United States Department of Commerce

National Institute of Standards and Technology

NIST Special Publication 827

Toxic Potency Measurement

for Fire Hazard Analysis

Vytenis Babrauskas, Barbara C. Levin, Richard G. Gann, Maya Paabo,

Richard H. Harris, Jr., Richard D. Peacock, and Shyuitsu Yusa
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF STANDARDS &

TECHNOLOGY

Research Information Center

Gaithersburg, MD 20899

DATE DUE

Demco, Inc. 38-293
MP

NIST Special Publication 827 m

Toxic Potency Measurement

for Fire Hazard Analysis

Vytenis Babrauskas, Barbara C. Levin, Richard G. Gann, Maya Paabo,

Richard H. Harris, Jr., Richard D. Peacock, and Shyuitsu Yusa

Building and Fire Research Laboratory

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Gaithersburg, MD 20899

December 1991

U.S. Department of Commerce

Robert A. Mosbacher, Secretary

National Institute of Standards and Technology

John W. Lyons, Director
National Institute of Standards U.S. Government Printing Office

and Technology Washington: 1991

Special Publication 827

Natl. Inst. Stand. Technol.

Spec. Publ. 827

119 pages (Dec. 1991)

CODEN: NSPUE2

For sale by the Superintendent

of Documents

U.S. Government Printing Office

Washington, DC 20402
Table of Contents

Page

List of Figures v

List of Tables vi

Executive Summary vii

Abstract 1

1 Introduction 1

2 Computations of fire hazard 4

2.1 Quantifying hazard in fires 4

2.1.1 Hand calculations 4

2.1.2 Computer models 5

2.2 Definitions of terms 6

2.3 Fire scenarios and toxic potency data 6

3 Types of fires 9

4 Toxic potency measurements 13

5 Criteria for bench-scale toxic potency measurement 16

5.1 Types of data to be obtained 16

5.2 General measurement method requirements 17

5.3 Specific measurement method requirements 17

6 The N-Gas Model 21

6.1 Basis of the model 21

6.2 Validation and application 25

7 The CO problem in fires 28

7.1 The bench-scale CO problem 28

7.2 Adjusting LC50s for expected CO yield in real -scale fires 36

7.3 CO production in the radiant apparatus and in the cup furnace method 36

8 The radiant toxicity method 44

8.1 Basic design and test apparatus 44

8.1.1 Animal exposure system 44

8.1.2 Chemical analysis system 44

8.1.3 Combustion system 46

8.2 Operating the method 49

8.3 Simplifying the method 50

8.4 Use of the LC50 data in hazard analyses 59

8.5 Use with pre-flashover fires 59

8.6 Fulfillment of criteria for a good test 60

8.6.1 Types of data to be obtained 61
8.6.2 General test method requirements 61

8.6.3 Specific test method requirements 62

9 Validation results 66

9.1 Background 66

9.2 The validation hypotheses 66

9.3 Performance of the radiant test method 67

10 Conclusions 68

11 Acknowledgments 69

12 References 70

ANNEX — The Measurement Method 78

iv
List of Figures

Page

Figure 1 . Relative impact of toxicity and thermal effects in the room of fire origin

for a range of fire growth rates 11

Figure 2. Comparison of human curve and rat data for carboxyhemoglobin

equilibrium levels for different CO exposures 22

Figure 3. The dependence of CO yield (kg/kg fuel consumed) on oxygen concentration in the incoming air stream (ABS: acrylonitrile butadiene styrene;

PE: polyethylene; PMMA: polymethylmethacrylate; DF: Douglas fir) 30

Figure 4. CO yields associated with fires where the volume of air supply is restricted (indicated trends are from catcher hood experiments) 31

Figure 5. The results from the preceding figure, replotted as a CO/C02 ratio 33

Figure 6. Preliminary analysis of SwRI results of Douglas fir (O); also shown is a trend line (—) from the results of Mulholland et al. [81] 38

Figure 7. Results obtained at SwRI for Douglas fir, demonstrating how the CO

yield changes with mode (flaming vs. non-flaming) of burning 39

Figure 8. Results obtained at SwRI for rigid polyurethane foam, demonstrating the

change in CO yield with mode of burning 40

Figure 9. Comparison between CO yields measured in the Cone Calorimeter for a cellulosic material (Douglas fir, A) and a thermoplastic (PMMA,

