Trends in the Well­Being

of America’s Children & Youth

2 0 0 3

This document was produced by Westat 

(Jennifer Hamilton, Project Director)

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services

Office of the Assistant Secretary for Planning and Evaluation

http://aspe.hhs.gov/

Contents

TRENDS IN THE WELL­BEING OF AMERICA’S CHILDREN AND YOUTH

Acknowledgments

Introduction

Indicators Included in the Report  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9

The Need for Better Data on Children  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10

Federal Interagency Forum on Child and Family Statistics  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11

Using the Document  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11

For More Information  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11

Section 1  Population, Family, and Neighborhood (PF)

CHILD POPULATION CHARACTERISTICS

PF 1.1  Number of Children in the United States  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18

PF 1.2  Children as a Percentage of the Total Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20

PF 1.3  Racial and Ethnic Composition of the Child Population  . . . . . . . . . . .22

PF 1.4  Foreign Born Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24

PF 1.5  Fertility Rates  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30

PF 1.6  Number of Births  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .38

PF 1.7  Age of Mothers  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40

FAMILY STRUCTURE

PF 2.1  Families with Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .46

PF 2.2  Living Arrangements of Children  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50

PF 2.3 Percentage of All Births to Unmarried Females  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54

PF 2.4  Children Living in Foster Care . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .60

NEIGHBORHOODS

PF 3.1  Residential Stability  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .68

PF 3.2  Children in Poor and Very Poor Neighborhoods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .70

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 3 
Contents

Section 2  Economic Security (ES)

POVERTY AND INCOME

ES 1.1  Median Family Income . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .76

ES 1.2 Children in Poverty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .80

FINANCIAL SUPPORT

ES 2.1  Means­Tested Assistance:  AFDC, TANF and Food Stamps  . . . . . . . . .88

ES 2.2  Child Support Nonpayment  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .92

PARENTAL EMPLOYMENT

ES 3.1  Parental Labor Force Participation  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .96

ES 3.2  Maternal Employment  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .100

ES 3.3  Child Care  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104

CONSUMPTION

ES 4.1 Housing Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .110

ES 4.2  Food Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .114

Section 3  Health Conditions and Health Care (HC)

HEALTH CARE

HC 1.1 Health Insurance Coverage  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .120

HC 1.2 Prenatal Care . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .124

HC 1.3 Immunization  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .128

HEALTH CONDITIONS

HC 2.1 Healthy Births . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .134

HC 2.2 Low and Very Low Birth Weight  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .136

HC 2.3 Children in Very Good or Excellent Health  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .142

HC 2.4 Chronic Health Conditions  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .146

HC 2.5 Overweight Prevalence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .150

HC 2.6 Activity Limitations  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .156

HC 2.7 Children and Youth with HIV/AIDS  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .160

HC 2.8 Sexually Transmitted Diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .164

HC 2.9 Abuse and Neglect  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .170

4 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
Contents

HC 2.10 Suicidal Youth  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .174

HC 2.11 Serious Violent Victimization of Youth  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .178

MORTALITY

HC 3.1 Infant Mortality  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .182

HC 3.2 Child and Youth Mortality  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .188

HC 3.3 Motor Vehicle Crash Deaths  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .194

HC 3.4 Homicides  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .196

HC 3.5 Suicides  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .202

Section 4  Social Development and Behavioral Health (SD)

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

SD 1.1 Life Goals of 12th Graders  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .208

SD 1.2 Peer Approval  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .212

SD 1.3 Religious Attendance and Religiosity  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .216

SD 1.4 Voting Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .220

SD 1.5 Television Viewing Habits  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .226

SD 1.6 Detached Youth:  Not in School and Not Working  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .232

SD 1.7 Working Youth  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .234

SD 1.8 Youth Violent Crime Arrest Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .238

BEHAVIORAL HEALTH: PHYSICAL HEALTH AND SAFETY

SD 2.1 Physical Fighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .242

SD 2.2 Weapon Carrying  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .246

SD 2.3 Seat Belt Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .252

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 5 
Contents

BEHAVIORAL HEALTH: SMOKING, ALCOHOL, AND SUBSTANCE ABUSE

SD 3.1 Cigarette Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .256

SD 3.2 Smokeless Tobacco Use  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .260

SD 3.3 Alcohol Use  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .264

SD 3.4  Exposure to Drunk Driving  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .268

SD 3.5 Illegal Drug Use  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .272

SD 3.6 Abuse of Alcohol or Other Controlled Substances  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .278

SD 3.7 Peer Attitudes Towards Alcohol and Other 

Controlled Substances  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .280

BEHAVIORAL HEALTH: SEXUAL ACTIVITY AND FERTILITY

SD 4.1 Sexually Experienced Youth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .284

SD 4.2 Currently Sexually Active Youth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .286

SD 4.3 Contraceptive Use  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .288

SD 4.4 Number of Sexual Partners  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .292

SD 4.5 Youth Pregnancy and Abortion  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .294

Section 5  Education and Achievement (EA) 

ENROLLMENT/ATTENDANCE

EA 1.1 Early Childhood Program Enrollment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .300

EA 1.2 Ready Schools, Ready Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .304

EA 1.3  School Absenteeism  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .310

EA 1.4 High School Dropouts  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .314

EA 1.5 High School Completion  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .318

EA 1.6 College Attendance and Completion  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .322

ACHIEVEMENT/PROFICIENCY

EA 2.1 Reading Proficiency for Youth Ages 9, 13, and 17  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .326

EA 2.2 Mathematics Proficiency for Youth Ages 9, 13, and 17 . . . . . . . . . . . .332

EA 2.3 Science Proficiency for Youth Ages 9, 13, and 17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .336

EA 2.4 Arts Proficiency for 8th Graders  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .342

6 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
Contents

RELATED BEHAVIORS AND CHARACTERISTICS

EA 3.1 Family­Child Engagement in Literacy Activities  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .348

EA 3.2 Reading Habits of Children and Youth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .352

EA 3.3 Parental Involvement in Child’s School  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .356

EA 3.4  Difficulty Speaking English  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .360

EA 3.5 Student Computer Use  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .364

EA 3.6 Children Served Under the Individuals 

with Disabilities Education Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .368

Glossary  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .371

Bibliography  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .379

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 7 
Acknowledgments

Acknowledgments

This report, and its earlier editions, would not have been possible without the substantial

support of the Federal Interagency Forum on Child and Family Statistics, whose member

agencies provided data and carefully reviewed relevant sections. The contributing departments and agencies include the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES); the

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; the National Center for Health Statistics

(NCHS); the U.S. Census Bureau; the Bureau of Labor Statistics; the Department of

Housing and Urban Development; the Administration for Children and Families; the

Economic Research Service of the Department of Agriculture; the Office of Juvenile Justice

and Delinquency Prevention; and the Office of the Assistant Secretary for Planning and

Evaluation (ASPE) of the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS). 

Thanks to the many people at ASPE who contributed to the development, review, and production of this report. Special thanks to Martha Moorehouse and Meredith Kelsey of ASPE,

who share a strong commitment to indicators and understanding trends in the well­being

of children and youth. We have greatly appreciated their guidance. 

Several non­Federal organizations and individuals also supplied data or analyses for this

report, including Lana Zikratova of Walter R. McDonald & Associates Inc.’s NCAND

Technical Team, Adam Burke of the University of Michigan, and Laurie Hellinga of the

Insurance Institute for Highway Safety. 

This report was produced by Westat under contract to the U.S. Department of Health and

Human Services. Jennifer Hamilton served as project director. Other Westat staff who contributed to this report include Tamara Morse Azar, Elizabeth Buckland, Sabrina Daly, and

Jennifer Smakula. The graphic design of the report was created by Westat’s Graphics

Department. Editorial reviews were completed by Westat’s Editorial Department.

8 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
Introduction

Introduction

This is the eighth edition of an annual report from the Department of Health and Human

Services (HHS) on trends in the well­being of our nation’s children and youth.  The report

presents the most recent and reliable estimates on more than 80 indicators of well­being.

It is intended to provide the policy community, the media, and all interested citizens with

an accessible overview of data describing the condition of children in the United States.

The indicators have been organized into five broad areas:

Population, Family, and Neighborhood;

Economic Security;

Health Conditions and Health Care;

Social Development and Behavioral Health; and

Education and Achievement. 

For each indicator, graphs illustrate key trends and important population subgroup differences, while tables provide detailed information for the interested user.  These graphic elements are accompanied by text that briefly discusses each indicator and highlights the most

salient features of the data. 

Indicators Included in the Report

This report presents a broad and carefully chosen collection of national estimates of child

and youth well­being. It reports indicators that have been collected more than once over

the past few years so that trends may be shown.  Where possible, trends are presented from

the 1970s through the year 2002.  In a few cases, data for earlier years are also presented, as

are projections into the future. 

Decisions regarding which indicators to include in the report have been guided by a combination of scientific and practical considerations.  In preparation for the first edition of

this report, a list of indicators was culled from more than 20 papers presented at a major

national conference on indicators of child well­being.  At this conference, nationally recognized experts representing a broad spectrum of disciplines and research interests related to

child well­being recommended key indicators that should be tracked on a regular basis by

the Federal statistical system. 

The final list of indicators was modified based on a number of practical considerations that

included data availability (the data needed to be available for a nationally representative

sample and on a regular basis), timeliness (the estimates had to be available for 1990 or

later), and quality and consistency (the data had to be both reliable and consistently measured over time).

Several sections of this report have been revised for the 2003 edition. Two indicators have

been combined, “Fertility and Birth Rates” and “Youth Births,” while other indicators have

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 9 

●

●

●

●

●
Introduction

been updated with new sources of data.  For example, the indicators “Foreign Born

Population,” “Children in Foster Care,” “Child Care,” “Children and Youth with

HIV/AIDS,” “Drug Use,” and “Student Computer Use” all have been expanded to present

a more complete picture of the lives of children and youth today.  Two new indicators,

“Average Age of Mothers” and “Children and Youth Served Under the Individuals with

Disabilities Act,” have been added to this year’s report.  Indicators are removed for reasons

such as unavailable timely information.  The following indicators have been removed in

Trends 2003:  “Closeness with Parents” and “Parents’ Activities with Children.”

As part of the data verification process, agencies can, and do, revise information submitted

for the most current year as well as information submitted for earlier years. As a result of

these revisions, some of the information shown in this report differs from previously published figures. 

The Need for Better Data on Children

As this report demonstrates, the data available for tracking the well­being of children and

youth at the national level are fairly extensive.  Even so, there remain some gaps in the

Federal statistical system that when filled will give a more complete picture of the quality

of our children’s lives.

We have few measures of social development and health­related behaviors for very young

and preteenage children that are measured on a regular basis.  Measures of mental health

for any age child are limited, although one such measure was recently added to the National

Health Interview Survey.  Positive measures of social development and related behaviors

also are limited, with the result that the current set of indicators may present a gloomier

picture of our children’s overall well­being than is in fact the case.  New indicators that

reflect the positive developments we desire for our children and youth clearly need to be

developed and incorporated into the Federal statistical system.  

We have very few indicators available that reflect important social processes affecting child

well­being that go on inside the family and within the neighborhood.  Measures of parentchild interactions critical to the social and intellectual development of children are only

now beginning to work their way into regularly repeated national surveys. We currently

lack an annual measure of whether both biological parents of a child are in the household,

in addition to reliable indicators of child homelessness. 

Other important areas in need of measurement development or improvement in the quality, consistency, and frequency of available data include youth violent crime, daycare quality, learning disabilities, and measures of children in institutionalized care.

Finally, data used to track the well­being of children at the state and local levels are much

less plentiful than the information available at the national level.  As state and local governments take on increasing levels of responsibility for the design and implementation of

many types of government programs affecting children, youth, and their families, the need

for such information is increasing.  The Federal statistical system is positioned to play a significant role in increasing the availability of such data for use at the state and local levels.

10 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
Introduction

Federal Interagency Forum on Child and Family Statistics

The Federal Interagency Forum on Child and Family Statistics (the Forum), an interagency

group of leaders of Federal agencies and departments responsible for collecting data on children and youth, has adopted a mandate to improve the Federal statistical system regarding

data on children, youth, and their families.  Member agencies have played a crucial role in

the production of this report, providing data and carefully reviewing relevant text.  The

Forum, created in 1994 and formally established by Executive Order in 1997, will continue

to develop strategies for improving the Federal statistical system in ways that preserve

existing data in these areas while filling in the data gaps described above. For recent products and activities of the Forum, see their web page, located at http://childstats.gov.

Using the Document

In the presentation of data for this report, percents and rates are usually rounded to the

nearest whole number.  Estimates based on the Decennial Census, the National Vital

Statistics System, and surveys with very large sample sizes are often presented to one decimal place since differences of less than one percentage point are often significant from

these sources.

Practical considerations do not allow for the use of tests of statistical significance for all

cross­time and between­group differences discussed in the text, though they are used in a

few cases. Where such tests are not available, differences are either not reported in the text

or are reported cautiously.  Often in such cases, estimates are simply reported without any

claims as to statistical significance. 

Definitions of terms used in this report are provided at the end of this document in the

glossary.

For More Information

This report is intended to provide a broad cross­section of the most relevant trend data in

the lives of children and youth in the United States.  For those interested in more detailed

information, a number of additional resources, both print and electronic, are available.  Full

citations are provided for all tables and figures as well as for the text. At the end of the document there is also a complete list of all sources used throughout the report.  A selection of

these resources is listed below, by topic area, to provide the reader with a starting point

when searching for additional information in these areas.

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 11 
Introduction

Section 1:  Population, Family, and Neighborhood

U.S. Census Bureau. It is possible to access nearly all Census Bureau publications, such

as the Current Population Reports, from the Bureau’s web page, www.census.gov.  It is also

possible to extract data directly from public use census files using the Federal Electronic

Research and Review Extraction Tool (FERRET) available at http://ferret.bls.census.gov.

FERRET allows the user to:

● Create crosstabs;

● Create frequencies;

● Create a SAS data set for downloading; and

● Create an ASCII output file where it is possible to either download the file or

transfer the data into a spreadsheet.

Section 2:  Economic Security

Bureau of Labor Statistics. The Bureau of Labor Statistics produces a variety of employment data, and can be found on the Web at http://www.bls.gov/. 

U.S. House of Representatives, Committee on Ways and Means. The Green Book is

compiled from many sources and it provides program descriptions and historical data on a

wide variety of social and economic topics, including Social Security, employment, earnings, welfare, child support, health insurance, the elderly, families with children, poverty,

and taxation. It may be found online at 

http://waysandmeans.house.gov/Documents.asp?section=813. 

Section 3:  Health Conditions and Health Care

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). The Centers for Disease Control

and Prevention conducts many data collection efforts, including the Youth Risk Behavior

Surveillance System (YRBSS), which monitors health­risk behaviors among youth and

young adults.  The categories include 1) tobacco use, alcohol, and other drug use; 2) sexual

behaviors that contribute to unintended pregnancy and sexually transmitted diseases; 3)

unhealthful dietary behaviors; and 4) physical inactivity.  This information can be accessed

via CDC’s main web page, located at http://www.cdc.gov/.

National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS).  The National Center for Health

Statistics publishes a number of reports that provide data on the health of children and

youth.  Some of these include the National Vital Statistics Reports and the Vital and Health

Statistics series.  These reports and many others are available at the NCHS web site

http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/.  Additional NCHS data are available through  the Census’ FERRET system at http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/datawh/ferret/ferret.htm.  Currently, the 1994

Underlying Cause­of­Death File, the 1993 National Health Interview Survey, and the Third

National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, NHANES III, are all available via 

FERRET. 

12 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
Introduction

Section 4:  Social Development and Behavioral Health

Bureau of Justice Statistics. Detailed information on juvenile offenders can be obtained

at the Bureau of Justice Statistics’ main web site, located at http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/.

Institute for Social Research. This institute has collected information on the behaviors,

attitudes, and values of American secondary school students, college students, and young

adults since 1975 in its Monitoring the Future survey.  Information and data from this

study are available online at http://monitoringthefuture.org/.

Section 5:  Education and Achievement

National Center for Education Statistics (NCES). NCES is the primary Federal agency

for collecting and analyzing data that are related to education in the United States.  Its web

site is located at http://nces.ed.gov/ and contains links to its many data collection activities.  These surveys include the Common Core of Data (CCD), the Schools and Staffing

Survey (SASS), the Private School Universe Survey, and the National Household Education

Survey (NHES).  In addition, NCES collects and reports on the academic performance of

the nation’s students. The National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) is NCES’

primary assessment of American elementary and secondary students’ knowledge and skills

in a variety of academic subjects. 

Additional information can be found in a related report, America’s Children: Key National

Indicators of Well­Being, 2003,  which is available online at http://childstats.gov/americaschildren/. 

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 13 
2003 Trends in the Well-Being of America's Children and Youth: Introduction

2003 Trends in the Well-Being of America’s Children and Youth

Introduction 

[ Main Page of Report ]

Contents 

● Indicators Included in the Report

● The Need for Better Data on Children

● Federal Interagency Forum on Child and Family Statistics

● Using the Document

● For More Information

❍ Population, Family, and Neighborhood

❍ Economic Security

❍ Health Conditions and Health Care

❍ Social Development and Behavioral Health

❍ Education and Achievement

This is the eighth edition of an annual report from the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) 

on trends in the well-being of our nation’s children and youth. The report presents the most recent and 

reliable estimates on more than 80 indicators of well-being. It is intended to provide the policy 

community, the media, and all interested citizens with an accessible overview of data describing the 

condition of children in the United States. The indicators have been organized into five broad areas: 

● Population, Family, and Neighborhood; 

● Economic Security; 

● Health Conditions and Health Care; 

● Social Development and Behavioral Health; and 

● Education and Achievement. 

For each indicator, graphs illustrate key trends and important population subgroup differences, while 

tables provide detailed information for the interested user. These graphic elements are accompanied by 

text that briefly discusses each indicator and highlights the most salient features of the data. 

Indicators Included in the Report 

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2003 Trends in the Well-Being of America's Children and Youth: Introduction

This report presents a broad and carefully chosen collection of national estimates of child and youth wellbeing. It reports indicators that have been collected more than once over the past few years so that trends 

may be shown. Where possible, trends are presented from the 1970s through the year 2002. In a few 

cases, data for earlier years are also presented, as are projections into the future. 

Decisions regarding which indicators to include in the report have been guided by a combination of 

scientific and practical considerations. In preparation for the first edition of this report, a list of 

indicators was culled from more than 20 papers presented at a major national conference on indicators of 

child well-being. At this conference, nationally recognized experts representing a broad spectrum of 

disciplines and research interests related to child well-being recommended key indicators that should be 

tracked on a regular basis by the Federal statistical system. 

The final list of indicators was modified based on a number of practical considerations that included data 

availability (the data needed to be available for a nationally representative sample and on a regular 

basis), timeliness (the estimates had to be available for 1990 or later), and quality and consistency (the 

data had to be both reliable and consistently measured over time). 

Several sections of this report have been revised for the 2003 edition. Two indicators have been 

combined, “Fertility and Birth Rates” and “Youth Births,” while other indicators have been updated with 

new sources of data. For example, the indicators “Foreign Born Population,” “Children in Foster Care,” 

“Child Care,” “Children and Youth with HIV/AIDS,” “Drug Use,” and “Student Computer Use” all 

have been expanded to present a more complete picture of the lives of children and youth today. Two 

new indicators, “Average Age of Mothers” and “Children and Youth Served Under the Individuals with 

Disabilities Act,” have been added to this year’s report. Indicators are removed for reasons such as 

unavailable timely information. The following indicators have been removed in Trends 2003: 

“Closeness with Parents” and “Parents’ Activities with Children.” 

As part of the data verification process, agencies can, and do, revise information submitted for the most 

current year as well as information submitted for earlier years. As a result of these revisions, some of the 

information shown in this report differs from previously published figures. 

The Need for Better Data on Children 

As this report demonstrates, the data available for tracking the well-being of children and youth at the 

national level are fairly extensive. Even so, there remain some gaps in the Federal statistical system that 

when filled will give a more complete picture of the quality of our children’s lives. 

We have few measures of social development and health-related behaviors for very young and 

preteenage children that are measured on a regular basis. Measures of mental health for any age child are 

limited, although one such measure was recently added to the National Health Interview Survey. 

Positive measures of social development and related behaviors also are limited, with the result that the 

current set of indicators may present a gloomier picture of our children’s overall well-being than is in 

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2003 Trends in the Well-Being of America's Children and Youth: Introduction

fact the case. New indicators that reflect the positive developments we desire for our children and youth 

clearly need to be developed and incorporated into the Federal statistical system. 

We have very few indicators available that reflect important social processes affecting child well-being 

that go on inside the family and within the neighborhood. Measures of parent-child interactions critical 

to the social and intellectual development of children are only now beginning to work their way into 

regularly repeated national surveys. We currently lack an annual measure of whether both biological 

parents of a child are in the household, in addition to reliable indicators of child homelessness. 

Other important areas in need of measurement development or improvement in the quality, consistency, 

and frequency of available data include youth violent crime, daycare quality, learning disabilities, and 

measures of children in institutionalized care. 

Finally, data used to track the well-being of children at the state and local levels are much less plentiful 

than the information available at the national level. As state and local governments take on increasing 

levels of responsibility for the design and implementation of many types of government programs 

affecting children, youth, and their families, the need for such information is increasing. The Federal 

statistical system is positioned to play a significant role in increasing the availability of such data for use 

at the state and local levels. 

Federal Interagency Forum on Child and Family Statistics 

The Federal Interagency Forum on Child and Family Statistics, (the Forum) an interagency group of 

leaders of Federal agencies and departments responsible for collecting data on children and youth, has 

adopted a mandate to improve the Federal statistical system regarding data on children, youth, and their 

families. Member agencies have played a crucial role in the production of this report, providing data and 

carefully reviewing relevant text. The Forum, created in 1994 and formally established by Executive 

Order in 1997, will continue to develop strategies for improving the Federal statistical system in ways 

that preserve existing data in these areas while filling in the data gaps described above. For recent 

products and activities of the Forum, see their web page, located at http://childstats.gov. 

Using the Document 

In the presentation of data for this report, percents and rates are usually rounded to the nearest whole 

number. Estimates based on the Decennial Census, the National Vital Statistics System, and surveys 

with very large sample sizes are often presented to one decimal place since differences of less than one 

percentage point are often significant from these sources. 

Practical considerations do not allow for the use of tests of statistical significance for all cross-time and 

between-group differences discussed in the text, though they are used in a few cases. Where such tests 

are not available, differences are either not reported in the text or are reported cautiously. Often in such 

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2003 Trends in the Well-Being of America's Children and Youth: Introduction

cases estimates are simply reported without any claims as to statistical significance. 

Definitions of terms used in this report are provided at the end of this document in the glossary. 

For More Information 

This report is intended to provide a broad cross-section of the most relevant trend data in the lives of 

children and youth in the United States. For those interested in more detailed information, a number of 

additional resources, both print and electronic, are available. Full citations are provided for all tables and 

figures as well as for the text. At the end of the document there is also a complete list of all sources used 

throughout the report. A selection of these resources are listed below, by topic area, to provide the reader 

with a starting point when searching for additional information in these areas. 

Section 1: Population, Family and Neighborhood 

U.S. Census Bureau. It is possible to access nearly all Census Bureau publications, such as the Current 

Population Reports, from the Bureau's web page, www.census.gov. It is also possible to extract data 

directly from public use census files using the Federal Electronic Research and Review Extraction Tool 

(FERRET) available at http://ferrett.bls.census.gov. FERRET allows the user to: 

● Create crosstabs; 

● Create frequencies; 

● Create a SAS data set for downloading; and 

● Create an ASCII output file where it is possible to either download the file or transfer the data 

into a spreadsheet. 

Section 2: Economic Security 

Bureau of Labor Statistics. The Bureau of Labor Statistics produces a variety of employment data, and 

can be found on the Web at http://www.bls.gov/. 

U.S. Department of Representatives, Committee on Ways and Means. The Green Book is compiled 

from many sources and it provides program descriptions and historical data on a wide variety of social 

and economic topics, including Social Security, employment, earnings, welfare, child support, health 

insurance, the elderly, families with children, poverty, and taxation. It may be found online at http://

waysandmeans.house.gov/Documents.asp?section=813. 

Section 3: Health Conditions and Health Care 

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 

conducts many data collection efforts, including the Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance System 

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2003 Trends in the Well-Being of America's Children and Youth: Introduction

(YRBSS), which monitors health-risk behaviors among youth and young adults. The categories include: 

1) tobacco use, alcohol and other drug use; 2) sexual behaviors that contribute to unintended pregnancy 

and sexually transmitted diseases; 3) unhealthful dietary behaviors; and 4) physical inactivity. This 

information can be accessed via CDC's main web page, located at http://www.cdc.gov/.

National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS). The National Center for Health Statistics publishes a 

number of reports that provide data on the health of children and youth. Some of these include the 

National Vital Statistics Reports and the Vital and Health Statistics series. These reports and many 

others are available at the NCHS web site http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/. Additional NCHS data are 

available through the Census’ FERRET system at http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/datawh/ferret/ferret.htm. 

Currently, the 1994 Underlying Cause-of-Death File, the 1993 National Health Interview Survey, and 

the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, NHANES III, are all available via 

FERRET. 

Section 4: Social Development and Behavioral Health 

Bureau of Justice Statistics. Detailed information on juvenile offenders can be obtained at the Bureau 

of Justice Statistics' main web site, located at http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/. 

Institute for Social Research. This institute has collected information on the behaviors, attitudes, and 

values of American secondary school students, college students, and young adults since 1975 in its 

Monitoring the Future survey. Information and data from this study are available online at http://

monitoringthefuture.org/. 

Section 5: Education and Achievement 

National Center for Education Statistics (NCES). NCES is the primary Federal agency for collecting 

and analyzing data that are related to education in the United States. Its web site is located at http://nces.

ed.gov/ and contains links to its many data collection activities. These surveys include the Common 

Core of Data (CCD), the Schools and Staffing Survey (SASS), the Private School Universe Survey, and 

the National Household Education Survey (NHES). In addition, NCES collects and reports on the 

academic performance of the nation’s students. The National Assessment of Educational Progress 

(NAEP) is NCES’ primary assessment of American elementary and secondary students’ knowledge and 

skills in a variety of academic subjects. 

Additional information can be found in a related report, America’s Children: Key National Indicators of 

Well-Being, 2003, which is available online at http://childstats.gov/americaschildren/. 

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2003 Trends in the Well-Being of America's Children and Youth: Introduction

Where to Now? 

Top | Contents

Main Page of Report

Detailed Table of Contents

Introduction

Home Pages:

Human Services Policy (HSP)

Assistant Secretary for Planning and Evaluation (ASPE)

Department of Health and Human Services (HHS)

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SECTION 1.

Population,

Family, and

Neighborhoods

Child Population

Characteristics

Family Structure

Neighborhoods
SECTION 1. POPULATION, FAMILY, AND NEIGHBORHOOD

Characteristics

Child Population

Family Structure

Neighborhoods
Child Population Characteristics

PF 1.1 Number of Children in the United States

The demographic composition of the population has implications for the allocation of

goods and services. This includes decisions about devoting resources to schools, child care,

care for the elderly, and specific types of health care. As the number of children in the

dependent population increases, more resources need to be provided for the services they

require, such as immunizations and public education.

In 2001, there were 72.6 million children under age 18 in the United States (Table PF 1.1).

This number is expected to increase to 80.3 million by 2020. The total number of children

under age 18 has increased by 53 percent since 1950. Most of that increase occurred during

the “baby boom” years of the 1950s and early 1960s, when record numbers of children were

born in these prosperous post­World War II years. During the 1970s and 1980s, the number

of children initially declined and then grew slowly. Beginning in 1990, the rate of growth

in the number of children increased, although not as rapidly as during the baby boom.

These trends gave rise to the terms “baby bust” or “birth dearth,” and “echo baby boom”

(Figure PF 1.1).

In 2001, there were approximately equal numbers of children­between 23 and 25 millionin each age group under age 6, 6 to 11, and 12 to 17 years of age. In 1950 and 1960, there

were more children under age 6 than there were ages 6 to 11 or 12 to 17, reflecting the large

number of babies being born during these years.

18 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 1. POPULATION, FAMILY, AND NEIGHBORHOOD

All children (in millions)

Projected

1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2001 2010 2020

47.3 64.5 69.8 63.7 64.2 72.3 72.6 74.4 80.3

Ages 0­5 19.1 24.3 20.9 19.6 22.5 23.1 23.3 25.6 27.5

Ages 6­11 15.3 21.8 24.6 20.8 21.6 25.0 24.8 24.4 26.9

Ages 12­17 12.9 18.4 24.3 23.3 20.1 24.2 24.5 24.4 26.0

Note: Data in this table have been revised and therefore do not match data in previous issues of this report.

Sources: U.S. Census Bureau. (2003). Unpublished estimates and projections; U.S. Census Bureau. (1996). 

P25­1130; U.S. Census Bureau. (1982).  P25­917; U.S. Census Bureau. (1974). 

P25­519; U.S. Census Bureau. (1965).  P25­311.

Table PF 1.1

Number of children under age 18, by age: Selected years, 1950­2001, and projected, 2010 and 2020

Current Population

Reports,  Current Population Reports,  Current

Population Reports,  Current Population Reports, 

Figure PF 1.1

Number of children under 18: 1950­2001, and projected, 2002 and 2020

0

1 0

2 0

3 0

4 0

5 0

6 0

7 0

8 0

9 0

100 Percent

1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020

Projected

Sources: U.S. Census Bureau. (2003). Unpublished estimates and projections; U.S. Census Bureau. (1996). Current Population

Reports, P25­1130; U.S. Census Bureau. (1982). Current Population Reports, P25­917; U.S. Census Bureau. (1974). Current

Population Reports, P25­519; U.S. Census Bureau. (1965). Current Population Reports, P25­311.

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 19 
Child Population Characteristics

PF 1.2 Children as a Percentage of the Total Population

Though children represent a smaller proportion of the population today than they did in

1950, they are still a substantial segment of the United States population and will remain

so in the coming decades. In 2001, children under age 18 made up 25 percent of the total

population, down from 36 percent in 1960 at the end of the baby boom (Table PF 1.2).

Projections by the U.S. Census Bureau predict that this proportion will drop further­to 

24 percent­by the year 2010 and will remain at that level through 2020.

During the 20th century, the population of the United States has aged as the growth rate

of individuals age 65 and older has far exceeded the growth rate of the total population. The

proportion of the population age 65 and older has increased from 8 percent in 1950 to 

12 percent in 2000 and 2001. That percentage is projected to increase to 16 percent by the

year 2020 (Figure PF 1.2).

Together, children and senior citizens make up the dependent population, that is, those persons considered economically inactive because of their age. Children’s share of the dependent population fell from 79 percent in 1960 to 67 percent in 1990, and has remained

unchanged since then. That percentage is projected to continue to decline to 60 percent by

the year 2020.

20 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 1. POPULATION, FAMILY, AND NEIGHBORHOOD

of the dependent population:  Selected years, 1950­2001 and projected, 2010 and 2020

Percent of total population

1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2001 2010 2020

Ages 0­17 31 36 34 28 26 26 25 24 24

Ages 18­64 61 55 56 61 62 62 62 63 60

Ages 65 and over 8 9 10 11 13 12 12 13 16

Children as a percentage of 

dependent populationa

Ages 0­17 79 79 78 71 67 67 67 65 60

a

Statistical

Abstract of the United States, 2001; U.S. Census Bureau. (1996).  P25­1130; U.S. Census Bureau.

(1982). P25­917; U.S. Census Bureau. (1974).  P25­519; U.S. Census

Bureau. (1965).  P25­311.

Table PF 1.2

Persons in selected age groups as a percentage of the total U.S. population and children as a percentage

Projected

The dependent population includes all persons ages 17 and younger, and 65 and older.

Sources: U.S. Census Bureau (2003). National Population Estimates, Characteristics. [On­line]. Available:

http://eire.census.gov/popest/data/national/tables/asro/US­EST2001­ASRO­01.php; U.S. Census Bureau. (2002). 

Current Population Reports, 

Current Population Reports, Current Population Reports,

Current Population Reports,

Figure PF 1.2 

Children under age 18 and adults ages 65 and over as a percentage of the total U.S. population: 1950­

2001 and projected, 2010 and 2020

0

1 0

2 0

3 0

4 0

5 0

6 0

7 0

8 0

9 0

100 Percent

1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020

Under age 18

Age 65+

Projected

Sources: U.S. Census Bureau (2003). National Population Estimates, Characteristics. [On­line]. Available:

http://eire.census.gov/popest/data/national/tables/asro/US­EST2001­ASRO­01.php; U.S. Census Bureau. (2002). Statistical

Abstract of the United States, 2001; U.S. Census Bureau. (1996). Current Population Reports, P25­1130; U.S. Census Bureau.

(1982). Current Population Reports, P25­917; U.S. Census Bureau. (1974). Current Population Reports, P25­519; U.S. Census

Bureau. (1965). Current Population Reports, P25­311.

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 21 
Child Population Characteristics

PF 1.3 Racial and Ethnic Composition of the Child Population

Increasing racial and ethnic diversity has changed the demographic makeup of the United

States substantially since 1980, and projections through the year 2020 show continued

diversification. As recently as 1980, White, non­Hispanic children constituted 74 percent,

nearly three­quarters, of the child population. A nearly 20­percentage­point decrease is predicted through 2020, which indicates the same group will represent just 55 percent of the

total child population (Table PF 1.3). 

While the percentage of Black, non­Hispanic children in the population has remained

steady at 15 percent between 1980 and 2000, the Hispanic child population has increased

from 9 to 16 percent during this time. This growth trend is projected to continue, with 

the percentage of Hispanic children in the population reaching 23 percent by 2020 (Figure

PF 1.3).

The Asian and Pacific Islander child population has also shown growth, increasing from 

2 percent of the population to a projected 6 percent by 2020. 

Number and percentage distribution of children under age 18, by race and Hispanic origin: Selected

years, 1980­2000, and projected, 2010 and 2020

White, non­Hispanic

Number (in millions)

1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2010 2020

47.1 44.8 44.1 45.6 45.1 42.7 42.4

Black, non­Hispanic 9.3 9.1 9.5 10.1 10.2 11.3 12.2

Hispanica 5.7 6.5 7.9 9.7 11.4 13.7 17.2

Asian/Pacific Islander 1.1 1.6 2.0 2.5 3.0 4.0 5.0

American Indian/Alaska Native 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.8

White, non­Hispanic

Percentage of population Projected

1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2010 2020

74 72 69 67 64 59 55

Black, non­Hispanic 15 15 15 15 15 14 14

Hispanica 9 10 12 14 16 21 23

Asian/Pacific Islander 2 3 3 4 4 5 6

American Indian/Alaska Native 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

a

Note: All population figures for the year 2000 are estimates based on the 1990 Census. They do not reflect Census 2000

counts.

Sources: 

Statistical Abstract of

the United States, 2001; 

P20­537; 

United States: 1999­2010.  38; U.S. Census Bureau. (1996). 

P25­1130; U.S. Census Bureau. (1993).  P25­1095.

Table PF 1.3

Projected

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

Federal Interagency Forum on Child and Family Statistics. (2003). America’s Children: Key National Indicators of

Well­Being, 2003. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office; U.S. Census Bureau. (2002). 

U.S. Census Bureau. (2001). America’s Families and Living Arrangements. Current Population

Reports,  U.S. Census Bureau. (2000). Methodology and Assumptions for the Population Projections of the

Population Division Working Paper,  Current Population Reports,

Current Population Reports, 

22 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 1. POPULATION, FAMILY, AND NEIGHBORHOOD

Figure PF 1.3

Percentage distribution of children under age 18, by race and Hispanic origin: 1980­2000, 

and projected, 2001­2020

Projected

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Percent

1980 1990 2000 2010 2020

White

Black

Hispanic

Asian/Pacific Islander

American Indian/

 Alaska Native

a Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

Note: All population figures for the year 2000 are estimates based on the 1990 Census. They do not reflect Census 2000

counts.

Sources: Federal Interagency Forum on Child and Family Statistics. (2003). America’s Children: Key National Indicators of WellBeing, 2003. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office; U.S. Census Bureau. (2002). Statistical Abstract of the United

States, 2001. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office;  U.S. Census Bureau. (2001). Current Population Reports, P20­

537;  U.S. Census Bureau. (2000). Methodology and Assumptions for the Population Projections of the United States: 1999­

2010. Population Division Working Paper, 38; U.S. Census Bureau. (1996). Current Population Reports, P25­1130; U.S. Census

Bureau. (1993). Current Population Reports, P25­1095.

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 23 
Child Population Characteristics

PF 1.4 Foreign­Born Population

The United States is a nation of immigrants with diverse backgrounds. The foreign­born

population1 in the United States was at its lowest point in 1970, with 9.6 million people

(4.7 percent of the total population at that time). Since 1970, the foreign­born population

has increased rapidly to 32.5 million in 2002, which is 11.5 percent of the total population.

This increase is largely due to large­scale immigration, primarily from Latin America and

Asia (Table PF 1.4.A). 

Differences by Region of Birth. Since 1995, approximately one­half of the foreign­born

population living in the United States was born in Latin America. This is a substantial

change from 1960, when less than 10 percent of the foreign­born population was born in

Latin America. Similarly the proportion of foreign­born from Asia also has increased since

1960. Then, 5.1 percent of the foreign­born population was born in Asia, with the percentage climbing to 25.5 percent in 2002. The increase in Asian­ and Latin­American­born

residents reflects a pattern established shortly after 1965 when U.S. national origin quotas

were abolished.2 Before the quotas were abolished, European countries were the primary

source of the foreign­born population in the United States (Figure PF 1.4.A).

Differences by Age. The median age of the foreign­born population has remained fairly

steady at around 37 years since 1990­substantially lower than it was three decades ago. In

1960, the median age of the foreign born population was 57 years old. The majority (44.7

percent) of the foreign­born population in 2002 was 25 to 44 years of age, while only 6.5

percent of this population was under 15 years of age (Figure PF 1.4.B).

Difference by Family Type. In 2000, the average size of foreign­born households3 (3.72

people) was larger than native households (3.10 people), (Table PF 1.4.B). This trend was

seen across all family types, with the greatest difference in family sizes observed in married

couple families. Foreign­born and native­born households having a female householder

with no husband present had the closest average family size (3.35 and 2.97 respectively).

For all family types, both foreign­born and native, the greatest proportion had no children.

Married couple families of both nativity groups were more likely to have two children versus one child. In foreign­born households, 23 percent had two children, 22 percent had one

child, and in native households, 19 percent had two children, and 17 percent had one child. 

Lastly, children whose parents are foreign­born have family characteristics that are different from children whose parents were born in the United States. In 2002, 81 percent of foreign­born children with at least one foreign­born parent lived with both parents, compared

to 69 percent of children whose parents were born in the United States. Furthermore, 

14 percent of children with native­born parents lived below the poverty line in 2002. For

American­born children of foreign­born parents, this proportion was 20 percent. When

both the child and the parents were foreign­born, the proportion rises to 27 percent (Table

PF 1.4.C). 

1 The term “foreign­born population” refers to anyone who was not born a U.S. citizen. This includes naturalized U.S. citizens, legal permanent residents (immigrants), temporary immigrants (such as students), humanitarian migrants (such as

refugees), and persons illegally residing in the United States.

2 U.S. Census Bureau. (2001). Profile of the Foreign­Born Population in the United States: 2000. Current Population Reports,

P23­206.

3 Households are classified as foreign­born or native based on the nativity of the householder (the household member in

whose name the housing unit is owned or rented), regardless of the nativity of other household members.

24 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 1. POPULATION, FAMILY, AND NEIGHBORHOOD

All foreign born (in millions)

1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2001a 2002

9.7 9.6 14.1 19.8 30.0 31.8 32.5

Region of birth (percent)

Europe 75.0 61.7 39.0 22.9 14.6 14.1 14.0

Asia 5.1 8.9 19.3 26.3 26.4 26.7 25.5

Latin America 9.4 19.4 33.1 44.3 51.1 50.3 52.2

Caribbean — — — — 9.7 9.1 9.6

Central America — — — — 34.8 34.8 36.4

South America — — — — 6.6 6.4 6.2

Otherb 10.5 10.0 8.6 6.5 7.9 8.9 8.3

a Beginning with March 2001, data are from the Expanded CPS Sample and use population controls based on Census 2000.

b

—  Data not available.

Sources: 

the United States: March 2001.

States: 2000. 

States: March 1995. 

Table PF 1.4.A

Percentage of the foreign­born population by region of birth: Selected years, 1960­2002

Other regions are Africa, Oceania, Bermuda and Canada.

U.S. Census Bureau. (2003). The Foreign­Born Population in the United States: March 2002. Current Population

Reports, P20­539; U.S. Census Bureau. (2003). The Foreign­Born Population of the United States: March Revised Detailed

Tables Weighted to Census 2000. Current Population Survey, PPL­160; U.S. Census Bureau. (2002). The Foreign­Born Population of

PPL­161; U.S. Census Bureau. (2001). Profile of the Foreign­Born Population in the United

Current Population Reports, P23­206; U.S. Census Bureau. (1996). The Foreign­Born Population in the United

Current Population Survey, PPL­127.

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 25 
Child Population Characteristics

Figure PF 1.4.A

Foreign­born population by region of birth: Selected years, 1960­2002

0

10

20

30

40

50

Percent

Europe

Latin America

Other

Asia

1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2002

a Other regions are Africa, Oceania, Bermuda and Canada.

b Beginning with March 2001, data are from the Expanded CPS Sample and use population controls based on Census 2000.

Sources:  U.S. Census Bureau. (2003). The Foreign­Born Population in the United States: March 2002. Current Population

Reports, P20­539; U.S. Census Bureau. (2003). The Foreign­Born Population of the United States: March Revised Detailed

Tables Weighted to Census 2000. Current Population Survey, PPL­160; U.S. Census Bureau. (2002). The Foreign­Born Population of

the United States: March 2001. PPL­161; U.S. Census Bureau. (2001). Profile of the Foreign­Born Population in the United

States: 2000. Current Population Reports, P23­206; U.S. Census Bureau. (1996). The Foreign­Born Population in the United

States: March 1995. Current Population Survey, PPL­127.

26 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 1. POPULATION, FAMILY, AND NEIGHBORHOOD

Figure PF 1.4.B

Age of the foreign­born population and percent distribution by age: Selected years, 1960­2002

1960

1970

1980

1990

2000

2002

9.7 

9.6 

14.1 

19.8 

30.0 

32.5 

57.2

5 2

39.9

37.3

37.5

37.8

5.2 5.2 19.5 37.5 32.6

6.3 8.8 25.9 2 7 3 2

8.8 14.7 33.6 21.6 21.2

7.5 1 5 41.9 2 2 13.6

14.5 44.2 23.8 10.5

6.5 1 4 44.7 24.6 10.2

Population

(in millions)

Median age

(in years)

Under 15 15-24 25-44 45-64 65+

a Beginning with March 2001, data are from the Expanded CPS Sample and use population controls based on Census 2000.

b For 1960­1990, resident population.  For 2000 and on, data includes civilian noninstitutional population plus Armed Forces

living off post or with their families on post.

Note: Data in this figure have been revised and therefore do not match data in previous issues of this report.

Sources:  U.S. Census Bureau. (2003). The Foreign­Born Population in the United States: March 2002. Current Population

Reports, P20­539; U.S. Census Bureau. (2003). The Foreign­Born Population of the United States: March Revised Detailed

Tables Weighted to Census 2000. Current Population Survey, PPL­160; U.S. Census Bureau. (2002). The Foreign­Born Population of

the United States: March 2001. PPL­161; U.S. Census Bureau. (2001). Profile of the Foreign­Born Population in the United

States: 2000. Current Population Reports, P23­206; U.S. Census Bureau. (1996). The Foreign­Born Population in the United

States: March 1995. Current Population Survey, PPL­127.

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 27 
Child Population Characteristics

Table PF 1.4.B

nativity of householder: 2000

All families

of persons 

per family No children One child more children 

3.17 48.3 21.5 19.4 10.9

Native householder 3.10 49.5 21.2 19.0 10.3

Foreign­born householder 3.72 39.2 23.7 22.0 15.2

Married couple families 3.24 52.3 17.9 19.1 10.7

Native householder 3.15 54.2 17.3 18.5 10.0

Foreign­born householder 3.85 38.7 22.1 23.2 16.1

2.79 46.2 32.3 15.7 5.8

Native householder 2.69 44.4 34.1 15.9 5.6

3.25 54.3 24.4 14.5 6.9

3.01 31.1 33.7 22.0 13.1

Native householder 2.97 30.8 34.1 22.2 12.9

Foreign­born householder 3.35 34.2 30.7 20.2 14.9

Note: 

whose name the housing unit is owned or rented), regardless of the nativity of other household members.

P23­206.

Percent distribution of families by number of own children under 18 years old, type of family and 

Average number Percent distribution

Two children

Three or 

Male householder, no wife present

Foreign­born householder

Female householder, no husband present

Households are classified as foreign­born or native based on the nativity of the householder (the household member in

Source: U.S. Census Bureau. (2001). Profile of the Foreign­Born Population in the United States: 2000. Current Population

Reports,

28 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 1. POPULATION, FAMILY, AND NEIGHBORHOOD

Native child and parentsb

1994 1996 1998 2000 2002a

82 80 80 79 76

Poverty status

Below poverty 20 18 17 15 14

At or above poverty 80 82 83 85 86

Education of parent

Less than high school 14 13 12 11 10

High school graduate 35 34 34 33 32

Some college 28 29 30 31 31

23 23 23 26 27

Presence of parents

70 69 69 70 69

Mother only 26 27 26 25 26

Native child, foreign­born parentsb 12 13 14 14 16

Poverty status

Below poverty 28 27 25 20 20

At or above poverty 72 73 75 80 80

Less than high school 38 39 37 36 36

High school graduate 21 21 23 23 23

Some college 19 19 18 18 18

22 22 23 23 23

82 80 82 82 81

Mother only 16 17 15 15 16

b 3 3 3 3 4

Poverty status

41 39 39 30 27

At or above poverty 59 61 61 70 73

Education of parent

Less than high school 48 49 45 43 41

High school graduate 20 16 22 23 21

Some college 11 12 11 12 12

21 22 22 22 27

Presence of parents

78 80 78 81 81

Mother only 19 17 20 15 16

a Beginning with March 2001, data are from the Expanded CPS Sample and use population counts based on Census 2000.

b

Being, 2003.

Table PF 1.4.C

Percentage of children of at least one foreign­born parent by nativity of child and parents, poverty 

status, parents education, and presence of parents: Selected years, 1994­2002

Bachelor’s or more

Two married parents

Education of parent

Bachelor’s or more

Presence of parents

Two parents

Foreign­born child, foreign­born parents

Below poverty

Bachelor’s or more

Two parents

Native parents means that all of the parents that the child lives with are native born, while foreign­born means that at least

one of the child's parents is foreign­born. Anyone with United States citizenship at birth is considered native, which

includes persons born in the U.S., in U.S. outlying areas, and persons born abroad with at least one American parent.

Source: Federal Interagency Forum on Child and Family Statistics. (2003). America’s Children: Key National Indicators of WellWashington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 29 
Child Population Characteristics

PF 1.5 Fertility and Birth Rates

Total fertility rates indicate the number of births that a hypothetical group of 1,000 females

would have if they experienced the age­specific birth rates observed for each year. It can be

interpreted as the average number of births women would have over their lifetime, if they

bore children at the average rate. For example, in 2001, the total fertility rate for all females

was 2,034, an increase from a rate of 1,839.5 in 1980 (Table PF 1.5.A). That is, in 2001, the

average number of lifetime births was expected to be 2.0 per woman, whereas in 1980, the

average was 1.8. 

Birth rates, in contrast, are calculated by dividing the number of live births in each year by

the number of people in the population. They are expressed as the number of live births per

1,000 population. Birth rates dropped dramatically between 1960 and 1980 from 118.0 to

68.4 live births per 1,000 females ages 15 to 44. The declines occurred in all age groups

(Figure PF 1.5). Since 1980, the birth rate has remained between 64 and 71 live births per

1,000 females ages 15 to 44. In 2002, the birth rate was 64.8 live births per 1,000 females in

this age group (Table PF 1.5.B).

Differences by Age. Research indicates that giving birth as a youth can have negative

consequences on both mothers and their children. Giving birth at an early age can limit a

young female’s options regarding education and employment opportunities, increase the

likelihood that she will need public assistance, and can have negative effects on the development of her children. Young mothers are less likely to complete high school (only one

third receive a high school diploma)1 and are more likely to end up on welfare (nearly 80

percent of unmarried young mothers end up on welfare).2 The sons of young mothers are

13 percent more likely to serve time in prison, while their daughters are 22 percent more

likely to become young mothers themselves.3

During the 1960s, age­specific birth rates­the number of births per thousand females in a

given age group­were highest among females ages 20 to 24.  This pattern began to change

during the 1980s as more and more females delayed childbearing.  Since 1983, females ages

25 to 29 have had the highest age­specific birth rates, followed closely by females ages 20

to 24. The birth rates for youths ages 15 to 19 have declined steadily since 1991 to the rate

of 42.9 births per 1,000 females by 2002, a record low for the United States (Table 1.5.B).

In 2002, more than one in five births to young females under age 20 was a birth of second

order or higher. The proportion of youth births that were second or higher order peaked at

25 percent in 1991 but has since declined to 20 percent in 2002 (Table PF 1.5.C). The

increased use of contraceptives by young females may account for this drop in second

births.4

1 National Commission on Children. (1991). Beyond Rhetoric: A New American Agenda for Children and Families. Washington,

DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

2 Calculations based on the U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics. (1998). National Longitudinal Survey of

Youth, 1997. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Labor. 

3 Maynoed, R. A. (1997). Kids Having Kids: Economic Costs and Social Consequences of Teen Pregnancy. Washington, DC: The

Urban Institute Press. 

4 Ventura, S. J., Mosher, W. D., Curtin, S. C., Abma, J. C., & Henshaw, S. (2000). Trends in Pregnancies and Pregnancy

Rates by Outcome: Estimates for the United States, 1976­1996. Vital and Health Statistics Reports, 21(56).

30 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 1. POPULATION, FAMILY, AND NEIGHBORHOOD

Differences by Race and Hispanic Origin. American Indian/Alaska Native females had

the lowest total fertility rate (1,736.0) while Hispanic5 females had the highest (2,705.0) in

2002 (Table 1.5.A). Furthermore, Hispanic females have had a much higher birth rate than

females from other race and ethnic groups. In 2002, Hispanic females had 94 births per

1,000 females ages 15 to 44, while White, non­Hispanic, Asian, and American Indian/

Alaska Native females had between 58 and 64 births per 1,000 females ages 15 to 44 (Table

PF 1.5.B). 

The birth rate for Black, non­Hispanic youth has remained more than twice that of White

youth since 1960. In 2001, the birth rate for Black, non­Hispanic females ages 15 to 19 was

73.5 per 1,000 females compared to 30.3 per 1,000 White, non­Hispanic females. The highest youth childbearing rates, however, are found among Hispanic females. In 2002, the birth

rate among Hispanics was 82.9 for females ages 15 to 19 (Table PF 1.5.B). Births to Black,

non­Hispanic youth are more likely to be subsequent births than births to White, nonHispanic youth. In 2001, 24 percent of births to Black, non­Hispanic youth, 23 percent of

births to Hispanic youth, and 17 percent of births to White, non­Hispanic youth were second­ or higher­order births (Table PF 1.5.C).

5 Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 31 
Child Population Characteristics

All females

1980 1990 1995a 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002b

1,839.5 2,081.0 1,978.0 1,976.0 1,971.0 1,999.0 2,007.5 2,056.0 2,034.0 2,012.5

White, non­Hispanic 1,692.0 1,850.5 1,777.5 1,781.0 1,785.5 1,825.0 1,838.5 1,866.0 1,843.0 1,833.0

Black, non­Hispanic 2,353.5 2,547.5 2,186.5 2,140.0 2,137.5 2,164.0 2,134.0 2,178.5 2,104.5 —

Hispanicc 2,534.0 2,959.5 2,798.5 2,772.0 2,680.5 2,652.5 2,649.0 2,730.0 2,748.5 2,705.0

Asian/Pacific Islander 1,953.5 2,002.5 1,795.5 1,787.0 1,757.5 1,731.5 1,754.5 1,892.0 1,840.0 1,814.5

American Indian/

Alaska Native 2,162.5 2,183.0 1,878.5 1,855.0 1,834.5 1,851.0 1,783.5 1,772.5 1,746.5 1,736.0

a Rates for 1991 through 2001 may differ from previously published reports. 

population estimates projected from the 1990 census.  These data have since been revised and are consistent with the 2000

census.

b

c

—  Data not available.

Sources: 

(2003). Revised birth and fertility rates for the 1990s and new rates for Hispanic populations, 2000 and 2001: United States.

2002. 

Rates for the United States, 2000 and 2001.  51(4); U.S. Department of Health and Human

Americans.

51(2). 

Table PF 1.5.A

Total fertility rates by race and Hispanic origin (births per 1,000 females): Selected years, 1980­2002

Previously published rates were based on 

Preliminary 2002 data.

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race. 

Note: Total fertility rates are sums of birth rates for 5­year age groups multiplied by 5. The total fertility rate indicates the

number of births that a hypothetical group of 1,000 females would have if they experienced throughout their childbearing

years the age­specific birth rates observed in a given year.

National Center for Health Statistics. (2003). Unpublished data. Hamilton, B. E., Sutton, P. D., & Ventura, S. J.

National Vital Statistics Reports, 51(12); Hamilton, B. E., Martin, J. A., & Sutton, P. D. (2003). Births: Preliminary data for

National Vital Statistics Reports, 51(11); Ventura, S. J., Hamilton B. E., & Sutton P. D. (2003). Revised Birth and Fertility

National Vital Statistics Reports,

Services, National Center for Health Statistics. (2002). Health, United States, 2002, with Chartbook on Trends in the Health of

Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics; Martin, J. A., Hamilton, B. E., Ventura, S. J., Menacker, F.,

Park, M. M., & Sutton, P. D. (2002). Births: Final Data for 2001. National Vital Statistics Report,

32 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 1. POPULATION, FAMILY, AND NEIGHBORHOOD

Figure PF 1.5

Birth rates by selected age of mother: 1960­2002

1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000

50

100

150

200

250

300 Percent

2002

Ages 10-14

Ages 15-19

Ages 20-24

Ages 25-29

Ages 30-34

Ages 35-39

Ages 40-44

a Rates for 1991 through 2001 may differ from previously published reports.  Previously published rates were based on 

population estimates projected from the 1990 census.  These data have since been revised and are consistent with the 2000

census.

b Preliminary 2002 data.

Note: Birth rates are per 1,000 women in specified group.

Sources:  Hamilton, B. E., Sutton, P. D., & Ventura, S. J. (2003). Revised birth and fertility rates for the 1990s and new rates

for Hispanic populations, 2000 and 2001: United States. National Vital Statistics Reports, 51(12); Hamilton, B. E., Martin, J. A.,

& Sutton, P. D. (2003). Births: Preliminary data for 2002. National Vital Statistics Reports, 51(11); Ventura, S. J., Hamilton B.

E., & Sutton P. D. (2003). Revised Birth and Fertility Rates for the United States, 2000 and 2001. National Vital Statistics

Reports, 51(4); U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Center for Health Statistics. (2002). Health, United

States, 2002, with Chartbook on Trends in the Health of Americans. Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics;

Martin, J. A., Hamilton, B. E., Ventura, S. J., Menacker, F., Park, M. M., & Sutton, P. D. (2002). Births: Final Data for 2001.

National Vital Statistics Report, 51(2).

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 33 
Child Population Characteristics

Table PF 1.5.B

Birth rates by race and Hispanic origin and age of mother: Selected years,  1960­2002

All races

1960a 1970a 1980  1990  1995b 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001b 2002c

118.0 87.9 68.4 70.9 64.6 64.1 63.6 64.3 64.4 65.9 65.3 64.8

Ages 10­14 0.8 1.2 1.1 1.4 1.3 1.2 1.1 1.0 0.9 0.9 0.8 0.7

Ages 15­19 89.1 68.3 53.0 59.9 56.0 53.5 51.3 50.3 48.8 47.7 45.3 42.9

Ages 15­17 43.9 38.8 32.5 37.5 35.5 33.3 31.4 29.9 28.2 26.9 24.7 23.2

Ages 18­19 166.7 114.7 82.1 88.6 87.7 84.7 82.1 80.9 79.1 78.1 76.1 72.7

Ages 20­24 258.1 167.8 115.1 116.5 107.5 107.8 107.3 108.4 107.9 109.7 106.2 103.5

Ages 25­29 197.4 145.1 112.9 120.2 108.8 108.6 108.3 110.2 111.2 113.5 113.4 113.6

Ages 30­34 112.7 73.3 61.9 80.8 81.1 82.1 83.0 85.2 87.1 91.2 91.9 91.6

Ages 35­39 56.2 31.7 19.8 31.7 34.0 34.9 35.7 36.9 37.8 39.7 40.6 41.4

Ages 40­44 15.5 8.1 3.9 5.5 6.6 6.8 7.1 7.4 7.4 8.0 8.1 8.3

White, non­Hispanic — — 62.4 62.8 57.5 57.1 56.8 57.6 57.7 58.5 57.7 57.5

Ages 10­14 — — 0.4 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.2

Ages 15­19 — — 41.2 42.5 39.3 37.6 36.0 35.3 34.1 32.6 30.3 28.6

Ages 15­17 — — 22.4 23.2 22.0 20.6 19.4 18.4 17.1 15.8 14.0 13.2

Ages 18­19 — — 67.7 66.6 65.9 63.8 61.9 60.8 59.3 57.5 54.8 52.0

Ages 20­24 — — 105.5 97.5 90.2 90.1 90.0 91.2 90.6 91.2 87.1 84.5

Ages 25­29 — — 110.6 115.3 105.1 104.9 104.8 107.4 108.6 109.4 108.9 109.6

Ages 30­34 — — 59.9 79.4 81.5 82.8 84.3 87.2 89.5 93.2 94.3 94.7

Ages 35­39 — — 17.7 30.0 32.8 33.9 34.8 36.4 37.3 38.8 39.8 40.9

Ages 40­44 — — 3.0 4.7 5.9 6.2 6.5 6.8 6.9 7.3 7.5 7.6

Black, non­Hispanic — — 90.7 89.0 72.8 70.7 70.3 70.9 69.9 71.4 69.1 —

Ages 10­14 — — 4.6 5.0 4.2 3.6 3.2 2.9 2.6 2.4 2.1 —

Ages 15­19 — — 105.1 116.2 97.2 91.9 88.3 85.7 81.0 79.2 73.5 —

Ages 15­17 — — 77.2 84.9 70.6 65.0 60.9 57.0 52.0 50.1 44.9 —

Ages 18­19 — — 146.5 157.5 138.5 133.4 130.4 127.4 123.1 121.9 116.7 —

Ages 20­24 — — 152.2 165.1 137.8 137.0 138.8 142.5 142.1 145.4 137.2 —

Ages 25­29 — — 111.7 118.4 98.5 96.7 97.2 99.9 99.8 102.8 102.1 —

Ages 30­34 — — 65.2 70.2 64.4 63.2 63.6 64.4 63.9 66.5 66.2 —

Ages 35­39 — — 25.8 28.7 28.8 29.1 29.6 30.4 30.6 31.8 32.1 —

Ages 40­44 — — 5.8 5.6 6.1 6.2 6.5 6.7 6.5 7.2 7.3 —

continued

34 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 1. POPULATION, FAMILY, AND NEIGHBORHOOD

Table PF 1.5.B continued

Birth rates by race and Hispanic origin and age of mother: Selected years,  1960­2002

Hispanicd

1960a 1970a 1980  1990  1995b 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001b 2002c

— — 95.4 107.7 98.8 97.5 94.2 93.2 93.0 95.9 96.0 94.0

Ages 10­14 — — 1.7 2.4 2.6 2.4 2.1 1.9 1.9 1.7 1.6 1.4

Ages 15­19 — — 82.2 100.3 99.3 94.6 89.6 87.9 86.8 87.3 86.4 82.9

Ages 15­17 — — 52.1 65.9 67.9 64.1 61.0 58.4 56.9 55.5 52.8 50.3

Ages 18­19 — — 126.9 147.7 146.7 140.5 132.9 131.7 129.8 132.6 135.5 132.2

Ages 20­24 — — 156.4 181.0 171.9 170.2 162.6 159.3 157.3 161.3 163.5 163.5

Ages 25­29 — — 132.1 153.0 140.4 140.7 137.5 136.1 135.8 139.9 140.4 138.7

Ages 30­34 — — 83.2 98.3 90.5 91.3 89.6 90.5 92.3 97.1 97.6 94.7

Ages 35­39 — — 39.9 45.3 43.7 43.9 43.4 43.4 44.5 46.6 47.9 47.6

Ages 40­44 — — 10.6 10.9 10.7 10.7 10.7 10.8 10.6 11.5 11.6 11.5

Asian/Pacific Islander — — 73.2 69.6 62.6 62.3 61.3 60.1 60.9 65.8 64.2 63.9

Ages 10­14 — — 0.3 0.7 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.3

Ages 15­19 — — 26.2 26.4 25.5 23.5 22.3 22.2 21.4 20.5 19.8 18.3

Ages 15­17 — — 12.0 16.0 15.1 14.3 13.5 13.2 11.8 11.6 10.3 9.0

Ages 18­19 — — 46.2 40.2 42.2 38.6 37.0 36.9 36.5 32.6 32.8 31.5

Ages 20­24 — — 93.3 79.2 64.2 63.5 61.2 59.2 58.9 60.3 59.1 60.2

Ages 25­29 — — 127.4 126.3 103.7 102.8 101.6 98.7 100.8 108.4 106.4 105.2

Ages 30­34 — — 96.0 106.5 102.3 104.1 102.5 101.6 104.3 116.5 112.6 109.3

Ages 35­39 — — 38.3 49.6 50.1 50.2 51.0 51.4 52.9 59.0 56.7 56.3

Ages 40­44 — — 8.5 10.7 11.8 11.9 11.5 11.8 11.3 12.6 12.3 12.4

American Indian — — 82.7 76.2 63.0 61.8 60.8 61.3 59.0 58.7 58.1 58.0

Ages 10­14 — — 1.9 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.5 1.5 1.4 1.1 1.0 0.9

Ages 15­19 — — 82.2 81.1 72.9 68.2 65.2 64.7 59.9 58.3 56.3 53.8

Ages 15­17 — — 51.5 48.5 44.7 42.7 41.1 39.8 36.5 34.1 31.4 30.7

Ages 18­19 — — 129.5 129.3 121.8 112.9 106.8 106.5 97.9 97.1 94.8 89.2

Ages 20­24 — — 143.7 148.7 123.1 123.5 122.5 125.1 120.7 117.2 115.0 112.7

Ages 25­29 — — 106.6 110.3 91.6 91.1 91.6 92.0 90.6 91.8 90.4 91.8

Ages 30­34 — — 61.8 61.5 56.5 56.5 56.0 56.8 53.8 55.5 55.9 56.4

Ages 35­39 — — 28.1 27.5 24.3 24.4 24.4 24.6 24.3 24.6 24.7 25.4

Ages 40­44 — — 8.2 5.9 5.5 5.5 5.4 5.3 5.7 5.7 5.7 5.9

a Based on a 50 percent sample of births.

b Rates for 1991 through 2001 may differ from previously published reports. Previously published rates were based on population estimates projected from the 1990 census. These data have since been revised and are consistent with the 2000 census.

c Preliminary 2002 data.

d Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race. Race and Hispanic origin are reported separately on birth certificates. 1980

data for Hispanics include 22 states. 1990 data exclude data for New Hampshire and Oklahoma, which did not report

Hispanic origin.

—  Data not available.

Note:  Birth rates are per 1,000 in specified group.

Sources:  Hamilton, B. E., Sutton, P. D., & Ventura, S. J. (2003). Revised birth and fertility rates for the 1990s and new rates

for Hispanic populations, 2000 and 2001: United States. National Vital Statistics Reports, 51(12); Hamilton, B. E., Martin, J. A.,

& Sutton, P. D. (2003). Births: Preliminary Data for 2002. National Vital Statistics Reports, 51(11); Ventura, S. J., Hamilton B.

E., & Sutton P. D. (2003). Revised Birth and Fertility Rates for the United States, 2000 and 2001. National Vital Statistics

Reports, 51(4); U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Center for Health Statistics. (2002). Health, United

States, 2002, with Chartbook on Trends in the Health of Americans. Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics;

Martin, J. A., Hamilton, B. E., Ventura, S. J., Menacker, F., Park, M. M., & Sutton, P. D. (2002). Births: Final Data for 2001.

National Vital Statistics Report, 51(2).

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 35 
Child Population Characteristics

origin of mother:  1990­2002

All births

1990  1991  1992  1993  1994  1995  1996  1997  1998  1999  2000  2001  2002a

24 25 25 23 22 21 21 22 22 21 21 21 20

Race and Hispanic originb

White 21 21 22 20 19 19 19 20 20 20 20 20 19

White, non­Hispanic 19 19 20 18 17 17 17 17 18 11 17 17 17

Black 32 33 33 30 28 26 27 27 26 26 25 24 24

Black, non­Hispanic 32 33 33 31 28 26 27 27 27 26 25 24 —

Hispanic 26 26 26 25 23 23 24 24 24 23 23 23 23

a

b

—  Data not available.

Sources: 

data for 2001.  51(2). 

Table PF 1.5.C

Percentage of births to females under age 20 that are second or higher order, by race and Hispanic 

Preliminary 2002 data.

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

Hamilton, B. E., Martin, J. A., & Sutton, P. D. (2003). Births: Preliminary data for 2002. National Vital Statistics

Reports, 51(11); Martin, J. A., Hamilton, B. E., Ventura, S. J., Menacker, F., Park, M. M., & Sutton, P. D. (2002). Births: Final

National Vital Statistics Reports,

36 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 1. POPULATION, FAMILY, AND NEIGHBORHOOD

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 37 
Child Population Characteristics

PF 1.6 Number of Births

In 2002, there were more than 4 million births in the United States. Twenty­six percent of

the births were to females ages 25 to 29, while 25 percent were to females 20 to 24, and 24

percent were to females 30 to 34 years of age (Table PF 1.6). The percentage of births to

older females (those 30 and older) has increased since the 1990s. In 1990, 30 percent of all

births were to females ages 30 and older. In 2002, the proportion of all births to females age

30 and older had increased to 37 percent. In terms of race and Hispanic origin, 57 percent

of all births were to White, non­Hispanic females, and 22 percent were to Hispanic females.

Most births are to females who have at least a high school degree. In 2001, 22 percent of

births were to females who had less than a high school education, 32 percent were to high

school graduates, and 47 percent were to females with one or more years of college (table

PF 1.6)

38 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 1. POPULATION, FAMILY, AND NEIGHBORHOOD

Percentage of births by mother's age, race and Hispanic origin, and education level: Selected years,

1990­2002

All births (in thousands)

1990  1995  1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002a

4,158  3,900  3,891 3,881 3,942 3,959 4,059 4,026 4,019

Age of mother (percent)

Ages 15­19 13 13 13 12 12 12 12 11 11

Ages 20­24  26 25 24 24 24 25 25 25 25

Ages 25­29 31 27 28 28 27 27 27 26 26

Ages 30­34 21 23 23 23 23 23 23 23 24

Ages 35­39 8 10 10 11 11 11 11 11 11

Ages 40­44 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Race and Hispanic originb

White, non­Hispanic 64 61 61 60 60 59 58 58 57

Black, non­Hispanic 16 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 —

Hispanic 15 17 18 18 19 19 20 21 22

Education level of mother

Less than high school 24 23 22 22 22 22 22 22 —

Completed high school 38 34 33 33 33 32 32 32 —

Some college 20 22 22 22 22 22 22 22 —

Four + years of college 17 21 22 23 23 24 25 25 —

a

b Births by Hispanic origin are based on 48 states and the District of

Columbia in 1990; and 50 states and the District of Columbia in 1993 through 2001.

—  Data not available.

Sources: 

and 2001. 

Statistics, 1995. 

Center for Health Statistics. (1994). 

Table PF 1.6

Preliminary 2002 data.

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.  

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Center for Health Statistics. (2003). Unpublished work;

Hamilton, B. E., Martin, J. A., & Sutton, P. D. (2003). Births: Preliminary data for 2002. National Vital Statistics Reports,

51(11); Ventura, S. J., Hamilton B. E., & Sutton, P. D. (2003). Revised Birth and Fertility Rates for the United States, 2000

National Vital Statistics Reports, 51(4); Ventura, S. J., Martin, J. A., Curtin, S. C., Menacker, F., & Hamilton, B. E.

(2001). Births: Final Data for 1999. National Vital Statistics Reports, 49(1); Ventura, S. J., Martin, J. A., Curtin, S. C., Mathews,

T. J., & Park, M. M. (2000). Births: Final Data for 1998. National Vital Statistics Reports, 48(3); Ventura, S. J., Martin, J. A.,

Curtin, S. C., & Mathews, T. J. (1999). Births: Final Data for 1997. National Vital Statistics Reports, 47(18); Ventura, S. J.,

Martin, J. A., Curtin, S. C., & Mathews, T. J. (1998). Report of Final Natality Statistics, 1996. Monthly Vital Statistics Reports,

46(Supp. 11); Ventura, S. J., Martin, J. A, Curtin, S. C., Mathews, T. J., & Park, M. M. (1997). Report of Final Natality

Monthly Vital Statistics Reports, 45(11[Supp. 2]); U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National

Vital Statistics of the United States, 1990. (vol. I ­ Natality) Washington, DC: Public 

Health Service. 

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 39 
Child Population Characteristics

PF 1.7 Age of Mothers

As teenage birthrates have been declining and more women postpone having children until

their late twenties and thirties, the mean age of mothers1 and the average age of females at

the time of their first child have been increasing. The mean age for childbearing has shifted from the early 20s to the later 20s. Despite the fact that the average age of mothers is

increasing, more than half of all births still occur to females in their twenties (Indicator PF

1.6). However, the increasing average age of mothers is reflective of the recent downward

trend in births among adolescents and the rise in the number of births among females in

their thirties. 

The age at which women procreate has implications for their families’ well­being. For

example, it is known that adolescent mothers tend to have more children, space their children closer together, have more nonmarital births, and have a higher number of unintended births than those who postpone childbearing. Adolescent mothers more frequently have

a truncated education, fewer job skills, and lower lifetime earnings. Not as much is known

about postponing childbirth into the third decade. However, it is anticipated that women

who delay childbirth will accumulate more assets before having children, and may also

have smaller families.2

Differences by Race and Hispanic Origin. From 1989 to 2000, the average age of mothers increased for many racial and ethnic groups. In 2000, the youngest mothers were Puerto

Rican females (average age of 25.0), and the oldest mothers were of Japanese descent (average age of 31.8). The largest increase in average age from 1989 to 2000 occurred among

mothers of Japanese and Cuban descent (an increase of 1.5 years). There were also large differences in the average ages of Asian/Pacific Islander mothers. For example, the average age

of Hawaiian mothers in 2000 was 25.7, while the average age of mothers of Japanese

descent was 31.8 (Table PF 1.7.A).

From 1989 to 2000, the average age of mothers also increased for many racial and ethnic

groups at the time of the first birth. In 2000, the youngest first­time mothers were

American Indian females (average age of 21.6), and the oldest first­time mothers were of

Japanese descent (average age of 30.6).  The largest increase in average age from 1989 to

2000 occurred among first­time mothers of Japanese descent (an increase of 1.7 years)

(Table PF 1.7.B).

1 The mean age of mother is the arithmetic average of the mother’s age at time of the birth. It is computed directly from

the sum of all mother’s ages in a given year divided by the number of mothers.

2 See indicators in Section HC 2.2 for information on health implications of delayed childbirth.

40 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 1. POPULATION, FAMILY, AND NEIGHBORHOOD

Figure PF 1.7

Average age of mothers: 1970­2000

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100 Percent

1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000

Average age

Average age at first birth

Source:  Mathews, T. J., & Hamilton, B. E. (2002). Mean Age of Mother, 1970­2000. National Vital Statistics Report, 51(1).

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 41 
Child Population Characteristics

All mothers

1989  1990  1991  1992  1993  1994  1995  1996  1997  1998  1999  2000 

26.3 26.4 26.4 26.6 26.7 26.8 26.9 27.0 27.0 27.1 27.1 27.2

Race and Hispanic origin

White, non­Hispanic 27.0 27.1 27.1 27.3 27.4 27.5 27.6 27.7 27.8 27.9 27.9 28.0

Black, non­Hispanic 24.3 24.4 24.4 24.5 24.6 24.7 24.8 24.9 25.0 25.0 25.1 25.2

American Indian 24.8 24.9 24.8 24.9 24.9 24.9 24.9 25.0 25.0 24.9 25.0 25.1

Asian/Pacific Islander

Chinese 30.4 30.5 30.5 30.7 30.8 31.0 31.1 31.2 31.3 31.6 31.6 31.6

Japanese 30.3  30.4  30.6  30.9 30.9 31.0 31.1 31.2 31.5 31.6 31.6 31.8

Filipino 28.8  28.8  28.9  29.0 29.0 29.1 29.2 29.2 29.3 29.4  29.4 29.5

Hawaiian  25.0 25.0 25.1  25.1 25.3 25.2 25.5 25.5 25.5 25.6  25.6 25.7

Hispanica

Mexican  25.1  25.1  25.0 25.1 25.1 25.1 25.1 25.2 25.2 25.3  25.4 25.4

24.3 24.4 24.4 24.5 24.6 24.6 24.6 24.7 24.8 24.8 24.9 25.0

Cuban 27.3 27.6 27.8 27.9 28.1 28.1 28.2 28.3 28.4 28.6 28.7 28.8

Central and S. American 27.0 27.0 27.0 27.1 27.1 27.2 27.2 27.3 27.4 27.4 27.5 27.5

a

Source:  51(1).

Table PF 1.7.A

Average age of mother by detailed race and Hispanic origin: 1989­2000

Puerto Rican

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

Mathews, T. J., & Hamilton, B. E. (2002). Mean Age of Mother, 1970­2000. National Vital Statistics Report,

42 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 1. POPULATION, FAMILY, AND NEIGHBORHOOD

All mothers at birth of first child

1989  1990  1991  1992  1993  1994  1995  1996  1997  1998  1999  2000 

24.2 24.2 24.2 24.4 24.4 24.4 24.5 24.6 24.7 24.7 24.8 24.9

Race and Hispanic origin

White, non­Hispanic 25.0 25.0 25.1 25.2 25.3 25.4 25.4 25.5 25.6 25.7 25.8 25.9

Black, non­Hispanic 21.6 21.7 21.7 21.8 21.8 21.8 21.9 22.0 22.1 22.2 22.2 22.3

American Indian 21.3 21.3 21.2 21.3 21.4 21.3 21.3 21.4 21.4 21.4 21.5 21.6

Asian/Pacific Islander

Chinese 29.1 29.1 29.2 29.4 29.5 29.6 29.8 29.8 29.9 30.2 30.2 30.1

Japanese 28.9  29.1  29.1  29.6 29.5 29.6 29.6 29.8 30.2 30.3 30.3 30.6

Filipino 26.8  26.8  26.7  26.9 26.9 27.0 26.9 26.9 27.1 27.2  27.1 27.3

Hawaiian  22.2 22.2 22.1  22.3 22.3 22.1 22.4 22.5 22.6 22.6  22.7 22.6

Hispanica

Mexican  21.9  21.9  21.8  21.9 21.9 21.9 21.9 22.0 22.0 22.1  22.1 22.2

21.8 21.9 22.0 22.0 22.0 21.9 21.9 22.0 22.1 22.1 22.2 22.4

Cuban 25.3 25.6 25.7 25.9 26.1 25.9 25.9 26.2 26.1 26.3 26.4 26.5

Central and S. American 24.5 24.5 24.5 24.6 24.6 24.6 24.5 24.6 24.6 24.6 24.6 24.8

a

Source:  51(1).

Table PF 1.7.B

Average age of mother at birth of first child by detailed race and Hispanic origin: 1989­2000

Puerto Rican

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

Mathews, T. J., & Hamilton, B. E. (2002). Mean Age of Mother, 1970­2000. National Vital Statistics Report,

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 43 
SECTION 1. POPULATION, FAMILY, AND NEIGHBORHOOD

Child Population

Characteristics

Family Structure

Neighborhoods
Family Structure

PF 2.1 Families with Children

Since 1960, Americans have been moving toward having families with fewer children.

Indeed, a growing percentage of families have no minor children of their own in their

household. Between 1960 and 2002, the percentage of families with four or more of their

own children under age 18 in the household decreased from 9 percent to 3 percent (Figure

PF 2.1). During the same period, the proportion of families with no minor children grew

from 43 percent to 52 percent. 

Differences by Race and Hispanic Origin. In 2002, Black and Hispanic families were

considerably less likely than White families to be without any minor children, with proportions of 43 percent and 37 percent respectively, compared to 54 percent for Whites.

