NIST Special Publication 1200-20

LC-MS/MS Measurement of NanomaterialInduced DNA Modifications in Isolated DNA 

Version 1.0 

This publication is available free of charge from:

http://dx.doi.org/10.6028/NIST.SP.1200-18 

Bryant C. Nelson 

Elijah J. Petersen 

Pawel Jaruga 

Miral Dizdaroglu
NIST Special Publication 1200-20

LC-MS/MS Measurement of NanomaterialInduced DNA Modifications in Isolated DNA 

Version 1.0 

Bryant C. Nelson 

Elijah J. Petersen 

Material Measurement Laboratory 

Biosystems and Biomaterials Division 

Pawel Jaruga 

Miral Dizdaroglu 

Material Measurement Laboratory 

Biomolecular Measurement Division 

This publication is available free of charge from: 

http://dx.doi.org/10.6028/NIST.SP.1200-20 

November 2015 

U.S. Department of Commerce 

Penny Pritzker, Secretary 

National Institute of Standards and Technology 

Willie May, Under Secretary of Commerce for Standards and Technology and Director
Certain commercial entities, equipment or materials may be identified in this 

document in order to describe an experimental procedure or concept adequately. 

Such identification is not intended to imply recommendation or endorsement by the 

National Institute of Standards and Technology, nor is it intended to imply that the 

entities, materials or equipment are necessarily the best available for the purpose.

National Institute of Standards and Technology Special Publication 1200-20

Natl. Inst. Stand. Technol. Spec. Publ. 1200-20, 15 pages (November 2015)

CODEN: NSPUE2

This publication is available free of charge

from: http://dx.doi.org/10.6028/NIST.SP.1200-20
ii

FOREWORD

This special publication is one in a series stemming from the National Nanotechnology Initiative 

(NNI) Nano-EHS Research Strategy which identified Nanomaterial Measurement Infrastructure 

as one of the essential areas of research needed in order to develop an effective risk assessment 

and management plan regarding various aspects of nanotechnology in consumer products as it 

pertains to human health, exposure and the environment. The National Institute of Standards and 

Technology (NIST) was identified as a lead agency in the development of measurement 

strategies for the robust development to assess the potential effects of engineered nanomaterials 

and their fate in the environment. One important endpoint for measuring the potential human 

health and ecological effects of nanomaterials is the extent of modification that may occur on 

DNA bases, nucleosides or nucleotides. These modifications are considered to be DNA damage 

and may be relevant for the risk assessment of nanomaterials in biological systems.

The current protocol presents a method to measure DNA 2’-deoxynucleoside lesion levels using 

isotope-dilution liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry. Updates to this protocol may 

be released in the future. Visit http://nist.gov/mml/np-measurement-protocols.cfm to check for 

revisions of this protocol, or new protocols in the series. We also encourage users to report 

citations to published work in which this protocol has been applied.
1

1. Introduction

Making accurate measurements of the environmental fate and environmental and biological 

effects of engineered nanomaterials (ENMs) is critical for reliable risk assessment of these 

materials. It has been shown that ENMs can induce DNA damage through oxidative stress in 

living systems and/or through direct binding of ENMs to DNA. However, the unique behaviors 

of ENMs may cause measurement artifacts during the determination of their DNA damaging 

potential [1]. For example, results from several DNA damage studies using the traditional 

Comet assay have reported artifacts from the presence of ENMs [2-6]. Potential explanations for 

this phenomenon are that ENMs may induce DNA damage during processing after the exposure 

period has concluded or that the ENMs may be in the Comet tail and mistaken for DNA. These 

types of measurement artifacts preclude the accurate measurement of DNA damage and 

prevents researchers from clarifying the fundamental mechanisms of ENM induced DNA 

modifications [2].

In this document, we describe a protocol to quantitatively measure a range of modified 2’-

deoxynucleosides in DNA using liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) 

with isotope-dilution and NIST standard reference material (SRM) 2396 (Oxidative DNA 

Damage Mass Spectrometry Standards) for the measurement of 8-hydroxy-2-deoxyguanosine

(8-OH-dGuo); the other four analytes that can be measured (described below) must utilize stable 

isotope-labeled internal standards that are synthesized separately. This method circumvents 

many of the artifacts observed in the Comet DNA strand break assay by directly quantifying 

molecular level DNA damage (i.e., DNA lesion) for a range of oxidatively induced damage 

products. Isotope-dilution mass spectrometry methods have been recently utilized by our 

laboratory to successfully measure DNA damage both in vitro and in vivo caused by gold 

nanoparticles [7], copper oxide nanoparticles [8], single-wall carbon nanotubes [9], iron oxide 

nanoparticles [10], titanium dioxide nanoparticles [11] and silver nanoparticles [12].

