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X^ecUnical ^Tiote 'Ho. 300

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE EARTH-IONOSPHERE

WAVEGUIDE FOR VLF RADIO WAVES

J. R. Wait and K. P. Spies

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NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

technical c

TLote 300

Issued December 30, 1964

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE EARTH-IONOSPHERE

WAVEGUIDE FOR VLF RADIO WAVES

J. R. Wait and K. P. Spies

Central Radio Propagation Laboratory

National Bureau of Standards

Boulder, Colorado

NBS Technical Notes are designed to supplement the Bureau's regular publications program. They provide a means for making available scientific data that are of transient or limited interest. Technical Notes may be

listed or referred to in the open literature.

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U. S. Government Printing Office Washington. D.C. 20402

Price: 5 cents
National Bureau of Standards AUG 5 1965

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'2
CONTENTS Page

Abstract. . . 1-1

1. Introduction 1-1

2. Selection of a Model for the Lower Ionosphere 2-1

3. Some Reflection Coefficients 3-1

4. Relevant Mode Theory and Some Simplifications 4-1

5. The Flat-Earth Limit 5-1

6. Method of Solving the Spherical-Earth Mode Equation. . 6-1

7. Graphical Presentation of Mode Characteristics 7-1

8. Comparison with Some Experimental Data 8-1

9. Concluding Remarks 9-1

10. Acknowledgement 10-1

11. References 11-1

12. Appended Contour Plots 12-1

-in-

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE EARTH-IONOSPHERE

WAVEGUIDE FOR VLF RADIO WAVES

J. R. Wait and K. P. Spies

The principal results of this technical note are

graphical presentations of the attenuation rates, phase

velocities, and excitation factors for the dominant modes

in the earth-ionosphere waveguide. The frequency range

considered is 8 kc/s to 30 kc/s. The model adopted for

the ionosphere has an exponential variation for both the

electron density and the collision frequency, and the effect

of the earth's magnetic field is considered. Comparison

with published experimental data confirms that the minimum

attenuation of VLF radio waves in daytime is approximately at

18 kc/s, while at night it is somewhat lower. The directional

dependences of propagation predicted by the theory are also

confirmed by experimental data.

1. Introduction

It is the purpose of this technical note to present calculated

results, based on mode theory, for the attenuation, phase velocity,

and excitation factors of VLF radio waves. While a great deal of

attention has been given to the subject, quantitative information on

the modal characteristics is relatively scarce. The theory itself

is not simple and approximations must be made with care. Nevertheless, it was felt that a serious effortto produce quantitative results using a realistic model would be worthwhile.

The technical note is broken up into a number of sections which

are more or less independent. In section 2 the available information

on the D-region of the ionosphere is surveyed in a rather sketchy

manner which, however, is sufficient to select a reasonable analytical model. In section 3, reflection coefficients for the adopted exponential model are presented with a view to demonstrate concisely

1-1
the role of certain profile parameters. In section 4, the necessaryformulas of mode theory, as developed for a spherical earthionosphere waveguide are given, and in section 5, the corresponding

approximations for a flat earth are discussed. In section 6, the

method for solving the spherical earth mode equation is outlined,

while section 7 contains the main numerical results which are in

graphical form. Then, in section 8, a short discussion of relevant

experimental data is given. Finally, to add a finishing touch, a

group of waveguide contour plots are appended at the end of this

technical note. These plots show the relation between the boundary

impedance of the waveguide and the propagation characteristics.

1-2
2. Selection of a Model for the Lower Ionosphere

Propagation of VLF radio waves to very great distances is made

possible by the high reflectivity of the lower ionosphere at oblique

incidence. The latter is due to the relatively sharp gradient of the

electron density in the D -region of the ionosphere. In fact, for

many purposes, the assumption of an abrupt lower edge of the ionized

region has permitted an analytical approach to the problem, which

has produced useful results. In the main, these are confirmed

experimentally. However, a number of systematic discrepancies

have been observed which suggest that the sharply bounded model is

not entirely adequate.

In recent years, evidence from a number of independent experimental approaches has indicated that the profile of the electron density

in the undisturbed lower ionosphere can be approximately described

by an exponential function of height. Some of this evidence is indicated

briefly below.

One of the best techniques currently available for the study of

D-layer ionization is the partial reflection method [Belrose and

Burke, 1964], Typically, for the daytime, the profile shows two

ledges of ionization which are not particularly well defined. The

electron density rises fairly steeply in the region 60 km to 70 km

2 _3

(reaching values of the order 10 electrons cm ) and then does not

change appreciably until the onset of the upper ledge in the height

range 72 km to 76 km. The electron density increases further above

this to merge with the base of the E-layer at about 85 km. Similar

profiles have been measured by using the method of pulse cross

modulation [Barrington, et al. , 1963],

The production of the normal D-layer of the form described

above is probably the combined result of Lyman-a radiation for

2-1
heights above 70 km and cosmic rays for heights below 70 km. On

this basis, Nicolet and Aikin [I960] have derived theoretical profiles which seem to fit the observed profiles quite closely.

A convenient quantity to describe the characteristics of the

lower ionosphere is the "conductivity parameter" CO which is defined by

CO = cc3 /v , (1) r o

where CO is -the (angular) plasma frequency of the electrons and v

°

t is the effective collision frequency. The plasma frequency at a particular height is determined directly by the electron density

profile. The appropriate profile for the collision frequency must

also be specified. Using laboratory data for electron collisions with nitrogen

Phelps and Pack [19 59]have calculated the expected profile of collision

frequency V as a function of height. A curve based on his results

is shown in figure 1. An average experimental curve of the collision

profile deduced from partial reflection data [Belrose, 1964] and from

rocket data [Kane, 1961] is also shown in figure 1. It is evident that

both the theoretical and the experimental profiles are nearly exponential

in form (noting that the scale is log-linear). In fact, the analytical

form

v = 5 x 10

6

exp [-0. 15 (z-70)] (2)

is a very adequate representation of the facts. This curve, which

plots as a straight line on log-linear scale, is also shown in figure 1.

Using the daytime electron density data described above and the

assumed exponential formula for v, profiles of CO as a function of

height z were calculated. These are shown in figure 2. The exponential approximation for CO , given by

r

In this way, the effect of the energy dependence of the collision frequency is accounted for in an implicit fashion (e. g. , pg. 258, Wait, 1962a].

2-2
CO = (2.5 X 10

5

) exp [0.3 (z-70)] , (3) r

is also shown in figure 2.

Typically, the electron density profile will change from day to

day even during magnetically quiet periods. As a consequence, the

profile of the conductivity parameter CO will be somewhat variable.

This is illustrated in figure 3 where the CO profiles for three

sucessive days in winter are shown. Here, the electron density

data from Belrose [1964] are used in conjunction with (2) to deduce

the CO values. To indicate a comparison, the exponential form

given by (3) is also shown in figure 3. It is evident that the experimentally deduced profiles have some departures from the ideal form.

A very marked change in the electron density in the ionosphere

is caused by solar flares. In particular, within the polar cap region

(i. e. , latitudes greater than 60 ), effects may last up to 14 days

following a large flare. These events are usually called PCA's

(polar cap absorption) because of the associated effects observed

at VHF. Using some data obtained from Belrose [1964] on the

partial reflection method, curves of CO as a function of height are

deduced during PCA's. These are shown in figure 4 where it is

indicated that the corresponding absorptions are 0.9 and 3. db

for 30 Mc/s transmission through the ionosphere. The upper portion

of the curve for the 3-db absorption event is deduced from rocket

data [Kane, 1961], The lowermost curve in figure 4 is a typical

normal midday profile which is again deduced from Belrose's [1964]

partial reflection data at Ottawa.

The gross characteristics of the three experimentally deduced

CO profiles in figure 4 are well approximated by three exponential

curves as indicated in the figure. In the important height region

2-3
from 60 km to 80 km, it is evident that the difference in the curves

is primarily one of a vertical shift of the ordinate. In other words,

the ionosphere disturbance, apart from whatever its physical causes

may be, does not lead to a significant change in the shape of the *dr profile. The effect is a bodily lowering of the profile, which means

that the reflecting height is lowered by about 10 km during a

moderately strong PCA.

The polar cap-type disturbances mentioned above are caused

primarily by the arrival of solar proton radiation and the associated

effects are mainly restricted to regions whose magnetic latitudes are

greater than 60 . Also, there are disturbances associated with magnetic impulses limited to the auroral zone which influence the level of

ionization in the lower ionosphere. In addition, there are effects

associated with X-radiation during a solar flare. These effects are

usually short-lived and reach a maximum in a matter of minutes and

persist for up to a few hours and, of course, they are confined to the

sunlit hemisphere. For further details, the reader should refer to the

excellent survey article by Belrose [1964] which gives many references.

Geographical variations of the electron densities are known to

exist from limited measurements at different latitudes. Also, the

diurnal variations at equatorial and polar latitudes differ markedly.

A comprehensive picture of the global and temporal variations of the

undisturbed lower ionosphere has been courageously put forth by Pierce

and Arnold [1963] . They work with the balance equations which govern

the production and disappearance of electrons and ions in the ionosphere.

Various particle densities and rate coefficients entering into these

equations must be ascertained either from direct measurements or

laboratory data. After summarizing a large body of information of

this kind, Pierce and Arnold [1963] are able to deduce expected electron

density profiles for an undisturbed ionosphere during equinox and

2-4
and during winter solstice. These results, plotted in the form of contours of equal values of CO , are shown in figures 5 and 6, respectively.

The ordinate in figure 5 is the height above the earth's surface and the

abscissa is the relative longitude along the equator with noon being

chosen arbitrarily as . The situation is simlar in figure 6 except

that the abscissa is the latitude for a path along a meridian.

Height profiles of the conductivity parameter to corresponding

to the conditions of figures 5 and 6 are shown in figures 7a and 7b,

respectively. For the equatorial path at equinox, various profiles

for different longitudes are indicated in figure 7a. The dashed

straight lines correspond to an exponential representation for CO given by

W = (2. 5 X 10

5

) exp [0<z - h

1 )] , r

where is a constant and h

1 is a reference height. It appears

that for daytime the curve for = 0. 3 is a reasonable approximation

although some departures are certainly evident. On the other hand,

at night, a value of = 0. 5 is more representative in the important

height region where VLF waves are mainly reflected. The situation

in figure 7b is quite similar. Here, for convenience, both the latitude

and solar zenith angle x are shown for each profile during day. At

night only the latitude is shown, of course.

In view of recent work by Arnold [1964] and Belrose, et al. [1964],

there may be some question concerning the validity of the lower portions

of the nighttime N profiles deduced by Pierce and Arnold [1963] which

are abstracted here in figures 5, 6, 7a, and 7b. However, these levels

(i. e. , heights less than 70 km) do not materially influence the reflection of VLF radio waves although they have a significant effect for

LF radio waves at oblique incidence. This latter statement is borne

out by a theoretical study of perturbed exponential N profiles

[Wait and Walters, 1963].

2-5
In this brief introductory survey, a large number of salient

topics have not been even mentioned, such as, for example, spatial

irregularities and man-made effects. Nevertheless, it is not unreasonable to suggest that a suitable analytical model for the lower

ionosphere is described by an effective conductivity which varies

exponentially with height. It would then seem fruitful to regard

more realistic models as a perturbation about the exponential form

such as investigated analytically by Wait and Walters [1963]. It might also be mentioned that heavy ions will contribute to the effective value of W , In fact, provided the frequency CO is much less

than v. (the collision frequency for the ions), the lower ionosphere

may still be represented by an effective conductivity which is

numerically equal to e CO (e. g. , see chapter VII in Wait, 1962a). o r

2-6
SA V = (5xl06 )x EXP[-0.I5(Z-70J]

o

a>

V)

>

o

z

UJ

z>o

UJ

cc

o

o

a

10

10' 50

EXPERIMENTAL,"

BELROSE (1964)

AND KANE(1961)

70 90 110 HEIGHT (km)

Collision frequency as a function of height in the lower ionosphere

(the curve denoted Phelps [1962] was calculated by Belrose [1964]

using a formula communicated by A. V. Phelps.)

FIGURE 1

2-7
cr

uiH

Ld<

SE

>

(_> 3Q

z.o

HEIGHT (km)

CONDUCTIVITY PARAMETER AS A FUNCTION OF HEIGHT

1) N DATA FROM BARRINGTON, THRANE AND BJELLAND [1963],

PULSE CROSS MODULATION, 1000-1400 LST, MAR. -APR. I960,

KJELLER, NORWAY.