They also were more likely than White families to have four or more children, though these

differences were smaller than in previous decades. 

These general trends are also evident when White, Black, and Hispanic1 families are considered separately, though the levels are substantially different for each group (Table PF 2.1).

For example, between 1970 and 2002, the percentage of Black families with four or more

children dropped from 19 percent to 4 percent. The percentage for Whites during that period went from 9 percent to 2 percent. For Hispanic families, the percentage dropped from

10 percent to 5 percent between 1980 (the first year for which Hispanic estimates are available) and 2002. 

1 Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.  Estimates for Whites and Blacks include Hispanics of those races.

46 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 1. POPULATION, FAMILY, AND NEIGHBORHOOD

Figure PF 2.1

Percentage of families by number own children: 1960­2002

1 0

2 0

3 0

4 0

5 0

6 0

7 0

8 0

9 0

100 Percent

1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2002

Without 

own children

One child

2 children

3 children

4 or more children

Sources:  U.S. Census Bureau. (2003). Children's Living Arrangements and Characteristics. Current Population Reports, P20­547;

U.S. Census Bureau. (2001). America's families and Living Arrangements. Current Population Reports, P20­537; U.S. Census

Bureau. (1999). Household and Family Characteristics. Current Population Reports, P20­509; U.S. Census Bureau. (1998).

Household and Family Characteristics. Current Population Reports, P20­515; U.S. Census Bureau. (1997). Household and Family

Characteristics. Current Population Reports, P20­495; U.S. Census Bureau. (1996). Household and Family Characteristics.

Current Population Reports, P20­488; U.S. Census Bureau. (1990). Household and Family Characteristics. Current Population

Reports, P20­447; U.S. Census Bureau. (1981). Household and Family Characteristics. Current Population Reports, P20­366; U.S.

Census Bureau. (1971). Household and Family Characteristics. Current Population Reports, P20­218; U.S. Census Bureau.

(1961). Household and Family Characteristics. Current Population Reports, P20­106.

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 47 
Family Structure

years, 1960­2002

All families

1960 1970 1980 1990 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001a 2002

Without own children 43 44 48 51 51 51 51 51 52 52 52 52

One child 19 18 21 21 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20

2 children 18 17 19 19 19 19 19 19 18 18 18 18

3 children 11 11 8 7 7 7 7 8 7 7 7 7

4 or more children 9 10 4 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

White familiesb

Without own children 43 45 49 51 52 52 52 52 53 53 53 54

One child 19 18 21 21 20 19 20 20 19 19 19 19

2 children 18 18 19 19 19 19 19 18 18 18 18 18

11 11 8 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7

9 9 4 3 2 3 2 2 3 3 2 2

Black familiesb

— 39 38 41 42 43 42 42 44 45 43 43

One child — 18 23 25 24 24 24 23 24 24 23 26

2 children — 15 20 19 20 18 20 21 19 19 19 19

3 children — 10 10 9 9 9 9 9 9 8 8 9

— 19 8 6 5 5 5 4 4 4 4 4

Hispanic familiesb

— — 31 37 36 36 35 36 37 36 37 37

One child — — 23 23 23 23 24 23 23 24 23 23

2 children — — 23 21 23 23 23 23 22 22 23 23

— — 13 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12

— — 10 7 7 7 6 6 6 6 6 5

a Beginning with March 2001, data are from the Expanded CPS Sample and use population controls based on Census 2000.

b

—  Data not available.

Sources:  P20­547;

P20­537; U.S. Census

P20­509; U.S. Census Bureau. (1998).

Characteristics. 

P20­

P20­366; U.S. Census

P20­218; U.S. Census Bureau. (1961).

P20­106.

Table PF 2.1

Percentage distribution of families by number of own children and by race and Hispanic origin: Selected

3 children

4 or more children

Without own children

4 or more children

Without own children

3 children

4 or more children

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race. Estimates for Whites and Blacks include Hispanics of those races.  

U.S. Census Bureau. (2003). Children's Living Arrangements and Characteristics. Current Population Reports,

U.S. Census Bureau. (2001). America's families and Living Arrangements. Current Population Reports,

Bureau. (1999). Household and Family Characteristics. Current Population Reports,

Household and Family Characteristics. Current Population Reports, P20­515; U.S. Census Bureau. (1997). Household and Family

Current Population Reports, P20­49; U.S. Census Bureau. (1996). Household and Family Characteristics. Current

Population Reports, P20­488; U.S. Census Bureau. (1990). Household and Family Characteristics. Current Population Reports,

447; U.S. Census Bureau. (1981). Household and Family Characteristics. Current Population Reports,

Bureau. (1971). Household and Family Characteristics. Current Population Reports,

Household and Family Characteristics. Current Population Reports,

48 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 1. POPULATION, FAMILY, AND NEIGHBORHOOD

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 49 
Family Structure

PF 2.2 Living Arrangements of Children

Family structure is one of many factors that contributes to child well­being. It is also associated with the well­being of the child as an adult. For example, children from disrupted

families or families where the parents never married are somewhat more likely to use alcohol and drugs, to become teen parents, and are less likely to earn a high school diploma than

children from intact families. These associations are evident even after controlling for family socioeconomic status, race, and other background factors.1 Nevertheless, the great

majority of children brought up in single­parent families do well. In particular, differences

in well­being between children from divorced and those from intact families tend, on average, to be moderate to small.2

Between 1970 and 2002, the proportion of children in two­parent families decreased from

85 percent to 69 percent. Of the remainder, 23 percent lived with their mother only; 5 percent lived with their father only;3 and 4 percent lived with neither parent (Table PF 2.2.A).4

Of those who lived with neither parent, approximately one­half were residing with one or

more grandparents as of 1996 (Table PF 2.2.B).

Differences by Race and Hispanic Origin. The decrease in the proportion of children

living in two­parent families is evident for Black, White, and Hispanic5 children, though the

decline is somewhat steeper for Black children (Figure PF 2.2). Between 1970 and 1996, the

proportion of Black children living in two­parent families fell by 25 percentage points from

58 percent to 33 percent (Table PF 2.2.A).6 However, between 1996 and 2000, that percentage increased modestly to 38 percent, and has remained at this level through 2002. For

Hispanic children, the percentage living in two­parent families decreased from 75 percent

in 1980 to 65 percent in 2002.

1 Amato, P. R. (1993). Children’s Adjustment to Divorce: Theories, Hypotheses, and Empirical Support. Journal of Marriage

and the Family, 55.

2 Zill, N., Morrison, D. R., & Coiro, M. (1993). Long­Term Effects of Parental Divorce on Parent­Child Relationships:

Adjustment and Achievement in Early Adulthood. Journal of Family Psychology, 7(1).

3 The Current Population Survey overestimates the proportion of children living in father­only families, because it identifies many cohabiting biological­parent couples as father­only. Though the precise size of the overestimate is not known,

analyses of the 1996 Survey of Income and Program Participation indicate that a little over 2 percent of all children actually lived in father­only families in that year. 4 Data from the 1996 Current Population Survey (not shown) indicate that 11 percent of all children under age 18 are living in families with single parents who are divorced. See U.S. Census Bureau. (1997). Household and Family

Characteristics: March 1996. Current Population Reports, PPL­66 (Update).

5 Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race. 

6 In Table PF 2.2.A, estimates for Blacks include Hispanics of that race, whereas estimates for Whites do not. In Figure PF

2.2 estimates for Blacks and Whites include Hispanics of those races. In Table PF 2.2.B, estimates for Blacks and Whites

do not include Hispanics.

50 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 1. POPULATION, FAMILY, AND NEIGHBORHOOD

and Hispanic origin:  Selected years, 1970­2002

All children

1970 1980 1990 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001a 2002

b 85 77 73 69 68 68 68 68 69 69 69

Mother onlyc 11 18 22 23 24 24 23 23 22 22 23

Father onlyc 1 2 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 5

No parent 3 4 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4

White, non­Hispanic

b — — 81 78 77 77 76 77 77 78 77

Mother onlyc — — 15 16 16 17 16 16 16 16 16

Father onlyc — — 3 3 4 4 5 4 4 4 4

No parent — — 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 3

Blackd

b 58 42 38 33 33 35 36 35 38 38 38

Mother onlyc 30 44 51 52 53 52 51 52 49 48 48

Father onlyc 2 2 4 4 4 5 4 4 4 5 5

No parent 10 12 8 11 9 8 9 10 9 10 8

Hispanicd

b — 75 67 63 62 64 64 63 65 65 65

Mother onlyc — 20 27 28 29 27 27 27 25 25 25

Father onlyc — 2 3 4 4 4 4 5 4 5 5

— 3 3 4 5 5 5 5 5 6 5

a Beginning with March 2001, data are from the Expanded CPS Sample and use population controls based on Census 2000.

b

c Because of data limitations, includes some families where both parents are present in the household, but living as 

d Estimates for Blacks include Hispanics of that race.

—  Data not available.

P20­547;

P20­537;  U.S. Census

Bureau. (1998).  P20­514u;  U.S. Census Bureau. (1998).  P20­506u;  U.S.

Census Bureau. (1998).  P20­496u;  U.S. Census Bureau. (1996).  P20­491;

U.S. Census Bureau. (1996).  P20­484; U.S. Census Bureau. (1994).  P20­

478;  U.S. Census Bureau. (1992).  P20­468;  U.S. Census Bureau. (1992). 

P20­461;  U.S. Census Bureau. (1986).  P20­410. 

Table PF 2.2.A 

Percentage distribution of living arrangements of children by presence of parents in household, and race

Two parents

Two parents

Two parents

Two parents

No parent

Excludes families where parents are not living as a married couple.

unmarried partners.

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.  

Sources: U.S. Census Bureau. (2003). Children’s Living Arrangements and Characteristics. Current Population Reports, 

U.S. Census Bureau. (2001). America’s Families and Living Arrangements. Current Population Reports,

Current Population Reports,  Current Population Reports, 

Current Population Reports,  Current Population Reports,

Current Population Reports, Current Population Reports, 

Current Population Reports, Current Population Reports,

Current Population Reports,

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 51 
Family Structure

age, race and Hispanic origin:  1996

All children

a

Biological

parents

One biological,

One step­parent a

Biological

mother

Biological

father a Grandparents

70.9 64.2 6.7 25.4 22.7 2.5 3.7 1.8

Age

Under age 5 74.3 72.5 1.9 23.0 21.6 1.2 2.6 1.5

Ages 5­14 70.5 62.8 7.7 25.9 23.0 2.8 3.6 1.8

Ages 15­17 66.3 54.9 11.4 27.7 23.7 3.8 6.0 2.0

Race and Hispanic origin

White, non­Hispanic 79.0 71.5 7.5 18.5 15.5 2.9 2.5 1.1

Black, non­Hispanic 36.9 31.7 5.2 54.9 52.5 2.0 8.2 5.1

American Indian/

Alaska Native 62.2 54.0 8.2 32.1 29.4 2.1 5.8 3.2

Asian/Pacific Islander 83.6 80.3 3.3 14.3 12.6 1.4 2.1 0.9

Hispanicb 68.2 62.9 5.3 27.5 25.7 1.7 4.3 1.4

a

b

Sources:  U.S. Census Bureau. (1996).  P20­491; U.S. Census Bureau. (1996). 

P20­484.

Table PF 2.2.B

Percentage distribution of children under age 18 in two­parent, one­parent, or no­parent families, by

Two­parent families One­parent families No parents present

Total Total Total

Totals for two­parent, one­parent, and no­parent families include categories beyond those presented separately.

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

Current Population Reports, Current Population

Reports, 

52 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 1. POPULATION, FAMILY, AND NEIGHBORHOOD

Figure PF 2.2

Percentage of children who are living with two parents, by race and Hispanic origin: 1970­2002

1 0

2 0

3 0

4 0

5 0

6 0

7 0

8 0

9 0

100 Percent

1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2002

All children

White

Black

Hispanic

a Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.  Estimates for Blacks and Whites include Hispanics of that race.

b Beginning with March 2001, data are from the Expanded CPS Sample and use population controls based on Census 2000.

Sources:  U.S. Census Bureau. (2003). Children’s Living Arrangements and Characteristics. Current Population Reports, P20­547;

U.S. Census Bureau. (2001). America’s Families and Living Arrangements. Current Population Reports, P20­537;  U.S. Census

Bureau. (1998). Current Population Reports, P20­514u;  U.S. Census Bureau. (1998). Current Population Reports, P20­506u;  U.S.

Census Bureau. (1998). Current Population Reports, P20­496u;  U.S. Census Bureau. (1996). Current Population Reports, P20­491;

U.S. Census Bureau. (1996). Current Population Reports, P20­484; U.S. Census Bureau. (1994). Current Population Reports, P20­

478;  U.S. Census Bureau. (1992). Current Population Reports, P20­468;  U.S. Census Bureau. (1992). Current Population Reports,

P20­461;  U.S. Census Bureau. (1986). Current Population Reports, P20­410. 

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 53 
Family Structure

PF 2.3 Percentage of All Births to Unmarried Females

Children who are born to single females, regardless of age, are considerably more likely than

children born to two parents to grow up poor, to spend large portions of their childhood

without two parents, and to become single parents themselves.1 Bearing children outside

of marriage is a particularly troubling development for youth when young females have little education and lack the ability to support their children economically, especially as single parents.

Differences by Age. Nonmarital childbearing increased among females of all age groups

between 1970 and 1995 before leveling off in the late 1990s (Figure PF 2.3). However, nonmarital births among female youths 15 to 19 years continued to rise throughout the late

1990s. Among all females ages 15 to 19, 29.5 percent of births were nonmarital in 1970,

compared with 79.7 percent in 2002 (Table PF 2.3.A). 

Differences by Race and Hispanic Origin. The percentage of all births to unmarried

females increased for Whites, American Indians, and Hispanics2 between 1980 and 2001

(Table PF 2.3.B). The percentage increased for Black females between 1980 and 1995 and has

declined slightly since 1995.  The percentage of all births to unmarried Asian females steadily increased from 1980 to 1996, but has also declined since that time. 

In 2001, Asian and White females had the lowest percentage of nonmarital births at 14.9

and 22.5 percent, respectively. Hispanics were next at 42.5 percent, followed by American

Indian and Black females at 59.7 percent and 68.6 percent, respectively. This ordering is the

same for most age groups, though the size of the difference can vary substantially by the

age of the mother. For females ages 15 to 19 in 2001, for example, Whites and Hispanics

have very similar percentages of births to unmarried women­74.0 and 72.1 percent, respectively­while the percentage among young Black unmarried females ages 15 to 19 is much

higher at 95.8 percent. By ages 25 to 29, however, percentages for Hispanic females move

midway between White and Black rates, with Whites at 14.8 percent, Hispanics at 33.5 percent, and Blacks at 57.7 percent (Table PF 2.3.B).

1 McIanahan, S., & Sandefur, G. (1996). Growing Up with a Single Parent: What Hurts, What Helps. Cambridge, MA: Harvard

University Press.

2 Beginning in 1980, births were tabulated by race and ethnicity of the mother. Prior to 1980, births were tabulated by race

of child, assigning a child to the race of the non­White parent, if any, or to the race of the father, if both are non­White.

Data for Black and White births include births of Hispanic origin until 1990.  Beginning 1990, persons of Hispanic origin

are not included. Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race. Data for Hispanics have been available only since 1980,

with 22 states reporting in 1980, representing 90 percent of the Hispanic population. Hispanic birth data were reported

by 23 states and the District of Columbia in 1985; 48 states and the District of Columbia in 1990; 49 states and the

District of Columbia in 1991 and 1992; and all 50 states and the District of Columbia since 1993.

54 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 1. POPULATION, FAMILY, AND NEIGHBORHOOD

Figure PF 2.3 

Percentage of all live births to unmarried females, by age: 1970­2001

1 0

2 0

3 0

4 0

5 0

6 0

7 0

8 0

9 0

100 Percent

All ages

Ages 15-19

Ages 20-24

Ages 25-29

Ages 30-34

Ages 35-39

40 and over

1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2001

Sources:  Martin, J. A., Hamilton, B. E., Ventura, S. J., Menacker, F., Park, M. M., & Sutton, P. D. (2002). Births: Final Data for

2001. National Vital Statistics Report, 51(2); Martin, J. A., Hamilton, B. E., Ventura, S. J., Menacker, F., & Park, M. M. (2002).

Births: Final Data for 2000. National Vital Statistics Report, 50(5); Ventura, S. J., Martin, J. A., Curtin, S. C., Menacker, F., &

Hamilton, B. E. (2001). Births: Final Data for 1999. National Vital Statistics Reports, 49(1); Ventura, S. J., & Bachrach, C. A.

(2000). Nonmarital Childbearing in the United States, 1940­1999. National Vital Statistics Reports, 48(16). 

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 55 
Family Structure

Table PF 2.3.A

Percentage of all births to unmarried females ages 15 to 19, by age of mother, and by race and Hispanic

origin: Selected years, 1970­2002

All females, ages 15­19

1970 1975 1980a 1985 1990 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002b

29.5 38.2 47.6 58.0 67.1 75.2 75.9 77.8 78.5 78.7 78.8 78.9 79.7

Ages 15­17 43.0 51.0 62.0 71.0 78.0 84.0 84.0 86.7 87.5 87.6 87.7 87.8 88.4

Ages 18 or 19 22.0 30.0 40.0 51.0 61.0 70.0 71.0 72.5 73.6 73.9 74.3 74.6 75.6

White, ages 15­19c 17.1 22.9 33.1 44.8 55.5 67.9 69.3 70.9 71.9 72.6 73.1 74.0 75.1

Ages 15­17 25.0 33.0 45.0 58.0 68.4 79.0 80.9 82.5 82.8 84.5 85.0 85.6 86.1

Ages 18 or 19 14.0 17.0 27.0 38.0 50.1 62.0 63.5 65.2 66.6 67.6 68.3 69.6 70.9

Black, ages 15­19c 62.7 76.9 85.7 90.2 92.2 95.2 95.5 95.8 95.8 95.6 95.7 95.8 —

Ages 15­17 76.0 87.0 93.0 96.0 95.8 98.0 97.9 98.4 98.3 98.4 98.3 98.5 —

Ages 18 or 19 52.0 68.0 80.0 86.0 89.7 93.0 93.8 94.0 93.9 93.9 94.1 94.0 —

Hispanic, ages 15­19c — — 41.9 51.3 59.4 67.3 67.7 71.6 72.9 72.9 72.6 72.1 73.8

Ages 15­17 — — 51.0 61.0 68.0 75.0 75.0 80.3 81.6 81.8 81.5 81.1 82.8

Ages 18 or 19 — — 36.0 46.0 54.0 62.0 63.0 65.6 67.2 67.3 67.3 67.0 68.6

a Beginning in 1980, births were tabulated by race and ethnicity of the mother. Prior to 1980, births were tabulated by race

of child, assigning a child to the race of the non­White parent, if any, or to the race of the father, if both are non­White.

b Preliminary 2002 data.

c Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race. Data for White and Black births include births of Hispanic origin until 1990.

Beginning in 1990, persons of Hispanic origin are not included. Data for Hispanics have been available only since 1980,

with 22 states reporting in 1980, representing 90 percent of the Hispanic population. Hispanic birth data were reported by

23 states and the District of Columbia in 1985; 48 states and the District of Columbia in 1990; 49 states and the District of

Columbia in 1991 and 1992; and all 50 states and the District of Columbia since 1993.

—  Data not available.

Sources:  National Center fro Health Statistics (2003). Unpublished preliminary work tables for 2002. Martin, J. A.,

Hamilton, B. E., Ventura, S. J., Menacker, F., Park, M. M., & Sutton, P. D. (2002). Births: Final Data for 2001. National Vital

Statistics Report, 51(2); Martin, J. A., Hamilton, B. E., Ventura, S. J., Menacker, F., & Park, M. M. (2002). Births: Final Data for

2000. National Vital Statistics Report, 50(5); Ventura, S. J., Martin, J. A., Curtin, S. C., Menacker, F., & Hamilton, B. E. (2001).

Births: Final Data for 1999. National Vital Statistics Reports, 49(1); Ventura, S. J., & Bachrach, C. A. (2000). Nonmarital

Childbearing in the United States, 1940­1999. National Vital Statistics Reports, 48(16). 

56 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 1. POPULATION, FAMILY, AND NEIGHBORHOOD

Table PF 2.3.B

1970­2002

All live births

1970 1975 1980 1985 1990a 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002a

10.7 14.3 18.4 22.0 28.0 32.2 32.4 32.4 32.8  33.0 33.2 33.5 33.8

Ages 15­19 29.5 38.2 47.6 58.0 67.1 75.2 75.9 77.8 78.5  78.7 78.8 78.9 79.7

Ages 20­24 8.9 12.3 19.4 26.3 36.9 44.7 45.6 46.6 47.7  48.5 49.5 50.4 51.4

Ages 25­29 4.1 5.4 9.0 12.7 18.0 21.5 22.0 22.0 22.5  22.9 23.5 24.4 25.2

Ages 30­34 4.5 5.3 7.5 9.7 13.3 14.7 14.8 14.1 14.0  14.0 14.0 14.3 14.5

Ages 35­39 5.2 7.0 9.4 11.2 13.9 15.7 15.7 14.6 14.4  14.4 14.3 14.4 14.5

40 and over 5.7 8.2 12.1 14.0 17.0 18.1 18.4 17.1 16.7 16.5 16.8 17.1 17.2

Whiteb 5.7 7.3 11.2 14.7 16.9  21.2  21.5  21.5 21.9 22.1 22.1 22.5 22.9

Ages 15­19 17.1 22.9 33.1 44.8 55.5  67.9  69.3  70.9 71.9 72.6 73.1 74.0 75.1

Ages 20­24 5.2 6.1 11.7 17.7 24.5  33.3  34.4  35.3 36.4 37.2 38.2 39.8 41.1

Ages 25­29 2.1 2.6 5.2 8.1 9.7  12.7  13.2  13.3 13.6 13.8 14.0 14.8 15.3

Ages 30­34 2.1 2.7 4.6 6.3 6.9  8.3  8.4  7.9 7.9 7.8 7.7 7.9 8.1

Ages 35­39 2.7 3.9 6.4 8.1 7.8  9.4  9.6  8.8 8.8 8.7 8.4 8.5 8.5

40 and over 3.3 4.6 8.6 10.9 10.9 12.2 12.5 10.9 10.9 10.7 10.6 11.1 11.1

Blackb 37.6 48.8 56.1 61.2 66.7  70.0  70.0  69.4 69.3 69.1 68.7 68.6 —

Ages 15­19 62.7 76.9 85.7 90.2 92.2  95.3  95.5  95.8 95.8 95.6 95.7 95.8 —

Ages 20­24 31.3 43.0 57.0 65.4 72.8  79.3  79.9  80.0 80.5 80.7 80.8 80.9 —

Ages 25­29 20.3 26.8 36.8 45.2 53.4  56.8  57.5  56.9 57.1 57.0 57.1 57.7 —

Ages 30­34 19.6 24.1 29.6 37.0 45.2  46.5  45.6  44.1 43.6 43.3 42.6 43.2 —

Ages 35­39 18.6 23.9 28.4 35.1 42.1  45.3  44.2  42.5 41.6 40.9 40.3 39.9 —

40 and over 18.3 23.1 29.5 34.4 40.0 43.5 43.4 43.0 41.9 41.9 41.1 40.6 —

Hispanicb — — 23.6 29.5 36.7 40.8 40.7 40.9 41.6  42.2 42.7 42.5 43.4

Ages 15­19 — — 41.9 51.3 59.4 67.3 67.7 71.6 72.9  72.9 72.6 72.1 73.8

Ages 20­24 — — 23.8 30.9 39.6 45.0 45.2 46.1 47.5  48.6 49.6 49.9 51.3

Ages 25­29 — — 15.9 22.2 28.6 31.1 31.2 30.4 31.2  32.1 33.2 33.5 35.1

Ages 30­34 — — 15.2 19.6 25.5 26.4 26.0 24.6 24.4  25.1 25.8 25.9 26.7

Ages 35­39 — — 16.2 20.8 26.5 27.4 26.9 25.7 24.7  25.4 25.7 25.2 25.9

40 and over — — 15.9 20.2 28.9 29.0 29.6 27.9 27.5  27.3 28.8 28.4 28.4

continued

Percentage of all live births to unmarried females, by age, race and Hispanic origin: Selected years,

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 57 
Family Structure

Table PF 2.3.B continued

Percentage of all live births to unmarried females, by age, race and Hispanic origin: Selected years,

1970­2002

Asian/Pacific Islander

1970 1975 1980 1985 1990a 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002a

— — 7.3 9.5 13.2 16.3 16.7 15.6 15.6  15.4 14.8 14.9 —

Ages 15­19 — — 40.6 47.7 57.0 63.1 62.7 72.0 72.1  71.4 71.1 71.6 —

Ages 20­24 — — 10.9 15.5 23.5 30.1 31.0 31.8 32.4  33.0 33.1 34.3 —

Ages 25­29 — — 4.2 5.7 8.3 12.1 12.9 11.5 11.4  11.4 11.2 11.3 —

Ages 30­34 — — 3.0 4.6 6.3 8.0 8.9 6.6 6.4  6.4 6.5 6.6 —

Ages 35­39 — — 4.0 5.8 7.5 8.9 9.2 6.9 6.5  6.8 6.7 6.7 —

40 and over — — 3.6 8.0 10.0 10.8 10.7 10.1 9.4  8.6 9.1 8.7 —

American Indian — — 39.2 46.8 53.6 57.2 58.0 58.7 59.3  58.9 58.4 59.7 —

Ages 15­19 — — 61.9 72.5 78.9 82.5 84.1 84.4 85.9  85.9 85.7 87.1 —

Ages 20­24 — — 38.6 48.5 57.2 60.7 61.7 63.2 63.3  64.0 64.1 65.4 —

Ages 25­29 — — 28.1 35.9 43.2 45.7 46.4 47.3 47.6  47.3 46.4 48.2 —

Ages 30­34 — — 22.2 31.8 38.3 40.6 41.4 41.2 42.0  39.7 39.9 39.9 —

Ages 35­39 — — 22.5 27.7 35.5 40.6 40.1 40.3 41.1  39.5  39.1 41.2 —

40 and over — — 21.3 28.4 37.5 38.9 43.0 45.6 38.6 42.0 41.2 41.0 —

a Preliminary 2002 data.

b Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race. Data for Whites and Blacks include persons of Hispanic origin until 1990.

Beginning in 1990, persons of Hispanic origin are tabulated separately. Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

Beginning in 1980, births were tabulated by race and ethnicity of the mother. Prior to 1980, births were tabulated by race

of child, assigning a child to the race of the non­White parent, if any, or to the race of the father, if both are non­White.

Data for Hispanics have been available only since 1980, with 22 states reporting in 1980, representing 90 percent of the

Hispanic population. Hispanic birth data were reported by 23 states and the District of Columbia in 1985; 48 states and

the District of Columbia in 1990; 49 states and the District of Columbia in 1991 and 1992; and all 50 states and the

District of Columbia since 1993.

—  Data not available.

Sources:  National Center for Health Statistics. (2003). Unpublished data. Hamilton, B. E., Martin, J. A., & Sutton, P. D.

(2003). Births: Preliminary Data for 2002. National Vital Statistics Report, 51(11). Martin, J. A., Hamilton, B. E., Ventura, S. J.,

Menacker, F., Park, M. M., & Sutton, P. D. (2002). Births: Final Data for 2001. National Vital Statistics Report, 51(2); Martin, J.

A., Hamilton, B. E., Ventura, S. J., Menacker, F., & Park, M. M. (2002). Births: Final Data for 2000. National Vital Statistics

Report, 50(5); Ventura, S. J., Martin, J. A., Curtin, S. C., Menacker, F., & Hamilton, B. E. (2001). Births: Final Data for 1999.

National Vital Statistics Reports, 49(1); Ventura, S. J., & Bachrach, C. A. (2000). Nonmarital Childbearing in the United States,

1940­1999. National Vital Statistics Reports, 48(16). Ventura, S. J., Martin, J. A., Curtin, S. C., Mathews, T. J., & Park, M. M.

(2000). Births: Final Data for 1998. National Vital Statistics Reports, 48(3); Ventura, S. J., Martin, J. A., Curtin, S. C., &

Mathews, T. J. (1999). Births: Final Data for 1997. National Vital Statistics Reports, 47(18); Ventura, S. J., Martin, J. A., Curtin,

S. C., & Mathews, T. J. (1998). Report of Final Natality Statistics, 1996. Monthly Vital Statistics Reports, 46(Supp. 11); Ventura,

S. J., Martin, J. A., Curtin, S. C., Mathews, T. J., & Park, M. M. (1997). Report of Final Natality Statistics, 1995. Monthly Vital

Statistics Reports, 45(11[Supp. 2]); Ventura, S. J., Martin, J. A., Mathews, T. J., & Clarke, S. C. (1996). Advanced Report of

Final Natality Statistics, 1994. Monthly Vital Statistics Reports, 44(11, Supp.); Ventura, S. J. (1987). Births of Hispanic

Parentage, 1985. Monthly Vital Statistics Reports, 36(Supp. 11); Ventura, S. J. (1983). Births of Hispanic Parentage: 1980.

Monthly Vital Statistics Reports, 32(36[6 Supp]).

58 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 1. POPULATION, FAMILY, AND NEIGHBORHOOD

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 59 
Family Structure

PF 2.4 Children Living in Foster Care 

A child is placed in foster care1 when a court determines that his or her family cannot provide a minimally safe environment. This determination often follows an investigation by a

state or county child protective services worker. Placement most commonly occurs either

because a member of a household has physically or sexually abused a child or because a

child’s caretaker(s) has severely neglected the child. In some cases, children with severe

emotional disturbances may also be put into foster care.

Since both Federal and state laws discourage removal of children from their families unless

necessary to ensure a child’s safety, placement in foster care is an extreme step taken only

when a child isin immediate danger or when attemptsto help the family provide a safe environment have failed. Thus, the frequency of placements in foster care is an indicator of family dysfunction that is so severe that a child cannot remain safely with his or her family.

The number of children in foster care rose from 262 thousand in 1982 to 559 thousand in

1998. Since then, the number of children in foster care decreased to 634 thousand in 2002

(Table PF 2.4.A). The rate of children living in foster care (i.e., the number of children in foster care per 1,000 children under age 18) also rose during the same time period from 4.2 to 7.8

per 1,000 children in 1998. Similarly, this rate declined to 7.3 per 1,000 children in 2002.

However, some of the increase in the earlier years may be a function of the implementation

of a new reporting system, which became fully operational in 1998. (Figure PF 2.4.A).

Differences by Race and Hispanic origin. Since the new reporting system was fully

implemented in 1998, data on the race and Hispanic origin2 of the children in foster care

has been available. These data show that Black, non­Hispanic children accounted for 37

percent of all children in foster care in 2002. White, non­Hispanic children account for a

similar proportion (39 percent), while 17 percent of children in foster care are of Hispanic

origin (Figure PF 2.4.B). 

Differences by Age. Preschoolers (1 to 5 years) and young children (6 to 10 years) each

account for almost a quarter of all children in foster care. Youth (11 to 15 years) are about

30 percent of all children in care. Teenagers ages 16 to 18 years accounted for 19 percent in

2002, while children under one year old accounted for about 5 percent in 2002 (Table 2.4.B).

When looking specifically at children who entered foster care in a particular year (Table

2.4.C), these proportions change somewhat. While 5 percent of children in foster care were

less than one year old in 2002, 14 percent of children entering foster care were in this

age range.

1 For purposes of this report, “foster care” is defined as a living arrangement where a child resides outside his or her own

home, under the case management and planning responsibility of a state child welfare agency. These living arrangements

include relative and nonrelative foster homes, group homes, child­care facilities, emergency shelter care, supervised independent living, and nonfinalized adoptive homes.

2 Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

60 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 1. POPULATION, FAMILY, AND NEIGHBORHOOD

Table PF 2.4.A 

Number and rate of children living in foster care:  Selected years, 1982­2002

Children in foster care (in thousands)

1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996a 1998b 2000b 2002b

262 276 280 340 400 427 468 507 559 552 534

Ratec (per thousand) 4.2 4.4 4.5 5.4 6.2 6.4 6.8 7.2 7.8 7.6 7.3

a 1996 was the last year in which data on foster care were collected through the Voluntary Cooperative Information System

(VCIS). The Administration on Children and Families has implemented the Adoption and Foster Care Analysis and

Reporting System (AFCARS) as a replacement for VCIS. While VCIS was a voluntary reporting system, states are required

to participate in AFCARS and must use uniform definitions. Most importantly, AFCARS collects case­level foster care data.

Estimates in this table may not be comparable to estimates provided in previous issues of Trends in the Well­Being of America’s

Children and Youth due to updated data provided by the states and revised population estimates provided by the U.S. Census

Bureau.

b Based on data submitted by States as of October 1, 2003.

c The rate is calculated as the total number of children in the population divided by the number of children in foster care,

for a given year. The denominator is based on census counts of the population. These counts for 1990 on have been revised

since the last publication of this report, and are now based on the 2000 census.

Sources:  U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (2003). Preliminary FY 2002 and revised FY 1998­2001 estimates.

Unpublished. U.S. House of Representatives, Committee on Ways and Means. (2002). The Green Book: 2000. Washington, DC:

U.S. Congress; U.S. Census Bureau. (2002). Statistical Abstract of the United States, 2001. Washington, DC: U.S. Government

Printing Office.

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 61 
Family Structure

Figure PF 2.4.A 

Rate of children living in foster care: 1982­2002 Percent 0

2

4

6

8

10

1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002

a 1996 was the last year in which data on foster care were collected through the Voluntary Cooperative Information System

(VCIS).  The Administration on Children and Families has implemented the Adoption and Foster Care Analysis and

Reporting System (AFCARS) as a replacement for VCIS.  While VCIS was a voluntary reporting system, states are required

to participate in AFCARS and must use uniform definitions.  Most importantly, AFCARS collects case­level foster care

data.  Estimates in this table may not be comparable to estimates provided in previous issues of Trends in the Well­Being of

America’s Children and Youth due to updated data provided by the states and revised population estimates provided by the

U.S. Census Bureau.

b Based on data submitted by states as of October 1, 2003.

c The rate is calculated as the total number of children in the population divided by the number of children in foster care,

for a given year. The denominator is based on census counts of the population. These counts for 1990 on have been revised

since the last publication of this report, and are now based on the 2000 census.

Note: The rate is calculated as the total number of children in the population divided by the number of children in foster

care, for a given year. The denominator is based on census counts of the population. These counts for 1990 on have been

revised since the last publication of this report, and are now based on the 2000 census. 

Sources:  U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (2003). Preliminary FY 2002 and revised FY 1998­2001 estimates.

Unpublished. U.S. House of Representatives, Committee on Ways and Means. (2002). The Green Book: 2000. Washington, DC:

U.S. Congress; U.S. Census Bureau. (2002). Statistical Abstract of the United States, 2001. Washington, DC: U.S. Government

Printing Office.

62 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 1. POPULATION, FAMILY, AND NEIGHBORHOOD

Figure PF 2.4.B

Children in foster care by race and Hispanic origin: 2002

White, non-Hispanic

39%

Black, non-Hispanic

37%

Hispanica

17%

American Indian/

Alaska Native

2%

Asian/Pacific Islander

1%

a Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

Note: Data for 2002 are preliminary estimates.

Source:  U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (2003). Preliminary  FY 2002 Estimate as of October 1, 2003.

Unpublished.

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 63 
Family Structure

All children in foster care (in thousands)

1998 1999 2000 2001 2002

559 567 552 543 534

Race and Hispanic origin (percent)

White, non­Hispanic 35 35 38 38 39

Black, non­Hispanic 43 38 39 37 37

Hispanica 15 17 15 17 17

American Indian/Alaska Native 2 2 2 2 2

Asian/Pacific Islander 1 1 1 1 1

Sex

Male 52 52 52 52 52

Female 48 48 48 48 48

Age

Under age 1 4 4 4 4 5

Ages 1­5 26 25 24 24 24

Ages 6­10 27 26 25 24 22

Ages 11­15 27 28 29 30 30

Ages 16­18 15 17 18 18 19

a

Note:  Based on data submitted by States as of October 1, 2003.

Source: 

Unpublished.

Table PF 2.4.B 

Percentage of children in foster care, by race and Hispanic origin, sex, and age: 1998­2002

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (2003). Preliminary FY 2002 and revised FY 1998­2001 estimates.

64 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 1. POPULATION, FAMILY, AND NEIGHBORHOOD

Children entering foster care (in thousands)

1998 1999 2000 2001 2002

299 293 293 295 302

Race and Hispanic origin (percent)

White, non­Hispanic 45 43 47 46 46

Black, non­Hispanic 30 27 29 28 28

Hispanica 16 16 15 16 17

American Indian/Alaska Native 3 3 3 3 2

Asian/ Pacific Islander 2 2 2 1 1

Age

Under age 1 13 13 13 13 14

Ages 1­5 25 25 25 25 26

Ages 6­10 22 22 21 21 20

Ages 11­15 29 29 29 29 29

Ages 16­18 11 11 11 11 11

Mean age 8.6 8.6 8.6 8.6 8.5

a

Note:  Based on data submitted by States as of October 1, 2003.

Source: 

Unpublished.

Table PF 2.4.C

Percentage of children entering foster care, by race and Hispanic origin and age: 1998­2002

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (2003). Preliminary FY 2002 and revised FY 1998­2001 estimates.

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 65 
SECTION 1. POPULATION, FAMILY, AND NEIGHBORHOOD

Child Population

Characteristics

Family Structure

Neighborhoods
Neighborhoods

PF 3.1 Residential Stability

Research has demonstrated a strong relationship between residential stability and child

well­being, with frequent moves associated with such negative outcomes as dropping out

of high school, delinquency, depression, and nonmarital youth births. Some researchers theorize that these negative associations may result from a lack of attachment to a local community and its institutions on the part of frequent movers. 

The United States has long been a highly mobile society. In 1960, 21 percent of children

under the age of 18 had moved to a new residence during the previous year. The general

trend since that time has been toward somewhat lower rates of mobility, with a rate of 16

percent in 2001.1

Differences by Age. Young children were the most mobile of any child age group (Table

PF 3.1). In 2001, 22 percent of children between the ages of 1 and 4 had changed residences

in the previous year, compared with 17 percent among children ages 5 to 9, 13 percent of

children ages 10 to 14, and 11 percent of youth ages 15 to 17.

Differences by Race and Hispanic Origin. For all children under age 18 in 2001, White

children were the least mobile, with 15 percent moving during the previous year compared

with 21 percent of Black and 19 percent of Hispanic children.2

1 Wood, D., Halfon, N., Scarlata, D., Newacheck, P., & Nessim, S. (1993). Impact of Family Relocation on Children’s

Growth, Development, School Function, and Behavior. Journal of the American Medical Association, 270; Coleman, J. (1998).

Social Capital and the Creation of Human Capital. American Journal of Sociology, 94.

2 Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race. Estimates for Whites and Blacks include Hispanics of those races.

68 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 1. POPULATION, FAMILY, AND NEIGHBORHOOD

Table PF 3.1

Hispanic origin:  1990­2001

All children

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001

18 17 18 17 17 18 18 17 17 17 16

Ages 1­4 24 23 22 23 22 25 24 23 23 23 22

Ages 5­9 19 18 18 17 17 18 19 18 18 18 17

Ages 10­14 15 14 15 14 13 15 15 14 13 14 13

Ages 15­17 15 15 14 14 15 13 14 13 13 13 11

White childrena 18 17 17 16 16 17 17 16 16 16 15

Ages 1­4 23 22 21 22 21 24 23 22 21 22 21

Ages 5­9 18 17 17 16 16 18 18 16 17 17 16

Ages 10­14 14 13 15 13 12 14 15 13 13 13 12

Ages 15­17 14 14 14 14 13 12 13 12 12 12 10

a 21 21 21 20 20 22 23 22 23 22 21

Ages 1­4 26 26 27 26 25 29 29 28 32 28 26

Ages 5­9 22 22 22 20 22 22 26 24 27 24 22

Ages 10­14 19 17 18 17 16 18 18 20 17 18 17

Ages 15­17 18 16 16 14 18 14 17 16 15 15 16

Hispanic childrena 25 21 24 23 21 23 23 21 19 21 19

Ages 1­4 32 27 27 28 26 31 28 26 24 26 24

Ages 5­9 28 20 25 24 20 23 21 21 19 20 18

Ages 10­14 18 19 21 19 15 18 22 16 14 18 17

Ages 15­17 21 19 19 20 21 19 17 17 16 18 15

a

Note: Estimates for 1995 are not available.

Sources:  U.S. Census Bureau. (2003). Geographic Mobility: March 2000 to March 2001, General Mobility by Race, Hispanic

Origin, Sex, and Age. 

(2002). P20­538; U.S. Census Bureau. (2001).  P20­531; U.S. Census

Bureau. (2000).  P20­520; U.S. Census Bureau. (1998).  P20­510; U.S.

Census Bureau. (1997).  P20­497; U.S. Census Bureau. (1995).  P20­485;

U.S. Census Bureau. (1993).  P20­473; U.S. Census Bureau. (1992). 

P20­463. 

Percentage of children under age 18 who have moved within the last year, by age, and by race and

Black children

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race. Estimates for Whites and Blacks include Hispanics of those races.  

[On­line]. Available:  http://www.census.gov/prod/www/abs/mobility.html; U.S. Census Bureau.

Current Population Reports, Current Population Reports,

Current Population Reports, Current Population Reports,

Current Population Reports, Current Population Reports, 

Current Population Reports, Current Population Reports,

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 69 
Neighborhoods

PF 3.2 Children in Poor and Very Poor Neighborhoods

Recent research has demonstrated a significant relationship between neighborhood quality

and the well­being of the children and youth who live in them. Even after controlling for

relevant personal and family background characteristics, residence in a low­income neighborhood has been shown to have negative effects on early childhood development, associated with higher rates of dropping out of high school and with young parenthood.1 In 2001,

54.9 percent of children who lived in very poor neighborhoods (defined as a census tract in

which 40 percent or more of the residents live in poor families) were themselves poor (Table

PF 3.2).

Differences by Race and Hispanic Origin. More Black children lived in very poor neighborhoods than either Hispanic2 or White children. Sixty three percent of Black children

who lived in very poor neighborhoods were poor, compared to 49 percent of Hispanic children and 37 percent of White, non­Hispanic children (Figure PF 3.2).

Differences by Family Type. Children in mother­only families in very poor neighborhoods were much more likely to be poor than were children in married­couple families (69.7

percent versus 34.3 percent) (Figure PF 3.2). 

1 Brooks­Gunn, J., Duncan, G., Klebanov, P., & Sealand, N. (1994). Do Neighborhoods Influence Child and Adolescent

Behavior? American Journal of Sociology, 99(2).

2 Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race. Estimates for Blacks include Hispanics of thae race.

70 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 1. POPULATION, FAMILY, AND NEIGHBORHOOD

of child, by family structure, and by race and Hispanic origin:  2001

All related childrenb

a

poverty level

Outside of 

poverty area below poverty level below poverty level below poverty level

15.8 11.0 37.5 45.3 54.9

Age

Ages 1­5 18.2 12.5 43.0 53.1 61.7

Ages 6­17 14.6 10.2 34.8 41.3 51.2

Family structure

Married couple families 8.0 5.9 22.4 28.3 34.3

Ages 1­5 9.2 6.4 27.0 35.0 36.4

Ages 6­17 7.4 5.6 20.0 25.0 33.2

39.3 30.7 57.0 60.9 69.7

Ages 1­5 48.9 40.1 64.6 69.5 77.7

Ages 6­17 35.3 27.0 53.3 56.5 65.4

Race and Hispanic Originc

White, non­Hispanic 8.9 7.7 22.3 25.5 36.8

Black 30.0 18.7 47.4 52.5 63.4

Hispanic 27.4 20.0 42.2 47.0 49.1

Asian/Pacific Islander 11.1 10.7 17.0 26.0 —

a Neighborhoods are defined as census tracts and block­numbering areas.  Both metropolitan and nonmetropolitian areas are

included. 

line.

b Children who are related to the householder and who are under 18 years of age.

c Estimates for Blacks include Hispanics of that race.

—  Data not available.

Source:  P60­219.

Table PF 3.2

Percentage of related children below the poverty line by the poverty level of their neighborhood, by age

All Areas Neighborhood Poverty Level

Currently below 20 percent or more 30 percent or more 40 percent or more

Mother­only families

The poverty rate is the percentage of all persons in the neighborhood living in families below the Federal poverty

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.  

U.S. Census Bureau. (2001). Poverty in the United States, 2001. Current Population Survey,

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 71 
Neighborhoods

Figure PF 3.2

Percentage of related children below the poverty line who live in very poor neighborhoods, by race and

Hispanic origin, and family type: 2001

0

20

40

60

80

100 Percent

All related

children Hispanic White, non-Hispanic Black Mother-only family

Married-couple 

 family

a Children who are related to the householder and who are under 18 years of age.

b Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.  Estimates for Blacks include Hispanics of that race. 

Note:  Neighborhoods are defined as census tracts and block­numbering areas.  Both metropolitan and nonmetropolitian

areas are included.  The poverty rate is the percentage of all persons in the neighborhood living in families below the Federal

poverty line. 

Source:  U.S. Census Bureau. (2001). Poverty in the United States, 2001. Current Population Survey, P60­219.

72 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 2.

Economic

Security

Poverty 

and Income

Financial

Support

Parental

Employment

Consumption
SECTION 2. ECONOMIC SECURITY

and Income

Poverty 

Financial

Support

Parental

Employment

Consumption
Poverty and Income

ES 1.1 Median Family Income

The median income1 of families with children is a good starting point for assessing the economic well­being of children, since it measures the ability of a family at the midpoint of

the income distribution to purchase food, shelter, clothing, child care, medical care, and

other basic goods and services required to raise a child.2 However, median family income

fails to capture important economic resources that may also be available to a family, such

as employer­paid health benefits, Medicaid, or Food Stamps; moreover, it says nothing

about changes in the distribution of income across families. For a more complete picture of

children’s economic well­being, it is necessary to look at several measures of economic wellbeing, including those in the following indicators.

Between 1980 and 2002, median income of all families with children increased from

$44,179 in 1980 to $51,760 in 1999 before decreasing to $50,851 in 2002 (Table ES 1.1). 

Differences by Family Type. Throughout the period from 1980 through 2002, median

income of mother­only families has never exceeded 35 percent of median income of twoparent families (see Figure ES 1.1). In 2002, the median family income of mother­only families was $22,637, compared with $65,399 for married­couple families with children.

During the same time period, the median income of father­only families never exceeded 62

percent of median income of two­parent families (Figure ES 1.1). In 2002, median income

of father­only families was $32,154.

Differences by Race and Hispanic Origin.3 Median family incomes are substantially

higher for White only , non­Hispanic families with children than for Black only or Hispanic

families with children. In 2002, median incomes of White only, non­Hispanic families were

about 98 percent higher than those of Black only families and 90 percent higher than those

of Hispanic families (Table ES 1.1).

1 Median income is the amount that divides the income distribution into two equal groups, half with incomes above the

median, half with incomes below, as defined by the U.S. Census Bureau in the March 2003 Current Population Survey. It is

computed in constant 2002 dollars using the Bureau of Labor Statistics’ CPI­U­RS Consumer Price Index.

2 When median family income is rising, the likelihood is that children in a typical family are enjoying a rising standard of

living.

3 Racial categories for 2002 differ from those of previous years due to the addition of the multiple race category on the

2000 Census.

76 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 2. ECONOMIC SECURITY

Median income of families with related children under age 18, by race and Hispanic origin, and family type:

Selected years, 1980­2002

All families

1980 1985a 1990 1995b 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000c 2001 2002d

All races $44,179 $44,178 $45,685 $46,908 $46,788 $48,671 $50,086 $51,760 $52,960 $51,819 $50,851

White, non­Hispanic — — $51,452 $54,479 $54,971 $56,946 $58,381 $61,138 $62,759 $61,851 $61,145

Black — — $25,837 $26,575 $26,155 $28,206 $28,482 $29,986 $31,815 $30,832 $30,921 

Hispanice — — $29,366 $27,040 $28,105 $29,195 $30,577 $33,441 $34,111 $33,613 $32,172

Married­couple families

All races $50,260 $51,583 $55,068 $58,575 $59,098 $60,798 $62,850 $64,950 $65,943 $66,263 $65,399

White, non­Hispanic — — $57,878 $62,170 $63,569 $65,842 $67,819 $70,004 $72,209 $72,258 $72,133

Black — — $47,675 $51,514 $48,742 $53,238 $53,496 $55,059 $54,544 $56,640 $56,863

Hispanice — — $36,668 $34,784 $36,087 $37,145 $37,743 $40,072 $41,805 $41,200 $39,617

Mother­only families

All races $17,502 $16,067 $17,474 $19,032 $18,709 $19,288 $20,291 $21,518 $22,893 $22,355 $22,637

White, non­Hispanic — — $21,518 $24,361 $23,373 $23,497 $24,944 $26,319 $27,427 $25,869 $26,337

Black — — $13,755 $15,226 $15,579 $16,890 $16,926 $17,262 $19,735 $19,396 $19,189

Hispanice — — $13,536 $13,839 $12,832 $14,511 $15,522 $17,854 $19,050 $19,330 $19,453

All races — — $33,648 $31,638 $30,253 $32,043 $34,023 $35,005 $33,933 $32,451 $32,154

White, non­Hispanic — — $35,802 $34,876 $33,539 $35,764 $39,196 $39,486 $38,306 $36,108 $35,953

Black — — $27,447 $26,157 $25,374 $24,383 $27,568 $32,403 $31,528 $29,111 $26,233

Hispanice — — $27,728 $22,863 $25,746 $22,385 $27,181 $27,502 $28,458 $27,830 $26,756

a

based sample design.

b Data reflect full implementation of 1990 census­based sample design and metropolitan definitions, 7,000 household sample 

reduction, and revised race edits.

c

d

e

of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

—  Data not available.

Note:  Median income is the amount that divides the income distribution into two equal groups, half with income above the median,

Source:  .

Table ES 1.1

Father­only families

Recording of amounts for earnings from longest job were increased to $299,999. Data reflect full implementation of 1980 censusData reflect implementation for Census 2000­based population controls and the sample expanded by 28,000 households.

Racial categories for 2002 differ from those of previous years due to the addition of the multiple race category on the 2000 Census.

In 2002, this racial category contains only persons who did not select any additional racial categories on the 2000 Census. Persons 

and half with income below.  Income statistics have been converted to constant 2002 dollars using the Bureau of Labor Statistics’ 

CPI­U­RS Consumer Price Index.

U.S. Census Bureau. (2004). Historical Income Tables. Current Population Reports, March 1981­2002

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 77 
Poverty and Income

Figure ES 1.1 

Median income of families with related children under age 18, by family structure: 1980­2002 Median family income 10,000

20,000

30,000

40,000

50,000

60,000

70,000

1980 1985 1990 1995 2002

All families

Married-couple 

families

Mother-only 

families

Father-only 

families

Note:  Median income is the amount that divides the income distribution into two equal groups, half with income above the

median, and half with income below, as defined by the U.S. Census Bureau in the March 2003 Current Population Survey. It

is computed in constant 2002 dollars using the Bureau of Labor Statistics’ CPI­U­RS Consumer Price Index. Income data for

father­only families were not available until 1990.

Source:  U.S. Census Bureau. (2004). Historical Income Tables. Current Population Reports, March 1981­2002.

78 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 2. ECONOMIC SECURITY

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 79 
Poverty and Income

ES 1.2 Children in Poverty

Being raised in economically deprived circumstances can have far­reaching negative consequences for children. Growing up at or near the poverty line1 ($18,392 for a family of four

in 2002) means not only that a child has a much lower level of consumption than other

children but also that he or she is more likely to experience difficulties in school,2 to become

a teen parent,3 and, as an adult, to earn less and experience greater unemployment.4 The

effects of being raised in a family with income significantly below the poverty line are correspondingly more damaging.5 The poverty rate for people under age 18 dropped from 19.8

percent in 1996 to 16.3 percent in 2002.

Differences by Family Type. Family makeup can have a strong influence on the financial

ability of a family. For most of the period from 1960 through 1995, more than half of the

children living in female­headed families were poor.  This percentage consistently decreased

in the late nineties to a low of 39.3 percent in 2001 (Table ES 1.2.A).  In 2002, 39.6 percent

of children living in female­headed families were poor. In contrast, during the 1990s, only

about 10 percent of children living in married­couple families were poor (Figure ES 1.2.A).

In 2002, 8.5 percent of children living in married­couple families were poor.

Differences by Race and Hispanic Origin.6 The proportion of Black and Hispanic children below 100 percent of the poverty line has declined between 1996 and 2001 (from 39.5

percent to 30 percent for Black children and from 39.9 percent to 26.5 percent for Hispanic

children).  In contrast, the proportion of White children dropped only slightly from 15.5

percent to 12.8 percent. 

Differences by Degrees of Poverty. Between 1975 and 1997, the proportion of children

living in extreme poverty, that is, below 50 percent of the poverty line, increased from 5.3

percent in 1975 to 8.5 percent by 1997. By 2002, this percentage had dropped back to 6.6

percent (Table ES 1.2.B). Furthermore, the proportion of children below 100 percent of the

poverty line increased from 16.8 percent in 1975 to 20.2 percent by 1995 before dropping to

16.3 percent in 2002 (Figure ES 1.2.B).  In contrast, the proportion of children living at or

below 150 percent of the poverty line was about the same in 2002 (27.5 percent) as it was

in 1975 (30.6 percent). As shown in Figure ES 1.2.B, the proportion of children living at or

below 200 percent of the poverty line has seen a similar decline. Between 1996 and 2002,

the proportion of Black and Hispanic children living below 200 percent of the poverty line

from 67.6 percent to 59.3 percent for Black children and from 71.7 percent to 61.7 percent

for Hispanic children (Table ES 1.2.B).

1 The term poverty line is defined as a money income threshold that varies by family size and composition.  Families or

individuals with income below this threshold are classified as living below poverty level. Thresholds are updated annually

by the U.S. Census Bureau. See U.S. Census Bureau. (2001). Poverty in the United States, 2001. Current Population Survey,

P60­219.

2 Parker, S., Greer, S., & Zackerman, B. (1998). Double Jeopardy: The Impact of Poverty on Early Childhood Development.

Pediatric Clinics of North America, 35(6):1­10.

3 An, C., Moveman, R., & Wolfe, B. (1993). Teen Out­of­Wedlock Births and Welfare Receipt: The Role of Childhood

Events and Economic Circumstances. Review of Economics and Statistics, 75(2):195­208.

4 Duncan, G. & Brooks­Gunn., J. (1997). The Consequences of Growing up Poor. New York: Russel Sage Press. 5 Ibid.

6 Racial categories for 2002 differ from those of previous years due to the addition of the multiple race category on the

2000 Census.

80 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 2. ECONOMIC SECURITY

Hispanic origin: Selected years, 1960­2002

All types of families with

related children under age 18

1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002a

26.5 20.7 14.9 16.8 17.9 20.1 19.9 20.2 19.8 19.2 18.3 16.3 15.6 15.8 16.3

Whiteb 20.0 14.4 10.5 12.5 13.4 15.6 15.1 15.5 15.5 15.4 14.4 12.9 12.3 12.8 13.2

White, non­Hispanicb — — — — — — — — — — — — 8.7 8.9 9.0

Blackb — — 41.5 41.4 42.1 43.1 44.2 41.5 39.5 36.8 36.4 32.8 30.4 30.0 —

Black, non­Hispanicb — — — — — — — — — — — — — — 32.2

Hispanic — — — 33.1 33.0 39.6 37.7 39.3 39.9 36.4 33.7 30 27.3 26.5 28.2

Related children ages 6­17c — — 14 16 17 19 18.2 18.3 18.3 18.0 17.1 15.5 14.9 14.6 15.4

Whiteb — — 10 12 12 14 13.6 14.1 14.2 14.1 13.2 12.1 11.7 11.8 12.4

White, non­Hispanicb — — — — — — — — — — — — 8.5 8.2 8.3

Blackb — — 41 42 40 41 40.8 37.5 37.0 35.3 35.0 30.9 29.2 27.4 —

Black, non­Hispanicb — — — — — — — — — — — — — — 30.2

Hispanic — — — — 32 39 36.2 37.3 38.4 35.2 32.2 30 26.6 26.5 28.0

c — — 17 18.2 20.3 22.6 23.0 23.7 22.7 21.6 20.6 18.0 16.9 18.2 18.7

Whiteb — — 12 14 15.5 18.0 17.8 18.2 18.2 18.0 16.8 14.6 13.7 14.9 15.2

White, non­Hispanicb — — — — — — — — — — — — 9.4 10.6 10.9

Blackb — — 42.0 41.1 45.5 47.1 50.5 48.9 44.6 39.7 39.6 36.6 32.9 35.5 —

Black, non­Hispanicb — — — — — — — — — — — — — — 37.5

Hispanic — — — — 34 41 40.2 42.4 42.2 38.3 35.8 31 28.3 28.9 28.9

Married­couple families with 

related children under age 18 — — — — — — 10.2 10.0 10.1 9.5 9.1 8.4 8.1 8.0 8.5

Whiteb — — — — — — 9.2 9.3 9.2 8.6 8.4 7.9 7.8 7.7 8.1

White, non­Hispanicb — — — — — — — — — — — — 4.9 4.7 4.9

Blackb — — — — — — 18.1 12.8 13.9 12.8 12.1 10.8 8.2 10.1 —

Black, non­Hispanicb — — — — — — — — — — — — — — 11.5

Hispanic — — — — — — 26.5 28.4 29.4 26.0 23.4 22 20.9 19.5 21.3

Related children ages 6­17c — — — — — — 9.5 9.4 9.3 8.8 8.5 8.0 7.9 7.4 7.9

Whiteb — — — — — — 8.3 8.6 8.3 7.8 7.6 7.3 7.5 7.0 7.5

White, non­Hispanicb — — — — — — — — — — — — 4.9 4.3 4.4

Blackb — — — — — — 17.2 12.3 14.0 12.9 13.0 11.1 7.9 9.1 —

Black, non­Hispanicb — — — — — — — — — — — — — — 10.7

Hispanic — — — — — — 25.4 27.0 27.5 24.8 22.3 21 20.2 18.9 20.7

c — — — — — — 11.6 11.1 11.5 10.6 10.1 9.0 8.6 9.2 9.9

Whiteb — — — — — — 10.8 10.5 10.9 10.2 9.9 9.0 8.4 8.9 9.7

White, non­Hispanicb — — — — — — — — — — — — 4.9 5.6 6.1

Blackb — — — — — — 19.9 13.7 13.6 12.6 10.1 10.0 8.9 12.2 —

Black, non­Hispanicb — — — — — — — — — — — — — — 13.8

Hispanic — — — — — — 28.2 30.6 32.2 27.8 25.0 24 22.0 20.5 22.5

continued

Table ES 1.2.A

Percentage of related children under age 18 living below poverty level, by family structure, age, and race and

Related children under age 6

Related children under age 6

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 81 
Poverty and Income

Table ES 1.2.A  continued

Percentage of related children under age 18 living below poverty level, by family structure, age, and race and

Hispanic origin: Selected years, 1960­2002

Female­headed families with 

related children under age 18

1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002a

68.4 64.3 58.7 52.7 50.8 53.6 53.4 50.3 49.3 49.0 46.1 41.9 39.8 39.3 39.6

Whiteb 60 53 43 44 42 45 46 42.5 43.1 44.3 40.1 35.5 33.0 34.7 34.7

White, non­Hispanicb — — — — — — — — — — — — 27.9 29.0 29.2

Blackb — — 68 66 65 67 65 61.6 58.2 55.3 54.7 51.7 49.4 46.6 —

Black, non­Hispanicb — — — — — — — — — — — — — — 47.5

Hispanic — — — — 65 72 68 65.7 67.4 62.8 59.6 52 48.3 49.3 47.8

Related children ages 6­17c — — 49 49.3 45.5 48.3 47.3 44.6 44.9 44.7 43.2 38.2 36.5 35.3 36.5

Whiteb — — 38 39.7 35.9 39.9 39.4 37.0 38.4 39.2 36.6 32.0 29.3 30.8 31.8

White, non­Hispanicb — — — — — — — — — — — — 24.3 25.2 25.7

Blackb — — 66 65.6 61.5 62.7 60.1 56.5 55.1 52.6 52.2 48.5 47.3 42.8 —

Black, non­Hispanicb — — — — — — — — — — — — — — 44.9

Hispanic — — — — 62 70 64 61.7 64.7 59.9 55.5 51 46.2 46.2 46.6

c — — 64 62.0 65.2 65.8 65.5 61.8 58.8 59.1 58.7 50.3 47.2 48.9 49.3

Whiteb — — 59 58.5 59.8 58.6 60.4 54.6 54.4 56.9 54.1 44.4 42.1 44.6 45.1

White, non­Hispanicb — — — — — — — — — — — — 37.4 39.7 42.6

Blackb — — 71 67 71.8 75.3 72.6 70.6 64.0 60.9 59.9 58.5 53.8 54.6 —

Black, non­Hispanicb — — — — — — — — — — — — — — 54.6

Hispanic — — — — 70 79 76.5 72.3 72.4 67.9 67.3 55 52.7 55.7 51.3

Related children under age 6

a Racial categories for 2002 differ from those of previous years due to the addition of the multiple race category on the 2000

Census.

b In 2002, this racial category contains only persons who did not select any additional racial categories on the 2000 Census. Persons 

of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

c In 2002, the subcategories for related children changed to “Related children ages 5 to 17,” and “Related children under age 5.”

—  Data not available.

Notes:  The poverty level is based on money income and does not include noncash benefits, such as Food Stamps. Poverty thresholds reflect family size and composition and are adjusted each year using the annual average Consumer Price Index (CPI) level. The

average poverty threshold for a family of four was $18,392 in 2002.  Related children include biological children, stepchildren, and

adopted children of the householder and all other children in the household related to the householder (or reference person) by

blood, marriage, or adoption.

Data are provided to one decimal place whenever possible. Some data prior to 1990 are not.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau. (2003). Poverty in the United States, 2002. Current Population Survey, P60­222 and detailed tables.

82 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 2. ECONOMIC SECURITY

Figure ES 1.2.A

Percentage of related children under age 18 living below the poverty level, by family type: 1960­2002

0

20

40

60

80

100 Percent

Female-headed families

All families

Married-couple families

1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002

Note:  The poverty level is based on money income and does not include noncash benefits, such as Food Stamps. Poverty

thresholds reflect family size and composition and are adjusted each year using the annual average Consumer Price Index

(CPI) level. The average poverty threshold for a family of four was $18,392 in 2002.  Related children include biological children, stepchildren, and adopted children of the householder and all other children in the household related to the householder

(or reference person) by blood, marriage, or adoption.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau. (2003). Poverty in the United States, 2002. Current Population Survey, P60­222 and detailed tables.

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 83 
Poverty and Income

origin: Selected years, 1975­2002

Under 50% of poverty

1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002a

Related children under age 18 5.3 6.6 8.1 8.3 7.9 8.4 8.5 8 6.9 6.4 7.1 6.6

Whiteb 3.7 4.5 5.6 5.6 5.5 6.0 6.1 5.9 5.1 4.8 5.3 4.9

White, non­Hispanicb — — — — — — 4.6 4.3 3.6 3.7 3.9 3.3

Blackb 14.4 17.4 21.5 22.3 20.1 20.3 19.5 17.7 15.3 13.9 16.1 — 

Black, non­Hispanicb — — — — — — — — — — — 15.1

Hispanicb — — — 13.5 15.6 14.0 15.6 13.8 11.1 9.8 10.8 10.7

Under 100% of poverty

Related children under age 18 16.8 17.9 20.1 19.9 20.2 19.8 19.2 18 16.9 16.1 16.3 16.3

Whiteb 12.5 13.4 15.6 15.1 15.5 15.5 15.4 15.1 13.5 12.9 13.4 13.2

White, non­Hispanicb — — — — — — 11.4 10.6 9.4 9.3 9.5 9.0

Blackb 41.4 42.1 43.1 44.2 41.5 39.5 36.8 36.7 33.1 30.6 30.2 — 

Black, non­Hispanicb —  —  —  —  —  —  —  —  —  —  —  32.3

Hispanic 33.1 33.0 39.6 37.7 39.3 39.9 36.4 34.4 30.3 28.0 28.0 28.2

Under 150% of poverty

Related children under age 18 30.6 29.4 31.7 30.6 31.5 31.1 29.9 29 28.2 26.8 27.5 27.5

Whiteb 24.1 24.1 26.3 25.2 26.3 26.1 25.2 24.7 23.8 22.9 23.7 23.3

White, non­Hispanicb — — — — — — 19.6 18.2 17.6 16.9 17.4 16.8

Blackb 60.3 57.3 59.3 57.4 56.3 55.6 51.3 52.2 48.4 45.1 45.8 — 

Black, non­Hispanicb —  —  —  —  —  —  —  —  —  —  —  47.8

Hispanic  — — — 55.4 59.0 57.1 55.5 53.0 49.5 47.2 46.6 46.8

43.0 41.8 42.9 41.7 42.6 42.5 40.7 40 38.8 37.4 38.2 37.8

Whiteb 37.6 36.5 37.5 36.5 37.3 37.4 36.1 35.1 34.0 32.9 34.1 33.3

White, non­Hispanicb — — — — — — 29.5 27.7 26.6 25.6 26.7 25.5

Blackb 73.5 70.1 70.7 67.9 67.8 67.6 63.6 64.2 60.8 58.8 57.3 — 

Black, non­Hispanicb —  —  —  —  —  —  —  —  —  —  —  59.3

Hispanic — — — 69.1 72.5 71.7 69.1 66.7 64.4 62.2 61.5 61.7

a

b

of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

—  Data not available.

Note: 

poverty threshold for a family of four was $18,392 in 2002.  Related children include biological children, stepchildren, and adopted

or adoption.

P60­222 and detailed tables. 

U.S. Census Bureau. (1998).  , P60­201; U.S. Census Bureau. (1997).  , P60­198; 

U.S. Census Bureau. (1996).  , P60­189; U.S. Census Bureau. (1996).  , P60­194; 

U.S. Census Bureau. (1995).  , P60­188; U.S. Census Bureau. (1993).  , P60­185; 

U.S. Census Bureau. (1992).  , P60­181; U.S. Census Bureau. (1991).  , P60­175; 

U.S. Census Bureau. (1982).  , P60­133; U.S. Census Bureau. (1977).  , P60­106; 

U.S. Census Bureau. (1972).  , P60­86.

Table ES 1.2.B

Percentage of related children under age 18 living below selected poverty thresholds, by race and Hispanic 

Under 200% of poverty

Related children under age 18

Racial categories for 2002 differ from those of previous years due to the addition of the multiple race category on the 2000 Census.

In 2002, this racial category contains only persons who did not select any additional racial categories on the 2000 Census. Persons 

The poverty level is based on money income and does not include noncash benefits, such as Food Stamps. Poverty thresholds

reflect family size and composition and are adjusted each year using the annual average Consumer Price Index (CPI) level. The average

children of the householder and all other children in the household related to the householder (or reference person) by blood, marriage,

Sources: U.S. Census Bureau. (2002). Poverty in the United States, 2002. Current Population Survey,

Current Population Reports Current Population Reports

Current Population Reports Current Population Reports

Current Population Reports Current Population Reports

Current Population Reports Current Population Reports

Current Population Reports Current Population Reports

Current Population Reports

84 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 2. ECONOMIC SECURITY

Figure ES 1.2.B

Percentage of related children under age 18 living below 50, 100, 150, and 200 percent of poverty: 1975­2002

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100 Percent

1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2002

Under 50% 

of poverty

Under 100% 

of poverty

Under 150% 

of poverty

Under 200% 

of poverty

Note:  U.S. Census Bureau. (2003). Poverty in the United States, 2002. Current Population Survey, P60­222 and detailed tables.  The

poverty level is based on money income and does not include noncash benefits, such as Food Stamps. Poverty thresholds reflect family

size and composition and are adjusted each year using the annual average Consumer Price Index (CPI) level.  The average poverty

threshold for a family of four was $18,392 in 2002.  Related children include biological children, stepchildren, and adopted children 

of the householder and all other children in the household related to the householder (or reference person) by blood, marriage, 

or adoption.

Sources:  U.S. Census Bureau. (1998). Current Population Reports, P60­201; U.S. Census Bureau. (1997). Current Population Reports, P60­198;

U.S. Census Bureau. (1996). Current Population Reports, P60­189; U.S. Census Bureau. (1996). Current Population Reports, P60­194; 

U.S. Census Bureau. (1995). Current Population Reports, P60­188; U.S. Census Bureau. (1993). Current Population Reports, P60­185; 

U.S. Census Bureau. (1992). Current Population Reports, P60­181; U.S. Census Bureau. (1991). Current Population Reports, P60­175; 

U.S. Census Bureau. (1982). Current Population Reports, P60­133; U.S. Census Bureau. (1977). Current Population Reports, P60­106; 

U.S. Census Bureau. (1972). Current Population Reports, P60­86.

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 85 
SECTION 2. ECONOMIC SECURITY

Poverty 

and Income

Financial

Support

Parental

Employment

Consumption
Financial Support

ES 2.1 Means­Tested Assistance: AFDC, TANF, and Food Stamps

Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC) was established by the Social Security

Act of 1935 as a grant program to enable states to provide cash welfare payments for needy

children. As a result of major welfare reform, the Personal Responsibility and Work

Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996 (PRWORA), the AFDC program was replaced by a

new program called Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF), which gives states

wider latitude in spending through block grants. Some of the ways in which TANF differs

from AFDC include a lifetime limit of 5 years (60 months) on the amount of time a family can receive federally­funded assistance (with some exceptions), increasing work participation rate requirements that states must meet, and broad state flexibility in program

design.1 

Spending through the TANF block grant is capped and funded at $16.4 billion per year,

slightly above fiscal year 1995 Federal expenditures for AFDC and its component programs.

States also must meet a “maintenance of effort requirement” by spending on needy families at least 75 percent of the amount of state funds used on these programs in FY 1994 (80

percent if they fail work participation requirements).2 

When analyzing changes in welfare numbers over the years, there is some potential for discontinuity between AFDC and TANF caseload figures. In addition to replacing AFDC, the

PRWORA also replaced other programs including the Job Opportunities and Basic Skills

Training (JOBS) program and the Emergency Assistance program. However, under TANF,

there is no longer an “Unemployed Parent” program, and work participation rates are set

higher. Bearing these factors in mind, 12 percent of children lived in families receiving

AFDC in 1979. This figure peaked at nearly 14 percent in 1993 (Figure ES 2.1.A). The number of children receiving benefits from AFDC/TANF has been cut in half since PRWORA in

1996. In 2002, the rate of children receiving TANF dropped to an all time low of 5.7 percent

(Table ES 2.1).

The other major source of assistance for needy families is the Food Stamp program, which

provides low­income households with coupons and Electronic Benefits Transfer (EBT)

Cards that can be used to buy nutritous food. Like TANF, the percentage of children in families receiving food stamp assistance peaked in the early 1990s. In 1993 and 1994, 21 percent

of children lived in families receiving nutrition or food assistance (Figure ES 2.1.A). In 2002

this figure dropped to 13.3 percent (Table ES 2.1).

Differences by Race.3 Black children were much more likely to be receiving AFDC benefits from 1987­1996 than were non­Black children. Fifty­nine percent of Black children

received benefits for one or more years compared with 14 percent of non­Black children.

Black children were also more likely to continue with AFDC benefits for an extended period of time than were non­Black children. Twenty­eight percent of Black children under age

6 received benefits for 6 or more years compared with 3 percent of non­Black children under

age 6 (Figure ES 2.1.B).

1 U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (2004). Indicators of Welfare Dependence: Annual Report to Congress, 2004.

Forthcoming.

2 Ibid.

3 Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race. Estimates for Blacks and non­Blacks include Hispanics of those races.

88 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 2. ECONOMIC SECURITY

Figure ES 2.1.A

Percentage of children under age 18 living in families receiving AFDC, TANF and in households receiving Food

Stamps: 1980­2002

0

1 0

1 5

2 0

2 5 PercentAFDC/TANF

Food Stamps

1980 1985 1990 1995 2002 

a Beginning in 2000, data include children in separate state programs.

Source:  U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (2004). Indicators of Welfare Dependence: Annual Report to Congress, 2002.

Forthcoming.

Selected years, 1970­2002

a

1970 1980 1990 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002

Number (in thousands) b 5,325 7,196 7,620 9,157 8,556 7,673 6,074 5,096 4,579 4,215 4,152

b 7.6 11.3 11.9 13.2 12.2 10.8 8.5 7.1 6.3 5.8 5.7

Food Stampsa

Number (in thousands) — 9,803 10,127 13,860 13,189 11,847 10,524 9,332 8,743 8,819 9,688

Percent — 15.5 15.8 20.0 18.8 16.7 14.7 13.0 12.1 12.1 13.3

a

b Beginning in 2000, data include children in separate state programs.

— Data not available.

Note: 

Source:  .

Table ES 2.1

Percentage and number of children in families receiving AFDC, TANF and in households receiving Food Stamps:

AFDC/TANF

Percent

Data do not include U.S. territories.

These data track any receipt of AFDC/TANF or Food Stamps in a year, not necessarily receipt of the benefit for a full year.

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (2004). Indicators of Welfare Dependence: Annual Report to Congress, 2004

Forthcoming.

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 89 
Financial Support

Figure ES 2.1.B

Percentage of children under age 6 in 1987 receiving any AFDC benefit, by number of years, and by

race: 1987­1996

0

2 0

4 0

6 0

8 0

100 Percent

All children

Black children

Non-Black children

Never One or more years Three or more years Six or more years Nine or more years

7 7

4 1

8 6

2 3

5 9

1 4 1 5

4 8

2 8

3 3

13

a Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race. Estimates for Blacks and Non­Blacks include Hispanics of those races.

Note: These data indicate receipt of any AFDC in a year, and not necessarily receipt of benefit for a full year.  Receipt of

AFDC by families of children who were under age 6 in 1987 was monitored for the decade beginning in 1987 and ending in

1996.  The figure displays the percentage who participated in AFDC by number of years participating over the 10­year period

(minimum is zero; maximum is 10 years). Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

Source: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (2002).  Indicators of Welfare Dependence: Annual Report to Congress,

2002. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.

90 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 2. ECONOMIC SECURITY

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 91 
Financial Support

ES 2.2 Child Support Nonpayment

The issue of child support has gained in importance in recent years.  In 2000, an estimated

13.5 million parents had custody of 21.79 million children under 21 years of age whose

other parent lived elsewhere.1 As rates of divorce and nonmarital births have risen, an

increasing proportion of children and their custodial parents depend on child support

income from the noncustiodial parent for financial support, and suffer when it is not forthcoming.  When noncustodial parents do not support their children financially, it is often

left to the government to provide support in the form of AFDC/TANF and Food Stamps. 

In many cases, and particularly where nonmarital births are concerned, families who

should be receiving child support from the noncustodial parent lack a court order establishing how much is owed. In 1999, 41 percent of custodial parents lacked a court order.

Among custodial parents with a court order who were owed child support, 45 percent

received the full amount.2 

Table ES 2.2.A shows the proportion of custodial mothers who had court orders or agreements for child support and were owed payments, but received no support at all for selected years between 1978 and 1991.  Table ES 2.2.B shows similar estimates for 1993 to 1999,

though changes in child support questions render these estimates incomparable to estimates for earlier years.

Differences by Marital Status.  Women who were separated or never married are less

likely to have court orders for child support than those who are divorced or who have

remarried.  In 1999, rates of nonpayment for those who had court orders or agreements

ranged from 23 percent among married and divorced women to 32 percent among nevermarried women (Table ES 2.2.B).  

Differences by Race and Hispanic Origin.3 In most years, eligible White custodial

mothers experienced lower rates of nonpayment than either Black or Hispanic custodial

mothers.  For example, in 1999, the most recent year for which estimates are available, the

percentage of eligible custodial mothers receiving no payment was 23 percent for Whites,

28 percent for Hispanics, and 35 percent for Blacks  (Table ES 2.2.B).

Differences by Poverty Status. Women who are poor are less likely to receive child support payments.  In 1999, rates of nonpayment for eligible custodial mothers were 37 percent among poor mothers and 22 percent among nonpoor mothers (Table ES 2.2.B).

Differences by Educational Attainment.  The data indicate that the more education a

woman acquires, the greater her chances are for receiving child support payments (Table ES

2.2.B). Twenty percent of women with an associate degree or more did not receive child

support payments compared to 39 percent of women with less than a high school diploma.

1 U.S. Census Bureau. (2002). Current Population Reports, P60­217.

2 Ibid.

3 Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race. Estimates for Whites and Blacks include Hispanics of those races.