2. Principles and Scope

This protocol is proposed for the measurement of DNA lesion levels using LC-MS/MS with 

isotope-dilution [13] after exposure of isolated DNA to ENMs. Methods for determination of 

DNA lesion levels after cellular or whole organism exposure to ENMs are similar but are not 

described in the present protocol. Not all possible forms of DNA damage can be measured by 

this approach. This protocol focuses specifically on oxidatively-induced damage to DNA 2’-

deoxynucleosides. The methodology, and specifically the instrumentation described in the 

present protocol, is based on the accurate measurement of DNA base lesions using a triple 

quadrupole mass analyzer in multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) mode (see Table A). The 

MRM transitions for each modified 2’-deoxynucleoside are specifically given in section 6.2 

below. Usage of the isotopically labeled internal standard, 8-hydroxy-2-deoxyguanosine15N5

(8-OH-dGuo15N5) from SRM 2396 enables quantification of 8-OH-dGuo. Other DNA lesions 

such as (5 ́S)-8, 5 ́-cyclo-2 ́-deoxyguanosine (S-cdGuo), (5 ́R)-8, 5 ́-cyclo-2 ́-deoxyguanosine

(R-cdGuo), (5 ́S)-8, 5 ́-cyclo-2 ́-deoxyadenosine (S-cdAdo) and (5 ́R)-8, 5 ́-cyclo-2 ́-

deoxyadenosine (R-cdAdo) can also be measured if the isotope-labeled analogues of these 

lesions [(5 ́S)-8, 5 ́-cyclo-2 ́-deoxyguanosine15N5, (5 ́R)-8, 5 ́-cyclo-2 ́-deoxyguanosine15N5, 

(5 ́S)-8, 5 ́-cyclo-2 ́-deoxyadenosine15N5 and (5 ́R)-8, 5 ́-cyclo-2 ́-deoxyadenosine15N5, are 

synthesized from commercially available dGTP15N5 and dATP15N5, respectively [14, 15]. 
2

Table A DNA lesions detected and quantified by different MS procedures.

Lesion # GC/MS 

(bases by SIM)

GC-MS/MS 

(bases by MRM)

LC-MS/MS1

(nucleosides by MRM)

1 FapyAde FapyAde 8-OH-dGuo

2 FapyGua FapyGua R-cdAdo

3 8-OH-Ade 8-OH-Ade S-cdAdo

4 5-OH-Cyt 5-OH-Cyt R-cdGuo

5 5-OH-Ura 5-OH-Ura S-cdGuo

6 5-(OHMe)Ura 5-(OHMe)Ura

7 ThyGly ThyGly

8 5-OH-5MeHyd 5-OH-5MeHyd

9 8-OH-Gua 8-OH-Gua

1. Nucleoside lesions detected and quantified in the present protocol.

3. Terminology

This protocol complies with definitions relevant to nanotechnology as set forth in the ASTM 

International standard E2456 [16] and is consistent with the draft standard ISO TS 80004-1:2010

[17]. 

nanoparticle—sub-classification of ultrafine particle that is characterized by dimensions in the 

nanoscale (i.e., between approximately 1 nm and 100 nm) in at least two dimensions; also 

referred to as “nano-object” in ISO TS 80004-1:2010 [17]. 

primary particle — the smallest discrete identifiable entity associated with a particle system; in 

this context, larger particle structures (e.g., aggregates and agglomerates) may be composed of 

primary particles. 

aggregate — a discrete assemblage of primary particles strongly bonded together (i.e., fused, 

sintered, or metallically bonded). 

Note—The adjective "primary", when used in conjunction with the term aggregate, is employed in 

the present context to indicate the smallest achievable dispersed particle entity. 

agglomerate—assemblage of particles (including primary particles and/or smaller aggregates) 

held together by relatively weak forces (e.g., van der Waals, capillary, or electrostatic), that may 

break apart into smaller particles upon further processing. 

