U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey

Sodium Carbonate Resources of the

Green River Formation

By

John R. Dyni

Denver, Colorado

Open-File Report 96-729

This report is preliminary and has not been reviewed for conformity with U.S. Geological Survey

editorial standards (or with the North American Stratigraphic Code). Any use of trade, product, or firm

names is for descriptive purposes only and does not imply endorsement by the U.S. Government.
Sodium Carbonate Resources of the

Green River Formation

By

John R. Dyni

U.S. Geological Survey

Box 25046, M.S. 939

Denver Federal Center, CO 80225

ABSTRACT

Marly lacustrine rocks of the Eocene Green River Formation, which occupy parts of

several basins in Wyoming, Colorado, and Utah, contain world-class resources of oil

shale and sodium carbonate minerals. The formation contains the world's largest known

resource of natural sodium carbonate as bedded trona (Na2CO3

.NaHCO3.2H2O) in

southwest Wyoming as well as the second largest known resource of sodium carbonate as

bedded and nodular nahcolite (NaHCO3) in northwest Colorado. Five companies

currently mine three beds of trona in Wyoming and one company mines a bed of

nahcolite in Colorado.

Other sodium carbonate minerals in the Green River Formation that may have future

economic potential include dawsonite (NaAl(OH)2CO3), eitelite (Na2CO3

.MgCO3), and

shortite (Na2CO3

.2CaCO3). Several sodium carbonate brines in Utah and Wyoming may

have economic value for soda ash and for water-soluble organic acids.
INTRODUCTION

The lacustrine Green River Formation of Eocene age, which occupies several

sedimentary basins in Wyoming, Colorado, and Utah (fig. 1), has long been known for

its oil shale resources but less so for its enormous deposits of sodium carbonate minerals.

Large deposits of sodium carbonate salts occur in the three-state area. These deposits

include relatively pure beds of trona, nahcolite, and eitelite; nonbedded aggregates,

nodules, and crystals of nahcolite; microscopic crystals of dawsonite in oil shale; veinlets

and crystals of shortite; and brines of which some are highly enriched in organic acids.

Five sodium carbonate occurrences including two in Utah, one in Colorado, and two in

Wyoming, are being mined or have potential economic value.

The occurrences include deposits of bedded trona in the Green River Basin in southwest

Wyoming, deposits of nahcolite and dawsonite commingled with high-grade oil shale in

the Piceance Creek Basin in northwest Colorado, and bedded sodium carbonate salts near

the town of Duchesne in the Uinta Basin, northeast Utah. The formation also contains

two sodium carbonate brines that may have potential economic value. One of these

brines occurs in a confined aquifer, the Birds-nest zone, in the eastern Uinta Basin about

30 miles south and east of Vernal, Utah. The other sodium carbonate brinenoteworthy

for its unusually high content of soluble organic matterunderlies several townships at

shallow depths near the communities of Farson and Eden in the northeastern part of the

Green River Basin, Wyoming (fig. 1).

In this paper, the geologic setting of the Green River Formation is presented and the

economic geology of each of the five occurrences of sodium carbonate and their potential

for commercial development is described.
D:\IMF96\FIG01.DRW

111 107

113

43

38

Rifle

Grand

Junction

ABA

WRU

WB

GRB

UB

Duchesne

PCB

FB

EXPLANATION

Sodium carbonate

brine

SWB

Bedded halite and sodium

carbonate salts

Bedded trona

Nahcolite

Black sodium

carbonate water

41

112

Bonanza

0 50 MI

0 50 100 KM

GDB

Figure 1. Map showing the areal distribution of the Green River Formation and the locations of five

 sodium carbonate deposits in Utah, Colorado, and Wyoming. ABA, Axial Basin Anticline;

 FB, Fossil Basin; GDB, Great Divide Basin; GRB, Green River Basin; PCB, Piceance Creek Basin;

 SWB, Sand Wash Basin; UB, Uinta Basin; UMU, Uinta Mountain Uplift; WB, Washakie Basin;

WRU, White River Uplift.
GEOLOGIC SETTING

Lacustrine sediments of the Eocene Green River Formation were deposited in two large

lakes that occupied several lacustrine sedimentary-structural basins in Colorado,

Wyoming, and Utah. These basins include the Green River, Washakie, and Sand Wash

Basins in southwest Wyoming and northwest Colorado, the Piceance Creek Basin in

northwest Colorado, and the Uinta Basin in northeast Utah (fig. 1). Lake Gosiute is the

northern Eocene lake that occupied the Green River, Washakie, and Sand Wash Basins.

The southern lake, Lake Uinta, occupied the Uinta and Piceance Creek Basins in Utah

and Colorado. The Uinta Mountain Uplift, an east-west positive structural element,

separated the two lakes, although they may have been connected during part of their

existence on the east side of the uplift. At its maximum extent, Lake Uinta covered

about 22,000 square miles (57,000 km2), and Lake Gosiute, about 15,000 square miles

(38,850 km2). Together, the two Eocene lakes were somewhat larger than present-day

Lake Erie and Lake Michigan combined. The drainage basins of the two lakes were

probably double or more in size than the areas of the lakes at their maximum extent (fig.

2).

With the exception of tuffaceous sediments, the drainage basins of the Eocene lakes were

the source of most of the Green River sediments. Volcanic tuffs were deposited directly

into the lake and tuffaceous sediments also were washed into the lake from the

surrounding drainage basin. Tuffaceous debris amounts to roughly 5 percent of the total

sediments in the formation.

The glassy tuffaceous sediments readily decomposed in the alkaline lake waters and

probably supplied some of the dissolved sodium and other cations that compose some of

the authigenic carbonate minerals found in the formation.

The Green River Formation consists of a variety of lacustrine sedimentary rocks,

including sandstone, claystone, shale, dolomitic marlstone, oil shale, and numerous,

generally thin beds of volcanic tuff that were deposited in the two lakes. During much of

Green River time, the lakes were closed with no outlets. During arid periods, the lakes

became sufficiently saline to precipitate large quantities of sodium salts, either directly

from the lake waters or interstitially from briny waters within the sediments. The most
D:\IMF96\FIG02.DRW

SAWATCH RANGE

CIRCLE CLIFFS

 UPWARP

SAN RAFAEL

 SWELL

SAN JUAN

 MTNS

KAIBAB

UPWARP

MONUMENT

UPWARP

UNCOMPAHGRE

UPWARP

DEFIANCE

UPWARP

SEVIER THRUST

ROCK

SPRINGS

UPLIFT

AXIAL BASIN

ANTICLINE

WIND RIVER

RANGE

LARAMIE RANGE

GRAND HOGBACK

ID

UT

WY

CO

UT CO

AZ NM

UINTA MTN

UPLIFT

Drainage basin of

Lake Uinta

Drainage basin

of Lake Gosiute

LAKE UINTA

0 100 200 KM

0 50 100 MI

Figure 2. Paleogeographic map of the Green River lakes at their maximum extents

 and their approximate drainage basins.
abundant of these salts include trona, nahcolite, shortite, dawsonite, halite, and less

commonly eitelite and wegscheiderite.