2) N DATA FROM BELROSE AND BURKE [1964], PARTIAL REFLECTION,

1030 LST, 1 MAY 1961.

3) co = (2. 5 x 10

5

) exp [0. 3 (z-70)]

4) N DATA FROM THEORY [NICOLET AND AIKIN, I960] X = 30°

AND MAG. LAT. = 50°. FOR ABOVE CURVES, v = (5 x 10 ) exp[-0.15 (z-70)]

2-8

FIGURE 2
cr

UJtbJ<

>->

H

Q

Z

o

o

HEIGHT (km)

CONDUCTIVITY PARAMETER AS A FUNCTION OF HEIGHT

N DATA FOR THESE CURVES FROM BELROSE'S [1964]

PARTIAL REFLECTION EXPERIMENT ON MAGNETICALLY

QUIET DAYS IN OTTAWA ON DATES INDICATED. THE

DASHED LINE CORRESPONDS TO

UJ = (2. 5 x 10 ) exp [0.3 (z-65)]

FIGURE 3

2-9
u-i Ld<

ir

>HO

=3Q

Z

o

o

HEIGHT, (km)

CONDUCTIVITY PARAMETER AS A FUNCTION OF HEIGHT

1) N DATA FROM BELROSE [1964], PARTIAL REFLECTION DURING PCA

(0.9db AT 30 Mc/s) AT OTTAWA, 1045-1115 LST, JULY 14, 1961.

2) N DATA FROM KANE [1961], ROCKET EXPERIMENT DURING PCA AT

CHURCHILL (3 db AT 30 Mc/s), 1216 LST, JULY 4, 1957.

3) N DATA FROM BELROSE [1964], PARTIAL REFLECTION, NORMAL

MIDDAY AT OTTAWA.

4) N DATA DURING PCA (3.0 db AT 30 Mc/s) AT OTTAWA, 1540-1600 LST.

5) ui = (2. 5 x 10

5

) exp [0.3 (z-56. 5)]

6) (X = (2. 5 x 10 5 )exp [0. 3 (z-63)]

7) CO = (2. 5 X 10 5 )exp [0.3 (z-70)]

FOR ABOVE CURVES , v (5 x 10 ) exp[-0J5 (z-70)]

2-10

FIGURE 4
-NIGHT

•180 120' -60° 60° RELATIVE LONGITUDE120"

EQUATORIAL PATH AT EQUINOX -- CALCULATED W CONTOURS AFTER

r PIERCE AND ARNOLD [1963] FIGURE 5

—NIGHT

60° f

60°" N. POLE

LATITUDE

MERIDIONAL PATH AT WINTER SOLSTICE-- CALCULATED w CONTOURS AFTER r PIERCE AND ARNOLD [1963]

FIGURE 6 2-11
(Night)

REL. LONG.

120°

50 60 70 80 90 HEIGHT (km)

EQUATORIAL PATH AT EQUINOX -- CALCULATED co PROFILES AFTER PIERCE

AND ARNOLD [1963] AND IDEALIZED EXPONENTIAL CURVES

FIGURE 7a

2-12
50 60 70 80 90 HEIGHT (km)

100

MERIDIONAL PATH AT WINTER SOLSTICE -- CALCULATED 60 PROFILES

r AFTER PIERCE AND ARNOLD [1963] AND IDEALIZED EXPONENTIAL CURVES

FIGURE 7b

2-13
3. Some Reflection Coefficients

As indicated in the previous section, both the electron density

N(z) and the collision frequency v(z) vary approximately in an

exponential manner with height z above some reference level

designated as z = 0. For example, in the undisturbed daytime

ionosphere, we may assume

N(z) = N(0) exp (bz) (4)

and

v(z) = v(0) exp (-az) , (5)

where a and b are positive constants. As a consequence, the

conductivity parameter, as a function of height, has the form

05 (z) = 00 (0) exp (gz) , (6) r r

where ix> (0) = Cd 2 /v(0) and 3 = b + a.

r o Here, 05 is the plasma frequency at the reference level z = and is related to the electron density by

co 2 = 3.18 x 10

9

x N(0) , (7) o

where N(0) is expressed in electrons per cm .

In a calculation of plane wave reflection coefficients for an exponential ionosphere of the form assumed above, it is required that

the earth's magnetic field be considered. This introduces a major

complexity into the problem. By using numerical techniques full

wave solutions may be obtained following the methods of Budden [19 61]

Another approach is to regard the ionosphere as composed of a large

number of homogeneous slabs. The latter method has been exploited

by Ferraro and Gibbons [19 59], Johler [1963], Wait and Walters

[1963, 1964], and others. u sufficient care is given to the finite

3-1
differenc e approximations in the full-wave method and provided

fine enough slabs are chosen in the multi-slab technique, the two

approaches yield identical results. A possible exception exists in

the case of zero collisions which is really only of academic interest.

For the results given in this technical note, it is assumed that

the terrestrial magnetic field is purely transverse. In other words,

the results apply strictly only to propagation along the magnetic

equator. This results in a major simplification to the calculations.

Furthermore, the results are not quite as restrictive as they might

seem. For arbitrary directions of propagation, it has been indicated

that the transverse component of the earth's magnetic field is most

important for reflection of VLF radio waves at highly oblique incidence.

[Wait, 1962a]. Thus, these results may be used, at least in an approxi'

mation for arbitrary directions of propagation.

Using the method described by Wait and Walters [1964], which

is essentially a multi-slab approach, some reflection coefficients

were calculated for a vertically polarized plane wave at oblique

incidence for an exponential model of the lower ionosphere. The

earth's magnetic field was taken to be purely transverse to the

direction of propagation. A convenient parameter to describe the

relative importance of the earth's magnetic field is designated Q

and is defined by

Q = W

T

/v(0) , (8)

where 0) is the (angular) gyrofrequency of electrons in the earth's

magnetic field. This quantity is negative for propagation from the

WEST TOWARDS THE EAST, while it is positive for propagation

from the EAST TOWARDS THE WEST. This magnetic field parameter

Q is used consistently in this technical note.

3-2
Specific numerical results for the reflection coefficient R

are shown in figures 8a and 8b. The collision frequency profile is

fixed by the constant a = 0. 15 km . The exponential electron

density profile is specified by the parameter b which ranges from 0. 1 km to 0. 5 km . The cosine of the angle of incidence, denoted by

C, is assigned the value 0. 1 corresponding to highly oblique incidence. The two sets of curves correspond to wavelengths of

\ = 10 and 30 km (i. e. , frequencies of 30 kc/s and 10 kc/s, respectively). The phase of the reflection coefficient R is referred

5 -1

to the level where U) = 2. 5 X 10 sec . Other details of the computation and further discussion of the reflection coefficients are found

in the referenced paper [Wait and Walters, 1964].

The abscissa in these figures is the magnetic parameter Q

which is the ratio of the gyrofrequency to the collision frequency at

the reference height. Under typical daytime conditions, Q would

have a magnitude of about 1. It is immediately evident that the

magnitude of the reflection coefficient is consistently greater for

propagation from west towards the east than in the reverse direction.

This nonsymmetry (i. e. , nonreciprocity) is more pronounced for the

large values of b corresponding to the more rapidly varying ionosphere. There is some evidence that the longer wavelengths are

associated with greater nonreciprocal effects.

It may be seen in figure 8b that the phase of the reflection coefficient suffers some nonreciprocity although the effect is not great.

The phase is quite sensitive to changes in the electron density gradient.

In fact, for X = 10 km, the phase shift is considerably modified when

b is reduced from 0. 5 to 0. 1. Physically, this corresponds to a

lowering of the effective reflection height. The general upward trend

of the phase curves for increasing values of Q corresponds to a

3-3
further lowering of the reflection height for propagation from east

to west (as compared with propagation in the reverse direction).

It is interesting to note that the nonreciprocal characteristics

of the reflection coefficient curves described here are quite similar

to those deduced from the sharply bounded model with a purelytransverse field [3arber and Crombie, 1959; Wait, 1962a]. In both

cases, the amplitude of the reflection coefficient is higher for westto-east propagation than in the reverse direction. However, there

is one important distinction; the sharply bounded model would predict that the earth's magnetic field increases the phase shift on

reflection for propagation from the west towards the east. This is

just opposite to the behavior for the exponentially varying ionosphere.

In both cases the nonreciprocal phase shifts are quite small relative

to the magnitude of other effects. Nevertheless, it is quite important

to understand these nonreciprocal phase phenomena in carrying out

the interpretation of two-way experiments.

Calculations of the reflection coefficient under slightly different

conditions have been carried out by Johler and Harper [1963], In

their case the earth's magnetic field was not purely transverse, but.

had a dip angle I = 60 . Although their daytime "quiescent" model

was only qualitatively similar to the exponential model, the nonreciprocal behavior of the phase was the same. For example, for

20 kc/s at a range of 1000 miles, they show that the phase shift in

the west-to-east direction is greater than that in the east-to-west

direction by about 6 . Recognizing that the effective transverse

component of the gyrofrequency is reduced in their case, the agreement with calculations for the exponential model is quite good.

Some similar calculations have been carried out by Gossard

[1963] whose daytime profile of electron density is almost exponential

3-4
in form (with b ~ 0. 15 km ). Furthermore, his assumed collision

frequency profile was nearly exponential (with a ~ 0. 15 km ). He

also considered the dip angle equal to 60 . With this model the nonreciprocal behavior of both the amplitude and the phase curves for

16 kc/s were very close to the calculations using a purely transverse

component of the field. In particular, the same trend in the azimuthal

dependence in the phase was observed.

For applications to mode calculations discussed in later sections,

it proves to be convenient to express the reflection coefficient R in

the following form

R = - exp (ccC) , (9)

where a is, in general, a complex function of C. The latter may

be written

a = ax + iag , (10)

where ax and a2 are real. To illustrate the behavior of a as a function of C, the quantities ax and ag are plotted in figures 9a

and 9b as a function of C in the range 0. 05 to 0. 30 for values of Q

from +3 to - 3. The wavelength here was taken as 15 km (i. e. , a frequency of 20 kc/s). The collision profile is again fixed by

the parameter a which is 0. 15 km and the electron density profile is also fixed such that b = 0. 15 km (i. e. , g = b + a = 0. 3 km ),

It is clearly evident from the curves in figures 9a and 9b that the

variation of a^ and ct2 as a function of C, even over this wide

range, is quite small. Furthermore, in the applications to mode

calculations, the important range of C is from 0. 1 to 0. 2. Here , the total variation of cc

x is not more than two percent for Q, in the

range of + 1 to -1. The corresponding variation of a3 is not more

than eight percent.

3-5
The near constancy of a as a function of C permits calculations, for real angle of incidence, to be analytically continued

into the complex plane of C (for values of interest, C is in the

vicinity of the real axis where Re C is in the range from 0. 1 to 0. 2).

Further justification for this procedure is given an extensive treatment of the sharply bounded ionosphere where it is more convenient

to obtain higher order approximations [Spies and Wait, 1961],

The variation of ax and a3 as a function of wavelength X, (in

kilometers) is shown in figures 10a and 10b where the individual

curves cover the range from -3 to +3. Here, C =0.1,

3=b + a =0.3 km , and a = 0. 15 km , as indicated. It is

particularly interesting to note that the dependence on the magnetic

field parameter Q, is quite noticeable for the longer wavelengths.

It is also evident that the quantity Gt^ , which is primarily related

to attenuation, depends more strongly on Cl than does oc 2

, which

is primarily related to phase.

The reflection coefficients described in this section are intended

primarily as an introduction to the extensive presentation of mode

theory calculations which follows.

3-6
<r

UJo

UU.

UJO

UUJ

_lu.

UJ

cr

a = 0.15 km" 1 C = 0.1 — x - 10 km — X = 30 km

-2-10 I 2 MAGNETIC FIELD PARAMETER, SI

FIGURE 8a

-60° —

r

C =0.1 a = 0.15 km"

X = 10km

X = 30 km

-2-10123

MAGNETIC FIELD PARAMETER, SI

FIGURE 8b

REFLECTION COEFFICIENT R FOR A VERTICALLY POLARIZED PLANE WAVE INCIDENT OBLIQUELY ONTO AN EXPONENTIALLY

VARYING IONOSPHERE. THE COLLISION PROFILE IS FIXED BY

a =0.15 km" 1

, WHILE THE ELECTRON DENSITY PROFILE N

IS DETERMINED BY THE PARAMETER b. 3-7
X = a =

--

15 km

0.15 km" 1 0.3 km-l a = 3

2

;5___—

9n -

1.5 -

1.0 —

0.5

-0.5

-1.5

I

a =-3

1 1 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30

FIGURE 9a

0.30

FIGURE 9b

PARAMETERS IN THE REFLECTION COEFFICIENT

R = - exp [(a, + ia3 )C] SHOWING THE INFLUENCE

OF THE ANGLE OF INCIDENCE AND THE MAGNETIC

FIELD PARAMETER.

3-8
FIGURE 10a

20 25 X IN km

FIGURE 10b

PARAMETERS IN THE REFLECTION COEFFICIENT

R = -expfta, + io,)C] SHOWING THE INFLUENCE OF THE WAVELENGTH AND THE MAGNETIC FIELD PARAMETER. 3-9
4. Relevant Mode Theory and Some Simplifications

The model used and the derivation of the field expressions have

been reported in the literature before. An accessible reference is

chapter VII of a text book on the subject of waves in stratified media

[Wait, 1962a]. For convenience of the reader, the relevant formulas

are listed here along with explicit definitions of the pertinent factors.