Note—Although we define them as distinct entities, the terms aggregate and agglomerate have 

often been used interchangeably to denote particle assemblies. 

dispersion—used in the present context to denote a liquid (aqueous) in which particles are 

homogeneously suspended, or the process of creating a suspension in which discrete particles are 

homogeneously distributed throughout a continuous fluid phase; implies the intention to break 

down agglomerates into their principal components (i.e., primary particles and/or aggregates).

4. Materials and equipment

4.1 Reagents

4.1.1 NIST SRM 2396
3

4.1.2 Distilled and deionized 18 MΩ water (ddH2O), e.g., Millipore Milli-Q; sterile 

DNase/RNase-free water is recommended (e.g., Ambion, non-DEPC treated)

4.1.3 Dried genomic DNA (e.g., calf thymus DNA, Sigma-Aldrich) or oligomeric DNA (e.g., 

Integrated DNA Technologies)

4.1.4 Absolute anhydrous ethanol, (e.g., Sigma-Aldrich, <0.005 % water)

4.1.5 Acetonitrile (e.g., Sigma-Aldrich with a minimum purity of 99.9 %, anhydrous)

4.1.6 10 mmol/L Tris-HCl in ddH2O adjusted to pH 7.5

4.1.7 1 mole/L sodium acetate containing 45 mmol/L zinc chloride in ddH2O adjusted to pH 

6.0

4.1.8 Nuclease P1 (e.g., U.S. Biological)

4.1.9 Phosphodiesterase I (e.g., Sigma-Aldrich)

4.1.10 Alkaline phosphatase (e.g., Roche Diagnostic)

4.1.11 ENMs (e.g., NIST SRM 8011, 8012, 8013, etc.)

4.2 Materials

4.2.1 15 mL centrifuge tubes

4.2.2 Glassware for making ICP-MS measurements

4.2.3 Calibrated pipettes and disposable tips

4.2.4 Quartz cuvettes for UV/Vis measurements

4.2.5 Drierite Desiccant

4.2.6 2 mL glass autosampler vials with caps and low volume (300 μL) inserts

4.2.7 3000 Da molecular weight cut-off centrifugal filters

4.2.8 Chelex 100 resin (e.g., Sigma-Aldrich)

4.3 Equipment

4.3.1 Fixed angle refrigerated centrifuge that is capable of spinning up to 20 000 x g and which 

is suitable for 2 mL Eppendorf sample tubes

4.3.2 Double beam UV/Vis absorbance spectrophotometer or another instrument capable of 

quantifying DNA concentrations

4.3.3 Speed Vac system capable of holding 2 mL Eppendorf sample tubes or 2 mL glass 

autosampler vials or a vacuum desiccator

4.3.4 Horizontal shaker with speed control

4.3.5 -20 oC freezer

4.3.6 3500 MWCO dialysis membrane

4.3.7 2 mL Eppendorf sample tubes

4.3.8 Triple quadrupole liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) system with 

an electrospray ionization source. The system should have a mass range of 50 Da to 

1500 Da, the capacity to select high resolution precursor ions of less than or equal to 0.2 

Da, the ability to switch ion polarity in less than 0.5 s and the capacity to perform 

accurate mass measurements on known and unknown analytes with mass assignment 

stabilities within ± 0.025 Da over a 24 h period

4.3.9 Single quadrupole inductively coupled plasma/mass spectrometry (ICP/MS) system with 

nickel cones and a Conikal nebulizer or a suitable single quadrupole inductively coupled 

plasma/optical emission spectrometry (ICP/OES) system
4

5. Treatment of and removal of ENMs from laboratory prepared DNA stock 

solutions. 

5.1 Preparation of DNA stock solutions

5.1.1 To a known mass of dried DNA in a 15 mL plastic centrifuge tube, add a known volume 

fraction of ddH2O so that the final concentration of DNA in the tube is ≤ 500 μg/mL.

5.1.2 Place the tube on a orbital rotator in a 4 °C refrigerator and gently mix the DNA solution 

for 72 h to ensure complete solubilization.

5.1.3 Treat the solubilized DNA with Chelex 100 resin to remove heavy metals and divalent 

transition metals.

5.1.4 Dialyze (3500 MWCO membrane, 25 mm to 30 mm diameter) the DNA against ddH2O 

at 4 °C for 24 h and change the water at least twice during this time period.

