Res. Conf., Manchester, Engl., September 1 5 ~ 1 7 , 1971

(MacMillan and Co., Ltd., Lond., Engl., 1972).

Transducers and platforms for measuring forces with 1, 2, or 3 components and/or torques have been developed and are described.

Practical aspects such as cross-talk between components, frequency
-30-

response, and measuring and recording techniques are discussed and the

possibilities of adaptive control by mounting transducers directly into

machine tools are outlined.

72. Glew, C. A. W. , Effectiveness of Vibration Analysis as a Maintenance

Tool, Trans. Inst. Mar. Eng. 86^, Part 2, 29-51 (197*0.

The Canadian Forces use the portable octave-band analyzer as a machinery health monitor as part of their preventative maintenance

program on ships and aircraft. Velocity measurements are taken near each principal bearing on a machine, on an overall and octave-band

basis.

73. Glushko, V. V., and Shumov, V. D., Automatic Regulation of Cutting Rates

in Double-Slide Lathes, Mach. Tool, kk , No. 6, 1 3

- 1 5 (1973) [Stanki

Instrum. (USSR), No. 6, 8-10 (1973)].

Describes systems for stabilizing cutting forces in a whee I -turn i ng

lathe having two tool slides. Cutting forces are gaged by measuring main

drive motor current. Industrial tests show approximately 32% increase in

productivity. 3 refs.

7k. Goldenberg, A. C., Machine Program Analysis Using Transducers, (Proc.

11th Int. ISA Instrum. Maintenance Manage. Symp. , Rochester, N.Y.,

March 29 _ 30 , 1976), Book, Instrument Maintenance Management J_l_, pp. 5 - 1

(instrument Society of America, Pittsburgh, Penn., 1976).

Acce 1 erometers , velocity transducers, proximity sensors, LVDT,

current or power sensing, flow, tension, load, thermocouples, encoders,

and radiation sensors were integrated as part of the total system

package

75- Groover, M. P., Karpovich, R., and Levy, E. K. , A Study of the Use of

Remote Thermocouples to Estimate Tool Wear in Machining, Paper submitted

to Trans. ASME (American Society of Mechanical Engineers, N.Y., N.Y.,

1 97**) .

76. Groover, M. P., and Levy, E. K. , A Remote Sensor Method for Measuring

Temperatures in Metal Cutting, Final Report to National Science

Foundation under Grant GK 3 0*+ 1 8 (National Science Foundation, Wash.,

D.C. , July 1 97*+) • Uses a standard i ron-cons tan tan thermocouple located at the bottom

face of the cutting tool insert. The scope of this work has been limited

to s i ng 1 e -po i n

t - i nse r t type cemented carbide tools and continuous machining

processes (turning). A number of important problem areas with the remote

thermocouple technique remain to be solved before the device becomes

commercially available.

77- Groover, M. P., Survey of Methods for On-Line Measurement of Tool Wear,

SME Tech. Paper MR — 75“ 1 *+6 (Society of Manufacturing Engineers, Dearborn,

Mich., 1975).

This paper reviews the work which has been performed over about the

last decade on the problem of on-line measurement of tool wear. For reasons of economics and control, it would be beneficial if the tool-wear

status could be monitored while the operation was in progress. Nearly all

the techniques surveyed in this paper rely on indirect measuring schemes.

Among the variables used are cutting forces, temperature, sound or vibration,

electrical resistance, and workpiece dimensions. 2k refs.
-31-

78. Groover, M. P., Barman, A., and Levy, E. K. , A General Equation for

Estimating Tool Wear in Machining Using Remote Thermocouples, Proc.

3rd N. Amer. Metal Working Res. Conf., May 1975, Carnegie Press,

Pittsburgh, Penn. (Distr. by Soc. Manu. Eng., Dearborn, Mich., 1975).

79- Groover, M. P., Monte Carlo Simulation of the Machining Economics

Problem, J. Eng., I nd . , Trans. ASME 97 , 93 1 “938 (August 1975).

A mathematical model of the machining operation is developed from

experimental cutting data. The model considers two aspects of the

machining process: tool wear and surface finish. The economic problem

is first defined as a speed-only problem, and the effect of tool wear variability is investigated. The speed and feed problem is also studied

with surface finish constraints imposed on the optimization procedure.

80.

Grozmann, F. K. , and Hemming, A. V. , Problems Involved in the Development

of Adaptive Techniques to Improve the Productivity of NC Lathes (Proc.

11th Int. Mach. Tool Des. Res. Conf., Birmingham, Engl., September 1970),

Book, Advances in Machine Tool Design and Research 1970 (Pergamon Press

Inc., Elmsford, N.Y., 1971).

Special reference is made to the aspects of measurement of input

variables. A NC lathe is modified to maintain constant tangential force

measured as a ratio of spindle torque to workpiece diameter.

8l. Hahn, R. S., Control 1 ed-Force Grinding - A New Technique for Precision

Internal Grinding, J. Eng. Ind., Trans. ASME 86_, 287-293 (August 196*0.

In control led-force grinding, the grinding force or spindle deflection

is prescribed, in contrast to the feed rate on conventional machines. One

method of controlling the grinding force is to apply a prescribed force to an ant i -f rict ion cross slide. Another method is to monitor the grinding

force with strain gages or other suitable dynamometer equipment and through

a closed-loop system to provide continuously varying feed rates such that

the spindle deflection or force is held constant.

82.

Hariharan, R. , and Narayanan, V., Adapative Control for Machine Tools,

J. Indian Inst. Sci. 58, No. 5, 198-22** (May 1976).

Adaptive control -(AC) of machine tools is a recent development in

production engineering which aims at performing the cutting operation

more efficiently. Usually feeds and/or speeds are adaptively controlled

in accordance with the data obtained by sensing process parameters such

as tool tip temperature, cutting force, spindle torque, vibration, etc.

By virtue of its ability to economize the metal cutting process, AC can

be expected to play a vital role in machine tool industry. AC systems

applied to machining processes such as turning, milling, and grinding

are discussed in this report. The principle, types, and advantages of

AC systems are also described. 28 refs.

83

.

Hill, R. F. , Measuring Tool Wear, based on ASME Paper 7 1 ~DE -*+2 (Society

of Mechanical Engineers, N.Y., N.Y., 1971).

Tool wear is determined from the radioactivity of the chips from

a radioactive tool. The method is used to determine proper cutting

conditions and the mach i nab i 1 i ty of different cold-formed steel parts.
-32-

84. Hitomi, K. , and Nakamura, N., Optimization of Machining: Concept of

Optimum-Seeking Machining and Experimental Results, Ann. CIRP 20_, No. 1,

101-104 (1971).

Optimum-seeking machining (OSM) is a method in which the machining

operation approaches an optimal state successively by revising the

machining conditions with data obtained in practical work, the tool-life

equation being unknown at the start of machining. In this paper, the

fundamental concept of optimum-seeking machining and its algorithmic

procedure are presented and an experimental result based on it is discussed.

85. Holland, C. L., In-Process Ultrasonic Measurement System for NC Mills,

SME Tech. Paper IQ-813 (Society of Manufacturing Engineers, Dearborn,

Mich., 1976).

A new measuring technology for constantly monitoring aluminum plate

thickness as it is being machined is described. The system uses a miniature ultrasonic transducer mounted inside a hollow milling cutter. Digital

display of thickness measurements and printout of inspection records,

including x and y locations of each 1 z

1 measurement and a red print for

out of tolerance reading are also features of the system.

86. Hoshi, T. , Correlation Between Idling Vibration of Machine Tool and.

Machining Chatter, Ann. C I RP JJ3, 289-295 (1970). - The mechanism of forced chatter induced by the idling vibration of

a machine tool is presented, and instructions are derived to overcome

p ract i ca 1 probl ems

87 . Hoshi, T. , Cutting Dynamics Associated with Vibration Normal to Cut

Surface, Ann. C I RP

2J_, No. 1, 101-102 (1972).

In this method, the tool is attached to the end of a cantilevertype structure, and is excited sinusoidally by a small electrodynamic

exciter. Experiments were performed on a lathe using a PI 0 carbide tool on Pb-S free machining steel, hardness 208 Hv, and chromium molybdenum

steel (SCM 22), hardness 200 Hv. A load cell opposite the tool on the

cantilever is shown.

88. Huber, J., and Centner, R. M. , Test Results with Adaptively Controlled

Milling Machine, Amer. Soc. Tool Manu. Eng. Paper MS 68-638 ( 1968 ).

The MB electronics type 124 seismic pick-up was used.