The source is regarded as a vertical electric dipole on the

surface of a smooth spherical earth of radius a and conductivity

a , and dielectric constant e . Spherical coordinates are chosen

g g

with' the dipole located at r = a + z and 9=0. For the moment,

the ionosphere is represented by a reflecting layer at r = a + h.

The electrical properties of this shell are not specified except to

say that the tangential electric and magnetic fields are related at

the level r = a + h by a surface impedance Z.

For harmonic time dependence, the radial component of the resultant electric field is written

-ika6

E

r * -2 r Ve+lWt

(11)

a (9 sin 9) 2

apart from a constant factor. An expression for V was derived

previously [Wait, 1961] as the sum of waveguide modes. It may be

written conveniently in the following form

v = iin^L

2 e-^/4

y e-i x tnG ( ~ )G()A t (12)

V / j n n n

i A k

where x = (ka/2) 3 Q t y- (2/ka) 3 k z , and y = (2/ka) 3 k(r - a).

The other factors in this equation are discussed below.

The complex values t are solutions of the equation

1 - A(t) B(t) = , (13)

4-1
where

A(t) = - _w{(t - y

Q

) + q. wx (t Vi

Lw«8

(t - y ) + qt wa(* -y

o)J

(14)

B(t) - -

w^(t) - q w

8

(t)

_wx'(t) - q w7(tj J

q.- =

1 -

(15)

i i. i e co

,3 „ /.. „ ,-,,. _ . „ / ni 3/' O -i(ka/2)3 z/T! , n = 120 n, q - -i(ka/2)

o o va + i e co g g

i e CO o a + i e co g g

and y = (2/ka) kh

The functions Wj (t) and w2

(t) are Airy integral functions and the

primes indicate a derivative with respect to the argument.

The functions G are height-gain functions and they are

normalized to unity for y or y equal to zero. Explicitly,

f(t n

, y)

G

n

(y) = JiTTof

n

where

f(t

n

, y) = Wl (t

n -y) + A(tn

)w2

(t

n

- y) .

(16)

(17)

The function A is a modal excitation factor T Wait, 196ll.

n

L J Here it is normalized such that, in the limit of zero curvature and

perfectly reflecting boundaries, it becomes unity for all modes.

Under this condition

2 _i

n 2 L n

(t - q3) -

(t -y - qf)[w£(t )- qwg (t|]

n n

tw 2

(t - v) + % w«(* -yJ])1 2 J

* n o n

(18)

4-2
Tl CO

i2 o ^3 ^ + —

". 1 0J\

Z V iw; v r

In some applications at VLF, the ionosphere may be described

in terms of an effective conductivity parameter £0 which is

assumed to be constant above a certain height. On neglecting the

terrestrial magnetic field and assuming that CO < < v where V is

the collision frequency, it follows that to = C0 2 /v where CO is n ' r o o the (angular) plasma frequency. Then, to within a good approximation, the surface impedance is given by [Wait, 1962a].

(19)

being essentially independent of angle of incidence (or mode number)

for grazing modes.

The use of an effective conductivity parameter CO which does

not vary with height is strictly only valid for a sharply bounded

homogeneous ionosphere. As indicated in the introduction, a more

realistic ionospheric model is one in which CO is regarded as an

exponential function of height. Then, instead of regarding r =h as

the height of a sharp boundary we specify that r =h is the reference

level in the ionosphere where the reflection coefficients are referred

to. For example, it was shown before [Wait and Walters, 1963] that

the oblique reflection of plane waves from a planar exponentially

stratified medium could always be characterized in terms of an

equivalent free -space problem. This equivalent situation could be

imagined as a reflecting plane with a specified impedance boundary

condition. The location of this plane is the reference surface which

is referred to as z = in the previous section.

The idea of a reference height for mode calculations in the earthionosphere waveguide yields a great simplification and it provides

a means to adapt previous results for planar models to the more

realistic spherical earth geometry. However, it is only fair to say

4-3
that there is a certain arbitrariness here in that the choice of the

reference height must be selected at a level in the ionosphere where

the bulk of the energy is being reflected. In other words, r = h

must be chosen to be effectively the upper boundary of the earthionosphere waveguide. Fortunately, there is some leeway in choosing

this reference level. Variations by as much as ±5 km do not

materially influence the final results, provided the appropriate

value of the normal surface impedance is used.

From a study of the reflection process for an isotropic exponentially stratified ionosphere [Wait and Walters, 1963], it is

determined that a satisfactory choice for the reference level at

5 -1 VLF is where CO has the value 2. 5 X 10 sec . For the sake of

r consistency, this convention is followed for all models considered

in this technical note.

To adapt previous numerical results for planar reflection coefficients to be used in conjunction with the mode equation (13),

some further manipulations are needed. The procedure is outlined

in what follows.

As indicated in the previous section and from earlier work

[Wait, 1962a; Wait and Walters, 1963], the reflection coefficient R

for a rather broad class of inhomogeneous media may be written in

the form

R - -exp(a C») , (20)

where C 1 is the cosine of the angle of incidence and a, to a first

order, is independent of C . (Here, a prime is added to C in

order to avoid confusion with the corresponding C for the ground

reflection. ) The result is particularly accurate at highly oblique

incidence where C is of the order of 0. 1. Of course, it does not

4-4
apply at steep incidence, which is not a serious limitation for applications to mode theory. The beauty of this exponential simple form

is that it provides a means to analytically continue R into the complex plane of C once the complex value of a has been determined.

It is these complex values of R which are used implicitly in mode

theory. This procedure is valid since R has no poles in the vicinity

of the real axis of C . The next step is to note that R may also be written in the form

C - A R = — , (21)

C« + A

which is always exact if A is a normalized impedance (or admittance)

function which is a function of C* . For highly oblique incidence, it turns out that A is almost independent of C for a broad class of

continuously stratified media [Wait, 1962a]. This form for R is

particularly convenient for application to the mode equation for the

spherical earth-ionosphere waveguide. Now, it is not difficult to

show that R as given by (21) may be written in the form

R = -e"

2x

+

-Jx

3

- -|-x4 + ... , (22)

where x = -aC 1 /2 . Thus, if |x3

| or |(aC')

3 /8|<< 1, the two

forms for R, given by (20) and (21), are equivalent. For highly

oblique incidence and small values of a (i.e. , R near -1), this

will be a particularly good approximation.

Unfortunately, in certain areas of practical interest, the product

aC may be comparable with unity. However, even then, the error

introduced in assuming an equivalence between the two forms for R is

not great. To reduce this error still further, a correction is made as

follows. The two expressions as given by (20) and (21) are equated.

4-5
Thus,

_ ^„~ tr* r-i \ _ C + A

C - A

-exp(aC') = A , (23)

which is deceptively simple. The numerical reflection coefficient

data are given in terms of complex values of a. For application

to the mode equation, the corresponding complex value of A is

needed. As indicated by (22), one simply has A = - 2/a if

|(aC«) 3 /8|<< 1. For low order or grazing-type modes, C may be approximated

by the real quantity (2h/a) where h is the reference reflecting

height. Then, the identity given by (23) now may be written

_i -exp[a(2h/a)*] *

t 2 *^ I A

. (24)

(2h/a) 2 + A

This should be a definite improvement on using the simple connection

mentioned in the previous paragraph, despite the fact that C is

crudely approximated.

The exponential ionospheric models used in the present technical

note were described in section 3. For purely transverse

propagation (i. e. , along the magnetic equator), complex values of

a are taken directly from the work of Wait and Walters [1964], They

are listed in table 1 for frequencies from 8 kc/s to 30 kc/s, where

the entries Gt^ and aa are real and defined by a = (Xj + i(X

g

. The

corresponding values of A are given in tables 2, 3, 4, and 5 for the

reference heights h, as indicated. The entries A and B are

real and defined by

A . -2(iA - B)"

1 (25)

or

A + iB = 2i/A . (26)

4-6
The entries in tables 1 to 5 are accurate to the number of digits

indicated. The method of calculation is discussed in the quoted

reference [Wait and Walters, 1964].

In summary, the calculations given in this technical note are

strictly correct for an earth-ionosphere waveguide which is bounded

by a homogeneous smooth earth and a reflecting layer at height h

with a normalized surface impedance A. The applicability of the

results to an actual diffusely bounded ionosphere requires a number

of approximations which are justified mainly on physical grounds.

The principal assumption is that A is assumed at the outset and then

the mode equation is solved to yield the propagation characteristics.

A fundamental question may arise in that the angle of incidence is complex for inodes in a lossy waveguide. However, it is fortunate that the

cosine C of the angle of incidence at the ionosphere is approximately

equal to (2 h/a + C ) where C is related to the parameter t,

in (13), by

lA -

(ka/2) V °C = (-t)

2

For all the important modes, |C | < < 2 h/a and, thus, C is

approximately equal to (2 h/a) as assumed above. A small refinement is to use the above form for C to obtain a modified value of A

(or a) which is then employed in conjunction with the contour plots in

section 12 to yield corrected values of the propagation parameters.

The resulting corrections appear to be negligible for any situation

considered in this technical note.

4-7
Tabulated Reflection Coefficient Data

Table 1

Isotropic Model Anisotropic Model Isotropic Model Anisotr opic Model

1 P = -1 = tl

f (S =0.5 km"') (B =0.3 km" 1

) (B = 3 km"') (B = 0. 3 km"1

)

(a = 0.15 km"1

) (a = 0.15 km" 1

)

(kc/s) al a3 <h a3 Hi a2 <h a2

8 -2.280 2.497 -1. 860 3. 127 -2.448 3.403 -3. 294 3.618

10 -2.306 2.538 -2. 130 3.580 -2.676 3.903 -3.493 4. 169

12 -2.378 2.654 -2.462 4. 121 -2.965 4.481 -3. 745 4. 788

14 -2.488 2. 821 -2. 837 4. 731 -3.298 5. 117 -4.037 5.455

16 -2.62 5 3.025 -3.245 5.395 -3.664 5. 801 -4.362 6. 157

18 -2.785 3.258 -3.669 6. 103 -4.052 6. 523 -4. 713 6. 888

20 -2.965 3. 558 -4. 106 6. 843 -4.456 7.274 -5.085 7.642

22 -3. 161 3. 796 -4. 551 7.610 -4. 872 8.048 -5.473 8.414

24 -3.369 4. 143 -4.999 8.395 -5.295 8. 839 -5. 875 9. 199

26 -3. 589 4.408 -5.450 9. 194 -5. 723 9.642 -6.287 9.995

28 -3. 817 4.794 -5.901 10.002 -6. 155 10.454 -6. 707 10. 798

30 ,4.051 5.079 -6.353 10. 816 -6. 589 U.272 -7. 134 11.606

Table 2

Isotropic Model - Exponential Profile

(B = 0. 5 km" 1

)

f h = 60 km h = 70 km h = 80 km h = 90 km

(kc/s) B A B A B A B A

8 2. 327 2.460 2.335 2.453 2.343 2. 447 2.351 2.440

10 2.356 2.498 2.364 2.492 2.372 2.485 2.380 2.478

12 2.435 2.611 2.444 2.604 2.454 2.596 2.463 2. 588

14 2. 556 2.772 2. 567 2.763 2. 578 2.755 2. 589 2. 746

16 2.708 2.967 2. 722 2.957 2.735 2.947 2. 749 2.937

18 2.889 3. 190 2.906 3. 177 2.923 3. 165 2.939 3. 152 20 3.098 3.475 3. 120 3.460 3. 142 3.445 3. 163 3.430

22 3.322 3.695 3.349 3.677 3.375 3.658 3.400 3.639

24 3. 577 4.021 3.611 3.998 3.645 3.975 3.678 3.951

26 3. 839 4.259 3. 879 4.230 3.919 4.201 3.958 4. 171 28 4. 135 4.613 4. 186 4. 578 4.237 4. 542 4.2 87 4. 504

30 4.429 4.859 4.489 4.816 4. 54 8 4. 771 4.607 4.724

"i - '*(¥) <±T)