5.1.5 Determine the concentration of the solubilized DNA using UV/Vis spectrophotometry (1 

absorbance unit equals 50 μg/mL double-stranded DNA at 260 nm). For the stock DNA 

solution, it is recommended that the user also check the purity of the DNA solution by 

quantitatively evaluating the total RNA and protein levels in the sample. An estimate of 

RNA contamination can be quickly obtained by evaluating the 260 nm/280 nm ratio for 

the sample. A ratio of 1.8 to 2.0 indicates pure DNA while values higher than 2.0 

suggests RNA contamination. Total RNA contamination can be quantitatively evaluated 

using the Qubit fluorescence assay [18]. Proteins absorb at 280 nm but the absorbance at 

280 nm has a minimal effect on the 260 nm/280 nm ratio due to the much higher 

extinction coefficient of nucleic acids at both 260 nm and 280 nm. However, protein 

levels in the DNA solution can be quantitatively assessed using either the Lowry [19] or 

Bradford [20] protein assays. 

5.1.6 Store the DNA stock solution at 4 °C until needed or proceed directly to treating the 

DNA with ENMs based on the experimental design.

5.2 Treatment of DNA solutions with ENMs

5.2.1 To 2 mL Eppendorf sample tubes, add an appropriate volume of DNA stock solution so 

that the total mass of DNA in each tube is 100 μg.

5.2.2 Add a specified volume of dispersed ENM and additional dispersant into each sample 

tube so that an appropriate range of ENM sample concentrations are obtained.

5.2.3 Prepare both positive and negative control samples using an identical procedure, as well 

as a dispersant-only control sample. All test and control samples should be prepared in 

triplicate. Prepare extra sets of triplicate control samples that are both unspiked and 

spiked (50 mg/L) with the highest ENM concentration under investigation. These 

samples will be used for verification/quantification of ENM removal via ICP-MS or ICPOES (see below).

5.2.4 Treat all of the samples as necessary (i.e., expose to light/dark, heat/cold, adjust pH, 

sonicate, etc.,) for the specified period of time based on the experimental design. 
5

5.3 Removal of ENMs from DNA solutions

5.3.1 Removal of the ENMs from the DNA samples is performed based upon centrifugation 

followed by ICP-MS quantitative verification of ENM removal. In some instances, it 

may be appropriate to utilize ICP-OES analyses if elemental detection sensitivity is not a 

limiting factor.

5.3.2 Centrifuge the samples at 16 000 g (14 000 rpm) for 1 h @ 4 °C to pellet the ENMs. This 

procedure has been shown to be suitable for metal (i.e., AuNPs [7]) and metal-oxide (i.e., 

TiO2 NPs [11]) ENMs with a minimum diameter of 10 nm. Using this centrifugation 

procedure,  98% of the ENMs can be removed from solubilized DNA samples. If less 

than 98 % of the ENMs are removed from the DNA, then one simply increase the 

centrifugation time. (Appendix shows validation data for removal of AuNPs (Figure 1) 

and removal of TiO2 NPs (Table 1). Please see references above for additional details.

5.3.3 Transfer the DNA supernatants into 30 kDa molecular-weight-cutoff (MWCO) 

centrifugal filter units and centrifuge the samples at 7000 g for 15 min @ 4 °C.

5.3.4 Wash the filter membrane with ddH2O then reverse-elute the DNA into a clean 1.5 mL 

Eppendorf tube.

5.3.5 Determine the concentration of the eluted DNA solution using UV spectrophotometry (1 

absorbance unit = 50 μg DNA / mL at 260 nm) and store the collected samples at 4 °C or 

proceed directly to the addition of the isotopically labeled internal standards to each of 

the samples (see below). The accuracy of the DNA quantification method can be tested 

using NIST SRM 2372 (DNA Quantitation Standard).

5.3.6 Verify the level of ENM removal using only the spiked control and unspiked control 

samples via ICP-MS analysis as follows: add a suitable internal standard to each sample 

and digest each sample using for example: a 3:1 volume fraction mixture of concentrated 

HCl/HNO3 (30 min @ 75 °C with orbital shaking at 60 rpm). This digestion solution will 

work for AuNPs, but the analyst may need to modify this solution for other metal or 

metal-oxide-based ENMs. 

5.3.7 Cool the control samples down to room temperature and dilute them with 3 % HCl + 1 % 

HNO3 as required for analysis. Note: the sample digestion and dilution solutions will 

change depending on the element of interest. 

5.3.8 Perform elemental analysis on the digested control samples using ICP-MS. Based on the 

elemental calibration response factor, determine the elemental response in the spiked and 

unspiked control samples. Determine the mean level of ENM removal from the DNA 

solutions.