92 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 2. ECONOMIC SECURITY

Hispanic origin:  Selected years,  1978­1991

All eligible womenb

1978 1981 1983 1985 1987 1989 1991a

28 23 24 26 24 25 24

Marital status

Married 32 25 28 32 27 28 24

Divorced 27 23 24 25 22 23 22

Separated 27 16 13 16 26 20 26

19 27 24 24 17 27 26

Race and Hispanic originc

White 27 23 23 25 23 24 22

Black 37 23 31 28 27 30 30

Hispanic 35 29 37 32 25 30 31

a Estimates for 1991 were produced using somewhat different assumptions than in previous years and should not be 

contrasted with earlier estimates.

b Eligible women are those due payments from court orders or agreements for child support.

c

Source:  U.S. Census Bureau. (1995).  P60­187; U.S. Census Bureau. (1991). 

, P60­173; U.S. Census Bureau. (1990).  , P23­167; U.S. Census Bureau. (1989). 

, P23­154; U.S. Census Bureau. (1985).  , P23­140; U.S. Census Bureau. (1985).

, P23­141; U.S. Census Bureau. (1981).  , P23­112.

Table ES 2.2.A

Percentage of eligible women who are not receiving child support by marital status, and by race and

Never­married

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race. Estimates for Whites and Blacks include Hispanics of those races.

Current Population Reports, Current Population

Reports Current Population Reports Current

Population Reports Current Population Reports

Current Population Reports Current Population Reports

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 93 
Financial Support

origin, and poverty status: 1993, 1995, 1997, and 1999

All eligible womena

1993 1995 1997 1999

24 24 24 25

Marital status

Married 22 20 20 23

Divorced 21 20 21 23

Separated 28 27 24 27

30 34 34 32

Race and Hispanic originb

White 21 22 20 23

White, non­Hispanic 20 20 20 22

Black 32 31 39 35

Hispanic 25 36 23 28

Poor 29 33 36 37

Nonpoor 22 20 20 22

Educational Attainment

Less than high school diploma 29 37 30 39

High school graduate 25 24 29 26

23 23 23 23

25 18 16 20

14 15 14 20

a Eligible women are those due payments from court orders or agreements for child support.

b

Note: 

and the receipt of payments.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau. (2002).  , P60­217. 

Table ES 2.2.B

Percentage of eligible women who are not receiving child support, by marital status, race and Hispanic

Never­married

Poverty status

Some college, no degree

Associate degree

Bachelors degree or more

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race. Estimates for Whites and Blacks include Hispanics of those races.

Starting with April 1994 CPS questionnaire, revisions were made to the questions surrounding child support awards

Current Population Reports

94 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 2. ECONOMIC SECURITY

Poverty 

and Income

Financial

Support

Parental

Employment

Consumption
Parental Employment

ES 3.1 Parental Labor Force Participation

Over the past three decades, the proportion of single­parent families has increased,1 as has

the proportion of mothers who work regardless of marital status.2 These factors have

reduced the percentage of children who have a parent at home full­time. Figure ES 3.1.A

presents data on the percentage of children who have at least one parent in the labor force

by family structure, while Figure ES 3.1.B shows the percentage of children with no resident parent in the labor force.

Differences by Family Type. Between 1985 and 2001, the percentage of children who

have both parents or only the resident parent in the labor force increased from 59 percent

to 68 percent (Table ES 3.1.A). Between 1990 and 1996, this percentage was similar for married­couple families and single­mother families; however, the rate for single­mother families increased sharply from 66 percent in 1996 to 79 percent in 2001, while the rate for married­couple families had little variation over the same time period (64 percent in 1996 and

64 percent in 2001). The rate for children in single­father families was much higher, at 91

percent in 2001.  Between 1994 and 2001, there was a large decline in the proportion of children living in families in which no resident parent was attached to the labor force, as shown

in Table ES 3.1.B.

Differences by Age of Child. Children under age 6 have been less likely than older children to have both parents or only the resident parent in the labor force (Table ES 3.1.A). In

2001, 65.5 percent of children under age 6 had both parents or only the resident parent in

the labor force, compared with 70 percent for older children. However, the differences

between these two age groups have lessened between 1985 and 2001.

Differences by Race and Hispanic Origin.3 Between 1985 and 1990, White children,

Black children, and Hispanic children all became more likely to have both parents or only

the resident parent in the labor force (Table ES 3.1.A). Between 1990 and 1996, the rates

stayed virtually the same for Blacks and Hispanics and increased modestly for Whites.

However, the rate for all three groups increased between 1996 and 2001, with especially

large increases for Blacks and Hispanics. Between 1996 and 2001, the rate for Black children

of all ages increased from 64 percent to 75 percent, and the rate for Black children under age

6 increased from 58 percent to 72 percent.  Between 1996 and 2001, the rate for Hispanic

children of all ages increased from 50 percent to 59 percent.  In 2001, 68 percent of White

children, 75 percent of Black children, and 59 percent of Hispanic children lived in families

in which all resident parents were working.

1 See indicator PF 2.2 in this report.

2 See indicator ES 3.2 in this report.

3 Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race. Estimates for Whites and Blacks include Hispanics of those races.

96 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 2. ECONOMIC SECURITY

Figure ES 3.1.A

Percentage of children under age 18 with both parents or only resident parent in the labor force, by

family structure: 1985­2001

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100 Percent

All children

Married-couple

Single-mother

Single-father

1985 1990 1995 2000 2001

a 2001 annual averages.

Sources:  U.S. Census Bureau. (2001). Special tabulations of Current Population Surveys (1996­2001). Unpublished work; U.S.

Census Bureau. (1995). Special tabulations of Current Population Surveys (1985, 1990, 1994, 1995). Unpublished work. 

Figure ES 3.1.B

Percentage of children under age 18 with no resident parent in the labor force, by family structure:

1985­2001

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100 Percent

1985 1990 1995 2000 2001

All children

Married-couple

Single-mother

Single-father

a 2001 annual averages.

Sources:  U.S. Census Bureau. (2001). Special tabulations of Current Population Surveys (1996­2001). Unpublished work; U.S.

Census Bureau. (1995). Special tabulations of Current Population Surveys (1985, 1990, 1994, 1995). Unpublished work. 

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 97 
Parental Employment

structure, and race and Hispanic origin: Selected years, 1985­2001

All children

1985 1990 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001a

59 63 65 66 68 68 67 68 68

Under age 6 51 55 59 58 61 62 61 62 66

Ages 6­17 63 67 69 70 71 71 71 71 70

Family structure

Married­couple 57 61 65 64 65 65 63 64 64

Under age 6 51 54 59 58 58 58 56 57 57

Ages 6­17 61 65 68 67 69 68 67 67 68

Single­mother 61 63 64 66 72 74 77 79 79

Under age 6 49 51 54 56 65 67 71 73 73

Ages 6­17 67 70 69 72 76 77 79 81 81

Single­father 89 88 88 88 88 91 89 90 91

Under age 6 90 90 86 86 89 94 94 94 90

Ages 6­17 89 88 88 89 88 90 87 89 93

Race and Hispanic originb

White 59 63 66 66 68 68 66 67 68

Under age 6 51 55 59 58 61 61 59 61 61

Ages 6­17 63 67 70 70 71 71 70 71 71

Black 60 63 64 64 71 73 75 74 75

Under age 6 54 55 57 58 68 71 74 72 72

Ages 6­17 63 67 67 68 73 75 76 74 77

Hispanic 45 50 50 50 54 58 57 59 59

Under age 6 40 44 44 43 49 52 51 53 53

Ages 6­17 48 54 54 55 57 62 60 63 62

a 2001 annual averages.

b

Sources:  U.S. Census Bureau. (2001). Special tabulations of  (1996­2001). Unpublished work; U.S.

Census Bureau. (1995). Special tabulations of  (1985, 1990, 1994, 1995). Unpublished work. 

Table ES 3.1.A

Percentage of children with both parents or only resident parent in the labor force, by age, family 

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race. Estimates for Whites and Blacks include Hispanics of those races.

Current Population Surveys

Current Population Surveys

98 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 2. ECONOMIC SECURITY

and Hispanic origin: Selected years, 1985­2001

All children

1985 1990 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001a

11 10 11 11 9 8 7 6 6

Under age 6 12 13 14 13 10 9 7 6 7

Ages 6­17 10 9 10 9 8 8 7 6 6

Family structure

Married­couple 3 2 3 2 2 2 2 2 2

Under age 6 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 2

Ages 6­17 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2

Single­mother 39 37 36 34 28 26 23 21 21

Under age 6 51 49 46 44 35 33 29 27 27

Ages 6­17 33 30 31 28 24 23 21 19 19

Single­father 11 12 12 12 12 9 11 10 9

Under age 6 10 10 14 14 11 6 6 6 8

Ages 6­17 11 12 12 11 12 10 13 12 10

Race and Hispanic originb

White 8 7 8 7 7 7 5 5 5

Under age 6 8 9 10 9 7 7 5 5 5

Ages 6­17 7 6 7 7 6 6 5 5 5

Black 27 26 27 25 20 17 15 14 14

Under age 6 33 34 33 32 23 20 17 15 15

Ages 6­17 24 21 23 21 18 15 15 13 13

Hispanic 19 17 19 17 14 13 11 9 9

Under age 6 20 19 21 20 15 14 11 9 9

Ages 6­17 19 16 17 15 13 13 11 9 9

a 2001 annual averages.

b

Sources:  U.S. Census Bureau. (2001). Special tabulations of  (1996­2001). Unpublished work; U.S.

Census Bureau. (1995). Special tabulations of  (1985, 1990, 1994, 1995). Unpublished work. 

Table ES 3.1.B 

Percentage of children with no resident parent in the labor force, by age, family structure, and race 

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race. Estimates for Whites and Blacks include Hispanics of those races. 

Current Population Surveys

Current Population Surveys

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 99 
Parental Employment

ES 3.2 Maternal Employment

Over the past several decades, the increasing proportion of mothers moving into employment has had substantial consequences for the everyday lives of families with children.

Maternal employment adds to the financial resources available to families and is often the

only source of income for families headed by single mothers­although if child­care services

are purchased and unsubsidized, they may offset a substantial percentage of low­wage

mothers’ earnings.

Maternal employment rates for all mothers with children under age 18 increased steadily

from 53 percent to 63 percent between 1980 and 1990 (Figure ES 3.2). From 1990 to 2001,

rates increased at a slower pace from 63 percent to 70 percent. This pattern of increasing

maternal employment was evident for all mothers, regardless of the age of their children. 

Differences by Age of Youngest Child. The percentage of mothers who are employed

increased with the age of the youngest child for all time periods presented in Table ES 3.2.

In 2001, 57 percent of mothers with children under age 3 were employed, compared with

67 percent and 77 percent for mothers with youngest children ages 3­5 and 6­17, respectively. 

Differences by Marital Status. Throughout the period between 1980 and 2001, divorced

mothers had higher rates of employment than never­married or currently married mothers

(Table ES 3.2). However, the gap narrowed with employment increasing from 62 percent to

69 percent for married mothers and from 40 percent to 64 percent for never­married mothers.

Differences by Race and Hispanic Origin.1 In 2001, 70 percent of White mothers, 73

percent of Black mothers, and 58 percent of Hispanic mothers were employed (Table ES

3.2). Black mothers were the most likely to be employed full­time (63 percent). All three

groups have experienced a steady rise in the percentage of employment during the 1990s.

Differences by Employment Status. Among all employed mothers, 52 percent were

working full­time in 2001 (Table ES 3.2). Employed mothers with older children were more

likely to work full­time than those with young children, with rates ranging from 40 percent for mothers with children under age 3, to 60 percent for mothers with a youngest child

between the ages of 6 and 17. Divorced mothers were more likely to work full­time (72 percent) than never­married mothers (52 percent) and married mothers (49 percent). Black

mothers who were employed were more likely to work full­time (63 percent) than White

mothers (49 percent) or Hispanic mothers (50 percent).

1 Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.  Estimates for Whites and Blacks include Hispanics of those races.

100 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 2. ECONOMIC SECURITY

Figure ES 3.2

Percentage of mothers with youngest child under age 18 who were employed, by age of youngest child:

1980­2001

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100 Percent

1980 1990 1995 1985 2000 2001

Under age 18

Under age 3

Ages 3-5

Ages 6-17

Source:  Bureau of Labor Statistics. Special tabulations based on analyses of March Current Population Surveys (1980, 1988,

1990, 1994­2001). Unpublished work. 

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 101 
Parental Employment

of youngest child, marital status, and race and Hispanic origin: Selected years, 1980­2001

All employed mothers

1980a 1990 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001

53 63 66 66 68 68 69 70 70

— 46 46 47 50 50 50 51 52

— 17 19 19 18 19 18 18 18

Age of youngest child

Under age 3 37 50 54 55 57 58 57 58 57

— 34 35 36 38 39 37 38 40

— 16 19 19 19 19 20 19 18

Ages 3­5 50 61 62 63 64 64 65 68 67

— 43 42 43 47 46 46 50 48

— 18 20 20 18 18 19 18 19

Ages 6­17 60 70 73 74 74 75 76 76 77

— 53 53 55 56 57 58 58 60

— 17 19 19 18 18 18 18 17

Marital status

Married, spouse present 62 66 67 68 69 68 68 69 69

— 44 45 46 48 48 48 49 49

— 19 22 21 20 20 20 20 19

40 46 48 49 57 62 65 66 64

— 36 35 35 43 46 49 52 52

— 9 13 14 14 15 16 14 12

75 74 77 79 77 78 80 83 84

— 66 64 66 65 66 69 70 72

— 9 13 13 12 12 12 13 12

Race and Hispanic originb

White 52 63 67 67 69 68 69 69 70

— 44 46 47 48 48 49 49 50

— 19 21 21 20 20 20 20 20

Black 54 61 62 63 65 70 71 72 73

— 53 50 52 55 58 58 62 63

— 8 11 10 10 12 13 11 10

Hispanic 42 50 49 49 53 55 55 57 58

— 39 37 37 41 43 42 46 47

— 11 12 12 12 13 13 11 11

a

with definitions used in later years.  Sums may not add to totals due to rounding.

b

—  Data not available.

Source:  (1980, 1988,

1990, 1994­2001). Unpublished work. 

Table ES 3.2

Percentage of mothers with youngest child under age 18 who were employed, full­ and part­time, by age

Working full­time

Working part­time

Working full­time

Working part­time

Working full­time

Working part­time

Working full­time

Working part­time

Working full­time

Working part­time

Never­married

Working full­time

Working part­time

Divorced

Working full­time

Working part­time

Working full­time

Working part­time

Working full­time

Working part­time

Working full­time

Working part­time

Percentages for 1980 are not presented separately by marital status and full­time versus part­time due to incompatibilities

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race. Estimates for Whites and Blacks include Hispanics of those races.

Bureau of Labor Statistics. Special tabulations based on analyses of March Current Population Surveys

102 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 2. ECONOMIC SECURITY

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 103 
Parental Employment

ES 3.3 Child Care

Due to the increasing percentage of young children with two parents (or a single resident

parent) participating in the labor force, finding adequate child care has become essential.

The percentage of children ages 3 to 5 enrolled in center­based early childhood care was 

56 percent in 2001, up slightly from 1991 when the figure stood at 53 percent (Table ES

3.3.A). Between the years 1985 and 1999 a vast array of child care arrangements were used

by families with working mothers.  The four most commonly used provisions in 1999 were

care by a relative (28.8 percent), parental care (21.5 percent), care by a nonrelative (20.3 percent), and use of an organized facility (22.1 percent) (Table ES 3.3.B).

Differences by Race and Hispanic Origin.1 Hispanic families were less likely than

Black, non­Hispanic or White, non­Hispanic families to use organized facilities such as day

care centers and preschools.  In 2001, 40 percent of Hispanic children of working mothers

were cared for in day care centers and preschools, compared with 59 percent of White, nonHispanic and 64 percent of Black, non­Hispanic children (Figure ES 3.3).

Differences by Poverty Status. In 2001, children of families at or above the poverty level

were more likely to be enrolled in center­based care and education programs than children

of families below poverty (59 percent versus 47 percent) (Table ES 3.3.A).

Differences by Mother’s Educational Attainment. In 2001, mothers who graduated

college were nearly twice as likely to enroll their children in center­based early childhood

care and education programs than mothers who did not graduate from high school (70 percent versus 38 percent) (Table ES 3.3.A).

1 Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

104 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 2. ECONOMIC SECURITY

programs, by child and family characteristics: Selected years, 1991­2001

All children

1991 1993 1995 1996 1999 2001

53 53 55 55 60 56

Sex

Male 52 53 55 55 61 54

Female 53 53 55 55 59 59

Race and Hispanic origina

White, non­Hispanic 54 54 57 57 60 59

Black, non­Hispanic 58 57 60 65 73 64

Hispanic 39 43 37 39 44 40

Poverty Statusb

Below poverty 44 49 45 44 52 47

56 53 59 59 62 59

50 52 55 54 59 57

54 54 56 58 62 56

c

Less than high school 32 33 35 37 40 38

High school  46 43 48 49 52 47

Some college 60 60 57 58 63 62

72 73 75 73 74 70

c

59 31 60 63 65 63

58 57 62 64 64 61

Looking for work 43 48 52 47 55 47

45 44 47 43 52 47

a

b

income.

c

ment status.

Note: 

Source: 

Being, 2003

Table ES 3.3.A

Percentage of children ages 3 to 5 who are enrolled in center­based early childhood care and education

At or above poverty

Family Type

Two parents

One or no parent

Mother’s highest level of education

College degree

Mother’s employment status

Worked 35 hours or more per week

Worked less than 35 hours per week

Not in labor force

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

Poverty estimates for 1992 and 1993 are not comparable to later years because respondents were not asked exact household

Children without mothers in the home are not included in estimates dealing with mother’s education or mother’s employEstimates are based on children who have yet to enter kindergarten. Center­based programs include day care centers,

Head Start programs, preschool, nursery school, prekindergarten, and other early childhood programs.

Federal Interagency Forum on Child and Family Statistics. (2003). America’s Children: Key National Indicators of Well­

. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 105 
Parental Employment

Table ES 3.3.B

Selected years, 1985­1999

(in thousands)

Fall 1988 Fall 1990 Fall 1991 Fall 1993 Fall 1995a Spring 1997 Spring 1999

8,168 9,483 9,629 9,854 9,937 10,047 10,116 10,587

Familial care 23.8 22.7 22.9 28.7 22.1 22.0 22.3 21.5

Mother while working 8.1 7.6 6.4 8.7 6.2 5.4 3.3 3.1

Father 15.7 15.1 16.5 20.0 15.9 16.6 19.0 18.5

Relatives 24.1 21.1 23.1 23.5 26.0 21.4 25.8 28.8

Grandparent 15.9 13.9 14.3 15.8 17.0 15.9 18.4 20.8

Sibling and other relative 8.2 7.2 8.8 7.7 9.0 5.5 7.4 8.0

Organized facility 23.1 25.8 27.5 23.1 29.9 25.1 21.7 22.1

Day care center 14.0 16.6 20.6 15.8 18.3 17.7 16.6 17.9

9.1 9.2 6.9 7.3 11.6 5.9 4.2 3.8

b — — — — — 1.5 0.9 0.4

Other non­relative care 28.2 28.9 25.1 23.3 21.6 28.4 22.1 20.3

5.9 5.3 5.0 5.4 5.0 4.9 4.0 3.3

22.3 23.6 20.1 17.9 16.6 23.5 18.1 16.9

b — — — — — 15.7 10.7 10.9

— — — — — 7.8 7.4 6.0

Other 0.8 1.6 1.3 1.6 1.1 2.9 8.1 7.3

— 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.0

c 0.8 1.5 1.2 1.6 1.1 0.6 2.0 2.7

No regular arrangement — — — — — 2.2 6.0 4.6

a

b 1995 was the first year for which family day care and Head Start were separate response categories.

c

—  Data not available.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau. (2000).  , P70­70.

Percentage distribution of child care arrangements of children under age 5 with employed mothers:

Number of children

Winter 1985

Nursery/ Preschool

Federal Head Start program

Child’s home

Provider’s home

Family day care

Other non­relative

Self care

Other arrangement

To make the 1995 data consistent with prior surveys, the 1995 distribution was proportionately redistributed to account

for tied responses for the primary arrangement to make the percentage total to 100 percent.

Includes children in kindergarten/grade school or in a school­based activity.

Current Population Reports

106 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 2. ECONOMIC SECURITY

Figure ES 3.3

Percentage of children ages 3 to 5 who are enrolled in center­based early childhood care and education

programs, by race and Hispanic origin: 1991­2001

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100 Percent

1991 1993 1995 1996 1999 2001

White, 

non-Hispanic

Black, 

non-Hispanic

Hispanic

Other

a Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

Note:  Estimates are based on children who have yet to enter kindergarten.  Center based programs include day care centers,

Head Start programs, preschool, nursery school, prekindergarten, and other early childhood programs.

Source:  Federal Interagency Forum on Child and Family Statistics. (2002). America’s Children: Key National Indicators of WellBeing, 2002. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 107 
SECTION 2. ECONOMIC SECURITY

Poverty 

and Income

Financial

Support

Parental

Employment

Consumption
Consumption

ES 4.1 Housing Problems 

A home’s physical condition, its cost burden, the level of crowding,1 and the quality of the

surrounding neighborhood can all affect children’s physical, psychological, and material

well­being.2 This section presents recent trends in both the cost burden and the physical

quality of housing for all households with children under age 18.

Spending more than 30 percent of income on housing may compromise the budget for

other essential goods and services. However, the percentage of all households (containing

children) spending more than 30 percent of their incomes on housing increased from 15 percent in 1978 to 28 percent in 2001, while the percentage spending more than half their

income on housing doubled from 6 percent in 1978 to 11 percent in 2001 (Table ES 4.1). For

renter households with children and very low income,  the trend was similar, but housing

expenses were a much higher share of income. Between 1978 and 2001, the percentage of

renter households (with children and very low income) spending more than 30 percent of

their income on housing rose from 59 percent to 70 percent, while the percentage spending

more than 50 percent rose from 31 percent to 39 percent.

During this same period, the percentage of households (containing children) living in housing with moderate to severe3 physical problems  declined from 9 percent in 1978 to 7 percent in 2001.  For renter households (with children and very low income), the percentage

living in housing with moderate to severe physical problems declined from 18 percent in

1978 to 13 percent in 1995, before increasing to 16 percent in 2001.

Differences by Family Type. Among households with children, married­couple families

are less than half as likely to live in housing with physical problems than are households

with one or more unmarried married adults. In 2001, 5 percent of married­couple households, 11 percent of households with one adult, and 10 percent of households with two or

more unmarried adults lived in housing with moderate to severe physical problems.

Similarly, among all households with children, married couples are the least likely to be paying more than 30 percent of their income on housing. For example, in 1999, 20 percent of

married­couple households paid more than 30 percent, compared with 54 percent of households with one adult and 34 percent of households with two or more unmarried adults

(Figure ES 4.1).

1 Physical problems include plumbing, heating, electricity, upkeep, and/or condition of apartment hallways. Cost burden is

the ratio of housing costs to reported household income, while crowding is more than one person per room.

2 Kaufman, T. (1996). Housing America’s Future: Children at Risk. Washington, DC: National Low Income Housing Coalition.

3 For detailed information of “moderate” and “severe” physical problems, see U.S.Census Bureau & U.S.Department of

Housing and Urban Development. (1999). American Housing Survey for the United States in 1997. Government Housing

Reports, H150/95RV.

110 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 2. ECONOMIC SECURITY

All households with children

1978 1983 1989 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001

Number of households (in millions) 32.3 33.6 35.4 35.4 37.2 37.0 37.5 39.0

Housing problems (percent):

Any problems 30 33 33 34 36 36 35 36

Moderate or severe physical problems 9 8 9 7 7 7 7 7

Crowded housing 9 8 7 6 7 7 7 6

Cost burden greater than 30 percent 15 21 24 26 28 28 28 28

Cost burden greater than 50 percent 6 11 9 11 12 12 11 11

Severe problems 8 12 10 11 12 11 11 11

Renter households with children and 

Number of households (in millions) 4.2 5.1 5.9 6.6 6.5 6.4 6.2 5.9

Housing problems (percent):

Any problems 79 83 77 75 77 82 80 80

Moderate or severe physical problems 18 18 18 14 13 16 15 16

22 18 17 14 17 17 17 15

59 68 67 67 69 73 70 70

31 38 36 38 38 41 37 39

33 42 31 33 31 32 29 31

Rental assistancea 23 23 33 33 33 31 31 31

a

Note:  Physical problems include

Cost burden is the ratio of housing costs to

are those with incomes at or below one­half the median income in a geographic area.

Source: 

Being, 2003

Table ES 4.1

Percentage of households with children under age 18 having selected housing problems: all households

and very low income renter households: Selected years, 1978­2001

very low income

Crowded housing

Cost burden greater than 30 percent

Cost burden greater than 50 percent

Severe problems

Renters are either in a public housing project or have a subsidy. 

Housing problems include physical problems, excessive cost burden, and overcrowding.  

plumbing, heating, electricity, upkeep, and/or condition of apartment hallways.  

reported household income. “Crowded” is defined as having more than one person per room.  Very low income households

Federal Interagency Forum on Child and Family Statistics. (2003). America’s Children: Key National Indicators of Well­

. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 111 
Consumption

Figure ES 4.1

Percentage of households with children under age 18 that report housing problems by type of problem:

1978­2001

10

20

30

40

50

Crowded 

housing

Cost burden 

greater than 

30 percent

Any problems

Severe 

problems

1978 1983 1989 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 Percent Source:  Federal Interagency Forum on Child and Family Statistics. (2003). America’s Children: Key National Indicators 

of Well­Being, 2003. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

112 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 2. ECONOMIC SECURITY

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 113 
Consumption

ES 4.2 Food Security

Children’s good health and development depend on a diet sufficient in nutrients and calories. Food security has been defined as access at all times to enough food for an active,

healthy life. At a minimum, food security includes the ready availability of sufficient, nutritionally adequate and safe food, and the assurance that families can obtain adequate food

without relying on emergency feeding programs or resorting to scavenging, stealing, or

other desperate efforts to secure food.  A family’s ability to provide for children’s nutritional needs is linked to income and other resources and consistent access to adequate,

nutritious food.1 

Food­insecure households report having difficulty obtaining enough food, reduced quality

or variety of diets, anxiety about their food supply, and increased resort to emergency food

sources and other coping behaviors. Most food­insecure households obtain enough food to

avoid hunger, using a variety of coping strategies such as eating less varied diets, participating in Federal food assistance programs, or getting emergency food from community

food pantries. Only in the more severely food­insecure households are adults hungry at

times because they cannot afford enough food, and children are hungry only in the most

severely food­insecure households. This is because in most food­insecure households the

adults go without food, if necessary, so that the children will have enough. In 2002, 18.1

percent of all children lived in food­insecure households, including 4.3 percent who lived in

food­insecure households with hunger, usually only among adults, and 0.8 percent who

lived in food­insecure households in which one or more child was hungry at times (Table

ES 4.2). This last statistic overstates somewhat the number of children who wee hungry

due to food insecurity. In some households with more than one child, younger children

were protected from hunger when older children are not.

Differences by Poverty Status.  Poor children are much more likely than others to live in

households experiencing food insecurity. In 2002, 45.6 percent of children in homes with

incomes below the Federal poverty level lived in food­insecure households, compared with

11.5 percent in homes with incomes at or above poverty (Figure ES 4.2).

1 Life Sciences Research Office and American Institute of Nutrition. (1990). Core Indicators of Nutritional State for Difficult to

Sample Populations. Bethesda, MD.

114 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 2. ECONOMIC SECURITY

hunger:  Selected years, 1995­2002

All children

1995a 1998 1999 2000 2001b 2002

In food­insecure households 19.4 19.7 16.9 18.0 17.6 18.1

6.1 4.7 3.8 4.1 4.1 4.3

1.3 1.0 0.7 0.8 0.6 0.8

Children below poverty

In food­insecure households 44.4 48.7 44.0 47.2 45.9 45.6

15.6 14.2 11.8 11.9 12.9 12.3

3.4 3.0 2.2 2.2 2.6 2.4

Children at or above poverty 

In food­insecure households 11.2 12.6 10.5 11.5 11.5 12.4

3.0 2.3 1.9 2.1 2.2 2.6

0.6 0.5 0.4 0.5 0.3 0.4

a Statistics for 1995 are not precisely comparable to the more recent years, due to a change in method of screening CPS 

b

Note: 

The three levels of severity reported are

ence less severe levels.  The dividing lines, or designated thresholds, between the successive categories reflect a consensus

Revised 2000.

1999.

Source:  Nord, M., Andrews, M., & Carlson, S. (2003). 

Table ES 4.2

Percentage of children under age 18 in food­insecure households, by poverty status and presence of

Food insecure with hunger, adults or children

Food insecure with children’s hunger

Food insecure with hunger, adults or children

Food insecure with children’s hunger

Food insecure with hunger, adults or children

Food insecure with children’s hunger

sample households into the Food Security Supplement.  However, the effect for 1995 (a slight downward bias) is 

perceptible only for the broadest category of household food insecurity identified.

Food insecurity and hunger statistics should be compared across 2­year, 4­year, or 6­year periods to avoid seasonal effects

that result from year­to­year alternation in the month in which the survey was conducted.

The food security measure is based on data collected annually in the Food Security Supplement to the Current

Population Survey (CPS).  The most severe level reported is based on the newly developed Children’s Food Security Scale,

while the less severe levels are based on the broader Household Food Security Scale.  

nested, in the sense that households experiencing more severe levels of insecurity are subsets of those households that experijudgment of an expert working group on food security measurement.

For detailed explanations, see Food and Nutrition Service. (2000).  Guide to Measuring Household Food Security.

Alexandria, VA: Food and Nutrition Service; and Economic Research Service. (2002).  Food Security in U.S. Households, 1995­

Washington, DC: Economic Research Service (2002).  

Household Food Security in the United States, 2002. Washington, DC:

Economic Research Service.

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 115 
Consumption

Figure ES 4.2

Percentage of children under age 18 in food­insecure households, by poverty status and presence 

of hunger:  2002

0

1 0

2 0

3 0

4 0

5 0 Percent

All children

Children below poverty line

Children at or above poverty line

Food-insecure households Food insecure with hunger, 

 adults or children

Food insecure with hunger, 

adults and children

Source:  Nord, M., Andrews, M., & Carlson, S. (2003). Household Food Security in the United States, 2002. Washington, DC:

Economic Research Service.

116 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 3.

Health

Conditions

and Health Care

Health Care

Health

Conditions

Mortality
SECTION 3. HEALTH CONDITIONS AND HEALTH CARE

Health Care

Health

Conditions

Mortality
Health Care

HC 1.1 Health Insurance Coverage

Children who are covered by health insurance are considerably more likely to have a regular source of health care. Among children covered by private health insurance, 97 percent

had a regular source of medical care in 1993, and of those covered by government health

insurance,1 94 percent had a regular source of medical care. In contrast, only 79 percent of

children without health insurance had a regular source of medical care.2

Since 1987, the overall percentage of children covered by health insurance has remained stable, ranging from 85 to 88 percent. In contrast, government health insurance coverage for

children increased from 19 percent in 1987 to 26 percent in 1995, before declining to 24 percent by 2000 and increasing to 27 percent in 2002 (Table HC 1.1.A and Figure HC 1.1). 

Differences by Age. Younger children are more likely to be covered by government health

insurance than older children. In 2002, 32 percent of children under age 6 were covered,

compared with 22 percent of children ages 12 to 17 (Table HC 1.1.A). In contrast, 71 percent of children ages 12 to 17 were covered by private health insurance, compared with 63

percent of children under age 6.

Differences by Race and Hispanic Origin.3 Hispanic children are less likely to be covered by health insurance than White, non­Hispanic, or Black children. In 2002, 77 percent

of Hispanic children were covered by health insurance, compared with 92 percent of White,

non­Hispanics, and 87 percent of Black children (Table HC 1.1.A).

A large proportion of Black and Hispanic children rely on government health insurance for

their medical coverage. In 2002, 44 percent of Black and 40 percent of Hispanic children

were covered by government health insurance, compared with 18 percent of White, nonHispanic children. 

Differences by Poverty Status. Poor children have lower rates of health insurance coverage at 80 percent compared to 88 percent for all children in 2002 (Tables HC 1.1.A and HC

1.1.B). They are also much less likely to be covered by private health insurance at 21 percent compared to 67 percent for all children. However, poor children are more likely to be

covered by Medicaid, with 62 percent covered in 2002, compared with 24 percent of all children (Table HC 1.1.C).

1 Government health insurance for children consists primarily of Medicaid but also includes Medicare and CHAMPUS.

2 Simpson, G., Bloom, B., Cohen, R. A., & Parsons, P. E. (1997). Access to Health Care: Part 1: Children. Vital and Health

Statistics, 10(196).

3 Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.  Estimates for Whites, Blacks, and Asians and Pacific Islanders include

Hispanics of those races. 

120 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 3. HEALTH CONDITIONS AND HEALTH CARE

and race and Hispanic origin:  Selected years, 1987­2002

All health insuranceb

1987 1990 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999a 2000 2001 2002

87 87 86 85 85 85 87 88 88 88

Age

Under age 6 88 89 87 86 86 84 87 89 89 89

Ages 6­11 87 87 87 85 86 85 88 88 89 89

Ages 12­17 86 85 85 84 83 84 87 87 87 87

Race and Hispanic originc

White, non­Hispanic 90 90 89 89 89 89 92 93 93 92

Black 83 85 85 81 81 80 84 86 86 87

Hispanic 72 72 73 71 71 70 74 75 76 77

Asian/Pacific Islander 91 86 86 84 85 83 86 88 88 89

Private health insurance  74 71 66 66 67 68 70 70 68 67

Age

Under age 6 72 68 60 62 63 64 66 66 64 63

Ages 6­11 74 73 67 67 68 68 70 70 69 68

Ages 12­17 75 73 71 70 69 70 73 73 72 71

Race and Hispanic originc

White, non­Hispanic 83 81 78 78 78 79 81 81 80 79

Black 49 48 44 45 48 47 52 53 52 51

Hispanic 48 45 38 40 42 43 46 45 44 43

Asian/Pacific Islander 70 72 67 68 70 67 70 72 71 72

d 19 22 26 25 23 23 23 24 26 27

Age

Under age 6 22 28 33 31 29 27 27 29 31 32

Ages 6­11 19 20 26 25 23 23 23 25 26 27

Ages 12­17 16 17 21 19 19 19 19 20 20 22

Race and Hispanic originc

White, non­Hispanic 12 15 18 18 17 16 16 17 19 18

Black 42 45 49 45 40 42 40 42 42 44

Hispanic 28 32 39 35 34 31 33 35 37 40

Asian/Pacific Islander 27 22 27 20 21 22 21 23 22 23

a Estimates for 1999 and beyond

are therefore not directly comparable to earlier years.

b

c

d

Note: Data in this table have been revised and therefore do not match data presented in previous issues of this report.

Sources: U.S. Census Bureau. (2003). 

Statistics. (2003).

Office; U.S. Census Bureau. (2002).  P60­220; U.S. Census Bureau. (2000). 

P60­211.

Table HC 1.1.A

Percentage of children under age 18 who are covered by health insurance, by type of insurance, age,

Government health insurance

Estimates beginning in 1999 include follow­up questions to verify health insurance status.  

Children are considered to be covered by health insurance if they had government or private coverage at any time during the

year. Some children are covered by both types of insurance, so the sum of government and private is greater than the total.

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race. Estimates for Blacks include Hispanics of that race.  

Government health insurance for children consists primarily of Medicaid but also includes Medicare and CHAMPUS.

Current Population Reports, P60­223; Federal Interagency Forum on Child and Family

America’s Children: Key National Indicators of Well­Being, 2003. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing

Current Population Reports,  Current Population Reports,

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 121 
Health Care

Figure HC 1.1 

Percentage of children under age 18 who are covered by health insurance, by type of insurance: 

1987­2002 

1 0

2 0

3 0

4 0

5 0

6 0

7 0

8 0

9 0

100 Percent

Total

Private

Government

1987 1990 1993 1996 1999 2002

Note: Children are considered to be covered by health insurance if they had government or private coverage at any time during the year. Some children are covered by both types of insurance, so the sum of government and private is greater than the

total. Government health insurance for children consists primarily of Medicaid but also includes Medicare and CHAMPUS.

Sources: U.S. Census Bureau. (2003). Current Population Reports, P60­223; Federal Interagency Forum on Child and Family

Statistics. (2003). America’s Children: Key National Indicators of Well­Being, 2003. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing

Office; U.S. Census Bureau. (2002). Current Population Reports, P60­220; U.S. Census Bureau. (2000). Current Population Reports,

P60­211.

Table HC 1.1.B

Percentage of poor children under age 18 who are covered by health insurance, by type of insurance,

age, and race and Hispanic origin:  2002

All health insurance Private health insurance Government health insurancea

80 21 65

Age

Under age 6 84 18 72

Ages 6­11 80 23 64

Ages 12­17 75 24 57

Race and Hispanic originb

White, non­Hispanic 84 30 61

Black, non­Hispanic 85 21 72

Hispanic 72 12 63

Asian/Pacific Islander 76 20 58

All poor children

a Government health insurance for children consists primarily of Medicaid but also includes Medicare and CHAMPUS.

b Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

Source:  U.S. Census Bureau. (2003). Current Population Reports, P60­223.

122 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 3. HEALTH CONDITIONS AND HEALTH CARE

origin:  Selected years, 1987­2002

All children

1987 1990 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999a 2000 2001 2002

15 18 23 22 20 20 20 21 23 24

Age

Under age 6 18 24 29 28 25 24 24 25 28 29

Ages 6­11 15 17 22 21 20 20 21 21 23 24

Ages 12­17 12 14 17 16 16 15 16 16 17 19

Race and Hispanic originb

White, non­Hispanic 8 11 14 14 14 12 13 14 15 16

Black 38 41 45 41 37 39 37 37 38 41

Hispanic 26 30 37 34 32 30 31 33 35 37

Asian/Pacific Islander 19 16 22 18 18 19 17 18 18 19

56 62 65 63 61 58 59 59 62 62

Age

Under age 6 61 71 73 71 67 63 65 64 68 69

Ages 6­11 56 59 65 63 62 59 59 59 62 61

Ages 12­17 48 52 53 51 51 51 52 51 52 55

Race and Hispanic originb

White, non­Hispanic 47 56 55 58 55 54 56 55 58 57

Black 67 73 76 70 68 65 67 67 71 70

Hispanic 53 58 64 60 60 54 55 55 58 61

Asian/Pacific Islander 69 53 63 61 63 61 51 54 58 57

a

are therefore not directly comparable to earlier years.

b Estimates for Blacks include Hispanics of that race. 

Note: Data in this table have been revised and therefore do not match data presented in previous issues of this report.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau. (2003). P60­223.

Table HC 1.1.C

Percentage of children under age 18 who are covered by Medicaid, by age and by race and Hispanic 

Poor children

Estimates beginning in 1999 include follow­up questions to verify health insurance status. Estimates for 1999 and beyond

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.  

Current Population Reports, 

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 123 
Health Care

HC 1.2 Prenatal Care

Prenatal care in the first trimester of a pregnancy allows females and their health care

providers to identify and treat health problems and health­compromising behaviors that

can be particularly damaging during the initial stages of fetal development. Increasing the

percentage of females who receive prenatal care, and who do so early in their pregnancies,

can improve birth outcomes by determining the risk of a poor pregnancy outcome.1 The

percentage of females receiving prenatal care in the first trimester has increased from 68.0

percent in 1970 to 83.8 percent in 2002 (Table HC 1.2.A). 

Receiving prenatal care only late in a pregnancy,2 or receiving no prenatal care at all, can

lead to negative health outcomes for mother and child. Females who receive care late in

their pregnancy, or who do not receive care at all, are at increased risk of bearing infants

who are of low birthweight, who are stillborn, or who die within the first year of life.3

Between 1970 and 2002, the percentage of females receiving late or no prenatal care

declined from 7.9 percent to 3.6 percent (Table HC 1.2.B). 

According to the Adequacy of Prenatal Care Utilization Index, there has been a sharp

decline in the percentage of females receiving inadequate prenatal care from 18 percent in

1989 to 11.6 percent in 2001 (Table HC 1.2.C). The proportion of females with intensive

use of care (females for whom the number of visits exceeded the American College of

Obstetricians and Gynecologists’ recommendations by a ratio of observed to expected visits of at least 110 percent) rose from 24.1 to 31.8 percent during the same time period (Table

HC 1.2.C).

Differences by Race and Hispanic Origin.4 The percentage of females receiving prenatal care during the first 3 months of pregnancy has increased over the past two decades for

females of all races and ethnicities, with American Indian/Alaska Native and Black females

seeing the largest increases. However, American Indian/Alaska Native and Mexican

American females are least likely to receive early prenatal care, while White, non­Hispanic,

Chinese, Japanese, and Cuban females are most likely to receive prenatal care in their first

trimester (Table HC 1.2.A). Among Hispanics there are important subgroup disparities. In

2001, 91.8 percent of Cuban females received early prenatal care, compared with 74.6 percent of Mexican American females (Table HC 1.2.A).

The percentage of females who receive late or no prenatal care has declined substantially

for females in all racial and ethnic groups. Specifically, Puerto Rican females have seen the

most dramatic improvements, with the percentages receiving late or no prenatal care dropping by more than two­thirds since the data were first reported (Table HC 1.2.B). 

1 Martin, J. A., Hamilton, B. E., Ventura, S. J., Menacker, F., Park, M. M., & Sutton, P. D. (2002). Births: Final Data for

2001. National Vital Statistics Reports, 51(2).

2 Defined as the seventh month or later.

3 U.S. Public Health Service. (1989). Caring for Our Future: The Content of Prenatal Care. Washington, DC: Department of

Health and Human Services.

4 Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race. Estimates for Whites and Blacks includes persons of Hispanic origin until

1990.  After 1990 persons of Hispanic origin are not included.  

124 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 3. HEALTH CONDITIONS AND HEALTH CARE

mother: Selected years, 1970­2002

All females receiving

1970 1980 1985 1990 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002a

68.0 76.3 76.2 75.8 81.3 81.9 82.5 82.8 83.2 83.2 83.4 83.8

prenatal care

Race and Hispanic originb

White 72.3 79.2 79.3 83.3 87.1 87.4 87.9 87.9 88.4 88.5 88.5 88.7

Black 44.2 62.4 61.5 60.7 70.4 71.5 72.3 73.3 74.1 74.3 74.5 —

American Indian/Alaskan Native 38.2 55.8 57.5 57.9 66.7 67.7 68.1 68.8 69.5 69.3 69.3 —

Asian/Pacific Islander 67.3 73.7 74.1 75.1 79.9 81.2 82.1 83.1 83.7 84.0 84.0 —

Chinese 71.8 82.6 82.0 81.3 85.7 86.8 87.4 88.5 88.5 87.6 87.0 —

Japanese 78.1 86.1 84.7 87.0 89.7 89.3 89.3 90.2 90.7 91.0 90.1 —

Filipino 60.6 77.3 76.5 77.1 80.9 82.5 83.3 84.2 84.2 84.9 85.0 —

— 68.8 67.7 65.8 75.9 78.5 78.0 78.8 79.6 79.9 79.1 —

Other Asian or Pacific Islander 54.9 67.6 69.7 71.9 77.0 78.4 79.7 80.9 81.8 82.5 82.7 —

Hispanic origin — 60.2 61.2 60.2 70.8 72.2 73.7 74.3 74.4 74.4 75.7 76.8

Mexican American — 59.6 60.0 57.8 69.1 70.7 72.1 72.8 73.1 72.9 74.6 —

Puerto Rican — 55.1 58.3 63.5 74.0 75.0 76.5 76.9 77.7 78.5 79.1 —

Cuban — 82.7 82.5 84.8 89.2 89.2 90.4 91.8 91.4 91.7 91.8 —

Central and South American — 58.8 60.6 61.5 73.2 75.0 76.9 78.0 77.6 77.6 77.4 —

Other and unknown Hispanic  — 66.4 65.8 66.4 74.3 74.6 76.0 74.8 74.8 75.8 77.3 —

a

b Estimates for Whites and Blacks includes persons of Hispanic origin until

1990. 

that reported Hispanic origin on birth certificates in 1980; 23 states and the District of Columbia in 1985; 48 states and

the District of Columbia in in 1990; and 50 states and the District of Columbia since 1993.

—  Data not available.

Note: The data refer to those women who had live births.

Sources: 

2001. 

48(3); National

36(4 (Supp)).

Table HC 1.2.A

Percentage of females receiving prenatal care in the first trimester, by race and Hispanic origin of 

Hawaiian and part Hawaiian

Data for 2002 are preliminary.

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.  

After 1990 persons of Hispanic origin are not included. Figures for Hispanic women are based on data from 22 states

Hamilton, B.E., Martin, J.A., & Sutton, P.D. (2003). Births: Preliminary Data for 2002. National Vital Statistics Report,

51(11). Martin, J. A., Hamilton, B. E., Ventura, S. J., Menacker, F., Park, M. M., & Sutton, P. D. (2002). Births: Final Data for

National Vital Statistics Reports, 51(2); Martin, J. A., Hamilton, B. E., Ventura, S. J., Menacker, F., & Park, M. M. (2002).

Births: Final Data for 2000. National Vital Statistics Reports, 50(5); Ventura, S. J., Martin, J. A., Curtin, S. C., Menacker, F., &

Hamilton, B. E. (2001). Births: Final Data for 1999. National Vital Statistics Reports, 49(1); Ventura, S. J., Martin, J. A., Curtin,

S. C., Mathews, T. J., & Park, M. M. (2000). Births: Final Data for 1998. National Vital Statistics Reports,

Center for Health Statistics. (1987). Advance Report of Final Natality Statistics, 1985. Monthly Vital Statistics Report,

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 125 
Health Care

age: Selected years, 1970­2002

All females receiving lateb

1970 1980 1985 1990 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002a

7.9 5.1 5.7 6.1 4.2 4.0 3.9 3.9 3.8 3.9 3.7 3.6

or no prenatal care

Race and Hispanic originc

White 6.3 4.3 4.9 4.9 2.5 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.3 2.3 2.2 2.2

Black 16.6 8.9 10.2 11.3 7.6 7.3 7.3 7.0 6.6 6.7 6.5 —

American Indian/Alaska Native 28.9 15.2 12.9 12.9 9.5 8.6 8.6 8.5 8.2 8.6 8.2 —

Asian/Pacific Islander 6.8 6.5 6.5 5.8 4.3 3.9 3.8 3.6 3.5 3.3 3.4 —

Chinese 6.5 3.7 4.4 3.4 3.0 2.5 2.4 2.2 2.0 2.2 2.4 —

Japanese 4.1 2.1 3.1 2.9 2.3 2.2 2.7 2.1 2.1 1.8 2.0 —

Filipino 7.2 4.0 4.8 4.5 4.1 3.3 3.3 3.1 2.8 3.0 3.0 —

— 6.7 7.4 8.7 5.1 5.0 5.4 4.7 4.0 4.2 4.8 —

Other Asian or Pacific Islander — 9.0 8.1 7.1 5.0 4.6 4.4 4.2 4.1 3.8 3.8 —

Hispanic origin — 12.0 12.4 12.0 7.4 6.7 6.2 6.3 6.3 6.3 5.9 5.5

Mexican American — 11.8 12.9 13.2 8.1 7.2 6.7 6.8 6.7 6.9 6.2 —

Puerto Rican — 16.2 15.5 10.6 5.5 5.7 5.4 5.1 5.0 4.5 4.6 —

Cuban — 3.9 3.7 2.8 2.1 1.6 1.5 1.2 1.4 1.4 1.3 —

Central and South American — 13.1 12.5 10.9 6.1 5.5 5.0 4.9 5.2 5.4 5.7 —

Other and unknown Hispanic  — 9.2 9.4 8.5 6.0 5.9 5.3 6.0 6.3 5.9 5.4 —

a

b

c Estimates for Whites and Blacks includes persons of Hispanic origin until

1990. 

states that reported Hispanic origin on birth certificates in 1980; 23 states and the District of Columbia in  1985; 48 states

and the District of Columbia in in 1990; and 50 states and the District of Columbia since 1993.

—  Data not available.

Note: The data refer to those women who had live births.

Sources: 

2001.

48(3); National

36(4 (Supp)).

Table HC 1.2.B

Percentage of females receiving late or no prenatal care, by race and Hispanic origin of mother and by

Hawaiian and part Hawaiian

Data for 2002 are preliminary.

Late prenatal care is defined as care received during the seventh month or later.

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.  

After 1990 persons of Hispanic origin are not included.  Figures for Hispanic women are based on data from 22

Hamilton, B.E., Martin, J.A., & Sutton, P.D. (2003). Births: Preliminary Data for 2002. National Vital Statistics Report,

51(11). Martin, J. A., Hamilton, B. E., Ventura, S. J., Menacker, F., Park, M. M., & Sutton, P. D. (2002). Births: Final Data for

National Vital Statistics Reports, 51(2); Martin, J. A., Hamilton, B. E., Ventura, S. J., Menacker, F., & Park, M. M. (2002).

Births: Final Data for 2000. National Vital Statistics Reports, 50(5); Ventura, S. J., Martin, J. A., Curtin, S. C., Menacker, F., &

Hamilton, B. E. (2001). Births: Final Data for 1999. National Vital Statistics Reports, 49(1); Ventura, S. J., Martin, J. A., Curtin,

S. C., Mathews, T. J., & Park, M. M. (2000). Births: Final Data for 1998. National Vital Statistics Reports,

Center for Health Statistics. (1987). Advance Report of Final Natality Statistics, 1985. Monthly Vital Statistics Report, 

126 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 3. HEALTH CONDITIONS AND HEALTH CARE

Table HC 1.2.C

Adequacy of Prenatal Care Utilization Index: Selected years, 1989­2001

Intensive Use Adequate Intermediate Inadequate

1989 24.1 42.0 15.9 18.0

1990 24.6 42.3 15.7 17.4

1995 28.8 43.7 14.7 12.8

1996 29.3 43.6 14.7 12.4

1997 30.7 43.3 14.0 12.0

1998 31.0 43.3 13.8 11.9

1999 31.6 43.1 13.6 11.7

2000 31.2 43.0 14.0 11.9

2001 31.8 42.7 14.0 11.6

Year

Sources: Martin, J. A., Hamilton, B. E., Ventura, S. J., Menacker, F., Park, M. M., & Sutton, P. D. (2002). Births: Final Data for

2001. National Vital Statistics Reports, 51(2); Martin, J. A., Hamilton, B. E., Ventura, S. J., Menacker, F., & Park, M. M. (2002).

Births: Final Data for 2000. National Vital Statistics Reports, 50(5); Kotelchuck, M. (1994). An Evaluation of the Kessner

Adequacy of Prenatal Care Index and a Proposed Adequacy of Prenatal Care Utilization Index. American Journal of Public

Health, 89(9), 1414­1420; National Center for Health Statistics. (1987). Advance Report of Final Natality Statistics, 1985.

Monthly Vital Statistics Report, 36(4 (Supp)).

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 127 
Health Care

HC 1.3 Immunization 

Vaccines are one of the most successful disease prevention strategies in the history of public health. Childhood vaccinations can prevent diseases that killed or permanently impaired

children in past decades. Surveillance of vaccination coverage is particularly important

before children enter preschool to prevent the spread of disease. One of the goals of the

Healthy People 2000 and 2010 initiative was to have at least 90 percent of 2­year old children fully vaccinated with recommended schedule of vaccines. To monitor progress

towards achieving those goals the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)

implemented the National Immunization Survey (NIS) in 1994. The target population for

the NIS is children aged 19 to 35 months living in the United States at the time of interview. Details of the sample design and estimation methodology are published elsewhere by

Zell et al (2000) and Smith et al (2001a, 2001b). Today, at least 95 percent of children are

adequately vaccinated by the time they enter first grade.1

Even with the increases of recent years, more than one million preschool children remain

unvaccinated for serious preventable diseases.2 While deaths due to vaccine­preventable diseases such as hepatitis B, measles and varicella (chicken pox) continue to occur in the United

States, there were substantial increases in the proportion of children vaccinated between

1995 and 1998 for each of the recommended vaccines. In both 1999 and 2000, there was a

small decline in the number of children who received the combined series 4:3:1:3,4:3:1,

Diphtheria, Tetanus, Pertussis (DTP), Measles, and Haemophilus influenzae Type B (Hib)

vaccinations. In 2002, coverage for 4:3:1:3 increased by two percentage points when compared with the coverage in 2000 (Table HC 1.3). Vaccination coverage for varicella increased

significantly from 12 percent in 1996 to 81 percent in 2002. The DTP vaccination (3 doses or

more) was the most prevalent of recommended vaccinations with 95 percent in 2002, while

the combined series 4:3:1:3 was the least common with 78 percent (Figure HC 1.3).

Differences by Race and Hispanic Origin.3 Vaccination coverage has been higher

among White, non­Hispanic infants aged 19 to 35 months than among Black, non­Hispanic

children or children of Hispanic origin (Table HC 1.3). By preschool, however, the vaccination levels among children of various racial and ethnic groups are nearly the same, narrowing a gap that once was as wide as 26 percentage points for specific vaccinations.4

Differences in vaccination rates among racial and ethnic groups are partly accounted for by

poverty level. 

Differences by Poverty Status. Although vaccination levels have increased between 1995

and 2002 among children in households below, at or above the poverty level, poor children

are still less likely than children living in homes at or above the poverty level to have

received most of the recommended vaccinations.5 However, vaccination coverage among

children in households below the poverty level increased substantially for Hepatitis B from

65 percent in 1995 to 88 percent in 2002 (Table HC 1.3). 

1 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2001). Vaccination Coverage Among Children Enrolled in Head Start

Programs and Licensed Child Care Centers and Entering School, United States and Selected Reporting Areas, 1999­2000

School Year. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 50(39).

2 Ibid.

3 Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

4 U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (1997). Vaccination Levels for Minority Children in the United States at 

All­Time High. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 

5 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (1998). Vaccination Coverage by Race/Ethnicity and Poverty Level among

Children Aged 19­35 Months: United States, 1997. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 47(44).

128 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 3. HEALTH CONDITIONS AND HEALTH CARE

vaccinations, by poverty status, and race and Hispanic origin: 1995­2002

All races White, non­Hispanica Black, non­Hispanica Hispanica

Below

povertyb

At or

above

povertyb

Below

povertyb

At or

above

povertyb 

Below

povertyb

At or

above

povertyb 

Below

povertyb

At or

above

povertyb 

Combined 

series (4:3:1:3)c

1995 74 67 77 76 69 78 70 70 73 68 63 72

1996 76 69 79 79 68 80 74 69 79 71 68 73

1997 76 71 79 79 72 80 73 71 77 73 70 77

1998 79 74 82 82 77 83 73 72 74 75 73 79

1999 78 73 81 81 76 82 74 72 77 75 73 78

2000 76 71 78 79 73 80 71 69 72 73 70 74

2001 77 72 79 79 71 80 71 69 74 77 73 79

2002 78 72 79 80 72 81 71 68 72 76 75 76

Combined 

series (4:3:1)d

1995 76 69 79 78 71 80 72 72 75 72 65 75

1996 78 72 81 80 70 82 77 73 81 74 71 75

1997 78 72 80 80 73 82 74 72 78 75 71 77

1998 81 76 83 83 79 84 74 74 76 77 76 80

1999 80 75 82 82 77 83 75 74 78 77 76 80

2000 78 72 79 80 74 81 72 70 73 75 73 75

2001 79 73 80 80 72 81 73 71 75 79 76 80

2002 79 73 80 81 73 82 72 69 73 77 76 77

DTP (3 doses 

or more)e

1995 95 91 96 95 94 96 92 94 91 93 88 97

1996 95 91 96 96 92 96 93 90 95 94 92 94

1997 95 93 96 96 93 97 94 95 96 93 92 95

1998 96 94 97 97 94 97 92 93 92 94 95 96

1999 96 94 97 97 95 97 94 94 96 95 94 97

2000 94 92 95 95 93 95 92 91 93 93 92 94

2001 94 92 95 95 91 95 92 91 93 95 95 95

2002 95 93 95 96 93 96 94 91 96 95 95 94

continued

Table HC 1.3

Percentage of children ages 19 months to 35 months who have received routinely recommended 

Vaccination type Total Total Total Total

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 129 
Health Care

vaccinations, by poverty status, and race and Hispanic origin: 1995­2002

All races White, non­Hispanica Black, non­Hispanica Hispanica

Below

povertyb

At or

above

povertyb

Below

povertyb

At or

above

povertyb

Below

povertyb

At or

above

povertyb

Below

povertyb

At or

above

povertyb

DTP (4 doses 

or more)e

1995 78 71 81 80 73 82 74 74 77 75 67 77

1996 81 74 84 83 72 85 79 74 83 77 74 78

1997 82 76 84 84 76 85 77 76 80 78 75 81

1998 84 80 86 87 82 88 77 77 79 81 79 83

1999 83 79 85 86 81 86 79 78 83 80 78 82

2000 82 76 84 84 78 85 76 75 78 79 76 80

2001 82 77 84 84 75 85 76 74 78 83 79 83

2002 82 75 84 84 75 86 76 73 77 79 78 80

Polio (3 doses 

1995 88 85 89 89 86 90 84 82 83 87 85 89

1996 91 88 92 92 88 93 90 87 93 89 88 90

1997 91 89 92 92 90 92 89 89 91 90 88 90

1998 91 90 92 92 91 93 88 88 87 89 90 90

1999 90 87 91 90 88 91 87 86 88 89 89 90

2000 90 87 90 91 88 91 87 85 87 88 88 87

2001 89 87 90 90 87 91 85 84 86 91 90 91

2002 90 88 91 91 88 92 87 87 87 90 89 91

Measlescontainingf

1995 90 86 91 91 86 92 87 85 86 88 84 91

1996 91 87 92 91 85 93 90 88 91 88 87 89

1997 90 86 92 91 84 93 89 87 91 88 85 90

1998 92 90 93 93 90 94 89 89 90 91 90 92

1999 92 90 92 92 90 93 90 90 91 90 90 91

2000 91 89 91 92 88 92 88 88 87 90 90 90

2001 91 89 92 92 87 92 89 88 90 92 91 93

2002 92 90 92 93 90 93 90 90 90 91 91 89

continued

Table HC 1.3 continued

Percentage of children ages 19 months to 35 months who have received routinely recommended 

Vaccination type Total Total Total Total

or more)

130 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 3. HEALTH CONDITIONS AND HEALTH CARE

vaccinations, by poverty status, and race and Hispanic origin: 1995­2002

All races White, non­Hispanica Black, non­Hispanica Hispanica

Below

povertyb

At or

above

povertyb

Below

povertyb

At or

above

povertyb

Below

povertyb

At or

above

povertyb

Below

povertyb

At or

above

povertyb

HiB (3 doses 

or more)g

1995 91 88 93 93 89 93 88 88 90 89 85 93

1996 91 87 93 93 87 94 89 86 93 89 87 90

1997 93 90 94 94 90 95 91 91 94 90 89 92

1998 93 91 95 95 92 96 90 90 90 92 92 94

1999 94 91 95 95 93 95 92 91 94 92 91 95

2000 93 90 95 95 92 95 93 92 93 91 88 93

2001 93 90 94 94 89 95 90 87 91 93 91 94

2002 93 90 94 94 88 95 92 88 94 92 93 92

Hepatitis B (3

1995 68 65 69 68 59 69 66 66 69 70 69 68

1996 82 78 83 82 76 83 82 78 85 81 80 81

1997 84 81 85 85 80 85 82 82 84 81 79 84

1998 87 85 88 88 87 88 84 86 83 86 83 88

1999 88 87 89 89 88 89 87 86 90 87 87 89

2000 90 87 91 91 88 92 89 89 90 88 87 90

2001 89 87 90 90 86 90 85 85 85 90 88 91

2002 90 88 90 91 86 92 88 89 88 90 89 89

1995 — — — — — — — — — — — —

1996 12 5 15 15 6 16 9 — 13 8 6 11

1997 26 17 29 28 17 29 21 16 27 22 18 25

1998 43 41 44 42 38 43 42 40 44 47 44 49

1999 58 55 58 56 51 57 58 57 60 61 59 62

2000 68 64 69 66 58 68 67 60 72 70 70 70

2001 76 74 77 75 67 76 75 71 77 80 81 82

2002 81 79 81 79 75 80 83 80 84 82 82 81

a

b

c  The combined series 4:3:1:3 consists of four doses of diptheria­tetnus­pertussis (DTP) vaccine, three doses of polio vaccine,

one dose of a measles­containing vaccine, and three doses of Haemophilus influenzae type b (HiB) vaccine.

d The combined series 4:3:1 consists of four doses of DTP vaccine, three doses of polio vaccine, and one doses of a measlescontaining vaccine. e Diphtheria­tetnus­pertussis vaccine.

f Any vaccination containing measles vaccine.

g Haemophilus influenzae type b (HiB) vaccine.

—  Data not available.

Note: In 1998 the National Center for Health Statistics began using the response propensity score method. All data presented

in this table reflect this change and are therefore not comparable to previous issues of this report.

Unpublished work. National

Table HC 1.3 continued

Percentage of children ages 19 months to 35 months who have received routinely recommended 

Vaccination type Total Total Total Total

doses or more)

Varicella

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

Poverty status is based on family income and family size using U.S. Census Bureau poverty thresholds.

Source: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2003). National Immunization Survey.

Center for Health Statistics and National Immunization Program. 

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 131 
Health Care

Figure HC 1.3 

Percentage of children ages 19 to 35 months who have received routinely recommended vaccines: 2002

Combined

series

(4:3:1:3)

Combined

series

(4:3:1)

3 DTP 4 DTP Polio

virus Measles HiB Hepatitis B Varicella 0

20

40

60

80

100 Rate (per 1,000 children) a The combined series 4:3:1:3 consists of four doses of diphtheria­tetanus­pertussis (DTP) vaccine, three doses of polio vaccine, one does of a measles­containing vaccine, and three doses of Haemophilus influenzae type b (HiB) vaccine. The combined series 4:3:1 consists of four doses of DTP vaccine, three  doses of polio vaccine, and one does of a measles­containing

vaccine.

Source: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2003). National Immunization Survey. Unpublished work. National

Center for Health Statistics and National Immunization Program. 

132 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 3. HEALTH CONDITIONS AND HEALTH CARE

Health Care

Health

Conditions

Mortality
Health Conditions

HC 2.1 Healthy Births

A healthy birth is defined here as a birth with the following characteristics: weight at birth

of at least 2,500 grams (5 lbs. 8oz.), a gestational age of at least 37 weeks, maternal receipt of

prenatal care within the first trimester, and a 5­minute Apgar score of 7 or more out of 10.1

Table HC 2.1.A reports the percentage of all births qualifying as healthy births in 2001, by

race and Hispanic origin. Black, non­Hispanic newborns scored lower than White, nonHispanic and Hispanic newborns in all four measures of healthiness: gestational age, birthweight, Apgar score, and prenatal care. For example, 86.9 percent of Black, non­Hispanic

infants were born weighing 2,500 grams or more, while the comparable numbers for

Hispanic and White, non­Hispanic newborns were 93.5 and 93.2 percent, respectively. Both

Black, non­Hispanic and Hispanic newborns scored lower (74.5 and 75.7 percent, respectively) than White, non­Hispanic newborns (88.5 percent) in prenatal care. 

Differences by Period of Gestation. Preterm birth, defined as infants that are born prior

to 37 weeks of gestation, is a major cause of infant mortality and has been associated with

long­term neurodevelopment and respiratory disorders. The percentage of births that are

preterm has risen steadily over the past decade. In 1989, 10.6 of all births were preterm, and

this percentage had risen to as high as 12.0 in 2002 (Table HC 2.1.B). It appears that the rising number of preterm infants born to White, non­Hispanic females account for much of

this increase. This percentage has risen from 8.4 in 1989 to 11.0 percent in 2002. In comparison, the percentage of preterm infants born to Black, non­Hispanic females has

decreased (from 19 percent in 1989 to 17.6 percent in 2001).

Differences by Birthweight. The percentage of children born weighing more than 2,500

(5 lb. 8oz.) grams was 92.3 in 2001. White, non­Hispanics and Hispanics had similarly high

percentages with 93.2 and 93.5 percent respectively. The percentage of infants weighing

more than 2,500 grams born to Black, non­Hispanic females was much lower however, at

86.9 percent (Table HC 2.1.A). 

Differences by Prenatal Care. Early prenatal care (care beginning within the first

trimester of pregnancy) can promote healthier births by detecting and managing preexisting medical conditions and by providing health advice to the mother.2 In 2001, 88.5 percent

of all White, non­Hispanic females received prenatal care sometime during their first

trimester of pregnancy. Both Hispanic and Black, non­Hispanic females were less likely to

receive prenatal care at 75.7 and 74.5 percent, respectively (Table HC 2.1.A). 

1 The Apgar score is a numerical expression of the physical condition of an infant shortly after delivery and is used to predict the newborn’s chance of survival. See Glossary for more information.  As defined in Apgar, V., Holiday, D. A., James,

L. S., Weisbort, I. N., & Berrien, C. (1953). Current Research in Anesthesia and Analgesia. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott

Williams and Wilkins.

2 Ibid.

134 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 3. HEALTH CONDITIONS AND HEALTH CARE

Table HC 2.1.A 

Percentage of all births defined as healthy, by race and Hispanic origin of mother: 2001

All healthy births

Gestational age 37 weeks + Birthweight 2,500 grams + Apgar score 7 or abovea Prenatal care 1st trimester

88.1 92.3 98.6 83.4

White, non­Hispanic 89.2 93.2 98.8 88.5

Black, non­Hispanic 82.4 86.9 97.7 74.5

Hispanicb 88.6 93.5 98.9 75.7

a The Apgar score is a numerical expression of the physical condition of an infant shortly after delivery. In this table, the

Apgar score excludes data for California and Texas, which did not report the score on the birth certificate.

b Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

Source: Martin, J. A., Hamilton, B. E., Ventura, S. J., Menacker, F., Park, M. M., & Sutton, P. D. (2002). Births: Final Data for

2001. National Vital Statistics Reports, 51(2).

Table HC 2.1.B

Percent of preterm live births by race and Hispanic origin of mother:  1989­2002

All preterm live birthsb

1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002a

10.6 10.6 10.8 10.7 11.0 11.0 11.0 11.0 11.4 11.6 11.8 11.6 11.9 12.0

White, non­Hispanic 8.4 8.5 8.7 8.7 9.1 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.9 10.2 10.5 10.4 10.8 11.0

Black, non­Hispanic 19.0 18.9 19.0 18.5 18.6 18.2 17.8 17.5 17.6 17.6 17.6 17.4 17.6 —

Hispanicc 11.1 11.0 11.0 10.7 11.0 10.9 10.9 10.9 11.2 11.4 11.4 11.2 11.4 11.6

a Data for 2002 are preliminary.

b Infants born prior to 37 weeks of gestation.

c Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.  The 1989 data by Hispanic origin exclude New Hampshire, Oklahoma, and

Louisiana, which did not report Hispanic origin.  The 1990 data by Hispanic origin exclude New Hampshire and

Oklahoma, which did not report Hispanic origin.  The 1991 and 1992 data by Hispanic origin exclude New Hampshire,

which did not report Hispanic origin.

—  Data not available.

Sources: Hamilton, B.E., Martin, J.A., & Sutton, P.D. (2003). Births: Preliminary Data for 2002. National Vital Statistics

Reports, 51(11); Martin, J. A., Hamilton, B. E., Ventura, S. J., Menacker, F., Park, M. M., & Sutton, P. D. (2002). Births: Final

Data for 2001. National Vital Statistics Reports, 51(2); Martin, J. A., Hamilton, B. E., Ventura, S. J., Menacker, F., & Park, M. M.

(2002). Births: Final Data for 2000. National Vital Statistics Reports, 50(5).

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 135 
Health Conditions

HC 2.2  Low and Very Low Birthweight

Babies born weighing less than 2,500 grams (5lb. 8oz.) face an increased risk of physical and

developmental complications and death.1 These low birthweight babies account for fourfifths of all neonatal deaths (deaths under 28 days of age) and are 24 times more likely to die

during the first year than are heavier infants.2 Although slight declines were seen in the early

1980s, overall the percentage of all infants born at low birthweights has increased steadily

since 1985 (Table HC 2.2.A). Much of the rise in the overall rate of low birthweight births

can be attributed to the increased incidence of multiple births. In 2000, 23 percent of all low

birthweight infants were born in a twin, triplet, or higher order delivery.3

Babies born to females who smoke during pregnancy are at elevated risk of low birthweight.

In 2001, 11.9 percent of infants born to smokers were of low birthweight compared with 7.3

percent of births to nonsmokers (Figure HC 2.2.A). The low birthweight risk is heightened

as the number of cigarettes increases, although low birthweight is elevated even among

babies born to the lightest smokers (one to five cigarettes daily).4

Like low birthweight babies, very low birthweight babies, those born weighing less than

1,500 grams (3lb. 4oz.), are at particularly high risk of severe physical and developmental

complications and death. In fact, the risk of early death increases as birthweight declines.

Advances in medical technology in recent years have made it possible for increasing numbers

of very low birthweight infants to survive. However, these babies are 96 times more likely to

die during the first year of life than babies weighing at least 2,500 grams.5 The percentage of

very low birthweight infants increased from 1.2 percent in 1970 to 1.5 percent in 1999, and

decreased to 1.2 percent in 2002.

Differences by Race and Hispanic Origin.6 Low birthweight rates are substantially higher among Black infants than among other races and Hispanics. Among Asians/Pacific

Islanders, Chinese females have consistently had the lowest percentage of low­weight births,

and Filipino females have had the highest. Among Hispanics, Mexican American females

have generally had the lowest percentage of low birthweight infants, while Puerto Rican

females have had the highest (Table HC 2.2.A). 

The percentage of babies born at very low birthweight also varies by race and Hispanic origin.

For White, Hispanic, American Indian/Alaska Native, and Asian/Pacific Islander infants, the

percentage of very low­weight births was about 1 percent in 2001. However, the percentage of

Black infants born at very low birthweight is considerably higher (Table HC 2.2.B).

Differences by Age. Low birthweight rates tend to be highest for the youngest (less than 15

years) and the oldest females (ages 45­54 years), but much of the risk for the older group is

attributed to their higher multiple birth rates(Figure HC 2.2.B and Figure HC 2.2.C). For 2001,

one­third of all low birthweight infants born to females 45 and older were born in a multiple

delivery, compared with 11 percent of infants born to females under 20 years of age.

7

1 Mathews, T. J., Curtin, S. C., & MacDorman, M. F. (2000). Infant Mortality Statistics from the 1998 Period Linked

Birth/Infant Death Data Set. National Vital Statistics Reports, 48(12).

2 Ibid.

3 Martin, J. A., Hamilton, B. E., Ventura, S. J., Menacker, F., & Park, M. M. (2002). Births: Final Data for 2000. National Vital

Statistics Reports, 50(5).

4 Ventura, S. J., Martin, J. A., Curtin, S. C., Menacker, F., & Hamilton, B. E. (2001). Births: Final Data for 1999. National Vital

Statistics Reports, 49(1).

5 Mathews, T. J., Curtin, S. C., & MacDorman, M. F. (2000). Infant Mortality Statistics from the 1998 Period Linked

Birth/Infant Death Data Set. National Vital Statistics Reports, 48(12).

6 Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race. Estimates for Whites and Blacks include Hispanics of those races until 1990.

After 1990, persons of Hispanic origin are not included.

7 Martin, J. A., Hamilton, B. E., Ventura, S. J., Menacker, F., Park, M. M., & Sutton, P. D. (2002). Births: Final Data for 2001.

National Vital Statistics Reports, 21(2).

136 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 3. HEALTH CONDITIONS AND HEALTH CARE

Low birthweight infants as a percentage of all infants by race and Hispanic origin of mother and by age:

Selected years, 1970­2002

All low birthweight infantsb

1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002a

7.9 7.4 6.8 6.8 7.0 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.6 7.6 7.7 7.8

Race and Hispanic origin of motherc

White 6.8 6.3 5.7 5.6 5.6 6.2 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.6 6.6 6.8 6.9

Black 13.9 13.2 12.5 12.4 13.3 13.2 13.1 13.1 13.2 13.2 13.1 13.1 —

American Indian/Alaskan Native 8.0 6.4 6.4 5.9 6.1 6.6 6.5 6.8 6.8 7.1 6.8 7.3 —

Asian/Pacific Islander — — 6.5 6.2 6.5 6.9 7.1 7.2 7.4 7.4 7.3 7.5 —

Chinese 6.7 5.3 4.9 5.0 4.7 5.3 5.0 5.1 5.3 5.2 5.1 5.3 —

Japanese 9.0 7.5 6.2 5.9 6.2 7.3 7.3 6.8 7.5 7.9 7.1 7.3 —

Filipino 10.0 8.1 7.4 6.9 7.3 7.8 7.9 8.3 8.2 8.3 8.5 8.7 —

Hawaiian and part Hawaiian — — 7.0 6.4 7.2 6.8 6.8 7.2 7.2 7.7 6.8 7.9 —

Other Asian or Pacific Islander — — 6.8 6.1 6.6 7.1 7.4 7.5 7.8 7.8 7.7 7.8 —

Hispanic origin — — 6.1 6.2 6.1 6.3 6.3 6.4 6.4 6.4 6.4 6.5 6.5

Mexican American — — 5.6 5.8 5.5 5.8 5.9 6.0 6.0 5.9 6.0 6.1 —

— — 8.9 8.7 9.0 9.4 9.2 9.4 9.7 9.3 9.3 9.3 —

Cuban — — 5.6 6.0 5.7 6.5 6.5 6.8 6.5 6.8 6.5 6.5 —

Central and South American — — 5.8 5.7 5.8 6.2 6.0 6.3 6.5 6.4 6.3 6.5 —

Other and unknown Hispanic  — — 7.0 6.8 6.9 7.5 7.7 7.9 7.6 7.6 7.8 8.0 —

Age of mother

Under age 15 16.6 14.1 14.6 12.9 13.3 13.5 12.8 13.6 13.1 12.9 14.1 12.8 13.4

Ages 15­19  10.5 10.0 9.4 9.3 9.3 9.3 9.3 9.5 9.5 9.6 9.5 9.4 9.6

Ages 20­24  7.4 7.1 6.9 6.9 7.1 7.3 7.4 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.6 7.8 7.9

Ages 25­29  6.9 6.1 5.8 5.9 6.2 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.8 6.9

Ages 30­34  7.5 6.8 5.9 6.0 6.4 6.7 6.8 6.9 7.0 7.0 6.9 7.0 7.2

Ages 35­39  — — 7.0 6.9 7.3 8.1 8.1 8.3 8.4 8.4 8.3 8.4 8.5

Ages 40­44  — — 8.3 8.3 8.0 9.3 9.5 9.7 9.9 10.1 10.0 10.1 —

Ages 45­54d — — 9.2 10.3 10.2 15.2 14.9 17.4 18.6 18.3 18.2 20.5 —

a

b Before 1979, low birthweight was defined as infants weighing 2,500 grams (5lb. 8oz.) or less. 

birthweight was defined as infants weighing less than 2,500 grams (5lb. 8oz.). c Estimates for Whites and Blacks include Hispanics of those races until 1990.

Birth figures for Hispanic infants are based on data from 22 states

that reported Hispanic origin on the birth certificate in 1980, 23 states and the District of Columbia in 1985, 48 states and

the District of Columbia in 1990, and 50 states and the District of Columbia since 1993

d

—  Data not available.

Sources: 

51(2); Martin, J.

45(11[Supp. 2]); National Center for Health Statistics. (1996). Health, United States, 1995. Hyattsville, MD: National Center

Monthly

32(Supp

31(Supp. 8).

Table HC 2.2.A

Puerto Rican

Data for 2002 are preliminary.

From 1979 and beyond, low

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.  

After 1990, persons of Hispanic origin are not included.  

Before 1997, this category was 45­49 years.

National Center for Health Statistics. (2003). Unpublished work; Hamilton, B.E., Martin, J.A., & Sutton, P.D.

(2003). Births: Preliminary Data for 2002. National Vital Statistics Reports, 51(11). Martin, J. A., Hamilton, B. E., Ventura, S. J.,

Menacker, F., Park, M. M., & Sutton, P. D. (2002). Births: Final Data for 2001. National Vital Statistics Reports, 

A., Hamilton, B. E., Ventura, S. J., Menacker, F., & Park, M. M. (2002). Births: Final Data for 2000. National Vital Statistics

Reports, 50(5); Ventura, S. J., Martin, J. A., Curtin, S. C., Menacker, F., & Hamilton, B. E. (2001). Births: Final Data for 1999.

National Vital Statistics Reports, 49(1); Ventura, S. J., Martin, J. A., Curtin, S. C., Mathews, T. J., & Park, M. M. (2000). Births:

Final Data for 1998. National Vital Statistics Reports, 48(3); Ventura, S. J., Martin, J. A., Curtin, S. C., & Mathews, T. J. (1999).

Births: Final Data for 1997. National Vital Statistics Reports, 47(18); Ventura, S. J., Martin, J. A., Curtin, S. C., & Mathews, T. J.