Table 3

.nisotropic Model - Exponential Profile

(n=-l, 6 =0.3 km-1

, a =0.15 km" 1

)

f h s 60 km h = 70 km h = 80 km h = 90 km

(kc/s) B A B A B A B A

8 1.937 3. 122 1.950 3. 121 1.962 3. 120 1.975 3. 119

10 2.245 3. 572 2.264 3. 570 2.283 3. 568 2.303 3. 565

12 2.639 4. 106 2.669 4. 102 2.699 4.098 2.729 4.093

14 3. 106 4. 704 3. 152 4.696 3. 198 4.688 3.244 4.678

16 3. 647 5.346 3. 716 5.332 3. 785 5.316 3.854 5.298

18 4.255 6.019 4. 355 5.994 4.456 5.966 4. 557 5.933

20 4.936 6. 707 5.078 6.664 5.221 6.615 5.363 6. 559

22 5.696 7. 395 5. 892 7.323 6.088 7.240 6.282 7. 146

24 6. 542 8.063 6. 804 7.948 7.063 7. 814 7.317 7.661

26 7.480 8.692 7. 819 8.512 8. 150 8.302 8.468 8.063

28 8. 514 9.259 8.939 8.985 9.343 8.667 9. 722 8.306

30 9.644 9.736 ID. 155 9.332 10.627 8. 867 11.047 8.347

4-8
Table 4

Isotropic Model - Exponential Profile

(6 = 0.3 km"1

)

f h = 60 km h = 70 km h = 80 km h = 90 km

(kc/s) B A B A B A

1 B A

8 2. 558 3.365 2. 577 3.358 2. 595 3. 351 2.613 3. 343

10 2. 838 3. 858 2. 865 3. 849 2. 893 3. 839 2. 920 3. 829

12 3.206 4.423 3.247 4.411 3.288 4.398 3.328 4. 3 84

14 3.654 5. 041 3. 714 5.023 3. 774 5. 004 3. 834 4.9 83

16 4. 179 5.696 4.266 5. 669 4. 353 5. 639 4,440 5. 606

18 4. 781 6.374 4.904 6.332 5.028 6.286 5. 151 6. 23<

20 5.465 7.061 5.636 6.996 5. 807 6.923 5.976 6. 840

22 6.237 7.741 6.467 7.640 6. 696 7. 525 6.921 7. 395

24 7. 102 8.394 7.405 8.241 7.701 8.063 7.989 7. 861 26 8.067 9.001 8.452 8.770 8. 822 8. 501 9. 173 8. 197 28 9. 134 9. 535 9. 607 9. 194 10. 50 8. 799 10.455 8.3 54

30 10.300 9.968 10. 859 9.477 11.361 8.914 11. 794 8. 2 89

Table 5

Anisotropic Model - Exponential Profile

{Q, = + 1, B=0.3 km" , a = 0. 15 km" )

f h == 60 km h = 70 km h = 80 km h = 90 km

(kc/s) B A B A B A B A

8 3.437 3.500 3.459 3.479 3.482 3.458 3. 504 3.436

10 3. 707 4.030 3. 741 4. 004 3. 775 3.978 3. 808 3.951

12 4.060 4.620 4. 112 4. 587 4. 162 4. 553 4.212 4. 518

14 4.494 5.247 4. 568 5.204 4.641 5. 159 4. 714 5. Ill

16 5.007 5. 897 5. 112 5. 839 5.216 5. 777 5. 318 5. 710

18 5. 604 6. 556 5. 749 6.475 5. 891 6. 387 6.031 6. 292

20 6.288 7.209 6.483 7.096 6.673 6.970 6. 858 6. 833 22 7.064 7. 841 7.319 7.679 7. 565 7.499 7. 802 7. 300

24 7.936 8.433 8.260 8.203 8. 569 7.944 8. 858 7. 658

26 8.907 8.963 9. 306 8.637 9. 676 8.270 10.012 7. 866 28 9.975 9.405 10.447 8.950 10. 870 8. 440 11.233 7. 884

30 11. 132 9. 732 11.667 9. 110 12. 119 8.419 12.475 7. 679

4-9
5. The Flat-Earth Limit

Because of the complexity of the working formulas for the

field expressions, it is desirable to examine the limiting behavior

for a flat earth. In this way, some physical insight into the general

results are obtained.

The flat-earth mode theory is obtained as a special case of the

spherical-earth mode theory when the following approximations hold:

l,

| C (J*?)'

I > > 1 and | C

2

| > > A , n V 2 y ' ' n

' a ' where

3 C = (-t ) 2 [2/(ka)]

n n

is the cosine of a complex angle associated with the n'th-order mode

in a parallel -plate waveguide.

In this limiting case, it is found that C are roots of the mode

n

equation

where

R.(C) R (C) exp (-i2khC) = exp(-i 2nn) , (27)

6

R.(C) = £^-^ , A = Z/n , (28)

C+ A

and

C-A ieco2 ieU)

R

g

(C) = cTlf ' A

g

= (a +°i e w) " a +i°£ w) '

(29)

g

*

g g g g

As in the spherical-earth problem, the normalized surface impedance

is a function of C but for highly oblique incidence (i. e. , low-order

modes) it may be regarded as a constant.

5-1
The excitation factor may now be written in the following

form:

where

6

n

c

2

A ? n

n C - A

2

n g

9(R. R )/b C

1 1 i l g 1

»

-1

2kh R. R

1 g C = c

n

(30)

(31)

The above result [Wait, 1962a] for A can be obtained as a limiting

case of (18) for a -» °° or it can be derived directly using a flatearth model at the outset [Wait, 1962a]

We now make the exponential approximation to the reflection coefficient, namely,

R. == - exp (a C) (32)

where a may be regarded as a complex quantity. The approximate

solutions of (27) are then given by [Wait, 1962a]

n(2n - 1) + 2 exp (i3n/4) G^C )" 1 C s TTt T Tl

^— . (33)

n

where

and

2kh + i a

G =

e w

o a

g + i e co g

C°

n

= n(2n - 1) kh

The attenuation in nepers per unit distance is then equal to -k Im S

2 "2 2 / where S =(1-C) 2= 1 - C /2. In a similar fashion, it is

n n n

seen that the phase velocity, relative to c, is l/[Re S ]. The latter

5-2
quantity, designated v/c, is close to unity.

A relatively simple flat-earth formula for A is obtained from

(30) under the assumption that A and A are independent of C.

Thus,

:

s .2 .2

(34) n

g C - A

1 + i = =— + i =—fi r— n g

kh( C - A i kh( C - A > n y V n g /

or, even more simply,

A a x , (35) n A

fiL kh c'

1+i 2T5T

+ «-*T

n when

|A2 |<< |C2

| . g n

The resulting formulas given in this section are directly applicable to ELF (extremely low frequency) studies [Wait, 1962b].

However, they serve as a useful check on the curved earth VLF

calculations since, at frequencies below 10 kc/s, the flat -earth

approximations are not seriously violated.

5-3
6. Method of Solving the Spherical-Earth Mode Equation

The principal task of this work was the determination of the

roots of the mode equation

1 - A(t) B(t) = , (36)

where A(t) and B(t) are given by (14) and (15). These roots were

found by an application of the well-known Newton's method, the

numerical calculations being performed on a high-speed digital

computer (IBM 7090).

According to Newton's method, if t is an approximate root

of (36), the next approximation is given by t + At where

A t = r A(t) B(t) " l '^-[A(t) B(t)]

(37)

t = t o

By making use of the Wronskian relation

w{(Z)w2 (Z) - Wl (Z)w2 (Z) = 2i , (38)

it is not difficult to show that

A(t ) B(t ) - 1

A O O

At = —

2i(t - q

2

) (2i q? - t + y ) A(t ) + r-T7: Vr2—^t: en B(t ) [w'(t

o

) -q Wl (t o

)]

2

x o' [w^(t

o -yo

) +q.w2

(to-y

o

)] 2 "o

(39)

Repeated applications of the method were used until | At | = 10

Successful use of Newton's technique requires a sufficiently good

choice for the first approximation to the root of the mode equation.

6-1
This problem was solved in the following way. The first step was

finding roots of the mode equation when q = and q. = °° , i. e. , for perfectly reflecting boundaries of the earth -ionosphere waveguide. Under these conditions, mode equation (36) reduces to

w«,(t) wx (t - y ) w{ (t) w2

(t - y ) = 1 • (40) o

The only modes of physical interest are those which propagate without attenuation; these correspond to real roots of (40). For real

arguments, it turns out that

w'(t) r- s _ -l/Ai'(t)

= exp 2 i tan ( (41) wj(t) - ~~*-|_ — VBt'(t);j

and

w' (t

-

V

r ... -i^Ai(t -y >M

w.(t - y ) = exPL" 2ltan CBi(t-y ))} • 2 o o

(42)

where the inverse tangents are continuous functions of t such that

-l^Ai'(0)\ n __j _ -\ r Ai(0) ^ t^

(43)

tan — ., . . , = - —— and tan _ . rr-x = v Bi1 (o)y 6 vbi(o) ; 6

Noting that e = 1, mode equation (40) for perfectly reflecting

boundaries may be written as

1/ AiMri N -1- A1(t - yo\ , ", , , tan (t?w) - tan Ui(t- y )) =

- n ^(n =

i. 2 . 3 .--.)

°

(44)

By plotting the left-hand member of (44) versus t, one may obtain

approximate solutions of the mode equation for perfectly reflecting

boundaries. Note that these solutions are functions only of frequency

6-2
2 3 and ionospheric height (since y = ( ) kh).

o v ka y

The second step was finding roots of the mode equation for

perfectly conducting ground (i.e. , q = 0) and specified values of

the (complex) parameter A (which depends on the ionospheric model,

as well as on frequency and ionospheric height). To accomplish this , a sequence of A values was chosen, starting with A = °° (corresponding to perfectly reflecting boundaries) and ending with the desired value of A. (As a practical matter, this sequence was chosen

so that the real and imaginary parts of (1/A) changed by about 0. 5

from one element of the sequence to the next. ) Starting with the

approximate roots obtained by graphical means, Newton's method

was used to find roots of the mode equation for the first A value in

the sequence. These roots were, in turn, used as starting values

in finding roots for the second A value in the sequence, and so on

until roots corresponding to the final A value were found.

The final step consisted of solving the mode equation for specified finite values of ground conductivity and specified values of the

parameter A. This was accomplished by choosing a sequence of

ground conductivity values starting with a large value and ending

with the desired value. (As a practical matter, the values used were

100, 50, 20, 10, 5, 2, and 1 millimho/meter. ) Starting with roots

corresponding to a = °° and specified values of frequency, height

and A, Newton's method was used to find roots of the mode equation

for the first a value in the sequence. These roots were next used

g

as starting values in finding roots for the second a value in the se- quence, and so on until roots corresponding to the final a value

g

were found. The relative dielectric constant e /e of the ground go

was taken to be 15.

6-3
7. Graphical Presentation of Mode Characteristics

Using the method outlined in section 6, a fairly extensive set

of calculations was prepared for a selected range of the pertinent

parameters. A sampling of these results is shown here in graphical

form in figures 11a to 38. The specific quantities considered are

the attenuation rate in decibels per 1000 km of path length, the departure of the phase velocity ratio v/c from unity, and the excitation

factor A. These quantities are plotted consistently as a function of

frequency from 8kc/s to 30 kc/s. In most cases, the results are

shown both for mode numbers n = 1 and 2, which are the modes of

lowest attenuation for the frequency range indicated.

For the curves shown in figures 11a to 3 8,

a) 60 (or C0 2 /v) profile varies as exp (8 z) as a function of

height z,

b) h is the height of the reference level above the earth 1 s surface

5 -1

(i.e. , where CO takes the value 2. 5 X 10 sec ). r

c) a is the conductivity of the ground and is expressed in

milli -mho s/m.

Under the isotropic assumption (i. e. , neglect of earth's magnetic field), only the CO (or C0 2 /v) profile need be specified.

r o Thus, in figures 11a to 30b, the profile is fully specified by the

parameter 3 which is assigned to be 0. 5 km . However, for the

anisotropic model, the collision profile v, in addition to the CO

profile must be considered. Noting that these vary as exp (Bz)

and exp (-az), respectively, it is necessary to specify both |3 and

a. For the curves shown in figures 31a to 3 8, is assigned the

value 0. 3 km , while a is assigned the value 0. 15 km . The

magnetic field parameter £2 assumes the values -1 and +1 which

correspond to propagation along the magnetic equator from

7-1
WEST-TO-EAST and from EAST-TO-WEST, respectively.^" In this

case, the gyrofrequency W for the transverse d-c magnetic field

is equal to the collision frequency v at the reference height (since

] O] = iC /v). Of course, when Q = for the middle set of curves

in figures 31a to 3 8, the earth's magnetic field is zero. Thus, these

curves differ from figures 11a to 30b only in that 3 is 0.3 km in

place of 0.5 km . There is a considerable amount of information in the curves in

figures 11a to 38 and it would be possible to discourse on these at

length. However, many of the features are self evident and the

interested reader might find it worthwhile to glance at these one by

one. If he is reasonably perceptive he will notice a number of

interesting points. For example:

a) The lowest attenuation of mode 1 in the daytime (i. e. , h =? 70 km)

is at a frequency of 18 kc/s for both 3=0.3 km and 0. 5 km .

b) The lowest attenuation of mode 1 at nighttime (i. e. , h ~ 90 km)

is around 12 kc/s for both 3=0.3 km and 0. 5 km .

c) In general, attenuation is lower for propagation from WEST-TOEAST than from EAST-TO-WEST.

d) For daytime heights (h ~ 70 km), the attenuation rate of mode

1 is always less than the attenuation rate of mode 2. At nighttime,

(h ~ 90 km), the attenuation rates may be of the same order.

e) In general, the attenuation rates for 3 = 0. 3 and 0. 5 are of

the same order except at the higher end of the frequency range

where the 3 = 0.3 curves show a decisive upward trend.

f) The magnitude of the excitation factor of mode 1 diminishes with

increasing frequency with the effect being more pronounced at

night.