6 DNA lesion measurements using LC-MS/MS

6.1 DNA lesion quantification procedure

6.1.1 Transfer the required volume of eluted DNA from the centrifugal filter unit (see above) 

into a 1.5 mL Eppendorf tube so that the tube contains at least 50 μg of DNA. If there is 

not enough DNA sample volume to add 50 μg to each sample, add at least 30 μg. It is 

important to use the same DNA mass for all samples in a sample set.

6.1.2 Add the relevant isotopically labeled internal standards to each vial. We recommend also 

testing a reference DNA such as calf thymus DNA and an internal standard mixture 

sample during each sample set analysis to test assay performance. These control samples 
6 

are used to confirm the retention time and analyte peak stability of the LC column and to 

help assess the performance of the mass analyzer. The concentration of internal standard 

to add for each of the lesions depends on the type of DNA (i.e., isolated DNA, cellular 

DNA, etc.) and on the dynamic range of the LC-MS/MS instrument. This needs to be 

tested during preliminary experiments with reference DNA. If too low or too high of an 

internal standard concentration is used, it may be challenging to integrate the peaks for 

the internal standard or the calibrated measurement range of the instrument may be 

exceeded. 

6.1.3 Dry the samples using either a Speed Vac or vacuum desiccator. After the samples are 

dry, either begin the next step or store the samples at 4 oC in a jar with desiccant. 

6.1.4 Add 50 μL of the following freshly prepared buffer to each DNA sample: prepare the 

buffer with a ratio of 100 l of the Tris-HCl solution (see 4.1.5) and 2.5 l of the sodium 

acetate and zinc chloride solution (see 4.1.6) and scale to the appropriate number of 

samples. For example, to make enough buffer for 10 samples, add 500 L of the TrisHCl solution and 12.5 L of the sodium acetate and zinc chloride solution. 

6.1.5 Add the following enzymes to each sample: 1 L of nuclease P1 (1 U), 2 L of 

phosphodiesterase I (0.001 U), and 1 L of alkaline phosphatase (16 to 23 U). 

6.1.6 Mix the samples by gentle tapping and incubate all samples at 37 C for 18 to 24 h 

(heating block or water bath). Do not exceed 24 h. 

6.1.7 Transfer each sample to a 3000 molecular weight cut-off centrifuge filter. After adding 

50 L of the sample to the vial, add an additional 200 L of ddH2O so that the total 

volume is 250 L.

6.1.8 Centrifuge all samples at 15 800 g for  75 min at 20 oC and collect filtrate. 

6.1.9 Transfer filtrate into a glass sample vial containing a low volume insert and add the cap 

vial. Make sure that the vial caps are on tightly to prevent oxygen from getting into the 

sample vials. Try to twist the caps to make sure they are secure. 

6.1.10 Analyze the samples using LC-MS/MS methodology [13, 21] 

6.2 LC-MS/MS sample analyses 

6.2.1 The LC-MS/MS sample analyses are performed on a high resolution triple quadrupole 

LC-MS/MS system operated in positive electrospray ionization mode. 

6.2.2 The LC column is a Zorbax SB-Aq narrow-bore LC column (2.1 mm x 150 mm, 3.5 μm 

particle size) with an attached Agilent Eclipse XDB-C8 guard column (2.1 mm x 12.5 

mm, 5 μm particle size). The column temperature is thermostated at 40 oC. The gradient 

LC elution conditions are as follows (all solvent percentages are volume fractions): 

Mobile phase A = 2 % acetonitrile in water; mobile phase B = 100 % acetonitrile; time 

program = 0.0 min, 98 % A/2 % B; 18.0 min, 80 % A/20 % B; 18.1 min, 40 % A/60 % B; 

20.0 min, 40 % A/60 % B; 20.1 min, 98 % A/2 % B; 25.0 min, 98 % A/2 % B; flow rate 

= 500 L/min. MS data is diverted to waste for the first 2 min of the run. The DNA 

lesions and their stable isotope-labeled analogues are detected in MRM mode after 

appropriately tuning and optimizing the MS/MS instrument and analyte detection 

parameters. Each manufacturer’s instrument will have a different detection sensitivity for 

the analytes and thus the analytes will have to be tuned independently. Typical 

instrument parameters that need to be tuned and optimized for the analytes are the 

following: analyte dwell time, spray voltage, tube lens offsets, analyte collision energies, 
vaporizer temperature, capillary temperature, sheath gas pressure, auxiliary gas pressure, 

collision gas pressure, scan width, scan dwell time and MS/MS run time. The relevant 