Typically, the sediments grade from fine-grained sandstone, mudstone, claystone, and

shale in shoreward areas of the lakes into carbonate-bearing sediments enriched in

organic matter toward basin center. The lateral transition from siliciclastic to carbonateenriched rocks is also reflected in vertical sequences of the Green River Formation in the

Green River, Piceance Creek, and Uinta Basins. This indicates increasing salinity of the

alkaline lake waters as divalent cations of calcium and magnesium were precipitated as

calcite, mg-calcite, and dolomite, while dissolved sodium, bicarbonate, and chloride

continued to accumulate in waters in the deeper parts of the basins. Sulfate ion was

essentially completely reduced by bacterial redox processes whereby bicarbonate was

formed in the ratio of two moles of bicarbonate for each mole of sulfate that was

reduced. Hydrolysis of detrital silicate minerals and glassy volcanic ash contributed

additional dissolved bicarbonate, sodium, and other ions to the lake waters.

During their existence, the Green River lakes fluctuated widely in size in response to wet

and dry climatic cycles. During three major dry periods, the lakes contracted sufficiently

to precipitate sodium salts in basins in the three-state area. The first and most important

dry cycle was during Wilkins Peak and Parachute Creek time when the vast deposits of

trona and nahcolite were deposited in the Green River and Piceance Creek Basins,

respectively. During two later dry periods, nahcolite in the Birds-nest zone was

deposited in nodules and possibly some thin beds in eastern Uinta Basin, Utah. Finally,

during a late dry period, bedded sodium salts were deposited in the Uinta Basin near

Duchesne, Utah.

After deposition and lithification of the Green River sediments and their associated

sodium carbonate deposits, ground waters dissolved some of these sodium minerals, as

evidenced by the presence of solution breccias and solution cavities in drill cores

recovered from exploratory wells drilled into the formation. In at least two areas, the

Green River Formation contains sodium carbonate brines of unknown, but possibly

exploitable, size that were probably formed by dissolution of sodium minerals by ground

waters.
DUCHESNE SODIUM CARBONATE DEPOSIT

The occurrence of abundant crystal molds of a then-unknown salt in exposures of marly

sediments of the Green River Formation in eastern Uinta Basin and in the Piceance Creek

Basin, lead W.H. Bradley (1931, plate 3) to define several "saline phases" in the

formation. One of these "phases" included part of a sequence of marlstone and shale in

the upper part of the formation in Indian Canyon, near Duchesne, Utah (fig. 1), which he

designated the "barren and saline facies." Identification of one of the salts in the upper

part of the Green River Formation in the Uinta Basin was first made by Erickson (1952),

who reported the occurrence of shortite in drill core from the Sun Oil Company core hole

located in sec. 22, T. 9 S., R. 20 E., Salt Lake Meridian, Uintah County, Utah, between

the depths of 1975 and 2056 feet. Subsequently, Milton and others (1954) and Milton

(1957) reported the occurrence of shortite and other authigenic minerals from bore holes

in the Uinta Basin, including the new mineral, eitelite (Na2CO3

.

MgCO3). J.J. Fahey

(Dane, 1955) identified shortite and nahcolite, possibly bedded, in cuttings from the

Joseph Smith oil and gas test well 1 in sec. 16, T. 3 S., R. 5 W., a few miles north of

Duchesne (figs. 3 and 4).

In 1970, Mapco Oil Company drilled the No. 1 Shrine Hospital well in the NE1⁄4SE1⁄4,

sec. 10, T. 3 S., R. 5 W., about 4 miles north of Duchesne (figs. 3 and 4). Two

sequences were cored between the depths of 4,140-4147 and 4,165-4,252 feet (1,262-

1,264 and 1,269-1,296 m). The lower core revealed three beds 2, 6, and 12 feet (0.6, 1.8,

and 3.7 m) thick of halite (60-80 percent) mixed with varied amounts of wegscheiderite

(20-40 percent) and minor amounts of marlstone. The lower core also revealed an

additional six thin beds of mixed nahcolite, trona, wegscheiderite, and eitelite ranging

from 0.3 to 1.5 feet in thickness (Dyni and others, 1985).
1

2

3

4

Green River Formation

Saline facies Claystone & limestone unit

EOCENE

3000

4000

3500

4000

4500

4000

TD 4246

Resistivity-sonic log marker

(DATUM)

?

1500

2000

2500

Horse Bench Sandstone Bed

TEXACO D-1

14 - 3S - 6W MAPCO I

10 - 3S - 5W CARTER 1 MOON

13 - 4S - 4W

Resistivity Caliper Sonic

Resistivity Gamma ray Neutron Gamma

ray

Neutron

Resistivity

3500

SODIUM CARBONATE --

HALITE BEDS

(NOTE: WELL DEPTHS IN FEET BELOW THE SURFACE)

? ?

NOTE: Arrows along sonic log

indicate probable beds of soluble

sodium salts.

Cored intervals

CARTER 1 SMITH

16 - 3S - 5W

Figure 3. Stratigraphic cross section of the saline facies and underlying rocks in the upper part of the

Green River Formation near Duchesne, Utah. Circled numbers above each drill hole are keyed to the

line of stratigraphic section shown in fig. 4. Arrows point to possible evaporite beds.
D:\IMF96\FIG04.DRW

40 00'

1000

1500

500

2000

3000

3500

4000

4500

Duchesne

2500

Strawberry

River

5000

5500

6000

Left Fork

Right Fork

SOWERS

CANYON

INDIAN

CANYON

4500

6500

T

2

S

T

3

S

1 2

3

4

ANTELOPE

CREEK

T

4

S

T

5

S

T

6

S

R 3 W

R 7 W R 6 W R 5 W R 4 W

Duchesne

River

40 15'

110 30'

110 15'

AREA OF

BEDDED SALTS

Starvation

Reservoir

Sodium

carbonate

spring

MAP

AREA

0 5MI

0 8 KM

DUCHESNE FAULT ZONE

Marine Minerals 2

Figure 4. Map showing approximate limits of bedded sodium salts in the upper saline

facies (heavy dashed line) near Duchesne, Utah, and line of stratigraphic section shown

on fig. 3. Structure contours, in feet, drawn on a resistivity-sonic log datum near the base

of the saline facies (see fig. 3).
In 1973, the Duchesne deposit was further tested by Marine Minerals core hole 2 drilled

in the SE1⁄4NW1⁄4 sec. 34, T. 3 S., R. 5 W., about one mile west of Duchesne (figs. 4 and

5). The bore hole was continuously cored from 50 to 2,857 feet (15 to 871 m) below the

surface. The top of a sequence of eitelite-bearing marly rocks, 20.7 feet (6.3 m) thick,

was reached in this well at a depth of 2,743 feet (836 m) (fig. 5). A 4.8-foot-thick (1.5

m) bed containing about 75 percent eitelite was found at a depth of 2,757 (840 m) feet.