O) 42

Figure 10. General view of radiant toxicity apparatus 45

Figure 1 1 . The radiant exposure system designed at Weyerhaeuser 47

Figure 12. Toxic potency of C02 potentiated CO as a function of exposure time 60

V
List of Tables

Page

Table 1. Predictability of N-Gas Model using CO, C02 , and reduced 02 24

Table 2. Predictability of N-Gas Model using CO, C02 , and HCN 24

Table 3. Predictability of N-Gas Model using CO, C02 , HCN, and reduced 02 25

Table 4. Data from materials decomposed in the flaming mode in the cup furnace smoke

toxicity method 26

Table 5. Validation of the N-Gas Model against various combustibles, using the radiant

test method 27

Table 6. Yields of CO, as measured in various test programs (kg/kg fuel consumed) .... 29

Table 7. Additional details on CO yields for FR and non-FR materials, from [79] 34

Table 8. CO yield measurements on various combustibles made in the radiant apparatus

atSwRI 41

Table 9. Approximate CO yield ratios in SwRI tests 41

Table 10. Test results for Douglas fir 51

Table 1 1 . Results for rigid polyurethane foam 52

Table 12. Results for PVC 53

Table 13. Results for flexible PU foam 54

Table 14. Results for melamine type PU foam 55

Table 15. Results for vinyl fabric 56

Table 16. Results for melamine type PU foam and vinyl fabric composite 57

Table 17. The values obtained for LC50 —raw and corrected 58

vi
Toxic Potency Measurement for

Fire Hazard Analysis

Vytenis Babrauskas, Barbara C. Levin, Richard G. Gann, Maya Paabo,

Richard H. Harris, Jr., Richard D. Peacock, Shyuitsu Yusa

Building and Fire Research Laboratory

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Gaithersburg, MD 20899

Executive Summary

This report is the principal product of a long-term research program to provide a technically sound

methodology for obtaining and using smoke toxicity data for hazard analysis. It establishes:

(a) an improved bench-scale toxic potency 1 measurement, one which represents the

important combustion conditions of real fires; and

(b) a design and analysis framework which will allow the toxic potency data to be used in a rational, consistent, appropriate, and adequate way.

This establishment of proper bench-scale test conditions, validation of the output against real-scale fire

measurements, and development of a consistent framework for the inclusion of toxic potency in fire

hazard2 analysis is unique and represents a successful, usable implementation of the state of the art.

This method focuses on post-flashover fires. The U.S. fire statistics show that 69% of all fire deaths are

associated with post-flashover fires, with the preponderance of deaths due to smoke inhalation and

occurring outside the room of fire origin. These fires are characterized by:

Toxic potency: toxicity of the smoke from a specimen of material or product, taken on a per-unitspecimen-mass basis. At present, for fire research, the dominant biological end point adopted

is death; and the measured quantity is the LC50 , which is the concentration (g m

3

) of smoke

which is lethal to 50% of the exposed specified test animals in a specified time period. The LC50

notation must include the exposure time, generally 30 minutes (along with a 14-day post-exposure

observation period). Toxic potency is not an inherent property of a material.

Fire hazard: the seriousness of the exposure conditions which threaten the physical well-being

of the occupant. The hazard may come from various sources, for example, smoke inhalation,

direct flame burn, injuries due to trauma (e.g., ceiling collapse), high temperatures, or inability

to escape due to lack of visibility or the presence of acid gases which affect the eyes.

vii
• primarily radiant heating, with heat fluxes from about 20 to 150 kW/m2 throughout the

room;

• many items simultaneously on fire; and

• vitiated combustion air for some, but not all, burning items.

The toxic potency measurement method is also applicable to pre-flashover fires. However, deaths from

these fires generally occur within the room of fire origin; and both computer modeling and full-scale

simulation show that these deaths are far more likely to be due to heat and burns than smoke toxicity.

The importance of toxic fire hazard3 (relative to heat, burns, generalized trauma from falling debris or

leaping from a window, etc.) in the overall threat to life safety in fires varies with the type of fire, the

location of the people relative to the fire, and the time they are exposed to the fire and its products.

There is thus an inherent flaw in making materials selection decisions based solely on a single

characterization (e.g., toxic potency) of the smoke or even a simple index containing toxic potency and

other fire variables.

It is now possible to perform computations of fire hazard leading to assessments of the degree of threat

to life safety. These range from:

• simple, closed-form equations ("hand calculations") generally not requiring a computer for

solving, to

• computer simulations of a fire where a large number of differential equations are being solved

simultaneously.