89 . Idelson, J. M. , Mueller, P. A., and Johnson, E. A., On-Line Trainable

Adaptive Process Control, Technical Report AFML-TR-71 ~54 , April 1971

(Manufacturing Technology Division, Air Force Materials Laboratory,

Wr i ght-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio).

An investigation of on-line, trainable adaptive control using a surface grinder as the experimental evaluation test vehicle is described.

Reductions in machining time of 6 to 68 percent were obtained for rough

cuts (over non-adaptive control) and surface finish to better than 2 uin

(0.05 um) was obtained for finish cuts. On-line measurements included:

vibration at the tool-work interface, spindle shaft torque, and speed.

90. Interactive Systems, Inc., Marketing Literature on the RTA-1 Tool Wear

Detection System (interactive Systems, Inc., Ann Arbor, Mich.).

A system formerly marketed commercially by Interactive Systems

makes use of small changes in the frequency signature of the tool
- 33-

vibration. A vibration transducer is mounted on each cutting head and

the signal is fed into a mi n

i -computer for analysis. The computer

performs a power spectrum analysis on the vibration signal.

91. Jaeschke, J. R. , Zimmerly, R. D., and Wu, S. M. , Automatic Cutting Tool

Temperature Control, Int. J. Mach. Tool Des. Res. _7, 465-475 (1967).

The system maintains constant cutting temperature, as measured by

a tool-work thermocouple, by varying speed. A new spring pick-up was

used for signal transfer from the workpiece.

92. James, G., Adaptive Control at Work, Amer. Mach. 1 1

A

, No. 2 (1970).

The MB electronics type 124 seismic pick-up was used.

93* Kahng, C. H. , and Viegelahn, G. L. , The Effect of Thermoelectric Current

on Tool Wear, Proc. 2nd N. Amer. Metalwork Res. Conf . , Madison, Wise.,

May 20-22, 1974, pp. 105-116 (Society of Manufacturing Engineers, Dearborn,

Mich., 1 974)

.

This paper presents the study of the characteristics of thermoelectric

current and the results of an investigation on how these currents affect the

life of the cutting tool.

94. Kahng, C. H. , Lord, H. W. , and Davis, T. L., The Effects of Chucking

Methods on Roundness Error in the Boring Process, J. Eng. Ind. , Trans.

ASME 98 , 233-238 (February 1976).

The effect of chucking force was measured at three force values

[125, 156, and 187 lbf (556, 694, and 832 N)] using a three-jaw chuck and

various wall thicknesses. A specially built strain-gage transducer was

used to measure chucking force on the workpiece. The transducer is based

upon work of Solaja and Kalajdzec, Ann. CIRP j_6 , 131-316 (

1

968 )

.

95* Kaminskaya, V. V. , et al ., Trends in the Development of Adaptive Control,

Mach. Tool 45, No. 8 , 42-44 (1974) [Staki Instrum. (USSR), No. 8 (1974)].

At the present time there are no absolutely satisfactory transducer

designs. Adaptive control seems simple, but it is difficult to implement

because of problems connected with devising industrial measuring devices

and the lack of knowledge of the phenomena occurring during cutting.

18 refs.

96. Kaneda, T. , Kawauchi, M. , Yamamoto, M. , and Fukuzawa, S., Simple Method

for Assessing the Mach inab i 1 i ty of Resulfurized Carbon Steels, J. Iron

Steel Inst. Jap. 60(11), S 499 097*0 [HB Translation No. 9614].

Measuring rate of drilling with an upright drill press under constant

speed and load provides a fast and easy practical method of evaluating the

mach inab

i

1 i ty of resulphurized steels.

97. Kato, S., Yamaguchi, K. , Watanabe, Y. , and Hiraiwa, Y. , Measurement of

Temperature Distribution Within Tool Using Powders of Constant Melting

Point, J. Eng. Ind., Trans. ASME 9§^ 607-613 (May 1976).

The method involves observation of the boundary line formed by

melted and unmelted powder scattered on the tool. It is felt that

temperature distribution within the tool may be easily and accurately

measured in this manner.
-3k98 . Kegg, R. L., Whittling Away Milling Inefficiencies, Automation, 82-8A

(September 1975)

Recent developments in technology of milling have been wasted by

American Manufacturers. In spite of the achievements of numerical

control, few firms actually use this manufacturing technique. Adaptive

machining (such as torque-controlled drilling) is one way to respond to

the problem of hole-making operations taking much of the time of a machining center.

99. Kellum, G. B. , Signature Analysis of Plant Equipment, ASME Paper 7

- Pet — 1

(American Society of Mechanical Engineers, N.Y., N.Y., 1971).

This paper is intended primarily to illustrate, through field experience, results which may be obtained through comprehensive signature analysis

of critical plant equipment. Comprehensive signature analysis can be a powerful tool in reducing unexpected machinery failures. 11 refs.

100. Kistler, W. P., A New Approach to Tool Wear Monitoring Through Minicomputers

and Modern Transducers, 1, A New Vibration Transducer for Tool Wear Monitoring (Proc. 27th Ann. Conf. Instrum. Soc. Amer. , N.Y., N.Y., October 1972),

Book, Advances in Instrumentation 27 (Instrument Society of America,

Pittsburgh, Penn., 1972).

A new vibration transducer, specially designed for tool-wear monitoring through computers, will help achieve cost savings by offering

a simple system, greater reliability, and longer life. The transducer

employs a quartz-crystal sensing element and delivers a high-level,

1 ow- i mpedan-ce signal which can be fed into a computer directly without

requiring additional signal conditioning or amplification.

101. Kistler Instrumente AG, Piezoelectric Transducer, Patent No. UK 1266362,

filed 17 July 1 969 - A piezoelectric transducer for measuring stresses and forces set up

in a machine tool workpiece support is described. It consists of a pair

of force-transmitting members disposed to permit a number-q.f piezoelectric

plates to be positioned between them. The piezoelectric piates are interchangeable to provide a transducer system responsive to compression, shear,

or torque forces depending on the orientation of the force-sensitive axes

of the plates.

102. Kistler Instrumente AG, Automatic Machine Tool Control, Patent No.

UK 1282A59, f i led 31 July 1 969 . The control is effected by piezoelectric sensors which detect

various forces, torques, and vibrations during the d i fferent . stages

of operation and compare them to critical values, to emit a. control

signal when a critical condition arises.

103. Kitagawa, T., Shirakashi, T., Usui, E., Experimental Measurement of

Temperature Distribution in Tool/Chip Interface, Bull. Jap. Soc.

Precision Eng. % No. 3, 83 - 8 A (September 1975).

The temperature distribution is measured directly by a microthermocouple comprising a quartz-sheathed 0 . 02 -mm platinum wire insert in a small ('v 0.A x O.k mm) U-groove e 1 ect romach i ned into the tool-tip face.

The tip is then ground to expose the end of the wire on the rake face,

the chip completing the hot junction. The arrangement and some results

obtained are illustrated and discussed.
-35-

10*+. Kozochkin, H. P., Cutting Force Measurements in Machine Tool with

Adaptive Controls, Mach. Tool k6_, No. 11, 3 1 “33 (1975) [Stanki Instrum.

(USSR), No. 11 (1975)].

A method is described for measuring the three components of the

cutting force using three transducers. Methodology is presented for

estimating the calculation errors depending upon the errors in the

initial data. 3 refs.

105. Kronenberg, M. , Machining Science and Application, Theory and Practice

for Operation and Development of Machining Processes (Pergamon Press,

London ,l 966)

.

Nearly fifty different types of dynamometers for measuring cutting

forces have been developed using hydraulic, electrical, piezoelectric

principles, and strain gages. Many references.

106. Kudnov, B. A., Semi-Automatic Device for Dynamic Analysis of Machine

Tools, Mach. Tool **2^ No. 2, 5

- 9 (1971) [Stanki Instrum. (USSR), 3“5

(1971)].

This paper gives a description and circuit for a semi-automatic

device designed for dynamic research into machine tools. The amplitudephase frequency characteristics of the elastic system of the machine tool,

required to determine its vibration resistance, can be determined by this

dev i ce

.

107- Kuljanic, E., An Investigation of Wear in Single-Tooth and Multi-Tooth

Milling, Ann. C I RP 22, No. 1, 132-133 (1973).

In the present research it was shown that tool life is a nonlinear

decreasing function of the number of teeth in the cutter. This function

can be represented by a polynomial. The equation is valid in the range

Z = 1 to Z = 6 cutter teeth.