(1998). Report of Final Natality Statistics, 1996. Monthly Vital Statistics Reports, 46(Supp. 11); Ventura, S. J., Martin, J. A.,

Curtin, S. C., Mathews, T. J., & Park, M. M. (1997). Report of Final Natality Statistics, 1995. Monthly Vital Statistics Reports,

for Health Statistics; Ventura, S. J. & Martin, J. A. (1993). Report of Final Natality Statistics, 1990. Monthly Vital Statistics

Reports, 41(Supp. 9); National Center for Health Statistics. (1987). Advance Report of Final Natality Statistics, 1985. 

Vital Statistics Report, 36(4 (Supp)); Ventura, S. J. (1987) Births of Hispanic Parentage, 1985. Monthly Vital Statistics Reports,

36(Supp. 11); Taffel, S. (1984). Characteristics of Asian Births, United States, 1980. Monthly Vital Statistics Report, 

10); Ventura, S. J. (1983). Births to Hispanic Parentage: 1980. Monthly Vital Statistics Reports, 32(36[6 Supp]); Ventura, S. J.

(1982). Advance Report of Final Natality Statistics, 1980. Monthly Vital Statistics Reports,

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 137 
Health Conditions

Figure HC 2.2.A  

Percentage of children born with low birthweight, by mother’s smoking status, age, and race and

Hispanic origin: 2001 

Total Under age 15 Ages 20-24 Ages 15-19 Ages 25-29 Ages 30-34 Ages 35-39 Ages 40-54

0

1 0

2 0

3 0

4 0 Percent

11.9

7.3

14.0 13.2 11.3 9.4 10.6

7.4

11.3

6.5

13.2

6.7

16.7

7.8

19.7

9.9

Smoker

Nonsmoker

All races

Total Under age 15 Ages 20-24 Ages 15-19 Ages 25-29 Ages 30-34 Ages 35-39 Ages 40-54

0

1 0

2 0

3 0

4 0 Percent

Smoker

Nonsmoker

Black, non-Hispanic

19.9

12.4

15.9 16.6

13.5

16.7

12.1

19.0

11.4

24.3

12.1

28.7

13.9

32.8

15.4

138 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 3. HEALTH CONDITIONS AND HEALTH CARE

Figure HC 2.2.A continued

Percentage of children born with low birthweight, by mother’s smoking status, age, and race and

Hispanic origin: 2001 

Total Under age 15 Ages 20-24 Ages 15-19 Ages 25-29 Ages 30-34 Ages 35-39 Ages 40-54

0

1 0

2 0

3 0

4 0 Percent

Smoker

Nonsmoker

White, non-Hispanic

10.7

6.1

12.3 11.5 10.6

7. 5 9.8

5.9

10.2

5.5

11.5

5.9

14.5

6.8

16.2

8.9

Total Under age 15 Ages 20-24 Ages 15-19 Ages 25-29 Ages 30-34 Ages 35-39 Ages 40-54

0

1 0

2 0

3 0

4 0 Percent

Smoker

Nonsmoker

Hispanic

11.9

6. 6

10.1 11.9

7. 8

10.5

6.3

10.7

5.8

14.4

6. 4

15.6

8. 1

22.4

1 0

a Data for smokers under 15 years did not meet standards of reliability or precision; based on fewer than 20 births 

in the numerator.

b Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

Note:  Low birthweight is defined as infants weighing less than 2,500 grams (5lb. 8oz.)

Source:  Martin, J. A., Hamilton, B. E., Ventura, S. J., Menacker, F., Park, M. M., & Sutton, P.D. (2002). Births: Final Data 

for 2001. National Vital Statistics Reports, 51(2).

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 139 
Health Conditions

age: Selected years, 1970­2002

b

1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002a

1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.5 1.4 1.4 1.4

Race and Hispanic origin of motherc

White 1.0 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.2 1.1 1.2 1.2

Black 2.4 2.4 2.5 2.7 2.9 3.0 3.0 3.1 3.1 3.2 3.1 3.1 —

American Indian/Alaska Native 1.0 1.0 0.9 1.0 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.3 1.2 1.3 —

Asian/Pacific Islander — — 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.0 1.0 —

Chinese 0.8 0.5 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.7 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.8 0.7 —

Japanese 1.5 0.9 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.9 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.9 0.7 0.7 —

Filipino 1.1 0.9 1.0 0.9 1.1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.4 1.4 1.2 —

— — 1.1 1.0 1.0 0.9 1.0 1.4 1.5 1.4 1.4 1.5 —

Other Asian or Pacific Islander — — 1.0 0.9 0.9 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.0 1.1 —

Hispanic origin — — 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.2

Mexican American — — 0.9 1.0 0.9 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 —

Puerto Rican — — 1.3 1.3 1.6 1.8 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.9 1.9 1.8 —

Cuban — — 1.0 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.3 1.5 1.2 1.3 —

Central and South American — — 1.0 1.0 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.2 1.2 1.1 1.2 1.2 —

Other and unknown Hispanic  — — 1.0 1.0 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.3 1.4 1.3 1.4 1.3 —

Age of mother

Under age 15 — 3.1 3.4 3.1 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.1 3.3 3.2 3.3 3.0 3.1

Ages 15­19  — 1.8 1.7 1.8 1.8 1.7 1.7 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8

Ages 20­24  — 1.1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4

Ages 25­29  — 0.9 1.0 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3

Ages 30­34  — 1.0 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.4 1.4 1.3 1.3 1.4

Ages 35­39  — — 1.1 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.7 1.6 1.6 1.6

Ages 40­44  — — 1.4 1.5 1.5 1.8 1.9 1.9 1.9 2.0 1.9 1.9 —

Ages 45­54d — — 1.8 1.8 1.7 2.8 2.7 3.9 4.2 3.5 3.4 3.9 —

a

b Before 1979, low birthweight was defined as infants weighing 2,500 grams (5lb. 8oz.) or less. 

birthweight was defined as infants weighing less than 2,500 grams (5lb. 8oz.). c Estimates for Whites and Blacks include Hispanics of those races until 1990.

Birth figures for Hispanic infants are based on data from 22 states

that reported Hispanic origin on the birth certificate in 1980, 23 states and the District of Columbia in 1985, 48 states and

the District of Columbia in 1990, and 50 states and the District of Columbia since 1993

d

—  Data not available.

Sources: 

51(2); Martin, J.

45(11[Supp. 2]); National Center for Health Statistics. (1996). Health, United States, 1995. Hyattsville, MD: National Center

Monthly

31(Supp. 8).

Table HC 2.2.B

Very low birthweight infants as a percentage of all infants by race and Hispanic origin of mother and by

Very low birthweight infants

Hawaiian and part Hawaiian

Data for 2002 are preliminary.

From 1979 and beyond, low

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.  

After 1990, persons of Hispanic origin are not included.  

Before 1997, this category was 45­49 years.

National Center for Health Statistics. (2003). Unpublished work; Hamilton, B.E., Martin, J.A., & Sutton, P.D.

(2003). Births: Preliminary Data for 2002. National Vital Statistics Reports, 51(11). Martin, J. A., Hamilton, B. E., Ventura, S. J.,

Menacker, F., Park, M. M., & Sutton, P. D. (2002). Births: Final Data for 2001. National Vital Statistics Reports, 

A., Hamilton, B. E., Ventura, S. J., Menacker, F., & Park, M. M. (2002). Births: Final Data for 2000. National Vital Statistics

Reports, 50(5); Ventura, S. J., Martin, J. A., Curtin, S. C., Menacker, F., & Hamilton, B. E. (2001). Births: Final Data for 1999.

National Vital Statistics Reports, 49(1); Ventura, S. J., Martin, J. A., Curtin, S. C., Mathews, T. J., & Park, M. M. (2000). Births:

Final Data for 1998. National Vital Statistics Reports, 48(3); Ventura, S. J., Martin, J. A., Curtin, S. C., & Mathews, T. J. (1999).

Births: Final Data for 1997. National Vital Statistics Reports, 47(18); Ventura, S. J., Martin, J. A., Curtin, S. C., & Mathews, T. J.

(1998). Report of Final Natality Statistics, 1996. Monthly Vital Statistics Reports, 46(Supp. 11); Ventura, S. J., Martin, J. A.,

Curtin, S. C., Mathews, T. J., & Park, M. M. (1997). Report of Final Natality Statistics, 1995. Monthly Vital Statistics Reports,

for Health Statistics; Ventura, S. J. & Martin, J. A. (1993). Report of Final Natality Statistics, 1990. Monthly Vital Statistics

Reports, 41(Supp. 9); National Center for Health Statistics. (1987). Advance Report of Final Natality Statistics, 1985. 

Vital Statistics Report, 36(4 (Supp)); Ventura, S. J. (1982). Advance Report of Final Natality Statistics, 1980. Monthly Vital

Statistics Reports, 

140 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 3. HEALTH CONDITIONS AND HEALTH CARE

Figure HC 2.2.B 

Low birthweight infants as a percentage of all infants, by age of mother: 2001

Under age 15Ages 15-19 Ages 20-24 Ages 25-29 Ages 30-34 Ages 35-39 Ages 40-44 Ages 45-54 

0

5

1 0

1 5

2 0

2 5 Percent 12.8

9.4

7.8 6. 8 7.0 8.4

10.1

20.5

Note: Low birthweight is defined as infants weighing less than 2,500 grams (5lb. 8oz.)

Source:  Martin, J. A., Hamilton, B. E., Ventura, S. J., Menacker, F., Park, M. M., & Sutton, P. D. (2002). Births: Final Data for

2001. National Vital Statistics Reports, 51(2).

Figure HC 2.2.C

Percentage of children born with low birthweight, by plurality and age of mother: 2001

Under age 20 Ages 20-24 Ages 25-29 Ages 30-34 Ages 35-39 Ages 40-44 Ages 45-54

2 0

4 0

6 0

8 0

100 Percent

8.5

69.8

100.0

6.5

60.7

95.5

5.2

54.9

94.6

5. 0

51.2

94.0

6.1

50.6

92.2

7.7

51.4

94.3

10.2

57.0

97.2

Singleton Twi Triplet

Note: Low birthweight is defined as infants weighing less than 2,500 grams (5lb. 8oz.)

Source:  National Center for Health Statistics. (2003). Unpublished work.

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 141 
Health Conditions

HC 2.3 Children in Very Good or Excellent Health

The health of children and youth is fundamental to their well­being and future development. Most parents in the United States report that their children are in very good or excellent health. The percentage of all children under age 18 reported to be in very good or excellent health has remained close to 80 percent since 1985 (Table HC 2.3).

Differences by Race and Hispanic Origin.1 Parents’ reports of their children’s health

vary by race and Hispanic origin. Between 1985 and 2001, Black, non­Hispanic and

Hispanic parents were less likely than White, non­Hispanic parents to report that their children were in very good or excellent health. In 2001, 78 percent of Black, non­Hispanic children and 80 percent of Hispanic children under age 5 were reported to be in very good or

excellent health, compared to 89 percent of White, non­Hispanic children. Seventy­two

percent of Black, non­Hispanic children and 76 percent of Hispanic children ages 5 to 17

were reported in very good or excellent health, compared with 87 percent of White, nonHispanic children in this age group (Table HC 2.3).

Differences by Poverty Status. Parents’ reports of their children’s health also vary by

family income, with higher income families more likely to report that their children are in

very good or excellent health (Figure HC 2.3). For example, in 2001, 71 percent of children

under age 18 who fell below the poverty line were reported to be in very good or excellent

health, compared with 86 percent for children at or above the poverty line. Seventy­four

percent of children under age 5 in families below poverty were reported to be in very good

or excellent health, compared with 88 percent of children in families at or above poverty in

2001. For children ages 5 to 17 in families below the poverty line, 70 percent were reported

to be in very good or excellent health, compared to 86 percent of children in families at or

above the poverty line in 2001.

1 Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.  Estimates for Whites and Blacks include Hispanics of those races.

142 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 3. HEALTH CONDITIONS AND HEALTH CARE

health, by age, race and Hispanic origin, poverty status: Selected years, 1985­2001

All healthy children 

1985 1990 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001

79 81 80 81 82 83 83 82 84

Race and Hispanic origina

White, non­Hispanic 84 85 85 85 87 88 87 86 88

Black, non­Hispanic 66 69 71 74 73 74 74 74 75

Hispanic 68 75 69 69 73 74 77 75 77

Poverty status

Below poverty 64 66 65 66 68 70 71 70 72

At or above poverty 84 84 84 85 86 87 86 85 87

Under age 5 80 81 81 81 84 85 85 85 85

Race and Hispanic origina

White, non­Hispanic 86 85 86 86 89 90 89 89 89

Black, non­Hispanic 67 72 72 75 77 77 78 77 78

Hispanic 69 75 70 69 75 77 78 77 81

Below poverty 69 70 67 69 74 76 73 74 76

At or above poverty 85 85 85 85 88 89 88 88 88

Ages 5­17 78 80 80 81 81 82 82 81 83

Race and Hispanic origina

White, non­Hispanic 83 84 85 85 86 87 86 85 87

Black, non­Hispanic 66 67 70 73 71 72 73 73 73

Hispanic 67 75 69 69 72 73 76 74 75

Poverty status

62 64 64 65 65 67 70 68 69

83 84 84 85 86 87 86 84 86

a

Note:  Data for 1997 onward are not strictly comparable

with earlier data.

Table HC 2.3

Percentage of children under age 18 who are reported by their parents to be in very good or excellent

Poverty status

Below poverty

At or above poverty

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

In 1997, the National Health Interview Survey was redesigned.  

Source: Federal Interagency Forum on Child and Family Statistics. (2003). America’s Children: Key National Indicators of 

Well­Being, 2003. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 143 
Health Conditions

Figure HC 2.3

Percentage of children under age 18 who are reported by their parents to be in very good or excellent

health, by poverty status: 1985­2001

1 0

2 0

3 0

4 0

5 0

6 0

7 0

8 0

9 0

100 Percent

1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001

Total

Below 

poverty

At or above 

poverty

Note: In 1997, the National Health Interview Survey was redesigned. Data for 1997 onward are not strictly comparable with

earlier data.

Source: Federal Interagency Forum on Child and Family Statistics. (2003). America’s Children: Key National Indicators of 

Well­Being, 2003. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

144 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 3. HEALTH CONDITIONS AND HEALTH CARE

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 145 
Health Conditions

HC 2.4 Chronic Health Conditions

Chronic conditions are longstanding illnesses or impairments that are not easily or quickly

resolved or that are continuous or persistent over an extended time period. They can cause

children to miss school and often require medical assistance and followup. In fact, children

with asthma, one of the most common chronic conditions in the United States, miss an

average of twice as many school days as children without asthma.1 Chronic conditions can

increase a family’s medical expenses, create stress for children and their parents, and also

can cause parents to be absent from work.2

The percentage of children with asthma increased slightly between 1997 and 2001. In 2001,

approximately 13 percent of children under 18 had asthma. While another 13 percent of

children had respiratory allergies in 2001, the percentage of children with respiratory allergies has remained stable since 1997. An estimated 11 percent of children had other allergies

and 10 percent of children suffered from hay fever in 2001 (Table HC 2.4).

Differences by Sex. Males are more likely to suffer from asthma, hay fever, and respiratory allergies than females. For example, in 2001, approximately 15 percent of males and 11

percent of females had asthma. Similar percentages of males and females suffer from other

allergies, such as food or skin allergies (Table HC 2.4).

Differences by Age. Among children with asthma, hay fever, and respiratory allergies,

older children are more likely to have these chronic conditions than younger children. For

example, in 2001, 14 percent of children ages 12 to 17 had hay fever, while only 5 percent

of children under age 5 suffered from this condition. However, these differences could be a

result of more children presenting symptoms as they grow older. Among children with

other allergies, children under age 5 are more likely than older children to have this condition (Table HC 2.4).

Differences by Race and Hispanic Origin. Black, non­Hispanic children are more likely

to suffer from asthma and other allergies, while White, non­Hispanic children are more likely to have hay fever and respiratory allergies. In 2001, approximately 16 percent of Black,

non­Hispanic children suffered from asthma, while 12 percent of White, non­Hispanic, and

11 percent of Hispanic children had the same condition (Figure HC 2.4). 

1 U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (1998). HHS Targets Efforts on Asthma: Fact Sheet.

2 Summer, L. & O'Neill, G. Challenges for the 21st Century. (1999). Washington, DC: National Academy of an Aging Society.

146 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 3. HEALTH CONDITIONS AND HEALTH CARE

Percentage of children with selected health conditions, by sex, age, and race and Hispanic origin, 

1997­2001

1997 1998 1999 2000 2001

11.4 12.1 10.8 12.4 12.7

Sex

Male 13.0 14.7 12.9 14.8 14.5

Female 9.7 9.3 8.5 9.8 10.7

Age

Under age 5 7.1 8.3 7.0 7.8 7.9

12.3 13.0 11.9 12.2 13.3

14.0 14.2 12.6 16.2 15.8

Race and Hispanic origina

White, non­Hispanic 11.2 12.0 10.1 12.1 12.2

Black, non­Hispanic 13.6 15.7 13.8 16.0 15.7

Hispanic 10.1 10.1 10.1 9.9 11.2

All children with hay fever 10.4 10.5 10.3 9.9 10.2

Sex

Male 11.1 10.9 11.0 10.8 11.0

Female 9.6 10.1 9.5 8.8 9.3

Age

Under age 5 4.6 4.7 4.3 4.4 4.8

11.0 11.4 10.7 9.5 10.5

14.6 14.3 13.7 14.8 14.2

Race and Hispanic origina

White, non­Hispanic 11.3 11.6 11.1 11.1 11.8

Black, non­Hispanic 8.7 8.6 9.9 8.4 8.3

Hispanic 8.2 7.9 7.4 6.7 6.1

12.0 12.2 10.8 11.5 12.6

Sex

Male 12.8 12.8 12.0 12.2 13.3

Female 11.1 11.5 9.6 10.7 11.9

Age

Under age 5 8.3 8.6 6.9 8.2 8.8

12.2 13.1 11.1 12.2 13.2

14.8 14.0 13.1 13.4 15.0

Race and Hispanic origina

White, non­Hispanic 13.5 13.6 12.1 13.0 14.3

Black, non­Hispanic 10.3 12.1 10.1 9.5 11.6

Hispanic 7.8 7.9 6.2 8.1 7.5

continued

Table HC 2.4

All children with asthma

Ages 5­11

Ages 12­17

Ages 5­11

Ages 12­17

All children with respiratory allergies

Ages 5­11

Ages 12­17

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 147 
Health Conditions

Percentage of children with selected health conditions, by sex, age, and race and Hispanic origin, 

1997­2001

a

1997 1998 1999 2000 2001

10.3 10.2 9.2 9.9 10.7

Sex

Male 10.1 9.7 9.5 10.0 10.5

Female 10.4 10.7 9.0 9.8 10.9

Age

Under age 5 11.1 10.9 10.2 10.9 12.3

9.8 10.5 8.8 9.2 9.8

10.1 9.2 9.1 9.9 10.4

Race and Hispanic originb

White, non­Hispanic 10.4 10.9 9.4 10.6 11.0

Black, non­Hispanic 12.2 10.7 10.2 10.1 12.3

Hispanic 7.3 7.4 6.7 6.7 7.4

a

b

Sources: 

10(210); Blackwell, D. L.,

2000. 

10(208).

Table HC 2.4 continued

All children with other allergies

Ages 5­11

Ages 12­17

Other allergies include food or digestive allergies, eczema, or any kind of skin allergy.

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

Note: Data are based on responses by parents or other adult respondents to questions asking if a doctor or other health professional has ever told them if their child has the selected health condition. A child may be counted in more than one category.

National Center for Health Statistics. (2003). Unpublished work; Blackwell, D. L. & Tonthat, L. (2003). Summary

Health Statistics for U.S. Children: National Health Interview Survey, 1999. Vital Health Statistics, 

Vickerie, J. L., & Wondimu, E. A. (2003). Summary Health Statistics for U.S. Children: National Health Interview Survey,

Vital Health Statistics, 10(213); Bloom, B., & Tonthat, L. (2002). Summary Health Statistics for U.S. Children: National

Health Interview Survey, 1997. Vital Health Statistics, 10(203); Blackwell, D. L. & Tonthat, L. (2002). Summary Health

Statistics for U.S. Children: National Health Interview Survey, 1998. Vital Health Statistics, 

148 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 3. HEALTH CONDITIONS AND HEALTH CARE

Figure HC 2.4 

Percentage of children with asthma, by race and Hispanic origin, 1997­2001

1997 1998 1999 2000 2001

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

20 Percent

White, 

non-Hispanic

Black, 

non-Hispanic

Hispanic

Sources:  National Center for Health Statistics.  (2003). Unpublished work; Blackwell, D. L. & Tonthat, L. (2003). Summary

Health Statistics for U.S. Children: National Health Interview Survey, 1999. Vital Health Statistics, 10(210); Blackwell, D. L.,

Vickerie, J. L., & Wondimu, E. A. (2003). Summary Health Statistics for U.S. Children: National Health Interview Survey,

2000. Vital Health Statistics, 10(213); Bloom, B., & Tonthat, L. (2002). Summary Health Statistics for U.S. Children: National

Health Interview Survey, 1997. Vital Health Statistics, 10(203); Blackwell, D. L. & Tonthat, L. (2002). Summary Health

Statistics for U.S. Children: National Health Interview Survey, 1998. Vital Health Statistics, 10(208).

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 149 
Health Conditions

HC 2.5 Overweight Prevalence

Youth who are overweight in adolescence are at greater risk of being overweight as adults,

and adults who are overweight are at higher risk of numerous health problems, including

hypertension, coronary heart disease, gallbladder disease, noninsulin­dependent diabetes,

and some cancers.1 Because being overweight in childhood and adolescence increases the

risk of being overweight in adulthood, the trends in overweight prevalence among children

and youth have become an important public health concern. Overall, the percentage of children ages 6 to 19 who are overweight2 has increased more than threefold since the 1960s,

with the largest increases seen since 1980 (Table HC 2.5.A). 

One predictor of obesity is the amount of regular physical exercise. Sixty percent of

Americans do not exercise regularly, according to a 1996 report by the surgeon general,

despite the many health benefits associated with physical activity. People of all ages, both

male and female, benefit from regular physical activity. Significant health benefits can be

obtained by including a moderate amount of physical activity (e.g., 30 minutes of brisk

walking or raking leaves, 15 minutes of running, or 45 minutes of playing volleyball) on

most, if not all, days of the week.

The percentage of 12th­graders who report actively participating in sports or exercise

“almost every day” has remained fairly stable since 1976, varying between 42 and 48 percent. Rates have also been stable for 8th­ and 10th­graders since 1991, the first year in

which data were collected for those grades (Table HC 2.5.B).

Differences by Sex. In the time period 1988­1994, 11.8 percent of males ages 6 to 11 were

overweight, compared with 11 percent of females; 11.3 percent of males ages 12 to 19 were

overweight, compared with 9.7 percent of females. By 1999­2000, 15.5 percent of both

males and females ages 12 to 19 were overweight (Figure HC 2.5.A). Males consistently

report exercising more often than females. In 2001, for each grade (9 to 12), male rates were

10 to 24 percentage points higher than female rates, a trend that exists for every year that

data are available (Table HC 2.5.C).

1 National Center for Health Statistics.  (2001). Health, United States, 2001, with Urban and Rural Health Chartbook.

Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics; Trojano, R. P., Flegal, K. M., Kuczmarksi, R. J., Campbell, S. M.,

& Johnson, C. L. (1995). Overweight Prevalence and Trends for Children and Adolescents: The National Health and

Nutrition Examination Surveys, 1963­1991. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, 149.

2 Overweight is defined as body mass index (BMI) at or above the sex­ and age­specific 95th percentile BMI cutoff points

calculated at 6­month age intervals for children ages 6 through 11 [from the 1963­65 National Health Examination

Survey (NHES)] and for adolescents ages 12 to 17 (from the 1966­70 NHES). Age is at time of examination at mobile

examination center. This definition differs from that reported in earlier versions of this report, which was based on children at or above the 85th percentile of BMI.

150 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 3. HEALTH CONDITIONS AND HEALTH CARE

Differences by Age. In the years 1963­1965, 4.2 percent of children ages 6 to 11 were overweight, with this percentage rising to 15.3 percent in 1999­2000. In the period 1966­1970,

4.6 percent of youth ages 12 to 19 were overweight, with this percentage rising to 15.5 percent during 1999­2000.

The percentages of youth who report that they actively participate in sports or exercise

“almost every day” decreased with age. In 2002, for example, 54 percent of 8th graders, 50

percent of 10th graders, and 42 percent of 12th graders reported daily or almost daily exercise (Figure HC 2.5.B). A similar pattern emerged in a survey that asked youth whether

they had exercised vigorously three or more times in the past week (Table HC 2.5.C).

Differences by Race and Hispanic Origin.3 In 1999­2000, overweight prevalence among

male children (ages 6 to 11) and youth (ages 12 to 19) differs by more than 5 percentage

points between Black and White males. The percentage of overweight Black female children and youth is about 10 percentage points above that of their White peers (Table 

HC 2.5.A).

Black and White 10th graders are about equally likely to exercise regularly (Table HC 2.5.B).

Among 12th graders, Blacks appeared to be somewhat less likely than Whites to exercise

regularly. Other survey data, reported in Table HC 2.5.C, show larger differences by race

and Hispanic origin. In 2001, 67 percent of White youth reported exercising vigorously at

least 3 times a week, compared with 60 percent of Black, non­Hispanic youth and 61 percent of Hispanic youth.

3 Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 151 
Health Conditions

Table HC 2.5.A

Percentage of overweight children and youth by age, sex, and race and Hispanic origin:  Selected years,

1963­2000

Ages 6­11

1963­1965 1966­1970 1971­1974 1976­1980 1988­1994 1999­2000

4.2 — 4.0 6.5 11.3 15.3

Malea 4.0 — 4.3 6.6 11.6 16.0

White, non­Hispanic — — — 6.1 10.7 11.9b

Black, non­Hispanic — — — 6.8 12.3 17.6

Femalea 4.5 — 3.6 6.4 11.0 14.5

White, non­Hispanic — — — 5.2 9.8b 12.0b

Black, non­Hispanic — — — 11.2 17.0 22.1

Ages 12­19 — 4.6 6.1 5.0 10.5 15.5

Malea — 4.5 6.1 4.8 11.3 15.5

White, non­Hispanic — — — 3.8 11.6 13.0

Black, non­Hispanic — — — 6.1 10.7 20.5

Femalea — 4.7 6.2 5.3 9.7 15.5

White, non­Hispanic — — — 4.6 8.9 12.2

Black, non­Hispanic — — — 10.7 16.3 25.7

a Totals for male and female children and youth include data for race groups not shown seperately.

b Estimate is considered unreliable because it has a relative standard error of 20­30 percent.

—  Data not available.

Note: Overweight is defined as BMI at or above the sex­ and age­specific 95th percentile BMI cutoff points calculated at 

6­month age intervals for children ages 6 to 11 (from the 1963­65 NHES) and for youth ages 12 to 17 (from the 1966­70

NHES). Age is at time of examination at mobile examination center.  Data for 1966­1970 are for youth 12­17 years of age,

not 12­19 years.

Source:  U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Center for Health Statistics. (2003). Health, United States,

2003, with Chartbook on Trends in the Health of Americans. Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics.

152 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 3. HEALTH CONDITIONS AND HEALTH CARE

Selected years, 1976­2002

8th Grade

1976 1981 1986 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002

— — — 57 55 55 53 56 54 55 53 53 54 53 54

Sex

Male — — — 65 65 65 63 66 63 63 61 60 61 60 61

Female — — — 49 45 46 44 47 47 48 45 46 48 46 48

Racea

White — — — 58 56 58 56 59 57 58 56 55 57 56 58

Black — — — 61 57 54 52 55 56 56 54 55 54 55 55

10th Grade — — — 54 54 53 53 53 52 52 50 52 51 50 50

Sex

Male — — — 63 64 62 62 62 60 60 58 60 59 57 57

Female — — — 45 45 45 44 45 44 45 42 44 44 44 44

a

White — — — 55 55 54 54 55 53 54 52 54 53 51 52

Black — — — 54 52 56 50 52 53 52 47 47 48 51 52

12th Grade 44 48 44 46 46 44 45 45 45 45 44 45 42 43 42

Sex

Male 52 56 54 55 59 55 56 55 58 56 53 54 49 56 50

Female 36 39 36 36 33 33 36 37 32 36 35 37 35 32 35

a

White 43 47 46 48 48 46 49 46 48 46 46 48 44 46 45

Black 49 53 43 43 41 39 39 48 40 38 38 40 37 43 42

a

—  Data not available.

Source: 

MI: Institute for Social Research, The University of Michigan.

Table HC 2.5.B

Percentage of 8th­, 10th­ and 12th­graders who report that they actively participate in sports or 

exercise “almost every day” by sex and race:  

Race

Race

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race. Data for Blacks and Whites include Hispanics of those races. 

Bachman, J. G., Johnston, L. D., & O'Malley, P. M. (2003).  Monitoring the Future: Questionnaire Responses. Ann Arbor,

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 153 
Health Conditions

Figure HC 2.5.A   

Percentage of overweight children and youth, by age and sex: Selected years, 1988­2000

Male Female Male Female

0

5

1 0

1 5

2 0 Percent

Ages 6-11 Ages 12-19

1988-1994

1999-2000

Note: Overweight is defined as BMI at or above the sex­ and age­specific 95th percentile BMI cutoff points calculated at 

6­month age intervals for children ages 6 to 11 (from the 1963­1965 NHES) and for youth ages 12 to 17 (from the 1966­70

NHES). Age is given at time of examination at mobile examination center.  This definition differs from that reported in earlier versions of this report, which was based on children at or above the 85th percentile of BMI.

Source: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Center for Health Statistics. (2003). Health, United States,

2003, with Chartbook on Trends in the Health of Americans. Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics.

Figure HC 2.5.B

Percentage of 8th­, 10th­, and 12th­graders who report that they actively participate in sports or 

exercise “almost every day,” by sex: 2002

8th Grade 10th Grade 12th Grade

0

2 0

4 0

6 0

8 0

100 Percent5 4

6 1

4 8 5 0

5 7

4 4 4 2

5 0

3 5

Total

Male

Female

Source:  Bachman, J. G., Johnston, L. D., & O'Malley, P. M. (2003).  Monitoring the Future: Questionnaire Responses. Ann Arbor,

MI: Institute for Social Research, The University of Michigan.

154 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 3. HEALTH CONDITIONS AND HEALTH CARE

Selected years,

1993­2001

All youth

1993 1995 1997 1999 2001

Male Female Male Female  Male Female  Male Female  Male Female 

66 75 56 64 74 52 64 72 54 65 72 57 65 73 57

Grade

9th 75 81 68 72 80 62 73 79 66 73 77 68 72 77 67

10th 70 77 61 69 79 59 66 74 56 65 73 56 67 74 60

11th 63 71 53 60 72 47 60 69 49 58 67 49 61 72 51

12th 58 70 45 55 67 42 58 68 44 61 71 52 56 66 45

Race and Hispanic origina

White, non­Hispanic 68 76 59 67 76 57 67 73 58 67 75 60 67 74 60

Black, non­Hispanic 60 71 49 53 68 41 54 67 41 56 65 47 60 72 48

Hispanic 59 69 50 57 70 45 60 69 50 61 72 50 61 69 52

a

Morbidity

United States, 1999. 

47(ss­3); Centers for Disease

, 44(ss­1).

Table HC 2.5.C

Percentage of youth in grades 9 to 12 who report having exercised vigorously three or more times 

in the seven days preceding the survey, by sex, grade, and race and Hispanic origin:  

Total Total Total Total Total

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

Note: Exercising vigorously involves activities that make students sweat and breathe hard for at least 20 minutes.

Sources: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2002). Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance, United States, 2001. 

and Mortality Weekly Report, 51(ss­4); Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2000). Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance,

Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 49(ss­5); Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (1998).

Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance, United States, 1997. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 

Control and Prevention. (1996). Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance, United States, 1995. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report,

45(ss­4); Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (1995). Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance, United States, 1993.

Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 155 
Health Conditions

HC 2.6  Activity Limitations

Activity limitations refer to long­term reductions in activities resulting from a chronic disease or impairment.1 Through 1996 a person was classified as having an activity limitation

if he or she reported (1) an inability to perform the major activity for a person in his or her

age group, (2) being able to perform the major activity but being limited in the kind or

amount of this activity, or (3) not being limited in the major activity but being limited in

the kind or amount of other activities. For children under age 5, the major activity consisted of ordinary play. For children ages 5 to 17, the major activity was attending school.

Activity limitation is now based on whether a child under age 5 was limited in usual kinds

of play activities, whether a child under 18 years of age received special education or early

intervention services, and whether a child ages 3 to 17 needed the help of other persons

with personal care needs. 

Differences by Age. Children ages 5 to 17 are more likely to experience an activity limitation due to a chronic condition than are younger children. In 2001, 3.3 percent of children

under age 5 had an activity limitation due to a chronic condition, compared with 8.0 percent of older children. These differences by age can be seen across poverty status, sex, and

race and Hispanic origin categories (Table HC 2.6). 

Differences by Sex. Males have consistently accounted for a greater percentage of children with an activity limitation due to a chronic condition. In 2001, 8.7 percent of males

under the age of 18, compared with 4.7 percent of females in the same age group, had activity limitations that were caused by a chronic condition (Table HC 2.6). 

Differences by Race and Hispanic Origin. In 2000, 6.8 percent of Black, non­Hispanic

children under the age of 18 had any activity limitation, compared with 6.3 percent of

White, non­Hispanic and 4.4 percent of Hispanic children (Figure HC 2.6.A). Overall, the

percentage of children under the age of 18 with an activity limitation due to a chronic condition has risen by a little more than one percent for both Black, non­Hispanics and White,

non­Hispanics since 1985. The overall rate for Hispanics, however, has decreased over that

time, from 5.1 to 4.4 percent (Table HC 2.6). 

Differences by Poverty Status. Children under age 18 who were below the poverty line

were much more likely to have an activity limitation than nonpoor children (Figure HC

2.6.B). In 2000, 8.4 percent of children below the poverty line and 6.1 percent of children at

or above the poverty line had an activity limitation. 

1 A disease or impairment is classified as chronic if it has been apparent for at least 3 months or is a new condition that

will ordinarily last for more than 3 months.

2 Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

156 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 3. HEALTH CONDITIONS AND HEALTH CARE

poverty status, and race and Hispanic origin:  Selected years, 1985­2001

activity limitations

1985 1990 1995 1996 1997a 1998 1999 2000 2001

5.1 4.9 6.0 6.1 6.6 6.0 5.9 5.9 6.7

Sex

Male 6.0 5.6 7.4 7.6 8.4 8.0 7.4 7.5 8.7

Female 4.2 4.2 4.6 4.6 4.7 3.9 4.4 4.3 4.7

Race and Hispanic originb

White, non­Hispanic 5.1 5.0 6.0 5.9 7.1 6.2 6.3 6.3 7.0

Black, non­Hispanic 5.8 5.5 7.3 8.0 7.4 7.6 6.5 6.8 7.8

Hispanic 5.1 4.1 5.8 6.4 4.8 4.7 4.5 4.4 4.5

Poverty status

Below poverty 7.3 6.3 8.6 9.4 8.8 9.0 8.8 8.4 —

At or above poverty 4.8 4.6 5.3 5.2 6.4 5.8 6.0 6.1 —

Under age 5 2.2 2.2 2.7 2.7 3.5 2.8 3.1 3.2 3.3

Sex

Male 2.7 2.6 3.3 3.4 4.2 3.7 3.8 4.0 4.2

Female 1.6 1.7 2.0 1.8 2.7 1.8 2.4 2.4 2.4

Race and Hispanic originb

White, non­Hispanic 1.8 2.1 2.7 2.0 3.7 2.6 3.0 3.1 3.2

Black, non­Hispanic 3.2 2.9 3.5 5.1 4.5 3.9 5.1 4.1 4.5

Hispanic 3.0 2.0 2.5 3.5 2.5 3.0 2.0 2.6 2.4

Poverty status

2.9 2.9 3.6 5.5 4.6 4.0 4.5 3.7 5.2

2.2 2.0 2.4 1.7 3.2 2.5 3.1 3.2 3.1

Ages 5­17 6.3 6.1 7.4 7.4 7.8 7.3 7.0 6.9 8.0

Sex

Male 7.4 6.9 9.0 9.2 10.0 9.7 8.7 8.8 10.4

Female 5.3 5.2 5.6 5.6 5.5 4.8 5.1 5.0 5.5

Race and Hispanic originb

White, non­Hispanic 6.4 6.2 7.2 7.3 8.3 7.5 7.4 7.4 8.5

Black, non­Hispanic 6.9 6.7 8.9 9.2 8.4 8.9 7.0 7.7 9.3

Hispanic 6.0 5.1 7.5 7.7 5.9 5.5 5.6 5.3 5.5

Poverty status

Below poverty 9.2 7.9 11.0 11.2 10.8 11.1 10.6 10.7 12.0

At or above poverty 5.8 5.6 6.5 6.5 7.6 7.1 7.1 7.1 8.2

a Data for 1997 onward are not comparable with earlier

data. 

both years, data for only the second half of the year are presented so that data for 1997­98 will be comparable.

b

— Data not available.

Note: 

17 years of age.  Beginning in 1997, some new activities were included in the definition including receipt of special educationA person is classified as having an activity limitation if he

A condition is

Sources:  l

2003.

10.

Table HC 2.6

Percentage of children under age 18 with any activity limitation due to a chronic condition, by age, sex,

Children with 

Below poverty

At or above poverty

In 1997, the National Health Interview Survey was redesigned.  

Data for 1997 and 1998 are for July­December only.  There was an error in data collection in January­June 1998.  For

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

Persons are classified in terms of the major activity usually associated with their particular age group. Prior to 1997,

the major activities for children included ordinary play for children under 5 years of age and attending school for those 5 to

al services, assistance with personal care, and cognitive problems.  

or she is unable to perform the major activity, is able to perform the major activity but is limited in the kind or amount of

this activity, or is not limited in the major activity but is limited in the kind or amount of other activities.  

considered chronic if the respondent indicates it was first noticed more than 3 months before the reference date of the interview, or it is a type of condition that ordinarily has a duration of more than 3 months.

Federal Interagency Forum on Child and Family Statistics. (2003). America’s Children: Key National Indicators of Wel ­Being,

Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office; National Center for Health Statistics. (2003). Unpublished work;

Benson, V. & Marano, M. A. (1998). Current Estimates from the National Health Interview Survey, 1995. Vital Health Statistics,

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 157 
Health Conditions

Figure HC 2.6.A

Percentage of children under age 18 with any activity limitation due to a chronic condition, by sex, and

by race and Hispanic origin: 2001

Male Female White, non-Hispanic Black, non-Hispanic Hispanic 0

2

4

6

8

1 0 Percent

Sex Race and Hispanic origin

a Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

Note:  Persons are classified in terms of the major activity usually associated with their particular age group. Prior to 1997,

the major activities for children included ordinary play for children under 5 years of age and attending school for those 5 to

17 years of age.  Beginning in 1997, some new activities were included in the definition including receipt of special educational services, assistance with personal care, and cognitive problems.  A person is classified as having an activity limitation if he

or she is unable to perform the major activity, is able to perform the major activity but is limited in the kind or amount of

this activity, or is not limited in the major activity but is limited in the kind or amount of other activities.  A condition is

considered chronic if the respondent indicates it was first noticed more than 3 months before the reference date of the interview, or it is a type of condition that ordinarily has a duration of more than 3 months.

Source: National Center for Health Statistics.  (2003). Unpublished work.

158 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 3. HEALTH CONDITIONS AND HEALTH CARE

Figure HC 2.6.B

Percentage of children under age 18 with any activity limitation due to a chronic condition, by poverty

status: 1985­2000

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000

1 0

1 5

2 0 Percent

All children

Below 

poverty

At or above poverty

Note:  Persons are classified in terms of the major activity usually associated with their particular age group. Prior to 1997,

the major activities for children included ordinary play for children under 5 years of age and attending school for those 5 to

17 years of age.  Beginning in 1997, some new activities were included in the definition including receipt of special educational services, assistance with personal care, and cognitive problems.  A person is classified as having an activity limitation if he

or she is unable to perform the major activity, is able to perform the major activity but is limited in the kind or amount of

this activity, or is not limited in the major activity but is limited in the kind or amount of other activities.  A condition is

considered chronic if the respondent indicates it was first noticed more than 3 months before the reference date of the interview, or it is a type of condition that ordinarily has a duration of more than 3 months.  In 1997, the National Health

Interview Survey was redesigned.  Data for 1997­98 are not comparable with earlier data.  Data for 1997 and 1998 are for

July­December only.  There was an error in data collection in January­June 1998.  For both years, data for only the second

half of the year are presented so that data for 1997­98 will be comparable.

Source: Federal Interagency Forum on Child and Family Statistics. (2002). America’s Children: Key National Indicators of WellBeing, 2002. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 159 
Health Conditions

HC 2.7 Children and Youth with HIV/AIDS

Through December 2001, 9,074 cases of AIDS among children younger than 13 and 4,428

cases among youth 13 to19 years of age have been reported in the United States. Pediatric

AIDS cases represent 1.1 percent and youth cases represent less than 1 percent of all the

cumulative cases reported to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). The

vast majority of children with AIDS (91 percent) contracted the disease from transmission

of HIV before or during birth (perinatal transmission). 

The steep decline in perinatally acquired AIDS (Figure HC 2.7.A) has been one of the dramatic changes of the 1990s. The number of perinatally acquired AIDS cases peaked in 1992

but have decreased by more than 75 percentin recent years. Research suggeststhatthe implementation of guidelinesfor universal counseling, voluntary HIV testing of pregnantfemales,

the use of zidovudine by pregnant females with AIDS, and administering zidovudine to

infected newborns account for the decline. The rate of perinatal transmission is expected to

continue to decline as a result of more aggressive courses of treatment and increased use of

obstetric procedures, such as elective cesarean section, that reduce transmission.

Data from HIV infection case surveillance present a more current view of the HIV/AIDS

epidemic than AIDS case surveillance data alone. Currently, 33 states, Guam, the Virgin

Islands, and some Pacific Islands conduct confidential HIV infection surveillance of adults

and youth. In 2001, these areas reported 4,557 cases of HIV infection in youth ages 13 to

24. The number of youth reported with HIV is greater than those reported with AIDS

because of the long period between infection and development of disease. Young adults

with AIDS probably became infected as adolescents but did not develop AIDS or get reported as having AIDS until they were adults. This underscores the importance of targeting

HIV prevention messages to youth even though the total numbers of AIDS cases reported

in this age group is relatively small.

Differences by Sex. In the 1980s and early 1990s, the vast majority of reported AIDS

cases in adolescents were among males. However, the ratio of male to female cases has

decreased over time. In 2001, 372 persons, 13 to 19 years old, were reported with AIDS—

177 females and 195 males (Figure HC 2.7.B).

Differences by Race and Hispanic Origin.1 Black, non­Hispanic and Hispanic children

have been disproportionately affected by the HIV/AIDS epidemic. Although only 14 percent of the child population in the United States is Black, 65 percent of AIDS cases reported in 2001 among children under 13 were Black. Hispanics constitute 19 percent of the child

population and 15 percent of reported childhood AIDS cases in 2001.2 Because the majority of pediatric cases of AIDS are attributed to perinatal HIV transmission, these rates also

reflect the disproportionate racial/ethnic distribution of HIV and AIDS among Black and

Hispanic females. 

Black, non­Hispanic youth also have a higher number of deaths due to AIDS, than do

White, non­Hispanic and Hispanic youth. For example, in 2000, there were 30 AIDS deaths

among Black, non­Hispanic youth, 12 AIDS deaths among Hispanic youth, and 11 AIDS

deaths among White, non­Hispanic youth (Table HC 2.7). While the number of deaths due

to AIDS has decreased since the mid­1990s for all three groups, Black non­Hispanic youth

continue to have the highest number of deaths due to AIDS (Figure HC 2.7.C).

1 Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

2 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2002). Pediatric AIDS Surveillance, L262 slide series (through 2001). Atlanta, GA.

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

160 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 3. HEALTH CONDITIONS AND HEALTH CARE

Figure HC 2.7.A

Diagnosed perinatally acquired AIDS cases among children under age 13: 1985­2000

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

1000 Number of cases Note: Data are adjusted for reporting delays and unreported risk.

Source: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.  (2002). Pediatric AIDS Surveillance, L262 slide series (through 2001).

Atlanta, GA. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

Figure HC 2.7.B

AIDS cases in youth ages 13 to 19, by sex: 1985­2001

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001

0

100

200

300

400

500

600 Number of cases

29 42 66 96 101 113 107 94

373

232232 217

188

151 136 157

195

11 11 30 35

68 55 58

205

180 160 181 183

147 175

183

177

Male

Female

1993 definition change

Source:  Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.  (2002). HIV/AIDS Surveillance in Adolescents, L265 slide series (through

2001). Atlanta, GA. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 161 
Health Conditions

Number of AIDS deaths among youth under age 15, by sex and by race and Hispanic origin: 1987­2000

White, non­Hispanic

1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000

70 70 90 63 85 81 96 95 93 64 32 12 12 11

Male 47 43 46 33 53 54 50 52 47 34 21 6 8 3

Female 23 27 44 30 32 27 46 43 46 30 11 6 4 8

Black, non­Hispanic 121 142 166 217 212 227 282 295 281 250 128 78 69 30

Male 59 70 80 108 108 122 141 135 143 133 71 30 41 16

Female 62 72 86 109 104 105 141 160 138 117 57 48 28 14

Asian/Pacific Islander 1 3 1 2 1 1 5 7 5 2 0 0 1 2

Male 1 2 0 1 0 1 2 3 2 0 0 0 0 1

Female 0 1 1 1 1 0 3 4 3 2 0 0 1 1

American Indian/

Alaska Native 2 0 1 2 4 0 3 3 2 1 0 0 0 0

Male 1 0 1 1 4 0 2 2 0 1 0 0 0 0

Female 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 2 0 0 0 0 0

Hispanica 69 68 91 92 85 94 120 129 117 87 40 19 25 12

Male 43 37 45 47 44 57 66 62 58 44 24 10 11 5

Female 26 31 46 45 41 37 54 67 59 43 16 9 14 7

a

Note:  The number of AIDS deaths among youth in 2000 may increase as additional deaths are reported to the CDC.

; Centers for Disease Control

HIV/AIDS

; Centers for

(1997). 

(1996).  (1995). 

1995 (1994).  Centers for Disease Control

(1993).  HIV/AIDS

Centers for

(1990). 

(1989). 

Table HC 2.7

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

Sources: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2001). HIV/AIDS Surveillance Report, 2001

and Prevention. (2000). HIV/AIDS Surveillance Report, 2000; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (1999). 

Surveillance Report, 1999; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (1998). HIV/AIDS Surveillance Report, 1998

Disease Control and Prevention.   HIV/AIDS Surveillance Report, 1997; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

HIV/AIDS Surveillance Report, 1996; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.   HIV/AIDS Surveillance Report,

; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.   HIV/AIDS Surveillance Report, 1994;

and Prevention.   HIV/AIDS Surveillance Report, 1993; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (1992). 

Surveillance Report, 1992; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (1991). HIV/AIDS Surveillance Report, 1991;

Disease Control and Prevention.   HIV/AIDS Surveillance Report, 1990; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

HIV/AIDS Surveillance Report, 1989.

162 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 3. HEALTH CONDITIONS AND HEALTH CARE

Figure HC 2.7.C

Number of AIDS deaths among youth under age 15, by race and Hispanic origin: 1987­2000

1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000

0

5 0

100

150

200

250

300 Number

White, 

non-Hispanic

Black, non-Hispanic

Hispanic

a Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

Note:  The number of AIDS deaths among youth in 2000 may increase as additional deaths are reported to the CDC.

Sources: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2001). HIV/AIDS Surveillance Report, 2001; Centers for Disease Control

and Prevention. (2000). HIV/AIDS Surveillance Report, 2000; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (1999). HIV/AIDS

Surveillance Report, 1999; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (1998). HIV/AIDS Surveillance Report, 1998; Centers for

Disease Control and Prevention.  (1997). HIV/AIDS Surveillance Report, 1997; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

(1996). HIV/AIDS Surveillance Report, 1996; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.  (1995). HIV/AIDS Surveillance Report,

1995; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.  (1994). HIV/AIDS Surveillance Report, 1994; Centers for Disease Control

and Prevention.  (1993). HIV/AIDS Surveillance Report, 1993; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (1992). HIV/AIDS

Surveillance Report, 1992; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (1991). HIV/AIDS Surveillance Report, 1991; Centers for

Disease Control and Prevention.  (1990). HIV/AIDS Surveillance Report, 1990; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

(1989). HIV/AIDS Surveillance Report, 1989.

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 163 
Health Conditions

HC 2.8 Sexually Transmitted Diseases

Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs) have potentially severe consequences. Syphilis 

facilitates the transmission of HIV, and gonorrhea infections are a major cause of pelvic

inflammatory disease, which in turn may lead to infertility, ectopic pregnancy, or the birth

of children with physical and mental developmental disabilities. Youth are at greater risk

for the transmission of STDs because of their riskier sexual behavior, such as having multiple partners or engaging in unprotected sex. Female youth are at particularly high risk, as

many STDs are more easily spread from male to female and often remain undetected and

untreated in females.1

Gonorrhea rates have declined for all youth since 1975 (Table HC 2.8.A). Among youth ages

15 to 19, rates decreased by more than 60 percent from 1975 to 2001. Gonorrhea rates also

decreased among youth ages 10 to 14, but the decline started in more recent years and has

not been as dramatic as among older youth. However, females have had consistently higher reported rates of gonorrhea than males (Figure HC 2.8.A). In 2001, rates for females ages

15 to 19 were 703.2 per 100,000, versus 307.5 per 100,000 males of the same age (Table HC

2.8.A). Furthermore, Black, non­Hispanic youth have consistently had the highest reported

rates of gonorrhea, frequently more than 8 times the rate of any other racial or ethnic

group. Overall, rates for all races and Hispanics, except Asians and Pacific Islanders, have

fallen since 1990.

Table HC 2.8.B shows that reported rates for primary and secondary syphilis have decreased

for youth ages 10 to 14 and 15 to 19 since their peak in 1990. However, in general, females

from both age groups have reported more cases of syphilis than their male counterparts

(Figure HC 2.8.B). In 2001, females ages 15 to 19 had a rate of 2.5 cases per 100,000, nearly

twice the male rate of 1.4 cases per 100,000. Furthermore, Black, non­Hispanic youth ages

15 to 19 have had rates of syphilis noticeably higher than all other racial and ethnic groups.

Rates have been gradually falling for all racial, ethnic, and age groups except American

Indians/Alaska Natives aged 15 to 19, whose reported syphilis rates have fluctuated considerably since 1990 (Table HC 2.8.B).

1 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2002). Pediatric AIDS Surveillance, L262 slide series (through 2001). Atlanta, GA.

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

164 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 3. HEALTH CONDITIONS AND HEALTH CARE

Reported rates of youth gonorrhea by age, sex, and race and Hispanic origin (per 100,000 population):

Selected years, 1975­2001

Ages 10­14

1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001

46.7 48.7 47.7 68.9 41.3 33.2 30.7 32.4 30.4 28.9 29.4

Sex

Male 20.9 23.6 23.8 32.1 12.4 9.1 8.5 8.4 8.2 7.9 8.2

Female 73.6 74.8 72.9 107.5 71.7 58.6 54.1 57.5 53.8 50.9 51.7

Race and Hispanic origina

White, non­Hispanic — — — 14.3 8.9 7.5 7.2 6.7 6.5 5.8 6.4

Black, non­Hispanic — — — 386.8 237.0 179.8 162.2 173.7 159.5 147.9 147.8

Hispanic — — — 15.3 19.3 15.8 15.0 12.9 13.4 13.2 13.9

Asian/Pacific Islander — — — 4.5 5.6 3.3 3.5 3.3 4.6 5.1 7.0

American Indian/

Alaska Native — — — 22.7 19.0 21.7 23.7 25.2 20.0 22.6 21.6

Ages 15­19 1,275.1 1,187.3 1,189.9 1,114.4 671.0 543.6 521.6 547.5 528.8 504.7 499.8

Sex

Male 1,103.9 953.4 930.5 993.7 503.2 373.6 348.1 347.4 337.8 320.6 307.5

Female 1,446.4 1,424.6 1,455.1 1,241.6 847.8 724.5 706.2 759.4 730.8 699.3 703.2

Race and Hispanic origina

White, non­Hispanic — — — 230.3 145.1 125.8 117.4 123.3 113.5 111.6 114.3

Black, non­Hispanic — — — 6,316.2 3,815.3 2,904.8 2,780.0 2,909.7 2,833.8 2,692.7 2,635.3

Hispanic — — — 268.7 270.3 222.7 223.5 216.6 228.7 216.8 223.7

Asian/Pacific Islander — — — 70.0 81.0 64.1 68.6 64.8 73.5 81.8 93.2

American Indian/

Alaska Native — — — 414.6 296.2 329.0 342.9 389.8 365.4 322.7 346.3

a

—  Data not available.

Note: 

In many

areas, reporting for publicly supported institutions (e.g., STD clinics) was more complete than from other sources (e.g., private practitioners). 

appropriate years.

(1997). 

(1994). 

STD Statistics.

(1985). STD Statistics. U.S. Department of Health and

Table HC 2.8.A

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

Although most reporting areas generally adhere to the case definitions for STDs used by the Public Health Service,

there can be differences in case definitions as well as in the policies and systems for collecting surveillance data.  

For the following years, the states/areas listed did not report race/ethnicity for most cases: 1990

Baltimore, New Jersey, New York City, New York State, and Kentucky); 1995 (Georgia, New Jersey, New York); and 1996

(New Jersey and New York); 1997 (Idaho, New Jersey, New York) and 1998 (Idaho and New Jersey). Massachusetts did not

report age for most cases in 1990. Cases and population denominators have been excluded for these states/areas for the

Sources: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Division of STD Prevention. (2002). Sexually Transmitted Disease

Surveillance, 2001. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention,

Division of STD Prevention.   Sexually Transmitted Disease Surveillance, 1996. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health

and Human Services; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Division of STD Prevention.   Sexually Transmitted

Disease Surveillance, 1993. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services; Centers for Disease Control and

Prevention, Division of STD Prevention. (1987).   U.S. Department of Health and Human Services; Centers 

for Disease Control and Prevention, Division of STD Prevention.  

Human Services.

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 165 
Health Conditions

Figure HC 2.8.A

Reported rates of gonorrhea for youth ages 15 to 19, by sex: 1975­2001

1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2001

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

1600 Rate (per 100,000 youth) All youth

Male

Female

Note: Data exclude cases from Georgia, Idaho, and Indiana for 1983, from Maryland for 1982­1983, from Massachusetts for

1983, from New York for 1983­1984, and from Tennessee for 1984.  Massachusetts did not report age for most cases in 1990.

Although most reporting areas generally adhere to the case definitions for STDs used by the Public Health Service, there 

can be differences in case definitions as well as in the policies and systems for collecting surveillance data. In many areas,

reporting from publicly supported institutions (e.g., STD clinics) was more complete than from other sources (e.g., private

practitioners).

Sources: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Division of STD Prevention. (2002). Sexually Transmitted Disease

Surveillance, 2001. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention,

Division of STD Prevention.  (1997). Sexually Transmitted Disease Surveillance, 1996. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health

and Human Services; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Division of STD Prevention.  (1994). Sexually Transmitted

Disease Surveillance, 1993. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services; Centers for Disease Control and

Prevention, Division of STD Prevention. (1987).  STD Statistics. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services; Centers 

for Disease Control and Prevention, Division of STD Prevention.  (1985). STD Statistics. U.S. Department of Health and

Human Services.

166 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 3. HEALTH CONDITIONS AND HEALTH CARE

(per 100,000 population): Selected years, 1975­2001

Ages 10­14

1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001

1.1 0.9 0.9 1.8 0.6 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1

Sex

Male 0.7 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0

Female 1.5 1.3 1.4 3.2 1.0 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.2

Race and Hispanic origina

White, non­Hispanic — — — 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

Black, non­Hispanic — — — 10.6 3.5 1.6 1.3 1.2 0.7 0.6 0.5

Hispanic — — — 1.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1

Asian/Pacific Islander — — — 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

American Indian/Alaska Native — — — 0.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.5 0.0

Ages 15­19 17.8 17.2 17.0 29.8 10.1 6.1 4.1 3.1 2.7 2.3 1.9

Sex

Male 18.0 19.2 16.3 20.9 6.6 4.1 2.6 1.9 1.8 1.6 1.4

Female 17.5 15.1 17.7 39.2 13.8 8.2 5.6 4.4 3.6 3.0 2.5

Race and Hispanic origina

White, non­Hispanic — — — 2.9 1.1 0.9 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.2

Black, non­Hispanic — — — 174.6 60.9 35.1 23.0 17.5 14.6 12.4 9.9

Hispanic — — — 15.2 2.4 1.7 2.1 1.6 1.6 1.3 1.8

Asian/Pacific Islander — — — 1.7 0.5 0.8 0.4 0.4 0.1 0.1 0.3

American Indian/Alaska Native — — — 2.8 4.2 1.1 0.5 3.7 4.2 2.0 2.1

a

—  Data not available.

Note: 

areas, reporting from publicly supported institutions (e.g., STD clinics) was more complete than from other sources (e.g., 

(New Hampshire), because race/ethnicity was not reported for most cases.

(1997). 

(1994). 

STD Statistics.

(1985). STD Statistics. U.S. Department of Health and

Table HC 2.8.B

Reported rates of youth primary and secondary syphillis by age, sex, and race and Hispanic origin 

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

Although most reporting areas generally adhere to the case definitions for STDs used by the Public Health Service,

there can be differences in case definitions as well as in the policies and systems for collecting surveillance data. In many

private practitioners). For the indicated states/areas, cases and population denominators have been excluded for the years

indicated: 1990 (Kentucky), 1996 (Rhode Island), 1997 (Idaho, New Jersey, New York), 1998 (Idaho, New Jersey), and 1999

Sources: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Division of STD Prevention. (2002). Sexually Transmitted Disease

Surveillance, 2001. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention,

Division of STD Prevention.   Sexually Transmitted Disease Surveillance, 1996. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health

and Human Services; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Division of STD Prevention.   Sexually Transmitted

Disease Surveillance, 1993. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services; Centers for Disease Control and

Prevention, Division of STD Prevention. (1987).   U.S. Department of Health and Human Services; Centers 

for Disease Control and Prevention, Division of STD Prevention.  

Human Services.

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 167 
Health Conditions

Figure HC 2.8.B

Reported rates of primary and secondary syphilis for youth ages 15 to 19, by sex: 1975­2001   

1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2001 Rate (per 100,000 youth) All youth

Male

Female

0

1 0

1 5

2 0

2 5

3 0

3 5

4 0

4 5

5 0

Note: Data exclude cases from New York for 1983­1984 and from Tennessee for 1984.  Although most reporting areas generally adhere to the case definitions for STDs used by the Public Health Service, there can be differences in case definitions as

well as in the policies and systems for collecting surveillance data. In many areas, reporting from publicly supported institutions (e.g., STD clinics) was more complete than from other sources (e.g., private practitioners).

Sources: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Division of STD Prevention. (2002). Sexually Transmitted Disease

Surveillance, 2001. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention,

Division of STD Prevention. (1997).  Sexually Transmitted Disease Surveillance, 1996. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health

and Human Services; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Division of STD Prevention. (1994).  Sexually Transmitted

Disease Surveillance, 1993. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services; Centers for Disease Control and

Prevention, Division of STD Prevention. (1987). STD Statistics. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services; Centers 

for Disease Control and Prevention, Division of STD Prevention. (1985).  STD Statistics. U.S. Department of Health and

Human Services.

168 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 3. HEALTH CONDITIONS AND HEALTH CARE

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 169 
Health Conditions

HC 2.9 Abuse and Neglect

Abuse and neglect cause physical and emotional harm to children. Studies have shown that

abuse and neglect may negatively affect children’s physical, cognitive, emotional, and social

development, resulting in aggressiveness, anxiousness, the inability to control emotions,

depression, and learning difficulties, among other problems.1 Abuse and neglect also can

produce short­term psychological consequences that range from poor peer relations to violent behavior, as well as untold long­term psychological and economic consequences when

children reach adulthood.2 In extreme cases, abuse and neglect may even result in death. It

is estimated that in 2001, 1,300 children died from abuse or neglect. 

In the early 1990s, the number of victims of maltreatment increased substantially. In the

late­1990s, the numbers began to gradually decline (Table HC 2.9). In 2001, an estimated

903,000 children were victims of maltreatment. This figure represents approximately 12.4

out of every 1,000 children. Fifty­seven percent of all victims suffered neglect, while 19 percent suffered physical abuse; and 10 percent were sexually abused. Since 1990, neglect has

been the most common form of maltreatment, and the percentage of children suffering

from neglect has increased slightly since then (Figure HC 2.9). Some strong associations

have been found between neglect and poverty, parental substance abuse, parental impulsivity, parental low self­esteem, and a lack of social support from the family.3 The percentage of children suffering from physical and sexual abuse has decreased slightly since 1990,

while the percentage of victims being psychologically abused has remained stable (Figure

HC 2.9).

The number of victims shown in Table HC 2.9 may understate the actual number of victims of maltreatment. In order for a child to be included in these counts, a report must first

be made to child welfare authorities, an investigation or assessment undertaken, and a

determination made that maltreatment occurred or the child is at risk of maltreatment.

Differences by Race and Hispanic origin.4 Black children, who account for about 15

percent of the child population, constituted 25 percent of all child abuse and neglect victims in 2001. Whites accounted for 50 percent of all victims and Hispanics 14 percent of all

victims (Table HC 2.9).

Differences by Age. No age group accounts for an obviously disproportionate share of

abuse and neglect victims. In 2001, infants age 1 and under accounted for 16 percent of all

victims; children ages 2 to 5 accounted for 24 percent; children ages 6 to 9 accounted for 24

percent; children ages 10 to 13 accounted for 21 percent, and children ages 14 to 17 accounted for 15 percent (Table HC 2.9).

1 National Clearinghouse on Child Abuse and Neglect Information. (2001). Understanding the Effects of Maltreatment on Early

Brain Development. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

2 Many studies have demonstrated a correlation between child abuse and neglect and serious adult problems, including

violence, incarceration, and mental illness.  However, these studies have not been able to separate the effects of child

abuse and neglect from other factors that are correlated with it, including poverty, education, parenting skills, etc.

3 Schumacher, J. A., Slep, A. M., & Heyman, R. E. (2001). Acts of Omission: An Overview of Child Neglect. Washington, DC:

National Clearinghouse on Child Abuse and Neglect Information.

4 Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.  Estimates for Whites and Blacks include Hispanics of those races.

170 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 3. HEALTH CONDITIONS AND HEALTH CARE

Differences by Perpetrator. Of the 804,386 perpetrators identified in 2001, 59 percent

were female, and 41 percent were male. Nearly 85 percent of all victims were maltreated by

at least one parent, with the most common pattern of maltreatment being a child victimized by a female parent acting alone. The most common type of maltreatment among parents was neglect (68.9 percent). While children are most likely to be physically abused by

the unmarried partner of a parent (29.1 percent), nearly one­third of sexual abuse occurs

between a victim and another relative.5

5 U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration on Children, Youth and Families. (2003). Child

Maltreatment, 2001. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 171 
Health Conditions

Hispanic origin: Selected years, 1990­2001

Number of estimated victimsa

1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2001

860,000 998,000 1,031,000 1,015,000 908,000 883,000 903,000

maltreatment (percent)b

Neglect 50 50 52 52 54 60 57

Physical Abuse 27 23 24 24 23 19 19

Sexual Abuse 18 14 14 12 12 10 10

Psychological or Emotional 7 5 5 6 6 8 7

Medical Neglectc — 3 2 3 2 3 2

Other and Unknown 9 20 16 18 26 17 20

Sex of victim

Male 45 45 42 41 48 48 48

Female 51 51 47 45 52 52 52

Age of victimd

Ages 0­1  13 13 12 11 14 15 16

Ages 2­5  24 25 24 22 25 24 24

Ages 6­9  22 23 21 22 25 25 24

Ages 10­13  19 19 17 17 20 20 21

Ages 14­17  15 15 13 13 15 15 15

Ages 18 and over 1 1 1 1 1 0 0

Race and Hispanic origin of victime

White 53 50 48 43 47 51 50

Black 25 25 24 23 21 25 25

Hispanic origin 9 9 8 9 11 14 14

American Indian/Alaska Native 1 1 1 1 2 2 2

Asian/Pacific Islander 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Multiple racesf — — — — — 1 1

Other races 1 1 1 2 2 — —

Unknown raceg 10 13 17 23 20 7 7

a

victims. A victimization rate was generated  based on the total number of reported victims and multiplied by the total child

population of the reporting states. The number of reporting states on which these estimates are based varies from year to

b A child may be a victim of more than one maltreatment type. Therefore, the percentage total may add up to more than 100 percent.

c Medical neglect was not collected in 1990.

d Some states included persons ages 18 and older in their statistics on child abuse and neglect. Because those persons are considered victims of child maltreatment under the laws of their state, this table include these persons.

e

f A child could not be identified as more than one race in the National Child Abuse and Neglect Database System data before 2000.

g

— Data not available.

Note:  Data in this table have been revised and therefore do not match data presented in previous issues of this report.

Source:  Child

Table HC 2.9

Percent distribution of child maltreatment by type of maltreatment, sex, age of victim, and race and

Type of substantiated 

For the 50 states and the District of Columbia. Victims are those children for whom the allegations of maltreatment was

substantiated or indicated by the child welfare agency or who received an assessment that determined the children were 

year. The victimization was then applied to the total child population in the United States to generate an national estimate.

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race. Estimates for Whites and Blacks include Hispanics of those races. For this

reason (and because of rounding error) the Race and Hispanic origin percentages may add up to more than 100 percent.

In 2000 and 2001, “other” and “unknown” race were combined with “unable to determine.”

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration on Children, Youth and Families. (2003). 

Maltreatment, 2001. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

172 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 3. HEALTH CONDITIONS AND HEALTH CARE

Figure HC 2.9

Percentage of victims suffering from maltreatment, by type of maltreatment: 1990­2001

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001

1 5

3 0

4 5

6 0 Percent

Physical abuse

Neglect

Sexual abuse

Psychological abuse

Note: The percentages total more than 100 percent of victims because children may have been victims of more than one type

of maltreatment.

Source:  U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration on Children, Youth and Families. (2003). Child

Maltreatment, 2001. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 173 
Health Conditions

HC 2.10 Suicidal Youth

Suicide is one of the leading preventable causes of death in the United States. The most

common factors that predispose youth to suicide are mental health problems, including

mood and anxiety disorders, as well as substance abuse. Among females, the most important risk factors are major depression and a previous suicide attempt. Among males, the

most significant risk factors are a previous suicide attempt, depression, disruptive behavior,

and substance abuse.1

In 2001, 19 percent of youth in grades 9 to 12 report having seriously considered suicide

during the previous 12 months (Table HC 2.10.A). During the same time period, 9 percent

report having actually attempted suicide during the previous 12 months (Table HC 2.10.B).

While the percentage of youth who have seriously considered suicide has decreased since

1993, the percentage of youth who have attempted suicide since 1993 has remained stable.

Differences by Race and Hispanic Origin.2 In 2001, Black, non­Hispanic youth report

the lowest rates of considering suicide at 13 percent. In comparison, 20 percent of White,

non­Hispanic youth report having seriously considered suicide in the previous year (Table

HC 2.10.A). Rates of reported attempted suicide range from 8 percent for White, nonHispanics to 12 percent for Hispanic youth (Table HC 2.10.B).

Differences by Sex. In 2001, female youth were more likely than male youth to report

having considered suicide (24 percent versus 14 percent) and having attempted suicide (11

percent versus 6 percent) during the previous year (Figure HC 2.10). However, the rate of

actual suicides, particularly among youth ages 15 to 19, is considerably higher for males

than for females, as discussed in Section HC 3.5. 

1 U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (1999). Mental Health: A Report of the Surgeon General. Rockville, MD:

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

2 Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

174 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 3. HEALTH CONDITIONS AND HEALTH CARE

12 months, by sex, grade, and race and Hispanic origin:  Selected years, 1993­2001

All youth

1993 1995 1997 1999 2001

24 24 21 19 19

Sex

Male 19 18 15 14 14

Female 30 30 27 25 24

Grade

9th 24 26 22 18 21

10th 25 25 22 22 19

11th 25 26 21 18 19

12th 23 20 18 18 16

Race and Hispanic origina

White, non­Hispanic 24 25 20 18 20

Black, non­Hispanic 20 20 16 15 13

Hispanic 26 25 23 20 19

a

Morbidity

United States, 1999. 

47(ss­3); Centers for Disease

44(ss­1).

Table HC 2.10.A

Percentage of youth in grades 9 to 12 who report having seriously considered suicide in the previous 

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

Sources: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2002). Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance, United States, 2001. 

and Mortality Weekly Report, 51(ss­4); Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2000). Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance,

Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 49(ss­5); Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (1998).

Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance, United States, 1997. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 

Control and Prevention. (1996). Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance, United States, 1995. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report,

45(ss­4); Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (1995). Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance, United States, 1993.

Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report,

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 175 
Health Conditions

by sex, grade, and race and Hispanic origin:  Selected years, 1993­2001

All youth

1993 1995 1997 1999 2001

9 9 8 8 9

Sex

Male 5 6 5 6 6

Female 13 12 12 11 11

Grade

9th 10 11 11 10 11

10th 9 10 9 11 10

11th 8 9 8 6 8

12th 7 6 5 6 6

Race and Hispanic origina

White, non­Hispanic 8 8 6 7 8

Black, non­Hispanic 8 10 7 7 9

Hispanic 14 13 11 13 12

a

Morbidity

United States, 1999. 

47(ss­3); Centers for Disease

44(ss­1).

Table HC 2.10.B

Percentage of youth in grades 9 to 12 who report having attempted suicide in the previous 12 months,

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

Sources: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2002). Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance, United States, 2001. 

and Mortality Weekly Report, 51(ss­4); Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2000). Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance,

Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 49(ss­5); Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (1998).

Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance, United States, 1997. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report,

Control and Prevention. (1996). Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance, United States, 1995. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report,

45(ss­4); Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (1995). Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance, United States, 1993.

Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report,

176 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 3. HEALTH CONDITIONS AND HEALTH CARE

Figure HC 2.10 

Percentage of youth in grades 9 to 12 who report having seriously considered suicide or attempted 

suicide in the previous 12 months, by sex: 2001

Seriously considered suicide Attempted suicide

0

1 0

2 0

3 0 Percent

Male Female Male Female

Source: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2002). Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance, United States, 2001. Morbidity

and Mortality Weekly Report, 51(ss­4).

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 177 
Health Conditions

HC 2.11  Serious Violent Victimization of Youth

In addition to the direct physical harm suffered by young victims of serious violence, such

violence can adversely affect their mental health and increase the likelihood that they will

commit serious acts of violence in turn. Youth ages 12 to 17 are twice as likely as adults to

be victims of serious violent crimes that include aggravated assaults, rape, robbery, and

homicide. In order to track the incidence of these and other crimes, the Bureau of Justice

Statistics has been administering the National Crime Victimization Survey on an annual

basis since 1972.1

Differences by Sex. Male youth are considerably more likely than female youth to be victims of violent crimes. In 2000, 22.8 per 1,000 males ages 12 to 17 were victims of violent

crimes, compared with 9.5 per 1,000 females (Table HC 2.11 and Figure HC 2.11). However,

the rate of serious violent victimization of both male and female youth has decreased

since 1980.

Differences by Race. Black youth have consistently been more likely than White youth

to be victims of violent crimes. In 2000, 23.4 Black youths per 1,000 were victims of violent

crime, compared with a rate of 15.4 per 1,000 White youth. In the past two decades, the

rate of serious violent victimization of both Black and White youth has decreased dramatically (Table HC 2.11).

1  U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics. (2002). National Crime Victimization Survey. Washington, DC: 

U.S. Department of Justice, Federal Bureau of Investigation, Uniform Crime Reporting Program, Supplementary

Homicide Reports.

178 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 3. HEALTH CONDITIONS AND HEALTH CARE

Rate of serious violent victimization of youth ages 12 to 17 (rates per 1,000), by age, race, and sex:

Selected years, 1980­2000

Age

1980 1985 1990 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000a

Ages 12­17  37.6 34.3 43.2 28.3 30.3 27.1 24.6 20.4 16.3

Ages 12­14  33.4 28.1 41.2 26.7 24.9 23.5 20.4 20.4 13.7

Ages 15­17  41.4 40.3 45.2 30.0 35.8 30.7 28.6 20.5 19.0

Race

White 34.1 34.4 37.0 25.5 27.7 27.6 24.2 18.7 15.4

Black 60.2 35.2 77.0 44.5 43.4 30.4 31.0 32.0 23.4

Other 21.7 28.8 37.3 23.7 31.2 9.7 11.7 13.2 7.6

Sex

Male 54.8 49.8 60.5 39.0 40.4 33.1 32.2 26.8 22.8

Female 19.7 18.2 24.9 17.0 19.7 20.7 16.5 13.7 9.5

a The data for 2000 do not include final homicide estimates.

Note:  Serious violent victimization is defined as being a victim of a violent crime, including aggravated assaults, rape, robSource:  U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics. (2002). 

Reports.

Table HC 2.11

bery, and homicide.  Victimization rates were calculated using population estimates from the U.S. Census Bureau's, Current

Population Reports.  Such population estimates normally differ somewhat from population estimates derived from the victimization survey data.  Because of changes made in the victimization survey, data prior to 1992 are adjusted to make them

comparable with data collected under the redesigned methodology.

National Crime Victimization Survey. Washington, DC:

U.S. Department of Justice, Federal Bureau of Investigation, Uniform Crime Reporting Program, Supplementary Homicide

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 179 
Health Conditions

Figure HC 2.11 

Rate of serious violent victimization of youth ages 12 to 17, by sex: 1980­2000

1980 1985 1990 1995 2000

0

1 0

2 0

3 0

4 0

5 0

6 0

7 0

8 0

9 0

100 Percent

All youth

Male

Female

Note:  Serious violent victimization is defined as being a victim of a violent crime, including aggravated assaults, rape, robbery, and homicide. Victimization rates were calculated using population estimates from the U.S. Census Bureau’s Current

Population Reports. Such population estimates normally differ somewhat from population estimates derived from the victimization survey data.  Because of changes made in the victimization survey, data prior to 1992 are adjusted to make them

comparable with data collected under the redesigned methodology.

Source:  U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics. (2002). National Crime Victimization Survey. Washington, DC:

U.S. Department of Justice, Federal Bureau of Investigation, Uniform Crime Reporting Program, Supplementary Homicide

Reports.

180 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 3. HEALTH CONDITIONS AND HEALTH CARE

Health Care

Health

Conditions

Mortality
Mortality

HC 3.1 Infant Mortality

Infancy is defined as the first year of life and is commonly divided into two periods. The

first is the neonatal period, which is the first 27 days of life. The second is the postnatal

period, which is 28 days to 1 year. The infant mortality rate is an important measure of the

well­being of infants and children because it is associated with a variety of factors such as

maternal health, access to medical care, socioeconomic factors, and public health practices.1

Despite advances in neonatology that have greatly improved the chances infants will survive the neonatal period, about two­thirds of infant deaths occur during this time and are

due mostly to health problems of the infant or the pregnancy, such as preterm delivery or

birth defects.

The infant mortality rate has decreased rapidly over the past four decades largely due to

medical developments, increased access to health care, and educational outreach campaigns.2 Between 1960 and 2001, the rate fell from 26.0 to 6.8 infant deaths per 1,000 live

births (Figure HC 3.1.A). There was also a steep decline in the rate of neonatal deaths (from

18.7 to 4.5 infant deaths per 1,000 live births) and a smaller, more gradual decline in the rate

of postneonatal deaths (from 7.3 to 2.3 deaths per 1,000 live births). 

The three leading causes of death to infants, overall, are congenital anomalies, disorders

relating to a short gestation period and low birthweight, and sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS).3 In 1994, SIDS dropped from the second to the third leading cause of infant

mortality. The SIDS decline accounted for nearly one­third of the total drop in infant mortality in 1995 and 1996.4 Infant deaths due to SIDS have been declining since 1989, including nearly a 12 percent drop between 1996 and 1997.5

Despite declines in recent decades, the United States infant mortality rate ranks among the

highest of industrialized nations. For example, in 1999, the rate of infant deaths per 1,000

live births was 3.7 in Finland, 3.4 in Japan, 4.5 in Germany, 5.3 in Canada, and 5.8 in

England and Wales, compared with 7.1 deaths per 1,000 live births in the United States.

The Russian Federation, in contrast, had an infant mortality rate of 17.1 deaths per 1,000

live births in 1999.6

1 U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Center for Health Statistics. (2002). Health, United States,

2002, with Chartbook on Trends in the Health of Americans. Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics.