At nighttime the effective value of Q may be considerably greater

than one.

7-2
g) The phase velocity ratio v/c of mode l,in daytime, is greater

than one for frequencies less than about 14 kc/s and less

than one for higher frequencies. At nighttime, the cross -over

point is more like 10 kc/s.

h) The effect of finite ground conductivity is to increase the attenuation rates, particularly for mode 2.

i) Finite ground conductivity results in a slightly decreased phase

velocity for both modes 1 and 2.

j) Finite ground conductivity tends to increase the magnitude of

the excitation factor,

and so on. The results shown graphically in figures 11a to 3 8 are based on

the full solution of the spherical- earth mode equation. The results

are believed to be accurate for the model specified. to well within

one's ability to read numerical values from the graphs. While the

parameters and adopted conventions are slightly different, the curves

may be compared in a few cases with other published work [Wait and

Spies, I960; Spies and Wait, 1961; Krasnushkin, 1962; Wait, 1963;

Galejs, 1964]. In particular, the work of Galejs [1964] corresponds

to an exponential ionosphere where 3=0. 291 which is sufficiently

close to our value of 3 = 0. 3 to permit a useful comparison even

though the reference heights do not coincide. As Galejs points out,

5

our choice of a reference height (i. e. , where co = 2. 5 X 10 ) is

r somewhat arbitrary. This reference height is really the upper

boundary of the equivalent sharply bounded waveguide. Ideally,

changes of this parameter with appropriate modification of the equivalent surface impedance should not change the final results. A

reference height chosen to have this property may be described as

optimum. A study of this question, which is confirmed by the results of Galejs 1 calculations indicates that our choice is not far from

optimum.

7-3
— 5 E

,

1 . .

1 1

'

1 1

ISOTROPIC MODEL _

-\ 0=0.5 km" 1 Og= to

"

-\ n = 1 ~

" \ :

-\ V

\ V ^^

-

.\&\ \ ^—z V\^\^ ^ -

-

- -

1 , 1 1,1. i

16 20 24 FREQUENCY (kC/S)

1

1 \ 1 1 ' 1

'

1

ISOTROPIC MODEL

•

/3 = 0.5 Km-' cg =oo

~

" \

n = 2 - \ -

\

-

- \

-

\o

- ^

-

- X

-

- —.

-

1 I.I.I

-

16 20 24 FREQUENCY (kc/s) FIGURE lla FIGURE lib

"T ! 1 r "1—'—

ISOTROPIC MODEL

(3 = 0.5 Km"'

n = l

_L

16 20 24 FREQUENCY (kc/s)

III 1 ' 1 1' 1

.

4.0 ~

\ ISOTROPIC MODEL .

\ B

= 0.5 k m ' -

3.S

\

CT

'

= CD

2

-

3.0 -

o

2.5 ~

\ \ "

H - x - - 2.0 - \ \ -

>

1.5

1.0

. \ X

Vo

~

0.5 ' X

-

i

1 , 1 1 .

12 16 20 24 FREQUENCY (Kc/s)

ATTENUATION AND PHASE VELOCITY AS A FUNCTION OF FREQUENCY SHOWING EFFECT OF REFLECTING HEIGHT

7-4
1

1

' 1

1 ' 1

1

1

-

- -

-4 -& ^\. ^~~\-

\

-

-8 N. "

-12 V

-16 \ -

-20

L

ISOTROPIC MODEL

$ =0.5 km" 1

-24 Og=<E

n = 1

-28

1 , 1 1 , 1 1 \

1 ' 1

1

1

' i 1

28 - /-

ISOTROPIC MODEL

/s- 0.5 km -1

24 a9n

CO

1 /

20

.

-

16 y7 f

/ -

12 p>

&/"'

6

4

' 1 1 i

i 1

1

FREQUENCY (kc/s) FIGURE 13a

FREQUENCY (kc/s) FIGURE 14a

ISOTROPIC MODEL

= 0.5 km"'

<jg =co

n = 2 J_ _L

12 16 20 24 28

FREQUENCY (kc/s) FIGURE 13b

12 16 20 24 28 FREQUENCY (kC/s) FIGURE 14b

EXCITATION FACTOR AS A FUNCTION OF FREQUENCY

SHOWING EFFECT OF REFLECTING HEIGHT

7-5
9

I ' 1

ISOTROPIC MODEL

8 /3:0.5 km-1

\ h = 60 km

,\ n= l

7

\ \ _

R IW

1 v|\ \ \

o

n

5

\\\\ \ ^^ <7"n =1 M" ' 'MHO/METER o

-Q

T3 l\ ^

o

4

3

\\\\ ^

V

~^~^_£__^

1-<

LUH

1-< y\\ \^J

_ \

\

sv^---!°_ z \ Ss^

v

*-^i__

2

>v —2^___ ______ ^ '

______

- 1,1,1,1,1 12 16 20 24 28 FREQUENCY (kc/s) FIGURE 15a

O

o2 4

3 -

2 -

1

1

'

1

'

1

'

1 ' 1

ISOTROPIC MODEL _ /3 = 0.5km- ' _

h = 70 km

n = l

^~^_____ O"g=lMILLIMH0/METER

"

^~""-----—__?__

\

\^~^—£— ——~~~~L~^'

S\^~-!°— —~'^-^^'