108. Kuljanic, E., Effect of Stiffness on Tool Wear and New Tool Life Equation,

J. Eng. Ind., Trans. ASME 97., 939~9 Z

+ /

+ (August 1975).

An investigation indicated the effect of the stiffness of machining

system depends on the number of teeth in the cutter, cutting speed, and

feed. A new tool-life equation was developed to take this phenomenon into

account. The tool life decreases with increasing number of teeth in the

cutter. The static and dynamic stiffness was measured by means of a pu 1 se-test i ng method which is both simple and reliable in determining

the dynamic characteristics of a machining system. The cuts were

interrupted periodically to measure the flank wear with the aid of a filter micrometer microscope.

109. Langhammer, K. , The Cutting Forces as Characteristic Values for the

Determination of Wear on Carbide Lathe Tools, VDI Z. (Germany) 115,

No. 8, 672-67*+ (June 1973).

For an adaptive control of the cutting process on lathing, the wear of the flank of the cutting tool is an important characteristic

value. As there is no way of directly measuring the wear during the

cutting process, one has got to search for indirect measuring techniques.

A promising approach consists in the allocation of continuously measurable

cutting forces to wear characteristics. 5 refs. In German.
V

-36-

110. Langhammer, K. , Cutting Forces as Parameters for Determining Wear on Carbide Lathe Tools and as Mach i nab i 1 i ty Criterion for Steel, Carb.

J . (May-June 1 976)

Continuous measurement of cutting forces enables the tool wear to

be ascertained at any time, conditional upon exact knowledge of the

dependence of cutting force upon tool wear. Results on tests in this

direction are given. From the correlations established abbreviated

testing procedures might be developed, employing suitable cutting-force

measurements to yield rapid information on the mach i nab i 1 i ty of a steel

melt. The three-component piezoelectric tool-holder dynamometer (made

by Kistler Instrumente AG) is used.

111. Levi, R. , and Rossetto, S., Some Considerations on Tool-Life Scatter

and Its Implications, J. Eng. I nd . , Trans. ASME 97_, 9^+5 ~ 9 5 0 (August 1975).

The effect of tool-life scatter on the uncertainty of parameters of

a typical tool-life model is analyzed using the joint confidence region

approach. Some apparent contradictions concerning tool-life test data

are explained in terms of their information content in the light of the

concepts of probability likely to be held by various managers.

112. Levin, A. I., Automatic Control of Vibration in Machine Tools, Mach.

Tool 44, No. 3, 45-49 (1973) [Stanki Instrum. (USSR) 44, No. 3, 30-33

(1973TT.

After discussing the circuits of automatic systems for the control

of vibration when cutting, this article analyzes and compares the design

properties of these circuits, showing that such systems make compensations to the variable component in the depth of cut. The conditions for

the accurate stabilization of this value and for the substantial extension of the stability zone for the dynamic system of the machine are then

developed, and optimum control algorithms are provided to reduce the

forced vibrations of the tool relative to the machined workpiece. 10 refs.

113. Levy, E. K. , Tsai, C. L., Groover, M. P., Analytical Investigation of the

Effect of Tool Wear on the Temperature Variations in a Metal Cutting Tool,

J. Eng. I n d . , Trans. ASME 98 , 251-257 (February 1976).

An analytical study of the effect of crater wear on the response of

a remote thermocouple sensor is described. The remote thermocouple

sensor is at present being developed as a device for the on-line measurement of tool wear.

114. Ling, C. C., Passive Damping Mechanism for Controlling Chatter in Turning

Flexible Bars on a Lathe, Univ. Cincinnati, Ohio. (Available: Univ.

Microfilms, Ann Arbor, Mich., Order No. 75“53l4.)

The basic aim is to design an economic simple and effective mechanism

to suppress chatter vibration when turning a long flexible shaft on a numerically controlled lathe. A forward-loop active damping compensation

of structure dynamics in a closed-loop chatter mechanism has successfully

suppressed chatter when turning such a shaft for the entire length of a workpiece in a single pass. Analytical and experimental studies have

shown that the relative motion between cutting tool and workpiece has

been effectively controlled and the resulting error in the workpiece size

minimized by external damping. One of the simplest solutions is to

introduce energy dissipation by means of coulomb damping.
-37-

115. Lutz, J. , A Process Measuring Wear on a Drilling Tool, U. S. Patent

No. 371^822, 1973.

The wear on a drilling tool is measured by sensing vibrations

produced during a drilling operation. It was found that these vibrations have a component indicative of the extent to which the tool is worn. This component may be partially isolated for determining tool wea r

.

116. Macotech Corporation, Functional Description of the MAC 1 Adaptive

Control System for Milling Machines, 90-1001, (Macotech Corporation,

Seattle, Wash. )

.

The system senses lateral cutter load or the force being exerted

on the cutter throughout the machining process. The force-sensor

systems, each consisting of four inductive transducers spaced 90deg

apart around the spindle, are mounted on the spindle nose near the

dust cover on each spindle. Special core material and winding techniques are employed in the transducers. They detect spindle displacement from 20 ym (0.5 ym) up to the maximum spindle displacement. A

horsepower-measuring sensor is used to monitor variations in motor

load of each spindle. On a-c spindle motors a current transformer is

used. A shunt is provided for d-c motors.

117. Macotech Corporation, Specifications for the MAC VII Standard Adaptive

Control System for Conventional and Tracer Profile Milling Machines

(Macotech Corporation, Seattle, Wash.).

This system electronically senses lateral cutter load or force

exerted on the cutter during the milling process and also includes a sp i nd 1 e-motor- 1 oad constraining system. The system is said not to be

affected by normal operating temperature variations, vibration, spindle

runout, bearing runout, and spindle residual magnetic fields.

118. MacManus, B. R. , Machine Tools, l). S. Patent No. 3562^77, filed 17

January 1973- Original Patent Appl . No. UK 56^3/68.

A method of controlling and reducing the amplitude of vibration

of a machine tool during machining of a workpiece comprises measuring

the frequency of vibration of a machine tool during use of the machine

tool, producing pulses of electrical current at the frequency of the

vibration, and applying the pulses of current to the cutting zone, in a predetermined phase relationship to the tool vibration, so as to heat

the cutting zone, thereby reducing or at least limiting the amplitude

of vibration.

119. Mathias, R. A., Adaptive Controlled Profile Milling, SME Paper No. MS70-

563 (Society of Manufacturing Engineers, Dearborn, Mich., 1970).

In a feed-only adaptive-control (AC) system, spindle deflection is

monitored by an LVDT. In the speed and feed AC system, spindle deflection

and cutter torque are monitored. Strain gages are used for torque sensing.

120. Mathias, R. A., New Developments in Adaptive Control of Milling Machines

(Proc. 13th Ann. Meet. Tech. Conf. Numerical Contr. Soc., Cincinnati, Ohio,

March 28-31, 1976), Book, NC/CAM - The New Industrial Revolution, pp. 157“

166 (Numerical Control Society, Glenview, 111., 1976).

A software approach, the MAC microprocessor is described for the

MAC/adapt i ve-con t ro 1 closed-loop system.
-38-

121. Merchant, M. E., The Changing World of Manufacturing - A Challenge to

DoD and Industry, Eighth Annual Tri-Service Manu. Tech. Adv. Group

(MTAG) Meeting, Arlington, Tex., November 8-12, 1976 (Society of

Manufacturing Engineers, Dearborn, Mich., 1976).

The world of manufacturing has been undergoing remarkable development and change and even more remarkable change lies ahead. The growing

economic, productivity, and social changes in manufacturing are producing

a challenging need for development of advanced manufacturing technology

of a type which has high potential to enhance manufacturing cost reduction

and productivity and be capable of also delivering increased product

performance

122. Micheletti, G. F. , Rossetto, S. , and Ponti, M. , Tool Vibration Pattern

and Tool Life on Automatic Screw Machine (Proc. 11th Int. Mach. Tool Des.

Conf. , Birmingham, Engl., September 1970), Book, Advances in Machine Tool

Design and Research 1970, pp. 145-159 (Pergamon Press Inc., Elmsford, N.Y.,

1971).

The outputs of a vibration transducer mounted on a screw machine were

studied. No interrelation between vibratory power of the cutting tool and

its life was observed.

123. Milewski, V., and Wol inski, H., At Valenite a Machine Monitor Becomes An

Adaptive Control, Manu. Eng. Manage. _72_, No. 4, 30-31 (April 1974).

The input electric power is converted to convenient horsepower readings via a machine monitor and Recorder. The voltage, amperage, and phase

angle are monitored and converted to horsepower. The system is preset to

hold cutting action at a predetermined horsepower value.