Either mode of calculation requires valid toxic potency (LC50) input data.

This study recommends that this data be obtained using a radiant apparatus. This device is the first to be validated against data from real-scale fires. It is a descendant of the cup furnace and the

Weyerhaeuser radiant apparatus, and is an advanced version of the apparatus developed by the Southwest

Research Institute for the National Institute of Building Sciences.

In this radiant apparatus, materials, products, composites, and assemblies are exposed to 50 kW/m2

radiant heat under likely end-use conditions. The sample surface area may be as large as 7.6 cm (3") x 12.7 cm (5"), with a maximum thickness of 5.1 cm (2"). Six rats are exposed to the smoke collected

in an approximately 200 L rectangular box located above the furnace. Changes in the concentration of

smoke are achieved by variation of the surface area of the sample.

The number of animal tests is minimized by estimating the toxic potency of the smoke based on

established toxicological interactions of the smoke components. Thus, a small fraction of the chamber

Toxic fire hazard: a subset of "fire hazard," where the threat is inhalation of toxic combustion

products.

viii
atmosphere is removed for chemical analysis of CO, C02 , 02 , HCN, HC1, HBr, and NOx

. An N-Gas

Model had been previously developed to enable the use of these data to obtain approximate LC50 values,

based on the calculation of a Fractional effective Exposure Dose (FED) of mixtures of these gases. The

FED value is approximately 1.1 at the LC50 .

The determination of the approximate LC50 is a 2- or 3-step process:

1. Determine an estimated LC50 (30-minute exposure plus 14-day post-exposure

observation period) using the N-Gas Model. This entails two experiments, neither

involving animals. The specimen size for the first is obtained using existing data from

similar products. The consumed sample mass and the concentrations of gases in the NGas Model are measured, and an FED is calculated. Based on this result, a similar

second experiment is performed for a specimen that should produce an FED of about 1.1.

The LC50 for a test is estimated by dividing the volatilized sample mass by the product

of the FED for that test and the apparatus volume.

2. Check the estimated LC50 (30-minute exposure plus 14-day post-exposure observation period) using animals. Again two experiments are needed: one where the specimen

surface area (and mass) is chosen to produce an FED of about 0.8, and one to produce

an FED of about 1.4. In each, 6 rats are exposed to the smoke for 30 minutes, and the

mass loss and standard gas concentrations are measured. The measurements are to assure

that the sample decomposition indeed provided the desired FED. If the LC50 estimate

is accurate, the exposure at FED = 0.8 should result in 0 or 1 animal death and the

exposure at FED =1.4 should result in 5 or 6 animal deaths. If the animal deaths are

as predicted, then the chemical data from the 4 experiments are used to calculate an

approximate LC50 , and no further measurement is needed. The calculation includes a correction for the generation of less-than-post-flashover amounts of CO in bench-scale

devices. Post-flashover fires produce CO yields higher than any bench-scale device (or

pre-flashover fires).

3. If such results are not seen, then determine a more precise value for the LC50 . For

a proper statistical determination, 3 experiments are needed in which some, but not all,

of the rats die. The selection of sample sizes is guided by the prior 4 tests. After

determining the LC50 , it should be reported to 1 significant figure.

The LC50 of CO in the presence of C02is about 5 g/m3

, and one-fifth of the smoke in post-flashover

fires is CO. Therefore, the LC50 of post-flashover smoke (based only on C02 and CO) is about 25 g/m3

. The previous work on validation of this bench-scale apparatus showed that the results could be used to

predict real-scale toxic potency to about a factor of 3.

4 Therefore, post-flashover smokes with LC50

values greater than 8 g/m3 [(25 g/m3 )/3] are indistinguishable from each other.

A prior risk analysis had demonstrated that this level of uncertainty would not affect the

prediction of loss from the most common fire loss scenario: furniture fires in residences.

ix
A measured LC50 value greater than 8 g/m3 should be recorded only as "greater than 8 g/m3 ." A hazard

analysis would then use this value for the toxic potency of the smoke. A measured LC50 value less than

8 g/m3 would be recorded to one significant figure. These products could well be grouped, reflecting

the factor-of-3 accuracy of the bench-scale test. A hazard analysis would then use values of 8 g/m3

, 3

g/m3

, 1 g/m3, 0.3 g/m3, etc.