v.. ——-_£o__ .__—-___i—^S^-^" \ ~""-—__(j __

' _-—

^^^-~-^CO

~~~~^

1 1,1,1,1 12 16 20 24

FREQUENCY (kc/s) FIGURE 16a

i—'—

ISOTROPIC MODEL

/3 = 0.5 km" 1

h = 60 km

n =2

01 = 1 MILLIMHO/METER

12 16 20 24 28 FREQUENCY (kC/s)

— 12 Eo

o2 io

ISOTROPIC MODEL

= 0.5 km -1

h = 70 km

n= 2

_L

16 20 24

FREQUENCY (kc/s) FIGURE 15b FIGURE 16b

ATTENUATION AS A FUNCTION OF FREQUENCY

SHOWING INFLUENCE OF GROUND CONDUCTIVITY

7-6
ISOTROPIC MODEL 0= 0.5 km -1

h = 80 km

n = I

5 -

! 1

1 ' 1

1 1' 1

ISOTROPIC MODEL

/8 = 0.5 km" 1

"

h =90 km "

-

n = I

-

~— Sl! MILLIM HO/METER __-

-^0^

^-"-""^^^

______ 2 ~~^ZzZ^^ - —s——-^^^

_—5°—

~^^

-JQ—"^

1 1,1,1,1

"

FREQUENCY (kc/s) FIGURE 17a FREQUENCY (kc/s) FIGURE 18a

16 20 24 FREQUENCY (kc/s)

~ 6

ISOTROPIC MODEL

/9 = 0.5 km" 1

h =90 km

n = 2

FREQUENCY (kc/s) FIGURE 17b FIGURE 18b

ATTENUATION AS A FUNCTION OF FREQUENCY

SHOWINC EFFECT OF GROUND CONDUCTIVITY

7-7
i '—

2 0.6

ISOTROPIC MODEL

= 0.5 km"1

h = 60 km

16 20 24 FREQUENCY (kc/s)

ISOTROPIC MODEL

$ -- 0.5 km" 1

h = 70 km

n = l

FREQUENCY (kc/S) FIGURE 19a

i—

i—i—' I '

I ' r

ISOTROPIC MODEL £ = 0.5 km

- '

h = 60 km

<XQ

= I MILLIMHO/METER

J |_ J , I i L

12 16 20 24

FREQUENCY (kc/s)

a. '1 MILLIMHO/METER

J I II

I

I I I L

12 16 20 24 FREQUENCY (kc/s) FIGURE 19b FIGURE 20b

PHASE VELOCITY AS A FUNCTION OF FREQUENCY

SHOWING EFFECT OF GROUND CONDUCTIVITY

7-8
06

ISOTROPIC MOOEU

/3= 0.5 km -1

h = 80 km

n = 1

J i L

0.1

16 20 24

FREQUENCY (kc/s)

- -0.2

-0.8

T

~! 1-

ISOTROPIC MODEL

/9 = 0.5 km" 1

h = 90 km

n = 1

16 20 24 FREQUENCY (kc/s) FIGURE 21a FIGURE 22a

CT. MMILUMHO/METER

J i L

12 IE 20 24 FREQUENCY (kc/S)

ISOTROPIC MOOEL $ = 0.5 km" 1

h = 90 km

n = 2

CTa

=1 MILLIMHO/METER

J , L

FIGURE 21b

12 16 20 24 28 FREQUENCY ( kc/s) FIGURE 22b

PHASE VELOCITY AS A FUNCTION OF FREQUENCY

SHOWING EFFECT OF GROUND CONDUCTIVITY

7-9
ISOTROPIC MODEL

= 0.5km" 1

h = 60 km

n = l

_J , I i J_

12 16 20 24

FREQUENCY (kC/s) FIGURE 23a

CTg= 1MILLIMHO/METER

ISOTROPIC MODEL

= 0.5 km"'

h = 70 km

FREQUENCY (kC/s) FIGURE 24a

2 -

1

'

1

1

1 ' 1

'

I

-

o_=lMILLIMH0/METER

ISOTROPIC MODEL so'VVS^

- /3= 0.5km-I

h = 60 km a>y^ovo^^>^;"" -

n= 2 ^ -

•

1 , 1 i,i, i

16 20 FREQUENCY (kC/s)

4 -

-

1 ' 1

' 1

1 1

' 1

- ISOTROPIC MODEL 0= 0.5km-i

_

h = 70 km

n = 2 •y// /

- 6S

-~ "\ \ 20 \co 50 —

- I.I, 1 1

12 16 20 24

FREQUENCY (kC/s) FIGURE 23b FIGURE 24b

MAGNITUDE OF EXCITATION AS A FUNCTION OF FREQUENCY SHOWINC EFFECT OF GROUND CONDUCTIVITY

7-10
i

1 r i—'—

r

CrQ =lMILLIMHO/METER _

12 16 20 24 FREQUENCY (kc/s) FIGURE 2 5a

i

1

1

i

1 ' 1 ' 1

s*

CO20 -4 5 C .,2 \X^ crg =IMILLIMHO/METER

-8 -

2 . ~< -12 — —

oo

3

S

-16

-20 _

ISOTROPIC MODEL WW, 0.5 km -1 \

" -24 h

n

90 km

= 1 \v

-26

1 1

1 1:1,1 16 20 24

FREQUENCY (kc/s) FICURE 26a

1 '1 r

ISOTROPIC MODEL

= 0.5 km"'

h = 80 km

n = 2

12 16 20 24 FREQUENCY (kc/s)

16 20 24

FREQUENCY (kc/s) FIGURE 25b FIGURE 26b

MAGNITUDE OF EXCITATION FACTOR AS A FUNCTION

OF FREQUENCY SHOWING EFFECT OF GROUND CONDUCTIVITY

7-n
20 I

1 1 r

-12 -

1

1

' 1'

1 '

1

' 1

- Qs'

- ^ _——^22-"-" ^^ ^xS^T""--—- _-22—

- \, ^\ 10

- N. ^\ ^"""""""^^S^. __ — \ ^^

—

- \ °\

.

-

ISOTROPIC MODEL \

@ - 0.5 km" 1 >

-

—

h =60 km

n = l 1,1.1,1, 1

12 16 20 24 FREQUENCY (kC/s)

i—'—

1—i

r

i—'—

12 16 20 24

FREQUENCY (kc/s) FIGURE 2 7a FIGURE 2 8a

.

1

' 1 ' 1

1

1 ' 1

_ -

"~— m

^^-^^ ^S-^~>^0

- ISOTROPIC MODEL

(9 = 0.5 km"'

h = 60 km — n 2

-

, 1 , 1 , 1 , 1 , 1

12 16 20 24 28

FREQUENCY (kc/s) FIGURE 27b

FREQUENCY (kc/s) FIGURE 28b

PHASE OF EXCITATION FACTOR AS A FUNCTION OF FREQUENCY SHOWING EFFECT OF GROUND CONDUCTIVITY

7-12
FREQUENCY (kc/s)

12 16 20 24 28 FREQUENCY (kc/s) FIGURE 29a FIGURE 30a

.

1

'

1

1

1 '

1

'

1

- ;/_

- S^" - 5

_J£-

-^

20

- [0

. _ ^^~^^5 -

~--^;

- \ a\<? -

: ISOTROPIC MODEL Vc \ :

7

- 0.5 km

h = 60 km

-1 % _

n = 2 \ _

- \"

-

1 , 1 1

. 1

, 1

FREQUENCY (kc/s) FIGURE 29b

-

1

'

1

' 1 '

1

_ yL.

- / - - - - (g/"^

: i ^

J*^'

. ^JZS,^*^

10 __^

- ^~~~~^5 -

- V

v

-

-

ISOTROPIC MODEL -

. 8 - 0.5 km -1-

- h = 90 km -

-

n = 2 \ .

: 1,1, , i , 1

FREQUENCY (kc/s) FIGURE 30b

PHASE OF EXCITATION FACTOR AS A FUNCTION OF FREQUENCY SHOWING EFFECT OF GROUND CONDUCTIVITY

7-13
(a=-i) (0=0) (fl=+i)

j_ _

12 16 20 24 28 FREQUENCY (kc/s)

">—i—'—i—'—i—'—

/8=0.3km- 1 a=0.l5km-'

FIGURE 31a

(a=-i)

_i L_

(ft = 0) (fl = + l)

_i l_

12 16 20 24 28 8 12 16 20 24 FREQUENCY (kc/s)

ATTENUATION AS A FUNCTION OF FREQUENCY SHOWING EFFECT OF REFLECTING HEIGHT AND MAGNETIC FIELD (NEGATIVE VALUES OF S) CORRESPOND TO PROPAGATION TOWARDS THE EAST)

16 20 24 28

FIGURE 31b

7-14
1.4 -

-0.6

1 '

I '

I

'

| r

/3 = 0.3km-' a=0. 15km-'

(fl=-n (fl = 0) «i=+i)

12 16 20 24 28 12 16 20 24 28 FREQUENCY (kc/s)12 16 20 24 28

PHASE VELOCITY AS A FUNCTION OF FREQUENCY SHOWING EFFECT OF REFLECTING HEIGHT AND MAGNETIC FIELD

7-15
12 16 20 24 28 12 16 20 24 28 FREQUENCY (kc/s)

12 16 20 24 28

i—'—i—i—i—'—

0=o.3krrr' a=0.l5knrr>

FIGURE 33

FREQUENCY (kc/s) FIGURE 34

EXCITATION FACTOR AS A FUNCTION OF FREQUENCY SHOWING EFFECT OF REFLECTING HEIGHT AND MAGNETIC FIELD

7-16
£ = 0.3km-i a = o. 15km-'

h = 60 km

n = l

(ft = -l)

J i I

i I

. I

(fl = o)

J i I i I i L

(fl=+l)

J i I , I i L

12 16 20 24 28 12 16 20 24 FREQUENCY (kc/s)

12 16 20 24 28

FIGURE 3 5

-1 1 -

i—'—

r

i—'—i—'—i—'—

r

i—'—i—'—i—'—

r

= O.3krrr' a = o.i5krrr h= 70 km

n= l

V,n20 Vv50

(fl = -l)

J i

1

i I

i L

(ft = 0)

J i I i I i I i L

7 SS4J— ^20 ^50

(fl = + l)

J i L

12 16 20 24 28 12 16 20 24 28 FREQUENCY (kc/s)

12 16 20 24 28

ATTENUATION AS A FUNCTION OF FREQUENCY SHOWING EFFECT OF GROUND CONDUCTIVITY AND MAGNETIC FIELD 7-17
->—

r

1—'—

r

E R- o

oo

£ = 0.3krrr> a = 0.i5km _l

h = 80 km

n = l

o

<

3

(fl=-l)

"—

r

(fl=0)

J i L

1—'—I—'

l r

(a = + n

12 16 20 24 28 12 16 20 24 28 FREQUENCY (kc/s)

j i i_

12 16 20 24 28

1

'

1

'

1

1

1 r

/3 = 0.3km-' a =0.15 km -1

h = 90 km

n= l

i—'—

r

-i 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 r

i—'—i

' r

12 1G 20 24 28 12 16 20 24 28 FREQUENCY (kc/s)

12 16 20 24 28

ATTENUATION AS A FUNCTION OF FREQUENCY SHOWING EFFECT OF GROUND CONDUCTIVITY AND MAGNETIC FIELD

7-18
8. Comparison with Some Experimental Data

It is of interest to compare some of the calculated curves with

appropriate experimental data as reported in the literature. There

are two distinct sources of such data. These are recordings of

field strengths of distant VLF transmitters and the observations of

the waveforms of atmospherics which originate in lightning discharges.

Up-to-date and comprehensive surveys of the various experimental

methods are given in recent papers by Watt and Crogan [1964] and

Horner [1964].

The phase velocity is a rather crucial characteristic in the

theory of the propagation of VLF radio waves. The U. S. Navy

Electronics Laboratory (N. E. L. ) has obtained some valuable experimental data for phase velocity in the frequency range from 9. 2 kc/s

to 15.2 kc/s. The results [Tibbals, I960; Pierce and Nath, 196l]

are shown in figure 39 for both daytime and nighttime paths predominantly over sea. The vertical bars encompass the range of

several independent measurements for the frequencies indicated.

These results were obtained by employing an ingenious technique

which combined the results observed from widely spaced transmitting stations operating in sequence. As a consequence, the data

for east-to-west and west-to-east paths are averaged in a sense.

In a recent investigation (during July 1963), Steele and Chilton

[1964] conducted an experiment to measure phase velocity by utilizing

frequency stabilized signals radiated in sequence from transmitters

NPG and NBA at frequencies of 18 kc/s. They measured the phase

in Colorado, Alaska, Hawaii, and Argentina. From a combined

analysis, they deduced the average phase velocities for night and

day indicated in figure 39.

Theoretical curves are shown in figure 39 which correspond to

8-1
the calculations for an exponential ionosphere with 8 = 0. 5, a = °°

, g

n = 1, and heights h = 70km and 90 km. Also shown is a similar \J)

pair of calculated curves for a homogeneous and sharply bounded

5 -1

isotropic ionosphere characterized by U> = 2 x 10 sec . It is

evident that the agreement between the experimental points and the

calculated curves is quite good. Here, there is not much to choose

between the two theoretical models.

A comparison between theory and experiment showing the effect

of finite ground conductivity is shown in figure 40. The two indicated

experimental points, for propagation over sea and land, at 10. 2 kc/s

are quoted from the work of Pierce and Nath [I960] . The difference

between these, expressed as a ratio to c, corresponds to about

-4

5 X 10 . Corresponding theoretical curves for earth conductivities

of °o , 5 and 1 millimhos per meter are also shown. As somewhat

of a coincidence, the a = °° curve passes through the experimental

point for sea water and the a = 5 curve passes through the point

5

for land. Thus, the theoretical prediction that the finite ground

conductivity slows the wave down is confirmed experimentally.

The excitation factor A is a rather elusive quantity which is

not always understood. Fortunately, Watt and Crogan [1964], in a

noble effort, have taken a vast amount of experimental daytime data

for VLF propagation over sea-water paths and extrapolated it back

to zero distance in such a manner that experimentally deduced

values of | A| may be estimated. In some cases, they required

a knowledge of effective radiated power of the transmitting antenna.

The vertical bars indicated in figure 41 indicate rather crudely the

range of the data points which they deduced for mode 1. As indicated,

it seems to fall on a theoretical curve calculated for h = 80 km and

B = 0. 5. It would have been more satisfying to see closer agreement

8-2
with the h = 70 km curve which is several decibels higher. However, two factors might contribute to this apparent discrepancy. In

the first place, the assumed radiated powers might be lower than

claimed. Secondly, the effect of conversion of energy from mode 1

to higher modes would also tend to reduce the apparent excitation

efficiency.

Experimental data on attenuation rates relating to nighttime

propagation over sea are indicated in figure 42. The vertical bars

indicate the range of data points quoted by Taylor and Lange [1958]

who analyzed the waveforms of atmospherics observed simultaneously

at several stations. The dashed curve at the bottom of figure 42 is

quoted directly from Watt and Crogan [1964] who deduced it mainly

from the early data of Round, et al. [1925]. Calculated curves are

shown for mode 1 and h =90 km for exponential ionospheres. with

both 8=0.3 km and 0. 5 km . It is apparent that the 8 = 0. 5

curve is certainly more representative for nighttime propagation,

as suggested back in section 2. The theoretical curve for mode 2

and g = 0. 5 is also shown, which indicates that modal interference

will be significant at frequencies above 20 kc/s. The spread of the

experimental data points attests to this fact. Also, for comparison,

the curve for an ionosphere with 8 = 1 is shown in figure 42. It appears to be quite near the experimental curve attributed to Watt

and Crogan [1964]. Finally, a calculated attenuation curve for a

homogeneous sharply bounded and isotropic ionosphere (with

5

h = 90 km and W = 2 x 10 ) is shown on figure 42 which is in

r only fair agreement with the experimental data.

Measured daytime attenuation rates [Watt and Crogan, 1964] for

propagation over sea are shown in figure 43 by a curve which is the

average for north-to- south paths at temperate latitudes. This is seen

8-3
to agree reasonably well with a calculated curve for an exponential

ionosphere with h = 70 km and 8 =0.3 km . The calculated

curve for g = 0. 5 is decidedly too low, which is also the case for

the homogeneous sharply bounded model for h = 70 km.

The measured dependence of attenuation rate on direction of

propagation is indicated in figure 44 for daytime propagation over