124. Miller, R. C., and Sargar, A., Analysis of Machining Sounds and Its

Potential Application to Adaptive Control, Cutting Tool Eng. (February

1973).

A signal from an accelerometer, mounted on the work or any part of

the machine table, is processed using a spectral analyzer. It is shown

that the spectrum is different for smooth machining and machining with

chatter or edge build-up.

125. Moltrecht, R, H., Estimating Cutting Forces, SME Tech. Paper MR75~885

(Society of Manufacturing Engineers, Dearborn, Mich., 1975).

Machining cutting-force calculations are given for obtaining estimates

of loads imposed by the cutter that must be resisted by drill jigs, machining fixtures, or tool holders. Accuracy of the calculations is dependent

on that of the mach i nab i 1 i ty data. Illustrations are included which show

the directional forces involved in the calculations.

126. Moriwaki, T. , Measurement of Cutting Dynamics by Time Series Analysis

Technique, Ann. C I RP 22_, No. 1, 117-118 (1973).

A cylindrical workpiece is turned by longitudinal feed of a small

cutting tool mounted on a cantilever-type structure with flexibility

only in the thrust force direction. The structure is randomly excited by an electrodynamic exciter. The wavy surface produced is removed by a rigid cutting tool. The cutting dynamics are examined in a frequency

range of 0-500 Hz. Main and thrust forces are measured by strain gages
-39-

on the tool shank, and inner modulation is measured with a capacitive

proximeter. The outputs are recorded on magnetic tape and fed into a computer

.

127- Moriwaki, T. , and Hoshi , T., System Identification on Digital Techniques,

New Tools for Dynamic Analysis, Ann. C I RP 23_, No. 2, 2 39" 2^+6 (197*0-

Recent developments in theories, computation softwares and instrumentation for frequency analysis and systems identification involving digital

computation are reviewed, and their applications to metal cutting process

and machine tool dynamics are discussed. Applications to machine-tool

dynamics, such as Fourier analysis of machine-tool vibrations, evaluations

and measurements of the cutting process dynamics and transfer function

measurements of machine-tool structures are described with examples. One

example uses strain gages attached to the tool shank in the vicinity of

the cutting edge.

128. Myers, S., and Hossain, S. Q. A. M. A., Logic Circuitry and Vidicon

Measure Displayed Areas, Electron. Eng., 65-68 (February 1971).

This article describes the design and operation of a system which measures the actual wear area and mean wear with considerable ease and

accuracy. The system, which is opto-e 1 ect ron i c and employs digital

techniques, is based on the principle that the magnitude of an area can

be represented on an arbitrary scale, by the sum of the lengths of a large number of very fine lines subdividing the area. The area to be

measured is magnified and then scanned by a vidicon, the output of which

is fed to a monitor and digital logic circuitry.

129. Nakazawa, K. , Improvement of Adaptive Control of Milling Machine by

Non-Contact Cutting Force Detector, Proc. 1 6 1 h Int. Mach. Tool Des. Res.

Conf . , Manchester, Engl., September 1975, pp. 107-116 (Halsted Press

Division of John Wiley and Sons, Inc., N.Y., N.Y., 1976).

The principle of measuring torque is the magnetostriction effect.

Four magnetic coil pairs are set around the measuring spindle (or tool

holder). The exciting coil is set in the axial direction and crosses

the torque-detecting coil at right angles. Where there is no force

applied to a cutter, the torque detecting coil is magnetically symmetric

with the magnetic flux caused by the exciting coil, and has no output.

When a cutting torque is applied to the measuring spindle, stresses

appear on the spindle surface at *t5 deg to the axial direction. The

anisotropy of magnetic permeability of each principal direction of tension and compression makes the magnetic flux assymetric with respect to

the torque detection coils and induces an output signal.

130. Nevins, J. L., Exploratory Research in Industrial Modular Assembly,

Proc. Third NSF/RANN Grantees' Conference on Production Research and

Industrial Automation, Cleveland, Ohio, October 28-29, 1975, pp. 6

5

- 72

(National Science Foundation, Wash., D.C., 1975).

The stability of force feedback- i nduced motions was analyzed and

stability criteria developed using the Unimate 5000 under minicomputer

control and a 6-axis force sensor.
-40-

131. Nickols, I., New Developments in Program Control Applied to Big Turret

Lathes, Proc. 1 6 1 h Int. Mach. Tool Des. Res. Conf., Manchester, Engl.,

September 1975, pp. 229-234 (Halsted Press Division of John Wiley and

Sons, Inc., N.Y., N.Y., 1975).

This paper describes an automatic sequence control for programming

all the movements of a big turret lathe. Special features are the

el ect rohyd rau 1 i c servo motors for transversing the slides, the method

of avoiding long trailing flexible hoses, and the arrangements for

obtaining accurate repeatability on a large number of different

d i mens ions

132. Nigm, M. M. , Sadek, M. M. , and Tobias, S. A., Prediction of Dynamic

Cutting Coefficients from Steady State Cutting Data, Ann. CIRP 2

, No. 1 , 97-98 (1972)

The method under discussion consists of two distinct stages. The

first stage involves a dimensional analysis of steady-state cutting data

leading to mathematical expressions which give the chip thickness ratio

and force ratio. In the second stage, the steady-state cutting data are

used to determine the incremental force components as a function of the

cutt i ng cond i t ions

133- Oguri, M., Fuj i

i , H., Yamaguchi, K. , and Kato, S., On Transient Cutting

Mechanics at the Initial Stage of Peripheral Milling Process, Bull. Jap.

Soc. Mech. Eng. J_9^(127), 61-70 (January 1976).

Experiments carried out are measurements of cutting force and its

vector representation, observation of chip formation with microphotographs,

and measurements of the stress distribution and chip contact length on the

rake face and shear angle obtained from chip thickness. A transient

period exists at the initial stage. The transient cutting mechanics

change with tool advancement.

134. Ikushima, K. , and Kakino, Y., An Analysis of Methods Used in Minimizing

Thermal Deformations of Machine Tools, Proc. 1 6 1 h Inti. Mach. Tool Des.

Res. Conf., Manchester, Engl., September 1975, pp. 195-201 (Halsted Press

Division of John Wiley and Sons, Inc., N.Y., N.Y., 1976).

The main objects of the paper are to clarify the effectiveness of

the means employed for curbing thermal deformations due to inner heat sources and the opt imum d es i gn concerning thermal deformation, if there

is any. The analysis is conducted with a computer simulation using the

finite-element method.

135. Olberts, D. R. , A Study of the Effect of Tool Flank Wear on Tool-Chip

Interface Temperatures, J. Eng. Ind., Trans. ASME 8_1_, 152-158 (May 1959) • The tool-work thermocouple technique was used to measure the interface temperature. At all feeds and speeds a wear land of 0.01 in (0.25 mm)

produced a lower interface temperature than a sharp tool or ones with wear land

beyond 0.01 to 0.031 in (0.25 to 0.79 mm). Discussion on thermocouple

calibration is presented.

136. Opitz, H., Effect and Control of Chatter Vibrations in Machine Tool

Processes, Scientific Report No. 5, 1 September-30 Nov 1967, Contract

AF 61 (052)

966 .
-41-

After examining the systematic errors of frequency response

measurements caused by the peaks in the power and cross-power spectra,

the statistical errors due to external noise signals will be analyzed

in this report. Furthermore, a general mathematical procedure is

derived; by means of this it is possible to compute the subfrequency

responses of a mu 1 1 i p 1 e- i nput linear system. Cutting force measurements

in wave-on-wave cutting operations with the further improved test set-up

show a strong dependence of the frequency response magnitude on the phase

angle between the two contours of the chip.

137. Opitz, H. , and Bernardi, F. , Investigation and Calibration of the Chatter

Behavior of Lathes and Milling Machines, Ann. C I RP J_8, 335~3^3 (1970).

A simple procedure is described for the calculation of theoretical

stability charts of lathes and milling machines. Based upon the theory

of regenerative chatter, the system mach i ne-too 1 -cut t i ng process is

reduced to a non- i ntermeshed closed control loop, of which the stability

behavior is representative for the chatter-free cutting performance.

138. Opitz, H., and Werntze, G., Application of a Process Control Computer

for Measurement of Dynamic Cutting Coefficients, Ann. C I RP 2_1_, No. 1,

99-100 (1972).

The dynamic cutting forces are measured by a dynamometer and stored

on a magnetic tape together with the measured dynamic displacements.