Most common building and furnishing materials have LC50 values substantially higher than 8 g/m3 prior

to the CO correction. Thus, the toxicity of the smoke will most often be determined by the fire

ventilation, rather than the specific products burning.

Further simplification of step 2 is possible. One could perform a single animal test at an FED that

corresponds to an LC50 of 8 g/m3. An observation of no deaths would confirm the suggestion. If any

animals were to die, then step 3 would be performed.

When the fire community has sufficient experience with LC50 measurements using this approach, some

groupings of products could be exempted from further determinations by inspection and placed in the

"LC50 value greater than 8 g/m3

" category. Some possible examples are:

• wood and other cellulosics, since all species would be expected to show similar LC50 values;

• synthetic materials containing only C, H, and O;

• polymer/additive mixtures that have been shown to follow the N-Gas Equation (i.e., produce no

additional toxicants) and have LC50 values greater than 8 g/m3

;

• products that are only used in small quantities (for this case, a procedure is presented in this

report for determining the fractional contributions of concurrently-burning combustibles to the

total toxic potency of the smoke); and

• products that would not be expected to become fuel for a flashed-over fire, such as those items

only installed behind a sufficiently protective barrier.

Based on an overview of reported toxic potency values, this process could result in an extremely small

fraction of commercial products needing to be measured. Note that this statement applies to postflashover scenarios only.

There will be some cases where it is important to have toxic potency data useful for analysis of preflashover fires. For these, the combustion conditions in the radiant apparatus are directly applicable.

One would determine the LC50 as above, but not correct it for post-flashover CO. The irradiance of 50

kW/m2 for a pre-flashover test is somewhat high, but should have little effect on the LC50 . Lower fluxes can be accommodated if necessary.

The computations in a hazard analysis must account for the fact that the oxygen concentration in postflashover smoke is significantly depleted, with the amount of depletion depending on the entrainment

(outside the fire room) of fresh air into the smoke. This effect could not be simulated in a bench-scale

apparatus. By contrast, in the pre-flashover fire, such shortage of oxygen is small.
This study consolidates a number of investigations conducted by NIST over the last several years.

Portions have been funded by The Society of the Plastics Industry, Inc., by BFGoodrich, and by The

Industry Coalition. There were significant technical contributions from Dr. Arthur. F. Grand of the

Southwest Research Institute; the Smoke Toxicity Working Group of the National Institute of Building

Sciences, chaired by Mr. Henry Roux; and Dr. Jack E. Snell, Ms. Magdalena Navarro, Mr. William H.

Twilley, Mr. Emil Braun, and Mr. Ronald McCombs of NIST.

xi

Toxic Potency Measurement for

Fire Hazard Analysis

Vytenis Babrauskas, Barbara C. Levin, Richard G. Gann, Maya Paabo 1

, Richard H. Harris, Jr.,

Richard D. Peacock, Shyuitsu Yusa2

Abstract

A comprehensive methodology has been developed for obtaining and using smoke toxicity data for fire

hazard analysis. This description of the methodology comprises: determination that the post-flashover

fire is the proper focus of smoke inhalation deaths; criteria for a useful bench-scale toxic potency (LC50) measurement method; a method which meets these criteria, especially validation against real-scale fires; a computational procedure for correcting the results for the CO levels observed in real-scale postflashover fires; procedures for reducing the usage of animals and broadening the applicability of data by

interpreting gas measurement data using the N-Gas Model; and a procedure for identifying whether a product produces smoke within the ordinary range of toxic potency for post-flashover fires.

Keywords: building fires; combustion products; computer fire models; fire deaths; fire hazard analysis;

N-gas model; radiant heating; smoke toxicity; toxicity test methods.

1 Introduction

The fire statistics of the United States reveal that the majority of persons who die in fires perish due to

toxic gas inhalation and not due to burns, generalized trauma (from falling debris or leaping from a window), or other causes [1]. This was not generally recognized until well into this century. Even

then, recognition came gradually. In 1933, Ferguson [2] noted that "It has been observed and

commented upon that many of these victims are not burned but succumb to the effects of "smoke" and

gases. When deaths from this source are reported it is notable that almost never has it been found,

specifically, what poisonous gas or gases caused the fatality." He then proceeded to review the literature

on chemical measurements of fire gases and attempt to reach some conclusions of general applicability.