The net thickness of eitelite in the 20.7-foot-thick sequence of eitelitic rocks is about 6.9

(2.1 m) feet. The 4.5-foot-thick (1.4 m) tuff in core hole 2 (fig. 5) is the same tuff (6 feet

thick) identified as unit 11 in the Mapco No. 1 Shrine Hospital core hole (Dyni and

others, 1985, fig. 4). Shortitic marlstone and other thin beds of mixed sodium carbonate

salts and halite were also noted in core hole 2. The core from this well is stored at the

U.S. Geological Survey's Core Research Center, Lakewood, Colorado.

The bedded salts at Duchesne occur in the lower part of the saline facies of the Green

River Formation as defined by Bradley (1931, pl. 9). In Indian Canyon south of

Duchesne, the saline facies is about 1,100 feet (335 m) thick and its base is marked by a

tuff 3 feet (0.9 m) thick (identified as a coarse-grained tuffaceous sandstone by Bradley,

1931, pl. 9, base of column D). This tuff may be the same as the thick tuff bed noted in

the Mapco Shrine Hospital 1 well and in the Mapco core hole 2 (fig. 5).

The saline facies in Indian Canyon consists of fine-grained marly rocks including cherty

marlstone, claystone, "mealstone," dolomite, limestone, and minor amounts of oil shale,

sandstone, siltstone, and tuff. Mealstone is a name given to a marly rock containing

abundant euhedral calcite crystals pseudmorphic after shortite. Water-soluble saline

minerals appear to be especially abundant in the lower two-thirds of the saline facies.

Although bedded salts were encountered in wells at Duchesne, no solution breccias

marking the former presence of such beds were found on the outcrop in Indian Canyon

(Dyni and others, 1985). Bryant and others (1989, pl. 1) have mapped the saline facies

as far west as Twps. 8-9 S., R. 6 E., along the Wasatch-Utah County line about 45 miles

west of Duchesne in about the same area where Dyni and others (1985, p. 53-54) noted

crystal cavities in the unit.
D:\IMF96\FIG05.DRW

Note: Depths and unit thicknesses

 in feet.

5.7 Marlstone

2.1 Marly eitelite

Mixed halite and sodium carbonate salts

Marly eitelite

Marly sodium carbonate salts

Mixed halite and sodium carbonate salts

0.4

0.3

0.5

2.9

3.5 Marly eitelite

0.6 Marlstone, some sodium carbonate salts

4.5 Tuff

4.8 Marly eitelite

0.7 Marlstone, some eitelite crystals

8.0 Marlstone, scattered shortite crystals

2,737.0

2,771.0

2,743.0

2,757.0

Figure 5. Generalized lithologic log of the bedded sodium carbonate salts and

halite in the Marine Minerals core hole 2 in the SE1⁄4NW1⁄4 sec. 34, T.3 S., R.5 W.,

Duchesne County, Utah (unpublished data from Irvin Nielsen).
Underlying the saline facies is a unit, about 460 to 700 feet (140 to 213 m) thick, of

predominantly claystone, subordinate limestone, and numerous thin tuffs, which is

devoid of salts. The claystone and limestone unit is underlain by the Horse Bench

Sandstone Bed (fig. 3).

The bedded salts at Duchesne can be traced on geophysical logs into other wells drilled

in the area. Several beds of mixed halite and sodium carbonate salts are shown on the

cross section in figure 3. The most prominent of these beds, unit 21 of Dyni and others

(1985, fig. 4), ranges from 2 to 19 feet (0.6 to 5.8 m) in thickness; it may not be present

in the Mapco core hole 2. Other probable beds of sodium salts are also indicated on

geophysical logs in figure 3. Bedded salts underlie an area of about 86 square miles (223

km2) just north of Duchesne (Dyni and others, 1985, fig. 1), but the area could be larger

(fig. 4).

BIRD'S-NEST BRINE FIELD

During a brief, but strongly regressive phase of Lake Uinta during late Green River time,

the Horse Bench Sandstone Bed was deposited over a wide area in the south-central part

of Lake Uinta. The bed grades toward basin center to the north into open-lacustrine

marly kerogenous rocks. During this regressive phase, the lake waters in the deeper part

of the Uinta Basin became concentrated in salts, chiefly sodium bicarbonate with

probable lesser amounts of sodium chloride. During early diagenesis, when the

interstitial salty waters in the marly sediments were being expelled, nahcolite was

precipitated within the marly sediments as scattered crystals, nodules, and crystalline

aggregates. A few thin beds of nahcolite may have also been deposited. On the outcrop,

the nahcolite-bearing sequence was informally named the "Bird's-nest zone," in reference

to the numerous cavities,which resemble swallow nests, left by dissolution of the

nahcolite nodules by surface waters (Cashion, 1967, p. 17).
Percolating ground waters have dissolved the nahcolite forming an aquifer in the upper

part of the Green River Formation in an area of about 250 square miles (647 km2) in

parts of 14 townships (Twps. 8-11 S., Rgs. 22-25 W., Uinta County (fig. 6), about 30

miles south and east of Vernal, Utah (Lindskov and Kimball, 1984, figs. 13 and 20).

The full extent of the aquifer has not yet been determined. In the southern part of the

area in T. 10 S., R. 24 E., analyses from wells drilled on Federal lease tracts Ua and Ub

indicate that the aquifer is slightly to moderately saline, ranging from 1,000 to 4,800

mg/l of total dissolved solids (fig. 6). However, much higher salinities were encountered

in the aquifer in two core holes drilled by the U.S. Geological Survey some 6 to 10 miles

(10 to 16 km) to the northwest in T. 9 S., Rs. 22 and 23 E. (figure 6). Chemical analyses

of the brine in the aquifer in the two wells listed in table 1 are from Scott and Pantea

(1982a, 1982b).
D:\IMF96\FIG06.DRW

R 22 E R 23 E R 24 E

T

10

S

T

9

S

T

8

S

White

River

39° 52' 30"

40° 07' 30"

109° 07' 30" 109° 30' 00"

84

99

1.0

1.4

1.4

1.8 1.9 2.6

2.8 2.6

4.8 4.3

3.5

4.3

45

0

0 4

5 MI

8 KM

Federal oil-shale

tracts Ua-Ub

Figure 6. Locations of some wells drilled into the Bird's-nest aquifer near Bonanza, Utah.

Numbers indicate total dissolved solids in grams/liter (from Lindskov and Kimball,

1984 and Scott and Pantea, 1982a,b).
Table 1.Chemical analyses of the Bird's-nest aquifer in U.S. Geological Survey core holes Coyote

Wash 1 and Red Wash 1.