Simultaneously, the signals of a digital encoder or of a revolution mark

which is fixed to the end of the spindle are stored on the magnetic tape.

The analysis of the measured signals is carried out by a process control

computer (Siemens 305).

139. Oxford, C., Jr., Shape-Up with Sharper Drills, Mach. Tool Blue Book 70 , No. 9, 61-62 (September 1975).

Wear is classed as two types - abrasive wear of the relief surface,

progressing in three stages, and formation of a crater on the rake face some distance behind the cutting edge. The first stage of abrasion

occurs as b reak- i n-wea r . Next there occurs a fairly uniform increase

in wear-land length, and finally higher forces between the land and

work surface cause high temperature and accelerated wear. Resharpening

before this stage gives optimum hole-drilling capability for drills; if

postponed, drill damage causes reduction in the number of resha rpen i ngs

poss i bl e

.

140. Oxford, C., Jr., Selecting a Feed and Speed? Remember ... FEED is the Key,

Mach. Tool Blue Book 7J_* No. 10, 85 “ 90 (October 1976).

In general, better tool life at a given production rate can be

obtained by increasing feeds and reducing speeds. The effect of these

changes on other aspects of machining, such as power requirements, cutting

edge strength, workpiece strength, and material, chip disposal, chip

breaking, and surface finish, is discussed.

1 4 1 . Parks, J. R., Sensory Aids for Machine Tools, Conf. Ind. Robot Technol

.

(CIRT), Nottingham University, March 27~29, 1973 (National Physical

Laboratory, Teddington, Engl., 1973).

There is a need for a new approach in instrumentation. It is

suggested that two approaches are relevant - 1) improved monitoring
-42-

of tools to reduce losses, and 2) piece-part inspection to achieve 100%

inspection and to improve acceptable quality levels. Areas of investigation were (a) automatic inspection, (b) automatic assembly, (c) order

picking, and (d) container stuffing.

142. Pearce, D. F. , and MacManus, B. R. , Dynamic Chip Formation and Its

Significance to Machining Stability, Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. 1 87 , No. 21,

273-283 (1973).

The physical processes of dynamic chip formation were examined

experimentally using direct photographic techniques; motion in the

cutting zone was frozen by synchronizing an intense stroboscopic flash

to particular positions in the waveform of the cutting force. Measurements obtained under conditions of controlled vibratory machining gave

instantaneous values of the uncut chip thickness, tool-chip contact

length, effective shear angle, and cutting force. Amplitude and phase

measurements of the tangential component of the cutting force on wave

removal were directly related to the deduced waveform of specific contact length, a process yielding considerable predictability.

143. Peiter, A., Kieferu, G. , and Schwarz, S. , Comparable Control of a 20 kN

Universal Cutting Machine with Electronic Force Measuring Indicator and

Data Transmission, Ind.-Anz. 97, No. 45, 91 5 ~9 1 8 (June 1975).

Paper describes an automatic procedure for comparison of accuracies

of NC cutting machines of the same type. Data recording forms are illustrated. 1 ref. In German .

144. Peklenik, J., Selijak, Z. , Leskovar, P. , and Justin, B., Contribution

to the On-Line Identification of the Cutting Process, Ann. C I RP 22

,

No. 1 , 43-44 (1973)

In these investigations a piezoelectric three-component dynamometer

with a natural frequency of 3 kHz was employed. The power spectra may

also be computed by a special plug-in unit of an oscilloscope. Graphs

are given indicating the changes in power as a function of increasing wear land for cutting speeds of 200 and 1 60 m/min.

145. Peters, J., Venherck, P., and Van Brussel, H. , Measurement of the Dynamic

Cutting Coefficient, Ann. C I RP 2^3, No. 2, 129-136 (1971).

The three sections of the paper deal with the validity of machinetool acceptance tests and possible programming of the chatter constraint

in the programming NC machine tools. Also given are the current methods

used by members of the Machine Tool Group of C I RP for measuring dynamic

cutting stiffness. A new method is developed using the test rig instead

of a dynamometer, which overcomes the main difficulties mentioned and

permits the prediction of the stability chart within a few percent. The

assumptions made in the shear-plane model are weighted out against the

experimental results. 23 refs.

146. Pfeifer, H., Practical Measuring Instruments, Ant r i ebstechn i k 9_, No. 5,

157-162 (May 1970)

The article deals with some measuring instruments for the measurement

of continuously variable feed speeds and of machine vibrations in the

machine tools industry, especially suitable for workshops. Indications

for the use of these instruments and various diagrams are given. In German.
-A 3-

Polacek, M., Vanek, J., and Nemec , I., Measuring Methods in Research

on the Dynamic Characteristics of Machine Tools, Based on the Principle

of Double Modulation, Int. J. Mach. Tool Des. Res. 1

1

, No. A, 273-282

(December 1971).

Electromechanical transducers of a modulation type are suitable for

obtaining the product of two time variables based on the "double modulation"

method. The paper describes applications of the method for obtaining of

real part of the frequency characteristic of the mechanical structure and

for measurements of the spindle rotation accuracy.

Rakht, A. K., Sankar, T. S., and Osman, M. 0. M. , On the Relationship

Between the Random Metal Cutting Forces and the Surface Formation in

Finish-Turning, SME Technical Report MS R 75 ~0 1 (Society of Manufacturing

Engineers, Dearborn, Mich., 1975).

An investigation was carried out to establish a relationship between

the characteristics of cutting-force fluctuations that cause vibratory

response of the mach ine-tool -workp i ece system and the formation of surface

texture in a turning operation. The cutting forces were measured using a specially built three-component dynamometer. 1A refs.

Ramalingam, S., and Watson, J. D., Tool-Life Distributions, Part 1:

S i ng 1 e- I nj u ry Tool-Life Model, ASME Paper 76-WA/PROD-36 (American Society

for Mechanical Engineers, N.Y., N.Y., 1976).

This paper presents the results obtained on the assumption that the

useful life of a tool is terminated by a single catastrophic injury. Cases

where resistance to tool failure is time independent and time dependent are

exami ned

.

Ramalingam, S., Tool-Life Distributions, Part 2: Mu 1 1 i p 1 e- I n

j u ry Tool-Life

Model, ASME Paper 76-WA-PROD-37 (American Society of Mechanical Engineers,

N.Y. , N.Y. , 1976)

.

The expected tool-life distribution in the case of tool failure from

multiple injuries due to constant t ime- i ndependent stochastic hazards is

shown to be a gamma distribution. The result obtained is based on a linear wear assumption. The model is further extended to ensure applicability in

the nonlinear wear region.

Roethelt, F. , and Peklenik, J., Assessment of the Force Controlled Internal

Grinding Process Using Random Process Techniques, Ann. C I RP 22_, No. 1,

97-98 (1973).

A hydraulic control system was developed for controlling the constant

thrust force on an internal grinding machine, as well as force, and dimensional measuring systems for the on-line work. The system is described in

F. Roethel, Adaptivno Krmiljenje Sistenaza Bitrabhe Brusenje in On-Line

I dent i f i kac i j a Brusilnega Procesa Z Ozirom na Geometricne Slucajnostne

Jhdne in Izhodne Funkcise. Ph.D. Thesis, 1972, University of Ljubljana.

Rubenstein, C., An Analysis of Tool Life Based on Flank-Face Wear, 1 —

Theory, J. Eng. I n d . , Trans. ASME 9§_, No. 1, 221-226 (February 1976);

I I — Compari son of Theory with Experimental Observations, J. Eng. I n d .

,

Trans. ASME 9_8, No. 1, 227-232 (February 1976).

Continuous flank-face wear is considered, and an analysis is given

in which wear is attributed to adhesion between tool and workpiece materials
-4/4-

while acknowledging that other mechanisms could produce continuous flankface wear. The fundamental basis on which the analysis rests is the realization that in a continuous cutting operation the temperature of the subsurface layer of the workpiece increases much less than that of the

subsurface layer of the tool.

153. Saravanja-Fabr i s , N., and D'Souza, A. F. , Nonlinear Stability Analysis

of Chatter in Metal Cutting, J. Eng. Ind., Trans. ASME 96, 670-675

(May 1974).

A relationship is developed between the chip thickness and forces

in cutting under dynamic conditions based on existing experimental results

and exhibiting active hysteresis. The oscillations in chip thickness lead

the oscillations in cutting forces for all frequencies. A nonlinear theory

is developed based on the describing function approach.

154. Sarnicola, J. F., and Boothroyd, G., Machine Tool Chatter: Effect of

Surface Slope on Machining Forces During Wave Removing, J. Eng. Ind.,

Trans. ASME 95, 1202-1206 (November 1974).