sea. The data attributed to Watt and Crogan [1964] are based on

the analysis of field strength for paths at temperate latitudes which

are predominantly west to east, north to south, or east to west.

Again, some of their data are taken from the classic paper by

Round, et al.[1925]. Corresponding attenuation data deduced from

atmospheric waveforms by Taylor [1960a, 1960b] are also shown in

figure 44. These data are also for paths at temperate latitudes

over sea water in daytime.

Calculated attenuation curves for mode 1 with B = 0. 3 km , a = 0.15 km , o = °°, and h = 70 km are shown in figure 44

for comparison with the experimental curves. As indicated, the

values of Q, given by -1, and +1 seem to be quite appropriate.

Any other choice of the magnitude of fj would not give the right

amount of non-reciprocity.

Added Note

After this technical note was written, Mr. E. R. Swanson

communicated to us experimental results ^vhich he describes in

more detail in Report No. 1239 of the U. S. Navy Electronics Laboratory. For example, for propagation at 10. 2 kc/s over the sea in daytime and in summer, he finds attenuation rates as follows:

2. 5 db/1000 km for west-to-east, 3.4 db/1000 km for north-to- south

or south -to -north, and 4. 1 db/1000 km for east-to-west. These may

be compared with the respective values in figure 44 of 2. 65, 3.33, and

8-4
4 28 db/lOOO km. The dip angle for these measurements was of

the order of 55 , whereas the calculations are for a purely horizontal magnetic field. The good agreement is attributed to the

fortuitous choice of the magnitude of the parameter Q, . Mr. Swanson also found that, for the same conditions, at night the attenuation

rate at 10. 2 kc/s was 1. 6 db/lOOO km for north- south propagation,

while figure 42 indicates a calculated value of 1. 5 db/1000 km when

3 = 0. 5 km , n = 1, = 0, and h = 90 km. Furthermore, he

quotes the average non-reciprocal variation at night of ± 0. 5 db/1000

km which is certainly consistent with the calculated variation indicated in figure 3 8. At the same time, Mr. Swanson comments

that the N. E. L. data in figure 39 for 10. 2 kc/s now indicates that

, -2 -2

(v/c) - 1 2= 0. 34 x 10 for day and a -0.06 x 10 for night --

for propagation over sea water in the temperate latitudes during

the summer.

8-5
d -0.2 —

12 16 20 FREQUENCY (kc/s)

-4 —

<

1 1 - V XT

V?v

—

Nfe J><*- X^

V

T DAYTIME EXPERIMENTAL\

Y

1 DATA FROM WATT

-L AND CROGAN (1964) v'

CALC. CURVES FOR fl = <7q=CD —

I 1 1 1

1

-16 —

-20 —

FIGURE 39

16 20 24 28 FREQUENCY (kc/S)

FIGURE 41

0.6

0.4

0.2

"i

1 1 1 1 r

DAYTIME EXPERIMENTAL DATA GIVE

[v/c] - [v/c] ^ SEA LAND

AT 10. 2 Kc/s (PIERCE AND NATH, 1961) CALCULATED INCREMENT = 6 x 10" 4 FOR a = 5 MILLIMHO/M

-0.2 CALC. CURVES

FOR a»o

-0.4

$'0.5

h - 70 km

n = l

16 20 FREQUENCY (kc/s)

FIGURE 40

12 16 20 24 FREQUENCY (kc/s)

FIGURE 42

EXPERIMENTAL DATA FROM VARIOUS SOURCES AND PERTINENT THEORETICAL CURVES

8-6
16 20 24 FREQUENCY (kc/s)

FIGURE 43

EXPERIMENTAL, DAYTIME OVER SEA (TAYLOR)

EXPERIMENTAL, DAYTIME OVER SEA (WATT)

CALCULATED FOR /3 =0.3 km" 1 , a =0.15 km""

1

h = 70 km <v°°. n = l

12 16 20 24 28 8 FREQUENCY (kc/s)

24 28

FIGURE 44

EXPERIMENTAL DATA FOR ATTENUATION RATES

WITH PERTINENT THEORETICAL CURVES

8-7
9. Concluding Remarks

The results given in this technical note, while not entirely exhaustive, should be of value in interpreting further experimental

data. It would seem that much additional theoretical work in this

field is not warranted until the experimentalists broaden their

investigations to ascertain the actual direction and geographical

dependences on the propagation parameters.

10. Acknowledgement

We are indebted to Mrs. Lillie C. Walters and Mrs. Carolen

M. Jackson for assistance with the numerical work and curve

plottings. We wish to thank Mr. John Harman and his staff for

drafting the many illustrations. We also wish to express our deep

appreciation to Mrs. Eileen Brackett for her extensive help in

preparing the manuscript. We have had the benefit of a number of

valuable conversations with the following people: A. D. Watt, D. D.

Crombie, A. G. Jean, W. E. Garner, E. T. Pierce, J. Galejs, L. A.

Berry, J. R. Johler, E. R. Swanson, W. L. Taylor, E. E. Gossard,

and J. Belrose. However, these individuals should in no way be

held responsible for any shortcomings in this technical note.

The work reported in this technical note was supported, in

part, by the U. S. Naval Research Laboratory through Contract

00173-3-006354 and by the Advanced Research Projects Agency

through ARPA Order No. 183-62.

9-1

10-1
11. References

Arnold, H. R. (Feb. 1964), Comments on a paper "Collisional detachment and the formation of an ionospheric" by E. T. Pierce,

Radio Sci. J. Res. NBS/USNC-URSI 68D , No. 2, 215-217.

Barber, N. F. , and D. D. Crombie (1959), VLF reflections from the

ionosphere in the presence of a transverse magnetic field, J. Atmos. Terrest. Phys. 16, 37-45.

Barrington, R. E. , E. V. Thrane, and B. Bjelland (1963), Diurnal and

seasonal variations in D-region electron densities derived from

observations of cross modulation, Can. J. Phys. 41, 271-285.

Belrose, J. S. (1964), Present knowledge of the lowest ionosphere,

p. 3-24, in Propagation of radio waves at frequencies below

300 kc/s, ed. W. T. 'Blackband (Pergamon Press, Oxford).

Belrose, J. S. , and M. J. Burke (1964), Study of the lower ionosphere

using partial reflection, J. Geophys. Res. 69, 2799-2818.

Belrose, J. S. , L. R. Bode, and L. W. Hewitt (Dec. 1964), Physical

properties of the polar winter me so sphere obtained from low

frequency propagation and partial reflection studies, Radio Sci.

J. Res. NBS/USNC-URSI 68D , No. 12, 1319-1323.

Budden, K. G. (1961), Radio waves in the ionosphere (Cambridge

Univ. Press, Cambridge).

Ferraro, A. J. , and J. J. Gibbons (1959), Polarization computations

by means of the multi-slab approximation, J. Atmos. Terrest.

Phys, _16, 136-144.

Galejs, J. (Sept. 1, 1964), Propagation of VLF waves below a curved

and stratified ionosphere, J. Geophys. Res. _69, 3639-3650.

Gossard, E. E. (Sept. 1963), U.S. Navy Electronics Lab., San Diego,

Calif, (private communication).

Horner, F. (1964), Radio noise from thunderstorms, in Advances in

radio research, vol.2, ed. J. A. Saxton (Academic Press, London),

11-1
Johler, J. R. (1963), Radio wave reflections at a continuously stratified plasma with collisions proportional to energy and arbitrary

magnetic induction, pp. 436-445, Proc. International Conference

on the Ionosphere (Chapman and Hall, London).

Johler, J. R. , and J. D. Harper, Jr. (Mar. 1963), On plasma

collision frequencies proportional to energy in the radio wave

reflection and transmission process, NBS Tech. Note No. 164.

Kane, J. A. (1961), Re-evaluation of ionospheric electron densities

and collision frequencies derived from rocket measurements of

refractive index and attenuation, J. Atmos. Terrest. Phys. 23,

338-347.

Krasnushkin, P. E. (1962), On the propagation of long and very-long

radio waves around the earth, Nuovo Cimento 26, Series 10,

50-112.

Nicolet, M. , and A. C. Aikin (I960), The formation of the D-region

of the ionosphere, J. Geophys. Res. 65, 1469-1483.

Phelps, A. V. , and J. L. Pack (19 59), Electron collision frequencies

in nitrogen and in the lower ionosphere, Phys. Rev. 3, 340-342.

Pierce, E. T. , and H. R. Arnold (July, 1963), Final report -- Sudden

ionospheric disturbances and the propagation of VLF radio waves,

Part I, Stanford Research Institute, Stanford, California.

Pierce, J. A. , and S. C. Nath (1961), VLF propagation, Annual

progress report No. 60, 1-6, Cruft Laboratory, Harvard University.

Round, H. J. T. , T. L. Eckersley, K. Tremellen, and F. C. Lunnon,

(1925), Report on measurements made on signal strength at great

distances during 1922 and 1923 by an expedition sent to Australia,

J. I. E. E. (London) 63, 933-1011.

11-2
Spies, K. P. , and J. R. Wait (Jul. 17, 1961), Mode calculations for

VLF propagation in the earth-ionosphere waveguide, NBS Tech.

Note No. 114 (PB-161615).

Steele, F. K. , and C. J. Chilton (Dec. 1964), The measurement of the

phase velocity of VLF propagation in the earth -ionosphere waveguide, Radio Sci. J. Res. NBS/USNC -URSI 68D , No. 12,

1269-1274.

Taylor, W. L. (Jul. -Aug. 1960a), Daytime attenuation rates in the

VJLF band Using atmospherics, J. Res. NBS 64D (Radio Prop. ), No. 4, 349-355.

Taylor, W. L. (1960b), VLF attenuation for east-west and west-east

propagation using atmospherics, J. Geophys. Res. 65, 1933-193 8. Taylor, W. L. , and L.J. Lange (1958), Some characteristics of VLF

propagation using atmospheric waveforms, pp. 609-617, Proc.

Second Conference on Atmospheric Electricity (Pergamon Press,

London).

Tibbals, M. L. (I960), U.S. Navy Electronics Lab., San Diego, Calif.

(private communication)

Wait, J. R. (Jan. -Feb. 1961), A new approach to the mode theory of

VLF propagation, J. Res. NBS 65D (Radio Prop. ), No. 1, 37-46.

Wait, J. R. (1962a), Electromagnetic waves in stratified media,

chapter VII (Pergamon Press, Oxford, New York).

Wait, J. R. (1962b), Electromagnetic waves in stratified media,

chapter IX (Pergamon Press, Oxford, New York).

Wait, J. R. (Jul. -Aug, 1963), Influence of the lower ionosphere on

propagation of VLF waves to great distances, J. Res. NBS 67D

(Radio Prop. ), No. 4, 375-381.

11-3
Wait, J.R. , and K. Spies (Aug. I960), Influence of earth curvature

and the terrestrial magnetic field on VLF propagation, J. Geophys. Res. 6_5, No. 8, 2325-2331.

Wait, J.R. , and L. C Walters (1963), Reflection of VLF radio waves

from an inhomogeneous ionosphere, J. Research NBS 67D (Radio

Prop.), Parti. Exponentially varying isotropic model, No. 3,

361-367 (May-Jun. 1963); Part II. Perturbed exponential model,

No. 5, 519-523 (Sept. -Oct. 1963); Part III. Exponential model

with hyperbolic transition, No. 6, 747-752 (Nov. -Dec. 1963.)

Wait, J.R. , andL.C. Walters (Jan. 1964), Reflection of electromagnetic waves from a lossy magnetopoasma, Radio Sci. J. Res.

NBS/USNC-URSI 68D , No. 1, 95-101. (See also, by same authors,

Numerical calculations for reflection of electromagnetic waves

from a lossy magnetoplasma, NBS Tech. Note No. 205, Nov.

21, 1963.)

Watt, A. D. , andR.D. Crogan (Jan. 1964), Comparison of observed

VLF attenuation rates and excitation factors with theory, Radio

Sci. J. Res. NBS/USNC-URSI 68D , No. 1, 1-9.

Additional References

Barrington, R. E. , and E. Thrane (1962), The determination of Dregion electron densities from observations of cross modulation,

J. Atmos. Terrest. Phys. _24, 31-42.

Bates, H.F. , and P. R. Albee (Jul. 1964), High latitude VLF propagation, Final report on N. B. S. Contract CST-73 88 from the

University of Alaska.

Berry, L. A. (Jan. 1964), Some remarks on the Watson transformation

and mode theory, Radio Sci. J. Res. NBS/USNC-URSI 68D , No. 1, 59-66.

11-4
Blackband, W. T. (Feb. 1964), The first mode coupling factor for

VLF aerials, Tech. Note No. RAD-860, Royal Aircraft Establishment, Ministry of Aviation, London.

Burgess, B. (Jan. 1964), Some experimental results concerning nonreciprocal east-west VLF wave propagation, Radio Sci. J. Res.

NBS/USNC -URSI 68D, No. 1, 17-18.

Crombie, D. D. (1958), Differences between east-west and westeast propagation over long distances, J. Atmos. Terrest. Phys.

12, 110-117.

Crombie, D. D. (Sept. Oct. 1961), Reflection from a sharply bounded ionosphere

for VLF propagation perpendicular to the magnetic meridian,

J. Res. NBS 65D (Radio Prop.), No. 5 , 455-464.

Crombie, D. D. , and A. G. Jean (May, 1964), The guided propagation

of ELF and VLF radio waves between the earth and the ionosphere, Radio Sci. J. Res. NBS/USNC-URSI 68D, No. 5, 584-588.

Galejs J. (Jun. 1964), ELF and VLF waves below an inhomogeneous

anisotropic ionosphere, Radio Sci. J. Res. NBS/USNC-URSI 68D , No. 6, 693-707.

Hanselman, J. C. , C.J. Casselman, M. L. Tibbals, and J. E. Bickel

(Jan. 1964), Field intensity measurements at 10. 2 kc/s over reciprocal paths, Radio Sci. J. Res. NBS/USNC-URSI 68D , No. 1,

11-14.

Jean, A. G. , W. L. Taylor, and J. R. Wait (Mar. I960), VLF phase

characteristics deduced from atmospheric waveforms, J. Geophys.