____________________________________________________________________ Coyote Wash 1 Red Wash 1

__________________________________________________________________

Location SE1⁄4NE1⁄4 Sec. 22, SE1⁄4NW1⁄4 Sec. 1,

 T.9 S., R.23 E. T.9 S., R.22 E.

Thickness of

 aquifer(ft) 65 (19.8 m) 80 (24.4 m)

Depth to top

 of aquifer (ft) 1,739 (530 m) 2,021 (616 m)

Sample depth (ft) 1,746 (532 m) 2,021 (616 m)

Rock matrix Oil shale Oil shale

Yield (gals/min) 700 (2,650 l/min) 700-900 (2,650-3,400 l/min)

____________________________________________________________________

 Chemical composition (mg/l)

____________________________________________________________________

 Cl- 3,100 650

 F- 26 450

 SO4-- 7,400 3,500

 (HCO3-/CO3--)

1 (13,130) (13,890)

 B 180 240

 Na+ 34,000 41,000

 K+ 39 60

 Ca++ 3 <1

 Mg++ 1 0.2

 SiO2 <2 <2

 Organic carbon,

 dissolved na 60

 pH 9.5 9.5

 Alkalinity

 (as CaCO3) 79,300 105,000

 (Total dissolved

 solids)1 83,900 98,600 

Other ions found in concentrations of less than 1 mg/l: As, Ba, Cr, Fe, Li, Mn, Hg, and Zn. See Scott and

Pantea (1982a and 1982b) for additional analytical details.

_____________________________________________________________________

1

The sum of CO3+HCO3 and total dissolved solids which were not determined in the original analyses

were estimated by Scott R. Charlton, University of Colorado, by the USGS WATC computer program.
Further exploration of the Bird's-nest brine field in the vicinity of the Coyote Wash and

Red Wash core holes in T. 9 S., Rs. 22 and 23 E. and surrounding area (fig. 6) may

reveal exploitable reserves of sodium carbonate brine. Dissolved components in amounts

that might be troublesome in developing this resource include chloride, sulfate and

fluoride.

COLORADO NAHCOLITE DEPOSITS

A large resource of nahcolite is commingled with oil shale in the Parachute Creek

Member of the Green River Formation in the northern part of the Piceance Creek Basin

in northwest Colorado. The geology of the deposit is well documented by numerous

studies, although details of the stratigraphic distribution and grade of nahcolite in

selected zones and beds need to be determined.

In the Piceance Creek Basin, the Green River Formation is divided, in ascending order,

into the Anvil Points, Garden Gulch, and Parachute Creek Members and it is overlain by

sandstone and siltstone of the Uinta Formation (fig. 7). Most of the significant deposits

of oil shale and all of the sodium carbonate resources are found in the Parachute Creek

Member.

In the deeper northern part of the Piceance Creek Basin, the Parachute Creek Member

contains a saline facies which includes beds of nahcolite and halite, scattered crystals,

nodules, and coarse-crystalline aggregates of nahcolite commingled with high-grade oil

shale. Also included in the saline facies is dawsonite which occurs as microscopic

crystals that compose part of the microcrystalline matrix of the oil shale.

The top of the nahcolite-bearing oil shale is a dissolution surface above which ground

waters have dissolved nahcolite and halite forming a "leached zone" of vuggy brecciated

oil shale sequence several hundred feet thick. The leached zone extends upward into

lower part of the Mahogany oil-shale zone, a unit of high-grade oil shale traceable

throughout the basin. The top of the leached zone is defined by the stratigraphically

highest occurrence of solution breccia that marks the former presence of a bed of

nahcolite or mixed halite and nahcolite (Dyni,1981, plates 1 and 2). This top can be

considered to be the top of the original bedded saline facies in the Parachute Creek

Member, although crystal cavities and vugs are found scattered through the upper part of

the Parachute Creek Member above the Mahogany oil-shale zone (fig. 7).
D:\IMF96\FIG07.DRW

EXPLANATION

Dolomitic oil shale

a b c

(a) nahcolite-free(b) with nahcolite aggregates

(c) with nahcolite vugs and solution breccias

Bedded white coarsecrystalline nahcolite and

brown microcrystalline

nahcolite

Bedded halite and

nahcolite

Zone of disseminated

nahcolite in oil shale

C34

C154

C177

C179

500

600

Parachute Creek Member LOVE BED

700

C5

400

Mahogany Zone

LEACHED ZONE

GREEN RIVER FORMATION

Anvil Points Member

Garden Gulch Member

Base of nahcolite facies

400

500

600

700

800

Dissolution

surface

(Datum)

BOIES BED

Top of bedded

saline facies

300

400

500

600

700

800

400

500600

700

800

300

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

400

100

0

300

200

Piceance Creek

surface section

Lower

Uinta Formation

Figure 7. Generalized stratigraphic cross section of the nahcolite deposits in the Parachute Creek Member of the Green

River Formation in the northern part of the Piceance Creek Basin, Colorado. Line of cross section is shown in fig. 8.

Depths in meters.
1000

100

R100W R99W R98W R97W

T2N

R96W R95W

T1N

T1S

T2S

T3S

R101W

500 C177

C5

C179

C154

C34

Lower PiceanceCreek outcrop

Area of mixedhalite andnahcolite

C-b

C-a

mine

Horse Draw

Base of Green

River Fm.

Base of Green

River Fm.

0 5 10 MI

0 5 10 15 KM

White River Nahcolite Minerals

Figure 8. Thickness of nahcolite-bearing oil shale in the northern part of the

Piceance Creek Basin. Thickness contours in feet. Patterned areas are active

Federal sodium leases. C-a and C-b are inactive Federal oil-shale lease tracts.
The maximum thickness of nahcolite-bearing oil shale is reached in Twps. 1 N. to 2 S.,

and Rs. 97-98 W. (fig. 8). Here, the dissolution surface lies at depths of about 1,400 to

1,900 feet (427 to 579 m) below ground level (fig. 7). Below the dissolution surface,

nahcolite occurs in three principal ways: (1) as coarse-crystalline aggregates and rosettes

and fine-grained nodules scattered through oil shale, (2) as disseminated, closely to

loosely packed crystals of nahcolite in oil shale that commonly form laterally continuous

units, and (3) as beds of either microcrystalline light brown nahcolite, coarse-crystalline

white nahcolite, or thin layers of brown microcrystalline nahcolite interbedded with

coarse-crystalline halite. About 60 percent of the resource occurs as type 1 nahcolite, 25

percent as type 2 nahcolite, and 15 percent as type 3 nahcolite. The area of nahcolitebearing oil shale, where it is 100 or more feet thick occupies an area of about 257 square

miles (666 km2) in the northern part of the Piceance Creek Basin (fig. 8). In ten core

holes drilled in the central part of the evaporite deposit, the nahcolitic rocks range from

about 550 to 1,100 feet (168 to 335 m) in thickness. The nahcolite resource in the basin

was estimated at 32 billion short tons (29 billion mt) by Dyni (1974a,1974b) and 29

billion tons (26 billion mt) by Beard, Tait, and Smith (1974). Details of the economic

geology of the Colorado nahcolite deposits have been reported by Cole, Daub, and

Weichman, (1982); Cole and Daub (1983); Cole, Daub, and Weston (1995); Nielsen

(1995), and others.