Orthogonal cutting tests were performed on a milling machine

modified to carry out a planing operation at a low constant cutting

speed. A "sharp" HSS tool with a 10 deg clearance angle was used

with care being taken to regrind and hone the tool after each cut.

A two-component milling dynamometer, dead weight calibrated, was used

to measure tool forces in the thrust and cutting directions. The

workpiece specimens were strips of 90/10 brass 4 in (100 -mm) long and

0.135 in (3.43 mm) thick.

155. Sarwar, M. , and Burdekin, M. , Chatter During Turning, Mach. Prod. Eng.

128, Part 1 N3294, 79-82 (January 1976); Part 2 N3296, 131-133 (February

1976).

The data, presented in graphical form, should prove useful to the

production engineer who is confronted with the problem of chatter, when means for avoiding this effect are restricted to changes in cutting

conditions and workpiece material.

156. Sata, T., Inamura, T. , and Matsushima, K. , Analysis of Three Dimensional

Cutting Dynamics, Ann. C I RP 22_, No. 1 , 119-120 (1973).

A new analytical method is presented for evaluating the dynamic

cutting coefficients in generalized three-dimensional cutting. The

analytical results show good agreement with experiments carried out on

a turning operation with various cutting-edge angles and feed rates.

The tool is excited by an electro-hydraulic servo mechanism. Forces

in cutting, feed, and thrust directions are measured with a 3-component

tool dynamometer. Displacement is measured with a proximity type meter.

The signals are sent to a transfer function analyzer to obtain stiffness

transfer functions.

157- Selvam, M. S., Tool Vibration and Its Influence on Surface Roughness in

Turning, Wear 3_5, No. 1, 149-157 (November 1975).

The frequency content of tool vibration and the surface profile in

turning under normal cutting conditions was studied by measuring the

frequency spectra of tool vibration and the surface profile. The
- 45 -

predominant frequencies of tool vibration and the surface profile in

the circumferential direction were found to be the same. The cutting

speed, workpiece rigidity, and the method of fixing the workpiece were

found to influence the surface roughness and tool vibration.

158. Shillam, N. F., The On-Line Control of Cutting Conditions Using Direct

Feedback, Proc. 12th Int. Mach. Tool Des. Res. Conf. , Manchester, Engl.,

Proc. 12th Int. Mach. Tool Des. Res. Conf., Manchester, Engl., September

1

5

-

1 7 , 1971 (MacMillan and Co., Ltd., London, Engl., 1972).

The systems described were fitted to a center lathe and a vertical

mill. Thrust force was controlled on the lathe. On the mill, table

vibration was sensed and feed rate varied. Both machines controlled the

tool temperature by monitoring the electromotive force developed between

tool and workpiece and varying cutting speed accordingly.

159- Shiozaki, S., and Miyashita, M. , Dynamics and Design of Dynamometer, Ann.

CIRP _l_8, 663-675 (1970).

In the case of measuring a grinding force, the dynamic behavior of

the dynamometer, its influence upon the grinding system, and then the

fidelity of measurement as a whole system are considered. An octohedral

elastic-ring dynamometer, allowable error 20% and frequency ranges 0-1700

Hz (normal direction) and 0-1000 Hz (horizontal direction), and a twoforce component piezoelectric dynamometer with natural frequency (normal

direction) as high as 180 kHz and static rigidity more than 100 kgf/pm

have been experimentally produced and expected results have been obtained.

160. Solaja, V. , Selected Results from a Project on Drilling, Ann. CIRP 2J_, No. 1,

33-34 (1972).

Within the framework of a long-term project on mach i nab i 1 i ty carried

out for the Yugoslav metalworking industries, considerable attention was

paid to the drilling of metal, with the specific features of tool wear as the basic criterion in evaluating cutting performance of twist drills.

The purpose of this paper is to report a few selected topics from the

research program which have not been presented to engineering circles

outside Yugoslavia.

161. Solaja, V. , and Jukelja, D., Identification of Tool Wear Rate by Temperature

Variation, Ann. CIRP 22_, No. 1, 5“6 (1973).

Research in the thermodynamics of cutting suggests a correlation

between tool wear and tool temperature. Tool temperature is measured

with a remote copper-constantan thermocouple.

162. Solaja, V., and Kalajdzic, M. J., Interface Mach i ne-Tool /Cutt i ng Process

in the Optimization of Manufacturing Systems, Ann. CIRP 22_, No. 1,

121-122 ( 1973 ). It has been shown that external disturbance introduced into a radial

drilling machine system in an axial direction as a harmonic force bears

an influence on tool wear. Tool wear seems to be directly associated

with satisfactory movement of chips, and a strong positive effect of the

exciting frequency near the natural frequency of the system was established.
-46-

163. Sperry Gyroscope Co., Ltd., Measurement and In-Process Control of Small

Bores, Contract AF 33 (657) - 1 1 267 FLD/GP 13/8, March 1967, Project MMP7-907 (Sperry Gyroscope Co., Ltd., Montreal, Quebec).

This paper includes a description of laser interferometer measurement

and of a piezoelectric actuator used to change the radius of the cutting

tool to compensate for errors detected with the interferometer. Strain

gages measure the strain on the tool due to the cutting forces. Data on flank wear vs. cutting speed and effect of cutting fluids are also given.

164. Spescha, G. A., Piezoelectric Mu 1 1

i -Component Force and Moment Measurement,

Kistler reprint 20.065e (Translation of reprint 20.065d), Kistler Instrumente

AG , Swi tz . , 11 pages

Basic principles of the quartz piezoelectric multicomponent force

transducers (developed at Kistler) are discussed. The transducers and

their applications are described briefly, including measurement of cutting

forces in machine tool operations. Bibliography with 29 refs.

165. Spur, G., and Leonards, F. , Kont i nu ier 1 ich Arbeitende Verschleiss Sensoren

Fur ACO-Systeme Bei Der Drehbearbei tung, Z. Wirschaft, Fertigung 68_, No. 10,

517-519 (1973).

A resistance network with resistors of varying lengths was sandwiched

between two thin layers of insulation and attached to the flank surface of

the cutting tool. As wear proceeds on the tool flank, the longer resistors

are affected one by one, and the resulting electrical signal provides a quantized indication of the wear level. A considerable amount of additional

fabrication must be done on each cutting tool in order to use this sensing

scheme

166. Stankiewicz, N., Maintenance - Make or Break Factor in Drilling Machine

Performance, Automation, 86-87 (September 1975).

The Kingsbury Performance Monitor Controller (PMC) incorporates a Hewlett-Packard model 2100 16-bit minicomputer to monitor an automatic

machine. Normal machine operation is immediately terminated if a malfunction is detected. The PMC interrogates the machine tool, identifies

the faulty component, and reports the location.

167. Subramanian, K. , Sensing Drill Wear and Prediction of Drill Life, S. M. and M. E. Thesis (Massachusetts Institute of Technology, June 1974).

Torque, thrust, and power input were measured in a drilling operation and were found to increase with tool wear. The magnitude of these

variables increases considerably, but the major change is accompanied

by total failure of the cutting edge.

168. Subramanian, K. , and Cook, N. H., Sensing of Drill Wear and Prediction

of Drill Life, ASME Paper 76-WA/PROD-33 (American Society of Mechanical

Engineers, N.Y., N.Y., 1976).

Torque, thrust, and power are observed to be functions of drill wear

1 69 . Szakovits, R. J., and D'Souza, A. F., Metal Cutting Dynamics with

Reference to Primary Chatter, J. Eng. I nd . , Trans. ASME 9_8, 258-264

( Februa ry 1976).
-*»7-

The experimental set-up on a lathe sinusoidally oscillates the tool,

parallel to the feed, and records the motion and the fluctuating cuttingand thrust-force components resulting from the tool oscillation. The

set-up uses a tool dynamometer consisting of a double cantilever carrying

tension and compression strain gages.

170. Takeyama, H., Doi , Y., Mitsuoka, T. , and Sekiguchi, H., Sensors of Tool

Life for Optimization of Machining (Proc. 8th Int. Mach. Tool Des. Res.

Conf., Manchester, Engl., September 1967), Book, Advances in Machine Tool

Design and Research 1967, pp. 191-208 (Pergamon Press Inc., Elmsford, N.Y.,

1968 )

.

Rate of change of cutting force is correlated with tool wear.

171. Takeyama, H., Sekiguchi, H., and Takada, K. , One Approach for Optimizing

Control in Metal Cutting, Ann. C I RP J_8, 3^5"351 (1970).