2 Ibid.

3 Anderson, R. N. (2002). Deaths: Leading Causes for 2000. National Vital Statistics Reports, 50(16).

4 Singh, G. K., Kochanek, K. D., & MacDorman, M. F. (1994). Advance Report of Final Mortality Statistics, 1994. Monthly

Vital Statistics Report, 45(3 Supp.).

5 Ventura, S. J., Anderson, R. N., Martin, J. A., & Smith, B. L. (1998). Births and Deaths: Preliminary Data for 1997.

National Vital Statistics Reports, 47(4).

6  U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Center for Health Statistics. (2003). Health, United States,

2003, with Chartbook on Trends in the Health of Americans. Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics.

182 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 3. HEALTH CONDITIONS AND HEALTH CARE

Differences by Race and Hispanic Origin.7 While infant mortality rates have declined

for all races and ethnic groups in the United States, there is nevertheless, considerable variation by race and Hispanic origin (Figure HC 3.1.B). The infant mortality rate declined

most noticeably for White and Black infants between the years 1960 and 2001. Specifically,

the number of Black infant deaths decreased from 44.3 to 13.3 deaths per 1,000 live births

and the number of White infant deaths decreased from 22.9 to 5.7 per 1,000 live births

(Table HC 3.1.A). Among all Hispanics, Puerto Ricans have the highest infant mortality

rates with 8.5 deaths per 1,000 live births in 2001 (Table HC 3.1.B).

Differences by Birthweight. The mortality rate for very low birthweight infants (infants

weighing less than 1,500 grams) is significantly higher than the mortality rate for low

birthweight infants (infants weighing less than 2,500 grams). For example, the mortality

rate for very low birthweight infants in 2001 was 244.4 per 1,000 live births, while the mortality rate for low birthweight infants was 58.6 per 1,000 live births (Table HC 3.1.B).

7 Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race. Estimates for Whites and Blacks include Hispanics of those races. Infant

mortality data for Asians/Pacific Islanders and American Indians/Alaska Natives are presented from the National Linked

Files of Live Births and Infant Deaths. Rather than relying solely on death certificate data, which may underestimate

mortality for infants of Hispanic origin or of races other than White and Black, data from the National Linked Files of

Live Births and Infant Deaths use race from birth certificates and, therefore, provide more accurate data for these populations. The National Linked Files of Live Births and Infant Deaths data are available for 1983­1991, 1995­1996, and 1998.

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 183 
Mortality

Figure HC 3.1.A

Infant, neonatal, and postneonatal mortality rates: 1960­2001 

0

1 0

2 0

3 0

4 0

5 0 Rate (per 1,000 live births) Infant

Neonatal

Postneonatal

1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2001

Note:  Infants are under 1 year old.  Neonatal infants are under 28 days old.  Postneonatal infants are 28 days to 1 year old.

Data include births and deaths of persons who were not residents of the 50 states and the District of Columbia. Data for

1960 are by race of child; all other years are by race of mother. 

Sources:  Mathews, T. J., Menacker, F., & MacDorman, M. F. (2003). Infant Mortality Statistics from the 2001 Period Linked

Birth/Death Set. National Vital Statistics Reports, 52(2); U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Center for

Health Statistics. (2002). Health, United States, 2002, with Chartbook on Trends in the Health of Americans. Hyattsville, MD:

National Center for Health Statistics; Ventura, S. J., Anderson, R. N., Martin, J. A., & Smith, B. L. (1998). Births and Deaths:

Preliminary Data for 1997. National Vital Statistics Reports, 47(4); Anderson, R. N., Kochanek, K. D., & Murphy, S. L. (1997).

Report of Final Mortality Statistics, 1995. Monthly Vital Statistics Report, 45(11(Supp. 2)); National Center for Health

Statistics. (1996). Health, United States, 1995. Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics; Hoyert, D. L. (1994).

Effect on Mortality Rates of the 1989 Change in Tabulating Race. Vital Health Statistics, 20(25); MacDorman, M. F. &

Rosenberg, H. M. (1993). Trends in Infant Mortality by Cause of Death and Other Characteristics, 1960­1988. Vital Health

Statistics, 20(20); National Center for Health Statistics. (1988). Vital Statistics of the United States, 1985. Washington, DC: U.S.

Government Printing Office.

184 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 3. HEALTH CONDITIONS AND HEALTH CARE

Figure HC 3.1.B   

Infant mortality rates by race and Hispanic origin: 1960­2001

0

1 0

2 0

3 0

4 0

5 0 Rate (per 1,000 live births)

White Hispanic

1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2001

Black

Note:  Estimates for Whites and Blacks include Hispanics of those races. Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

Hispanic rates not available prior to 1983. Infant mortality by Hispanic origin reported by 17 states and the District of

Columbia in 1985; 45 states, New York State (excluding New York City) and the District of Columbia in 1990; 47 states,

New York State (excluding New York City), and the District of Columbia in 1991; 48 states and the District of Columbia in

1992; 49 states and the District of Columbia from 1993 to 1996; and all 50 states and the District of Columbia in 1997.  Data

includes births and deaths of persons who were not residents of the 50 states and the District of Columbia.  Data for 1960

are by race of child; all other years are by race of mother.

Sources:  Mathews, T. J., Menacker, F., & MacDorman, M. F. (2003). Infant Mortality Statistics from the 2001 Period Linked

Birth/Death Set. National Vital Statistics Reports, 52(2); U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Center for

Health Statistics. (2002). Health, United States, 2002, with Chartbook on Trends in the Health of Americans. Hyattsville, MD:

National Center for Health Statistics; National Center for Health Statistics. (1996). Health, United States, 1995. Hyattsville,

MD: National Center for Health Statistics; Hoyert, D. L. (1994). Effect on Mortality Rates of the 1989 Change in Tabulating

Race. Vital Health Statistics, 20(25); National Center for Health Statistics. (1994). Health, United States, 1994. Hyattsville,

MD: National Center for Health Statistics; MacDorman, M. F., & Rosenberg, H. M. (1993). Trends in Infant Mortality by

Cause of Death and Other Characteristics, 1960­1988. Vital Health Statistics, 20(20); National Center for Health Statistics.

(1988). Vital Statistics of the United States, 1985. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 185 
Mortality

Table HC 3.1.A

Infant, neonatal, and postneonatal mortality rates (deaths per 1,000 live births), by race and Hispanic

origin:  Selected years, 1960­2001

Infantb

1960a 1970 1980 1985 1990 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001

26.0 20.0 12.6 10.4 8.9 7.6 7.3 7.2 7.2 7.0 6.9 6.8

White 22.9 17.6 10.9 8.9 7.3 6.3 6.1 6.0 6.0 5.8 5.7 5.7

Black 44.3 33.3 22.2 18.6 16.9 14.6 14.7 13.7 13.8 14.0 13.5 13.3

Hispanicc — — — 8.8 7.5 6.3 5.9 6.0 5.8 5.7 5.6 5.4

Neonatald 18.7 15.1 8.5 6.8 5.7 4.9 4.8 4.8 4.8 4.7 4.6 4.5

White 17.2 13.7 7.4 5.8 4.6 4.1 4.0 4.0 4.0 3.9 3.8 3.8

Black 27.8 23.2 14.6 12.3 11.1 9.6 9.6 9.2 9.4 9.5 9.1 8.9

Hispanicc — — — 5.7 4.8 4.1 3.8 4.0 3.9 3.9 3.8 3.6

Postneonatale 7.3 4.9 4.1 3.6 3.2 2.6 2.5 2.4 2.4 2.3 2.3 2.3

White 5.7 4.0 3.5 3.1 2.7 2.2 2.1 2.1 2.0 1.9 1.9 1.9

Black 16.5 10.1 7.6 6.3 5.9 5.0 5.1 4.5 4.4 4.5 4.3 4.4

Hispanicc — — — 3.2 2.7 2.1 2.1 2.0 1.9 1.8 1.8 1.8

a  Includes births and deaths of persons who were not residents fo the 50 states and the District of Columbia.  Data for 1960

are by race of child; all other years are by race of mother.

b  Under 1 year old.

c  Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race. Estimates for Whites and Blacks include Hispanics of those races. Hispanic

rates not available prior to 1985. Infant mortality by Hispanic origin reported by 17 states and the District of Columbia in

1985; 45 states, New York State (excluding New York City) and the District of Columbia in 1990; 49 states and the

District of Columbia from 1993 to 1996; and all 50 states and the District of Columbia in 1997.

d  Under 28 days old.

e  Age 28 days to 1 year old.

— Data not available.

Sources:  Mathews, T. J., Menacker, F., & MacDorman, M. F. (2003). Infant Mortality Statistics from the 2001 Period Linked

Birth/Death Set. National Vital Statistics Reports, 52(2); U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Center for

Health Statistics. (2002). Health, United States, 2002, with Chartbook on Trends in the Health of Americans. Hyattsville, MD:

National Center for Health Statistics; National Center for Health Statistics. (1988). Vital Statistics of the United States, 1985.

Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

186 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 3. HEALTH CONDITIONS AND HEALTH CARE

Selected years, 1983­2001

Infantb mortality rate

1983­

1985a

1986­

1988a

1989­

1991a 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001

10.6 9.8 9.0 7.6 7.3 7.2 7.2 7.0 6.9 6.8

Birthweight

Low birthweight infantsc — — — 65.3 63.6 62.4 62.3 61.3 60.2 58.6

d — — — 270.7 261.5 255.0 252.4 249.5 246.9 244.4

Race and Hispanic origine

White 9.0 8.2 7.4 6.3 6.1 6.0 6.0 5.8 5.7 5.7

Black 18.7 17.9 17.1 14.6 14.1 13.7 13.8 14.0 13.5 13.3

American Indian/

Alaska Native 13.9 13.2 12.6 9.0 10.0 8.7 9.3 9.3 8.3 9.7

Asian/Pacific Islander 8.3 7.3 6.6 5.3 5.2 5.0 5.5 4.8 4.9 4.7

Chinese 7.4 5.8 5.1 3.8 3.2 3.1 4.0 2.9 3.5 3.2

Japanese 6.0 6.9 5.3 5.3 4.2 5.3 3.5 3.4 4.6 4.0

Filipino 8.2 6.9 6.4 5.6 5.8 5.8 6.2 5.8 5.7 5.5

11.3 11.1 9.0 6.6 5.6 9.0 10.0 7.1 9.1 7.3

Other Asian or 

Pacific Islander 8.6 7.6 7.0 5.5 5.7 5.0 5.7 5.1 4.8 4.8

Hispanic 9.2 8.3 7.6 6.3 6.1 6.0 5.8 5.7 5.6 5.4

Mexican American 8.8 7.9 7.2 6.0 5.8 5.8 5.6 5.5 5.4 5.2

12.3 11.1 10.4 8.9 8.6 7.9 7.8 8.3 8.2 8.5

Cuban 8.0 7.3 6.2 5.3 5.1 5.5 3.6 4.7 4.5 4.2

Central and South American 8.2 7.6 6.6 5.5 5.0 5.5 5.3 4.7 4.6 5.0

Other and unknown Hispanic 9.9 9.0 8.2 7.4 7.7 6.2 6.5 7.2 6.9 6.0

a Rates based on unweighted birth cohort data.

b Under 1 year old.

c Infant weighing less than 2,500 grams.

d Infant weighing less than 1,500 grams.

e

Estimates for separate race groups include Hispanics of those races.

—  Data not available.

Sources: 

Birth/Death Set. 

Health Statistics. (2002).  . Hyattsville, MD:

National Center for Health Statistics.

Table HC 3.1.B

Infant mortality rates (deaths per 1,000 live births) by birthweight and by race and Hispanic origin:

Very low birthweight infants

Hawaiian and part Hawaiian

Puerto Rican

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.  Estimates are based on specified race or national origin of mother.

Mathews, T. J., Menacker, F., & MacDorman, M. F. (2003). Infant Mortality Statistics from the 2001 Period Linked

National Vital Statistics Reports, 52(2); U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Center for

Health, United States, 2002, with Chartbook on Trends in the Health of Americans

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 187 
Mortality

HC 3.2 Child and Youth Mortality

The majority of deaths, almost 70 percent, among children and youth ages 1 to 24 are due

to injuries, both unintentional and intentional, and therefore largely preventable. The proportion of deaths due to injury increases with age from 44 percent for children 1 to 4 years

old to 77 percent for youth 15 to 24 years old.1 Similarly, older youth (ages 15 to 19) are

more than 8 times more likely to die as a result of a firearms injury than younger youth

(ages 10 to 14). Death due to firearms includes homicide, suicide, legal intervention, and

unintentional death by firearms. 

Differences by Age. Children 1 to 4 years old are most likely to die of unintentional

injuries, while youth ages 15 to 24 are most likely to die of traffic accidents or homicide.

Dramatic declines in death rates occurred among children under age 15, with decreases of

69 percent among children ages 1 to 4, 69 percent among children ages 5 to 9, and 56 percent among children ages 10 to 14 from 1960 to 2001. Youth ages 15 to 19 continue to have

the highest death rate of the four age groups (Figure HC 3.2.A). 

Differences by Race and Hispanic Origin.2 Among children and youth ages 1 to 24,

Blacks have the highest death rate, while Asian and Pacific Islanders have had the lowest

death rates (Table HC 3.2.A). Comparing the death rates of Black and White youth (ages 15

to 19) since 1970, the disparity was substantial in 1970 but had disappeared in the early

1980s. However, the death rate for Black youth grew rapidly in the early 1990s before starting a new downward trend in the late 1990s, while the death rate for White youth slowly

declined. Much of this increase in Black youth deaths reflected a substantial growth in

Black youth male homicide rates (Figure HC 3.2.B). 

The rate of death due to injury by firearms is also higher for Blacks than for Whites. In

2000, the rate of firearm­related deaths for Black males ages 15 to 19 was more than 4 times

the rate for their White male peers. However, this disparity has decreased since 1993, when

the rate for Black male youth was more than 5 times higher than that of White males

(Figure HC 3.2.C and Table HC 3.2.B). 

Differences by Sex. Among Black and White youth, firearm­related deaths are more

prevalent among males. For example, the death rate for Black females ages 15 to 19 was 5.8

per 100,000 in 2000, while the rate for Black males was nearly 11 times greater (62.2 per

100,000). Among Whites ages 15 to 19, females experience firearm­related deaths at approximately one­seventh the rate of males (Table HC.3.2.B). 

1 National Center for Health Statistics. (2001). Health, United States, 2001, with Urban and Rural Health Chartbook.

Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics.

2 Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.  Estimates for Whites, Blacks, Asians and American Indians include

Hispanics of those races.

188 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 3. HEALTH CONDITIONS AND HEALTH CARE

Figure HC 3.2.A

Child and youth mortality rates by age group: 1960­2001

2 0

4 0

6 0

8 0

100

120 Rate (per 100,000 population) Ages 1-4

Ages 5-9

Ages 10-14

Ages 15-19

1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2001

Sources: Arias, E., Anderson, R. N., Kung, H., Murphy, S. L., & Kochanek, K. D. (2003). Deaths: Final Data for 2001. National

Vital Statistics Reports, 52(3); Minino, A. M., Arias, E., Kochanek, K. D., Murphy, S. L., & Smith, B. L. (2002). Deaths: Final

Data for 2000. National Vital Statistics Reports, 50(15); Hoyert, D. L., Arias, E., Smith, B. L., Murphy, S. L., & Kochanek, K. D.

(2001). Deaths: Final Data for 1999. National Vital Statistics Reports, 49(8); National Center for Health Statistics. (1992).

Advance Report of Final Mortality Statistics, 1989. Monthly Vital Statistics Report, 40(8(Supp. 2)); National Center for Health

Statistics. (1990). Advance Report of Final Mortality Statistics, 1988. Monthly Vital Statistics Report, 39(7(Supp.)); National

Center for Health Statistics. (1989). Advance Report of Final Mortality Statistics, 1987. Monthly Vital Statistics Report,

38(5(Supp.)); National Center for Health Statistics. (1988). Advance Report of Final Mortality Statistics, 1986. Monthly Vital

Statistics Report, 37(6(Supp.)); National Center for Health Statistics. (1986). Advance Report of Final Mortality Statistics,

1984. Monthly Vital Statistics Report, 35(6(Supp. 2)); National Center for Health Statistics. (1985). Advance Report of Final

Mortality Statistics, 1983. Monthly Vital Statistics Report, 34(6(Supp. 2)); National Center for Health Statistics. (1984).

Advance Report of Final Mortality Statistics, 1982. Monthly Vital Statistics Report, 33(9(Supp.)); National Center for Health

Statistics. (1984). Advance Report of Final Mortality Statistics, 1981. Monthly Vital Statistics Report, 33(3(Supp.)); National

Center for Health Statistics. (1982). Advance Report of Final Mortality Statistics, 1979. Monthly Vital Statistics Report,

31(6(Supp.)); National Center for Health Statistics. (1980). Advance Report of Final Mortality Statistics, 1978. Monthly Vital

Statistics Report, 29(6(Supp. 2)); National Center for Health Statistics. (1979). Advance Report of Final Mortality Statistics,

1977. Monthly Vital Statistics Report, 28(1(Supp.)); National Center for Health Statistics. (1978). Advance Report of Final

Mortality Statistics, 1976. Monthly Vital Statistics Report, 26(12(Supp. 2)); National Center for Health Statistics. (1976).

Advance Report of Final Mortality Statistics, 1974. Monthly Vital Statistics Report, 24(11(Supp.)); National Center for Health

Statistics. (1975). Summary Report – Final Mortality Statistics, 1973. Monthly Vital Statistics Report, 23(11(Supp. 2)); National

Center for Health Statistics. (1974). Summary Report – Final Mortality Statistics, 1972. Monthly Vital Statistics Report,

23(7(Supp.)); National Center for Health Statistics. (1973). Summary Report – Final Mortality Statistics, 1971. Monthly Vital

Statistics Report, 22(9(Supp.)).

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 189 
Mortality

and Hispanic origin:  Selected years, 1992­2000

Ages 1­14

1992­1993 1994­1996  1998 1999 2000

Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female

29.3 33.7 24.6 27.6 31.7 23.3 24.0 27.3 20.5 23.5 26.7 20.2 — — —

Whitea 26.1 30.3 21.7 24.5 28.3 20.6 21.5 24.4 18.5 21.3 24.0 18.4 — — —

Blacka 47.1 53.4 40.7 44.7 51.2 38.0 38.1 44.6 31.4 36.6 42.9 30.2 — — —

Asian/Pacific 

Islandera 20.3 23.1 17.4 18.7 21.3 16.0 16.2 17.6 14.7 15.5 16.9 13.9 — — —

American Indian/

Alaska Nativea 38.9 47.0 30.6 40.0 45.1 34.8 33.4 38.4 28.2 29.8 32.3 27.2 — — —

Hispanica 28.4 32.4 24.2 25.6 29.6 21.4 21.5 24.4 18.4 21.7 24.1 19.3 — — —

Ages 15­24 97.0 144.0 47.9 94.3 139.0 47.5 82.3 119.3 43.5 81.2 115.9 44.7 81.6 117.5 44.0

Whitea 84.2 122.3 44.1 83.0 120.2 43.8 75.4 107.6 41.2 74.5 104.9 42.2 — 107.6 41.6

Blacka 174.8 279.5 70.6 161.5 253.3 69.7 126.5 194.6 58.0 123.1 185.6 60.1 — 181.4 59.6

Asian/Pacific 

a 56.1 80.1 31.1 55.6 79.0 31.9 44.4 59.9 28.8 43.9 58.7 29.1 — 63.6 25.1

American Indian/

Alaska Nativea 129.4 184.2 71.4 127.2 188.5 63.6 115.6 166.4 64.1 125.9 183.5 67.5 — 167.0 68.4

Hispanica 107.5 167.3 40.2 102.1 158.1 39.9 83.3 128.8 34.0 82.4 124.9 36.4 85.0 131.2 35.2

a Estimates for Whites and Blacks include Hispanics of those races.  Death

figures for Hispanic persons are based on data from 48 states and the District of Columbia in 1992, and 49 states and the

District of Columbia in 1993­1996.  Death rates reported for White and Black persons are based on highly consistent information. 

sometimes misreported as White or non­Hispanic on the death certificate, resulting in underestimates of about  22 percent

sons of Hispanic origin. 

— Data not available.

Health, United

Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics;

Data for 1998.  48(11); National Center for Health Statistics. (1994). Health, United States,

1994. Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics.

Table HC 3.2.A

Child and youth mortality rates (per 100,000 population in each age group) by age group, sex and race

Combined Years Combined Years

Total Total Total Total Total

Islander

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.  

However, persons identified as American Indian, Asian, or Hispanic origin in the data from the Census Bureau are

to 30 percent for death rates of American Indians, about 12 percent for death rates of Asians, and about 7 percent for per­

(Sorlie, P.D., Rogot, E., Johnson, N.J. (1992).  Validity of Demographic Characteristics on the

Death Certificate. Epidemiology, 3 (2): 181­184.)

Sources: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services & National Center for Health Statistics. (2002). 

States, 2002, with Chartbook on Trends in the Health of Americans. 

Minino, A. M., Arias, E., Kochanek, K. D., Murphy, S. L., & Smith, B. L. (2002). Deaths: Final Data for 2000. National Vital

Statistics Reports, 50(15); National Center for Health Statistics. (2002). Unpublished work; Murphy, S. L. (2000). Deaths: Final

National Vital Statistics Reports, 

190 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 3. HEALTH CONDITIONS AND HEALTH CARE

Figure HC 3.2.B

Youth mortality rates for ages 15 to 19, by race: 1970­2001

0

2 0

4 0

6 0

8 0

100

120

140

160

180

200 Rate (per 100,000 population) Black

White

1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2001

a Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.  Data for Whites and Blacks include Hispanics of those races.

Sources: Arias, E., Anderson, R. N., Kung, H., Murphy, S. L., & Kochanek, K. D. (2003). Deaths: Final Data for 2001. National

Vital Statistics Reports, 52(3); Minino, A. M., Arias, E., Kochanek, K. D., Murphy, S. L., & Smith, B. L. (2002). Deaths: Final

Data for 2000. National Vital Statistics Reports, 50(15); Hoyert, D. L., Arias, E., Smith, B. L., Murphy, S. L., & Kochanek, K. D.

(2001). Deaths: Final Data for 1999. National Vital Statistics Reports, 49(8); Peters, K. D, Kochanek, K. D., & Murphy, S. L.

(1998). Deaths: Final Data for 1996. National Vital Statistics Reports, 47(9); Anderson, R. N., Kochanek, K. D., & Murphy, S. L.

(1997). Report of Final Mortality Statistics, 1995. Monthly Vital Statistics Report, 45(11(Supp. 2)); National Center for Health

Statistics. (1992). Advance Report of Final Mortality Statistics, 1989. Monthly Vital Statistics Report, 40(8(Supp. 2)); National

Center for Health Statistics. (1990). Advance Report of Final Mortality Statistics, 1988. Monthly Vital Statistics Report,

39(7(Supp.)); National Center for Health Statistics. (1989). Advance Report of Final Mortality Statistics, 1987. Monthly Vital

Statistics Report, 38(5(Supp.)); National Center for Health Statistics. (1988). Advance Report of Final Mortality Statistics,

1986. Monthly Vital Statistics Report, 37(6(Supp.)); National Center for Health Statistics. (1986). Advance Report of Final

Mortality Statistics, 1984. Monthly Vital Statistics Report, 35(6(Supp. 2)); National Center for Health Statistics. (1985).

Advance Report of Final Mortality Statistics, 1983. Monthly Vital Statistics Report, 34(6(Supp. 2)); National Center for Health

Statistics. (1984). Advance Report of Final Mortality Statistics, 1982. Monthly Vital Statistics Report, 33(9(Supp.)); National

Center for Health Statistics. (1984). Advance Report of Final Mortality Statistics, 1981. Monthly Vital Statistics Report,

33(3(Supp.)); National Center for Health Statistics. (1982). Advance Report of Final Mortality Statistics, 1979. Monthly Vital

Statistics Report, 31(6(Supp.)); National Center for Health Statistics. (1980). Advance Report of Final Mortality Statistics,

1978. Monthly Vital Statistics Report, 29(6(Supp. 2)); National Center for Health Statistics. (1979). Advance Report of Final

Mortality Statistics, 1977. Monthly Vital Statistics Report, 28(1(Supp.)); National Center for Health Statistics. (1978). Advance

Report of Final Mortality Statistics, 1976. Monthly Vital Statistics Report, 26(12(Supp. 2)); National Center for Health

Statistics. (1976). Advance Report of Final Mortality Statistics, 1974. Monthly Vital Statistics Report, 24(11(Supp.)); National

Center for Health Statistics. (1975). Summary Report – Final Mortality Statistics, 1973. Monthly Vital Statistics Report,

23(11(Supp. 2)); National Center for Health Statistics. (1974). Summary Report – Final Mortality Statistics, 1972. Monthly

Vital Statistics Report, 23(7(Supp.)); National Center for Health Statistics. (1973). Summary Report – Final Mortality

Statistics, 1971. Monthly Vital Statistics Report, 22(9(Supp.)).

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 191 
Mortality

Figure HC 3.2.C

Deaths due to injury by firearms for youth ages 15 to 19 by sex and race: 1990­2000   

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000

25

50

75

100

125

150

175

200

White males All youth

White females

Black males

Black females Rate (per 100,000 population) a Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.  Data for Whites and Blacks include Hispanics of those races.

Sources:  Minino, A. M., Arias, E., Kochanek, K. D., Murphy, S. L., & Smith, B. L. (2002). Deaths: Final Data for 2000.

National Vital Statistics Reports, 50(15); Hoyert, D. L., Arias, E., Smith, B. L., Murphy, S. L., & Kochanek, K. D. (2001). Deaths:

Final Data for 1999. National Vital Statistics Reports, 49(8); Murphy, S. L. (2000). Deaths: Final Data for 1998. National Vital

Statistics Reports, 48(11); Hoyert, D. L., Kochanek, K. D., & Murphy, S. L. (1999). Deaths: Final Data for 1997. National Vital

Statistics Reports, 47(19); Peters, K. D., Kochanek, K. D., & Murphy, S. L. (1998). Deaths: Final Data for 1996. National Vital

Statistics Reports, 47(9); Anderson, R. N., Kochanek, K. D., & Murphy, S. L. (1997). Report of Final Mortality Statistics, 1995.

Monthly Vital Statistics Report, 45(11(Supp. 2)); Kochanek, K. D., & Hudson, B. L. (1995). Advance Report of Final Mortality

Statistics, 1992. Monthly Vital Statistics Report, 43(6 (Supp.)).

192 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 3. HEALTH CONDITIONS AND HEALTH CARE

Selected years, 

1980­2000

All youth 

1980 1985 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000

Ages 10­14 2.4 2.8 3.3 3.5 3.7 3.8 3.5 3.4 2.7 2.2 2.3 1.7 1.5

Ages 15­19 14.7 13.3 23.3 26.4 26.2 27.8 28.2 24.5 21.2 18.2 16.3 14.7 13.1

White malesa

Ages 10­14 3.6 4.5 4.2 4.6 4.5 4.4 4.3 4.4 3.6 3.1 3.1 2.4 2.4

Ages 15­19 20.9 18.4 26.2 29.1 28.8 28.8 30.2 27.9 23.1 20.8 19.4 17.6 15.8

White femalesa

Ages 10­14 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.3 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.0 0.6 1.0 0.8 0.5

Ages 15­19 4.1 3.5 4.6 4.6 4.3 4.9 4.7 4.2 3.8 3.5 3.1 2.6 2.4

Black malesa

Ages 10­14 4.7 4.8 10.2 11.5 11.6 13.4 11.2 10.1 7.8 6.2 4.6 3.6 3.8

Ages 15­19 46.7 46.5 119.7 140.5 140.9 153.1 151.1 120.3 108.7 88.2 75.5 67.9 62.2

Black femalesa

Ages 10­14 1.5 — 3.7 3.0 3.9 3.9 3.5 2.5 2.2 2.3 2.0 — —

Ages 15­19 7.5 6.1 12.1 12.7 12.4 15.8 13.3 14.2 11.7 8.8 8.0 8.4 5.8

a Data for Whites and Blacks include Hispanics of those races.

—  Data not available.

Sources: 

Statistics, 1992. 

States, 1979­88.  39(11 (Supp.)).

Table HC 3.2.B

Youth deaths due to injury by firearms (rate per 100,000) by age, sex and race:  

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.  

Minino, A. M., Arias, E., Kochanek, K. D., Murphy, S. L., & Smith, B. L. (2002). Deaths: Final Data for 2000.

National Vital Statistics Reports, 50(15); Hoyert, D. L., Arias, E., Smith, B. L., Murphy, S. L., & Kochanek, K. D. (2001). Deaths:

Final Data for 1999. National Vital Statistics Reports, 49(8); Murphy, S. L. (2000). Deaths: Final Data for 1998. National Vital

Statistics Reports, 48(11); Hoyert, D. L., Kochanek, K. D., & Murphy, S. L. (1999). Deaths: Final Data for 1997. National Vital

Statistics Reports, 47(19); Peters, K. D., Kochanek, K. D., & Murphy, S. L. (1998). Deaths: Final Data for 1996. National Vital

Statistics Reports, 47(9); Anderson, R. N., Kochanek, K. D., & Murphy, S. L. (1997). Report of Final Mortality Statistics, 1995.

Monthly Vital Statistics Report, 45(11(Supp. 2)); Kochanek, K. D., & Hudson, B. L. (1995). Advance Report of Final Mortality

Monthly Vital Statistics Report, 43(6 (Supp.)); Fingerhut, L. A., Kleinman, J. C., Godfrey, E., & Rosenberg, H.

(1991). Firearm Mortality Among Children, Youth and Young Adults 1­34 Years of Age, Trends and Current Status: United

Monthly Vital Statistics Report,

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 193 
Mortality

HC 3.3 Motor Vehicle Crash Deaths

In 2000, youth ages 15 to 24 had the highest number of deaths due to motor vehicle accidents of any age group, with 10,560 youth dying as a result of a motor vehicle crash1

. Such

crashes are among the major causes of injury­related deaths for 15­ to 19­year­olds.2

However, motor vehicle crash deaths among youth have declined since 1970. Data for 2000

show that motor vehicle crashes claimed 26.4 lives per 100,000 youth ages 15 to 19, compared with 43.6 per 100,000 youth in 1970 (Figure HC 3.3). The rate of motor vehicle crash

deaths among youth has been relatively constant since 1992.

Differences by Sex and Race. For children and youth under age 20, the decrease in the

rate of youth motor vehicle deaths between 1970 and 2000 has been greatest among White

males ages 15 to 19, falling from 67.1 to 37.3 deaths per 100,000 and among Black males,

which declined from 43.4 to 23.0 deaths per 100,000 (Table HC 3.3). While the rate of

deaths resulting from motor vehicle crashes is lower for females than males at both age

groups, the rate for females has not decreased as sharply as males. Among White females,

ages 15 to 19, the rate of deaths due to motor vehicle crashes has decreased to 19.7 per

100,000 in 2000, compared with 24.4 deaths per 100,000 in 1970. Furthermore, rates have

decreased for Black females after from 11.1 deaths per 100,000 in 1970 to 10.3 deaths per

100,000 in 2000. 

Differences by Age. Among youth ages 10 to 14, motor vehicle death rates are quite low

in comparison to older youth and dropped from 9.6 to 5.0 per 100,000 between 1970 and

2000. This decline was evident for both White and Black males and females.

1 Minino, A. M., Arias, E., Kochanek, K. D., Murphy, S. L., & Smith, B. L. (2002). Deaths: Final Data for 2000. National

Vital Statistics Reports, 50(15).

2 Injury­related deaths include deaths from motor vehicle crashes, fires and burns, drowning, suffocation, and unintentional injuries caused by firearms and other explosive materials, as well as homicides, suicides, and other external causes 

of death.

194 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 3. HEALTH CONDITIONS AND HEALTH CARE

Figure HC 3.3 

Youth motor vehicle crash deaths by age: Selected years, 1970­2000 

1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000

0

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50 Rate (per 100,000 population)

Ages 10-14

Ages 15-19

Sources: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services & National Center for Health Statistics. (2002). Health, United

States, 2002, with Chartbook on Trends in the Health of Americans. Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics;

National Center for Health Statistics. (2002). Unpublished work. 

All youth

1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000

Ages 10­14 9.6 8.4 8.1 7.4 6.4 6.1 5.8 5.9 5.4 4.5 5.0

Ages 15­19 43.6 38.4 43.0 33.5 33.1 28.6 28.6 27.3 26.4 26.3 26.4

White malesa

Ages 10­14 12.6 10.9 10.9 9.8 7.7 7.2 7.2 6.8 6.4 5.2 6.1

Ages 15­19 67.1 61.7 69.1 51.3 49.3 38.9 39.5 36.6 36.2 38.6 37.3

White femalesa

Ages 10­14 6.6 5.8 5.7 5.6 5.3 5.0 4.8 4.9 4.3 3.7 4.1

Ages 15­19 24.4 20.6 25.6 22.6 22.2 22.1 21.2 21.4 20.9 17.3 19.7

Black malesa

Ages 10­14 11.9 9.6 7.9 8.9 7.9 7.7 6.8 7.4 7.8 6.5 6.5

Ages 15­19 43.4 24.6 24.4 22.1 28.7 29.0 28.2 28.7 26.0 30.7 23.0

Black femalesa

Ages 10­14 6.4 4.2 4.0 3.0 3.8 4.2 3.0 4.8 3.1 4.2 3.1

Ages 15­19 11.1 7.1 6.7 7.5 9.7 10.7 12.4 10.4 8.5 12.1 10.3

a Data for Whites and Blacks include Hispanics of those races.

Health, United

Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics;

National Center for Health Statistics. (2002). Unpublished work.

Table HC 3.3

Youth motor vehicle crash deaths (rate per 100,000) by age, sex, and race: Selected years, 1970­2000

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.  

Sources: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services & National Center for Health Statistics. (2002). 

States, 2002, with Chartbook on Trends in the Health of Americans. 

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 195 
Mortality

HC 3.4 Homicides 

After more than a decade of sharp increases, the youth homicide rate decreased between

1993 and 2000. The rate of death from homicide for youth ages 15 to 19 more than doubled

between 1970 and 1993, increasing from 8.1 to 20.7 per 100,000 (Table HC 3.4.A). Virtually

all of this increase occurred after 1985. Since 1993, rates have decreased steadily to 9.6

deaths per 100,000 in 2000. Firearms have been involved in the majority of youth homicides

since 1980 (Figure HC 3.4.A). Youth homicides involving firearms accounted for 66 percent

of the total youth homicides in 1980. The percentage of firearm­related homicides increased

to 81 percent of total youth homicides by 2000 for youth ages 15 to 19.

Differences by Sex and Race and Hispanic Origin.1 Homicide was the number one

cause of death among Black males ages 15 to 19 in 2000.2 Since 1990, the rate of death due

to homicide for Black males ages 15 to 19 has been about 7 to 9 times higher than for their

White peers. While the homicide rate for White males of the same age group is substantially

less than that of Black males, fluctuations in their rate can be seen over time, with increases occurring between 1985 and the early 1990s and decreases in the rate in recent years.

Overall, the rate for White males ages 15 to 19 has increased significantly, going from 5.2

deaths per 100,000 in 1970 to 8.1 deaths per 100,000 in 2000 (Table HC 3.4.A).

Homicides due to firearms are more likely among Black youth than among White youth

and most particularly among Black males ages 15 to 19 (Table HC 3.4.B). In 1999, 90 percent of homicides among Black male youth ages 15 to 19 involved a firearm, compared with

80 percent among older White male youth. However, the rate of homicides due to firearms

among Black males ages 15 to 19 has decreased 60 percent since 1993. 

Homicide rates for females ages 15 to 19 are considerably lower than among similarly aged

males within the same race group. For example, the homicide rate for Black females was 8.6

per 100,000 in 2000, one­sixth the rate for Black males. The sex disparity in homicide rates

is also large for Whites, although it is not as great as that between Black males and females.

In 2000, the homicide rate for White females ages 15 to 19 was 2.1 deaths per 100,000, just

over a quarter of that for White males. As is the case for males, the youth homicide rate for

Black females is higher than the rate for White females (4 times higher in 2000) (Table HC

3.4.A). Homicides among female youth involve a firearm less often than homicides among

male youth.

Differences by Age. The homicide rate for youth ages 10 to 14 was 1.2 per 100,000 in 2000­

substantially lower than the rate for older youth. In fact, in 2000, the homicide rate of 15­

to 19­year­old Black males was 16 times higher than that of 10­ to 14­year­old Black males

(Figure HC 3.4.B). Also, the homicide rates of males and females ages 10 to 14, both Black

and White, are more similar than the homicide rate of females and females ages 15 to 19.

1 Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.  Estimates for Whites and Blacks include Hispanics of those orgins.

2 Anderson, R. N. (2002). Deaths: Leading Causes for 2000. National Vital Statistics Reports, 50(16).

196 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 3. HEALTH CONDITIONS AND HEALTH CARE

All youth 

1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000

Ages 10­14 1.2 1.2 1.4 1.5 2.1 2.2 2.4 2.5 2.2 2.1 1.8 1.5 1.5 1.3 1.2

Ages 15­19 8.1 9.6 10.6 8.6 17.0 19.6 19.3 20.7 20.3 18.2 15.7 13.7 11.8 10.6 9.6

White malesa

Ages 10­14 0.6 1.0 1.1 1.4 1.7 1.8 2.0 1.9 1.8 2.0 1.5 1.4 1.3 1.2 1.1

Ages 15­19 5.2 8.1 10.9 7.2 12.5 14.4 15.2 15.2 15.4 14.7 12.2 11.1 10.2 8.7 8.1

White femalesa

Ages 10­14 0.6 0.8 1.1 0.9 0.9 0.9 1.0 1.2 0.9 1.0 0.9 0.6 1.0 0.8 0.7

Ages 15­19 2.1 3.2 3.9 2.7 3.6 3.6 3.6 3.6 3.4 3.9 2.9 2.9 2.4 2.4 2.1

Black malesa

Ages 10­14 6.8 4.1 3.9 4.2 8.1 9.1 9.6 10.5 9.1 8.2 6.0 5.6 4.4 3.5 3.5

Ages 15­19 65.2 51.4 48.8 46.7 115.7 134.6 128.5 140.7 135.8 110.5 100.9 85.3 71.0 63.2 57.9

Black femalesa

Ages 10­14 2.3 2.3 2.4 1.7 4.8 3.8 5.1 5.2 4.6 3.0 3.1 2.3 2.6 1.6 1.8

Ages 15­19 10.6 15.3 11.0 10.4 15.6 15.6 14.2 18.4 15.1 16.4 12.9 10.6 9.8 10.2 8.6

a Estimates for Whites and Blacks include Hispanics of those orgins.

50(16).

Table HC 3.4.A

Youth homicide rate per 100,000 by age, sex, and race: Selected years, 1970­2000

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.  

Note: Homicide includes death by legal intervention.

Source: Anderson, R. N. (2002). Deaths: Leading Causes for 2000. National Vital Statistics Reports,

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 197 
Mortality

Figure HC 3.4.A

Youth homicides due to firearms as a percent of all youth homicides for youth ages 15 to 19: Selected

years, 1980­2000 

1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 0

20

40

60

80

100 Percent

Homicides due to firearms Homicides not due to firearms

Sources: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Center for Health Statistics. (2002). Health, United States,

2002, with Chartbook on Trends in the Health of Americans. Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics; Minino, A.

M., Arias, E., Kochanek, K. D., Murphy, S. L., & Smith, B. L. (2002). Deaths: Final Data for 2000. National Vital Statistics

Reports, 50(15); National Center for Health Statistics. (2002). Unpublished work; Murphy, S. L. (2000). Deaths: Final Data for

1998. National Vital Statistics Reports, 48(11); Fingerhut, L. A., Kleinman, J. C., Godfrey, E., & Rosenberg, H. (1991). Firearm

Mortality Among Children, Youth and Young Adults 1­34 Years of Age, Trends and Current Status: United States, 1979­88.

Monthly Vital Statistics Report, 39(11 (Supp.)).

198 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 3. HEALTH CONDITIONS AND HEALTH CARE

All youth

1980 1985 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000

Ages 10­14 0.8 0.8 1.5 1.6 1.9 1.9 1.7 1.6 1.3 1.0 1.0 0.8 0.7

Ages 15­19 7.0 5.7 13.8 16.4 16.7 17.8 17.7 15.4 13.2 10.9 9.7 8.6 7.8

White malesa

Ages 10­14 0.7 0.9 1.3 1.4 1.6 1.5 1.5 1.6 1.2 1.1 1.0 0.8 0.7

Ages 15­19 7.2 4.9 9.4 11.7 12.9 12.6 12.9 12.3 10.0 8.3 8.0 7.0 6.5

White femalesa

Ages 10­14 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.3 0.5 0.4 —

Ages 15­19 1.7 1.2 2.0 2.1 2.3 2.2 2.4 2.2 1.7 1.5 1.3 1.3 1.1

Black malesa

Ages 10­14 3.2 3.0 6.9 8.2 8.4 9.8 7.7 7.4 5.2 4.1 3.1 2.9 2.9

Ages 15­19 38.4 36.6 104.4 122.6 118.8 130.1 126.6 101.7 91.7 75.2 64.5 57.0 52.3

Black femalesa

Ages 10­14 1.0 0.6 3.2 2.7 3.4 3.3 3.3 2.0 1.8 1.5 1.6 — —

Ages 15­19 6.2 5.0 10.4 11.2 10.5 14.3 11.1 12.3 9.9 7.2 6.7 7.2 5.1

a Estimates for Whites and Blacks include Hispanics of those orgins.

—  Data not available.

48(11).

Table HC 3.4.B

Youth homicides due to firearms (rate per 100,000) by age, sex, and race: Selected years, 1980­2000

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.  

Note: Homicide rate includes assault by handguns and all other and unspecified firearms.

Sources: Minino, A. M., Arias, E., Kochanek, K. D., Murphy, S. L., & Smith, B. L. (2002). Deaths: Final Data for 2000.

National Vital Statistics Reports, 50(15); National Center for Health Statistics. (2002). Unpublished work; Murphy, S. L.

(2000). Deaths: Final Data for 1998. National Vital Statistics Reports,

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 199 
Mortality

Figure HC 3.4.B

Youth homicide of males by age and race: 1970­2000

1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000

25

50

75

100

125

150 Rate (per 100,000 population)

White males

ages 10-14

White males

ages 15-19 Black males

ages 10-14

Black males

ages 15-19

a Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.  Estimates for Whites and Blacks include Hispanics of those orgins.

Note:  Homicide includes death by legal intervention.  

Sources: Anderson, R. N. (2002). Deaths: Leading Causes for 2000. National Vital Statistics Reports, 50(16); National Center for

Health Statistics. (2002). Unpublished work. 

200 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 3. HEALTH CONDITIONS AND HEALTH CARE

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 201 
Mortality

HC 3.5 Suicides

Suicide, like homicide, has come to play a proportionately larger role in youth deaths over

the past several decades. Between 1970 and 1990, the suicide rate for youth ages 15 to 19

nearly doubled. After remaining stable from 1990 to 1995, the rate had decreased slightly

by 2000 (Figure HC 3.5). Suicide was the third most common cause of death among youth

ages 15 to 19 in 2000.1

Differences by Sex. Males are more likely than females to commit suicide (Table HC 3.5).

The suicide rate for White males ages 15 to 19 was 13.9 per 100,000 in 2000, more than 5

times the rate of 2.9 per 100,000 for White females. Among Blacks, males had a rate more

than 6 times that of females for youth ages 15 to 19 in 2000. The data indicate that males

die by suicide at a higher rate than females, but females attempt suicide more often and

report higher rates of depression. The gender difference is most likely associated with suicide methods. Males are more likely to use firearms, which lead to a fatal outcome 78 to 90

percent of the time.

Differences by Race. White males ages 15 to 19 have long had a higher suicide rate than

their Black male peers (Table HC 3.5). In 1970, White males ages 15 to 19 were twice as likely as Black males to commit suicide. However, the gap between White and Black male suicide rates has narrowed in recent years, with suicide rates of 13.9 and 9.7 per 100,000,

respectively, in 2000.2 Among females ages 15 to 19, Whites and Blacks were equally likely

to commit suicide in 1970, with rates of 2.9 per 100,000. By 1975, White female suicide

rates were more than twice that of their Black peers and White female suicide rates have

remained higher than Blacks since then. 

Differences by Age. While considerably lower, suicide rates for youth ages 10 to 14 have

followed trends similar to those among older youth, with males having higher rates of suicide than females and Whites having higher suicide rates than Blacks (Table HC 3.5). In this

age group, suicide is infrequent for both sexes and races, making these differences small as

well. Younger youth may be less likely to complete suicide because they do not have the

cognitive ability to plan and carry out a suicide attempt, but research also suggests that the

increase in suicide rates with age may be due to the increased likelihood of exposure to critical risk factors, such as serious depression, drugs, and alcohol.

1 50(16).

2

substantially between 1980 and 1995, largely due to the increase of suicide among Black youth. In 1980, White youth

(ages 10 to 19) had a suicide rate that was 157 percent greater than that of their Black peers; by 1995, the rate among

Whites was 42 percent greater than the rate among Blacks. These data, not shown here, can be found in Centers for

Morbidity and Mortality

47(10).

Anderson, R. N. (2002). Deaths: Leading Causes for 2000. National Vital Statistics Reports,

The race disparity in the suicide rate between all White youth ages 10 to 19 and all Black youth ages 10 to 19 narrowed

Disease Control and Prevention. (1996). Suicide Among Black Youths, United States, 1980­1995. 

Weekly Report, 

202 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 3. HEALTH CONDITIONS AND HEALTH CARE

Figure HC 3.5

Youth suicides (rate per 100,000) by age: 1970­2000

1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000

8

1 0

1 2

1 4 Rate (per 100,000 population)

Ages 10-14

Ages 15-19

Sources: Anderson, R. N. (2002). Deaths: Leading Causes for 2000. National Vital Statistics Reports, 50(16); National Center for

Health Statistics. (2002). Unpublished work; Murphy, S. L. (2000). Deaths: Final Data for 1998. National Vital Statistics

Reports, 48(11).

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 203 
Mortality

All youth

1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000

Ages 10­14 0.6 0.8 0.8 1.6 1.5 1.5 1.7 1.7 1.7 1.7 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.2 1.5

Ages 15­19 5.9 7.5 8.5 9.9 11.1 11.0 10.8 10.9 11.1 10.5 9.7 9.5 8.9 8.2 8.2

White malesa

Ages 10­14 1.1 1.4 1.4 2.5 2.3 2.4 2.6 2.4 2.5 2.8 2.3 2.5 2.6 2.1 2.4

Ages 15­19 9.4 12.9 15.0 17.1 19.3 19.1 18.4 18.5 18.7 18.4 16.3 16.0 15.3 13.9 13.9

White femalesa

Ages 10­14 0.3 0.4 0.3 0.9 0.9 0.8 1.1 1.0 1.0 0.9 0.9 0.8 0.9 0.6 0.7

Ages 15­19 2.9 3.1 3.3 4.1 4.0 4.2 3.7 4.2 3.5 3.3 3.8 3.5 3.0 2.9 2.9

Black malesa

Ages 10­14 0.3 0.2 0.5 — 1.6 2.0 2.0 2.3 2.1 1.6 1.9 1.9 1.4 1.4 2.2

Ages 15­19 4.7 6.1 5.6 8.2 11.5 12.2 14.8 14.4 16.6 13.8 11.5 11.4 10.7 10.0 9.7

Black femalesa

Ages 10­14 0.4 0.3 0.1 — — — — — — — — — — — —

Ages 15­19 2.9 1.5 1.6 1.5 1.9 — 1.9 — 2.4 2.3 1.8 2.7 1.8 1.6 1.5

a Estimates for Whites and Blacks include Hispanics of those orgins.

—  Not calculated because of unreliability due to infrequency of the event.

50(16); National Center for

48(11).

Table HC 3.5

Youth suicides (rate per 100,000) by age, sex, and race: Selected years, 1970­2000

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.  

Sources: Anderson, R. N. (2002). Deaths: Leading Causes for 2000. National Vital Statistics Reports,

Health Statistics. (2002). Unpublished work. Murphy, S. L. (2000). Deaths: Final Data for 1998. National Vital Statistics

Reports,

204 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 4.

Social

Development

and Behavioral

Health

Social

Development

Behavioral Health:

Physical Health

and Safety

Behavioral Health:

Smoking, Alcohol,

and Substance

Abuse

Behavioral Health:

Sexual Activity and

Fertility
SECTION 4. SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT AND BEHAVIORAL HEALTH

Social

Development

Behavioral Health:

Physical Health

and Safety

Behavioral Health:

Smoking, Alcohol,

and Substance

Abuse

Behavioral Health:

Sexual Activity and

Fertility
Social Development

SD 1.1 Life Goals of 12th graders

The personal and social life goals of 12th graders reflect their priorities for the future as they

make the transition to adulthood. The percentage of 12th graders who rated selected personal and social goals as extremely important are presented in Tables SD 1.1.A and SD

1.1.B. Personal goals include being successful in their line of work, having a good marriage

and family life, and having lots of money. Social goals include making a contribution to

society, working to correct social and economic inequalities, and being a leader in their 

community.

From 1976 to 2002, 12th graders have been fairly consistent in the relative importance they

assign to various life goals. Specifically, “Being successful in my line of work” and “Having

a good marriage and family life” have been cited more often than other values as being

extremely important. Since 1992, more than three out of four 12th graders have felt it

extremely important to have a good marriage and family life, and nearly two out of three

have felt it extremely important to be successful at work (Table SD 1.1.A). “Having lots of

money” and “Making a contribution to society” were the next most likely goals to be considered extremely important by 12th graders. Between 20 and 30 percent of 12th graders

have found these goals extremely important in recent years (Figures SD 1.1.A and SD

1.1.B). “Working to correct social and economic inequalities” and “Being a leader in my

community” are rated as extremely important goals in 2002 for only small percentages of

12th graders and are rated as 11 percent and 16 percent, respectively.

Differences by Race.1 In 2002, Black students were more likely than Whites to rate as

extremely important goals such as being successful at work (74 percent versus 61 percent),

having lots of money (50 percent versus 19 percent), and correcting social and economic

inequalities (17 percent versus 8 percent). The two groups appeared equally likely to attach

extreme importance to having a good marriage and family life, a rate whose percentile has

been in the 70s for both races since 1976 (Table SD 1.1.A).

Differences by Sex. Across the six goals, rates vary little between females and males, with

several exceptions. In 2002, females were more likely to indicate that having a good marriage and family life was extremely important (82 percent versus 73 percent) and were less

likely to report that having lots of money was an extremely important goal (17 percent versus 32 percent) (Table SD 1.1.A).

1 Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race. Estimates for Whites and Blacks include Hispanics of those races.

208 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 4. SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT AND BEHAVIORAL HEALTH

and race:  Selected years, 1976­2002

1976 1981 1986 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002

Being successful in my line of work

All 12th graders 53 57 61 62 66 65 63 62 65 64 64 63 62 62 63

Sex

Male 53 58 62 60 63 63 61 62 62 65 61 63 60 59 62

Female 52 57 60 64 69 67 66 62 68 64 68 64 64 66 64

Racea

White 50 55 58 59 65 62 60 59 63 60 61 60 60 58 61

Black 67 71 73 75 80 74 79 72 74 81 80 76 71 76 74

Having a good marriage and family life

All 12th graders 73 76 75 76 78 79 76 78 78 76 77 78 77 77 77

Sex

Male 66 71 69 71 72 74 70 73 74 72 72 74 73 72 73

Female 80 82 82 83 84 85 81 83 81 81 82 83 83 83 82

Racea

White 72 77 76 76 79 79 76 78 78 77 77 79 78 79 78

Black 75 73 76 78 75 76 72 76 75 76 77 76 75 78 70

Having lots of money

All 12th graders 15 18 27 28 29 26 26 25 25 28 29 26 28 26 25

Sex

Male 20 24 34 37 35 32 32 30 33 33 35 34 34 33 32

Female 11 13 18 19 22 18 19 19 16 20 20 17 20 19 17

Racea

White 12 15 24 25 24 20 22 21 21 22 22 21 23 23 19

Black 33 32 38 39 46 45 47 41 43 45 46 47 47 36 50

a

Note: 

Source: 

MI:  Institute for Social Research,  The University of Michigan.

Table SD 1.1.A

Percentage of 12th graders who rate selected personal life goals as being "extremely important," by sex

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race. Estimates for Whites and Blacks include Hispanics of those races. 

1976­1988 data based on one of five forms, with a resulting sample one­fifth of the total sample size for each year.

1989­2000 data based on one of six forms, with a resulting sample one­sixth of the total sample size for each year.

Bachman, J. G., Johnston, L. D., & O’Malley, P. M. (2003). Monitoring the Future:  Questionnaire Responses. Ann Arbor,

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 209 
Social Development

race:  Selected years, 1976­2002

1976 1981 1986 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002

Making a contribution to society

All 12th graders 18 18 17 21 22 24 24 20 24 22 23 22 20 21 22

Sex

Male 16 19 18 20 22 25 23 19 23 19 21 22 20 21 21

Female 20 17 16 22 23 25 25 21 26 25 24 22 20 22 23

Racea

White 18 18 16 20 22 24 23 19 23 22 23 21 18 19 21

Black 23 21 20 27 27 25 29 25 29 24 30 26 28 24 26

All 12th graders 10 10 9 12 15 15 14 10 12 12 11 10 11 11 11

Sex

Male 8 9 7 11 14 14 12 9 11 10 10 9 11 10 10

Female 13 10 11 13 17 16 16 10 12 12 11 10 11 10 10

Racea

White 8 7 7 10 13 12 11 8 9 9 8 8 9 8 8

Black 20 21 19 21 26 21 25 18 19 18 20 16 19 14 17

Being a leader in my community

All 12th graders 7 8 9 11 13 13 14 12 15 15 14 15 14 14 16

Sex

Male 8 8 11 12 14 17 14 14 16 16 14 17 14 15 17

Female 6 7 6 10 11 10 13 10 13 13 15 13 13 14 13

Racea

White 6 7 8 9 11 12 12 10 14 12 12 13 11 12 13

Black 14 14 12 17 21 19 21 22 23 24 30 25 26 26 23

a

Note: 

Source: 

Institute for Social Research,  The University of Michigan.

Table SD 1.1.B

Percentage of 12th graders who rate selected social life goals as being "extremely important," by sex and

Working to correct social and economic inequalities

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race. Estimates for Whites and Blacks include Hispanics of those races. 

1976­1988 data based on one of five forms, with a resulting sample one­fifth of the total sample size for each year. 1989­

2000 data based on one of six forms, with a resulting sample one­sixth of the total sample size for each year.

Bachman, J. G., Johnston, L. D., & O’Malley, P. M. (2003). Monitoring the Future:  Questionnaire Responses. Ann Arbor, MI:

210 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 4. SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT AND BEHAVIORAL HEALTH

Figure SD 1.1.A   

Percentage of 12th graders who rate selected personal life goals as being “extremely important:”

1976 and 2002

0

2 0

4 0

6 0

8 0

100 Percent

1976

2002

Being successful 

in my line of work

Having a good marriage 

and family life

Having lots of money

Source:  Bachman, J.G., Johnston, L.D., & O’Malley, P.M. (2003). Monitoring the Future: Questionnaire Responses. Ann

Arbor, MI: Institute for Social Research; The University of Michigan.

Figure SD 1.1.B 

Percentage of 12th graders who rate selected social life goals as being “extremely important:” 

1976 and 2002

0

2 0

4 0

6 0

8 0

100 Percent

1976

2002

Making a contribution 

to society

Working to correct social 

and economic inequalities

Being a leader 

in my community

Source:  Bachman, J.G., Johnston, L.D., & O’Malley, P.M. (2003). Monitoring the Future: Questionnaire Responses. Ann

Arbor, MI: Institute for Social Research; The University of Michigan.

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 211 
Social Development

SD 1.2 Peer Approval

As children age, peer relationships come to play an increasingly important role in determining behaviors and attitudes. Peer pressure, while often positive, can sometimes lead

children to make poor decision choices—choices that involve underage drinking, experimental use of drugs, gang involvement, early sexual activity, and criminal behavior such as

shoplifting or defacing property.1 

Two measures of potential peer influence are offered here: the percentage of youth reporting that getting good grades has great or very great importance to their peers, and the percentage reporting that peers would disapprove of intentionally angering a teacher in school. 

Differences by Age. In 2002, 8th graders were more likely than either 10th or 12th graders

to report their peers consider good grades to be of great or very great importance (54 percent versus 43 percent, respectively). However, more 12th graders were likely to report peer

disapproval of intentionally angering a teacher in school (Tables SD 1.2.A and SD 1.2.B).

Differences by Sex. Females in all grade levels were slightly more likely than males to

report that their peers value good grades and that they would disapprove of intentionally

angering teachers. Among 12th grade females in 2002, 45 percent reported that having their

peers hold good grades was of great or very great importance, compared to 41 percent of

males (Table SD 1.2.A). In that same year, 39 percent of 12th grade females and 30 percent

of males reported peer disapproval of intentionally angering a teacher in school (Table SD

1.2.B).

Differences by Race.2 For all years for which data are presented, Black youth in all grades

were considerably more likely than their White peers to report strong support for good

grades (Figure SD 1.2.A). In 2002, 40 percent of White and 56 percent of Black 12th graders

reported that their peers believed that good grades were of great or very great importance.

Black youth were slightly less likely to report peer disapproval of intentionally angering

teachers. The difference by race has been consistently largest among 12th graders since

1980 (Figure SD 1.2.B).

1 Kitterage, K. (2000). Today’s Youth Face Pressures from Many Unprecedented Factors, not only Peers.  Brown University Child

and Adolescent Behavior Letter.

2 Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race. Estimates for Whites and Blacks include Hispanics of those races.

212 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 4. SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT AND BEHAVIORAL HEALTH

peers, by sex and race:  Selected years,  1980­2002

1980 1985 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002

All 8th graders — — — 51 52 54 54 55 55 52 51 50 54 55 54

Sex

Male — — — 50 50 54 52 52 54 51 52 49 53 53 53

Female — — — 53 53 54 55 56 55 53 50 51 54 56 54

Racea

White — — — 47 47 49 49 48 48 46 46 45 49 49 48

Black — — — 72 72 70 70 72 77 71 69 68 70 73 72

All 10th graders — — — 44 43 39 42 44 45 43 44 42 41 42 43

Sex

Male — — — 42 42 36 39 43 42 40 43 40 39 40 40

Female — — — 46 44 42 45 45 47 45 46 44 42 44 44

Racea

White — — — 38 38 35 38 39 40 38 37 36 35 37 36

Black — — — 67 66 59 64 67 65 62 69 66 65 60 64

All 12th graders 48 49 48 44 45 46 45 46 46 45 45 47 42 44 43

Sex

Male 48 50 46 41 42 43 44 41 44 41 42 44 39 40 41

Female 48 48 51 47 48 48 46 50 49 49 48 49 44 48 45

Racea

White 43 43 43 37 39 40 39 40 42 41 40 39 35 37 40

Black 78 77 76 71 70 61 67 67 69 59 63 77 63 63 56

a

—  Data not available.

Note: 

Source: 

Institute for Social Research,  The University of Michigan.

Table SD 1.2.A 

Percentage of 8th, 10th, and 12th graders reporting that good grades have great or very great importance to

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race. Estimates for Whites and Blacks include Hispanics of those races.

Data for 8th­ and 10th­ grade students are based on one of two questionnaire forms for 1991­1996, and based on two of four

forms for 1997­1999, with a resulting sample size one­half of the total sample size for each grade in each year. Data for 12th­grade

students are based on one of six questionnaire forms for 1989­1999 and one of five for 1980­1988, resulting in one­sixth, and onefifth, respectively, of the total sample size for each year. Data for 8th and 10th grades have been available since 1991.

Bachman, J. G., Johnston, L. D., & O’Malley, P. M. (2003). Monitoring the Future: Questionnaire Responses. Ann Arbor, MI:

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 213 
Social Development

school, by sex and race:  Selected years,  1980­2002

1980 1985 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002

All 8th graders — — — 26 24 24 21 22 23 23 24 22 26 27 28

Sex

Male — — — 22 20 20 18 19 20 21 20 20 23 22 25

Female — — — 30 27 26 23 24 26 26 27 24 30 32 31

Racea

White — — — 26 24 24 22 22 23 24 24 23 28 28 30

Black — — — 23 24 23 22 22 22 20 23 20 21 23 26

All 10th graders — — — 26 24 24 26 24 23 23 25 26 27 27 26

Sex

Male — — — 21 19 19 22 21 19 20 23 22 23 22 21

Female — — — 31 28 28 30 28 26 27 28 30 31 32 31

Racea

White — — — 27 25 25 26 25 23 24 26 27 29 29 28

Black — — — 22 21 20 23 19 20 19 24 26 18 21 20

All 12th graders 41 42 33 33 34 34 33 36 35 34 33 34 32 31 35

Sex

Male 37 35 29 31 28 30 25 32 29 31 28 30 29 28 30

Female 46 48 38 37 39 37 40 41 40 38 38 37 35 33 39

Racea

White 44 43 35 34 35 34 34 36 36 36 35 36 35 31 38

Black 29 33 30 29 30 27 25 33 28 30 24 23 25 27 26

a

—  Data not available.

Note: 

Source: 

Institute for Social Research:  The University of Michigan.

Table SD 1.2.B

Percentage of 8th, 10th, and 12th graders reporting peer disapproval of intentionally angering a teacher in

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race. Estimates for Whites and Blacks include Hispanics of those races.

Data for 8th­ and 10th­ grade students are based on one of two questionnaire forms for 1991­1996, and based on two of

four forms for 1997­1999, with a resulting sample size one­half of the total sample size for each grade in each year. Data for 12thgrade students are based on one of six questionnaire forms for 1989­1999 and one of five for 1980­1988, resulting in one­sixth,

and one­fifth, respectively, of the total sample size for each year. Data for 8th and 10th grades have been available since 1991.

Bachman, J. G., Johnston, L. D., & O’Malley, P. M. (2003). Monitoring the Future:  Questionnaire Responses. Ann Arbor, MI:

214 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 4. SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT AND BEHAVIORAL HEALTH

Figure SD 1.2.A    

Percentage of 12th graders reporting that good grades have great or very great importance 

to peers, by race: 1980­2002

1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2002

0

1 0

2 0

3 0

4 0

5 0

6 0

7 0

8 0

9 0

100 Percent Black

White

Total

Source:  Bachman, J.G., Johnston, L.D., & O’Malley, P.M. (2003). Monitoring the Future: Questionnaire Responses. Ann

Arbor, MI: Institute for Social Research, The University of Michigan.

Figure SD 1.2.B

Percentage of 12th graders reporting peer disapproval of intentionally angering a teacher in school,

by race: 1980­2002

1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2002

0

1 0

2 0

3 0

4 0

5 0

6 0

7 0

8 0

9 0

100 Percent

Black

White

Total

Source:  Bachman, J.G., Johnston, L.D., & O’Malley, P.M. (2003). Monitoring the Future: Questionnaire Responses. Ann

Arbor, MI: Institute for Social Research, The University of Michigan.

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 215 
Social Development

SD 1.3 Religious Attendance and Religiosity

Research relating religion to children’s day­to­day conduct suggests that religious youth are

more likely to avoid high­risk behaviors.1 The percentage of 12th graders reporting weekly religious attendance was 41 percent in 1976 and 35 percent in 2002. Since the 1990s, the

percentage has remained in the low 30s (Table SD 1.3.A). Despite this trend, the percentage of 12th graders who report that religion plays a very important role in their lives has

remained fairly stable since 1976 (Table SD 1.3.B and Figure SD 1.3).

Differences by Age. Data for youth in the 8th and 10th grades indicate that younger children are more likely to report weekly religious attendance but are not more likely to report

that religion plays a very important role in their lives (Tables SD 1.3.A and SD 1.3.B). In

2002, 44 percent of 8th graders reported weekly religious attendance, versus 41 percent of

10th graders and 35 percent of 12th graders. During 2002, the percentage reporting that religion played an important role in their lives was 33 percent for 12th graders, 34 percent for

10th graders, and 35 percent for 8th graders.

Differences by Sex. Females in all grades are somewhat more likely than males to report

weekly religious attendance and that religion plays a very important role in their lives

(Tables SD 1.3.A and SD 1.3.B).

Differences by Race.2 Blacks consistently across all three grades have been nearly twice

as likely as Whites to report that religion plays a very important role in their lives.  In 2002,

51 percent of Black 12th graders reported that religion played such a role compared with 30

percent of White 12th graders.

1 National Commission on Children. (1991). Beyond Rhetoric: A New American Agenda for Children and Families. Washington,

DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

2 Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race. Estimates for Whites and Blacks include Hispanics of those races.

216 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 4. SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT AND BEHAVIORAL HEALTH

Selected

years,  1976­2002

1976 1981 1986 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998a 1999a 2000a 2001 2002

All 8th Graders — — — 46 43 42 42 42 43 44 45 43 44 44 44

Sex

Male — — — 44 41 39 40 40 40 42 42 41 41 41 41

Female — — — 49 46 45 45 45 46 47 47 46 47 47 48

Raceb

White — — — 48 44 44 44 43 44 46 45 45 45 45 47

Black — — — 47 46 42 42 46 45 46 49 46 50 49 45

All 10th Graders — — — 38 39 40 37 37 38 38 38 38 39 40 41

Sex

Male — — — 35 37 37 35 35 35 36 35 36 37 37 39

Female — — — 42 41 43 39 40 40 41 40 40 41 43 44

Raceb

White — — — 39 39 41 37 37 38 39 37 37 39 41 40

Black — — — 44 45 44 41 44 38 43 45 43 43 46 47

All 12th Graders 41 40 34 31 32 32 32 32 33 31 32 33 32 33 35

Sex

Male 36 36 31 28 31 29 30 30 30 28 29 33 31 31 32

Female 46 44 38 34 34 34 35 35 35 33 34 34 34 35 37

Raceb

White 42 41 35 31 32 31 32 32 32 29 31 33 30 31 34

Black 37 40 36 38 35 35 39 40 38 40 41 40 43 44 42

a

b Estimates for Whites and Blacks include Hispanics of those races.

—  Data not available.

Source: 

Institute for Social Research,  The University of Michigan.

Table SD 1.3.A 

Percentage of 8th, 10th, and 12th graders who report weekly religious attendance, by sex and race:  

California schools omitted.

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.  

Bachman, J. G., Johnston, L. D., & O’Malley, P. M. (2003). Monitoring the Future:  Questionnaire Responses. Ann Arbor, MI:

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 217 
Social Development

by sex and race:  Selected years,  1976­2002

1976 1981 1986 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998a 1999a 2000a 2001 2002

All 8th Graders — — — 29 27 30 30 30 32 32 34 33 36 34 35

Sex

Male — — — 27 26 27 29 28 29 30 32 31 32 31 32

Female — — — 31 28 32 32 32 34 34 36 36 39 37 38

Raceb

White — — — 26 23 26 26 26 27 28 30 29 31 32 30

Black — — — 46 46 42 47 45 47 48 52 51 52 48 52

All 10th Graders — — — 29 28 29 28 29 29 30 31 32 32 32 34

Sex

Male — — — 26 26 26 24 26 26 28 29 28 28 27 31

Female — — — 31 29 31 32 31 31 33 34 34 35 36 38

Raceb

White — — — 24 24 26 24 25 26 27 26 27 28 29 30

Black — — — 52 50 50 48 49 47 48 52 55 52 49 54

All 12th Graders 29 31 26 28 29 29 30 30 31 30 32 33 32 32 33

Sex

Male 24 25 23 24 26 26 27 27 27 26 28 30 28 29 29

Female 34 36 30 31 33 33 32 33 35 34 36 35 35 36 36

Raceb

White 26 27 23 24 25 24 26 26 27 24 27 29 26 27 30

Black 51 51 51 50 51 51 49 52 55 55 57 55 57 56 51

a

b Estimates for Whites and Blacks include Hispanics of those races.

—  Data not available.

Source: 

Institute for Social Research,  The University of Michigan.

Table SD 1.3.B  

Percentage of 8th, 10th, and 12th graders who report that religion plays a very important role in their lives,

California schools omitted.

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.  

Bachman, J. G., Johnston, L. D., & O’Malley, P. M. (2003). Monitoring the Future:  Questionnaire Responses. Ann Arbor, MI:

218 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 4. SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT AND BEHAVIORAL HEALTH

Figure SD 1.3

Percentage of 12th graders reporting weekly religious attendance and reporting religion 

is important in their lives: 1976­2002

1976 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2002

0

1 0

2 0

3 0

4 0

5 0

6 0

7 0

8 0

9 0

100 Percent

Religion plays a very important role

Weekly religious attendance

Source:  Bachman, J.G., Johnston, L.D., & O’Malley, P.M. (2003). Monitoring the Future: Questionnaire Responses. Ann

Arbor, MI: Institute for Social Research, The University of Michigan.

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 219 
Social Development

SD 1.4  Voting Behavior

Voting is an exercise of citizenship in a democracy. Rates of reported voter registration and

voting among 18­ to 24­year­olds during presidential election years declined between 1972

and 1976 and stayed relatively flat through 2000.  In 1972, 59 percent of youth ages 18 to

24 reported that they had registered to vote, and 50 percent reported that they had voted.

By 2000, 45 percent reported that they had registered, and 32 percent reported that they

had voted (Figure SD 1.4.A). The 2000 presidential election saw the lowest percentage of

youth registering to vote since 1988 (Table SD 1.4.A).

The percentage of youth who reported that they had voted in nonpresidential election

years since 1974 is substantially lower than the percentage who reported that they had

voted during presidential election years (Table SD 1.4.B and Figure SD 1.4.B). Rates of

reported registration and voting have been remarkably stable during such years, across nonpresidential election years, with overall rates varying by only a few percentage points across

the years.

Differences by Sex. Reported rates of voter registration and voting are modestly higher

among females both over time and within racial and ethnic groups, particularly during presidential election years. In the 2000 presidential election, 49 percent of females and 42 percent of males ages 18 to 24 reported that they had registered to vote (Table SD 1.4.A).  Also,

in 2000, 31 percent of Black males voted compared to 36 percent of Black females.

Differences by Race and Hispanic Origin.1 Hispanic youth are the least likely to report

that they register and vote. In 2000, 23 percent of Hispanic youth reported that they had

registered, and 15 percent reported that they had voted. Comparable numbers for Whites

are 46 percent registered and 33 percent voted. Blacks were the most likely to report that

they had registered (48 percent) and voted (34 percent) in 2000 (Figure SD 1.4.A). However,

it is important to note that this data does not account for how many of the Hispanic population are foreign­born and/or noncitizens. It is therefore possible that the decline in the

percentage of Hispanics voting may be a function of an increase in the number of immigrants who are ineligible to vote.

1 Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race. Estimates for Whites and Blacks include Hispanics of those races.

220 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 4. SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT AND BEHAVIORAL HEALTH

Figure SD 1.4.A    

Percentage of youth ages 18 to 24 who reported that they had registered to vote and percentage

who reported that they had voted in presidential election years: 1972­2000

1972 1976 1980 1984 1988 1992 1996 2000

0

1 0

2 0

3 0

4 0

5 0

6 0

7 0

8 0

9 0

100 Percent Percentage who reported registering

Percentage who reported voting

Note:  Current Population Survey figures routinely overestimate voter registration and turnout when compared to the

official rates.

Sources:  U.S. Census Bureau. (2001). Current Population Reports, P20­542; U.S. Census Bureau. (1997). Current Population

Reports, P20­504; U.S. Census Bureau. (1993). Current Population Reports, P20­466; U.S. Census Bureau. (1989). Current

Population Reports, P20­440; U.S. Census Bureau. (1985). Current Population Reports, P20­405; U.S. Census Bureau. (1981).

Current Population Reports, P20­370; U.S. Census Bureau. (1975). Current Population Reports, P20­322; U.S. Census Bureau.

(1973). Current Population Reports, P20­253.

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 221 
Social Development

and by sex:  Selected years, 1972­2000

Registering 1972 1976 1980 1984 1988 1992 1996 2000

All races 59 51 49 51 48 53 49 45

Male 58 51 48 50 45 51 47 42

Female 59 52 50 53 51 54 51 49

Whitea 61 54 51 52 49 55 50 46

Male 60 53 50 51 46 53 48 43

Female 61 54 52 53 51 57 52 50

Blacka 48 39 41 54 50 49 49 48

Male 45 38 39 49 47 46 45 46

Female 50 40 43 58 53 52 53 50

Hispanica 39 29 23 30 25 25 28 23

Male 38 30 20 27 21 20 25 20

Female 39 28 25 32 30 30 31 27

All races 50 42 40 41 36 43 32 32

Male 49 41 39 39 34 41 30 30

Female 50 43 41 43 38 45 35 35

Whitea 52 45 42 42 37 45 33 33

Male 51 43 40 40 35 43 31 31

Female 53 46 43 43 39 47 35 35

Blacka 35 28 30 41 35 37 32 34

Male 32 27 29 36 32 32 25 31

Female 37 29 31 45 37 41 38 36

Hispanica 31 22 16 22 17 18 15 15

Male 30 22 13 20 14 14 12 14

Female 32 22 19 24 20 22 19 17

a

those races. 

Note: 

compared to the official rates.

Sources:  U.S. Census Bureau. (2001).  , P20­542; U.S. Census Bureau. (1997).

Census Bureau. (1989). 

P20­322; U.S. Census Bureau. (1973).  P20­253.

Table SD 1.4.A 

Percentage of youth ages 18 to 24 who reported that they had registered to vote and 

percentage who reported voting in presidential election years, by race and Hispanic origin

Voting

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race. Estimates for Whites and Blacks include Hispanics of 

Current Population Survey figures routinely overestimate voter registration and turnout when 

Current Population Reports,

Current Population Reports, P20­504; U.S. Census Bureau. (1993). Current Population Reports,, P20­466; U.S.

Current Population Reports, P20­440; U.S. Census Bureau. (1985). Current Population

Reports, P20­405; U.S. Census Bureau. (1981). Current Population Reports, P20­370; U.S. Census Bureau. (1975).

Current Population Reports, Current Population Reports,

222 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 4. SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT AND BEHAVIORAL HEALTH

and Hispanic origin and by sex:  Selected years, 1974­1998

Registering 1974 1978 1982 1986 1990 1994 1998

All races 41 41 42 42 40 42 39

Male 42 39 42 41 39 41 36

Female 41 42 42 43 40 44 42

Whitea 43 41 43 42 40 44 41

Male 44 41 44 41 40 43 38

Female 42 42 43 43 41 45 43

Blacka 34 37 42 46 40 42 38

Male 31 35 38 43 41 38 33

Female 36 39 45 49 40 45 42

Hispanica 23 20 24 22 19 20 22

Male 23 22 24 20 18 18 18

Female 23 19 24 24 21 22 27

All races 24 24 25 22 20 20 17

Male 25 23 25 21 20 19 16

Female 23 24 25 23 21 22 18

Whitea 25 24 25 22 21 21 17

Male 26 24 26 21 20 20 17

Female 24 25 24 22 21 22 18

Blacka 16 20 26 25 20 17 16

Male 16 19 24 24 20 14 13

Female 13 21 27 26 20 20 18

Hispanica 13 12 14 12 9 10 9

Male 14 13 14 10 7 8 6

Female 12 10 14 13 11 13 12

a

those races.

Note: 

compared to the official rates. 

Sources:  U.S. Census Bureau. (2001). 

P20­504; U.S. Census Bureau. (1993).  P20­466; U.S. Census

Bureau. (1989).  P20­440; U.S. Census Bureau. (1985). 

P20­405; U.S. Census Bureau. (1981).  P20­370; U.S. Census Bureau. (1975). 

P20­322; U.S. Census Bureau. (1973).  P20­253.

Table SD 1.4.B 

Percentage of youth ages 18 to 24 who reported that they had registered to vote and 

percentage who reported that they had voted in nonpresidential election years, by race 

Voting

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race. Estimates for Whites and Blacks include Hispanics of 

Current Population Survey figures routinely overestimate voter registration and turnout when 

Current Population Reports, P20­542; U.S. Census Bureau. (1997). Current

Population Reports, Current Population Reports,

Current Population Reports, Current Population Reports,

Current Population Reports, Current

Population Reports, Current Population Reports,

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 223 
Social Development

Figure SD 1.4.B

Percentage of youth ages 18 to 24 who registered to vote and percentage who voted 

in nonpresidential election year, by race and Hispanic origin:  1998 

Percentage who reported registering Percentage who reported voting 0

2 0

4 0

6 0

8 0

100 Percent

White

Black

Hispanic

a Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race. Estimates for Whites and Blacks include Hispanics of 

those races.

Note:  Current Population Survey figures routinely overestimate voter registration and turnout when 

compared to the official rates. 