MRM mass transitions are m/z 284 → m/z 168 and m/z 289 → m/z 173 for unlabeled and 

labeled 8-OH-dGuo, respectively; m/z 250 → m/z 164 and m/z 255 → m/z 169 for 

unlabeled and labeled R-cdAdo and S-cdAdo, respectively and m/z 266 → m/z 180 and 

m/z 271 → m/z 185 for unlabeled and labeled R-cdGuo and S-cdGuo, respectively. 

6.2.3 The MRM current profiles are integrated using appropriate peak integration software and 

the measured lesion levels are determined using the MRM area ratios from the DNA 

lesion of interest and its labeled analogue in conjunction with the known amount of the 

labeled analogue initially spiked into each sample. 

7 Abbreviations 

ENM engineered nanomaterial 

8-OH-dGuo 8-hydroxy-2 -deoxyguanosine 

R-cdAdo (5 ́R)-8, 5 ́-cyclo-2 ́-deoxyadenosine 

S-cdAdo (5 ́S)-8, 5 ́-cyclo-2 ́-deoxyadenosine 

R-cdGuo (5 ́R)-8, 5 ́-cyclo-2 ́-deoxyguanosine 

S-cdGuo (5 ́S)-8, 5 ́-cyclo-2 ́-deoxyguanosine 

LC-MS/MS liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry 

ENM engineered nanomaterial 

NP nanoparticle 

MRM multiple-reaction-monitoring 

SRM standard reference material 

UV/Vis ultraviolet-visible 

8 Acknowledgements 

We thank Vince Hackley of NIST for his helpful advice regarding the characterization 

and handling of the NIST AuNP SRMs. 

9 References 

1. Petersen, E.J., et al., Identification and avoidance of potential artifacts and misinterpretations in

nanomaterial ecotoxicity measurements. Environmental Science & Technology, 2014. 48(8): p.

4226-4246.

2. Petersen, E.J. and B.C. Nelson, Mechanisms and measurements of nanomaterial-induced

oxidative damage to DNA. Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry, 2010. 398: p. 613-650.

3. Gerloff, K., et al., Cytotoxicity and oxidative DNA damage by nanoparticles in human intestinal

caco-2 cells. Nanotoxicology, 2009. 3(4): p. 355-364.

4. Lin, M.H., et al., Comparison of organic and inorganic germanium compounds in cellular

radiosensitivity and preparation of germanium nanoparticles as a radiosensitizer. International

Journal of Radiation Biology, 2009. 85(3): p. 214-226.

5. Rajapakse, K., et al., Experimental evidence of false-positive comet test results due to TiO2

particle - assay interactions. Nanotoxicology, 2013. 7(5): p. 1043-1051.

6. Karlsson, H.L., The comet assay in nanotoxicology research. Analytical and Bioanalytical

Chemistry, 2010. 398(2): p. 651-666.

7
7. Nelson, B.C., et al., NIST gold nanoparticle reference materials do not induce oxidative DNA

damage. Nanotoxicology, 2013. 7(1): p. 21-29.

8. Atha, D.H., et al., Copper oxide nanoparticle mediated DNA damage in terrestrial plant models.

Environmental Science & Technology, 2012. 46(3): p. 1819-1827.

9. Petersen, E.J., et al., Protective roles of single-wall carbon nanotubes in ultrasonication-induced

DNA base damage. Small, 2013. 9(2): p. 205-208.

10. Singh, N., et al., The role of iron redox state in the genotoxicity of ultrafine superparamagnetic

iron oxide nanoparticles. Biomaterials, 2012. 33(1): p. 163-170.

11. Petersen, E.J., et al., DNA damaging potential of photoactivated P25 titanium dioxide

nanoparticles. Chemical Research in Toxicology, 2014. 27(10): p. 1877-1884.

12. Hunt, P.R., et al., Nanosilver suppresses growth and induces oxidative damage to DNA in

Caenorhabditis elegans. Journal of Applied Toxicology, 2013. 33(10): p. 1131-42.

13. Jaruga, P., et al., Measurement of (5′r)- and (5′s)-8,5′-cyclo-2′-deoxyadenosines in DNA in vivo by

liquid chromatography/isotope-dilution tandem mass spectrometry Biochemical and Biophysical

Research Communications, 2009. 386: p. 656-660.