A performance index suited to the on-line control of a machine tool

has been established through extensive experiments. Optimization can be

achieved by measuring the derivative of cutting force, which is proportional to the tool wear rate, and by computing the performance index

taking important constraints into consideration.

172. Takeyama, H., and Sakata, 0., Optimization of Dynamic Performance in Tool

Holder, and Work System, Ann. C I RP 20^, No. 1, 7 7

~ 78 (1971).

The simplified linear model of tool holder-tool workpiece system

has been theoretically analyzed and simulated. It has been demonstrated

that by varying properly the transfer parameters of the tool holder, the

dynamic performance of the whole system can be controlled and improved to

prevent self-excited vibration.

173. Takeyama, H., Sekiguchi, H. , and Takada, K. , Direct Measurements in Metal

Cutting Operations, Werkstatt Betr. 1 06 , No. 9, 7 09 - 7 1 (September 1973).

The significance of direct measurements during metalworking operations

for the development of adaptively controlled machine tools, i.e., measurements of cutting power, tool wear, workpiece dimensions, and chatter vibrations, is emphasized. Some systems developed for this purpose by a Japanese laboratory for machine design are described. 8 refs. In German .

17^. Tanaka, Y., and I kawa , N., Accelerometer Applications to Tool Dynamometer

with Improved Dynamic Response, Ann. C I RP J_8, No. *4, 3 5 3

~ 3 59 (May 1970).

The dynamometer, designed by combining an accelerometer with a conventional strain instrument, makes it possible to measure dynamic

forces with frequencies of up to kO kHz as well as the static case. It

is also shown that the dynamometers measure successfully the rapidly

changing forces in interrupted cutting and in so-called single-cut

grinding.

175. Taylor, F. W. , On the Art of Cutting Metals, ASME Annual Meeting, New York,

December 1 906 (The American Society of Mechanical Engineers, N.Y., N.Y.,

1907).

A rope brake was used on one step of the cone pulley of the lathe.

The brake consisted of a double rope slung around the pulley, having each

of its ends attached to spring balances, one of which is stationary and
-48-

the other attached to the end of a draw screw. The lathe motor current

while cutting is duplicated with the brake applied. The differences in

the readings of the balances gives an indication of the load from which

tool pressure can be calculated. Total pressure of the chip on the tool

in cutting cast iron varies from 35 to 99 tons per square inch sectional

area of chip (480 to 1400 MPa) depending on hardness and feed rate.

176. Tipnis, V. A., Finding Your Best Machining Conditions, 1 - Identify the

Problem, Mod. Mach. Shop 48_, No. 6 , 82-91 (November 1975).

The machining principles of chip formation, build-up edge formation,

tool wear, tool life, cutting forces, horsepower requirements, and temperatures in the cutting zone are reviewed. Data are given on tool life and

power requirements for various alloys. Useful shop formulae for removal

rate, horsepower, and torque are given for turning, milling, drilling, and

broach i ng

177. Tipnis, V. A., Development of Mathematical Models for Adaptive Control

Systems (Proc. 13th Ann. Meet. Tech. Conf. Numerical Contr. Soc.

,

Cincinnati, Ohio, March 28-31, 1976), Book, NC/CAM - The New Industrial

Revolution, pp. 149-156 (Numerical Control Society, Glenview, 111., 1976).

A Cincinnati C i nova 80 milling machine was modified and instrumented

for machining data over a wide range of conditions. A spindle force sensor unit (MAC- 1 , Macotech Co.), mounted on the spindle measures forces

parallel to and perpendicular to the table feed. Spindle rpm was monitored

through a digital rpm counter. Spindle horsepower was measured with a digital wattmeter.

178. Tipnis, V. A., and Friedman, M. Y., Cutting Rate-Tool Life Characteristic

Functions for Material Removal Process, Part 2: Verification and Applications, J. Eng. I n d . , Trans. ASME 9jB, 487-496 (May 1976).

Two statistically designed experiments, one on sawing and the other

on milling, verifying the proposed concept are described. The applications discussed include economic selection of machining conditions,

economic tool life determinations, comparison of machining response,

objective function for adaptive control, and maximization of material

removal at a desired level of surface integrity. For Part 1, see reference 65 .

179. Tipton, H., Machine Performance Rises to New Levels as Control Costs

Fall, Metalwork Prod. 1 20 , No. 10, 131, 1 40 (October 1976).

Developments are leading to a whole new approach to machine tool

design and construction, and are radically changing manufacturing

philosophy. This article describes the different types of control

that are available. Four main groups are highlighted: manual, sequence,

numerical, and adaptive control.

180. Tlusty, J., and Goel , B. S., Measurement of the Dynamic Cutting Force

Coefficient, Proc. 2nd N. Amer. Metalwork Res. Conf., Madison, Wise.,

May 20-22, 1974, pp. 649-665 (Society of Manufacturing Engineers,

Dearborn, Mich., 1974).

The problem of the dynamic cutting force coefficient as part of the

problem of self-excited chatter in machining is formulated in general,
-49-

and its significance explained for the choice of optimum cutting conditions

with respect to the workpiece material susceptibility to chatter. The

equipment built at McMaster and the techniques of processing the signals

using a Fourier analyzer are described. Vibration is measured with strain

gages or a capacitive probe. Forces are measured with piezoelectric load

cells. 28 ref s

.

181. Tlusty, J., and Elbestawi, M. A. A., Analysis of Transients in an Adaptive

Control Servomechanism for Milling with Constant Force, ASME Paper 76 -WA/

PROD-31 (American Society of Mechanical Engineers, N.Y., N.Y., 1976).

Characteristics of a reasonably well-adjusted NC servo are given both

as measured and as modeled. Nominal forces of 4100 N in Case 1, peak forces

of 6550 N in Case 2, and an initial maximum of 15,190 N with peak values of

about 5000 N after 0.25 s in Case 3 are given. The equipment is described

in another publication: Tlusty, J., Koren, Y. , and MacNeil, P. , Numerical

and Adaptive Control for Die Sinking, Proc. Int. Conf. Prod. Engng. Res.,

Tokyo, Japan (Japan Soc. Prec. Engng., 1974).

182. Tlusty, J., Yellowley, I., and Konrad, G., Tool Wear in the Peripheral

Milling of a Low Carbon Steel, ASME Paper 76-WA/PROD-35 (American Society

of Mechanical Engineers, N.Y., N.Y., 1976).

It is the purpose of this paper to examine the results of a series

of milling tests carried out at practical cutting conditions, and to

attempt to explain the results in the light of the present state of

knowledge of the process. Some indications of the nature of the process

at much higher metal removal rates are also discussed. The cutting

forces were measured parallel and perpendicular to the feed direction

using a piezoelectric dynamometer.

1 83 . Tobias, S. A., and Koen i gsberger , F. , Eds., Proc. 13th Int. Mach. Tool

Des. Res. Conf., Birmingham, Engl., September 18-22, 1972 (MacMillan

Press Ltd., Lond., Eng., 1973).

Seventy-n i ne paper s were presented at the conference covering recent

developments in automation, including NC control and DNC control and on plastic-forming processes, in particular high energy rate forming, which

includes powder forming and sinter forging. Other sessions covered machine

tool vibration, with special reference to chatter and to metal cutting and

tool wear, with a complete session on grinding.

184. Tolotta, S., Development and Application of Radio Telemetry for the

Solution of Naval Machinery Problems, Proc. Int. Symp. on Mar. Eng.,

Tokyo, Jap., November 12-15, 1973, pp. 1 5 ~ 2 6 (Marine Engineering Society,

Tokyo, Jap. ,

1 973)

.

With the advent of solid-state electronics, it became possible to

build sophisticated radio telemetry systems which could operate in severe environmental conditions such as high centrifugal force and high

temperature. This led to the development and application of telemetry

for use in resolving many rotating machinery problems.

Tseitlin, L. N., and Shimokhin, A. K. , Magnetoelastic Torque Transducers

for Adaptive Machine Tools, Mach. Tool 45_, No. 8, 56-59 (1974) [Stanki

Instru. (USSR), No. 8, 35~37 ( 1 97^) ]

-

185 .
-50-

Th i s paper deals with magnetoelastic torque transducers used to measure cutting force parameters in lathes and milling machines with

adaptive control. Spindle assembly and turret head designs incorporating transducers are described. 2 refs.

186. Tustin, W. , Measuring Shock and Vibration, 2, Instruments for Reading

Vibration, Plant Eng. 26_, "No. 8, 94*96 (April 1972).