Sources:  U.S. Census Bureau. (2001). Current Population Reports, P20­542; U.S. Census Bureau. (1997). Current

Population Reports, P20­504; U.S. Census Bureau. (1993). Current Population Reports, P20­466; U.S. Census Bureau.

(1989). Current Population Reports, P20­440; U.S. Census Bureau. (1985). Current Population Reports, P20­405; U.S.

Census Bureau. (1981). Current Population Reports, P20­370; U.S. Census Bureau. (1975). Current Population Reports,

P20­322; U.S. Census Bureau. (1973). Current Population Reports, P20­253.

224 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 4. SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT AND BEHAVIORAL HEALTH

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 225 
Social Development

SD 1.5  Television Viewing Habits

Extensive television viewing in American culture has long been criticized for inducing passivity and for taking time away from more active learning activities. Research studies indicate that excessive television watching is negatively related to the academic attainment of

children and youth.  Youth ages 17, 13, and 9 who stated they typically watch 6 or more

hours of television each day scored lower, on average, than their peers who spent less time

watching television.1 Yet, as depicted in Figure SD 1.5, substantial percentages of youth

still report watching large amounts of television on a daily basis.

Differences by Age. The percentage of youth who report watching 6 or more hours of television declines with age, as indicated in Figure SD 1.5. Among 9­year­olds, 19 percent

reported watching 6 or more hours of television each day in 1999, compared to 12 and 7

percent of 13­ and 17­year olds.

Differences by Sex. In general, male youth watch more hours of television than female

youth regardless of age (Tables SD 1.5.A, SD 1.5.B, and SD 1.5.C).

Differences by Race and Hispanic Origin.2 For each age group substantially larger proportions of Black, non­Hispanic youth watch television for 6 or more hours per day than

do either White, non­Hispanic or Hispanic youth. For example, among 9­year­old children,

39 percent of Black, non­Hispanic youth, compared with 13 percent of White, nonHispanic and 24 percent of Hispanic youth, reported watching television 6 or more hours

per day in 1999.  This pattern holds for all previous years of data collection (Table SD

1.5.A).

Differences by Type of School. In general, smaller percentages of children and youth

who attend private school spend 6 or more hours per day watching television than do students who attend public school (Tables SD 1.5.A, SD 1.5.B, and SD 1.5.C).

Differences by Parents’ Education Level. Children’s television viewing habits also vary

by parents’ educational level. In general, as parents’ educational levels increase, the percentages of children watching 6 or more hours of television decline. In 1999, 19 percent of

13­year­olds whose parents had less than a high school education were watching 6 or more

hours of television per day, compared with 16 percent of youth with parents who graduated from high school and 9 percent of youth whose parents graduated from college (Table

SD 1.5.B).

1 U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (1999). National Household Education Survey.

Unpublished work.  U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics (1999). National Assessment

of Educational Progress. Unpublished work. 

2 Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

226 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 4. SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT AND BEHAVIORAL HEALTH

Figure SD 1.5

Percentage of youth who watch 6 or more hours of television per day, by age: 1982­1999

1982 1986 1990 1992 1994 1996 1999

0

1 0

2 0

3 0

4 0

5 0

6 0

7 0

8 0

9 0

100

9 years old

13 years old

17 years old Percent Sources:  U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (1999). National Assessment of

Educational Progress. Unpublished work. U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics.

(1996). National Assessment of Education Progress. Unpublished work.  U.S. Department of Education, National Center for

Education Statistics. (1994). National Assessment of Education Progress: Long­Term Trends, Reading Assessment. Washington,

DC: U.S. Department of Education; U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (1992).

National Assessment of Education Progress. Unpublished work. 

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 227 
Social Development

by sex, race and Hispanic origin, and type of school:  Selected years, 1982­1999

1982 1986 1990 1992 1994 1996 1999

26 31 23 19 19 18 19

Sex

Male 30 34 27 22 23 20 22

Female 23 27 20 17 16 15 16

Race and Hispanic origina

White, non­Hispanic 23 26 18 14 14 13 13

Black, non­Hispanic 43 53 47 41 40 39 39

Hispanic 28 33 26 25 22 21 24

Public 27 32 24 21 19 19 20

Private 21 24 18 5 11 7 11

.

a

Note: 

their parents’ education level.

Sources:  U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (1999). National

. Unpublished work. U.S. Department of Education, National Center

for Education Statistics. (1996).  . Unpublished work.  U.S.

Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (1994). National Assessment of

Education; U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (1992). National

. Unpublished work. 

Table SD 1.5.A

Percentage of 9­year old children who watch six or more hours of television per day,

All 9­year­olds

Type of school

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

Parents’ education is not reported for 9­year­olds because approximately one­third did not know

Assessment of Educational Progress

National Assessment of Education Progress

Education Progress: Long­Term Trends, Reading Assessment. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of

Assessment of Education Progress

228 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 4. SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT AND BEHAVIORAL HEALTH

race and Hispanic origin, type of school, and parents’ level of education:  Selected years,

1982­1999

1982 1986 1990 1992 1994 1996 1999

All 13­year­olds 16 20 17 13 13 13 12

Sex

Male 18 21 18 14 15 15 13

Female 15 19 15 11 12 11 11

Race and Hispanic origina

White, non­Hispanic 13 17 12 8 8 7 7

Black, non­Hispanic 32 40 35 31 35 35 33

Hispanic 19 21 18 19 19 17 15

Public 17 20 17 14 14 13 12

Private 13 — 11 6 4 3 7

Less than high school 23 32 24 21 23 18 19

Graduated high school 18 22 19 16 17 13 16

More than high school 13 18 12 9 13 13 12

Graduated college 12 15 13 9 9 10 9

a

— 

Sources:  U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (1999). National Assessment of

. Unpublished work. U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics.

(1996).  . Unpublished work.  U.S. Department of Education, National

Center for Education Statistics. (1994). 

Assessment

Education Statistics. (1992).  . Unpublished work. 

Table SD 1.5.B 

Percentage of 13­year old youth who watch six or more hours of television per day, by sex,

Type of school

Parents’ highest level of education

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

Too few observations for a reliable estimate.

Educational Progress

National Assessment of Education Progress

National Assessment of Education Progress: Long­Term Trends, Reading

. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education; U.S. Department of Education, National Center for

National Assessment of Education Progress

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 229 
Social Development

and Hispanic origin, type of school, and parents’ level of education:  Selected years, 1982­1999

1982 1986 1990 1992 1994 1996 1999

All 17­year­olds 6 9 9 7 8 7 7

Sex

Male 7 10 9 7 10 7 8

Female 6 8 8 7 7 7 6

Race and Hispanic origina

White, non­Hispanic 5 6 6 4 5 4 3

Black, non­Hispanic 14 22 23 21 24 21 23

Hispanic 6 12 8 6 9 9 6

Public 7 9 9 7 8 7 7

Private 3 — — 3 3 6 0

Parents’ highest level of education

Less than high school 10 17 11 10 14 15 9

Graduated high school 8 10 11 10 12 9 10

4 9 8 5 8 6 6

Graduated college 4 4 5 5 5 6 5

a

— 

Sources:  U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (1999). National Assessment of

. Unpublished work. U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics.

(1996).  . Unpublished work.  U.S. Department of Education, National

Center for Education Statistics. (1994).  .

Statistics. (1992).  . Unpublished work. 

Table SD 1.5.C

Percentage of 17­year old youth who watch six or more hours of television per day, by sex,race

Type of school

More than high school

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

Too few observations for a reliable estimate.

Educational Progress

National Assessment of Education Progress

National Assessment of Education Progress: Long­Term Trends, Reading Assessment

Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education; U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education

National Assessment of Education Progress

230 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 4. SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT AND BEHAVIORAL HEALTH

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 231 
Social Development

SD 1.6 Detached Youth:  Not in School and Not Working

“Detached youth” refers to youth ages 16 to 19 who are neither enrolled in school nor working. This detachment, particularly if it lasts for several years, increases the risk that a youth,

over time, will have lower earnings and a less stable employment history than his or her

peers who stayed in school and/or secured jobs.1 

Figure SD 1.6 and Table SD 1.6 show how the percentage of detached youth has fluctuated since 1985. In 2002, 9 percent of all youth ages 16 to 19 were detached. This is a slight

increase from 2000 (8 percent).

Differences by Age. Youth ages 16 or 17 are more likely than youth ages 18 or 19 to be in

school or working.  In 2002, 14 percent of 18­ and 19­year­olds were detached, while only

4 percent of their younger peers were detached.

Differences by Sex. Females are slightly more likely than males to be detached from both

school and employment. In 2002, 9 percent of females, and 8 percent of males experienced

detachment.

Differences by Race and Hispanic Origin.2 Black, non­Hispanic and Hispanic youth

are more likely than White, non­Hispanic youth to be detached from school and employment. In 2002, 14 percent of Black, non­Hispanic youth and 13 percent of Hispanic youth

experienced detachment. The corresponding rate for White, non­Hispanic youth 

was 7 percent.

Figure SD 1.6

Percentage of 16­ to 19­year­olds who are neither enrolled in school nor working, by race and

Hispanic origin: 1985­2002

1985 1990 1995 2000 2002

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100 Percent

White, non-Hispanic

Black, non-Hispanic

Hispanic

a Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

Source: Federal Interagency Forum on Child and Family Statistics. (2003). America’s Children: Key National Indicators of

Well­Being, 2003. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

1 Brown, B. (1996). Who are America’s Disconnected Youth? Washington, DC: American Enterprise Institute.

2 Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

232 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 4. SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT AND BEHAVIORAL HEALTH

sex, race, Hispanic origin, and age:  Selected years, 1985­2002

1985 1990 1995a 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002

All youth  11 10 9 9 9 8 8 8 9 9

Sex

Male 9 8 8 8 8 8 7 7 8 8

Female 13 12 11 11 10 9 9 9 9 9

Race and Hispanic originb

White, non­Hispanic 9 8 7 7 7 6 6 6 6 7

Black, non­Hispanic 18 15 14 15 14 13 13 13 14 14

Hispanic 17 17 16 16 14 14 14 13 13 13

Age 

Ages 16­17 5 5 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4

Ages 18­19 17 15 15 15 14 13 13 12 13 14

a Data for 1994 and subsequent years are not strictly comparable with data for prior years because of

because of the inclusion of 1990 census­based population controls in the estimation process.

b

Note:  The figures represent a yearly average based on responses for the 9 months youth are typically 

unpublished tables.

Table SD 1.6

Percentage of 16­ to 19­year­olds who are neither enrolled in school nor working, by

major revisions in the Current Population Survey questionnaire and data collection methodology, and

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

in school (September through May). Youth are asked about their activities for the week prior to 

the survey. Results are based on uncomposited estimates and are not comparable to data from

Source: Federal Interagency Forum on Child and Family Statistics. (2003). America’s Children: Key

National Indicators of Well­Being, 2003. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 233 
Social Development

SD 1.7 Working Youth

Through internships, part­time employment, and school­to­work programs, working

youth play an increasingly important role in the labor force.  But recently, worries have 

surfaced that youth working 20 or more hours per week may be losing too much sleep and

performing poorly in school.1 Furthermore, the National Research Council determined

that most youth hold jobs that are disconnected from what is being taught in school, do

not teach useful skills, and offer little meaningful interaction with adults.2 In the years

1996­1998, approximately 2.9 million youth aged 15 to 17 worked during the school year,

and approximately 4.0 million worked during the summer.3 Youth work for a variety of 

reasons. Most work in order to earn spending money, though some save money for future

college tuition costs and others contribute to their family income. 

Differences by Age. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the percentage of 16­ to 19­

year­olds who work while enrolled in school has remained fairly stable since 1995 (Table SD

1.7.A).  For younger youth the type of employment is evenly distributed between “freelance” jobs and “employee jobs.” Casual employment arrangements (freelance jobs) are performed on an as­needed basis and lack the presence of a formal “boss.”  Common examples

of such jobs include working in restaurants, supermarkets, and gas stations.  As youth age,

they often obtain employee jobs where they establish an ongoing formal relationship with

a particular employer.  During the years 1995­2001, 88.1 percent of youth age 18 held any

employee job compared to 40.2 percent of 15­year­old youth holding any employee job.  In

contrast, 46.4 percent of 15­year­old youth held any freelance job compared to 18.2 percent

of 18­year­old youth during the same time period (Table SD 1.7.B). 

Differences by Sex. Females are slightly more likely to be enrolled in school and working.  In 2002, 29 percent of females and 24 percent of males were enrolled in school and

working (Table SD 1.7.A).  Females also are slightly more likely to retain a freelance job than

males.  During the years 1995­2001, 8.5 percent of 17­year­old females were employed only

in freelance jobs compared to 6.1 percent of males (Table SD 1.7.B).

Differences by Race and Hispanic Origin.4 White, non­Hispanic youth are most likely to be working during their teenage years.  In 2002, 32 percent of White, non­Hispanic

youth were working and enrolled in school, compared to 15 percent of Black, non­Hispanics

and 17 percent of Hispanics (Table SD 1.7.A). Hispanic and White, non­Hispanic youth are

most likely to have employee­only jobs compared to Black, non­Hispanic youth. During the

years 1995­2002, 73.4 percent of White, non­Hispanic 18­year­olds and 76.6 percent of

Hispanic 18­year­olds held employee­only jobs while 66.5 percent of Black, non­Hispanic

18­year­olds held employee­only jobs (Table SD 1.7.B). 

1 Kelly, K. (1998). Working Teens: Do After­School Jobs Hurt? Harvard Education Letter, November/December.

2 National Research Council. (1998). Protecting Youth at Work: Health Safety, and Development of Working Children and

Adolescents in the United States. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. 3 U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2000). Trends in Youth Employment: Data from the Current Population

Survey. Report on the Youth Labor Force. 4 Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

234 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 4. SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT AND BEHAVIORAL HEALTH

origin, and age:  Selected years 1985­2002

1985 1990 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002

All youth  26 28 29 29 29 29 31 30 28 27

Sex

Male 26 27 28 28 28 29 29 29 26 24

Female 26 28 30 30 30 33 32 32 30 29

Race and Hispanic origina

White, non­Hispanic 30 33 35 35 35 36 36 36 34 32

Black, non­Hispanic 12 15 16 15 16 19 17 19 16 15

Hispanic 15 17 16 17 17 18 18 19 20 17

Age 

Ages 16­17 29 29 30 30 29 31 31 31 28 25

Ages 18­19 23 26 28 28 28 30 30 30 28 28

a

Note: 

Data for 1994 and subsequent years are not strictly 

Table SD 1.7A

Percentage of youth ages 16 to 19 who are enrolled in school and working, by sex, race and Hispanic 

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

The table refers to the labor force and enrollment status of youth ages 16 to 19 years old in the civilian noninsitutionalized population during an “average” week of the school year.  

comparable with data for prior years, because of major revisions in the Current Population Survey questionnaire and data

collection methodology, and because of the inclusion of 1990 Census­based population controls in the estimation process.

Source: Federal Interagency Forum on Child and Family Statistics. (2003). America’s Children: Key National Indicators 

of Well­Being, 2003. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 235 
Social Development

SD 1.7.B

Percentage of employed youth ages 15 to 18 by age, sex, race, and Hispanic origin and type of job:

1995­2001

Percent employed in:

Any Job Any Employee job Any Freelance job

Employee Job

only

Freelance jobs

only

Both Employee

and Freelance

jobs

Age 15 69.2 40.2 46.4 22.7 28.9 17.5

Sex

Male  67.6 43.8 39.5 28.1 23.9 15.7

Female  70.8 36.5 53.7 17.1 34.3 19.4

Race and Hispanic origina

White, non­Hispanic 76.5 45.3 52.6 23.9 31.2 21.4

Black, non­Hispanic 53.8 29.7 34.5 19.4 24.1 10.4

Hispanic  53.0 28.4 33.4 19.6 24.6 8.7

Age 16 81.8 69.1 37.6 44.2 12.7 24.9

Sex

Male  81.3 70.0 31.4 50.0 11.3 20.1

Female  82.4 68.1 44.2 38.2 14.2 30.0

Race and Hispanic origina

White, non­Hispanic 88.1 75.4 42.4 45.7 12.7 29.6

Black, non­Hispanic 67.0 54.8 26.7 40.3 12.2 14.6

Hispanic  70.8 58.6 28.9 41.9 12.2 16.7

Age 17 86.2 78.9 27.1 59.1 7.3 19.8

Sex

Male  85.3 79.2 21.5 63.7 6.1 15.4

Female 87.1 78.6 32.9 54.2 8.5 24.4

Race and Hispanic origina

White, non­Hispanic 90.8 83.8 30.4 60.4 7.0 23.4

Black, non­Hispanic 74.7 66.3 19.7 55.0 8.4 11.3

Hispanic  78.0 70.9 19.4 58.6 7.1 12.3

Age 18 91.0 88.1 18.2 72.7 2.9 15.3

Sex

Male  90.2 87.9 15.0 75.2 2.3 12.7

Female 91.8 88.2 21.7 70.1 3.6 18.1

Race and Hispanic origina

White, non­Hispanic 93.9 91.3 20.5 73.4 2.6 17.9

Black, non­Hispanic 81.1 76.6 14.6 66.5 4.5 10.1

Hispanic  88.3 85.7 11.7 76.6 2.6 9.1

a

in which the youth has an

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race. 

Note: The U.S. Department of Labor divides youth employment into two categories, freelance and employee. A freelance job

involves doing one or a few tasks without a specific "boss", like babysitting. An employee job is one  

ongoing relationship with a particular employer, such as working in a supermarket.

Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics (1998). National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, 1997. Washington,

DC: U.S. Department of Labor. 

236 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 4. SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT AND BEHAVIORAL HEALTH

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 237 
Social Development

SD 1.8  Youth Violent Crime Arrest Rates

Youth violence is a concern in every area of U.S. society.  Very few communities are exempt

from its negative effects.1 The Federal Bureau of Investigation’s Violent Crime Index

includes murder, forcible rape, robbery, and aggravated assault. Throughout the 1980s the

number of juvenile arrests2 for those Index crimes varied with the size of the juvenile population. From 1985 to 1990, the arrest rate increased 40 percent and continued to climb

each year until it reached a peak in 1994. In this 9­year period between 1985 and 1994, the

rate of juvenile arrests for violent crime increased by 74 percent (Table SD 1.8).  After 1994,

the rate declined and had returned to pre­1990 levels by 1998. The rate in 2001 was 296, the

lowest violent crime arrest rate since 1980. 

Differences by Sex. In 1980, the female juvenile Violent Crime Index arrest rate was 12

percent of the male rate. When the overall arrest rate peaked in 1994, the female rate had

increased to 17 percent of the male rate. However, as the overall arrest rate declined in the

latter half of the 1990s, the rate for females did not fall as sharply as their male counterparts. Thus, by 2001, the violent crime arrest rate for females was 24 percent of the male

rate (Figure SD 1.8).

Differences by Age. Between 1980 and 1994, the Violent Crime Index arrest rate for all

children under age 13 nearly doubled, peaking in 1994 with 91 arrests per 100,000 (Table SD

1.8).  In 2001, the arrest rate decreased to 68 for every 100,000 youth, ages 10 to 12, the lowest arrest rate for this age group since 1985.  In 2001, the youth violent crime arrest rate for

17­year­olds was approximately 10 times the rate for 10­ to 12­year­olds.

1 U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (2001).  Youth Violence: A Report of the Surgeon General­ Executive

Summary.  Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.

2 Arrests for violent crimes were chosen as an indicator in preference to other arrest measures both because of the particular hazards that violent crime represents to our society and because arrests for violent crimes are less likely than other

types of crime to be affected over time by changes in police practice and policy.

238 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 4. SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT AND BEHAVIORAL HEALTH

Table SD 1.8

Violent crime arrest rates for youth ages 10 to 17, by sex and age (per 100,000):  Selected years, 

1980­2001

1980 1985 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001

All youth 334 303 428 461 482 504 526 516 459 441 368 337 308 296

Ages 10­12 46 56 71 79 85 86 91 90 80 82 75 77 69 68

Ages 13­14 261 252 368 404 443 459 491 467 403 396 327 316 296 278

Age 15 504 446 669 731 768 824 852 820 720 664 544 509 465 450

Age 16 639 566 876 935 993 1,026 1,052 1,031 896 868 695 625 562 563

Age 17 740 651 983 1,070 1,062 1,117 1,122 1,126 1,026 958 828 714 664 620

Males 587 528 736 792 818 504 879 856 757 723 594 542 490 471

Ages 10­12 81 99 119 134 144 86 152 148 131 135 123 125 112 110

Ages 13­14 445 425 601 664 719 459 784 741 636 618 503 486 452 423

Age 15 876 769 1,136 1,240 1,279 824 1,402 1,333 1,167 1,066 859 798 727 700

Age 16 1,131 994 1,521 1,620 1,711 1,026 1,785 1,730 1,499 1,439 1,134 1,020 898 903

Age 17 1,322 1,159 1,740 1,893 1,862 1,117 1,939 1,935 1,743 1,622 1,378 1,178 1,084 1,019

Females 70 67 105 112 127 139 153 158 144 143 129 122 117 112

Ages 10­12 10 12 19 21 23 25 27 29 26 26 26 26 24 23

Ages 13­14 70 71 123 132 153 166 183 180 158 162 142 138 132 126

Age 15 117 108 177 195 228 248 271 278 247 238 210 204 188 186

Age 16 125 117 192 207 230 252 273 287 254 261 229 205 204 201

Age 17 130 116 178 192 206 233 248 260 258 246 239 218 214 194

therefore do not match data presented in previous issues of this report.

Note: Rates of arrests of youth ages 10 to 17 per 100,000 in the resident population. The Violent Crime Index includes the offenses

of murder and nonnegligent manslaughter, forcible rape, robbery, and aggravated assault. Data in this table have been revised and

Source: Snyder, H. (2003). Special Tabulations from Juvenile Arrests 2001 [forthcoming]. Washington, DC: Office of Juvenile Justice and

Delinquency Prevention.

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 239 
Social Development

Figure SD 1.8    

Violent crime arrest rates for youth ages 10 to 17 by sex: 1980­2001

1980 1985 1990 1995 2001

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

All youth

Males

Females Rate per 100,000 Note:  Rates of arrests of youth ages 10 to 17 per 100,000 in the resident population. The Violent Crime Index includes

the offenses of murder and nonnegligent manslaughter, forcible rape, robbery, and aggravated assault. Estimates in this

table may not be comparable to estimates provided in previous issues of Trends in the Well­being of America’s Children and

Youth due to changes in the population estimates provided by the U.S. Census Bureau.

Source: Snyder, H. (2003). Special Tabulations from Juvenile Arrests 2001 [forthcoming]. Washington, DC: Office of Juvenile

Justice and Delinquency Prevention.

240 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 4. SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT AND BEHAVIORAL HEALTH

Social

Development

Behavioral Health:

Physical Health

and Safety

Behavioral Health:

Smoking, Alcohol,

and Substance

Abuse

Behavioral Health:

Sexual Activity and

Fertility
Behavioral Health:  Physical Health and Safety

SD 2.1  Physical Fighting

Physical fighting among youth is not only a behavioral problem but a public health concern.  Youth who are involved in physical fights often engage in other high risk behaviors,

such as using illegal drugs, binge drinking, carrying weapons, and unsafe sex.1 In 2001, 43

percent of all male youth and one­quarter of female youth in grades 9 to 12 reported having been involved in a physical fight one or more times during the previous year. However,

the percentage of all youth who reported involvement in a fight decreased significantly

between 1993 and 2001, from 42 percent to 33 percent. For males, the percentage decreased

from 51 percent in 1993 to 43 percent in 2001 (Table SD 2.1).

Differences by Age. For all the years included in Table SD 2.1, the percentage of youth

who reported being involved in a fight decreased with age. In 2001, 40 percent of 9th grade

youth reported being involved in a fight compared with 27 percent of 12th graders. It is

unclear, however, whether this pattern reflects the effects of increasing maturity, a change

in the propensity to report having been in a fight, or a tendency for violence­prone youth

to drop out of school, leaving a less violent pool of youth in the higher grades (Figure 

SD 2.1).

Differences by Race and Hispanic Origin.2 In 2001, 32 percent of White, non­Hispanic

youth reported involvement in a physical fight within the past year, compared with 37 percent of Black, non­Hispanic youth and 36 percent of Hispanic youth (Table SD 2.1).

1 Lindberg, D.L. (2000). Multiple Threats: The Co­occurrence of Teen Health Risk Behaviors. Washington, DC: The Urban

Institute.

2 Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

242 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 4. SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT AND BEHAVIORAL HEALTH

grade, and race and Hispanic origin:  Selected years, 1993­2001

1993 1995 1997 1999 2001

Male  Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female

All youth 42 51 32 39 46 31 37 46 26 36 44 27 33 43 24

Grade

9th 50 59 41 47 55 37 45 56 32 41 50 33 40 50 30

10th 42 52 32 40 46 34 40 48 30 38 46 29 35 45 25

11th 41 52 28 37 46 28 34 44 23 31 39 23 29 38 20

12th 35 43 27 31 38 24 29 37 19 30 39 22 27 37 17

Race and Hispanic origina

White, non­Hispanic 40 50 30 36 44 27 34 43 21 33 43 22 32 43 22

Black, non­Hispanic 50 58 42 42 49 35 43 49 38 41 44 39 37 44 30

Hispanic 43 52 34 48 56 40 41 50 30 40 51 30 36 42 29

a

Sources:  Morbidity and

1999. 

45(ss­4); Centers for Disease Control and

, 44(ss­1).

Table SD 2.1

Percentage of youth in grades 9 to 12 who reported being in a physical fight within the past year, by sex,

Total  Total Total Total Total

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race. 

Note: Percentage of youth in grades 9 to 12 who reported being in a physical fight one or more times.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2002). Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance, United States, 2001. 

Mortality Weekly Report, 51(ss­4); Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2000). Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance, United States,

Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 49(ss­5); Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (1998). Youth Risk Behavior

Surveillance, United States, 1997. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 47(ss­3); Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (1996).

Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance, United States, 1995. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report,

Prevention. (1995). Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance, United States, 1993. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report,

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 243 
Behavioral Health:  Physical Health and Safety

Figure SD 2.1   

Percentage of youth in grades 9 to 12 who reported being in a physical fight within the past year,

by sex:  Selected years, 1993­2001

1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 0

2 0

4 0

6 0

8 0

100 Percent

All youth

Male

Female

Sources: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2002). Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance, United States, 2001.

Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 51(ss­4); Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2000). Youth Risk Behavior

Surveillance, United States, 1999. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 49(ss­5); Centers for Disease Control and

Prevention. (1998). Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance, United States, 1997. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 47(ss3); Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (1996). Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance, United States, 1995.

Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 45(ss­4); Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (1995). Youth Risk Behavior

Surveillance, United States, 1993. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 44(ss­1).

244 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 4. SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT AND BEHAVIORAL HEALTH

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 245 
Behavioral Health:  Physical Health and Safety

SD 2.2  Weapon Carrying 

Weapon carrying among youth is associated with the most serious injuries resulting from

violence. Carrying a weapon significantly increases the risk that a violent argument will

result in death, disability, or other serious injury.1 

In 1993, 22 percent of youth in grades 9 to 12 reported carrying a weapon such as a gun,

knife, or club at least once in the past 30 days.  By 1999, that number declined to 17 percent and remained constant in 2001 (Table SD 2.2.A).

The number of youth who reported carrying a gun at least once in the past 30 days declined

between 1993 and 1999 to a low of 5 percent. In 2001, that number rose slightly to 6 percent, including 7 percent of Black, non­Hispanic youth, 5 percent of Hispanic youth, and 6

percent of White, non­Hispanic youth (Table SD 2.2.B and Figure SD 2.2.B).

Differences by Age. In general, youth in the lower grades are more likely than older youth

to report carrying a weapon. In 2001, 20 percent of 9th­graders reported having carried a

weapon in the past 30 days, compared with 17 percent of 10th­ and 11th­graders and 15

percent of 12th graders.

Differences by Sex. Males are much more likely than females to carry a weapon. This is

true across all grades and for all racial and ethnic groups (Figure SD 2.2.A).  For example, in

2001, 29 percent of males in grades 9 to 12 reported carrying a weapon, compared with 6

percent of females.

Differences by Race and Hispanic Origin.2 In 2001, 18 percent of White, non­Hispanic,

15 percent of Black, non­Hispanic, and 17 percent of Hispanic youth reported having carried a weapon. For White, non­Hispanic, Black, non­Hispanic, and Hispanic youth, these

represent reductions from 1993 rates of 21, 29, and 24 percent, respectively.

1 U.S. Public Health Service. (1993). Public Health Reports (Supp. 1). Rockville, MD: Public Health Service.

2 Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

246 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 4. SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT AND BEHAVIORAL HEALTH

days, by sex, grade, and race and Hispanic origin: Selected years, 1993­2001

1993 1995 1997 1999 2001

Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female

All youth 22 34 9 20 31 8 18 28 7 17 29 6 17 29 6

Grade

9th 26 39 11 23 34 9 23 33 11 18 29 7 20 34 7

10th 21 33 10 21 32 9 17 27 6 19 31 7 17 28 5

11th 22 33 9 20 32 8 18 29 6 16 27 5 17 28 6

12th 20 33 7 16 26 6 15 23 5 16 27 5 15 26 5

Race and Hispanic origina

White, non­Hispanic 21 33 7 19 31 6 17 27 4 16 29 4 18 31 5

Black, non­Hispanic 29 38 19 22 30 16 22 29 15 17 23 12 15 22 9

Hispanic 24 37 12 25 37 13 23 35 10 19 30 8 17 26 7

a

Sources:  Morbidity and

1999. 

45(ss­4); Centers for Disease Control and

44(ss­1).

Table SD 2.2.A

Percentage of youth in grades 9 to 12 who reported having carried a weapon at least once within the past 30

Total Total Total Total Total

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race. 

Note: Youth were asked whether they carried a weapon “such as a gun, knife, or club” within 30 days preceding the survey. 

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2002). Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance, United States, 2001. 

Mortality Weekly Report, 51(ss­4); Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2000). Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance, United States,

Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 49(ss­5); Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (1998). Youth Risk Behavior

Surveillance, United States, 1997. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 47(ss­3); Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (1996).

Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance, United States, 1995. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report,

Prevention. (1995). Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance, United States, 1993. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report,

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 247 
Behavioral Health:  Physical Health and Safety

days, by sex, grade, and race and Hispanic origin:  Selected years, 1993­2001

1993 1995 1997 1999 2001

Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female

All youth 8 14 2 8 12 3 6 10 2 5 9 1 6 10 1

Grade

Ninth 9 16 2 9 14 3 8 13 3 5 10 1 7 13 1

9 15 2 8 13 3 6 10 1 5 10 1 5 9 1

Eleventh 7 13 1 7 12 1 6 9 1 4 7 1 6 10 2

7 12 1 6 11 2 5 8 1 5 8 1 5 8 1

Race and Hispanic origina

White, non­Hispanic 7 12 1 6 10 2 4 7 1 4 8 1 6 10 1

Black, non­Hispanic 12 21 4 11 19 4 9 16 3 8 15 2 7 12 1

Hispanic 10 17 3 11 17 5 10 17 2 5 8 2 5 8 2

a

Note: 

Sources:  Morbidity and

States, 1999. 

47(ss­3); Centers for Disease Control and

45(ss­4); Centers

44(ss­1).

Table SD 2.2.B

Percentage of youth in grades 9 to 12 who reported having carried a gun at least once within the past 30

Total Total Total Total Total

Tenth

Twelfth

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race. 

Youth reported having carried a gun at least once in the past 30 days preceding the survey.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2002). Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance, United States, 2001. 

Mortality Weekly Report, 51(ss­4); Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2000). Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance, United

Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 49(ss­5); Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (1998). Youth Risk

Behavior Surveillance, United States, 1997. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report,

Prevention. (1996). Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance, United States, 1995. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report,

for Disease Control and Prevention. (1995). Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance, United States, 1993. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly

Report,

248 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 4. SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT AND BEHAVIORAL HEALTH

Figure SD 2.2.A

Percentage of youth in grades 9 to 12 who reported having carried a weapon at least once within

the past 30 days, by sex, and by race and Hispanic origin: 2001

Male Female 0

1 0

2 0

3 0

4 0

5 0

Percent

All youth

White, non-Hispanic

Black, non-Hispanic

Hispanic

Note:  Youth were asked whether they carried a weapon “such as a gun, knife, or club” within 30 days preceding 

the survey.

Source:  Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2002). Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance, United States, 2001.

Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 51(ss­4).

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 249 
Behavioral Health:  Physical Health and Safety

Figure SD 2.2.B

Percentage of youth in grades 9 to 12 who reported having carried a gun at least once within 

the past 30 days, by sex, and by race and Hispanic origin: 2001

Male Female 0

1 0

2 0

3 0

4 0

5 0

Percent

All youth

White, non-Hispanic

Black, non-Hispanic

Hispanic

Sources:  Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2002). Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance, United States, 2001.

Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 51(ss­4);

250 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 4. SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT AND BEHAVIORAL HEALTH

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 251 
Behavioral Health:  Physical Health and Safety

SD 2.3  Seat Belt Use

Motor vehicle crashes are the leading causes of death for children from 2 to 14 years old.1 

In 2002, there were 459 passenger vehicle occupant fatalities among children under 5 years

of age. Of those 459 fatalities, an estimated 185 (40 percent) were totally unrestrained. On

average, six children under age 14 were killed and 721 were injured every day in motor vehicle crashes during 2002. Studies show that consistent use of seat belts and child safety seats

dramatically lessens the risk of injury or death in a motor vehicle crash.  When used properly, safety belts reduce the risk of fatal injury to front seat occupants (age 5 years and

older) of passenger cars by 45 percent and the risk of moderate to critical injury by 50 

percent.2 

Table SD 2.3.A presents data from the National Occupant Protection Use Survey, which

gathers data through observation at intersections.3 In 2002, child safety seat use among

children under 1 year of age increased to 99 percent from 95 percent in 2000.  While this is

a promising trend, recent research indicates as many as 85 percent of parents and caregivers

who do use car seats install and use car seats incorrectly.4 

Differences by Age. The use of child safety seats or seat belts is substantially higher at

younger ages.  In 2002, 99 percent of children under 1 year of age were observed wearing a

safety device. Toddlers were seen wearing a safety device 94 percent of the time and slightly older children (ages 4–7) were observed 83 percent of the time wearing a safety device

(Figure SD 2.3). In 2002, children under the age of 8 were most likely to be restrained if they

were in a van or SUV (91 percent) compared to 88 percent in passenger cars. In 2002, children between the ages of 0–7 were also most likely to be restrained during rush hour (90

percent) verses nonrush hour (87 percent) (Table SD 2.3.B).

1 Minino, A. M., Arias, E., Kochanek, K. D., Murphy, S. L., & Smith, B. L. (2002) Deaths:  Final Data for 2000. National

Vital Statistics Report, 50(15).

2 National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (2003). Traffic Safety Facts 2002. Washington, DC: U.S. Department 

of Transportation.

3 Previous editions of Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth presented seat belt data based on parent report

rather than observation.  Estimates based on parent report are higher than those based on observation.

4 The study identified several frequent misuses of rear­facing, forward­facing, and booster seats for observed children,

including 63 percent in seats not held tightly by safety belts, 33 percent with loose harness straps, and 20 percent with

harness straps incorrectly routed through the seats.  Taft, C. H., Mickalide, A. D., & Taft, A. R. (1999). Child Passengers at

Risk in America. Washington, DC: National SAFEKIDS Campaign.

252 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 4. SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT AND BEHAVIORAL HEALTH

Table SD 2.3.A

Percentage of children and youth who are observed to have worn a seat belt or been placed in a child safety

seat, by age:  Selected years, 1994­2002

1994 1996 1998 2000 2002

Infant (Under 1 year) 88 85 97 95 99

a 61 60 91 91 94

Ages 5­15 58 65 69 66 — 

Ages 16­24  53 50 55 69 — 

Toddlers

a From 1994­2000, the age of a toddler was 1­3.  In 2002, the age of a toddler is 1­4.

—  Data not available.

Note:  Use of restraints for children under 1 year refers to child safety seats. Use of restraints for all other ages refers to safety belts

or child safety seats.  Age is based on the best judgement of the observers in the National Occupant Protection Use Survey (NOPUS)

Controlled Intersection Study. 

Sources:  Federal Interagency Forum on Child and Family Statistics. (2003). America’s Children: Key National Indicators of Well­Being,

2003. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office; National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. (2003). Traffic Safety Facts,

2002. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Transportation; National Center for Statistics and Analysis, National Highway Traffic

Safety Administration. (2002). National Occupant Protection Use Survey.

Figure SD 2.3 

Percentage of children and youth who are observed to have worn a seat belt or been placed 

in a child safety seat, by age: 1994 and 2000

0

2 0

4 0

6 0

8 0

100 Percent

1994

2000

Under 1 year Ages 1-4 years Ages 5-15 years Ages 16-24 years

Sources:  Federal Interagency Forum on Child and Family Statistics. (2003). America’s Children: Key National Indicators of

Well­Being, 2003. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office; National Highway Traffic Safety Administration.

(2003). Traffic Safety Facts, 2002. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Transportation; National Center for Statistics

and Analysis, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. (2002). National Occupant Protection Use Survey.

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 253 
Behavioral Health:  Physical Health and Safety

1994 1996 1998 2000 2002

Ages 0­5  66 61 92 91 — 

Passanger Cars 68 57 90 92 — 

61 69 95 98 — 

Front Seat 61 61 79 94 — 

Back Seat 70 62 97 91 — 

Rush Hour 56 55 75 95 — 

Non­Rush Hour 69 62 95 92 — 

66 62 92 94 — 

66 53 89 84 — 

City 69 69 94 96 — 

Surburban 68 79 85 94 — 

Rural 60 36 94 72 — 

Ages 0­7  — — — — 88

Passanger Cars — — — — 88

— — — — 91

— — — — 77

Front Seat — — — — 83

Back Seat — — — — 90

Rush Hour — — — — 90

Non­Rush Hour — — — — 87

— — — — 89

— — — — 85

City — — — — 84

Surburban — — — — 85

Rural — — — — 87

—  Data not available.

Note: 

Use of restraints for children under 1 year of age refers to child safety seats.  Use of restraints

for all other ages refers to safety belts or child safety seats.  In the year 2002, the NHTSA changed their age group to 0­7.

Sources: 

Being, 2003

.

Table SD 2.3.B

Percentage of children who are restrained for selected categories by year: Selected years, 1994­2002

Vans, SUVs, and Pickup Trucks

Weekday

Weekend

Vans and SUVs

Pickup Trucks

Weekday

Weekend

Age is based upon the best judgement of the observers in the National Occupant Protection Use Survey (NOPUS)

Controlled Intersection Study.  

Federal Interagency Forum on Child and Family Statistics. (2003). America’s Children: Key National Indicators of Well­

. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office; National Center for Statistics and Analysis, National

Highway Traffic Safety Administration. (2002). National Occupant Protection Use Survey

254 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 4. SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT AND BEHAVIORAL HEALTH

Social

Development

Behavioral Health:

Physical Health

and Safety

Behavioral Health:

Smoking, Alcohol,

and Substance

Abuse

Behavioral Health:

Sexual Activity and

Fertility

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 255 
Behavioral Health:  Smoking, Alcohol, and Substance Abuse

SD 3.1  Cigarette Use

According to the Centers for Disease Control, cigarette smoking is the leading preventable

cause of premature death and disease in the United States  Significant reductions in smoking can translate into longer lives and the prevention of serious illnesses including heart disease, stroke, cancer, and emphysema.1 More than 3 million youth ages 12 to 17 are current

smokers,2 and every day, more than 6,000 youth try smoking for the first time.3 Youthful

smoking can have severe, lifelong consequences because a large proportion of those who 

initiate smoking in adolescence will continue to smoke as adults.4 

According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 5 million children who are

alive today will ultimately die from smoking­related illnesses, unless current rates are

reversed.  Table SD 3.1.A and Figure SD 3.1 show the percentage of youth who reported

smoking cigarettes daily in the past 30 days from the Monitoring the Future Study.

Increases in the prevalence of current smoking among youth also are reflected in the results

from the Youth Risk Behavior Survey, which examines “current smoking,” or smoking on

one or more of the previous 30 days and “frequent smoking,” or smoking on 20 or more of

the previous 30 days (Table SD 3.1.B).

Differences by Age. Daily smoking among 12th graders decreased sharply in the late

1970s but increased throughout most of the 1990s.  In 2002, however, the percentage of

12th graders reporting daily smoking decreased to 17 percent.  Data for 8th­ and 10th

graders indicate a peak in daily smokers in 1996, followed by a decline in 1997, which continued in 2001 (Table SD 3.1.A).

Differences by Race and Hispanic Origin.5 Youth tobacco use varies within and among

racial and ethnic minority groups. White youth consistently have the highest rates of

smoking, while Black youth consistently have the lowest (Tables SD 3.1.A and SD 3.1.B).

White youth are twice as likely as Hispanic youth and three times as likely as Black youth

to be frequent smokers (Table SD 3.1.B).

Differences by Sex. There is little difference in the prevalence of smoking between males

and females.  In 2001, 15 percent of male youth reported current or frequent smoking compared with 13 percent of females (Table SD 3.1.B).

1 www.cdc.gov/tobacco/issue/htm.

2 U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (2000). Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration.

Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

3 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (1998). Incidence of Initiation Smoking–United States. Morbidity and

Mortality Weekly Report, 47(39).

4 Bachman, J. G., Johnston, L. D., & O’Malley, P. M. (2000). Monitoring the Future: Questionnaire Responses. Ann Arbor, MI:

Institute for Social Research, The University of Michigan.

5 Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race. Estimates for Whites and Blacks include Hispanics of those races.

256 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 4. SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT AND BEHAVIORAL HEALTH

sex and by race and Hispanic origin:  Selected years,  1975­2002

1975 1980 1985 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002

All 8th Graders — — — — 7.2 7.0 8.3 8.8 9.3 10.4 9.0 8.8 8.1 7.4 5.5 5.1

Sex

Male — — — — 8.1 6.9 8.8 9.5 9.2 10.5 9.0 8.1 7.4 7.0 5.9 5.4

Female — — — — 6.2 7.2 7.8 8.0 9.2 10.1 8.7 9.0 8.4 7.5 4.9 4.9

Race and Hispanic origina

White — — — — — 7.7 8.8 9.7 10.5 11.7 11.4 10.4 9.7 9.0 7.5 6.0

Black — — — — — 1.4 1.8 2.6 2.8 3.2 3.7 3.8 3.8 3.2 2.8 2.8

Hispanic — — — — — 7.3 7.2 9.0 9.2 8.0 8.1 8.4 8.5 7.1 5.0 4.4

All 10th­Graders — — — — 12.6 12.3 14.2 14.6 16.3 18.3 18.0 15.8 15.9 14.0 12.2 10.1

Sex

Male — — — — 12.4 12.1 13.8 15.2 16.3 18.1 17.2 14.7 15.6 13.7 12.4 9.4

Female — — — — 12.5 12.4 14.3 13.7 16.1 18.6 18.5 16.8 15.9 14.1 11.9 10.8

Race and Hispanic origina

White — — — — — 14.5 15.3 16.5 17.6 20.0 21.4 20.3 19.1 17.7 15.5 13.3

Black — — — — — 2.8 3.1 3.8 4.7 5.1 5.6 5.8 5.3 5.2 5.2 5.0

Hispanic — — — — — 8.4 8.9 8.1 9.9 11.6 10.8 9.4 9.1 8.8 7.4 6.4

All 12th­Graders 26.9 21.3 19.5 19.1 18.5 17.2 19.0 19.4 21.6 22.2 24.6 22.4 23.1 20.6 19.0 16.9

Sex

Male 26.9 18.5 17.8 18.6 18.8 17.2 19.4 20.4 21.7 22.2 24.8 22.7 23.6 20.9 18.4 17.2

Female 26.4 23.5 20.6 19.3 17.9 16.7 18.2 18.1 20.8 21.8 23.6 21.5 22.2 19.7 18.9 16.1

Race and Hispanic origina

White — 23.9 20.4 21.8 21.5 20.5 21.4 22.9 23.9 25.4 27.8 28.3 26.9 25.7 23.8 21.8

Black — 17.4 9.9 5.8 5.1 4.2 4.1 4.9 6.1 7.0 7.2 7.4 7.7 8.0 7.5 6.4

Hispanic — 12.8 11.8 10.9 11.5 12.5 11.8 10.6 11.6 12.9 14.0 13.6 14.0 15.7 12.0 9.2

a

sample sizes, thus providing more stable estimates.

— Data not available.

Source:  .

Table SD 3.1.A

Percentage of 8th, 10th, and 12th graders who reported smoking cigarettes daily over the previous 30 days, by

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race. Estimates for Whites and Blacks include Hispanics of those races. Estimates for race

and Hispanic origin represent the mean of the specified year and the previous year. Data have been combined to increase subgroup

Johnston, L. D., O’Malley, P. M., & Bachman, J. D. (2002). Monitoring the Future: National Survey Results on Drug Use, 1975­2001

Volume I: Secondary School Students. Bethesda, MD: National Institute on Drug Abuse.

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 257 
Behavioral Health:  Smoking, Alcohol, and Substance Abuse

Figure SD 3.1     

Percentage of 8th, 10th, and 12th graders who reported smoking cigarettes daily over the previous

30 days:  1975­2002

1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2002

0

5

1 0

1 5

2 0

2 5

3 0

3 5

4 0

4 5

5 0 Percent

8th Grade

10th Grade

12th Grade

Source:  Johnston, L. D., O’Malley, P. M., & Bachman, J. D. (2002). Monitoring the Future: National Survey Results on Drug

Use, 1975­2001. Volume I: Secondary School Students. Bethesda, MD: National Institute on Drug Abuse.

258 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 4. SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT AND BEHAVIORAL HEALTH

Hispanic origin, and grade: Selected years, 1993­2001

Current Smoking Frequent Smoking

1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001

All youth 31 35 36 35 29 14 16 17 17 14

Sex

Male 30 35 38 35 29 14 16 18 18 15

Female 31 34 35 35 28 14 16 16 16 13

Race and Hispanic origina

White, non­Hispanic 34 38 40 39 32 16 20 20 20 17

Black, non­Hispanic 15 19 23 20 15 5 5 7 7 5

Hispanic 29 34 34 33 27 8 10 11 10 7

Grade

9th 28 31 33 28 24 9 10 13 11 9

10th 28 33 35 35 27 13 13 15 15 12

11th 31 36 37 36 30 15 19 19 19 15

12th 35 38 40 43 35 18 21 19 23 21

a

Note: 

Morbidity

United States, 1999. 

Morbidity and

44(ss­1).

Table SD 3.1.B

Percentage of youth in grades 9 to 12 who reported current and frequent smoking, by sex, race and

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

Current smoking is smoking on 1 or more of the 30 days preceding the survey. Frequent smoking is smoking on 20 or

more of the 30 days preceding the survey.

Sources: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2002). Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance, United States, 2001. 

and Mortality Weekly Report, 51(ss­4); Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2000). Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance,

Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 49(ss­5); Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (1998). Youth

Risk Behavior Surveillance, United States, 1997. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 47(ss­3); Centers for Disease Control and

Prevention. (1996). Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance, United States, 1995. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 45(ss­4);

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (1995). Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance, United States, 1993. 

Mortality Weekly Report, 

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 259 
Behavioral Health:  Smoking, Alcohol, and Substance Abuse

SD 3.2  Smokeless Tobacco Use

The consequences of using smokeless tobacco—snuff and chewing tobacco— include cancer of the gum, mouth, pharynx, larynx, and esophagus.1 Since 1970, smokeless tobacco

has gone from a product used primarily by older males to one for which young males compose the largest portion of the market.  In 1970, males 65 and older (12.7 percent) were

almost 6 times as likely as those ages 18 to 24 (2.2 percent) to use smokeless tobacco regularly.  By 1991, however, young males (8.4 percent) were 50 percent more likely than the

oldest males (5.6 percent) to be regular smokeless tobacco users.2 Data from the

Monitoring the Future Study indicate that smokeless tobacco use among youth has generally decreased in recent years, although in 2001 there were slight increases among 10th and

12th graders. Data from the Youth Risk Behavior Survey provide additional information

about smokeless tobacco use by males and females within racial and ethnic groups.  These

numbers from Monitoring the Future shown in Table SD 3.2.A are supported by Youth Risk

Behavior data in Table SD 3.2.B.

Differences by Age. Data from the Monitoring the Future study indicate that, as age

and/or grade increases, so does the prevalence of smokeless tobacco use. In 2002, the percentage of youth who reported using smokeless tobacco over the previous 30 days was 3

percent among 8th graders, 6 percent among 10th graders, and 7 percent among 12th

graders (Table SD 3.2.A).

Differences by Sex. While rates of youth cigarette smoking are similar among males and

females (see Section SD 3.1), males in the 8th, 10th, and 12th grades are more likely to use

smokeless tobacco than are females (Figure SD 3.2.A).  In 2002, among 12th graders, 12 percent of males and 1 percent of females reported smokeless tobacco use (Table SD 3.2.A).

These numbers from Monitoring the Future are supported by the Youth Risk Behavior survey data in Table SD 3.2.B.

Differences by Race and Hispanic Origin.3 The use of smokeless tobacco is most prevalent among White youth. In 2002, 10 percent of White 12th graders reported having used

smokeless tobacco one or more times in the 30 days preceding the survey, compared with

3 percent of Hispanic and 1 percent of Black 12th graders (Table SD 3.2.A).

The Youth Risk Behavior Survey provides additional subgroup information for 9th to 12th

graders combined. According to this survey’s most recent administration in 2001, the use

of smokeless tobacco is most prevalent among White, non­Hispanic males.  Among White,

non­Hispanic youth, 10 percent reported having used smokeless tobacco one or more times

in the 30 days preceding the survey, compared with 2 percent of Black, non­Hispanic youth

and 4 percent of Hispanic youth (Figure SD 3.2.B).

1 http://cdc.gov/tobacco/overview/Tobus_us.htm.

2 Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA), Office of Applied Studies Prevalence Branch.

National Household Survey on Drug Abuse. Unpublished work; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (1994).

Surveillance for Selected Tobacco­Use Behaviors, United States, 1900­1994. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 43(ss­3).

3 Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race. Monitoring the Future data shown in Table SD 3.2.A and Figure SD 3.2.A

include Hispanics in estimates for Whites and Blacks. Youth Risk Behavior data shown in Table SD 3.2.B and Figure SD

3.2.B exclude Hispanics from those racial categories.

260 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 4. SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT AND BEHAVIORAL HEALTH

grade, sex, and race and Hispanic origin:  Selected years, 1986­2002

1986 1989 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002

All 8th­Graders — — 7.0 6.6 7.7 7.1 7.1 5.5 4.8 4.5 4.2 4.0 3.3

Sex

Male — — 12.5 10.9 12.8 11.8 11.4 9.9 8.1 6.9 6.7 6.9 5.4

Female — — 2.0 2.7 2.4 2.9 2.9 1.5 1.5 2.1 1.8 1.4 1.3

Race and Hispanic origina

White — — 8.3 8.0 8.1 8.9 8.8 7.6 6.1 5.4 5.2 4.8 4.1

Black — — 1.8 2.7 3.2 2.6 2.2 2.6 2.3 2.3 2.7 2.2 1.6

Hispanic — — 4.2 4.0 5.0 5.7 5.2 4.6 4.5 4.6 3.7 3.3 4.0

All 10th­Graders — — 9.6 10.4 10.5 9.7 8.6 8.9 7.5 6.5 6.1 6.9 6.1

Sex

Male — — 18.1 19.3 19.2 17.2 15.0 14.9 13.8 12.2 11.4 12.7 9.9

Female — — 1.8 2.0 2.1 2.1 2.3 2.7 1.7 1.3 1.3 1.6 2.1

Race and Hispanic origina

White — — 11.4 12.0 12.5 12.0 11.0 10.4 10.0 8.7 7.5 7.5 7.8

Black — — 2.9 2.3 2.3 2.5 2.5 2.8 2.3 1.6 2.0 3.2 2.6

Hispanic — — 6.2 6.1 4.3 3.6 4.0 4.6 4.8 4.8 4.5 4.0 4.0

All 12th­Graders 11.5 8.4 11.4 10.7 11.1 12.2 9.8 9.7 8.8 8.4 7.6 7.8 6.5

Sex

Male 22.3 15.9 20.8 19.7 20.3 23.6 19.5 18.7 15.6 15.5 14.4 14.2 12.2

Female 1.6 1.2 2.0 2.3 2.6 1.8 1.1 1.2 1.5 1.3 1.3 1.6 1.2

Race and Hispanic origina

White — 10.6 — 13.8 13.8 13.8 13.0 12.2 11.8 11.0 10.5 10.3 9.7

Black — 4.5 — 2.0 1.9 2.1 2.7 2.2 1.4 1.5 1.5 1.2 1.0

Hispanic — 5.1 — 6.0 5.4 7.6 8.1 5.3 4.3 3.9 3.8 3.2 2.6

a

sample sizes, thus providing more stable estimates.

—  Data not available.

Source:  .

Table SD 3.2.A

Percentage of 8th, 10th, and 12th graders who reported using smokeless tobacco over the previous 30 days, by

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race. Estimates for Whites and Blacks include Hispanics of those races. Estimates for race

and Hispanic origin represent the mean of the specified year and the preovious year. Data have been combined to increase subgroup

Johnston, L. D., O’Malley, P. M., & Bachman, J. D. (2002). Monitoring the Future: National Survey Results on Drug Use, 1975­2001

Volume I: Secondary School Students. Bethesda, MD: National Institute on Drug Abuse.

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 261 
Behavioral Health:  Smoking, Alcohol, and Substance Abuse

by sex and by race and Hispanic origin: Selected years, 1993­2001

1993 1995 1997 1999 2001

Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female

All youth 12 20 2 11 20 2 9 16 2 8 14 1 8 15 2

Race and Hispanic origina

White, non­Hispanic 15 26 2 15 25 3 12 21 2 10 19 2 10 19 2

Black, non­Hispanic 3 5 1 2 4 1 2 3 1 1 3 0 2 3 1

Hispanic 5 8 2 4 6 3 5 8 1 4 6 2 4 6 2

a

Note: 

Sources:  Morbidity and

1999. 

44(ss­1); Centers for

Morbidity and Mortality

.

Table SD 3.2.B

Percentage of youth in grades 9 to 12 who reported having used smokeless tobacco during the previous 30 days,

Total Total Total Total Total

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

In 1993, youth were asked whether they had used chewing tobacco or snuff during the 30 days preceding the survey; in 1995,

1997, 1999, and 2001, youth were asked how many days they had used chewing tobacco or snuff during the 30 days preceding the 

survey. 

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2002). Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance, United States, 2001. 

Mortality Weekly Report, 51(ss­4); Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2000). Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance, United States,

Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 49(ss­5); Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (1998). Youth Risk Behavior

Surveillance, United States, 1997. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 47(ss­3); Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (1996).

Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance, United States, 1995. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 45(ss­4); Centers for Disease Control and

Prevention. (1995). Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance, United States, 1993. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 

Disease Control and Prevention. (1992). Youth Risk Behavior and Surveillance, United States, 1990­1991. 

Weekly Report

262 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 4. SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT AND BEHAVIORAL HEALTH

Figure SD 3.2.A    

Percentage of 8th, 10th, and 12th graders who reported using smokeless tobacco during 

the previous 30 days, by grade: 1992­2002

1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002

0

1 0

1 5

2 0

2 5 Percent

8th Graders

10th Graders

12th Graders

Source:  Johnston, L. D., O’Malley, P. M., & Bachman, J. D. (2002). Monitoring the Future: National Survey Results on Drug

Use, 1975­2001. Volume I: Secondary School Students. Bethesda, MD: National Institute on Drug Abuse.

Figure SD 3.2.B   

Percentage of 9th to 12th graders who reported having used smokeless tobacco during the previous

30 days, by sex and by race and Hispanic origin: 2001

0

5

1 0

1 5

2 0

2 5 Percent

Male

Female

Total White, non-Hispanic Black, non-Hispanic Hispanic

a Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

Source:  Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2002). Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance, United States, 2001.

Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 51(ss­4).

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 263 
Behavioral Health:  Smoking, Alcohol, and Substance Abuse

SD 3.3 Alcohol Use

Underage alcohol use is linked to problems including alcohol­related traffic accidents,

crime, suicide, and alcohol poisoning.1 The National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and

Alcoholism finds that the younger the age of drinking onset, the greater the chance that an

individual at some point in life will develop a clinically defined alcohol disorder.2 In addition, binge drinking by youth at some point is associated with higher levels of illicit drug 3

use.

Among 12th graders, rates of binge drinking fell from a high of 41.4 percent in 1981 to 27.5

percent in 1993. However, between 1995 and 2002, rates have remained steady at around

30 percent (Table SD 3.3.A).   Having an alcoholic beverage on one or more occasions in the

previous 30 days was reported by 52 percent of 12th graders in 1998 but dropped slightly

to 48.6 percent in 2002 (Table SD 3.3.B).

Differences by Age. Binge drinking increases as youth move into the upper grade levels

(Figure SD 3.3).4 In 2002, 12.4 percent of 8th graders reported binge drinking, while 12th

graders reported more than twice this percentage (28.6 percent). A larger percentage point

increase in binge drinking occurs between the 8th and 10th grades than in the period

between the 10th and 12th grades (Table SD 3.3.A).

Differences by Sex. Male youth report higher rates of binge drinking than do female

youth. The disparity in binge drinking rates between males and females is greater in the

upper grades, with 34.2 percent of males and 23.0 percent of females in the 12th grade

reporting binge drinking in 2002 (Table SD 3.3.A). 

Differences by Race and Hispanic Origin.5 Hispanic youth in the 8th grade are more

likely than their White and Black peers to engage in binge drinking. By the 12th grade, however, White youth report a higher prevalence of binge drinking than do either Hispanic or

Black youth. Black youth consistently report the lowest prevalence of binge drinking for all

grades and across all years (Table SD 3.3.A).

1 Levy, D., Miller, T., Spicer, R. & Stewart, K. (1999). Underage Drinking: Immediate Consequences and their Costs, Pacific

Institute for Research and Evaluation working paper.   

2 Grant, B. R. & Dawson, D. A. (1999). Age at Onset of Alcohol Use and Its Association with DSM­IV Alcohol Abuse and

Dependence: Results from the National Longitudinal Alcohol Epidemiological Study. Journal of Substance Abuse, 9:103­110.

3 Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Office of Applied Studies Prevalence Branch. National

Household Survey on Drug Abuse. Unpublished work.

4 These percentages likely underestimate the rate of binge drinking among all youth, because school­age youth who are not

in school are somewhat more likely to binge drink than those in school. (Based on unpublished prevalence rates of pastmonth alcohol use among youth ages 12 to 17 by school status, enrolled or not enrolled, from the 1994­1995 National

Household Surveys on Drug Abuse.)

5 Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race. Estimates for Whites and Blacks include Hispanics of those races.

264 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 4. SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT AND BEHAVIORAL HEALTH

Selected years, 1975­2002

1975 1980 1985 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002

All 8th Graders — — — — 12.9 13.4 13.5 14.5 14.5 15.6 14.5 13.7 15.2 14.1 13.2 12.4

Sex

Male — — — — 14.3 13.9 14.8 16.0 15.1 16.5 15.3 14.4 16.4 14.4 13.7 12.5

Female — — — — 11.4 12.8 12.3 13.0 13.9 14.5 13.5 12.7 13.9 13.6 12.4 12.1

Race and Hispanic origina

White — — — — — 12.7 12.6 12.9 13.9 15.1 15.1 14.1 14.3 14.9 13.8 12.7

Black — — — — — 9.6 10.7 11.8 10.8 10.4 9.8 9.0 9.9 10.0 9.0 9.4

Hispanic — — — — — 20.4 21.4 22.3 22.0 21.0 20.7 20.4 20.9 19.1 17.6 17.8

All 10th Graders — — — — 22.9 21.1 23.0 23.6 24.0 24.8 25.1 24.3 25.6 26.2 24.9 22.4

Sex

Male — — — — 26.4 23.7 26.5 28.5 26.3 27.2 28.6 26.7 29.7 29.8 28.6 23.8

Female — — — — 19.5 18.6 19.3 18.7 21.5 22.3 21.7 22.2 21.8 22.5 21.4 21.0

Race and Hispanic origina

White — — — — — 23.2 23.0 24.5 25.4 26.2 26.9 27.0 27.2 28.1 27.4 25.5

Black — — — — — 15.0 14.8 14.0 13.3 12.2 12.7 12.8 12.7 12.9 12.6 12.4

Hispanic — — — — — 22.9 23.8 24.2 26.8 29.6 27.5 26.3 27.5 28.3 27.7 26.5

All 12th Graders 36.8 41.2 36.7 32.2 29.8 27.9 27.5 28.2 29.8 30.2 31.3 31.5 30.8 30.0 29.7 28.6

Sex

Male 49.0 52.1 45.3 39.1 37.8 35.6 34.6 37.0 36.9 37.0 37.9 39.2 38.1 36.7 36.0 34.2

Female 26.4 30.5 28.2 24.4 21.2 20.3 20.7 20.2 23.0 23.5 24.4 24.0 23.6 23.5 23.7 23.0

Race and Hispanic origina

White — 44.3 41.5 36.6 34.6 32.1 31.3 31.5 32.3 33.4 35.1 36.4 35.7 34.6 34.5 33.7

Black — 17.7 15.7 14.4 11.7 11.3 12.6 14.4 14.9 15.3 13.4 12.3 12.3 11.5 11.8 11.5

Hispanic — 33.1 31.7 25.6 27.9 31.1 27.2 24.3 26.6 27.1 27.6 28.1 29.3 31.0 28.4 26.4

a Estimates for race

sample sizes, thus providing more stable estimates.

—  Data not available.

Note:  Binge drinking means having five or more drinks in a row in the previous 2 weeks.

Source:  .

Table SD 3.3.A 

Percentage of 8th, 10th, and 12th graders who reported binge drinking, by sex and race and Hispanic origin:

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race. Estimates for Whites and Blacks include Hispanics of those races.  

and Hispanic origin represent the mean of the specified year and the previous year. Data have been combined to increase subgroup

Johnston, L. D., O’Malley, P. M., & Bachman, J. D. (2002). Monitoring the Future: National Survey Results on Drug Use, 1975­2001

Volume I: Secondary School Students. Bethesda, MD: National Institute on Drug Abuse.

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 265 
Behavioral Health:  Smoking, Alcohol, and Substance Abuse

Table SD 3.3.B

Percentage of 8th, 10th, and 12th graders who reported drinking alcohol on one or more 

occasions, by sex:  1998­2002

1998 1999 2000 2001 2002

8th Graders 23.0 24.0 22.4 21.5 19.6

Male 24.0 24.8 — — —

Female 21.9 23.3 — — —

10th Graders 38.8 40.0 41.0 39.0 35.4

Male 40.0 42.3 — — —

Female 37.7 38.1 — — —

12th Graders 52.0 51.0 50.0 49.8 48.6

Male 57.3 55.3 — — —

Female 46.9 46.8 — — —

—  Data not available.

Note:  Question indicated that a “drink” of alcohol is more than a few sips within the last 30 days. The form of this

question changed in 1993 so the data in this report is not comparable to previous editions of this report.

Source:  Johnston, L. D., O’Malley, P. M., & Bachman, J. D. (2002). Monitoring the Future: National Survey Results on

Drug Use, 1975­2001. Volume I: Secondary School Students. Bethesda, MD: National Institute on Drug Abuse.

266 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 4. SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT AND BEHAVIORAL HEALTH

Figure SD 3.3    

Percentage of 8th, 10th, and 12th graders who reported binge drinking:  1975­2002

1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2002

0

1 0

1 5

2 0

2 5

3 0

3 5

4 0

4 5

5 0 Percent

8th Graders

10th Graders

12th Graders

Note:  Binge drinking means having five or more drinks in a row in the previous 2 weeks.

Source:  Johnston, L. D., O’Malley, P. M., & Bachman, J. D. (2002). Monitoring the Future: National Survey Results on Drug

Use, 1975­2001. Volume I: Secondary School Students. Bethesda, MD: National Institute on Drug Abuse.

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 267 
Behavioral Health:  Smoking, Alcohol, and Substance Abuse

SD 3.4  Exposure to Drunk Driving

Motor vehicle crashes are a major cause of death for youth ages 15 to 19.1 Almost 20 percent of all traffic crashes involving a driver under age 21 involve alcohol.2 Among driving

age youth, the issue of alcohol­impaired driving has particular significance. In all states, the

purchase of alcohol by youth under age 21 is illegal. 

In 2001, 34 percent of youth in grades 9 to 12 reported that, within the month prior to the

survey, they had either driven after drinking alcohol or ridden with a driver who had been

drinking alcohol (Table SD 3.4). That number has fallen slightly since 1993, when 38 percent of youth reported this level of exposure to drunk driving.

Differences by Age. Rates of exposure to drunk driving differed somewhat by age. In

2001, 39 percent of 12th graders reported taking this risk, compared with 32 percent of 9th

graders (Figure SD 3.4).

Differences by Sex. In 2001, 36 percent of males and 32 percent of females reported that

they had either driven after drinking alcohol or ridden with someone who had been drinking alcohol (Table SD 3.4).

Differences by Race and Hispanic Origin.

3 In 2001, 41 percent of Hispanic youth, 34

percent of White, non­Hispanic youth, and 29 percent of Black, non­Hispanic youth reported having been exposed to drunk driving within the past month (Table SD 3.4).

1 Injury­related mortality (including motor vehicle crashes, fires and burns, drowning, suffocation, and accidents caused by

firearms and other explosive materials, among others) accounted for 80 percent of all deaths of youth ages 15 to 19 in

1995. However, the rate of motor vehicle crash deaths among youth has been relatively constant since 1992.

2 Levy, D., Miller, T., Spicer, R., & Stewart, K. (1999). Underage Drinking: Immediate Consequences and their Costs, Pacific

Institute for Research and Evaluation working paper, June 1999.

3 Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

268 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 4. SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT AND BEHAVIORAL HEALTH

with a driver who had been drinking alcohol, by sex, grade, and race and Hispanic origin:

Selected years, 1993­2001

1993 1995 1997 1999 2001

All youth 38 42 40 36 34

Sex

Male  40 43 42 38 36

Female 36 40 37 34 32

Grade

9th 32 39 35 32 32

10th 37 40 36 36 33

11th 39 41 42 35 34

12th 44 46 45 41 39

Race and Hispanic origina

White, non­Hispanic 37 41 40 36 34

Black, non­Hispanic 41 39 36 36 29

Hispanic 45 52 47 42 41

a

Note: 

Sources: 

Morbidity and Mortality

.

Table SD 3.4

Percentage of youth in grades 9 to 12 who reported either driving after drinking alcohol or riding

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

Youth who reported either driving after drinking alcohol or riding with a driver who had been drinking alcohol

within 30 days preceding the survey.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2002). Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance, United States, 2001.

Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 51(ss­4); Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2000). Youth Risk

Behavior Surveillance, United States, 1999. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 49(ss­5); Centers for Disease Control

and Prevention. (1998). Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance, United States, 1997. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report,

47(ss­3); Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (1996). Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance, United States, 1995.

Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 45(ss­4); Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (1995). Youth Risk

Behavior Surveillance, United States, 1993. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 44(ss­1); Centers for Disease Control

and Prevention. (1992). Youth Risk Behavior and Surveillance, United States, 1990­1991. 

Weekly Report

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 269 
Behavioral Health:  Smoking, Alcohol, and Substance Abuse

Figure SD 3.4    

Percentage of youth in grades 9 to 12 who reported either driving after drinking alcohol or riding

with a driver who had been drinking alcohol, by grade: 1993, 1997, and 2001

9th graders 10th graders 11th graders 12th graders 0

1 0

2 0

3 0

4 0

5 0 Percent

1993 1997 2001

Note:  Youth who reported either driving after drinking alcohol or riding with a driver who had been drinking alcohol

within 30 days preceding the survey.

Sources:  Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2002). Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance, United States, 2001.

Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 51(ss­4); Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (1998). Youth Risk Behavior

Surveillance, United States, 1997. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 47(ss­3); Centers for Disease Control and

Prevention. (1995). Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance, United States, 1993. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 44(ss­1).

270 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 4. SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT AND BEHAVIORAL HEALTH

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 271 
Behavioral Health:  Smoking, Alcohol, and Substance Abuse

SD 3.5  Illegal Drug Use

Illegal drug use by youth has serious and often long­term individual, social, and economic

consequences. Illegal drug use contributes to crime, decreases economic productivity, and

requires a disproportionate share of health care services for those affected. Illegal drug

addiction is a preventable behavior that, when it is established during childhood, can

extend into adulthood.1 

The effects of drug use on individual health and well­being have been well documented. For

example, the use of cocaine has been linked with numerous health problems ranging from

eating disorders to disability and even death from heart attack and stroke.2 Marijuana use

holds both health and cognitive risks, particularly for damage to pulmonary functions as a

result of chronic use.3 Hallucinogens can affect brain chemistry and result in problems

both in learning new information and retaining knowledge.4 Chronic use of some

inhalants may result in injury to the liver and kidneys as well as cause neurological damage.

Differences by Specified Drugs. 8th, 10th, and 12th graders have consistently been more

likely to use marijuana5 than inhalants, hallucinogens, or cocaine. Beginning in 1995, marijuana use in all three grades had surpassed prevalence rates of other drugs shown (Table SD

3.5.A and Figure SD 3.5.A). This increase in the use of marijuana corresponds with a decline

in its perceived harmfulness by youth across all grade levels from 1991 to 1998.6 In recent

years, cocaine use has been least prevalent among the four drug types examined in this section among all grade levels (Figure SD 3.5.B). 

Differences by Age. As seen with cigarette and alcohol use (Indicators SD 3.1 and SD

3.3), use of both marijuana and hallucinogens increases with grade level. This increase is relatively small for hallucinogen use but is substantial for marijuana use. In 2002, more than

twice the percentage of 12th graders reported using marijuana in the past 30 days compared

to 8th­graders.  In contrast, inhalant use is more prevalent in the 8th grade than in either

the 10th or the 12th grade (Table SD 3.5.A).

Differences by Sex. Male youth appear somewhat more likely than females to report use

of marijuana, inhalants, hallucinogens, and cocaine. The largest sex difference is seen in

marijuana use and is most apparent in the upper grade levels. This gender gap for marijuana is about 8 percentage points among 12th graders in 2002 (Table SD 3.5.A).

Differences by Race and Hispanic Origin.7 Black youth consistently report the lowest

rates of drug use across all grades (Tables SD 3.5.B and SD 3.5.C).

1 Johnson, R. A., Hoffman, J. P., & Gerstein, D. R. (1996). The Relationship between Family Structure and Adolescent Substance

Use. Rockville, MD: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Office of Applied Statistics.

2 Blanken, A. J. (1993). Measuring the Use of Alcohol and Other Drugs among Adolescents. Journal of the U.S. Public Health

Service, 108(Supp. 1).

3 U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (1995). Marijuana: Facts Parents Need to Know, National Institute on Drug

Abuse. Washington, DC: U.S. Department Health and Human Services; Pope, H., & Yurgelun­Todd, D. (1995). The

Residual Cognitive Effects of Heavy Marijuana Use in College Students. Journal of American Medical Association, 275(7).

4 U.S. Public Health Service. (1993). Public Health Reports. (Supp. 1). Rockville, MD: Public Health Service.

5 These percentages likely underestimate the rate of drug use among all youth because school­age youth who are not in

school are somewhat more likely to use drugs than those in school.

6 Bachman, J. G., Johnston, L. D., & O’Malley, P. M. (2000). Monitoring the Future: Questionnaire Responses. Ann Arbor, MI:

Institute for Social Research, The University of Michigan.

7 Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race. Estimates for Whites and Blacks include Hispanics of those races.

272 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 4. SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT AND BEHAVIORAL HEALTH

Figure SD 3.5.A    

Percentage of 8th, 10th, and 12th graders who report having used marijuana within the previous 

30 days:  1975­2002

1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2002

0

5

1 0

1 5

2 0

2 5

3 0

3 5

4 0

4 5

5 0 Percent

8th graders

10th graders

12th graders

Source:  Johnston, L. D., O’Malley, P. M., & Bachman, J. D. (2002). Monitoring the Future: National Survey Results on Drug

Use, 1975­2001. Volume I: Secondary School Students. Bethesda, MD: National Institute on Drug Abuse.

Figure SD 3.5.B    

Percentage of 12th graders who report having used specified drugs within the previous 30 days:

1975­2002

1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2002

0

5

1 0

1 5

2 0

2 5

3 0

3 5

4 0

4 5

5 0 Percent

Marijuana

Hallucinogens Cocaine Inhalants

Source:  Johnston, L. D., O’Malley, P. M., & Bachman, J. D. (2002). Monitoring the Future: National Survey Results on Drug

Use, 1975­2001. Volume I: Secondary School Students. Bethesda, MD: National Institute on Drug Abuse.

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 273 
Behavioral Health:  Smoking, Alcohol, and Substance Abuse

by sex, race and Hispanic origin:  Selected years, 1975­2002

1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002

8th Graders

Marijuana total — — — — 9.1 11.3 10.2 9.7 9.7 9.1 9.2 8.3

Male  — — — — 9.8 12.1 11.4 10.3 10.5 10.2 11.0 9.5

Female — — — — 8.2 10.2 8.9 8.8 8.8 7.8 7.3 7.1

Whitea — — — — 7.8 10.0 10.6 9.5 8.7 8.4 8.4 8.3

Blacka — — — — 6.6 8.0 9.0 9.1 9.7 9.3 8.1 7.4

Hispanica — — — — 12.9 12.5 13.1 13.5 14.3 12.7 12.6 12.6

Inhalants total — — — — 6.1 5.8 5.6 4.8 5.0 4.5 4.0 3.8

Male — — — — 5.6 4.8 5.1 4.8 4.6 4.1 3.6 3.5

Female — — — — 6.6 6.6 5.8 4.7 5.3 4.8 4.3 3.9

Whitea — — — — 6.6 6.8 6.5 5.9 5.5 5.2 4.4 4.0

Blacka — — — — 2.5 2.0 1.9 2.2 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.7

Hispanica — — — — 6.5 6.4 5.5 5.2 6.0 5.6 4.9 4.8

Hallucinogens total — — — — 1.7 1.9 1.8 1.4 1.3 1.2 1.6 1.2

Male — — — — 1.8 2.0 2.2 1.7 1.6 1.2 1.9 1.4

Female — — — — 1.5 1.6 1.3 1.1 1.0 1.2 1.3 1.0

Whitea — — — — 1.6 2.0 2.0 1.5 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.4

Blacka — — — — 0.4 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.4

Hispanica — — — — 1.9 2.2 2.3 2.5 2.3 2.0 1.6 1.6

Cocaine total — — — — 1.2 1.3 1.1 1.4 1.3 1.2 1.2 1.1

Male — — — — 1.1 1.2 1.2 1.5 1.4 1.3 1.1 1.1

Female — — — — 1.2 1.4 1.0 1.2 1.2 1.1 1.2 1.1

Whitea — — — — 0.9 1.2 1.2 1.0 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.0

Blacka — — — — 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4

Hispanica — — — — 2.5 2.3 2.1 2.5 3.2 2.7 2.3 2.1

10th Graders

Marijuana total — — — — 17.2 20.4 20.5 18.7 19.4 19.7 19.8 17.8

Male — — — — 19.1 22.3 23.0 20.3 21.8 23.3 22.7 19.3

Female — — — — 15.0 18.6 17.9 17.2 17.0 16.2 16.8 16.4

Whitea — — — — 16.8 19.3 21.2 20.3 19.8 20.2 20.2 19.8

Blacka — — — — 13.8 15.9 16.5 15.3 14.6 15.8 16.7 15.2

Hispanica — — — — 17.7 19.1 21.3 21.4 20.6 20.5 20.5 18.2

Inhalants total — — — — 3.5 3.3 3.0 2.9 2.6 2.6 2.4 2.4

Male — — — — 3.8 3.4 3.0 3.2 2.9 3.0 2.5 2.3

Female — — — — 3.2 3.2 2.9 2.6 2.2 2.2 2.4 2.4

Whitea — — — — 3.9 3.9 3.5 3.3 3.1 2.9 2.7 2.6

Blacka — — — — 1.3 1.2 1.2 1.1 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.2

Hispanica — — — — 3.4 2.9 2.9 2.9 2.6 2.3 2.7 2.4

Hallucinogens total — — — — 3.3 2.8 3.3 3.2 2.9 2.3 2.1 1.6

Male — — — — 3.9 3.3 4.0 3.5 3.6 2.9 2.8 1.9

Female — — — — 2.7 2.3 2.5 2.9 2.2 1.6 1.2 1.4

Whitea — — — — 3.1 3.5 3.4 3.5 3.5 2.9 2.5 2.0

Blacka — — — — 0.8 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.6 0.6

Hispanica — — — — 2.7 3.1 3.3 3.8 3.0 2.0 1.9 1.9

Table SD 3.5.A

Percentage of 8th, 10th, and 12th graders who report having used specified drugs within the previous 30 days,

274 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 4. SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT AND BEHAVIORAL HEALTH

by sex, race and Hispanic origin:  Selected years, 1975­2002

1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002

Cocaine total — — — — 1.7 1.7 2.0 2.1 1.8 1.8 1.3 1.6

Male — — — — 1.8 1.8 1.9 2.4 2.2 2.1 1.5 1.8

Female — — — — 1.5 1.6 1.8 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 1.4

Whitea — — — — 1.4 1.6 1.7 1.9 2.0 1.8 1.5 1.4

Blacka — — — — 0.6 0.4 0.4 0.6 0.5 0.3 0.4 0.4

Hispanica — — — — 2.4 2.9 3.6 3.9 3.6 3.0 2.7 2.4

12th Graders

Marijuana total 27.1 33.7 25.7 14.0 21.2 21.9 23.7 22.8 23.1 21.6 22.4 21.5

Male 32.3 37.8 28.7 16.1 24.6 25.1 26.4 26.5 26.3 24.7 25.6 25.3

Female 22.5 29.1 22.4 11.5 17.2 18.3 20.3 18.8 19.7 18.3 19.1 17.4

Whitea — — — — 20.8 22.0 23.6 24.4 23.8 22.7 22.9 23.3

Blacka — — — — 16.8 18.3 18.5 18.3 19.3 19.0 17 16.5

Hispanica — — — — 17.9 19.1 21.2 21.6 22.0 24.6 22.1 20

Inhalants total — 1.4 2.2 2.7 3.2 2.5 2.5 2.3 2.0 2.2 1.7 1.5

Male — 1.8 2.8 3.5 3.9 3.1 3.3 2.9 2.5 2.9 2.3 2.2

Female — 1.0 1.7 2.0 2.5 2.0 1.8 1.7 1.5 1.7 1.1 0.8

Whitea — — — — 3.3 3.3 3.0 2.8 2.4 2.1 1.9 1.6

Blacka — — — — 1.4 1.0 0.9 0.9 0.8 1.3 1.7 1.3

Hispanica — — — — 2.3 2.1 1.7 1.8 2.3 3.1 1.9 1.5

Hallucinogens total 4.7 3.7 2.5 2.2 4.4 3.5 3.9 3.8 3.5 2.6 3.2 2.3

Male 6.0 4.8 3.4 3.2 5.8 4.7 5.1 5.1 4.5 3.3 4.0 3.3

Female 3.6 2.5 1.4 1.0 2.7 2.3 2.7 2.3 2.3 1.6 2.0 1.1

Whitea — — — — 4.1 4.4 4.3 4.5 4.1 3.2 3.1 —

Blacka — — — — 0.7 0.6 0.9 0.7 0.6 0.9 0.7 —

Hispanica — — — — 3.4 4.0 2.9 2.8 3.1 3.8 4.2 —

Cocaine total 1.9 5.2 6.7 1.9 1.8 2.0 2.3 2.4 2.6 2.1 2.1 2.3

Male 2.5 6.0 7.7 2.3 2.2 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.3 2.7 2.5 2.7

Female 1.2 4.3 5.6 1.3 1.3 1.4 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.6 1.6 1.8

Whitea — — — — 1.6 1.9 2.2 2.5 2.7 2.5 2.2 2.5

Blacka — — — — 0.5 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.4 0.8 0.8 0.4

Hispanica — — — — 2.3 3.2 3.3 2.7 2.8 3.6 2.9 2.2

a Estimates for Whites and Blacks include Hispanics of those races. 