In 1970-72, Shell Oil Company experimented with warm water and steam injection for

recovery of shale oil from nahcolite-bearing oil shale on a 10-acre site in the W1⁄2 T. 1

S., R. 97 W., Rio Blanco County, Colo. In addition to oil, Ireson (1990) reported that

large amounts of sodium carbonate were co-produced with the oil (fig. 9).

In 1990, the White River Nahcolite Minerals Company, a subsidiary of North American

Chemical Company, began solution mining the Boies nahcolite bed on a 8,222-acre

(3,327 hectare) Federal sodium lease tract located in T. 1 S., R. 98 W., Rio Blanco

County, Colorado (fig. 8). The mining method involves drilling a vertical hole to within

several hundred feet above the bed, turning the hole so that it enters the bed at a slight

angle, then drilling the hole horizontally along the base of the bed. Hot water injected

into the bed dissolves the nahcolite and forms a horizontal cavity. Sodium carbonate

brine is recovered from another vertical hole drilled into the cavity some hundreds of feet

from the injection hole. Where mined, the Boies bed is about 25 feet (7.6 m) thick and

lies at a depth of 2,000 (610 m) feet (Day, 1994).
0 20 40 60 80

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

THOUSANDS OF KILOGRAMS

DAYS

DAILY SODIUM BICARBONATE PRODUCTION

100

65° C

WARM-WATER INJECTION

(250 bbls water/day)

120° C

182° C

STEAM

INJECTION

(575 bbls/day)

Figure 9. Daily production of sodium bicarbonate from Shell in situ shale-oil

recovery experiment in the Piceance Creek Basin (from Ireson, 1990).
Currently, eight Federal sodium leases have been issued on about 16,900 acres (6,839

hectares) in the basin (fig. 8). Over the past few years, another company has been

drilling exploratory core holes in the basin for possible leasing of sodium minerals.

In addition to the Boies bed (L-5A), several other nahcolite beds in the Piceance Creek

Basin may be economical to solution mine including the L-4D (Love bed) and R-5C, R5E and R-5G beds (Dyni, 1981, plates 1 and 2).

Solution mining nahcolite in the Piceance Creek Basin presents some unusual problems.

Because the Boies bed is close to the dissolution surface (fig. 7), a breakthrough into the

overlying water-bearing leached zone could be detrimental to solution mining in the bed.

Furthermore, the Boies bed grades laterally into mixed halite and nahcolite toward the

basin chemical depocenter which could contaminate mining solutions with sodium

chloride. The Boies bed as shown by Dyni (1981, plates 1 and 2) actually consists of two

beds, the lower one being thinner, but also containing halite. Because oil shale cannot be

mined or damaged under current sodium leasing regulations, the major part of the

nahcolite resource, which occurs as crystalline aggregates scattered through oil shale,

will be difficult to mine for soda ash alone. Solution mining of nahcolite beds in the

basin may render parts of the overlying oil shale unsuitable for future in situ or

underground mining.

EDEN-FARSON BRINE FIELD

H.B. Lindeman (1954) first called attention to amber sodium carbonate brine found at

depths of 400 to 600 feet (122 to 183 m) in the Green River Basin near the communities

of Eden and Farson, about 30 miles (48 km) north of Rock Springs, Wyoming. The

discovery of brine was made by the John Hay water well drilled in 1938 in SE1⁄4 sec. 4,

T. 23 N, R. 106 W., Sweetwater County, Wyoming. Subsequent exploratory drilling

(fig. 10) identified many drill holes that encountered black sodium carbonate brine (Dana

and Smith 1973, 1976). Analyses of brine from four wells by Phillips (1978, table 2)

revealed as much as 4-6 weight percent sodium carbonate-bicarbonate and as much as 5.8

weight percent of water-soluble humic and fulvic acids. Even larger amounts of these

components were reported from other wells by Dana and Smith (1973, 1976).
R 106 W

T

25

N

T

24

N

T

23

N

R 108 W R 107 W R 106 W

Eden

Farson

9.0/?

11.4/5.4 15.4/8.5

9.0/5.2

EXPLANATION

15.4/8.5

Wells yielding black

trona water; first number

is total dissolved solids in

wt pct and second number

is dissolved organic acids

in wt pct

Bone Draw

well

28

U.S. 187

U.S. 187

John Hay water well

Figure 10. Map showing locations of wells containing sodium carbonate brine and

dissolved organic matter in the Eden-Farson brine field in the northeastern part of the

Green River Basin, Sweetwater County, Wyoming (from Dana and Smith, 1976,

and Phillips, 1978).
In 1992, a shallow well was drilled for water by the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation in Bone

Draw in the NE1⁄4SE1⁄4 sec. 32, T. 24 N., R. 107 W., about 6 miles (10 km) southwest of

Eden. The well encountered an artesian flow of black sodium carbonate brine at 460 feet

(140 m). The well flowed an estimated 29,000 barrels (4,611 cu. meters) of brine in two

weeks before it could be sealed. A sample of the brine was analyzed by the Water

Resources Division of the U.S. Geological Survey, Denver, Colorado, and the results are

given in table 2.

Table 2.Chemical analysis of brine from the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation Bone Draw well 1.

___________________________________________________________________

Dissolved species:

Carbonate 13,080 mg/l

Bicarbonate 8,650 mg/l

Chloride 150 mg/l

 Fluoride 78 mg/l

 Sulfate 0.8 mg/l

 Sodium 22,500 mg/l

 Potassium 58 mg/l

Calcium 3 mg/l

Magnesium 1 mg/l

 Lithium 20 μg/l

Dissolved organic carbon 982 mg/l

 Alkalinity, as CaCO3 50,500 mg/l

 pH, lab 9.9

 Conductance, lab 49,900 μ/Siemens

___________________________________________________________________

The black sodium carbonate brine is found in oil shale of the Wilkins Peak Member of

the Green River Formation. The brine appears to be in several discontinous permeable

zones because water flows and concentrations of dissolved solids, (including watersoluble organic matter) are highly variable between wells (figure 10).
Dana and Smith (1976) concluded from examination of drill core from one bore hole that

the brine is confined to one or more bedding planes in otherwise impermeable oil shale

of the Wilkins Peak Member. These authors noted that a number of the wells in the brine

field are artesian and suggested that the brine in the aquifer is pressurized by lithostatic,

rather than hydrostatic or gas, pressure. Because of the unusual type of aquifer, the size

of the brine field and the composition of the brine cannot be easily determined.

According to Dana and Smith (1976) the stratigraphic interval in which the brine is

found lies between 67 and 93 feet (19 and 28 m) below the top of the Wilkins Peak

Member. In the trona district to the southwest, this would place the aquifer just above

the highest bed (25) of trona in the member.