Protection against vibration damage must begin with accurate

determination of the amount of vibration present. Instruments for

measuring vibration can vary from relatively inexpensive indicating

types with limited capability, to sophisticated recording types that

provide highly accurate information that can be used in detailed

analysis of the problem.

1 87 . Uehara, K. , New Attempts for Short Time Tool-Life Testing, Ann. C I RP 22 , No. 1, 23-24 (1973).

A fine conductive strip made from graphite or thin metal film was printed on the clearance surface which was insulated by a thin layer of

heat-resisting paint. The length of this resistor decreases with the

progress of flank wear and this decrease is measured continuously by

the change of electrical resistance.

188. Venkatesan, S. R. , and Chand raseka ran , H. , Tool-Work Contact Stresses

in Metal Cutting, Proc. 3rd All-India Mach. Tool Des. Res. Conf. , Bombay,

India, December 1989, pp. 184-188 (India Institute of Technology, Madras,

India, 1 989)

Complete details of experimentation and the method of stress separation are given for the study described in reference 39, by H. Chand raseka ran and R. Nagarajan. The method uses a photoelastic tool to machine a soft

meta 1

189 . Welch, J. D. , Automatic Feedrate Regulation in Numerically Controlled

Contour Milling, MIT Electronics Systems Laboratory Report No. 8436-R-l

(Massachusetts Institute of Technology, June 1 980)

A method of using a feedback signal from the cutting process to

determine feedrate is presented. Feedback signal is the electromotive

force between tool and work. However, there is a nonlinear relationship

between the feedrate and thermoelectric signal. Advantages and disadvantages of imbedded thermocouples and infrared indicators are discussed.

190. Weller, E. J., Schrier, H. M. , and Weichbrodt, B., What Sound Can Be

Expected from a Worn Tool?, J. Eng. Ind., Trans. ASME 9J_, 525~534

(August 1 989 )

Data from experiments on a lathe using five grades of cemented

carbide inserts and AISI 1045 steel indicate that as wear land increased

the magnitude of 4-8 kHz vibrations increased. Tool vibrations were

divided into two frequency components, 0-5 kHz and 4-8 kHz. An alarm

is activated when the ratio of these signals exceeds a predetermined

value.

191. Whetham, W. J., Milling Machine Control System and Milling Force Sensor

Therefor, U. S. Patent No. 3602090, filed February 27, 1970.
-51-

The sensor includes a plurality of magnetic transducers which are disposed about the periphery of a portion of the machine spindle. The

transducer primaries are provided with an a-c exciting voltage, and the

secondaries are connected in opposition so that the common output signal

therefrom has a zero d-c content under conditions of zero spindle loading.

When a sideload or end load is supplied to the cutting tool, and thus to

the spindle, during the milling process, the common output signal principally comprises an a-c component which is amplitude modulated in proportion

to the degree of spindle deflection. A demodulator converts the amplitude

modulated component into a d-c signal representative of milling force.

This signal is then supplied to a controller in the feedrate system.

192. Whetham, W. J., Low Cost Adaptive Control Unit Manufacturing Methods,

Tech. Report No. AFML-TR~73“263 (Air Force Materials Laboratory,

Wr i ght-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio, November 1973) - The objective was to evaluate the low-cost retrofitable adaptive

control (LCRAC) system to determine quantitatively the advantages of

adaptive control over conventional NC machining. The LCRAC force sensors

are calibrated to provide a voltage proportional to the actual machining

forces

.

193. Wilkenson, A. J., Constriction-Resistance Concept Applied to Wear Measurement

of Metal Cutting Tools, Proc. IEE (Lond.) 1 1

8

, No. 2, 38 1 - 386 (February 1971).

The paper describes a mathematical model for the tool -work-p ieceinterface resistance in a single-point oblique-cutting operation on a lathe.

The model is developed using the concept of constriction resistance, and is

verified by practical measurements.

194. Williams, R. A., A Study of the Drilling Process, J. Eng. Ind., Trans.

ASME 96, 1207-1215 (November 1974).

Equations are derived for the prediction of total torque and thrust,

given the cutting conditions, drill geometry, and an empirical factor

which is related to the work material. Continuous torque and thrust levels were monitored using a strain gage dynamometer coupled through an amplifying system to a two-pen recorder.

195. Wood, N. F. , Low-Cost System Revives Adaptive Control, Mach. Tool Blue

Book, No. 2, 68 (1973).

MAC-1 (Macotech Co.) cutting force stabilizing unit.

198. Yamazaki , K. , Yamada, A., and Swami , S. , A Study on Adaptive Control in an

NC Milling Machine, 24th Gen. Assembly Int. Inst. Prod. Eng. Res. (CIRP),

Kyoto, Jap., 1974 (Verlag Technische Rundschau Hallwag, Bern, Switz., 1974).

Methods of in-process measurement of tool wear are proposed. Experimental equations describing the tool wear and cutting forces were obtained.

An analysis of the frequency domain of cutting vibrations indicated that

the frequency of the peak amplitude in the vicinity of the resonant

frequency of the cutter system decreased with increase in flank wear,

regardless of cutting conditions. Also, the amount of light reflected

from the wear land correlates well with flank wear.
-52-

197- Young, F. W. , An Investigation of Available Signals for Adaptive Control

of Machine Tools, S. M. Thesis (Massachusetts Institute of Technology,

May 1970)

Vibrations from a turning operation were investigated. Spectral

density functions for the frequency ranges of 25 Hz to 7 kHz and 20 Hz to

40 kHz were computed from experimental data of tungsten carbide and M2

high speed tools as a function of tool wear. No useful results were

found.

198. Ziegler, L., Penny-Wise, Pound-Foolish Thinking Wastes NC Benefits,

Automation, 84-85 (September 1975).

Reduced productivity of NC machines can be traced to set up error,

program error, or operator error, or managerial or procedural inefficiency.

The greatest problem is in fixtures and tooling. If users were to use more efficient feeds and speeds and eliminate wasted moves and modify the

machining methods, the cycle time could be reduced considerably while also

cutting tool wear and breakage rates.

199. Zimmers, E. W. , Jr., Metal Cutting and the Application of Computer

Technology, SME Tech. Paper No. MS 75 “ ^+0 1 (Society of Manufacturing

Engineers, Dearborn, Mich., 1975).

The applications of computers to improvement of steel machining

efficiency and to the investigation of basic metal cutting processes are examined. Included are tracking cutting conditions by minicomputer,

computer control of chatter in machining, interactive graphics for tool

analysis, cutting rates, calculations and standard data systems, flexible

manufacturing systems, integrated computer systems, process planning, and

a forecast of future trends.

USCOMM-NBS-DC
U.S. DEPT. OF COMM.

BIBLIOGRAPHIC DATA

SHEET

1. PUBLICATION OR REPORT NO.

NBSIR 78-1424

2. Gov’t Accession

No.

3. Recipient’s Accession No.

4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE

Bibliography and Brief Review of Literature on Machine-Tool

Measurements for Automatic Control

5. Publication Date April 1 978

6. Performing Organization Code

425.03

7. author(S) Carol F. Vezzetti. J. Franklin Mavo-Wells,

John S. Hilten, ana Paul S. Lederer

8. Performing Organ. Report No.

9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

WASHINGTON, D.C. 20234

10. Project/Task/Work Unit No. *2531 0**

11. Contract/Grant No.

12. Sponsoring Organization Name and Complete Address (Street, City, State, ZIP)

Office of Developmental Automation and Control Technology

Institute for Computer Sciences and Technology

National Bureau of Standards

Washington, D.C. 20234

13. Type of Report & Period

Covered NB$ | R 12-1-76 to 4-30-77

14. Sponsoring Agency Code

15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES

16. ABSTRACT (A 200-word or less factual summary of most significant information. If document includes a significant

bibliography or literature survey, mention it here.)

An English-language literature survey focused on machine-tool measurements related

to wear was undertaken to ascertain the types of sensors used and measurements

made by investigators throughout the world in support of machine-tool automation.

The resulting review and bibliography constitute this document.

17. KEY WORDS (six to twelve entries; alphabetical order; capitalize only the first letter of the first key word unless a proper name; separated by semicolons

, Adaptive control; bibliography; control; cutting force; dynamic; force; load; machine

tool; measurement; review; tool wear; torque.

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Washington. D.C. 20402. SD Cat. No. C\) (THIS PAGE)

1 nr. ! Order From National Technical Information Service (NTIS)

Springfield, Virginia 22151 UNCLASSIFIED $5.25

USCOMM-DC 29042-P74