Res. 6_5, No. 3, 907-912.

Johler, J. R. (Jan. 1964), Concerning limitations and further corrections

to geometric -optical theory for LF, VLF propagation between the

ionosphere and the ground, Radio Sci. J. Res. NBS/USNC-URSI

68D, No. 1, 67-78.

11-5
Johler, J. R. , and L. C. "Walters (May-June I960), On the theory of

reflection of low- and very-low radiofrequency waves from the

ionosphere, J. Res. NBS 64D (Radio Prop.), No. 3, 269-285.

Pierce, J. A. , W. Palmer, A. D. Watt, and R. H. Woodward (1 June

1964), Omega, a world wide navigation system, Publication No.

886, Pickard and Burns Electronics (Company), Waltham, Mass.

Rhoads, F. J. , W. E. Garner, and J. E. Rogerson (1963), Some experimental evidence of directional effects on VLF propagation

(private communication).

Volland, H. (Mar. 1964), Zur Theorie der Aubreitung langer elektromagnetischer Wellen,Archiv der Elektrischen Uebertragung 18,

181-188.

Wait, J. R. (1958), A study of VLF field strength data: Both old and

new, Geofis. Pura e Appl. (Milano) _41, 73-85.

Wait, J. R. (Sept. 1962), Excitation of modes at very low frequency

in the earth-ionosphere waveguide, J. Geophys. Res. 67,

No. 10, 3823-3828.

Wait, J. R. (Jan. 1, 1963), A note on diurnal phase changes of verylow frequency waves for long paths, J. Geophys. Res. 68, No. 1, 338-340.

Wait, J. R. , and K. P. Spies (Mar. 1961), A note on phase velocity of

VLF radio waves, J. Geophys. Res. 66, No. 3, 992-993.

Watt, A. D. (1965), VLF Handbook (Pergamon Press, Oxford).

Westfall, W. D. (Nov. 1, 1964), Simultaneous measurement of phase

and amplitude of NAA very low frequency east-west and westeast radio transmission at San Diego, J. Geophys. Res. 69,

4523-4529.

11-6

12. Appended Contour Plots

The graphical propagation data given in this technical note are

only valid for a limited range of ionospheric parameters. Such a restriction is imposed by the nature of the physical problem and

the economics of the situation.

In order to facilitate calculation for additional parameters, some

of the solutions of the 'waveguide problem have been presented in the

form of contour plots in this appendix. The preparation of these

graphical presentations is rather time consuming even when the

numerical data is available. Thus, even these are limited in scope.

Briefly, the plots in figures 45-62 are designed so that, given

the surface impedance Z of the waveguide boundary, the propagation and excitation factors for the dominant modes may be determined by reading the values from the appropriate contours.

Following the notation in section 4, the impedance parameters A

and B are related to the surface impedance by

Z/ti = A = -2(iA - B)"

1

. o

Then, on specifying the height h of the reflecting boundary, the

contour plots may be used to obtain the attenuation rate, phase

velocity, and excitation factor for a given mode. For the curves

shown in this appendix, the ground conductivity a is assumed to

be infinite. Thus, these results should only be used for propagation

over sea water.

In figure 63, similar contour plots are shown to facilitate the

conversion from the parameter a = ax + i a2 to the parameter

a = or

x + i a3 where aa = - B and a2 = A. These are based

simply on the solution of (24) which is described in section 4.

12-1
The manner in which the contour plots may be used is explained

best by using a few examples:

5

Case 1; sharply bounded isotropic model with CO = 2 x 10 , h = 70 km, a = °°, f = 20 kc/s.

g

Using (19), it is found that

and

B = n/2

CO 2

CO J

CO \

CO J J r

= 2.91 .

From figure 50, it is seen that the attenuation is

1. 50 db/1000 km when the phase velocity relative to c is

- 0. 224 percent for n = 1. Similarly, using figure 52, it is seen

that the attenuation is 5. 7 db/1000 km, while the phase velocity

relative to c is +0. 82 percent for n = 2. These compare

very well with similar calculations for the same model published

elsewhere [Wait, 1963].

4

Case 2; sharply bounded isotropic model with CO = 4. 9 X 10 , h = 64 km, a = °°, f = 10 kc/s. In order to make use of

g

the contour plots for h = 70 km, we note that A(64) for a

reference height of 64 may be transformed approximately to

the corresponding value A(70) for a reference height of 70 km

by the simple relation

A(70) A(64) + (4tt/\)(70-64) a= 2.21 while ,

within a good first approximation, B remains unchanged. Thus,

12-2
B = 2. 8

Using figure 50, it is readily found that the attenuation rate is

3. 2 db/lOOO km for n = 1, while the phase velocity relative to

c is 0. 34 percent also for n = 1. These values compare well

with the computations for this situation as quoted by Krasnushkin

[1962] who used an entirely different method of calculation.

As indicated in the latter example, the contour plots, while

prepared for a fixed reflecting height, may be used somewhat

approximately for other heights. Such interpolation (or extrapolation)

is valid when the reflection coefficient may be approximated by the

form - exp (aC) for a reference height h. Thus, if the reference

height is changed to h- Ah, then the new form of the reflection

coefficient must be - exp [(a - i4n Ah/X) C] , provided C , the

local angle of incidence, does not change significantly. Thus, as

suggested above, the value of a(h) for a reference height h is

related to the value of a(h - Ah) by the simple formula

cc(h) = ct(h - Ah) + 4niAhA

A rather stringent test of this concept is to transfer data from

say a height of 80 km to a height of 70 km. For example, if we

are given 0^ = -3.0, cu, = 0, h = 70 km, f = 20 kc/s, and

a = °° , how could we estimate the appropriate propagation factors

if only the h = 80 km contour plots were available? To answer

this question, we note that

gu(80) = ou(70) + 40n/l5 =8.4 .

12-3
Now, using the contour plots in figure 63, we would find that for

h = 80 km, B = 4. 4 and A =9.1 . From the h = 80 km contour plots in figure 50, it is thus found that the attenuation and phase

velocity factors are 1.6 db/lOOO km and -0.23 aj

ct respectively. Within this accuracy, these are identical to values read directly from the

corresponding contour plots for h = 70 km where we use the original

values ax ^ ^B = -3.0 and a2

s- A s 0.

It would appear from the above tests and other ones not described

here, that the contour plots for fixed heights of h = 70, 80, and

90 km may be used for interpolation to other heights and to a certain

amount of extrapolation below the 70 km level (say, down to 60 km).

Another important feature of the contour plots is the one-to-one

correspondence,for a given mode between impedance parameters A

and B and propagation factors such as attenuation rate and phase

velocity. This raises the possibility that the observed characteristics

of the propagation may be inverted to yield the impedance parameters

at the reference boundary of the waveguide. This aspect of the problem is outside the scope of the present technical note.

12-4
f = lO kc/s, h = 70km, Og = co, n = l

7 ATTENUATION IN db/IOOO km

..PHASE VELOCITY RELATIVE TO c IN %

f=lOkc/s, h = 80km, o^ = co, n = i

, ATTENUATION IN db/IOOO km

PHASE VELOCITY RELATIVE TO c IN %

^7 \ 1 *~-M~~L

1 /

\ 1 u

1

4.0 T 1° /o" f~-—

J i i 3.5

l __1——-r —lo"

1- 1°

01 3.0

p i? \p is

1«* I" U^

2.5

2.0

1.5 _

1.0

0.5 -

1 III ll 1 1 I

i i

1

f=iOkc/s, h=90km, o"g=<o, n = i

, ATTENUATION IN db/IOOO km

vPHASE VELOCITY RELATIVE TO c IN %

10 12 14

12-5
f = 10 kc/s, h = 80km, cr

g

= ao, n=i

PHASE OF A IN DEGREES ^A IN db

FIGURE 46

12-6
f

= 16 kc/s, h=70km, o-g =co, n=l ^ATTENUATION IN db/IOOO km

?PHASE VELOCITY RELATIVE TO c IN %

f= I6kc/s, h = 80km, o^ = co,n=l ATTENUATION IN db/IOOO km

-PHASE VELOCITY RELATIVE TO c IN %

f = i6kc/s, h = 90km, o-g = oo, n = i ATTENUATION IN db/IOOO km

PHASE VELOCITY RELATIVE TO c IN %t

10 12 14

12-7
f= 16 kc/s, h = 70km, Og=oo, PHASE OF A IN DEGREES

f = 16 kc/s, h = 80km,cr

g

= oo, n = i PHASE OF A IN DEGREES IAHN db

B t10 jL!T"~H- Ml

^y

/I "^

^45 J

« OrO^ X° ,

~~

6

X? /

-

4 j2^

jL

"w

V */ "\

2

'i y P

I ll 1 (1 ll ll ll 1 il 1 ll

10 12 14

FIGURE 48 12-8
B 4

f = 16 kc/s, h = 80km, c^ = cd, n = 2 ATTENUATION IN db/IOOO km

PHASE VELOCITY RELATIVE TO c IN %

f = 16 kc/s, h=90 km, o^=oo, n = 2 PHASE OF A IN DEGREES ,AINdb

B 4 =

FIGURE 49

12-9
f = 20kc/s, h=70km, og

= oo, n =i ^ATTENUATION IN db/IOOOkm

7PHASE VELOCITY RELATIVE TO c IN %

f=20kc/s, h = 80 km , Og =co , n = l ^ATTENUATION IN db/IOOOkm

PHASE VELOCITY RELATIVE TO c IN %

ATTENUATION IN db/IOOO km

•PHASE VELOCITY RELATIVE TO c IN %

12-10
f = 20kc/s, h = 70 km, Og = <x>, n=l PHASE OF A IN DEGREES A IN db

f=20 kc/s , h = 80 km , crg= cd , n =

t PHASE OF A IN DEGREES

f = 20kc/s, h = 90km, o

_g

= oo

j n = i -PHASE OF A IN DEGREES /A IN db.

10 12 14

12-11
f = 20 kc/s, h=70km, a~g=<x>, n=2

^ATTENUATION IN db/IOOOkm

PHASE VELOCITY RELATIVE TO c IN %

f=20 kc/s, h = 70km, o^co, n = 2 PHASE OF A IN DEGREES ' A IN db .

B «

f = 20 kc/s , h=80 km , (Tg=<o , n =2 ^ATTENUATION IN db/IOOOkm

PHASE VELOCITY RELATIVE TO c

12-12
f = 24 kc/s, h=70km, crg

= co, n = t ^.ATTENUATION IN db/IOOO km

PHASE VELOCITY RELATIVE TO c IN %

T

B 6

B 6

> =

f = 24 kc/s, h = 90km, crg

= oo, n=l ATTENUATION IN db/IOOO km

PHASE VELOCITY RELATIVE TO c IN %

1~

FIGURE 53 12-13
f=24kc/s, h = 70km, 0"g = oo, n PHASE OF A IN DEGREES A IN db

B 6 =

f=24kc/s, h = 90km, O"g = oo, n = l

12

. iioiiiv<s^y. /!/ /I / /' /

1 —H-~ylA l / 1

1 WJ 1 1 1 /

- 95 \^\/y\

10 ^\ / x

8 \ \x~

B 6

4

2

n

Zl—32-—

'

[ro p __I5__ ~ 10 _

5

\CD to __

\5>

ll

Vo

i 1

' 1 1 \ 1 ll 1 1 l\ 1

i 1 1 i

i 1

FIGURE 54

12-14
f

= 24 kc/s, h-70km, cr

g

= co , n=2

ATTENUATION IN db/IOOOkm

PHASE VELOCITY RELATIVE TO C I N %

I /Sv i y l/\l / I

f = 24 kc/s , h=70 km , cr

q

= c0 , n =2 PHASE OF A IN DEGREES

B

4 6

A

A |A | IN db jfTorj^fri V _3^iV-^l \ 1 \/\w \//tt\ iyn

IT—^—V^jC. 1 1 \

-2.0 _

I ~ci^

'~y—U- 4AVC>cvSiy i

_6_ HrV \X >£?7W- __L^r\ \>\x /^^^ / _

-5-+—^

\ \ /V ?C /

\ Jr \? / tL /

1 \-^\ \ \ \ /\. \ /

s^"^^

e \ \ v» N/ / —

IT" V \/ "^C /

\ \o \y )\ I

•- 1 \ N V .X / >t (S 1C° \v- \S \/ /^^

\_i-A— \ >

//^\/ —\\ \ ^V /

4 _Jlj^-\^}*/ y\ \ \ / ^ —

2 \\£-^\ \ / / \ ^^^—~=z

\ QA-4

"" \jp/ \

n 1 ! 1 1 \ 1

1 1 1 1 1 1

FIGURE 55

12-15
B -|

f=24 kc/s , h = 80 km , o"g =oo , n = 2 ATTENUATION IN db/IOOO km

PHASE VELOCITY RELATIVE TO c IN %%

f = 24 kc/s, h = 80 km , cr = <D , n =3

ENUATION IN db/IOOO km

PHASE VELOCITY RELATIVE TO c

FIGURE 56

12-16
B

f = 24 kc/s, h = 90 km , <rg =co , n =3

rATTENUATION IN db /IOOO km

PHASE VELOCITY RELATIVE TO c IN %

FIGURE 57

12-17
f = 30 kc/s, h=70km, Og=oo, n=]

ATTENUATION IN db/IOOOkm

PHASE VELOCITY RELATIVE TO c IN

B 6 -

f = 30 kc/s, h=90km, cr

q

= oo , n=i

^ PHASE VELOCITY RELATIVE TO c N %

T

r

\ ——-"—\P — T1— V«2 — \° ^J^^ VS. ^^ \ Jr \

X /

1. 1

f ZTa&J

32-

10 j

8

B 6

__30__

b

4 p o fe |

i 1.5 _

1.0 _

2

1 , 1 i 1i 1

1 1

0.5

n i l 1 ll 1 1

FIGURE 58

12-18
f=30kc/s, h=70km, a"g

=oo, n=i

,PHASE OF A IN DEGREES A IN db

B 6

f=30kc/s, h = 90 km, cr

g

=co, n = i PHASE OF A IN DEGREES A IN db,

B 6

FIGURE 59

12-19
f= 30 kc/s, h=70km, o~

g

= co, n = 2 ATTENUATION IN db/IOOOkm

PHASE VELOCITY RELATIVE TO c IN%

f = 30 kc/s , h=90 km , ATTENUATION IN db/IOOOkm

CT

g

= oo , n =2

PHASE VELOCITY RELATIVE TO c IN %

1 *s^l a>^ /St. ' / *ss!\y

'

^

10 \ i^\ \/\/ \ / n./ i( \ - >\\/ Y^v/\/\

8 \ \ »j5-^r \ ^\ A^ \ /

—

B 6 O 1 S 1 EJ

\ A-^-A—' \ \ ^^\

4 \ \j^-\^^^\ \ V---^

1 1

-

1

1 i.5 i—-— r \ \

2

1 1 i.o i —

r

r \

1 1 —"I

1—

l~

n 1 1

,

1 11 1 1 Mill II 1 1

2 4 6 6 A

FIGURE 60 12-20
B 6 ^

f = 30 kc/s , h = 70 km , o^= oo , n - 2

PHASE OF A IN DEGREES AIN db

FIGURE 61

12-21
f = 30 kc/s , h=70 km , cr

g =co , n =3 ATTENUATION IN db/IOOOkm

PHASE VELOCITY RELATIVE TO c IN %

f = 30 kc/5 , h=80 km , crg

= co , n = 3 ^ATTENUATION IN db/IOOOkm

.PHASE VELOCITY RELATIVE TO c IN %

f=30 kc/s , h = 90 km , Og = co , n =3 -ATTENUATION IN db/IOOO km

FIGURE 62

12-22
-<J| = B 0.2 - A h = 70 km C = 0.1483

-a,

-a. = B a? = A h = 80 km C = 0.1585

-a, -

RELATION BETWEEN a, + i a5 AND - B + i A FIGURE 63 12-23 GPO 846-349