14. Birincioglu, M., et al., DNA base damage by the antitumor agent 3-amino-1,2,4-benzotriazine

1,4-dioxide (tirapazamine). Journal of the American Chemical Society, 2003. 125(38): p. 11607-

11615. 

15. Jaruga, P., et al., Mass spectrometric assays for the tandem lesion 8,5 '-cyclo-2 '-deoxyguanosine

in mammalian DNA. Biochemistry, 2002. 41(11): p. 3703-3711.

16. ASTM (American Society for Testing Materials) International, E2456-06: Standard terminology

relating to nanotechnology, 2006: West Conshohocken, PA.

17. ISO (International Organization for Standardization), Ts 80004-1: Nanotechnologies —

Vocabulary — part 1: Core terms, 2010: Geneva, Switzerland.

18. Singer, V.L., et al., Characterization of picogreen reagent and development of a fluorescencebased solution assay for double-stranded DNA quantitation. Analytical Biochemistry, 1997.

249(2): p. 228-38.

19. Lowry, O.H., et al., Protein measurement with the folin phenol reagent. Journal of Biological

Chemistry, 1951. 193: p. 265-275.

20. Bradford, M.M., Rapid and sensitive method for quantitation of microgram quantities of protein

utilizing principle of protein-dye binding. Analytical Biochemistry, 1976. 72(1-2): p. 248-254.

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1824. 

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centrifugation. Nano Letters, 2012. 12(8): p. 4060-4064.

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54(3): p. 172-173.

25. Shi, H.B., et al., Titanium dioxide nanoparticles: A review of current toxicological data. Particle

and Fibre Toxicology, 2013. 10: online access.

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8
9 

Appendix 

1. Removal of Engineered Nanomaterials from DNA Solutions Using Centrifugation

Techniques 

In the present study, we are strictly concerned with the separation of one discrete size and shape 

of ENM from a solution matrix of completely solubilized ct-DNA in aqueous buffer. Based on 

the constant buoyancy and density of the solution matrix, we can utilize the centrifugal force 

from a fixed-angle rotor centrifuge to separate the ENMs from the DNA solution. We are able to 

effect an almost 100 % separation of ENMs from the DNA solution due to the fact that the DNA 

solution has a lower density (ρ) than the density of the relevant ENMs (ρDNA = 1.7 g/cm3and

ρAuNPs = 19.3 g/cm3

, ρTiO2 NPs = 4.3 g/cm3) [22-25]. Therefore, the ENMs can be forced to

sediment at the bottom of the DNA solution using appropriate centrifugation speeds and times. 

When the centrifugation speed is held constant, and assuming spherical particles for simplicity, 

the appropriate centrifugation time for separating the ENM from the DNA solution can be 

determined empirically or it can be estimated theoretically using the following equations [26]: 

(1) vt =

ω2r(ρρ− ρi

)dρ

2

18η

(2) vt =

dr

dt

(3) tt = 

[lnrmax

rmin

]

vt

,

where vtis the terminal velocity, ω

2

is the angular velocity of the rotor, ρρ and ρi are the

density of the ENM and solution matrix (solubilized ct-DNA), respectively, dρ is the diameter of 

the ENM, η is the viscosity of the solution matrix, rmax and rmin are the maximum and 

minimum rotor radii, respectively, and tt

is the total time for complete separation of the ENM 

from the solution matrix.
2. Figure 1 

Results from the removal of 10 nm, 30 nm and 60 nm NIST SRM AuNPs from aqueous buffered solutions containing 500 μg/mL ctDNA using centrifugation. 
2

3. Table 1

Removal of NIST P25 TiO2 NPs from 500 μg/mL ct-DNA aqueous buffer solutions using centrifugation.

Sample # Detected Level of TiO2

(μg) after centrifugation Standard Deviation (μg)

Expected Level of TiO2

(μg) before 

centrifugation

%TiO2 Removed

1 7.516 0.019 198 96.2

2 3.165 0.028 198 98.4

3 2.109 0.010 198 98.9

Ti was detected in the aqueous ct-DNA samples using ICP-OES and converted to TiO2 levels in the samples. The data shown are for three independently 

prepared samples that were analyzed 5 times each. The mean percentage of TiO2 removed was 97.8 % ± 1.4 %.