—  Data not available

Notes: 

Inhalants include substances such as glues and aerosals.  Hallucinogens include

substances such as LSD.  Data have been combined to increase subgroup sample sizes, thus providing more stable estimates.  In 2001,

Source:  .

Table SD 3.5.A continued

Percentage of 8th, 10th, and 12th graders who report having used specified drugs within the previous 30 days,

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.  

All data are unadjusted for underreporting of nitrites and PCP.  Data for 12th grade only, is based on three of six questionnaire

forms, with sample size on­half of total sample size.  

the question text was changed in half the questionnaire forms for each grade.  “Other psychedelics” was changed to “other hallucinogens” and “shrooms” was added to the list of examples.  

Johnston, L. D., O’Malley, P. M., & Bachman, J. D. (2002). Monitoring the Future: National Survey Results on Drug Use, 1975­2001

Volume I: Secondary School Students. Bethesda, MD: National Institute on Drug Abuse.

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 275 
Behavioral Health:  Smoking, Alcohol, and Substance Abuse

race and Hispanic origin:  1991­2002

1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002

LSD

All 12th Graders 1.9 2.0 2.4 2.6 4.0 2.5 3.1 3.2 2.7 1.6 2.3 0.7

Sex

Male 2.7 2.7 3.1 3.6 5.3 3.3 4.1 4.4 3.6 2.1 3.0 1.0

Female 1.0 1.3 1.5 1.6 2.5 1.6 2.0 1.8 1.7 0.9 1.4 0.4

Race and Hispanic origina

White 2.1 2.2 2.6 2.9 3.7 3.7 3.2 3.6 3.3 2.3 2.0 1.6

Black 0.1 0.2 0.5 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.7 0.7 0.5 0.8 0.6 0.3

Hispanic 1.1 1.2 1.6 1.8 3.1 3.3 2.1 2.2 2.6 2.4 1.9 1.4

MDMA (Ecstasy)

All 12th Graders — — — — — 2.0 1.6 1.5 2.5 3.6 2.8 2.4

Sex

Male — — — — — 1.5 2.3 2.3 2.6 4.1 3.7 2.6

Female — — — — — 2.4 0.9 0.8 2.5 3.1 2.0 2.1

Race and Hispanic origina

White — — — — — 2.2 2.0 2.2 3.3 3.4 2.6

Black — — — — — 0.4 0.3 0.1 0.9 1.4 0.6

Hispanic — — — — — 1.1 0.6 2.2 4.5 4.3 2.8

Methamphetamine

All 12th Graders — — — — — — — — 1.7 1.9 1.5 1.7

Sex

Male — — — — — — — — 2.1 2.1 1.2 2.2

Female — — — — — — — — 1.5 1.7 1.7 1.2

Race and Hispanic origina

White — — — — — — — — — 1.8 1.9 1.9

Black — — — — — — — — — 0.7 0.5 0.2

Hispanic — — — — — — — — — 2.8 2.9 1.7

a

—  Data not available.

Note: 

Source: 

2001. 

Table SD 3.5.B

Percentage of 12th graders who report having used specified "club drugs" within the previous 30 days, by sex,

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race. Estimates for Whites and Blacks include Hispanics of those races.

Club drugs are defined as drugs used by young adults at all­night dance parties such as “raves” or “trances,” dance clubs, and bars.

Johnston, L. D., O’Malley, P. M., & Bachman, J. D. (2002). Monitoring the Future: National Survey Results on Drug Use, 1975­

Volume I: Secondary School Students. Bethesda, MD: National Institute on Drug Abuse.

276 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 4. SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT AND BEHAVIORAL HEALTH

Selected years, 1985­2002

1985 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002

All 8th Graders — — 5.7 6.8 8.4 10.9 12.4 14.6 12.9 12.1 12.2 11.9 11.7 10.4

All 10th Graders — — 11.6 11.0 14.0 18.5 20.2 23.2 23.0 21.5 22.1 22.5 22.7 20.8

All 12th Graders 29.7 17.2 16.4 14.4 18.3 21.9 23.8 24.6 26.2 25.6 25.9 24.9 25.7 25.4

Sex

Male 32.1 18.9 18.4 15.9 20.4 25.5 26.8 27.5 28.7 29.1 28.6 27.5 28.4 —

Female 26.7 15.2 14.1 12.7 15.9 18.3 20.4 21.2 23.2 21.6 22.7 22.1 22.6 —

Race and Hispanic origina

White 30.2 20.5 18.6 16.8 17.8 21.4 23.8 24.8 26.4 27.5 27.0 25.9 26.5 —

Black 22.9 9.0 7.2 7.3 9.1 14.3 18.3 19.7 20.0 19.4 20.2 20.3 18.7 —

Hispanic 27.2 13.9 14.7 14.6 15.6 18.3 21.4 22.6 23.9 24.1 24.4 27.4 25.3 —

a

—  Data not available.

Note: 

Estimates for Whites and Blacks include Hispanics of

combined to increase subgroup sample sizes, thus providing more stable estimates.

Source: 

2001. 

Table SD 3.5.C

Percentage of 8th and 10th graders who report having used any illicit drugs in the previous 30 days, 

and 12th­graders report of illicit drug use by sex and by race and Hispanic origin:  

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race. Estimates for Whites and Blacks include Hispanics of those races.

For 12th grade only: Use of “any illicit drug” includes any use of marijuana, LSD, other hallucinogens, crack, other cocaine, or

heroin, or any use of other opiates, stimulants, barbiturates, or tranquilizers not under a doctor's orders. For 8th and 10th graders

only: The use of other opiates and barbiturates has been excluded, because these younger respondents appear to overreport use (perhaps because they included the use of nonprescription drugs in their answers).  

those races. Estimates for race and Hispanic origin represent the mean of the specified year and the previous year. Data have been

Johnston, L. D., O’Malley, P. M., & Bachman, J. D. (2002). Monitoring the Future: National Survey Results on Drug Use, 1975­

Volume I: Secondary School Students. Bethesda, MD: National Institute on Drug Abuse.

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 277 
Behavioral Health:  Smoking, Alcohol, and Substance Abuse

SD 3.6 Abuse of Alcohol or Other Controlled Substances

The use of alcohol and other illicit drugs by youth has been related to numerous social problems, such as delinquency, fighting, and early sexual activity1 and to a variety of short­ and

long­term health problems.2 In 2002, 17 percent of 12­ to 17­year­olds reported binge drinking and/or any use of an illicit drug during the previous 30 days (Table SD 3.6). 

Differences by Sex. Rates of reported use vary little by sex. In 2002, 18 percent of males

and 16 percent of females ages 12 to 17 reported illicit drug use or binge drinking in the previous month (Table SD 3.6).

Differences by Race and Hispanic Origin.3 White, non­Hispanic youth had the highest rate of reported use (19 percent), Black, non­Hispanic youth and Hispanic youth had

the lowest rate of binge drinking and/or any use of illicit drugs (Table SD 3.6). 

1 Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Office of Applied Studies Prevalence Branch. National

Survey on Drug Use and Health. Unpublished work; Grant, B. R. & Dawson, D. A. (1999). Age at Onset of Alcohol Use

and Its Association with DSM­IV Alcohol Abuse and Dependence: Results from the National Longitudinal Alcohol

Epidemiological Study. Journal of Substance Abuse, 9:103­110; National Institute on Drug Abuse (1987). National Trends in

Drug Use and Related Factors among American High School Students and Young Adults, 1976­1986. Washington, DC: U.S.

Department of Health and Human Services.

2 U.S. Public Health Service (1993). Public Health Reports. (Supp. 1). Rockville, MD: Public Health Service.

3 Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

278 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 4. SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT AND BEHAVIORAL HEALTH

Table SD 3.6

Percentage of youth ages 12 to 17 reporting illicit drug use and/or binge drinking in

the previous 30 days, by sex and by race and Hispanic origin: 2002

2002a

All youth 17.0

Sex

Male 17.8

Female 16.2

Race and Hispanic origin

White, non­Hispanic 18.8

Black, non­Hispanic 12.1

Hispanicb 11.5

a Due to improvements to the survey in 2002, estimates from 2002 NSDUH should not be compared

with estimates from 2001 and earlier surveys. The 2002 data will constitute a new baseline for the

tracking of trend data.

b Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

Note: Illicit drugs include marijuana, cocaine (including crack), heroin, hallucinogens (including PCP),

inhalants, and nonmedical use of psychotherapeutics. Binge drinking includes drinking five or more

drinks on the same occasion on one or more days in the past 30 days.

Source: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA), Office of Applied

Studies.(2001). National Survey on Drug Use and Health (NSOUH). Unpublished work.

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 279 
Behavioral Health:  Smoking, Alcohol, and Substance Abuse

SD 3.7 Peer Attitudes Toward Alcohol, and Other Controlled

Substances

Drug use is correlated with attitudes and beliefs about drugs, both in terms of perceived

health risks and the level of peer disapproval.1 As children reach adolescence, peer influences on personal behavior can take on increasing importance in determining the use of

drugs, alcohol, and cigarettes.

The majority of 12th graders have long reported peer disapproval of drug and alcohol use

and cigarette smoking, as reflected in their responses to questions of the level of disapproval

they would receive from their peers for (1) taking one to two drinks nearly every day, (2)

smoking marijuana even occasionally (as opposed to trying it once), (3) taking cocaine even

occasionally (as opposed to trying it once), and (4) smoking one or more packs of cigarettes

per day (Table SD 3.7).

Among 12th graders, peer disapproval of drinking (one to two drinks nearly every day) and

smoking marijuana (even occasionally) reached highs of 78 and 79 percent, respectively, in

1992, before declining to 69 and 63 percent by 2002 (Table 3.7 and Figure SD 3.7). Peer disapproval of smoking cigarettes (one or more packs per day) has increased since 1998,

although disapproval levels had been relatively stable prior to that time. In 2002, 72 percent

of 12th graders reported peer disapproval of smoking a pack or more of cigarettes per day.

Peer disapproval of cocaine use (even occasionally) decreased from 95 percent in 1991 to 90

percent in 2002. Cocaine use commands the highest level of peer disapproval for every year

shown (Table SD 3.7 and Figure SD 3.7).

Differences by Sex. Male youth have consistently reported lower levels of peer disapproval of drinking than have their female peers. In 1999, 64 percent of males reported peer

disapproval of drinking, compared with 79 percent of females. Males also report somewhat

lower peer disapproval of smoking cigarettes and marijuana.

Differences by Race.2 For 1999, rates of disapproval for drug use were generally similar

for Black and White 12th graders for marijuana and for cocaine use. Group differences are

apparent for disapproval of smoking (81 percent disapproval among Black compared with

69 percent among White youth) and disapproval of drinking (79 percent disapproval among

Black compared with 70 percent among White youth).

1 Johnston, L. D., O’Malley, P. M., & Bachman, J. G. (2002). Monitoring the Future: National Survey Results on Drug Use, 1975­

2001. Volume I: Secondary School Students. Bethesda, MD: National Institute on Drug Abuse.

2 Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race. Estimates for Whites and Blacks include Hispanics of those races.

280 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 4. SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT AND BEHAVIORAL HEALTH

or cigarettes, by sex and race:  Selected years, 1980­2002

1980 1985 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002

All 12th graders 71 75 79 77 78 77 76 73 73 72 72 72 72 69 69

Sex

Male 61 69 71 68 69 68 67 65 63 63 63 64 — — —

Female 79 81 87 85 85 85 83 80 83 79 82 79 — — —

Racea

White 70 75 77 77 77 76 76 72 71 71 71 70 — — —

Black 76 82 85 80 81 80 78 74 77 74 75 79 — — —

Disapprove of smoking marijuana even occasionally

All 12th graders 51 64 76 76 79 74 69 65 63 60 60 62 64 63 63

Sex

Male 49 64 73 73 78 72 63 62 59 57 56 58 — — —

Female 52 65 80 78 80 75 74 69 67 63 66 65 — — —

Racea

White 50 63 74 75 78 73 68 64 62 58 60 61 — —  — 

Black 59 72 89 86 84 76 70 69 66 67 67 63 —  —  — 

Disapprove of taking cocaine even occasionallyb

All 12th graders — —  94 95 94 94 94 94 93 91 92 92 93 90 90

Sex

Male — —  92 93 93 92 91 92 90 89 90 90 — —  — 

Female —  —  96 96 96 96 96 95 96 93 95 94 —  —  — 

Racea

White — —  95 96 96 95 94 95 93 91 92 93 — —  — 

Black —  —  92 97 91 89 94 92 93 95 94 91 —  —  — 

All 12th graders 74 74 75 74 76 72 72 69 69 69 69 71 73 72 74

Sex

Male 73 72 73 72 76 68 67 65 65 65 66 67 — —  — 

Female 76 76 77 77 77 75 77 74 73 71 73 76 —  —  — 

Racea

White 75 73 73 72 75 71 69 67 66 64 65 69 — —  — 

Black 74 81 87 88 82 80 83 81 82 83 81 81 —  —  — 

a Estimates for Whites and Blacks include Hispanics of those races. 

b The question regarding cocaine use was not included prior to 1986.

—  Data not available.

Source:  .

Table SD 3.7 

Percentage of 12th graders who report that peers would not approve of their using alcohol, marijuana, cocainea,

Disapprove of taking one or two drinks nearly every day

Disapprove of smoking one or more packs of cigarettes per day

Johnston, L. D., O’Malley, P. M., & Bachman, J. D. (2002). Monitoring the Future: National Survey Results on Drug Use, 1975­2001

Volume I: Secondary School Students. Bethesda, MD: National Institute on Drug Abuse.

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 281 
Behavioral Health:  Smoking, Alcohol, and Substance Abuse

Figure SD 3.7    

Percentage of 12th graders who report that peers would not approve of their using alcohol, 

marijuana, cocaine, or cigarettes: 1980­2002

1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2002

0

1 0

2 0

3 0

4 0

5 0

6 0

7 0

8 0

9 0

100 Percent

Alcohol

Marijuana

Cocaine

Cigarettes

Source:  Johnston, L. D., O’Malley, P. M., & Bachman, J. D. (2002). Monitoring the Future: National Survey Results on Drug

Use, 1975­2001. Volume I: Secondary School Students. Bethesda, MD: National Institute on Drug Abuse.

282 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 4. SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT AND BEHAVIORAL HEALTH

Social

Development

Behavioral Health:

Physical Health

and Safety

Behavioral Health:

Smoking, Alcohol,

and Substance

Abuse

Behavioral Health:

Sexual Activity and

Fertility

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 283 
Behavioral Health:  Sexual Activity and Fertility

SD 4.1 Sexually Experienced Youth 

Engaging in sexual behaviors as a teenager is associated with less successful adult outcomes,

and in most cases, the earlier the behavior, the greater the risk of negative consequences.

The logical concerns arising from adolescent sexual activity are pregnancy, parenthood,

infection with a sexually transmitted disease, and exposure to the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). 

Youth who begin having sex at early ages are exposed to risk for a greater length of time,

are less likely to use contraception, have more sexual partners, and are more likely to be

involved in high­risk sexual behavior, such as substance use before intercourse.1 

Furthermore, first sexual experiences are often coercive—24 percent of females 13 years of

age or younger at the time of first intercourse reported it is nonvoluntary.2 

Early sexual involvement also predicts many negative outcomes in young adulthood. Early

sexual involvement for females is correlated with increased number of relationships, more

frequent intercourse, greater likelihood of an abortion, and greater likelihood of contracting

venereal disease.3 Moreover, precocious sexual behavior often has as its consequence

teenage pregnancy, which in turn is related to several negative adult outcomes (Indicators

SD 4.5 and SD 4.6). 

Table SD 4.1 presents data from the Youth Risk Behavior Survey reporting the percentage

of youth in grades 9 to 12 who have experienced sexual intercourse by sex, grade, and race

and Hispanic origin.

Differences by Age. In 2001, 34 percent of 9th graders reported having had sexual intercourse. This percentage increases with each grade, reaching 61 percent by the 12th grade (a

decline of 4 percentage points from 1999) (Table SD 4.1).

Differences by Sex. In 2001, 9th grade males reported having had sex at a rate 12 percentage points higher than females (41 versus 29 percent).  By the 12th grade, however,

females were just as likely as males to report ever having sex (Table SD 4.1).

Differences by Race and Hispanic Origin.4 Black, non­Hispanic youth in grades 9 to

12 are more likely than White, non­Hispanic, and Hispanic youth to have had sexual intercourse (Table SD 4.1). Specifically, in 2001, 45 percent of male and 41 percent of female

White, non­Hispanic youth reported having had sexual intercourse, compared to 53 percent

of Hispanic male youth and 44 percent of Hispanic females, and 69 percent of Black, nonHispanic male youth and 53 percent of Black, non­Hispanic females.  Despite these differences, the percentage of youth in grades 9 to 12 reporting ever having sexual intercourse has

decreased for White, non­Hispanic, Black, non­Hispanic, and Hispanic youth from 1993 to

2001.

1 Moore, K. A., Miller, B. C., Sugland, B. W., Morrison, D. R., Glei, D. A. & Blumenthal, C. (1995). Beginning Too Soon:

Adolescent Sexual Behavior, Pregnancy and Parenthood. A Review of Research and Interventions [On­line]. Available:

http://aspe.hhs.gov/hsp/cyp/xsteesex.htm.

2 Abma, J., Driscoll, A. & Morre, K. (1998) Young Women’s Degree of Control over First Intercourse: An Exploratory

Analysis. Family Planning Perspectives, 30(1):12­18.

3 Newcomb, M. D. & Bentler, P. M. (1988). Consequences of Adolescent Drug Use. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.

4 Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

284 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 4. SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT AND BEHAVIORAL HEALTH

Hispanic origin:  Selected years, 1993­2001

1993 1995 1997 1999 2001

Male Female Male Female Male  Female Male  Female Male  Female

All youth 53 56 50 53 54 52 48 49 48 50 52 48 46 49 43

Grade

9th 38 44 32 37 41 32 38 42 34 39 45 33 34 41 29

10th 46 47 45 48 50 46 43 42 44 47 51 43 41 42 39

11th 58 60 55 59 57 60 50 49 50 53 51 54 52 54 50

12th 68 70 66 66 67 66 61 60 62 65 64 66 61 61 60

Race and Hispanic origina

White, non­Hispanic 48 49 47 49 49 49 44 43 44 45 45 45 43 45 41

Black, non­Hispanic 80 89 70 73 81 67 73 80 66 71 76 67 61 69 53

Hispanic 56 64 48 58 62 53 52 58 46 54 63 46 48 53 44

a

Sources:  Morbidity and

1999. 

45(ss­4); Centers for Disease Control and

44(ss­1).

Table SD 4.1

Percentage of youth in grades 9 to 12 who reported ever having sexual intercourse, by sex, grade, and race and

Total Total Total Total Total

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2002). Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance, United States, 2001. 

Mortality Weekly Report, 51(ss­4); Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2000). Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance, United States,

Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 49(ss­5); Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (1998). Youth Risk Behavior

Surveillance, United States, 1997. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 47(ss­3); Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (1996).

Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance, United States, 1995. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 

Prevention. (1995). Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance, United States, 1993. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 285 
Behavioral Health:  Sexual Activity and Fertility

SD 4.2  Currently Sexually Active Youth 

While sexually experienced youth have had sexual intercourse at least once (Indicator SD

4.1), a youth that is currently sexually active has had sexual intercourse within the past 3

months. Having become sexually experienced does not necessarily mean youth will be sexually active from that point on. Not all sexually experienced youth are currently sexually

active. While 46 percent of all youth in grades 9 to 12 were sexually experienced in 2001

(Table SD 4.1), 33 percent reported being currently sexually active (Table SD 4.2). However,

youth that continue to engage in sexual intercourse are at increased risk of pregnancy,

infection with a sexually transmitted disease, and exposure to the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). 

Differences by Sex: There is no difference between the percentages of male and female

youth who were sexually active in 1999 and 2001 (36 and 33 percent, respectively). There

is a change from 1997, when 33 percent of males and 37 percent of females reported recent

sexual activity (Table SD 4.2).

Differences by Race and Hispanic Origin.1 Black, non­Hispanic youth (46 percent)

were significantly more likely than Hispanic and White, non­Hispanic youth (36 and 31

percent respectively) to be currently sexually active (Table SD 4.2).

Differences by Grade. The percentage of youth who are currently sexually active rises

significantly with each subsequent grade. High school sophomores, juniors, and seniors (30,

38, and 48 percent, respectively) were significantly more likely than freshmen (23 percent)

to be currently sexually active. Furthermore, juniors and seniors (38 and 48 percent, respectively) were significantly more likely than sophomores (30 percent) to be sexually active.

Lastly, seniors (48 percent) were significantly more likely than juniors (38 percent) to have

had sexual intercourse in the previous 3 months (Table SD 4.2). 

1 Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

286 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 4. SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT AND BEHAVIORAL HEALTH

3 months, by sex, race and Hispanic origin, grade and age:  Selected years, 1993­2001

1993 1995 1997 1999 2001

All youth 38 38 35 36 33

Sex

Male 38 36 33 36 33

Female 38 40 37 36 33

Race and Hispanic origin

White, non­Hispanic 34 35 32 33 31

Black, non­Hispanic 59 54 54 53 46

Hispanica 39 39 35 36 36

Grade

9th 25 24 24 27 23

10th 30 34 29 33 30

11th 40 42 38 38 38

12th 53 50 46 51 48

Age

Age 15 25 28 26 27 24

Age 16 35 37 32 35 33

Ages 15 or 16  31 32 29 32 28

a

Sources: 

44(ss­1).

Table SD 4.2

Percentage of youth in grades 9 to 12 who reported having sexual intercourse in the previous 

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2002). Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance, United States, 2001.

Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 51(ss­4); Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2000). Youth Risk

Behavior Surveillance, United States, 1999. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 49(ss­5); Centers for Disease Control

and Prevention. (1998). Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance, United States, 1997. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report,

47(ss­3); Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (1996). Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance, United States, 1995.

Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 45(ss­4); Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (1995). Youth Risk

Behavior Surveillance, United States, 1993. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 287 
Behavioral Health:  Sexual Activity and Fertility

SD 4.3 Contraceptive Use 

Sexual intercourse without contraception puts a youth1 at risk of unintended pregnancy

and of contracting sexually transmitted diseases such as HIV/AIDS. Although more youth

are using contraceptives, they are less likely than older females to practice contraception

without interruption over the course of a year, and more likely to practice contraception

sporadically or not at all.2 

Condoms and birth control pills are the most common forms of contraception used by sexually active youth.3 In 2001, over half (58 percent) of currently sexually active youth in

grades 9 to 12 reported use of a condom during their last sexual intercourse, while only 18

percent reported use of birth control pills (Tables SD 4.3.A and SD 4.3.B).

Differences by Sex. Females are less likely than males to report having used a condom

during their last intercourse (51 percent of females versus 65 percent of males in 2001).

(Table SD 4.3.A)

Differences by Grade. Condom use among 12th graders is lower than among youth in

the earlier grades. The decrease is largest among females, dropping from 53 percent to 41

percent between the 11th and 12th grades in 2001. In contrast, in 2001, only 8 percent of

currently sexually active 9th graders reported use of birth control pills, while 26 percent of

12th graders reported its use (Figure SD 4.3).

Differences by Race and Hispanic Origin.4 Black, non­Hispanic youth report the highest use of condoms, while White, non­Hispanic youth report the highest use of birth control pills. In 2001, White, non­Hispanic youth were more likely to have used the pill during

their last sexual intercourse (23 percent) than were either Black, non­Hispanic youth (8 percent) or Hispanic youth (10 percent) (Tables SD 4.3.A and SD 4.3.B).

1 Currently attending school.

2 Glei, D. A. (1999). Measuring Contraceptive Use Patterns among Teenage and Adult Women. Family Planning Perspectives,

31(2): 73­80.

3 Peterson, L. S. (1995). Contraceptive Use in the United States: 1982­90. Atlanta, GA: National Center for Health Statistics.

4 Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

288 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 4. SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT AND BEHAVIORAL HEALTH

sexual intercourse, by sex, grade, and race and Hispanic origin:  Selected years, 1993­2001

1993 1995 1997 1999 2001

Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female

All youth  53 59 46 54 61 49 57 63 51 58 66 51 58 65 51

Grade

9th 62 63 59 63 66 59 59 59 58 67 70 63 68 69 67

10th 55 63 46 60 68 52 59 65 53 63 70 55 60 69 52

11th 55 65 46 52 57 49 60 65 55 59 69 50 59 65 53

12th 47 52 41 50 57 43 52 61 43 48 56 41 49 59 41

Race and Hispanic origin

White, non­Hispanic 52 59 46 53 58 48 56 62 49 55 63 48 57 64 51

Black, non­Hispanic 57 64 48 66 72 61 64 68 59 70 75 65 67 73 61

Hispanica 46 55 37 44 56 33 48 55 40 55 66 43 54 59 48

a

Note: 

Sources:  Morbidity and

States, 1999. 

47(ss­3); Centers for Disease Control and

45(ss­4); Centers

44(ss­1).

Table SD 4.3.A

Percentage of currently sexually active youth in grades 9 to 12 who reported using a condom during last 

Total Total Total Total Total

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

“Currently sexually active” is defined as having had sexual intercourse during the 3 months preceding the survey.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2002). Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance, United States, 2001. 

Mortality Weekly Report, 51(ss­4); Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2000). Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance, United

Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 49(ss­5); Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (1998). Youth Risk

Behavior Surveillance, United States, 1997. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report,

Prevention. (1996). Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance, United States, 1995. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report,

for Disease Control and Prevention. (1995). Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance, United States, 1993. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly

Report, 

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 289 
Behavioral Health:  Sexual Activity and Fertility

sexual intercourse, by sex, grade, and race and Hispanic origin: Selected years, 1993­2001

1993 1995 1997 1999 2001

Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female

All youth 18 15 22 17 14 20 17 13 21 16 12 20 18 15 21

Grade

9th 9 8 11 11 10 13 8 8 8 12 11 13 8 6 9

10th 14 10 17 12 9 16 12 8 17 9 6 13 16 13 18

11th 17 12 22 15 13 17 16 12 19 15 12 18 19 15 22

12th 26 23 29 25 21 29 24 19 30 25 17 31 26 23 29

Race and Hispanic origin

White, non­Hispanic 20 17 24 21 17 25 21 17 25 21 16 26 23 19 27

Black, non­Hispanic 15 11 21 10 8 12 12 9 15 8 3 12 8 8 8

Hispanica 12 10 15 11 14 9 10 7 13 8 5 11 10 9 10

a

Note: 

Sources:  Morbidity and

States, 1999. 

Table SD 4.3.B 

Percentage of currently sexually active youth in grades 9 to 12 who reported birth control pill use during last

Total Total Total Total Total

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

“Currently sexually active” is defined as having had sexual intercourse during the 3 months preceding the survey.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2002). Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance, United States, 2001. 

Mortality Weekly Report, 51(ss­4); Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2000). Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance, United

Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 49(ss­5); Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (1998). Youth Risk Behavior

Surveillance, United States, 1997. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 47(ss­3); Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (1996).

Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance, United States, 1995. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 45(ss­4); Centers for Disease Control

and Prevention. (1995). Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance, United States, 1993. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 44(ss­1).

290 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
2001

SECTION 4. SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT AND BEHAVIORAL HEALTH

Figure SD 4.3    

Percentage of currently sexually active youth in grades 9 to 12 who reported using either condoms

or birth control pills during their last sexual intercourse, by grade and method of contraception:

9th graders 10th graders 11th graders 12th graders 0

2 0

4 0

6 0

8 0

100 Percent

Birth control pill use

Condom use

Source:  Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2002). Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance, United States, 2001.

Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 51(ss­4).

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 291 
Behavioral Health:  Sexual Activity and Fertility

SD 4.4  Number of Sexual Partners

Having multiple sexual partners represents an important behavioral risk factor for sexually

transmitted diseases, including HIV, among youth, especially if they fail to use condoms

correctly and consistently. Alcohol use, illicit drug use, and young age at first intercourse

are also associated with increased odds of multiple sexual partners.1 

Differences by Sex. Male youth generally report a higher number of sexual partners than

do female youth. Among youth surveyed in 2001, 17 percent of males reported having had

four or more sexual partners in their lifetime, compared with 11 percent of females (Table

SD 4.4 and Figure SD 4.4).

Differences by Race and Hispanic Origin.2 Black, non­Hispanic youth are more likely

to report having had four or more sexual partners in their lifetime than their White, nonHispanic or Hispanic peers: 27 percent versus 12 and 15 percent, respectively, in 2001 (Table

SD 4.4).

1 Santelli, et al. (1998). Multiple Sexual Partners Among U.S. Adolescents and Young Adults. Family Planning Perspectives,

30(6).

2 Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

292 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 4. SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT AND BEHAVIORAL HEALTH

grade, and race and Hispanic origin: Selected years, 1993­2001

1993 1995 1997 1999 2001

Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female

All youth  19 22 15 18 21 14 16 18 14 16 19 13 14 17 11

Grade

9th 11 15 6 13 18 7 12 16 8 12 16 8 10 14 6

10th 16 19 13 16 20 11 14 16 12 16 21 10 13 15 10

11th 20 23 16 19 21 17 17 17 16 17 19 15 15 18 13

12th 27 31 23 23 25 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 22 24 20

Race and Hispanic origin

White, non­Hispanic 14 15 13 14 15 13 12 11 12 12 12 13 12 13 11

Black, non­Hispanic 43 59 27 36 52 22 39 53 25 34 48 21 27 39 16

Hispanica 19 26 11 18 24 12 16 20 10 17 23 11 15 21 10

a

Sources:  Morbidity and

1999. 

44(ss­1).

Table SD 4.4

Percentage of youth in grades 9 to 12 who reported having four or more sex partners during lifetime, by sex,

Total Total Total Total Total

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2002). Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance, United States, 2001. 

Mortality Weekly Report, 51(ss­4); Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2000). Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance, United States,

Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 49(ss­5); Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (1998). Youth Risk Behavior

Surveillance, United States, 1997. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 47(ss­3); Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (1996).

Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance, United States, 1995. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 45(ss­4); Centers for Disease Control and

Prevention. (1995). Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance, United States, 1993. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 

Figure SD 4.4   

Percentage of youth in grades 9 to 12 who reported having four or more sexual partners during

their lifetime, by sex and race and Hispanic origin: 2001

Male Female 0

1 0

2 0

3 0

4 0

5 0 Percent

White, non-Hispanic

Black, non-Hispanic

Hispanic

a Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

Source:  Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2002). Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance, United States, 2001.

Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 51(ss­4).

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 293 
Behavioral Health:  Sexual Activity and Fertility

SD 4.5  Youth Pregnancy and Abortion

The rate of youth pregnancy has declined to record low levels.  The youth pregnancy rate

fell from its all­time high in 1991 to 86.7 pregnancies per 1,000 females aged 15 to 19 years

in 1999 (Table SD 4.5.A).  Although these declines are encouraging, United States youth

pregnancy rates remain among the highest in the industrialized world.1 The rate for

induced abortions has also fallen fairly steadily since its peak in 1980. Abortion rates generally declined for youth between 1990 and 1999 (Table SD 4.5.B). Contributing to the

long­term decline in the overall rate was the shift in the age composition of females in the

childbearing ages to older ages, when abortion rates are lower.2 

The declines in pregnancy and abortion rates for youth may be attributable to a number of

possible factors. One is changing attitudes toward premarital sexual activity. Many public

and private efforts have focused attention on the importance of youth pregnancy prevention through abstinence and responsible behavior.3 Another is the introduction of new, easier to use, effective birth control methods adopted by some sexually active youth. Third is

the long economic expansion in the 1990s, increasing economic opportunity for youths as

well as older females. Economic opportunity may have given youth a reason to more highly value education and work.4 If appropriate services helped some youth to attain their

new goals, this may help explain the decline in youth pregnancy rates, as more youth were

able to avoid early pregnancy and to attain their educational and occupational goals in a

growing economy.

Differences by Age. The pregnancy rate for youth ages 15 to 17 fell from 80.3 in 1990 to

55.9 in 1999 (Figure SD 4.5.A). The pregnancy rate for older youth, 18 to 19 years of age,

although higher than for younger females, also decreased between 1990 and 1999 (Figure

SD 4.5.B).  In 1999, the pregnancy rate was 131.9 per 1,000 females ages 18 to 19.  Abortion

rates for youth also tend to be higher for the older females ages 18 to 19 than for the

younger group of females aged 15 to 17. 

Differences by Race and Hispanic Origin.5 Declines in pregnancy rates for youth age

15 to 19 were steep for Black, non­Hispanic and White, non­Hispanic youth. Pregnancy

rates for Hispanic teenagers have been falling only since 1993, declining 16 percent from

1993 to 1999.

1 U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (2000).  A National Strategy to Prevent Teen Pregnancy Annual Report 1999­

2000. Washington DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

2 Ventura, S.J., Mosher, W.D., Curtin, S.C., Abma, J.C. & Henshaw, S. (2001). Trends in Pregnancy Rates for the United

States, 1967­1997: An update. National Vital Statistics Reports, 49(4).

3 U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (2000).  A National Strategy to Prevent Teen Pregnancy Annual Report 1999­

2000. Washington DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

4 Kirby, D., Coyle, K. & Gould, J.B. (2001). Manifestations of Poverty and Birthrates Among Young Teenagers in California

ZIP Code Areas. Family Planning Perspectives, 33(2): 63­69.

5 Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

294 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 4. SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT AND BEHAVIORAL HEALTH

Rate of females ages 15 to 19 experiencing pregnancy by age and by race and Hispanic origin:  1990­1999

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999

Females ages 15­19 116.3 116.0 112.0 109.2 106.1 101.1 97.0 92.6 89.9 86.7

Race and Hispanic origin

White, non­Hispanic 87.7 84.9 79.4 77.1 74.6 71.8 68.3 65.4 62.6 59.7

Black, non­Hispanic 221.3 220.2 214.8 208.3 197.0 180.1 173.2 166.0 159.9 153.8

Hispanica 155.8 161.4 161.9 158.2 156.2 151.4 145.9 137.0 136.0 133.1

Females ages 15­17 80.3 79.5 76.8 76.0 74.5 70.7 66.6 62.5 59.6 55.9

Race and Hispanic origin

White, non­Hispanic 56.5 54.2 50.6 50.0 48.8 46.9 44.0 41.3 38.6 35.5

Black, non­Hispanic 165.0 163.6 158.6 155.5 146.9 134.0 124.7 116.6 110.3 102.6

Hispanica 101.0 104.9 107.1 105.0 106.6 102.4 97.4 91.2 89.5 86.4

Females ages 18­19 162.4 166.5 163.7 158.6 154.2 148.2 144.0 139.4 135.4 131.9

Race and Hispanic origin

White, non­Hispanic 126.8 127.2 121.9 117.5 114.0 110.3 105.9 103.0 98.8 95.3

Black, non­Hispanic 295.3 297.9 296.6 287.3 274.6 251.9 248.1 241.9 232.4 227.8

Hispanica 231.4 242.1 242.5 237.3 229.9 225.3 218.7 206.3 205.1 200.4

a

Source: 

States.  52(7).

origin:  1990­1999

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999

Females ages 15­19 4.0 3.7 3.5 3.4 3.2 2.9 2.7 2.7 2.6 2.5

Race and Hispanic origin

White, non­Hispanic 3.3 2.9 2.5 2.4 2.2 2.1 1.9 1.9 1.7 1.6

Black, non­Hispanic 8.4 8.0 7.9 7.7 7.1 6.5 6.4 6.1 5.9 5.8

Hispanica 3.9 4.0 4.2 4.0 3.8 3.6 3.6 3.3 3.4 3.2

Females ages 15­17 2.7 2.4 2.3 2.2 2.1 2.0 1.9 1.7 1.6 1.5

Race and Hispanic origin

White, non­Hispanic 2.1 1.8 1.6 1.6 1.4 1.3 1.3 1.2 1.1 1.0

Black, non­Hispanic 5.8 5.5 5.4 5.3 4.9 4.5 4.3 4.0 3.8 3.7

Hispanica 2.4 2.4 2.7 2.5 2.6 2.3 2.3 2.0 2.2 2.0

Females ages 18 or 19 5.8 5.6 5.3 5.1 4.8 4.5 4.4 4.3 4.0 3.9

Race and Hispanic origin

White, non­Hispanic 4.7 4.3 3.9 3.7 3.4 3.2 3.0 2.9 2.6 2.5

Black, non­Hispanic 11.7 11.5 11.5 11.3 10.5 9.6 9.7 9.5 8.9 8.9

Hispanica 6.0 6.2 6.3 6.1 5.7 5.5 5.5 5.2 5.2 4.9

a

Note:  Abortion data for females ages 14 or younger was not collected past 1992.

Source: 

States. 

Table SD 4.5.A

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

Ventura, S. J., Abma, J. C., & Mosher, W. D. (2003). Revised Pregnancy Rates, 1999­97, and New Rates for 1998­99: United

National Vital Statistics Reports, 

Table SD 4.5.B

Percentage of females ages 15 to 19 obtaining an abortion during the year, by age and by race and Hispanic

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

Ventura, S. J., Abma, J. C., & Mosher, W. D. (2003). Revised Pregnancy Rates, 1999­97, and New Rates for 1998­99: United

National Vital Statistics Reports, 52(7).

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 295 
Figure SD 4.5.A     

Pregnancy and abortion rates for youth ages 15 to 17:  1990.1997

Source:  Ventura, S. J., Abma, J. C., & Mosher, W. D. (2003). Revised Pregnancy Rates, 1999­97, and New Rates for

1998­99: United States. National Vital Statistics Reports, 52(7).

Figure SD 4.5.B    

Pregnancy and abortion rates for youth ages 18 or 19: 1990­1999

Source:  Ventura, S. J., Abma, J. C., & Mosher, W. D. (2003). Revised Pregnancy Rates, 1999­97, and New Rates for

1998­99: United States. National Vital Statistics Reports, 52(7).

296

Behavioral Health:  Sexual Activity and Fertility

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003

1990 1995 1999

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

200

Rate per 1 000 females

Pregnancy rate

Abortion rate

1990 1995 1999

Pregnancy rate

Abortion rate 20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

200

Rate per 1 000 females
SECTION 5.

Education and

Achievement

Enrollment/

Attendance

Achievement/

Proficiency

Related

Behaviors and

Characteristics
SECTION 5. EDUCATION AND ACHIEVEMENT

Enrollment/

Attendance

Achievement/

Proficiency

Related

Behaviors and

Characteristics
Enrollment/Attendance

EA 1.1 Early Childhood Program Enrollment

Enrollment in an early childhood program is one indicator of readiness to learn in elementary school that may be especially relevant for children from disadvantaged backgrounds. 

In 2001, 56 percent of children ages 3 to 5 who had not yet entered kindergarten attended

center­based early childhood care and education programs (Figure EA 1.1.A). 

Table EA 1.1 presents the percentage of children, ages 3 to 5, enrolled in daycare centers,

Head Start programs, preschool, prekindergarten, and other early childhood programs.1 In

2001, 56 percent of all 3­ to 5­year­old children were enrolled in a center­based program.

This reflects a modest decrease from 60 percent in 1999 (Table EA 1.1).

Differences by Race and Hispanic Origin.2 There are notable differences in centerbased early childhood program enrollment rates among racial and ethnic groups (Figure EA

1.1.B).  In 2001, 40 percent of Hispanic children were enrolled in a center­based program,

compared with 59 percent of White, non­Hispanic children and 64 percent of Black, nonHispanic children. 

Throughout the 1990s, Black, non­Hispanic and White, non­Hispanic 3­ to 5­year­olds have

had the highest enrollments in center­based programs, with lower enrollments among

Hispanics (Figure EA 1.1.B).

Differences by Poverty Status. There are substantial differences in center­based enrollment rates by socioeconomic status, including poverty status and maternal education

(Table EA 1.1). In 2001, enrollment rates were higher among families that were at or above

the poverty threshold (59 percent) than those who were below the poverty threshold (47

percent). Enrollment rates also differ by maternal education, with the highest enrollment

(70 percent) among children whose mothers were college graduates and the lowest (38 percent) among children whose mothers lacked a high school diploma.

Differences by Mother’s Employment Status. There are also differences in enrollment

rates by maternal employment status (Figure EA 1.1.C).  In 2001, children whose mothers

were working either full­time (35 hours or more per week) or part­time (less than 35 hours

per week) had substantially higher enrollment rates than children whose mothers were not

in the labor force.

1 Estimates are based on children who have yet to enter kindergarten.

2 Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

300 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 5. EDUCATION AND ACHIEVEMENT

Figure EA 1.1.A

Percentage of 3­ to 5­year­olds enrolled in center­based programs: Selected years, 1991­2001

1991 1993 1995 1996 1999 2001 0

2 0

4 0

6 0

8 0

100 Percent Source:  Federal Interagency Forum on Child and Family Statistics. (2003). America’s Children: Key National Indicators of

Well­Being, 2003. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 301 
Enrollment/Attendance

characteristics:  Selected years, 1991­2001

1991 1993 1995 1996 1999 2001

All enrolled children 53 53 55 55 60 56

Sex

Male 52 53 55 55 61 54

Female 53 53 55 55 59 59

Race and Hispanic origin

White, non­Hispanic 54 54 57 57 60 59

Black, non­Hispanic 58 57 60 65 73 64

Hispanica 39 43 37 39 44 40

Poverty statusb

At or above poverty 56 53 59 59 62 59

Below poverty 44 49 45 44 52 47

50 52 55 54 59 57

One or no parent 54 54 56 58 62 56

c

Less than high school 32 33 35 37 40 38

High school/GED 46 43 48 49 52 47

60 60 57 58 63 62

College graduate 72 73 75 73 74 70

d

35 hours or more per week 59 61 60 63 65 63

Less than 35 hours per week 58 57 62 64 64 61

Looking for work 43 48 52 47 55 47

Not in labor force 45 44 47 43 52 47

a

b

c

Note:  Estimates are based on children who have not yet entered kindergarten. 

programs.

Source: 

Table EA 1.1

Percentage of 3­ to 5­year­olds enrolled in center­based programs, by child and family 

Family structure

Two parents

Mother’s education

Vocational/technical or some college

Mother’s employment status

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

Poverty estimates for 1991 and 1993 are not comparable to later years because respondents were not asked

exact household income.

Children without mothers in the home are not included in estimates dealing with mother’s education or

mother’s employment status.

Center­based programs include

day care centers, Head Start programs, preschool, nursery school, prekindergarten, and other early childhood

Federal Interagency Forum on Child and Family Statistics. (2003). America’s Children: Key National

Indicators of Well­Being, 2003. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

302 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 5. EDUCATION AND ACHIEVEMENT

Figure EA 1.1.B

Percentage of 3­ to 5­year­olds enrolled in center­based programs, by race and Hispanic origin:

1991­2001

1991 1995 1997 1999 1993 2001

White, non-Hispanic

Black, non-Hispanic

Hispanic

0

1 0

2 0

3 0

4 0

5 0

6 0

7 0

8 0

9 0

100 Percent a Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

Source:  Federal Interagency Forum on Child and Family Statistics. (2003). America’s Children: Key National Indicators of

Well­Being, 2003. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

Figure EA 1.1.C

Percentage of 3­ to 5­year­olds enrolled in center­based programs, by poverty status, mother's education, and mother's employment status: 2001

0

2 0

4 0

6 0

8 0

100

Percent

At or 

above 

poverty

Below 

poverty

Less 

than 

high 

school

High 

school/ 

GED

Vocational/ 

technical 

or some 

college

College 

graduate

35 hours 

or more 

per week

Less than 

35 hours 

per week

Looking 

for work

Not in 

labor 

force

Poverty status Mother’s education Mother’s employment

Source:  Federal Interagency Forum on Child and Family Statistics. (2003). America’s Children: Key National Indicators of

Well­Being, 2003. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 303 
Enrollment/Attendance

EA 1.2 Ready Schools, Ready Children

The school readiness of young children is an area of considerable interest and debate in current educational policy. There is general agreement, however, that how a child performs in

school depends in part on the child’s experiences before he or she ever enters a classroom.

Historically, school readiness implied fixed standards of physical, intellectual, and social

development sufficient to enable children to meet school requirements.1 More recent discussions have broadened the framework to include the need for schools to be ready for children.2 This indicator reports on selected characteristics representing both the child’s readiness to begin school as well as the school’s readiness to effectively teach the child.

Measures of both types of school readiness can provide important indications of how

young children are being nurtured in our society and of the challenges faced by teachers and

schools in preparing to meet the needs of diverse populations of children. The measures

provided here include specific school readiness skills exhibited by young children before

entering kindergarten (Table EA 1.2A, Figure EA 1.2.A). The second measure provides the

percentage of children in center­based programs (Table EA 1.2.B, Figure EA 1.2.A). Many

policymakers and educators believe that participating in early childhood programs such as

Head Start, child care, prekindergarten, and kindergarten can better prepare a child to enter

first grade.3 The ratio of students to teachers in elementary schools can be indicative of the

readiness of schools to adequately instruct entering students, and these data are provided

in Figure EA 1.2.B. Lastly, many educators fear that schools with poor or overcrowded conditions are being associated with decreases in both teacher and student performance.4 The

percent of public elementary schools with building deficiencies by enrollment capacity,

including overcrowding, are presented in Figure EA 1.2.C.

1 Crnic, K. & Lamberty, G. (1994). Reconsidering School Readiness: Conceptual and Applied Perspectives. Early Education

and Development, 5(2).

2 Zill, N., & Collins, M. (1995). Approaching Kindergarten: A Look at Preschoolers in the United States. Rockville, MD: U.S.

Department of Education, Office of Educational Research and Improvement.

3 U.S. Department of Education, Office of Educational Research and Improvement. (1999). Indicator of the Month:

Preprimary Education Enrollment. 4 U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (2001). The Condition of Education, 2000.

Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

304 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 5. EDUCATION AND ACHIEVEMENT

by selected child and family characteristics: 1993, 1999 and 2001

Children 

(in thousands) Recognizes all letters

Counts to 20 

or higher

Reads

(or pretends to) Has 3­4 skills

1993 1999 2001 1993 1999 2001 1993 1999 2001 1993 1999 2001 1993 1999 2001 1993 1999 2001

All Children 8,579 8,549 8,551 21 24 23 52 57 56 50 51 53 72 74 71 35 39 39

Age

Age 3 3,889 3,827 3,795 11 15 12 37 41 39 22 24 23 66 70 64 15 20 16

Age 4 3,713 3,722 3,861 28 28 29 62 67 68 70 70 73 75 76 76 49 50 53

Age 5 976 1,001 896 36 44 38 78 81 82 84 87 89 81 77 81 65 69 71

Sex

Male 4,453 4,363 4,292 19 21 19 49 54 52 47 47 47 68 70 68 32 35 34

Female 4,126 4,187 4,260 23 27 27 56 60 61 53 56 58 76 77 75 39 43 43

Race and Hispanic origina

White, non­Hispanic 5,902 5,296 5,313 23 25 24 56 60 61 52 54 55 76 79 78 39 42 44

Black, non­Hispanic 1,271 1,258 1,251 18 25 23 53 60 57 45 49 52 63 66 66 31 35 35

Hispanic 1,026 1,421 1,506 10 14 14 32 41 39 42 43 43 59 57 53 22 25 22

English 7,805 7,599 7,533 22 25 24 55 60 60 51 53 55 73 76 75 37 41 42

Non­English 603 683 820 9 8 6 24 25 27 38 34 34 52 45 37 17 14 11

Less than high school 1,036 952 996 8 7 9 30 36 30 40 32 37 55 53 47 19 15 14

High school  3,268 2,556 2,712 17 17 16 48 48 50 48 49 48 70 69 65 30 31 30

Some college 2,624 2,586 2,406 23 25 25 59 60 63 51 52 59 79 79 78 39 42 46

College degree 912 1,455 1,418 31 35 33 68 73 70 58 61 57 84 84 83 52 54 52

Graduate degree 569 734 820 39 40 36 68 73 70 59 64 59 83 83 85 55 57 56

Employed 4,486 5,058 5,148 23 24 23 57 59 60 52 53 56 75 75 75 39 40 42

Unemployed 594 452 396 17 15 17 41 53 47 46 39 47 67 64 55 29 32 28

3,328 2,773 2,809 18 24 22 49 54 52 47 50 48 68 73 68 32 38 34

Family type

6,226 5,997 6,416 22 26 24 54 58 58 51 53 54 74 75 74 37 41 41

None or one parent 2,353 2,553 2,135 18 19 17 49 54 51 47 48 48 65 69 62 31 33 31

Poverty status

6,323 6,575 — 24 28 — 57 62 — 53 56 — 74 77 — 40 45 —

Below poverty  2,256 1,975 — 12 10 — 41 39 — 41 37 — 64 63 — 23 19 —

a

—  Data not available.

Sources:  U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (2001). 

Center for Education Statistics. (1999). 

DC: U.S. Department of Education; U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (1993). National

Table EA 1.2.A

Percentage of 3­ to 5­year­old children not yet enrolled in kindergarten with specific school­readiness skills,

Writes name

Mother’s language 

Mother’s highest education

Mother’s employment

Not in labor force

Two parents

Above poverty 

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

National Household Education Survey,

Early Childhood Program Participation. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education; U.S. Department of Education, National

National Household Education Survey, Parent and Family Involvement in Education. Washington,

Household Education Survey, School Readiness File. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education.

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 305 
Enrollment/Attendance

Figure EA 1.2.A

Percentage of children with three to four school­readiness skills by mother’s employment status:

1993, 1999, and 2001

1993 1999 2001 0

2 0

4 0

6 0

8 0

100 Percent

Employed

Unemployed

Not in the labor force

Sources:  U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (2001). National Household Education

Survey, Early Childhood Program Participation. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education; U.S. Department of

Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (1999). National Household Education Survey, Parent and Family

Involvement in Education. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education; U.S. Department of Education, National

Center for Education Statistics. (1993). National Household Education Survey, School Readiness File. Washington, DC: U.S.

Department of Education.

306 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 5. EDUCATION AND ACHIEVEMENT

Selected years, 1991­1999

3­year olds 4­year olds

1991 1993 1995 1996 1999 1991 1993 1995 1996 1999 1991 1993 1995 1996 1999

All Children 31.4 34.1 37.4 36.7 39.1 52.7 55.3 60.9 57.7 62.8 86.4 90.0 90.3 90.2 90.6

Race and Hispanic origina

White 33.4 33.7 40.2 39.6 40.8 52.4 53.7 60.8 58.8 62.0 85.7 88.9 88.6 88.8 90.3

Black 31.6 41.9 41.1 40.5 46.9 57.4 62.9 68.2 67.8 74.1 92.3 93.2 93.7 94.1 96.0

Hispanic 19.8 27.2 21.2 22.1 23.7 47.5 48.9 49.0 45.3 54.7 85.3 91.4 93.4 90.4 87.5

Family income

$10,000 or less 25.4 32.7 26.2 36.0 33.0 43.3 52.6 54.3 52.7 53.8 86.1 89.2 90.9 92.7 90.5

$10,001­20,000 23.2 21.6 27.0 28.0 29.7 45.0 47.2 52.3 45.3 50.5 84.6 90.4 89.7 87.6 85.7

$20,001­35,000b 21.3 22.2 27.7 30.8 31.3 48.0 47.8 49.7 50.6 61.6 85.1 86.8 90.7 87.8 91.4

$35,001­50,000b 33.4 37.9 38.1 42.2 36.7 52.3 57.2 59.5 58.2 59.1 87.3 90.6 88.5 89.7 87.4

$50,001 or more 52.9 58.7 61.2 55.0 53.0 74.8 73.2 80.7 75.8 74.1 89.0 93.7 90.9 92.8 93.8

Less than high school 17.3 17.1 16.0 22.0c 24.5 33.1 42.8 42.4c 47.3c 47.2 85.5 79.9 92.5 90.3 94.0

High school  23.0 23.0 26.3 28.9 26.8 40.8 43.2 51.1 47.3 58.4 84.8 89.0 89.2 89.9 88.9

Some college 31.0 35.9 35.6 34.5 38.2 56.3 61.1 63.3 59.8 58.4 87.7 91.1 90.2 88.6 90.0

College degree 41.5 41.1 51.7 49.6 50.9 67.2 64.1 70.7 62.6 70.9 88.1 92.5 91.6 92.6 92.2

Graduate degree 53.0 61.9 60.8 60.4 57.0 72.0 73.3 77.9 78.1 76.8 87.0 94.3 89.8 92.1 91.9

Family type

— 34.4 38.6 38.0 39.2 — 55.1 61.3 57.8 63.2 — 89.1 88.8 89.0 91.3

— 33.8 36.9 37.3 38.7 — 57.2 63.0 58.4 62.8 — 92.1 94.0 91.9 90.4

and one step­parent — 32.7c 23.1c 14.7c 25.6 — 49.5c 46.9c 45.8c 56.4 — 87.3 89.4 93.2 85.5

a

b

c

—  Data not available.

tures.  This analysis includes children ages 3­5 who were not enrolled in first grade. 

Sources: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (1999). 

Center for Education Statistics. (1996).  .

Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (1993). 

(1991). 

Table EA 1.2.B

Percentage of 3­ to 5­year­old children enrolled in center­based programs or kindergarten:  

5­year­olds

Parent’s highest education

Two biological or adoptive parents

One biological or adoptive parent

One biological or adoptive parent 

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

The middle two income ranges were $20,001­30,000 and $30,001­50,000, respectively.

Interpret with caution; standard errors are large due to small sample sizes.

Note: Included in the total but not shown separately are children from other racial/ethnic groups and other types of family strucAge is as of December 31 of the prior year.

National Household Education Survey, Parent

and Family Involvement in Education. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education; U.S. Department of Education, National

National Household Education Survey, Parent and Family Involvement in Education File

Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education; U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (1995).

National Household Education Survey, Early Childhood Program Participation. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Eduction; U.S.

National Household Education Survey, School Readiness

File. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education; U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics.

National Household Education Survey, Early Childhood Education File. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education.

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 307 
Enrollment/Attendance

Figure EA 1.2.B

Public elementary and secondary student­teacher ratios: 1955­2001

0

5

1 0

1 5

2 0

2 5

3 0

3 5

4 0

4 5

5 0 Student/teacher ratio

1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2001

Source:  U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (2002). Digest of Education Statistics:

2001. (Issue No. 034). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

Figure EA 1.2.C

Percent distribution of public elementary schools with building deficiencies by enrollment capacity:

1999

Under-enrolled At enrollment Overcrowded 0

1 0

2 0

3 0

4 0

5 0 Percent Source:  U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (1999). Condition of America’s Public

School Facilities, 1999. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

308 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 5. EDUCATION AND ACHIEVEMENT

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 309 
Enrollment/Attendance

EA 1.3 School Absenteeism

An important aspect of youths’ access to education is the amount of time actually spent in

the classroom.  When students are absent from school, they forgo opportunities to learn.

As a result, nonattendance is considered detrimental to students’ achievement, promotion,

graduation, and employment potential.

Differences by Grade. The percentage of 8th graders who were absent from school 3 or

more days in the preceding month has remained relatively constant between 20 and 23 percent from 1990 to 2001 (Table EA 1.3). During the same time period, a slightly larger percentage of 12th graders were absent from school for that length of time, with percentages

ranging between 26 and 31 percent.

Differences by Race and Hispanic Origin.

1 Among 8th graders in 2001, American

Indian/Alaska Native, at 28 percent, were the most likely to have been absent 3 or more

days in the preceding month. Asian youth had the lowest absentee rate at 11 percent,  followed by White, non­Hispanic, Hispanic, and Black, non­Hispanic youth at 20, 23, and 22

percent, respectively. The patterns are similar for 12th graders, though the differences range

from lows of 22 to 31 percent for White, non­Hispanic, Asian, Hispanic, and Black, nonHispanic youth, to a high of 44 percent for American Indians/Alaska Natives.

Differences by Parents’ Education Level.2 Absences from school were highest for youth

whose parents had less than a high school education (Figure EA 1.3). In 2001, for example,

26 percent of 8th graders whose parents lacked a high school diploma were absent from

school 3 or more days in the preceding month, compared with 16 percent of their peers who

had at least one parent with a college degree. Similar differences were reported for 12th

graders. 

Differences by Type of School. Students who attended private or Catholic schools had

fewer school absences than did students from public schools, across all grades and years

(Table EA 1.3).

1 Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

2 Parents’ education level refers to the highest level of education completed by either parent.

310 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 5. EDUCATION AND ACHIEVEMENT

by sex, race and Hispanic origin, parents’ education level, and type of school: Selected years, 1990­2001

8th Grade 12th Grade

1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2001 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2001

All absent students 23 22 22 23 21 20 20 31 26 28 26 26 26 26

Sex

Male 21 21 22 22 21 20 20 29 24 27 25 26 24 25

Female 24 24 22 23 22 19 21 32 27 28 28 28 28 26

Race and Hispanic origina

White, non­Hispanic 22 21 20 21 21 18 20 30 24 26 26 26 24 24

Black, non­Hispanic 23 22 27 25 23 22 22 30 29 32 28 28 31 27

Hispanic 26 31 28 29 25 26 23 34 32 32 29 32 33 31

Asian/Pacific Islander 9 12 21 18 17 10 11 32 19 28 26 26 20 22

American Indian/ 

Alaska Native 37 38 39 29 34 34 28 — — 53 30 41 42 44

Parents’ highest educationb

Less than high school 38 31 33 32 33 28 26 41 30 36 35 32 35 31

High school 27 23 26 26 25 24 25 34 28 30 29 30 29 29

Some college 22 21 22 23 23 21 22 31 26 27 30 27 28 26

College degree 15 19 18 18 17 14 16 26 23 25 21 24 22 22

Public 23 23 23 23 22 20 21 31 27 28 28 28 27 26

Nonpublic 13 14 15 16 15 14 17 24 17 21 18 19 21 22

a

b

— 

Note:  The sample for this table is based on the 1990, 1992, 1996, and 2000 NAEP Mathematics Assessment; the 1994 and 1998

Source:  U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (2001).  .

Table EA 1.3

Percentage of 8th and 12th graders who were absent from school 3 or more days in the preceding month, 

Type of school

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

Parents’ education level refers to the highest level of education completed by either parent. 

Sample size is insufficient to permit a reliable estimate.

NAEP Reading Assessment; and the 2001 U.S. History Assessment

National Assessment of Educational Progress

Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education.

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 311 
Enrollment/Attendance

Figure EA 1.3

Percentage of 8th and 12th graders who were absent from school 3 or more days in the preceding

month by parents’ education level: 2001

8th Grade 12th Grade 0

2 0

4 0

6 0

8 0

100

Percent

Less than high school

High school

Some college

College degree

Source:  U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (2001). National Assessment of

Educational Progress. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education.

312 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 5. EDUCATION AND ACHIEVEMENT

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 313 
Enrollment/Attendance

EA 1.4 High School Dropouts

Because high school completion has become a requirement for accessing additional education, training, or the labor force, the economic consequences of leaving high school without a diploma are severe. On average, dropouts are more likely to be unemployed than high

school graduates and to earn less money when they eventually secure work.1 High school

dropouts are also more likely to receive public assistance than high school graduates who

do not go on to college.2 Young women who drop out of school are more likely to have children at younger ages and more likely to be single parents than high school graduates.3 

Lastly, dropouts make up a disproportionate percentage of the nation’s prison and death

row inmates.4 

There are several ways to calculate dropout rates. The one used here is the event dropout

rate, which is the proportion of students who were enrolled in 1 year who were then not

enrolled in the following year and did not earn a high school credential in the intervening

year. According to this measure, 5 percent of all young people 15 to 24 years old who were

enrolled in school in 2000, were not enrolled in grades 10 to 12 in 2001 (Table EA 1.4 and

Figure 1.4.A).

Differences by Sex. The dropout rate for male students was slightly higher than the

dropout rate for female students in 2001.5 Approximately 6 percent of males and 4 percent

of females dropped out of high school in 2001.

Differences by Family Income.6 Family income serves as a good indicator for other

social and economic factors that are likely to be related to a young person’s decision to stay

in school. Since the mid­1970s there has been an overall downward trend in the dropout

rates for young adults living in families at all income levels. Most of the declines in dropout

rates for all income groups occurred in the 1970s and 80s. Since 1990, event dropout rates

for all income groups have stabilized (Table EA 1.4 and Figure EA 1.4.B).

Differences by Race and Hispanic origin. The 2001 data on event dropouts by race and

ethnicity confirm some earlier findings about the strong association between race/ethnicity and the likelihood of dropping out of school.7 For example, the High School and Beyond

Study shows that Hispanics and Blacks are at greater risk of dropping out than Whites.8 In

2001, 9 percent of Hispanic and 6 percent of Black, non­Hispanic youth dropped out of

school compared to 4 percent of White, non­Hispanic youth.

1 U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (2000). The Condition of Education, 1999.

Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

2 U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (1999). The Condition of Education, 1998.

Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

3 U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (1997). Dropout Rates in the United States: 1996.

Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

4 U.S. Bureau of Justice Statistics. (1991). Comparing Federal and State Prison Inmates, 1991. Washington, DC: U.S.

Government Printing Office.

5 U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (2003). Dropout Rates in the United States: 2001.

Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

6 The variable used to assess family income is derived from a single question asked of the household respondent in the

October Current Population Survey.

7 U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (2000). Dropout Rates in the United States: 1999.

Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

8 Ekstron, R., Goertz, M., Pollack, M., & Rock, D. (1987). School Dropouts. Patterns and Policies. New York, NY: Teachers

College Press.

314 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 5. EDUCATION AND ACHIEVEMENT

by sex, family income, and race and Hispanic origin: Selected years, 1975­2001

1975 1980 1985 1990a 1995a 1996a 1997a 1998a 1999a 2000a 2001a

6 6 5 4 6 5 5 5 5 5 5

Sex

Male 5 7 5 4 6 5 5 5 5 6 6

Female 6 6 5 4 5 5 4 5 5 4 4

Family incomeb

Low income 16 16 14 10 13 11 12 13 11 10 11

Middle income 6 6 5 4 6 5 4 4 5 5 5

High income 3 3 2 1 2 2 2 3 2 2 2

Race and Hispanic originc

White, non­Hispanic 5 5 4 3 5 4 4 4 4 4 4

Male 5 6 5 4 5 4 — — — — —

Female 5 5 4 3 4 4 — — — — —

Black, non­Hispanic 9 8 8 5 6 7 5 5 7 6 6

Male 8 8 8 4 8 5 — — — — —

Female 9 9 7 6 5 9 — — — — —

Hispanic 11 12 10 8 12 9 10 9 8 7 9

Male 10 18 9 9 12 10 — — — — —

Female 12 7 10 7 13 8 — — — — —

a Numbers after 1990 reflect new editing procedures instituted by the Census Bureau for cases with missing data on school

enrollment items. 

undercount. 

b Low income is defined as the bottom 20 percent of all family incomes for the year; middle income is between 20 and 80 percent of all family incomes; and high income is the top 20 percent of all family incomes. 

of family incomes. 

c

—  Data not available. 

Source:  U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (2003). Dropout Rates in the United States: 2001.

Table EA 1.4

Event dropout rate (percentage) of 15­ through 24­year­olds who dropped out of grades 10 through 12, 

All Youth

Numbers after 1992 reflect new wording of the educational attainment item in the Current Population

Survey.  Numbers after 1994 may reflect changes in the Current Population Survey due to newly instituted computer­assisted

interviewing and/or due to the change in the population controls to the 1990 Census­based estimates, with adjustments for

See the glossary for a full definition

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 315 
Figure EA 1.4.A

Event dropout rate (percentage) for youth in grades 10 to 12, by race and Hispanic origin: Selected

years, 1975­2001

a Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

Source:  U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (2003). Dropout Rates in the United

States: 2001. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

Figure EA 1.4.B

Event dropout rate for youth in grades 10 to 12 (ages 15 to 24), by family income: 1975­2001

Source:  U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (2003). Dropout Rates in the United

States: 2001. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

316

Enrollment/Attendance

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003

1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2001 0

5

10

15

Percent

Total

White, non-Hispanic

Black, non-Hispanic

Hispanic

0

10

15

20

25

30 Percent

High income

Middle income

Low income

1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2001

All

dropouts
SECTION 5. EDUCATION AND ACHIEVEMENT

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 317 
Enrollment/Attendance

EA 1.5 High School Completion

The differences in employment rates and earnings between youth who have completed

high school and those who have not have been growing over the past two decades. In 1998,

young males and females ages 25 to 34 who dropped out of high school scored 30 and 31

percent less than their peers who received a high school diploma.1 

The high school completion rate represents the proportion of 18­ to 24­year­olds who have

earned a high school diploma or alternative credential, such as the General Education

Development (GED) credential. In 2001, the high school completion rate for the country

was 87 percent; a slight increase since 1972 (Table EA 1.5). Between 1972 and 1985, the high

school completion rate climbed 2 percentage points from 83 to 85 percent. Since 1985 the

completion rate has remained steady at around 86 percent.

Although the overall completion rate has remained steady in recent years, the number of

youth earning a traditional high school diploma has been decreasing. In 1990, 81 percent of

high school completers earned a diploma, compared with 77 percent in 1999. However, the

alternative credential has become more common in recent years—between 1990 and 1999

the number of youth earning an equivalent credential almost doubled, rising from 5 to 9

percent.

Differences by Race and Hispanic Origin.2 The high school completion trend data for

different racial/ethnic groups are similar to the national trend data, with positive increases

in completion early in the last quarter century, and rates stabilizing in the last decade.

Specifically, high school completion rates for White, non­Hispanic students climbed from

86 percent in 1972 to about 90 percent in the early 1990s (Figure EA 1.5). Since that time,

the completion rate has fluctuated around 90 percent. However, the 2001 completion rate

of 91 percent for Whites was significantly higher than their completion rates in every year

before 1990.3 

The high school completion rate for Black, non­Hispanic youth has also increased significantly since 1972 but has stabilized in the 1990s. Furthermore, the gap between Black, nonHispanic and White, non­Hispanic completion rates has narrowed during that timeframe.

In 1972, the completion gap was 14 percent, while in 2001 the gap had closed to 5 percent.

In contrast to the closing of the Black–White gap in high school completion rates, the

Hispanic–White completion gap was about the same in 2001 as it was in 1972 (30­ and 25­

point differences, respectively). Although the Hispanic high school completion rate

increased during this period, it did so at a rate that was no faster than that for Whites, 

non­Hispanic. 

1 U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (2001). The Condition of Education, 2000.

Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

2 Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

3 U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (2001). Dropout Rates in the United States: 2000.

Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education.

318 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 5. EDUCATION AND ACHIEVEMENT

Table EA 1.5

High school completion rates (percentage) and method of completion for 18­ to 24­year­olds, by

race and Hispanic origin:  Selected years, 1972­2001

1972 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995a 1996a 1997a 1998a 1999a 2000a 2001a

All youth 83 84 84 85 86 85 86 86 85 86 87 87

Diploma — — — — 81 78 76 77 75 77 — —

Equivalentb — — — — 5 8 10 9 10 9 — —

White, non­Hispanic 86 87 88 88 90 90 92 91 90 91 92 91

Diploma — — — — 85 83 81 81 80 82 — —

Equivalentb — — — — 5 7 11 9 10 9 — —

Black, non­Hispanic 72 70 75 81 83 85 83 82 81 84 84 86

Diploma — — — — 78 75 73 72 72 73 — —

Equivalentb — — — — 5 9 10 10 10 11 — —

Hispanicc 56 62 57 67 59 63 62 67 63 63 64 66

Diploma — — — — 55 54 55 59 52 55 — —

Equivalentb — — — — 4 9 7 8 11 9 — —

a Numbers from 1992 on reflect new wording of the educational attainment item in the Current Population

Survey.  Numbers  from 1994 on may reflect changes in the Current Population Survey due to newly instituted

computer­assisted interviewing and/or due to the change in the population controls used this year to the 1990

Census­based estimates, with adjustments for undercount.

b  Equivalents include alternative credentials obtained by passing examinations such as the General Educational

Development (GED) exams.

c  Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

Note:  Table refers to 18­ to 24­year­olds who are enrolled in high school or below.

—  Data not available 

Source:  Federal Interagency Forum on Child and Family Statistics. (2003). America’s Children: Key National Indicators

of Well­Being, 2003. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 319 
Enrollment/Attendance

Figure EA 1.5

High school completion rates for 18­ to 24­year­olds, by race and Hispanic origin:  1972­2001

0

1 0

2 0

3 0

4 0

5 0

6 0

7 0

8 0

9 0

100 Percent

Total

White, non-Hispanic

Black, non-Hispanic

Hispanic

1972 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2001

a Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

Source:  Federal Interagency Forum on Child and Family Statistics. (2003). America’s Children: Key National Indicators 

of Well­Being, 2003. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

320 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 5. EDUCATION AND ACHIEVEMENT

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 321 
Enrollment/Attendance

EA 1.6 College Attendance and Completion

College attendance and receipt of a bachelor’s degree increase employment opportunities

and income potential.  Adults with higher levels of education are more likely to participate

in the labor force.  For example in 1999, 80 percent of adults over age 25 who had completed

college participated in the labor force compared to 65 percent of high school graduates and

43 percent of high school dropouts.1 Furthermore, between 1979 and 1999, median real

weekly wages increased by almost 15 percent for males age 25 and over who had completed college, while falling by 12 percent for men with only a high school diploma.  Thus, college graduates earned 68 percent more than high school graduates in 1999, up from 29 percent in 1979.2 

The past three decades have witnessed a growth in the number of young adults completing college­level work.  The percentage of 25­ to 29­year­olds who had completed at least

some college and the percentage who received a bachelor’s degree or higher have both

increased by 50 percent between 1971 and 2002 (Table EA 1.6 and Figures EA 1.6.A and EA

1.6.B). 

Differences by Race and Hispanic origin.3 In 2002, White, non­Hispanic 25­ to 29­yearolds were far more likely (36 percent) to complete college than either their Black, nonHispanic (18 percent) or their Hispanic (9 percent) peers.  Furthermore, White, nonHispanic 25­ to 29­year­olds were more likely to have attended college than Black, nonHispanics and Hispanics (66 versus 53 and 31 percent respectively). 

Differences by Sex. In 1971, the percentage of male 25­ to 29­year­olds completing college was 6 percentage points higher than the percentage of females.  Over the past three

decades, however, this gap lessened gradually, and in 1991 more females were completing

college.  By 2002, 5 percent more females than males completed college.  A similar trend was

observed for college attendance (Table EA 1.6).

1 U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (2002). Digest of Education Statistics: 2001.

Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

2 White House Council of Economic Advisors. (2000). Teens and their Parents in the 21st Century. Washington, DC: U.S.

Government Printing Office.

3 Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

322 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 5. EDUCATION AND ACHIEVEMENT

Selected years, 1971­2002

1971 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002

a 34 42 45 44 45 54 57 57 58 58 58 58 58

Race and Hispanic originb

White, non­Hispanic 37 44 48 46 48 60 62 63 64 64 64 65 66

Black, non­Hispanic 18 28 32 34 36 45 48 47 50 51 53 51 53

Hispanic 15 22 23 27 23 29 31 33 33 31 33 32 31

Sex

Male 39 47 48 44 44 52 55 55 55 55 55 54 54

Female 29 36 42 43 45 56 59 59 61 61 62 63 62

c 17 22 23 22 23 25 27 28 27 28 29 29 29

Race and Hispanic originb

White, non­Hispanic 19 24 25 24 26 29 32 33 32 34 34 33 36

Black, non­Hispanic 7 11 12 12 13 15 15 14 16 15 18 18 18

Hispanic 5 9 8 11 8 9 10 11 10 9 10 11 9

Sex

Male 20 25 24 23 24 25 26 26 26 27 28 26 27

Female 14 19 21 21 23 25 28 29 29 30 30 31 32

— — — — — 8 8 8 9 9 9 9 8

Race and Hispanic originb

White, non­Hispanic — — — — — 9 9 9 9 10 10 9 9

Black, non­Hispanic — — — — — 7 7 6 7 9 8 9 8

Hispanic — — — — — 4 5 6 6 6 6 6 6

a

b

c

—  Data not available.

Note:  Data in this table have been revised and therefore do not match data presented in previous issues of this report.

Sources: 

Being, 2003

Statistics. (2003). The Condition of Education, 2002.

Table EA 1.6

Percentage of 25­ to 29­year­olds who have attended some college or have received a bachelor’s degree 

or higher, by race and Hispanic origin, and sex:  

Some college or more

Bachelor’s degree or higher

Associate’s degree

This was measured as “one or more years of college” for 1971­1991 and as “some college or more” for 1992­1997.

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

This was measured as “four or more years of college” for 1971­1991 and as “bachelor's degree or higher” for 1992­1997.

Federal Interagency Forum on Child and Family Statistics. (2003). America’s Children: Key National Indicators of Well­

. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office; U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education

Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 323 
Enrollment/Attendance

Figure EA 1.6.A

Percentage of 25­ to 29­year­olds who have received a bachelor’s degree by race and Hispanic origin:  1971­2002

0

1 0

2 0

3 0

4 0

5 0

6 0

7 0

8 0

9 0

100 Percent

Total

White, non-Hispanic

Black, non-Hispanic

Hispanic

1971 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2002

a Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

Sources:  Federal Interagency Forum on Child and Family Statistics. (2003). America’s Children: Key National Indicators of

Well­Being, 2003. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office; U.S. Department of Education, National Center

for Education Statistics. (2003). The Condition of Education, 2002. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

Figure EA 1.6.B

Percentage of 25­ to 29­year­olds who have attended some college by race and Hispanic origin:

1971­2002

0

1 0

2 0

3 0

4 0

5 0

6 0

7 0

8 0

9 0

100 PercentTotal

White, non-Hispanic

Black, non-Hispanic

Hispanic

1971 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2002

a Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

Sources:  Federal Interagency Forum on Child and Family Statistics. (2003). America’s Children: Key National Indicators of

Well­Being, 2003. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office; U.S. Department of Education, National Center

for Education Statistics. (2003). The Condition of Education, 2002. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

324 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 5. EDUCATION AND ACHIEVEMENT

Enrollment/

Attendance

Achievement/

Proficiency

Related

Behaviors and

Characteristics
Achievement/Proficiency

EA 2.1 Reading Proficiency for Youth Ages 9, 13, and 17

In order to monitor progress in the reading achievement of students in the United States,

the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) has conducted national assessments of the reading performance of 9­, 13­, and 17­year­olds. There are five levels of reading proficiency reported by NAEP, ranging from Level 150 (completing simple, discrete reading tasks) to Level 350 (learning from specialized reading materials).  The following tables

report the average reading proficiency scores of students in the three age groups between

1971 and 1999. 