The origin of the brine cannot be directly linked to dissolution of sodium carbonate salts

inasmuch as solution breccias or cavities were not found in the oil shale enclosing the

suspected brine aquifer (Dana and Smith, 1976). However, Culbertson (1966, p. B160)

suggested that the source of the sodium carbonate in the Eden area was from dissolution

of shortite, which is a common salt in the Wilkins Peak Member, rather than from

bedded trona. Although salt cavities are absent in the core studied by Dana and Smith

(1976), the brine may have formed further south in the basin and migrated updip along

bedding and fracture planes northward toward the Eden area.

The brine has economic potential as a source of soda ash and organic acids. The

precipitated organic acids yield as much as 73.3 percent oil upon destructive distillation.

The organic acids may also find specialized uses, such as a soil conditioner (R.J. Hite,

1996, personal comm.). Dana and Smith (1976, p. 12) reported a well capable of

flowing at a rate of 6,800-6,900 barrels (1,081-1,097 cu. meters) of brine per day, which

could yield 62 tons (56 mt) of soda ash and 130 tons (118 mt) of organic acids per day.

Several companies have examined the brine for possible exploitation, but none to date

have pursued development of the resource. The Eden-Farson brine field may be

mineable on a small scale, especially if the organic acids find specialized uses that may

command a high unit price. Also, the occurrence of sodium carbonate brine elsewhere in

the Green River Basin should not be overlooked.
WYOMING TRONA DEPOSITS

The world's largest known resource of natural sodium carbonate is found in bedded trona

in the Green River Formation in the Green River Basin in Sweetwater County, southwest

Wyoming. The formation is divided in ascending order into the Tipton Shale, Wilkins

Peak Member, and the Laney Shale. The trona resource lies wholly within the Wilkins

Peak Member. The Wilkins Peak ranges from about 600 to 1,350 feet (183 to 411 m) in

thickness and consists of marlstone, oil shale, trona, siltstone, mudstone, and numerous

laterally persistent thin layers of tuff.

As many as 42 beds of trona were noted by Culbertson (1966). He numbered the thickest

and economically most important of these beds from 1 to 25 in ascending order (figs. 11

and 12). The trona beds are nearly flat lying. Dips are commonly about 1° or less. Faults

are uncommon; however, several strike-slip shear zones have been recently mapped on

the surface on the east side of the basin by Gordon Marlatt, University of Wyoming

graduate student (personal comm, 1996). Some trona beds grade laterally into mixed

halite and trona toward the depocenter in the southern part of the basin. In some beds in

the lower part of the evaporite sequence, nahcolite is abundant. I have noted from X-ray

diffraction studies of mine and core samples that as the depositional center of mixed

halite and trona of bed 17 is approached in the southern part of the basin, nahcolite,

wegscheiderite, northupite, and possibly shortite become locally abundant, as well as

quartz. The occurrence of these additional minerals may be important in room-and-pillar

mining because they may influence the processing of trona as well as impart different

physical properties to the mined trona.

The generalized lithology of the Wilkins Peak Member in the Union Pacific Railroad, El

Paso core hole 44-3, in the southern part of the basin is shown in figure 13. Many of the

lower trona beds are shown on the log. Two stratigraphic cross sections showing the

distribution of the trona beds in different parts of the basin are shown in figures 11 and

12.
S

N

DEARDORFF 1 FEDERAL

 1-6765

B24

DACO 3

BUCKBOARD RANCH 1

B22

CURRENT CREEK 1

B9

B7

B5

B4

B11

B15

B14

B13

B12

B17

B16

GOV'T 1 DACO 4 BERGER 1

B11

B10

B14

B12

B9

B23

CHAMPLIN 097A-1

DYMOND 1

B18 DATUM B17

B16B15

B13

800

1000

1200

1400

1600

1200

1400

1600

1800

600

800

1000

1400

1200

1000

1200

800

1400

1000

1200

1400

1600

1000

1200

1400

1600

1800

2000

1400

1600

B23

12001800

2200

B10

2000

1000

1200

1400

1600

1800

B25

800

1000

1200

1400

1600

BASE OF WILKINS PEAK MEMBER

1400

1600

B18

1800

B1

B2

B8

B3

B6

1200

1000

VERTICAL SCALE IN FEET;DRILL HOLES EQUALLY SPACED

EXPLANATION

NUMBERED TRONA BED

(HALITIC FACIES NOT SHOWN)

B17

Figure 11. South-north stratigraphic cross section of the trona deposits in the

Green River Basin, Wyoming. Line of section shown in fig. 15.
WHITE

MOUNTAIN 1 VINNELL 1

 B17

 B15

 B16

 B18

 B24

 B23

DATUM

NW

 B22

DEARDORFF1

 B10

 B11

 B2

 B3

 B4 B5

 B6

 B7

 B8

 B9

 B15

 B12

 B14

 B13 B14

 B12

CHAMPLIN 157A-1

SPIDER CREEK 1

 B22

GREENRIVER 3

 B1

 B16

SE

TG2-22-2010

TG1-34-2010

 B17

ARCO 2

GREEN RIVER1-1

 B21

 B20

 B19

BASE OF WILKINSPEAK MEMBER

100

200

0

300

400

900

1000

11001200

1300

1400

1500

1600

1700

1800

1900

800

900

1000

11001200

1300

1400

1500

1600

1700

900

1000

1100

12001300

1400

1500

1600

1700

1800

1100

1200

1300

1400

1500

1600

17001800

1900

11001200

1300

14001500

1100

1200

1300

1400

1100

1200

1300

1400

1500

EXPLANATION

NUMBERED TRONA BED

VERTICAL SCALE IN FEET;DRILL HOLES EQUALLY SPACED

(HALITIC FACIES NOT SHOWN)

B17

Figure 12. Northwest-southeast stratigraphic cross section of the trona deposits in

the Green River Basin, Wyoming. Line of section shown in fig. 15.
D:\IMF96\FIG13.DRW

EXPLANATION

Trona

 Volcanic tuff

B-1, numbered bed

Oil shale

Mudstone, siltstone,

and marlstone

0.5-1.0' TUFF?

DEPTH

WILKINS PEAK MEMBER

0.35' FIREHOLE TUFF

TUFF

0.14' TUFF

1008.8

(Feet)

0.9' MAIN TUFF

0.2' TUFF

0.5' TUFF

2192.4

SHORTITE FACIES

B-1

B-2

B-3

B-4

B-5

B-6

B-7

B-8

B-9

B-10

B-11

B-13

B-12

B-17

B-16

B-15

B-14

B-18

B-23

Wasatch Formation

Green River Formation

TOLLGATE (LAYERED) TUFF?