Differences by Age. Among 9­year­olds, average reading proficiency scores improved

between 1971 and 1980, declined between 1980 and 1984, and remained steady until 1999,

so that the average score in 1999 was similar to the score in 1975 (Table EA 2.1.A). Among

13­year­olds, average reading proficiency scores varied from year to year and were similar

in 1999 and 1971 (Table EA 2.1.B). Among 17­year­olds, average scores increased between

1971 and 1988, remained stable between 1988 and 1992, and then showed a slight decline

through 1999, so that the average score in 1999 was similar to the score in 1975 (Table EA

2.1.C).

Differences by Sex. Females have scored consistently higher than males over time and for

all ages. For example, among 17­year­olds in 1999, females had an average score of 295, compared with an average score of 282 for males (Table EA 2.1.C).

Differences by Race and Hispanic Origin.1 There are large and consistent differences

in reading proficiency by race and Hispanic origin among all age groups; for example,

among 17­year­olds in 1999, Whites, non­Hispanic had higher average reading proficiency

scores than either Blacks, non­Hispanic or Hispanics (Table EA 2.1.C). However, the gaps

in reading proficiency scores between Whites, non­Hispanic and Blacks, non­Hispanic have

narrowed since the mid­1970s among 17­year­olds (Figure EA 2.1).

Differences by Parents’ Education Level.2 Average reading proficiency levels vary dramatically by parents’ education level; for example, among 13­year­olds and 17­year­olds in

1999, the lowest average reading proficiency scores were among youth whose better­educated parent did not have a high school education, while the highest scores were among

youth who had a parent with post­high school education (Tables EA 2.1.B and EA 2.1.C).

Differences by Type of School. Average reading proficiency scores have been consistently higher among youth attending nonpublic schools than among youth attending public

schools. This is true for every age group and every year reported (Tables EA 2.1.A, EA 2.1.B,

and EA 2.1.C).

1 Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

2 Parents’ education level refers to the highest level of education completed by either parent. It is not reported at age 9

because approximately one­third of these students did not know their parents’ education level.

326 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 5. EDUCATION AND ACHIEVEMENT

Selected years, 1971­1999

1971 1975 1980 1984 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1999

208 210 215 211 212 209 211 211 212 212

Sex

Male 201 204 210 208 208 204 206 207 207 209

Female 214 216 220 214 216 215 215 215 218 215

Race and Hispanic origina

White, non­Hispanic 214 217 221 218 218 217 218 218 220 221

Black, non­Hispanic 170 181 189 186 189 182 185 185 191 186

Hispanic — 183 190 187 194 189 192 186 195 193

Public — — 214 209 210 208 209 209 210 210

Nonpublic — — 227 223 223 228 225 225 227 226

a

—  Data not available. 

Note:  The reading proficiency scale ranges from 0 to 350:

Source:  U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (2000). National Assessment of

Department of Education.

Table EA 2.1.A

Average reading proficiency for 9­year­olds, by sex, race and Hispanic origin, and type of school:

All 9­year­olds

Type of school

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

Level 150: Simple, discrete reading tasks

Level 200: Partial skills and understanding

Level 250: Interrelates ideas and makes generalizations

Level 300: Understands complicated information

Level 350: Learns from specialized reading materials

Educational Progress, 1999. Trends in Academic Progress: Three Decades of Student Performance. Washington, DC: U.S.

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 327 
Achievement/Proficiency

level, and type of school:  Selected years, 1971­1999

1971 1975 1980 1984 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1999

All 13­year­olds 255 256 259 257 258 257 260 258 258 259

Sex

Male 250 250 254 253 252 251 254 251 251 254

Female 261 262 263 262 263 263 265 266 264 265

Race and Hispanic origina

White, non­Hispanic 261 262 264 263 261 262 266 265 266 267

Black, non­Hispanic 222 226 233 236 243 242 238 234 234 238

Hispanic — 233 237 240 240 238 239 235 238 244

Parents’ highest educationb

Less than high school 238 239 239 240 247 241 239 237 239 240

High school 256 255 254 253 253 251 252 251 251 251

Some college 270 270 271 268 265 267 270 269 269 270

Public — — 257 255 256 255 257 256 256 257

Nonpublic — — 271 271 268 270 276 276 273 276

a

b

—  Data not available.

Note: The reading proficiency scale ranges from 0 to 350:

Source:  U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (2000). National Assessment of

Department of Education.

Table EA 2.1.B

Average reading proficiency for 13­year­olds, by sex, race and Hispanic origin, parents’ education

Type of school

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

Parents’ education level refers to the highest level of education completed by either parent.

Level 150: Simple, discrete reading tasks

Level 200: Partial skills and understanding

Level 250: Interrelates ideas and makes generalizations

Level 300: Understands complicated information

Level 350: Learns from specialized reading materials

Educational Progress, 1999. Trends in Academic Progress: Three Decades of Student Performance. Washington, DC: U.S.

328 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 5. EDUCATION AND ACHIEVEMENT

level, and type of school:  Selected years, 1971­1999

1971 1975 1980 1984 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1999

285 286 286 289 290 290 290 288 288 288

Sex

Male 279 280 282 284 286 284 284 282 281 282

Female 291 291 289 294 294 297 296 295 295 295

Race and Hispanic origina

White, non­Hispanic 291 293 293 295 295 297 297 296 295 295

Black, non­Hispanic 239 241 243 264 274 267 261 266 266 264

Hispanic — 252 261 268 271 275 271 263 265 271

Parents’ highest educationb

Less than high school 261 263 262 269 267 270 271 268 267 265

High school 283 281 278 281 282 283 281 276 273 274

Some college 302 301 299 301 300 300 299 299 298 298

Public — — 284 287 289 289 288 286 287 286

Nonpublic — — 298 303 300 311 310 306 294 307

a

b

—  Data not available.

Note: The reading proficiency scale ranges from 0 to 350:

Source:  U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (2000). National Assessment of

Department of Education.

Table EA 2.1.C

Average reading proficiency for 17­year­olds, by sex, race and Hispanic origin, parents’ education

All 17­year­olds

Type of school

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

Parents’ education level refers to the highest level of education completed by either parent.

Level 150: Simple, discrete reading tasks

Level 200: Partial skills and understanding

Level 250: Interrelates ideas and makes generalizations

Level 300: Understands complicated information

Level 350: Learns from specialized reading materials

Educational Progress, 1999. Trends in Academic Progress: Three Decades of Student Performance. Washington, DC: U.S.

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 329 
Achievement/Proficiency

Figure EA 2.1

Average reading proficiency for 17­year­olds, by race and Hispanic origin:  1971­1999

1971 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 1999

0

220

240

260

280

300

320

340 Percent

White, non-Hispanic

Black, non-Hispanic

Hispanic

a Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

Source:  U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (2000). National Assessment of

Educational Progress, 1999. Trends in Academic Progress: Three Decades of Student Performance. Washington, DC: U.S.

Department of Education.

330 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 5. EDUCATION AND ACHIEVEMENT

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 331 
Achievement/Proficiency

EA 2.2 Mathematics Proficiency for Youth Ages 9, 13, and 17

In order to monitor progress in the mathematics achievement of youth in the United

States, the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) has conducted national

assessments of the mathematics performance of 9­, 13­, and 17­year­olds. There are five levels of mathematics proficiency reported by NAEP, ranging from Level 150 (understanding

simple arithmetic facts) to Level 350 (multistep problem solving and algebra).  The following tables report the average mathematics proficiency scores of youth in the three age

groups between 1973 and 1999. 

Differences by Age. Among 9­year­olds, average mathematics proficiency scores

remained the same between 1973 and 1982 and then increased substantially to 231 in 1994;

scores remained stable from 1994 to 1999 (Table EA 2.2.A). Among 13­year­olds, mathematics proficiency scores have slowly increased between 1978 and 1999 (Table EA 2.2.B).

Among 17­year­olds, average proficiency scores declined between 1973 and 1982, after

which they increased and stabilized at a level slightly higher than that obtained in 1973

(Table EA 2.2.C). 

Differences by Sex. Proficiency scores in 1999 were higher for males by an average of 2

points for 9­year­olds and 13­year­olds, and 3 points for 17­year­olds. 

Differences by Race and Hispanic Origin.1 There are consistently large differences in

mathematics proficiency by race and Hispanic origin. For example, among 17­year­olds in

1999, Blacks, non­Hispanic, and Hispanics had lower proficiency scores than Whites, nonHispanic (Table EA 2.2.C); however, Black, non­Hispanic and Hispanic 17­year­olds have

shown greater gains in achievement between 1973 and 1999 than their White, nonHispanic counterparts (Figure EA 2.2). 

Differences by Parents’ Education Level.2 There are large variations in average mathematics proficiency levels by level of parental education for 13­ and 17­year­olds (Tables EA

2.2.B and EA 2.2.C). For example, in 1999, 13­year­olds whose better­educated parent did

not have a high school education had the lowest average proficiency scores, while those

whose parent(s) had graduated from college had the highest scores (Table EA 2.2.B).

Differences by Type of School. Average mathematics proficiency scores among youth in

public schools have been consistently lower than average scores among youth attending

nonpublic schools. This is true for every age group and every year reported (Tables EA 2.2.A,

EA 2.2.B, and EA 2.2.C).

1 Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

2 Parents’ education level refers to the highest level of education completed by either parent. It is not reported at age 9

because approximately one­third of these students did not know their parents’ education level.

332 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 5. EDUCATION AND ACHIEVEMENT

of school:  Selected years, 1973­1999

1973 1978 1982 1986 1990 1992 1994 1996 1999

219 219 219 222 230 230 231 231 232

Sex

Male 218 217 217 222 229 231 232 233 233

Female 220 220 221 222 230 228 230 229 231

Race and Hispanic origina

White, non­Hispanic 225 224 224 227 235 235 237 237 239

Black, non­Hispanic 190 192 195 202 208 208 212 212 211

Hispanic 202 203 204 205 214 212 210 215 213

Public — 217 217 220 229 228 229 230 231

Nonpublic — 231 232 230 238 242 245 239 242

a

—  Data not available. 

Note:  The mathematics proficiency scale ranges from 0 to 350:

Source:  U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (2000). National Assessment of

Department of Education.

Table EA 2.2.A

Average mathematics proficiency for 9­year­olds, by sex, race and Hispanic origin, and type 

All 9­year­olds

Type of school

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

Level 150: Simple arithmetic facts

Level 200: Beginning skills and understanding

Level 250: Numerical operations and beginning problem solving

Level 300: Moderately complex procedures and reasoning

Level 350: Multistep problem solving and algebra

Educational Progress, 1999. Trends in Academic Progress: Three Decades of Student Performance. Washington, DC: U.S.

Figure EA 2.2

Average mathematics proficiency for 17­year­olds, by race and Hispanic origin:   1973­1999

1973 1978 1982 1986 1990 1992 1994 1996 1999

0

220

240

260

280

300

320

340 Proficiency

White, non-Hispanic

Black, non-Hispanic

Hispanic

a Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

Source:  U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (2000). National Assessment of

Educational Progress, 1999. Trends in Academic Progress: Three Decades of Student Performance. Washington, DC: U.S.

Department of Education.

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 333 
Achievement/Proficiency

level, and type of school:  Selected years, 1973­1999

1973 1978 1982 1986 1990 1992 1994 1996 1999

All 13­year­olds 266 264 269 269 270 273 274 274 276

Sex

Male 265 264 269 270 271 274 276 276 277

Female 267 265 268 268 270 272 273 272 275

Race and Hispanic origina

White, non­Hispanic 274 272 274 274 276 279 281 281 283

Black, non­Hispanic 228 230 240 249 249 250 252 252 251

Hispanic 239 238 252 254 255 259 256 256 259

Parents’ highest educationb

Less than high school — 245 251 252 253 256 255 254 256

High school — 263 263 263 263 263 266 267 264

Some college — 273 275 274 277 278 277 278 279

— 284 282 280 280 283 285 283 286

Public — 263 267 269 269 272 273 273 274

Nonpublic — 279 281 276 280 283 285 286 289

a

b

—  Data not available. 

Note: The mathematics proficiency scale ranges from 0 to 350:

Source:  U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (2000). National Assessment of Educational

of Education.

Table EA 2.2.B

Average mathematics proficiency for 13­year­olds, by sex, race and Hispanic origin, parents’ education

College degree

Type of school

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

Parents’ education level refers to the highest level of education completed by either parent.

Level 150: Simple arithmetic facts

Level 200: Beginning skills and understanding

Level 250: Numerical operations and beginning problem solving

Level 300: Moderately complex procedures and reasoning

Level 350: Multistep problem solving and algebra

Progress, 1999. Trends in Academic Progress: Three Decades of Student Performance. Washington, DC: U.S. Department 

334 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 5. EDUCATION AND ACHIEVEMENT

level, and type of school:  Selected years, 1973­1999

1973 1978 1982 1986 1990 1992 1994 1996 1999

All 17­year­olds 304 300 299 302 305 307 306 307 308

Sex

Male 309 304 302 305 306 309 309 310 310

Female 301 297 296 299 303 305 304 305 307

Race and Hispanic origina

White, non­Hispanic 310 306 304 308 310 312 312 313 315

Black, non Hispanic 270 268 272 279 289 286 286 286 283

Hispanic 277 276 277 283 284 292 291 292 293

Parents’ highest educationb

Less than high school — 280 279 279 285 286 284 281 289

High school — 294 293 293 294 298 295 297 299

Some college — 305 304 305 308 308 305 307 308

— 317 312 314 316 316 318 317 317

Public — 300 297 301 304 305 304 306 307

Nonpublic — 314 311 320 318 320 319 316 321

a

b

—  Data not available. 

Note: The mathematics proficiency scale ranges from 0 to 350:

Source: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics (2000). 

Table EA 2.2.C

Average mathematics proficiency for 17­year­olds, by sex, race and Hispanic origin, parents’ education

College degree

Type of school

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

Parents’ education level refers to the highest level of education completed by either parent.

Level 150: Simple arithmetic facts

Level 200: Beginning skills and understanding

Level 250: Numerical operations and beginning problem solving

Level 300: Moderately complex procedures and reasoning

Level 350: Multistep problem solving and algebra

NAEP 1999 Trends in Academic

Progress: Three Decades of Student Performance. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education.

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 335 
Achievement/Proficiency

EA 2.3 Science Proficiency for Youth Ages 9, 13, and 17

In order to measure youths’ proficiency in science over time, the National Assessment of

Educational Progress (NAEP) has conducted national assessments and reported five different proficiency levels, ranging from Level 150 (knows everyday science facts) to Level 350

(integrates specialized scientific information). The following tables report the average science proficiency scores of youth in the three age groups between 1970 and 1999.

Differences by Age. Average science proficiency scores have increased among all age

groups over the past three decades. Among 9­ and 13­year­olds, average science proficiency

scores increased between 1977 and 1992 before declining slightly in the latter half of the

1990s (Tables EA 2.3.A and EA 2.3.B).  Among 17­year­olds, average science proficiency

scores declined between 1969 and 1982, after which they rebounded somewhat, but are still

below their 1969 high (Table EA 2.3.C). 

Differences by Sex. Average science proficiency scores have been consistently higher for

males than females over time and for all age groups, though differences are smaller among

9­year­olds. Among 13­year­olds in 1999, males scored on average 6 points higher than

females; among 17­year­olds, the average difference was 9 points; and among 9­year­olds,

males scored on average 3 points higher than females. 

Differences by Race and Hispanic Origin.1 There are large differences in science proficiency scores by race and Hispanic origin among all age groups. For example, among 17­

year­olds in 1999, Whites, non­Hispanic had higher average science proficiency scores than

Blacks, non­Hispanic or Hispanics (306 versus 254 and 276, respectively) (Table EA 2.3.C

and Figure EA 2.3).

Differences by Parents’ Education Level.2 Average science proficiency levels vary dramatically by level of parents’ education. For example, among 13­year­olds and 17­year­olds

in 1999, the lowest average science proficiency scores were among youth whose better­educated parent did not have a high school education, while the highest scores were among

youth who had a parent who had graduated from college (Tables EA 2.3.B and EA 2.3.C). 

Differences by Type of School. Average science proficiency scores have been consistently higher among students attending nonpublic schools than among students attending public schools. This is true for every age group and every year reported (Tables EA 2.3.A, EA

2.3.B, and EA 2.3.C).

1 Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

2 Parents’ education level refers to the highest level of education completed by either parent. It is not reported at age 9

because approximately one­third of these students did not know their parents’ education level.

336 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 5. EDUCATION AND ACHIEVEMENT

of school: Selected years, 1970­1999

1970 1973 1977 1982 1986 1990 1992 1994 1996 1999

225 220 220 221 224 229 231 231 230 229

Sex

Male 228 222 222 221 227 230 235 232 231 231

Female 223 218 218 221 221 227 227 230 228 228

Race and Hispanic origina

White, non­Hispanic 236 231 230 229 232 238 239 240 239 240

Black, non­Hispanic 179 177 175 187 196 196 200 201 202 199

Hispanic — — 192 189 199 206 205 201 207 206

Public — — 218 220 223 228 229 230 228 228

Nonpublic — — 235 232 233 237 240 242 238 239

a

—  Data not available.

Note: The science proficiency scale ranges from 0 to 350:

Source: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (2000). National Assessment of

Department of Education.

Table EA 2.3.A

Average science proficiency for 9­year­olds, by sex, race and Hispanic origin, and type 

All 9­year­olds

Type of school

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

Level 150: Knows everyday science facts

Level 200: Understands simple scientific principles

Level 250: Applies general scientific information

Level 300: Analyzes scientific procedures and data

Level 350: Integrates specialized scientific information

Educational Progress, 1999. Trends in Academic Progress: Three Decades of Student Performance. Washington, DC: U.S.

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 337 
Achievement/Proficiency

education level, and type of school:  Selected years, 1970­1999

1970 1973 1977 1982 1986 1990 1992 1994 1996 1999

All 13­year­olds 255 250 247 250 251 255 258 257 256 256

Sex

Male 257 252 251 256 256 259 260 259 260 259

Female 253 247 244 245 247 252 256 254 252 253

Race and Hispanic origina

White, non­Hispanic 263 259 256 257 259 264 267 267 266 266

Black, non­Hispanic 215 205 208 217 222 226 224 224 226 227

Hispanic — — 213 226 226 232 238 232 232 227

Parents' highest educationb

Less than high school — — 224 225 229 233 234 234 230 229

High school — — 245 243 245 247 246 247 248 243

Some college — — 260 259 258 263 266 260 261 261

College degree — — 266 264 264 268 269 269 266 268

Public — — 245 249 251 254 257 255 254 254

Nonpublic — — 268 264 263 269 265 268 268 269

a

b

—  Data not available. 

Note: The science proficiency scale ranges from 0 to 350:

Source: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (2000). National Assessment of

Department of Education.

Table EA 2.3.B

Average science proficiency for 13­year­olds, by sex, race and Hispanic origin, parents’ 

Type of school

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

Parents’ education level refers to the highest level of education completed by either parent.

Level 150: Knows everyday science facts

Level 200: Understands simple scientific principles

Level 250: Applies general scientific information

Level 300: Analyzes scientific procedures and data

Level 350: Integrates specialized scientific information

Educational Progress, 1999. Trends in Academic Progress: Three Decades of Student Performance. Washington, DC: U.S.

338 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 5. EDUCATION AND ACHIEVEMENT

education level, and type of school:  Selected years, 1969­1999

1969 1973 1977 1982 1986 1990 1992 1994 1996 1999

All 17­year­olds 305 296 290 283 289 290 294 294 296 295

Sex

Male 314 304 297 292 295 296 299 300 300 300

Female 297 288 282 275 282 285 289 289 292 291

Race and Hispanic origina

White, non­Hispanic 312 304 298 293 298 301 304 306 307 306

Black, non­Hispanic 258 250 240 235 253 253 256 257 260 254

Hispanic — — 262 249 259 262 270 261 269 276

Parents' highest educationb

Less than high school — — 265 259 258 261 262 256 259 264

High school — — 284 275 277 276 280 279 282 281

Some college — — 296 290 295 297 296 295 297 297

College degree — — 309 300 304 306 308 311 308 307

Public — — 288 282 287 289 292 292 295 293

Nonpublic — — 308 292 321 308 312 310 304 311

a

b

—  Data not available.

Note: The science proficiency scale ranges from 0 to 350:

Source: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (2000). National Assessment of

Department of Education.

Table EA 2.3.C

Average science proficiency for 17­year­olds, by sex, race and Hispanic origin, parents’ 

Type of school

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

Parents’ education level refers to the highest level of education completed by either parent.

Level 150: Knows everyday science facts

Level 200: Understands simple scientific principles

Level 250: Applies general scientific information

Level 300: Analyzes scientific procedures and data

Level 350: Integrates specialized scientific information

Educational Progress, 1999. Trends in Academic Progress: Three Decades of Student Performance. Washington, DC: U.S.

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 339 
Achievement/Proficiency

Figure EA 2.3

Average science proficiency for 17­year­olds, by race and Hispanic origin:  1977­1999

1977 1982 1986 1990 1992 1994 1996 1999

0

220

240

260

280

300

320

340 Proficiency

White, non-Hispanic

Black, non-Hispanic

Hispanic

a Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

Source: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (2000). National Assessment of

Educational Progress, 1999. Trends in Academic Progress: Three Decades of Student Performance. Washington, DC: U.S.

Department of Education.

340 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 5. EDUCATION AND ACHIEVEMENT

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 341 
Achievement/Proficiency

EA 2.4 Arts Proficiency for 8th Graders

Artistic expression is one of the key vehicles for individual creativity and for the reflection

and transmission of cultural messages. An understanding and appreciation of the arts,

therefore, helps to nurture human creativity and fosters the celebration of a diverse cultural heritage. Recent research suggests that arts education can improve student performance

in other intellectual and academic areas, including math and science.1 College Board data

show that youth who have participated in sequential arts programs outperform their peers

who have not had arts training on both the verbal and math components of the SAT.2 

The National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) completed assessments of 8th

graders’ music and visual arts skills in 1997.3 For the music and visual arts assessments,

data were collected on youths’ ability to respond to, analyze, or evaluate musical pieces or

works of art.4 Average scores were coded on a scale of 0 to 300. Because ability scores had

different ranges across music and the visual arts, comparisons should not be made between

results across disciplines. In other words, a score of 100 in the visual arts is not necessarily

“better” than a score of 90 in music. 

Differences by Sex. Females outperformed males in responding to and analyzing musical

pieces (Figure EA 2.4.A). For example, 8th­grade females had an average music score of 160,

whereas males had an average score of 140. For evaluating visual artwork, females’ scores

were 8 points higher than males’ scores (Table EA 2.4).

Differences by Race and Hispanic Origin.5 There are significant differences in youths’

artistic evaluation skills by race and Hispanic origin.  White, non­Hispanic and Asian youth

had higher average music scores than did Black, non­Hispanic and Hispanic students.  A

similar pattern is seen for the visual arts (Table EA 2.4). 

Differences by Parents’ Education Level.6 Consistent with other NAEP assessments,

higher levels of parental education were associated with higher levels of student performance in both music and the visual arts. For example, 8th graders whose better­educated parent had graduated from college had higher music and arts scores than youth whose parent(s) graduated high school and youth whose better­educated parent did not finish high

school (Figure EA 2.4.B).

Differences by Type of School. Youth attending nonpublic schools had higher scores for

the visual arts than did youth attending public schools. The same pattern held true for

music scores (Table EA 2.4).

1 Kane, E. & Frankonis, E. (1998). Arts Education in the New Millennium. Education New York, 2(5).

2 Childress, J. (1998). Art Education Pays Off. New York Education, 2(5).

3 Unlike other NAEP assessments that are typically conducted on nationally representative samples of youth in grades 4, 8,

and 12, the 1997 arts assessments were conducted on 8th graders only. Although NAEP conducted an arts assessment in

music and visual arts in 1974 and 1978, considerable changes were made to the 1997 assessment such that comparable

data for trends analyses are not possible. Therefore, only results from the 1997 NAEP music and visual arts assessments

are presented here.

4 Youth also were scored on their ability to create and perform works of art; however, only youths’ ability to respond to

art will be discussed here.

5 Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

6 Parent’s education level refers to the highest level of education completed by either parent.

342 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 5. EDUCATION AND ACHIEVEMENT

Figure EA 2.4.A

Average music and visual arts proficiency for 8th graders, by sex: 1997

Music Visual Arts 0

5 0

100

150

200 Proficiency

Male

Female

Source:  U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (1998). The NAEP 1997 Arts Report

Card: Eighth­Grade Findings from the National Assessment of Educational Progress. Washington, DC: U.S. Department 

of Education.

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 343 
Achievement/Proficiency

Table EA 2.4

Average music and visual arts proficiency for 8th graders, by sex, race and Hispanic origin, parents’

education level, and type of school: 1997

Music Visual Arts

All 8th graders 150 150

Sex

Male 140 146

Female 160 154

Race and Hispanic origina

White 158 159

Black, non­Hispanic 130 124

Hispanic 127 128

Asian 152 153

Parents’ highest educationb

Less than high school 129 125

High school 139 138

Some college 150 153

College degree 159 158

Public 149 148

Nonpublic 158 167

Type of school

a Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

b Parents’ education level refers to the highest level of education completed by either parent.

Note:  The music and visual arts scale scores range from 0 to 300.

Source:  U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (1998). The NAEP 1997 Arts Report

Card: Eighth­Grade Findings from the National Assessment of Educational Progress. Washington, DC: U.S. Department 

of Education.

344 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 5. EDUCATION AND ACHIEVEMENT

Figure EA 2.4.B

Average music and visual arts proficiency for 8th graders, by parents’ education level: 1997

Music Visual Arts 0

5 0

100

150

200 Proficiency

High school

Some college

College degree

Source:  U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (1998). The NAEP 1997 Arts Report

Card: Eighth­Grade Findings from the National Assessment of Educational Progress. Washington, DC: U.S. Department 

of Education.

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 345 
SECTION 5. EDUCATION AND ACHIEVEMENT

Enrollment/

Attendance

Achievement/

Proficiency

Related

Behaviors and

Characteristics
Related Behaviors and Characteristics

EA 3.1 Family­Child Engagement in Literacy Activities

Numerous studies have documented the importance of parental involvement in literacy

activities with their children.1 According to the National Center for Education Statistics,

family participation in reading activities provides valuable development experiences for

children. In addition to developing an interest in reading, children who are read to, told stories, and visit the library may start school better prepared to learn than other children.2 

Table EA 3.1 presents three types of literacy activities that parents may engage in with their

children. In 2001, a majority of 3­ to 5­year­olds (57 percent) were read to by a parent or

other family member every day. Fifty­four percent of children were regularly told stories (3

or more times a week), an increase from 1991 levels (39 percent).

Differences by Race and Hispanic Origin.3 There are differences in all literacy 

activities by race and Hispanic origin. In 2001, White, non­Hispanic children were more

likely to be read to every day (64 percent) than Black, non­Hispanic children (47 percent)

or Hispanic children (42 percent). Similarly, White, non­Hispanic children (58 percent)

were more likely to be told a story frequently than either Black, non­Hispanic or Hispanic

children (51 and 42 percent respectively) (Table EA 3.1). Also, more White, non­Hispanic

children visited a library at least once in the past month (39 percent) than either Black, nonHispanic children (31 percent) or Hispanic children (30 percent). These differences have

been fairly stable over time. 

Differences by Poverty Status. Children in families living at or above the poverty threshold are more likely to be engaged in literacy activities on a regular basis than are children

who live in poverty. In 2001, 61 percent of children in nonpoor families were read to every

day by a parent or other family member, compared with 48 percent of children in poor families (Figure EA 3.1). 

Differences by Mother’s Education Level. There are also substantial differences 

in literacy activities by mother’s education level. For example, in 2001 about one­fifth 

(21 percent) of children whose mothers did not have a high school diploma visited a library

once or more in the past month, compared with 30 percent of children whose mothers had

graduated high school and 49 percent whose mothers were college graduates (Table EA 3.1).

Differences by Family Type. Children in two­parent families were more likely to participate in all three types of literacy activities than children who lived with one or no parent. 

Differences by Mother’s Employment Status. Children whose mothers were employed

35 hours or more per week were less likely to engage in any of the three literacy activities

than children whose mothers were either working part­time or not working outside 

the home.

1 Hannon, P. (1995). Home and School: Research and Practice in Teaching Literacy with Parents. Bristol, PA: Falmer Press. 2 U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics .(2000). The Condition of Education, 1999.

Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

3 Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

348 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 5. EDUCATION AND ACHIEVEMENT

and family characteristics:  Selected years, 1993­2001

once in the past month

1993 1995 1996 1999 2001 1993 1995 1996 1999 2001 1993 1995 1996 1999 2001

All childrena 53 58 57 54 57 43 50 55 50 54 38 39 37 36 36

Sex

Male 51 57 56 52 54 43 49 55 49 53 38 37 37 35 35

Female 54 59 57 55 60 43 51 56 50 55 38 41 36 38 37

Race and Hispanic originb

White, non­Hispanic 59 65 64 61 64 44 53 59 53 58 42 43 41 39 39

Black, non­Hispanic 39 43 44 41 47 39 42 47 45 51 29 32 31 35 31

Hispanic 37 38 39 33 42 38 42 47 40 42 26 27 27 25 30

Poverty statusc

56 62 61 58 61 44 53 58 52 — 41 43 41 40 —

44 48 46 38 48 39 44 49 42 — 28 30 28 24 —

Family structured

55 61 61 58 61 44 52 59 52 55 41 43 41 40 38

46 49 46 43 48 41 46 47 44 51 30 30 29 29 30

e

Less than high school 37 40 37 39 41 37 39 47 36 43 22 20 19 18 21

High school 48 48 49 45 49 41 48 54 48 53 31 33 31 30 30

Some college 57 64 62 53 60 45 53 55 52 53 44 42 41 40 39

71 76 77 71 73 48 55 64 55 61 55 57 56 50 49

e

52 55 54 49 55 43 49 53 48 51 34 35 32 — 32

Less than 35 hours per week 56 63 59 56 63 45 53 56 55 59 47 46 39 — 42

Not in labor force 55 60 59 60 58 43 50 56 50 54 37 42 40 40 48

a Estimates are based on children who have yet to enter kindergarten.

b

c

d “No parents in the household” indicates that the child is living with nonparent guardians (e.g., grandparents).

e

ment status. 

(e.g., grandmother) who resides in the home with the child. 

—  Data not available.

Note:  Data in this table have been revised and therefore do not match data presented in previous issues of this report. 

Sources: 

Being, 2003

Statistics. (2001). 

of Education; U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (1999). National Household Education

National Center for Education Statistics. (1996). 

(1995). 

Education; U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (1993). 

Table EA 3.1

Percentage of 3­ to 5­year­olds who have participated in literacy activities with a family member, by child

Read to every day

Told a story at least 

three times a week

Visited a library at least 

At or above poverty

Below poverty

Two parents

One or no parent

Mother’s highest education

College degree

Mother’s employment status

35 hours or more per week

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

Poverty estimates for 1993 are not comparable to later years because respondents were not asked exact household income.

Parents include any combination of a biological, adoptive, step­, and foster mother and/or father.  

Children without mothers in the home are not included in estimates dealing with mother’s education or mother’s employA mother is defined as a biological mother, adoptive mother, stepmother, foster mothers, or female guardian

Federal Interagency Forum on Child and Family Statistics. (2003). America’s Children: Key National Indicators of Well­

. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office; U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education

National Household Education Survey, Early Childhood Program Participation. Washington, DC: U.S. Department

Survey, Early Childhood Program Participation. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education; U.S. Department of Education,

National Household Education Survey, Parent and Family Involvement in Education

File. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education; U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics.

National Household Education Survey, Early Childhood Program Participation. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of

National Household Education Survey,

School Readiness File. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education.

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 349 
Related Behaviors and Characteristics

Figure EA 3.1

Percentage of 3­ to 5­year­olds who have participated in literacy activities with a family member,

by mother’s employment status: 2001

0

2 0

4 0

6 0

8 0

100 Percent

35 hours or more per week

Less than 35 hours per week

Not in labor force

Read to every day Told a story at least 

three times a week

Visited a library at least 

once in the past month

Sources:  Federal Interagency Forum on Child and Family Statistics. (2003). America’s Children: Key National Indicators of

Well­Being, 2003. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office; U.S. Department of Education, National Center

for Education Statistics. (2001). National Household Education Survey, Early Childhood Program Participation. Washington,

DC: U.S. Department of Education; U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (1999).

National Household Education Survey, Early Childhood Program Participation. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of

Education; U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (1996). National Household

Education Survey, Parent and Family Involvement in Education File. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education; U.S.

Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (1995). National Household Education Survey, Early

Childhood Program Participation. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education; U.S. Department of Education,

National Center for Education Statistics. (1993). National Household Education Survey, School Readiness File. Washington,

DC: U.S. Department of Education.

350 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 5. EDUCATION AND ACHIEVEMENT

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 351 
Related Behaviors and Characteristics

EA 3.2 Reading Habits of Children and Youth

Independent reading is one necessary aspect of literacy development. The National

Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) has documented the association between

youth who read for fun in their free time and reading achievement. Youth ages 9, 13, and

17 who read more frequently for fun had consistently higher average reading proficiency

scores than those who read less often.1 

Table EA 3.2 presents the percentage of youth who read for fun on a daily basis for three

age groups (9­, 13­, and 17­year­olds). 

Differences by Age. In 1999, more than half of 9­year­olds (54 percent) reported reading

for fun on a daily basis, compared with about one­third of 13­year­olds (28 percent) and

one­quarter of 17­year­olds (25 percent) (Table EA 3.2).

Differences by Sex. Among 9­ and 13­year­olds, larger proportions of females than males

reported frequent reading in their spare time. For example, more than half (63 percent) of

9­year­old females read for fun on a daily basis, compared with 45 percent of 9­year­old

males, in 1999. Among 17­year­olds, however, similar proportions of males (26 percent) and

females (24 percent) reported reading on a daily basis in 1999 (Figure EA 3.2). 

Differences by Race and Hispanic Origin.2 In 1999, the percentage of 9­, 13­, and 17­

year­olds who reported reading for fun on a daily basis was similar for all racial/ethnic

groups (Table EA 3.2). 

Differences by Parents’ Education Level.3 In 1999, 13­year­olds whose better­educated

parent had some education after high school were more likely to read for fun than those

whose parent(s) had no education beyond high school (Table EA 3.2). A similar pattern is

found among 17­year­olds. In 1999, 32 percent of 17­year­olds whose better­educated parent had graduated from college read for fun on a daily basis. In contrast, 12 percent of 17­

year­olds whose parent(s) had graduated from high school (but had no education beyond

that) and 13 percent whose parent(s) had not finished high school reported reading for fun

on a daily basis (Table EA 3.2).

Differences by Type of School. Larger percentages of 13­ and 17­year­olds who attended nonpublic schools read for fun on a daily basis than did their counterparts in public

schools (Table EA 3.2). Among 9­year­olds, a larger percentage of public school students

reported reading for fun in 1992 and 1994, but this pattern reversed in 1996 and the percentages for both school types were equal in 1999 (Table EA 3.2).

1 Campbell, J. R., Voelkl, K. E., & Donahue, P. L. (1997). NAEP 1996 Trends in Academic Progress. Washington, DC: National

Center for Education Statistics.

2 Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

3 Parents’ education level refers to the highest level of education completed by either parent.

352 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 5. EDUCATION AND ACHIEVEMENT

origin, parents’ education level, and type of school: Selected years, 1992­1999

Age 9 Age 13 Age 17

1992 1994 1996 1999 1992 1994 1996 1999 1992 1994 1996 1999

All youth 56 58 54 54 37 32 32 28 27 30 23 25

Sex

Male 48 49 51 45 30 25 27 23 23 29 22 26

Female 64 66 57 63 44 39 38 34 30 30 24 24

Race and Hispanic origina

White, non­Hispanic 57 58 54 52 37 38 33 28 29 34 24 25

Black, non­Hispanic 54 58 51 57 35 18 29 33 14 16 21 22

Hispanic 54 58 56 55 44 15 28 23 25 17 21 28

Parents’ highest educationb

Less than high school — — — — 16 24 29 31 23 15 14 13

High school — — — — 33 28 28 21 16 25 18 12

Some college — — — — 37 40 41 31 28 30 22 33

— — — — 44 37 34 33 35 36 28 32

Public  57 57 54 55 36 31 33 28 26 29 21 24

Nonpublic 52 54 61 55 49 40 36 42 44 46 28 48

a

b

—  Data not available. 

Sources:  U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (1999). National Assessment of

. Unpublished work. U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (1996).

. Unpublished work. U.S. Department of Education, National Center for

Education Statistics. (1994). 

DC: U.S. Department of Education; U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (1992).

. Unpublished work. 

Table EA 3.2

Percentage of youth ages 9, 13, and 17 who read for fun on a daily basis, by sex, race and Hispanic

College degree

Type of school

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

Parents’ education level refers to the highest level of education completed by either parent.

Educational Progress

National Assessment of Education Progress

National Assessment of Education Progress: Long­Term Trends, Reading Assessment. Washington,

National Assessment of Education Progress

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 353 
Related Behaviors and Characteristics

Figure EA 3.2

Percentage of youth ages 9, 13, and 17 who read for fun on a daily basis, by sex: 1999

Age 9 Age 13 Age 17 0

2 0

4 0

6 0

8 0

100 Percent

Male

Female

Sources:  U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (1999). National Assessment of

Educational Progress. Unpublished work.  U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics.

(1996). National Assessment of Education Progress. Unpublished work. U.S. Department of Education, National Center for

Education Statistics. (1994). National Assessment of Education Progress: Long­Term Trends, Reading Assessment. Washington,

DC: U.S. Department of Education; U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (1992).

National Assessment of Education Progress. Unpublished work.

354 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 5. EDUCATION AND ACHIEVEMENT

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 355 
Related Behaviors and Characteristics

EA 3.3 Parental Involvement in Child’s School

Many educators consider parental involvement in school activities to have a beneficial

effect on children’s school performance. They associate higher levels of parental involvement with greater monitoring of school and classroom activities, a closer coordination of

teacher and parent efforts, greater teacher attention to the child, and earlier identification

of problems that might inhibit learning.1 

Parental involvement of both mothers and fathers in their child’s school is significantly

associated with an increased likelihood of 1st graders through 12th graders earning mostly

A’s and with a reduced likelihood that these children will ever repeat a grade.2 Possible

parental activities included in the following data are (1) attending general school meetings,

(2) going to a regularly scheduled parent/teacher conference, (3) attending a school or class

event such as a play or sports event, and (4) volunteering at the school or serving on a

school committee.3 

Differences by Grade. The level of parental involvement in school activities decreases

substantially as children get older. For example, 68 percent of 3rd through 5th graders had

parents who were classified as highly involved in their children’s schools. However, 40 percent of 9th through 12th graders had highly involved parents (Figure EA 3.3).

Differences by Race and Hispanic Origin.4 Parents of White, non­Hispanic children

were more likely than parents of Black, non­Hispanic or Hispanic children to be highly

involved in their children’s schools at each grade level (Table EA 3.3).

Differences by Poverty Status. Children living in nonpoor households were much more

likely to have highly involved parents than children living in poor households, at all grade

levels. Children whose mothers had higher levels of education had more highly involved

parents than children whose mothers had lower education levels, at all grades (Table EA

3.3).

Differences by Family Type. Children in two­parent families were more likely than children in single­parent families to have parents who were highly involved in school activities.

Furthermore, among children in two­parent families, mothers were more likely to be highly involved than fathers. For example, in 1999, about half of children in grades 6 through 8

had highly involved mothers, but only one­quarter had highly involved fathers.

Furthermore, children in single­mother families were somewhat less likely to have highly

involved mothers than comparable children in two­parent families. However, children in

single­father families were more likely to have a highly involved father than comparable

children in two­parent families. 

Differences by Mother’s Employment Status. Children in grades 3 through 12 whose

mothers worked part­time had more highly involved parents than students whose mothers

either worked full­time or who were not in the labor force. (Table EA 3.3). 

1 Zill, N. & Nord, C. W. (1994). Running in Place: How American Families Are Faring in a Changing Economy and Individualistic

Society. Washington, DC.

2 Nord, C. W., Brimhall, D., & West, J. (1997). Fathers’ Involvement in Their Children’s Schools. Washington, DC: National

Center for Education Statistics.

3 The level of involvement depends on the number of different activities reported by the parents, ranging from 0 or 1 (low

involvement) to 2 (moderate involvement) to 3 or more activities (high involvement). Note that the total number of

times that the parent has been involved in each activity was not measured.

4 Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

356 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 5. EDUCATION AND ACHIEVEMENT

Figure EA 3.3

Percentage of parental involvement in child’s school activities by grade level: 1999

Grades 3 - 5 Grades 6 - 8 Grades 9 - 12 0

2 0

4 0

6 0

8 0

100 Percent

Low involvement

Moderate involvement

High involvement

Source:  U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (1999). National Household Education

Survey, Parent and Family Involvement in Education. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education.

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 357 
Related Behaviors and Characteristics

child and family characteristics: 1999

Low Involvement Moderate Involvement High Involvement

Grades 

3 ­ 5

Grades 

6 ­ 8

Grades

9 ­ 12

Grades

3 ­ 5

Grades

6 ­ 8

Grades

9 ­ 12

Grades

3 ­ 5

Grades

6 ­ 8

Grades

9 ­ 12

All children 13 21 35 19 26 26 68 54 40

Sex

Male 14 21 36 19 26 25 67 54 39

Female 11 20 34 19 25 26 70 55 40

Race and Hispanic origina

White, non­Hispanic 10 17 31 16 25 26 74 58 43

Black, non­Hispanic 19 27 40 24 28 26 58 45 34

Hispanic 20 31 49 23 26 24 57 43 27

Poverty status

At or above poverty 10 17 32 17 25 26 73 59 43

Below poverty 21 35 48 27 29 25 53 36 26

b

10 17 31 17 24 25 73 59 45

Motherc 14 21 36 18 27 24 68 52 41

Father 40 47 55 26 25 21 34 29 24

One or no parent 18 28 43 24 28 27 59 44 30

17 29 42 22 28 28 61 44 30

18 22 38 25 28 25 57 50 37

Nonparent guardian(s) 24 26 51 32 31 28 44 44 21

Mother's highest educationc

Less than high school 27 38 58 30 28 26 44 34 16

High school 17 24 41 21 28 25 62 48 35

Some college 9 19 34 17 28 25 74 54 41

6 11 20 13 18 27 81 71 53

Mother's employment statusc

35 hours or more per week 12 19 34 22 26 27 66 55 39

Less than 35 hours per week 8 18 30 16 24 24 76 59 46

16 26 40 15 25 23 69 49 36

a

b

household indicates that the child is living with nonparent guardians (e.g., grandparents). Estimates for single parent

households may include involvement of other adults living in the household.

c

grandmother) who resides in the home with the child.

Note: 

committee.

Source: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (1999). National Household Education

Table EA 3.3

Percentage of children whose parents are involved in their schools, by level of involvement, grade, and

Family structure

Two parents

Mother­only

Father­only

College degree

Not in labor force

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

Parents include any combination of a biological, adoptive, step­, and foster mother and/or father. No parents in the

Children without mothers in the home are not included in estimates of mother’s education or mother’s employment 

status. A mother is defined as a biological mother, adoptive mother, stepmother, foster mother, or female guardian (e.g.,

Low involvement = involvement in 0 or 1 activity. Moderate involvement = 2 activities. High involvement = 3 

or more activities. Possible activities include (1) attending general school meetings, (2) going to a regularly scheduled 

parent­teacher conference, (3) attending a school or class event, and (4) volunteering at the school or serving on a school

Survey, Parent and Family Involvement in Education. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education.

358 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 5. EDUCATION AND ACHIEVEMENT

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 359 
Related Behaviors and Characteristics

EA 3.4 Difficulty Speaking English

Difficulty speaking English may limit children’s educational progress and their future

employment prospects. Children also may need special instruction in school to improve

their English. Difficulty speaking English is most common among immigrant children and

U.S.­born children of immigrants. In the past three decades, the great majority of immigrants to the United States have come from Asia, Latin America, and the Caribbean.

In 1999, of the 8.8 million children ages 5 to 17 in the United States who spoke a language

other than English at home, 2.6 million had difficulty speaking English. While the proportion of all children experiencing difficulty speaking English doubled between 1979 and

1999, this group constituted only 5 percent of the total population of children ages 5 to 17

in 1999 (Table EA 3.4). 

Differences by Race and Hispanic Origin.1 Children of Hispanic or “other” ethnic origin are more likely than Black, non­Hispanic or White, non­Hispanic children to have difficulty speaking English. These differences are due in part to the fact that Hispanic and

Asian children are more likely than Whites or Blacks to speak another language in the

home.  For example, 3.9 percent of White, non­Hispanic children ages 5 to 17 speak another language in the home, compared to 70.9 percent of Hispanic children (Figure EA 3.4).

Differences by Region. The percentage of children who speak another language at home

varies substantially by geographic region, ranging from 7.5 percent in the Midwest to 28.8

percent in the West in 1999. Furthermore, in the West, more than 10 percent of children

have difficulty speaking English, compared to 2 percent in the Midwest.

1 Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

360 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 5. EDUCATION AND ACHIEVEMENT

speaking English, by race and Hispanic origin and by region:  Selected years, 1979­1999

Children who speak another language at home

1979 1989 1992 1995a 1999a

Number (in millions) 3.8 5.3 6.4 6.7 8.8

Percentage  8.5 12.6 14.2 14.1 16.7

Race and Hispanic originb

White, non Hispanic 3.2 3.5 3.7 3.6 3.9

Black, non­Hispanic 1.3 2.4 4.2 3.0 4.5

Hispanic 75.1 71.2 76.6 73.9 70.9

44.1 53.4 58.3 45.5 51.0

Regionc

Northeast 10.5 13.5 16.2 15.1 17.7

Midwest 3.7 4.9 5.6 5.9 7.5

South 6.8 10.7 11.1 11.7 14.3

17.0 24.2 27.2 26.4 28.8

Children who have difficulty speaking English 

Number (in millions) 1.3 1.9 2.2 2.4 2.6

2.8 4.4 4.9 5.1 5.0

Race and Hispanic originb

White, non­Hispanic 0.5 0.8 0.6 0.7 1.0

Black, non­Hispanic 0.3 0.5 1.3 0.9 1.0

Hispanic 28.7 27.4 29.9 31.0 23.4

19.8 20.4 21.0 14.1 11.7

Regionc

Northeast 2.9 4.8 5.3 5.0 4.4

Midwest 1.1 1.3 1.6 2.3 2.0

South 2.2 3.8 3.5 3.4 3.6

6.5 8.8 10.4 11.4 10.6

32.7 35.0 34.2 36.5 29.5

Race and Hispanic originb

White, non­Hispanic 15.6 22.9 16.2 19.4 25.6

Black, non­Hispanic 23.1 20.8 31.0 30.0 22.2

Hispanic 38.2 38.5 39.0 41.9 33.0

44.9 38.2 36.0 31.0 22.9

a

with adjustments.

b

c

Note: 

“Not well,” and “Not at all.”  All those reported to speak

2003

Table EA 3.4

Percentage of children ages 5 to 17 who speak a language other than English at home, and who have difficulty

Other, non­Hispanic

West

Percentage 

Other, non­Hispanic

West

Children speaking another language at home 

who have difficulty speaking English (percent)

Other, non­Hispanic

Numbers in 1995 and later years may reflect changes in the Current Population Survey because of newly instituted computerassisted interviewing techniques and/or because of the change in the population controls to the 1990 Census­based estimates, 

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

Regions: Northeast includes CT, ME, MA, NH, NJ, NY, PA, RI, and VT. Midwest includes IL, IN, IA, KS, MI, MN, MO, NE, ND,

OH, SD, and WI. South includes AL, AR, DE, DC FL, GA, KY, LA, MD, MS, NC, OK, SC, TN, TX, VA, and WV. West includes AK,

AZ, CA, CO, HI, ID, MT, NV, NM, OR, UT, WA, and WY.

Respondents were asked if the children in the household spoke a language other than English at home and how well they

could speak English. Categories used for reporting were “Very well,”  “Well,”  

English less than “Very well” were considered to have difficulty speaking English.

Source: Federal Interagency Forum on Child and Family Statistics. (2003). America’s Children: Key National Indicators of Well­Being,

. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 361 
Related Behaviors and Characteristics

Figure EA 3.4

Percentage of children ages 5 to 17 who speak a language other than English at home and who

have difficulty speaking English, by race and Hispanic origin: 1999

White, non-Hispanic Black, non-Hispanic Hispanic Other, non-Hispanic 0

2 0

4 0

6 0

8 0

100 Percent

Children who speak another language at home

Children speaking another language at home who have difficulty speaking English

a Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

Source:  Federal Interagency Forum on Child and Family Statistics. (2003). America’s Children: Key National Indicators of

Well­Being, 2003. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

362 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 5. EDUCATION AND ACHIEVEMENT

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 363 
Related Behaviors and Characteristics

EA 3.5 Student Computer Use

Computer literacy has become increasingly important for success in the workplace.

Computers have become an essential tool for retrieving and manipulating information, for

producing reports, and for communicating with colleagues. The extent to which children

have access to computers and the uses children make of computers may be an indicator of

how well prepared students will be to enter an increasingly technological workplace.

The percentage of 4th, 8th, and 12th graders who reported using a computer for schoolwork 1 to 2 times a week increased substantially between 1992 and 1998 (Table EA 3.5.A).

For example, 14 percent of 12th graders reported using a computer at school 1 to 2 times a

week in 1992, compared with 28 percent in 1998. 

Student access to computers has increased both at home and at school.  Within public

schools, access to the technology has changed dramatically in the last decade.  In fall 2001,

99 percent of public school in the United States had access to the internet, while 6 years

earlier, just over one­third of schools were connected1 (Table EA 3.5.B).  Public schools 

also have made consistent progress in installing Internet to instructional classrooms, from

3 percent in 1994 to 87 percent in 2001 (Figure EA 3.5.A).  Public schools also have continuously added more computers for their students.  The ratio of students to instructional

computers dropped from 12.1 in 1998, to 5.4 in 2001 (Table EA 3.5.B).

Differences by Grade. Computer usage for schoolwork appears to increase as students

enter the higher grades. For example, in 1998, 8 percent of 4th graders reported using a computer every day for schoolwork, while 21 percent of 12th graders reported the same.

Differences by Family Income.2 Students from high­income families were more likely

than students from middle­ and low­income families to report using a computer at home

or at school in 1992 (Figure EA 3.5.B and Table EA 3.5.C). However, family income appears

to have a stronger impact on children’s exposure to computers at home than at school. For

example, in 1997, the rate of computer usage at home was 15 percent for students in grades

7­12 from low­income families, compared with 79 percent for students from high­income

families in the same grades. The corresponding computer usage rates at school were 68 percent and 75 percent for students in grades 7­12 from low­income and high­income families,

respectively (Table EA 3.5.C).

1 U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (2002). Internet Access in the U.S. Public Schools

and Classrooms:  1994­2001. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. 

2 Low income is the bottom 20 percent of all family incomes; high income is the top 20 percent of all family incomes; and

middle income is the 60 percent in between.

364 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 5. EDUCATION AND ACHIEVEMENT

frequency of use: Selected years, 1992­2000

Grade 4 Grade 8 Grade 12

1992 1994 1998 2000 1992 1994 1998 2000 1992 1994 1998 2000

Frequency of use

Never 67 60 54 57 58 51 32 — 45 37 22 —

Ever 33 40 46 43 42 49 68 — 55 63 78 —

1­2 times a month 10 11 18 17 20 23 29 — 22 26 30 —

1­2 times a week 17 21 20 17 14 16 25 — 14 18 28 —

6 9 8 8 8 10 15 — 18 18 21 —

Note:  The 2000 NAEP reading assesment assessed students only in grade 4.

Source:  U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (2001). National Assessment of Educational

Student access to the Internet in public schools, by instructional level: 1994­2001

1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001

a 35 50 65 78 89 95 98 99

Instructional level

30 46 61 75 88 94 97 99

49 65 77 89 94 98 100b 100b

c 3 8 14 27 51 64 77 87

Instructional level

3 8 13 24 51 62 76 86

4 8 16 32 52 67 79 88

Ratio of public school students 

to instruction computers with Internet access — — — — 12.1 9.1 6.6 5.4

Instructional level

— — — — 13.6 10.6 7.8 6.1

— —  —  —  9.9 7 5.2 4.3

a Data for combined schools are included in the totals.

b The estimate fell between 99.5 percent and 100 percent and therefore was rounded to 100 percent.

c

Source:  U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (2002). 

and Classrooms: 1994­2001

Table EA 3.5.A

Percentage of students who reported using a computer for schoolwork, by grade and 

Every day

Progress (NAEP). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education.

Table EA 3.5.B

Public schools with Internet access

Elementary

Secondary

Public school instructional rooms with Internet access

Elementary

Secondary

Elementary

Secondary

Instructional rooms include classrooms, computer and other instructional labs, library/media centers, and any other rooms

used for instructional purposes.

Internet Access in U.S. Public Schools

. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 365 
Related Behaviors and Characteristics

Figure EA 3.5.A

Percent of public school instructional rooms with Internet access, 1994­2001

1994 1996 1998 2000 2001

0

1 0

2 0

3 0

4 0

5 0

6 0

7 0

8 0

9 0

100 Percent Source:  U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (2002). Internet Access in U.S. Public

Schools and Classrooms: 1994­2001. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

Figure EA 3.5.B

Percentage of students in grades 7­12 who reported using a computer at home, by family income:

1984­1997

1984 1989 1993 1997

0

1 0

2 0

3 0

4 0

5 0

6 0

7 0

8 0

9 0

100 Percent All Students

Low income

Middle income

High income

Source:  U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (2000). The Condition of Education,

1999. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

366 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 5. EDUCATION AND ACHIEVEMENT

income: Selected years, 1984­1997

Income level

Low Middle High

1984 1989 1993 1997 1984 1989 1993 1997 1984 1989 1993 1997 1984 1989 1993 1997

Grades 1­6

At home 11.8 16.1 23.0 41.3 2.5 5.7 3.9 12.4 9.7 17.0 18.0 36.4 24.4 38.3 48.5 74.6

At school 30.5 52.4 66.6 79.1 18.5 39.4 57.4 70.9 29.5 52.3 66.2 78.6 42.2 62.5 74.0 86.5

At school or home 36.2 56.9 70.7 83.8 20.0 39.0 58.1 71.9 34.5 49.9 69.5 82.8 53.0 63.9 82.4 95.0

Grades 7­12

At home 13.4 21.1 27.7 49.2 3.3 5.7 5.6 14.9 10.1 17.0 22.2 44.2 24.8 38.3 51.2 78.6

At school 28.9 43.0 57.0 73.5 20.0 36.7 49.0 67.6 28.4 42.6 57.3 74.1 34.1 47.2 60.7 75.4

At school or home 36.2 52.1 65.6 84.3 22.2 39.0 50.4 70.7 33.6 49.9 64.1 83.5 48.1 63.9 77.0 93.3

Note:  Low income is the bottom 20 percent of all family incomes; high income is the top 20 percent of all family incomes; and

middle income is the 60 percent in between.

Source:  U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (2000). The Condition of Education, 1999.

Table EA 3.5.C

Percentage of students who reported using a computer at school or at home, by grade level and family

Total

Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 367 
Related Behaviors and Characteristics

EA 3.6  Children Served Under the Individuals with Disabilities

Education Act

Children and youth with disabilities often require additional support in meeting their educational goals.  The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) strengthens the

educational expectations and accountability for children and youth with disabilities and

more closely aligns what disabled students learn and the curricula presented in general education classrooms.  The disabilities of children served under IDEA include physical impairments, emotional disturbances, and mental retardation (Table EA 3.6.A).  Overall, specific

learning disabilities are the most prevalent disability among students served under IDEA.

In 2002, approximately 5.7 million children and youth ages 6 to 17 were served under IDEA

(Table 3.6.B).  The number of children served under IDEA has been steadily increasing since

1990, when approximately 4.1 million children were served.  Overall, males compose twothirds of the disabled student population.1 

IDEA requires that students with disabilities be educated in the least restrictive environment (LRE) available.  Research suggests that disabled students benefit from inclusion in

general education classrooms, especially in the development of communication and social

skills.2 Recent trends indicate that more and more disabled students are being taught in the

general education classroom.  Figure EA 3.6 shows the percentage of disabled children educated in different educational environments.  From 1989 to 2002, the percentage of disabled

children educated in the regular classroom for at least 80 percent of the school day increased

from 31.5 to 48.2 percent.  In contrast, the percentage of disabled students educated in separate facilities decreased from 6.1 percent in 1989 to 4.0 percent in 2002.

Differences by Race and Hispanic Origin.  Data on the race and ethnicity of students

served under IDEA was first collected at the national level in 1998.  In 2002, the population

of children and youth served under IDEA included approximately 60 percent White, nonHispanic students, 20 percent Black, non­Hispanic students, and 16 percent Hispanic students (Table EA 3.6.C).  

1 U. S. Department of Education (1998).  Twentieth annual report to Congress on the implementation of the Individuals with

Disabilities Education Act. 2 U. S. Department of Education (1999).  Twenty­first annual report to Congress on the implementation of the Individuals with

Disabilities Education Act.

368 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
SECTION 5. EDUCATION AND ACHIEVEMENT

Table EA 3.6.A

Percentage of students ages 6­21 served under IDEA, Part B, with various disabilities: Selected years,

1990­2002

1990 1995 1996  1997  1998 1999 2000  2001 2002

Specific Learning Disabilities 49.16 51.23 51.13 51.04 50.82 50.51 49.91 49.11 48.30

Speech or Language Impairments 22.65 20.22 20.05 19.71 19.39 19.16 18.94 18.65 18.66

Mental Retardation 12.64 11.53 11.35 11.18 11.02 10.82 10.62 10.32 9.92

Emotional Disturbance 8.96 8.65 8.53 8.42 8.35 8.27 8.21 8.15 8.07

Multiple Disabilities 2.24 1.86 1.90 1.99 1.95 1.99 2.13 2.20 2.21

Hearing Impairments 1.36 1.34 1.31 1.29 1.28 1.26 1.23 1.22 1.21

Orthopedic Impairments 1.13 1.24 1.27 1.25 1.25 1.26 1.26 1.26 1.24

Other Health Impairments 1.29 2.64 3.08 3.54 4.00 4.50 5.09 5.82 6.59

Visual Impairments 0.54 0.50 0.49 0.48 0.47 0.46 0.45 0.44 0.44

Autism — 0.57 0.66 0.79 0.98 1.16 1.38 1.68 1.99

Deaf­Blindness 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.03 0.03

— 0.19 0.20 0.22 0.23 0.24 0.26 0.35 0.36

Developmental Delay — — — 0.07 0.21 0.34 0.50 0.77 0.98

Traumatic Brain Injury

Note:  Counts are for the U.S. and Outlying Areas.  The counts for 1990 include children served under Chapter 1 of the

Elementary and Secondary Education Act and Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), formerly the Education of

the Handicapped Act.  Prior to October 1994, children and youth with disabilities were served under both IDEA and Chapter

1.  In October 1994, Congress passed the Improving America's Schools Act in which funding for children and youth with

disabilities was consolidated under IDEA.  Reporting autism and traumatic brain injury was required under IDEA beginning in 1992 and was optional in 1991.  States had the option of reporting children ages 6­9 under developmental delay

beginning in 1997.  Beginning in 1998, New Jersey's Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) count includes children with neurological

impairments.  Beginning in 2001, Massachusetts TBI count was based on a definition of neurological impairments.

— Data not available.

Source:  U.S. Department of Education, Office of Special Education Programs, Data Analysis System (DANS).

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002

(in millions)

Ages 6­11 2.3 2.4 2.4 2.5 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.7 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8

Ages 12­17 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9

Ages 18­21 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3  0.3 0.3 

Note: 

consolodated under IDEA. 

Source: 

Table EA 3.6.B 

Number of students served under IDEA Part B, by age: 1990­2002

Number of children served 

Counts are for the U.S. and outlying areas. The counts for 1990 through 1993 include childern served under Chapter 1 of the

Elementary and Secondary Education Act and Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), formerly the Education of the

Handicapped Act. Prior to October 1994, children and youth with disabilities were served under both IDEA and Chapter 1. In

October 1994, Congress passed the Improving America’s Schools Act, in which funding for children and youth with disabilities was

U.S. Department of Education, Office of Special Education Programs, Data Analysis System (DANS). 

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 369 
Related Behaviors and Characteristics

Figure EA 3.6

Percentage of students ages 6­21 with disabilities served in various educational environments:

1989­2002

Note: Counts are for the U.S. and Outlying Areas. 

1989 1990 1995 2000 2002

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Percent

Inside the regular classroom at least 80% of the school day

Inside the regular classroom 40% to 79% of the school day

Inside the regular classroom less than 40% of the school day

Served in seperate facilities

The counts for 1989 through 1993 include children served under

Chapter 1 of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act and Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), 

formerly the Education of the Handicapped Act.  Prior to October 1994, children and youth with disabilities were

served under both IDEA and Chapter 1.  In October 1994, Congress passed the Improving America's Schools Act in

which funding for children and youth with disabilities was consolidated under IDEA.

Source:  U.S. Department of Education, Office of Special Education Programs, Data Analysis System (DANS).

Table EA 3.6.C

Race and Hispanic origin of students ages 6­21 served under IDEA, Part B: 1998­2002

1998 1999 2000 2001 2002

White, non­Hispanic 63.0 62.2 61.6 60.8 60.2

Black, non­Hispanic 20.0 20.1 20.2 20.4 20.4

Hispanic 13.9 14.6 14.9 15.4 15.9

Asian/Pacific Islander 1.8 1.9 1.9 1.9 2.0

American Indian/Alaska Native 1.2 1.5 1.4 1.4 1.5

Note: Counts are for the U.S. and Outlying Areas

Source:  U.S. Department of Education, Office of Special Education Programs, Data Analysis System (DANS).

370 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
Glossary
Glossary of Technical Terms

ABORTION. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s (CDC) surveillance program

counts legal abortions only.  For surveillance purposes, legal abortion is defined as a procedure performed by a licensed physician or someone acting under the supervision of a

licensed physician to induce the termination of a pregnancy.

ACTIVITY LIMITATION. Activity limitations refer to long­term reductions in activities

resulting from a chronic disease or impairment.  Through 1996 a person was classified as

having an activity limitation if he or she reported (1) an inability to perform the major

activity for a person in his or her age group, (2) being able to perform the major activity

but being limited in the kind or amount of this activity, or (3) not being limited in the

major activity but being limited in the kind or amount of other activities. For children

under age 5, the major activity consisted of ordinary play. For children ages 5 to 17, the

major activity was attending school. Activity limitation is now based on whether a child

under age 5 was limited in usual kinds of play activities, whether a child under 18 years

of age received special education or early intervention services, and whether a child ages

3 to 17 needed the help of other persons with personal care needs. 

ADEQUACY OF PRENATAL CARE UTILIZATION INDEX (APCU). Measures the adequacy of

prenatal care by (a) the timing of the first prenatal visit and (b) the appropriateness of the

number of visits based on gestational age (i.e., at the first prenatal visit and at delivery).

APGAR SCORE. A numerical expression of the physical condition of an infant shortly after

delivery.  The Apgar score is used to predict the newborn’s chance of survival.  The score

considers five characteristics of the baby—heart rate, respiratory effort, muscle tone,

reflex irritability, and color, with the total score ranging between 1 and 10.

BIRTH RATE. The number of live births per 1,000 members of a defined population.  For

example, age­specific birth rates are the numbers of live births per 1,000 members of a

given age group.

BIRTHWEIGHT. The first weight of the newborn obtained after birth.  Low birthweight is

defined as less than 2,500 grams or 5 pounds, 8 ounces.  Very low birthweight is defined

as less than 1,500 grams or 3 pounds, 4 ounces.  Before 1979, low birthweight was defined

as 2,500 grams or less and very low birthweight as 1,500 grams or less.

BODY MASS INDEX (BMI). A measure that adjusts body weight for height.  It is calculated

as weight in kilograms divided by height in meters squared.  Sex­ and age­specific cut

points of BMI are used in this book in the definition of overweight.

CENTER­BASED PROGRAMS. Includes day care centers, Head Start programs, preschools,

prekindergartens, and other early childhood programs.

CHRONIC CONDITIONS. Illnesses or impairments that cannot be cured and the extent to

which individuals are affected by them differ.  A condition is considered chronic if the

respondent indicates it was first noticed more than 3 months before the reference date

of the interview, or it is a type of condition that ordinarily has a duration of more than

3 months.

COMPUTER LITERACY. The ability to operate a computer for school work at school 

or at home.

372 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
Glossary of Technical Terms

DEPENDENT POPULATION. Persons considered economically inactive due to their age.

Defined as persons under age 18 and over age 65.

DETACHED YOUTH. Youth ages 16 to 19 who are neither enrolled in school nor working.

DROPOUT RATE. See Event dropout rates.

EVENT DROPOUT RATES.  Event rates are calculated using the October CPS data and measure

the proportion of students who dropped out between October of one year and the next.

These dropouts are 15­ through 24­year­olds who were enrolled in high school in October

one year, but had not completed high school and were not enrolled in grades 10 to 12 a

year later.  According to this definition, a young person could complete high school by

either earning a high school diploma or receiving an alternative credential such as a

General Education Development (GED) credential. This is in contrast to status dropout

rates, which provide cumulative data on dropouts among all youth within a specified age

range, and cohort dropout rates, which follow a particular cohort of students over time.

FAMILY. Refers to a group of two or more people related by birth, marriage, or adoption

who reside together.  The Census Bureau considers all such people as members of one

family. Two or more people living in the same household who are related to one another, but

are not related to the householder, form an “unrelated subfamily.”  Beginning with the 1980

Current Population Survey, the Census Bureau excluded unrelated subfamilies from the

count of families and unrelated subfamily members from the count of family members.

FAMILY INCOME. The combined income of all family members 14 years old and older living

in the household for a period of 1 year. Income includes money incomes from jobs; net

incomes from business, farms or rent, pensions, dividends, interest, Social Security; and

any other money income.

FOOD SECURITY. The percentage of children under age 18 in households experiencing food

insecurity with moderate to severe hunger is based on the food security scale derived

from data collected in the Food Security Supplement to the Current Population Survey.

The food security scale provides a near continuous measure of the level of food insecurity

and hunger experienced within each household.  A categorical measure based on the scale

classifies households according to four designated levels of severity of household food

insecurity:  food secure, food insecure without hunger, food insecure with moderate

hunger, and food insecure with severe hunger.  Food secure households do not report a

pattern of difficulty obtaining enough or acceptable quality food. Food insecure households

without hunger report having difficulty obtaining enough food, reduced quality of diets,

anxiety about their food supply, and increasingly resorting to emergency food sources and

other coping behaviors, but do not report indicators of hunger.  Food insecure households

with moderate hunger report food insecurity and a pattern of indicators of hunger for one

or more adults and, in some cases, for children.  Food insecure households with severe

hunger report multiple indicators of both adults’ and children’s hunger. For more 

information, see:  Food and Nutrition Service. (2000). Guide toMeasuring Household Food

Security. Revised 2000. Alexandria, VA: Food and Nutrition Service.

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 373 
Glossary of Technical Terms

FOOD STAMPS. The Food Stamp Act of 1977 was enacted for the purpose of increasing the

food purchasing power of eligible households through the use of coupons to purchase

food.  The Food and Nutrition Service of the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA)

administers the Food Stamp Program through state and local welfare offices.  The Food

Stamp Program is the major national income support program, which provides benefits

to all low­income and low­resource households regardless of household characteristics

(e.g., sex, age, disability, etc.).  The questions on participation in the Food Stamp Program

in the March Current Population Survey were designed to identify households in which

one or more of the current members received food stamps during the previous calendar

year.  Once a food stamp household was identified, a question was asked to determine

the number of current household members covered by food stamps during the previous

calendar year.  Questions were also asked about the number of months food stamps were

received during the previous calendar year and the total face value of all food stamps

received during that period.

FOREIGN BORN.  Foreign born refers to people residing in the United States who were born

outside the United States or one of its outlying areas, such as Puerto Rico or Guam, to

parents neither of whom was a U.S. citizen. This group primarily includes naturalized

citizens and legally admitted immigrants, but also includes refugees, students, temporary

workers, and undocumented aliens.

FOSTER CARE. A living arrangement where a child resides outside his or her own home,

under the case management and planning responsibility of a state child welfare agency.

These living arrangements include relative and nonrelative foster homes, group homes,

child­care facilities, emergency shelter care, supervised independent living, and nonfinalized

adoptive homes.

GESTATION. The interval between the first day of the mother’s last normal menstrual period

and the date of birth.

HALLUCINOGENS. Substances such as LSD or other psychedelic drugs such as mescaline,

peyote, psilocybin, or PCP.

HEALTH INSURANCE. A child is considered covered by health insurance if he or she was covered

by government or private insurance at some time during the year.  Government health

insurance for children consists primarily of Medicaid, but also includes Medicare and

CHAMPUS.  Private health insurance includes employer or union coverage, or privately

purchased health insurance not related to employment.

HEALTHY BIRTH. Five­minute Apgar Score of seven or above, birthweight of at least 2,500

grams, gestational age of 37 weeks or more, and prenatal care in the first trimester.

HIGH INCOME. The top 20 percent of all family incomes for the year.

HIGH SCHOOL GRADUATES. 12 years of school completed for 1971 to 1991 and attainment

of a high school diploma or equivalency certificate since 1992.

HOUSEHOLDER. Usually the household member, or one of the members, in whose name the

housing unit is owned or rented.

374 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
Glossary of Technical Terms

HOUSEHOLDS. Consist of all people who occupy a housing unit.  The Census Bureau

regards a house, an apartment or other group of rooms, or a single room as a housing unit

when it is occupied or intended for occupancy as separate living quarters; the occupants

do not live and eat with any other people in the structure and there is direct access from

the outside or through a common hall.

A household includes the related family members and all the unrelated people, if any,

such as lodgers, foster children, wards, or employees who share the housing unit.  The

Census Bureau also counts a person living alone in a housing unit or a group of unrelated

people sharing a housing unit as partners as a household.  The count of households

excludes group quarters.

ILLICIT DRUGS. Includes marijuana, LSD, cocaine (including crack), heroin, hallucinogens

(including PCP), inhalants, and other opiates, stimulants, barbiturates, or tranquilizers

not under a doctor’s orders.

INCOME. For each person in the sample 15 years old and over, the Current Population

Survey asks questions on the amount of money income received in the preceding calendar

year from each of the following sources:  1. Earnings.  2. Unemployment compensation.

3. Workers’ compensation.  4. Social Security.  5. Supplemental Security Income.  6. Public

assistance.  7. Veterans’ payments.  8. Survivor benefits.  9. Disability benefits.  10.

Pension or retirement income.  11. Interest.  12. Dividends.  13. Rents, royalties, and

estates and trusts.  14. Educational assistance.  15. Alimony.  16. Child support.  17.

Financial assistance from outside of the household.  18. Other income.

INFANT. Child under 1 year old.

LABOR FORCE. Persons are classified as in the labor force if they are employed, unemployed,

or in the Armed Forces during the survey week.  The “civilian labor force” includes all

civilians classified as employed or unemployed.  The file includes labor force data for civilians

age 15 and over.  However, the official definition of the civilian labor force is age 16 and

over.

1. Employed. Employed persons comprise (1) all civilians who, during the survey week did

any work at all as paid employees or in their own business or profession, or on their own

farm, or who work 15 hours or more as unpaid workers on a farm or a business operated

by a member of the family; and (2) all those who have jobs but who are not working

because of illness, bad weather, vacation, or labor­management dispute, or because they

are taking time off for personal reasons, whether or not they are seeking other jobs.

These persons would have a Labor Force Status Recode (LFSR) of 1 or 2 respectively in

character 145 of the person record, which designates “at work” and “with a job, but not

at work.” Each employed person is counted only once.  Those persons who held more

than one job are counted in the job at which they worked the greatest number of hours

during the survey week.  If they worked an equal number of hours at more than one job,

they are counted at the job they held the longest.

2. Unemployed. Unemployed persons are those civilians who, during the survey week, have

no employment but are available for work, and (1) have engaged in any specific job­seeking

activity within the past 4 weeks such as registering at a public or private employment

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 375 
Glossary of Technical Terms

office, meeting with prospective employers, checking with friends or relatives, placing or

answering advertisements, writing letters of application, or being on a union or professional register; (2) are waiting to be called back to a job from which they had been laid

off; or (3) are waiting to report to a new wage or salary job with 30 days.

LIVE BIRTH. In the World Health Organization’s definition, also adopted by the United

Nations and the National Center for Health Statistics, a live birth is the complete expulsion

or extraction from its mother of a product of conception, irrespective of the duration of

the pregnancy, which, after such separation, breathes or shows any other evidence of life

such as heartbeat, umbilical cord pulsation, or definite movement of voluntary muscles,

whether the umbilical cord has been cut or the placenta is attached.  Each product of

such a birth is considered live born.

LOW BIRTHWEIGHT. See Birthweight.

LOW INCOME. The bottom 20 percent of all family incomes for the year.

MEDIAN INCOME. Median income is the amount which divides the income distribution

into two equal groups, half having incomes above the median, half having incomes below

the median. The medians for households, families, and unrelated individuals are based on

all households, families, and unrelated individuals, respectively. The medians for people

are based on people 15 years old and over with income. 

MIDDLE INCOME. Income between 20 and 80 percent of all family incomes for the year.

NATIVE POPULATION. U.S. residents who were born in the United States, and U.S. residents

who were born in a foreign country but who had at least one parent who was a U.S. citizen.

NEEDY CHILDREN. Includes those who have been deprived of parental support or care

because their father or mother is absent from the home continuously, is incapacitated, is

deceased, or is unemployed.

NEONATAL INFANT. Infant under 28 days old.

OVERWEIGHT. Body mass index (BMI) at or above the sex­ and age­specific 95th percentile

BMI cutoff points calculated at 6­month age intervals for children ages 6 to 11, and for

youth ages 12 to 17.

PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT. The level of involvement depends on the number of different

activities parents report participating in.  Low parental involvement consists of zero to

one activity; moderate parental involvement consists of two activities; high parental

involvement consists of three or more activities.

POSTNEONATAL INFANT.  Infant who is 28 days to 1 year old.

POVERTY LINE. Poverty statistics are based on definitions originally developed by the Social

Security Administration.  These include a set of money income (not including noncash

376 Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003
Glossary of Technical Terms

benefits, such as Food Stamps) thresholds that vary by family size and composition.

Families or individuals with income below their appropriate thresholds are classified as

living below the poverty level.  These thresholds are updated annually by the U.S. Bureau

of the Census to reflect changes in the Consumer Price Index for all urban consumers

(CPI­U).  For example, the poverty line for a family of four was $18,104 in 2001 and

$13,359 in 1990.

PRETERM BIRTH. Infants born before 37 weeks of gestation, one of the major causes of

infant mortality.

RELATED CHILDREN. Related children in a family include own children and all other 

children in the household who are related to the householder by birth, marriage, or 

adoption.  For each type of family unit identified in the Current Population Survey, the

count of own children under 18 years old is limited to single (never married) children;

however, “own children under 25” and “own children of any age,” include all children

regardless of marital status.  The totals include never­married children living away from

home in college dormitories.

SUDDEN INFANT DEATH SYNDROME (SIDS). The sudden death of an infant under 1 year

of age which remains unexplained after a thorough case investigation, including the 

performance of a complete autopsy, examination of the death scene, and review of the

clinical history.

TOTAL FERTILITY RATE. Sums of birth rates for 5­year age groups multiplied by 5.  The total

fertility rate indicates the number of births that a hypothetical group of 1,000 females

would have if they experienced throughout their childbearing years the age­specific birth

rates observed in a given year.

UNINTENTIONAL INJURIES. Includes death from motor vehicle crashes, fires, burns, falls,

drowning, suffocation, and accidents caused by poisons, firearms and other explosive

materials.

VERY LOW BIRTHWEIGHT. See Birthweight.

VERY LOW INCOME. Incomes at or below one­half the median income in a geographic area.

VIOLENT CRIME. Includes aggravated assault, rape, robbery, and homicide.

Trends in the Well­Being of America’s Children and Youth 2003 377 

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