TIPTON

SHALE MEM

Figure 13. Generalized lithologic log of the Union Pacific Railroad, El Paso 44-3 core hole

in the SE1⁄4SE1⁄4 sec. 3, T.15 N., R.109 W., Sweetwater County, Wyoming (modified from

Trudell, 1975). Core hole location shown in fig. 15.
The trona beds are remarkable for their purity. Sulfate minerals are essentially absent,

and other than halite, the chief impurities are marlstone stringers and vertical seams of

mudstone. Chemical analyses of several trona beds are given by Wiig, Grundy, and

Dyni (1995, table 1). Currently, FMC, General Chemical, and Solvay Minerals mine

trona bed 17, TG Soda Ash mines bed 20, and Oriental Chemicals mines beds 24 and 25

(Leigh, 1991).

Trona bed 17 is one of the most important trona beds in the district. The bed, where it is

more than 4 feet (1.2 m) thick, underlies about 775 square miles(2,007 km2) and ranges

from 4 to 17 feet (1.2 to 5.2 m) in thickness (figure 14). Southward in the basin, the

trona grades laterally into mixed halite and trona.

Twenty-two of the 25 numbered beds are estimated to contain 127 billion tons (115

billion mt) of trona ore, or 76 billion tons (69 billion mt) of trona in beds containing less

than 2 percent halite. These 22 beds, where they are 4 or more feet (1.2 or more meters)

thick, underlie areas ranging from 50 to more than 775 square miles (129 to more than

2,007 km2) at depths of 650 to 3,000 feet (198 to 914 m) below the surface (Wiig,

Grundy, and Dyni, 1995). Trona contains 70.3 weight percent sodium carbonate; it takes

about 2 tons of trona ore to produce 1 ton of soda ash.

Additional resources of sodium carbonate in the Green River Formation include shortite,

which occurs in abundant crystals, pods, and veinlets scattered through marly lacustrine

strata interbedded with the trona. Less commonly, some shortite may be in bedded layers

a few centimeters thick. Shortite contains 34.6 percent sodium carbonate by weight.

A visual estimate of shortite in drill core from the John Hay core hole 1 in the SE1⁄4NW1⁄4

sec. 2, T. 18 N., R. 110 W., Sweetwater County was made by Fahey and Mrose (1962,

figure 7). Shortite averaged about 11 percent for a sequence 550 feet (168 m) thick

between the depths of 1,250 and 1,800 feet (381 and 579 m), and 16.7 percent for a 230-

foot-thick (70 m) sequence between the depths of 1,330 and 1,560 feet (405 and 475 m).

Assuming a similar grade for a one square mile 1.6 km2) block around this bore hole, as

much as 203 million tons (184 million mt) of shortite, or 70 million tons (64 million mt)

of sodium carbonate, per square mile is indicateda substantial resource.
2

2

2

2

2

2

4

4

4

4

4

4

6

6

6

6

6

8

8

8

8

8

10

10

10

10

10

10

10

10

12

12

12

12

14

120000 160000 200000 240000 280000

160000

200000

240000

280000

320000

360000

400000

STATE PLANE COORDINATES

EASTINGS, FT

NORTHINGS, FT.

TG Soda Ash

Solvay Minerals

General Chem.

FMC

Oriental Chem.

Figure 14. Isopach map, in feet, of trona bed 17. Dotted line indicates a trough of thinned trona

in the central part of the bed (modified from Wiig, Grundy, and Dyni, 1995).
Because of its mode of occurrence, shortite (or sodium carbonate) would be difficult to

mine separately, although some sodium carbonate from the mineral might be extractable

by solution mining.

The Wyoming trona district currently produces about 9 million tons (8.2 million mt) of

refined soda ash annually from five underground mines that extract a total of about 18

million tons (16.3 million mt) of trona ore (personal comm., Ray Harris, 1996). See

papers by Wiig, Grundy, and Dyni (1995), Burnside and Culbertson (1979), and Brown

(1995) for additional resource, production, and mining details.

Mining is by vertical shaft using room-and-pillar, short- and long-wall techniques. At

three mines, additional sodium carbonate is recovered from waste waters from the

processing plant which are used to slurry tailings to abandoned parts of the mines. These

waters dissolve additional trona from the pillars, then are pumped back to the surface to

recover the sodium carbonate. The technique has proven to be economical and will

probably be employed by the remaining mines in the district.

Earlier attempts to solution mine trona from vertically drilled holes have been

unsuccessful. However, solution mining using horizontally drilled holes as used in the

Piceance Creek Basin, Colorado, has not yet been attempted, but the method will

probably be tested soon in the Wyoming trona district. The method may be especially

useful in the southern part of the basin where the trona beds are thicker and lie at greater

depths than those being mined today.

Solution mining appears to offer major advantages over room-and-pillar techniques.

Drilling injection and production wells should cost less than the cost of sinking shafts

and opening underground workings. Solution mining will provide safer operating

conditions because underground miners will not be needed. Room-and-pillar mining of

trona beds in the deeper part of the basin, which would require larger pillars for safety

and lower the recovery of trona ore, should pose no serious problems for solution

mining. Concurrent solution mining of multiple trona beds should also be feasible.
Approval of mining plans should assure trona-land owners that important trona beds are

not made unmineable by multi-bed solution mining, land subsidence is controlled,

potential oil and gas production is not impaired, and significant parts of the trona

resource are not lost by high-grading the thicker and purer beds of trona in the lower part

of the deposit.

Ownership of the trona lands is divided between the Federal Government (55.7 percent),

Union Pacific Resources as part of a railroad land grant (38.1 percent), and the state of

Wyoming (6.2 percent). Figure 15 shows the boundary of the Federal known sodium

leasing area, the five trona mine permit areas, and two lines of stratigraphic sections. A

good summary of the soda ash industry was published recently by Kostick (1995).

The trona resources are summarized in figure 16. Trona bed 2 underlies 439 square miles

(1,137 km2) where it is 4 or more feet (1.2 or more meters) thick and contains the largest

resource of trona of any bed estimated at 11.6 billion tons (10.5 billion mt) of which 97

percent of the bed is essentially halite-free. Trona bed 17, where it is 4 or more feet

thick, underlies about 775 square miles (2,007 km2) and contains almost as much

trona11.5 billion tons (10.4 billion mt), but only 66 percent contains little or no halite

(Wiig, Grundy, and Dyni, 1995, table 9). Note that the trona beds above bed 18 and

below bed 5 are free, or nearly free, of halite.

SUMMARY

The geology and economic potential of five occurrences of sodium carbonate deposits in

the Eocene Green River Formation are briefly described. The two largest of these are the

deposits of bedded trona and disseminated shortite in southwest Wyoming and bedded

and nonbedded nahcolite and fine-grained disseminated dawsonite commingled with

high-grade oil shale in northwest Colorado.

Other lesser known deposits that may have economic potential include bedded eitelite

near Duchesne, Utah, and two sodium carbonate brines, one in the eastern Uinta Basin,

Utah, and the other near Farson and Eden in the northeastern part of the Green River

Basin, Wyoming.
220 230 240 250 260 270 280 290

UTM EAST (KM)

4550

4560

4570

4580

4590

4600

4610

4620

4630

4640

UTM NORTH (KM)

Little Green River

America

ORIENTAL CHEMICAL

GENERAL CHEMICAL

SOLVAY MINERALS

TG SODA ASH

FMC

BLM KNOWN SODIUM

LEASING AREA

UINTA COUNTY

SWEETWATER COUNTY

LINCOLN COUNTY

S

N

NW

SE

EL PASO 44-3

10

0 2 4 6 8 10 MI

0 5 15 KM

Figure 15. Map showing the Known Sodium Leasing Area established by the U.S. Bureau of

Land Management, Wyoming state trona mine permit areas, and lines of stratigraphic sections

shown in figs. 11 and 12.
TRONA BED

25

24

21

20

19

18

17

16

15

14

12

11

10

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

(BILLIONS OF SHORT TONS)

TRONA (<2% HALITE)

TRONA (>2% HALITE)

0 2 4 6 8 10 12

Figure 16. Trona resource estimates, in short tons, for 22

numbered beds of trona in the Wyoming trona district.

Data are based on beds that are 4, or more, feet thick.

Note that trona beds 1-4 and 19-25 are halite-free or

nearly halite-free.
The sodium carbonate resources in the Green River Formation will continue to provide

most of the soda ash to domestic markets as well as acquire an increasing share in foreign

markets for the foreseeable future. The technical success of solution mining bedded

nahcolite in Colorado suggests that a similar operation would be successful in the

Wyoming trona district. Solution mining beds of trona through horizontally drilled

holes, may substantially lower mining costs and improve mine safety. Potential

environmental problems such as disposal of plant tailings, waste waters, and stack-gas

effluents including carbon dioxide could be reduced by solution mining methods.

REFERENCES

Beard, T.N., Tait, D.B., and Smith, J.W., 1974, Nahcolite and dawsonite resources in the

Green River Formation, Piceance Creek Basin, Colorado in Murray, D.K., Energy

resources of the Piceance Creek Basin, Colorado, 25th field conference: Rocky

Mountain Assoc. Geologists, p. 101-122.

Bradley, W.H., 1931, Origin and microfossils of the oil shale of the Green River

Formation of Colorado and Utah: U.S. Geological Survey Prof. Paper 168, 58 p.

Brown, N.A., 1995, Union Pacific instrumental in developing Wyoming trona: Mining

Engineering, v. 47, p. 135-141.

Bryant, Bruce, Naeser, C.W., Marvin, R.F., and Mehnert, H.H., 1989, Upper Cretaceous

and Paleogene sedimentary rocks and isotopic ages of Paleogene tuffs, Uinta Basin,

Utah: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 1787-J, p. J1-J22.

Burnside, M.J., and Culbertson, W.C., 1979, Trona deposits in the Green River Basin,

Sweetwater, Uinta and Lincoln Counties, Wyoming: U.S. Geological Survey openfile rept. 79-737, 10 p.

Cashion, W.B., 1967, Geology and fuel resources of the Green River Formation,

southeastern Uinta Basin, Utah and Colorado: U.S. Geological Survey Prof. Paper

548, 48 p.

Cole, R.D., and Daub, G.J., 1983, Microcrystalline nahcolite on the 1840 level, Horse

Draw mine, Piceance Creek Basin, Colorado in Gary, J.H., [ed.] Sixteenth Oil Shale

Symposium Proceedings: Colorado Sch. Mines Press, p. 99-112.

Cole, R.D., Daub, G.J., and Weichman, B.E., 1982, Geology of the Horse Draw

nahcolite and oil-shale mine, Piceance Creek Basin, Colorado in Gary, J.H.,

Fifteenth Oil Shale Symposium Proceedings: Colorado Sch. Mines Press, p. 15-28.
Cole, R.D., Daub, G.J., and Weston, L.K., 1995, Review of geology, mineral resources,

and ground-water hydrology of Green River Formation, north-central Piceance

Creek Basin, Colorado in The Green River Formation in Piceance Creek and Eastern

Uinta Basins: Grand Junction Geological Soc., p. 63-81.

Culbertson, W.C., 1966, Trona in the Wilkins Peak Member of the Green River

Formation, southwestern Wyoming in Geological Research 1966: U.S. Geol. Survey

Prof. Paper 550-B, p. B159-B164.

Dana, G.F., and Smith, J.W., 1973, Black trona water, Green River Basin in Wyoming

Geological Association Guidebook, 25th Annual Field Conference, p. 153-156.

Dana, G.F., and Smith, J.W., 1976, Nature of black trona water occurrence, northern

Green River Basin: Wyoming Geological Assoc. Earth Science Bull., v. 9, p. 9-15.

Dane, C.H., 1955, Stratigraphic and facies relationships of the upper part of the Green

River Formation and the lower part of the Uinta Formation in Duchesne, Uintah, and

Wasatch Counties, Utah: U.S. Geological Suvey Chart OC 52.

Day, Roger, 1994, White River nahcolite solution mine [preprint]: Soc. Mining, Metall.,

and Exploration Annual Meeting, Albuquerque, New Mexico., 4 p.

Dyni, J.R., 1974a, Stratigraphy and nahcolite resources of the saline facies of the Green

River Formation in northwest Colorado in Murray, D.K., Energy resources of the

Piceance Creek Basin, Colorado, 25th field conference: Rocky Mountain Assoc.

Geologists, p. 111-122.

Dyni, J.R., 1974b, Stratigraphy and nahcolite resources of the saline facies of the Green

River Formation, Rio Blanco County Colorado: U.S. Geol. Surv. Open-File Rept.

746-56, 28 p.

Dyni, J.R., 1981, Geology of the nahcolite deposits and associated oil shales of the Green

River Formation in the Piceance Creek Basin, Colorado: University of Colorado

PhD thesis, 144 p.

Dyni, J.R., Milton, Charles, and Cashion, W.B., Jr., 1985, The saline facies of the upper

part of the Green River Formation near Duchesne, Utah in Geology and Energy

Resources, Uinta Basin of Utah: Utah Geol. Assoc., Salt Lake City, p. 51-80.

Erickson, M.P., 1952, New locality of shortite: American Mineralogist, v. 37, p. 342-

344.

Fahey, J.J., and Mrose, M.E., 1962, Saline minerals of the Green River Formation with a

section on X-ray powder data for saline minerals of the Green River Formation: U.S.

Geological Survey Prof. Paper 405, 50 p.
Ireson, A.T., 1990, Review of the soluble salt process for in situ recovery of

hydrocarbons from oil shale with emphasis on leaching [of nahcolite] and possible

beneficiation in Gary, J.H., [ed.], Twenty-third Oil Shale Symposium Proceedings:

Colorado Sch. Mines Press, Golden, p. 152-155.

Kostick, D.S., 1995, Soda Ash, Annual Review1995: U.S. Geological Survey Mineral

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