In 1940, the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) constituted a committee to investigate this concern in more detail. Their 1952 report [3] examined causes of fire deaths in more detail, and

presented data on toxicity of some important fire gases and on which products show tendencies to evolve

Retired

Guest worker from Building Research Institute, Tsukuba, Japan

l
which gases. Such a task was again attempted later at Underwriters Laboratories, where in 1963 Dufour [4]

reviewed the by-then much more copious literature. What is striking is that during all this time there was

no attempt made to devise a test for the toxicity of fire gases, even though numerous fire tests were being

devised for other fire properties.

During the 1970s, there was a very distinct jump in the fire research effort being expended in the United

States. One of its first manifestations was a number of proposals for various tests for fire toxicity.

Initially, various aspects of toxicity were being examined, such as incapacitation preventing an animal

from performing a simple motion. The spectrum of ill effects from toxic substances is large, however,

ranging from discomfort or impairment of judgement at one end to lethality at the other. For assessing

combustion products, it was eventually agreed that lethality is an unambiguous endpoint which can be

examined without undue subjectivity. Thus, combustion toxicity tests have generally focused on

measuring toxic potency as defined by the LC50 , which is the mass of combustion products needed to cause lethality to 50% of a set of test animals exposed to the smoke for a specified time.

While quite a few tests for combustion toxicity were developed, publicized, and proposed for usage, it

is noteworthy that none became adopted by any U.S. standards organizations. Even though such a consensus was not reached, concern became raised in legislative bodies, to the extent that both New York

State and New York City, separately, established fire toxicity requirements for building products in the

1980s. Such legislative activity caused significant concern among many in the fire engineering

profession, who felt that the groundwork had not been laid for properly interpreting or utilizing the data

which were mandated to be collected.

One of the groups showing this concern was the National Institute of Building Sciences (NIBS). NIBS

concluded that existing toxicity tests failed to measure properties of products which were needed to competently assess their toxicity behavior in fires. NIBS also affirmed the value of fire hazard

assessment, but concluded that an interim methodology was needed while full hazard methods were being

developed. Their proposed solution was to be a single, simple bench-scale test, where the results would

be an index directly reflecting the toxic fire hazard of the tested product.

At the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), meanwhile, research on this topic had been

progressing since 1974 when The Fire Prevention and Control Act established the Fire Research program

with the mandate to conduct basic and applied "research on all aspects offire with the aim ofproviding

scientific and technical knowledge applicable to the prevention and control offires. " The toxicity aspects

of this research have been an integral part of the whole NIST program of fire safety research. However,

for convenience, we can point to three areas of work.

(1) The earliest task undertaken was to develop a standard toxic potency test method. A method,

commonly referred to as the "cup furnace smoke toxicity method," was developed at NIST (then

called the National Bureau of Standards or NBS) with the help of an ad hoc committee consisting

of representatives from government, academia and industry. That work was partially sponsored

by the Product Research Committee, which administered a trust fund established in a consent

order between the Federal Trade Commission and 25 firms involved in the manufacture and sale

of cellular plastics or their components [5]. The final report on this method was published in

1982 [6], [7], and an interlaboratory evaluation of this method by seven laboratories indicating good repeatability and reproducibility was published the following year [8].

2
(2) A program was undertaken to assay correctly the toxic potency of a mixture of combustion gases,

based on the physiological interactions of a small number of individual gas components. This

became known as the N-Gas Model [9], [10], [11].

(3) The development ofcomputer programs for calculating fire behavior and human response to fire [12]

has resulted in a prototype methodology for estimating the hazards to occupants involved in a building fire. The method and available computer software, called HAZARD I, can predict the

time-varying environment within a building resulting from a specified fire; the locations and

actions of occupants; and the impact of the exposure of each of the occupants to the fire products

in terms of whether the occupants successfully escape, are incapacitated, or are killed.

Like other proposed toxic potency tests, the original cup furnace method did not win standards

organization approval. Partly this was because the combustion conditions created in the test method were

not considered sufficiently representative of conditions occurring in real fires. Partly this was because

insufficient evidence was available to show that results of real fires are successfully being predicted. A

major reason, however, why no bench-scale test methods were advanced to standards status was because

of a significant discomfort within the profession on how their data were to be used.

The present study is the culmination of an effort to (a) provide an improved bench-scale measurement

for toxic potency which adequately represents the important combustion conditions of real fires; and (b)

provide a design and analysis framework which will allow for the test data to be used in a rational,

consistent, appropriate, and adequate way.

3
2 Computations of fire hazard

This chapter addresses definitions of fire hazard, the role of several engineering variables in fire hazard,

and methods to predict fire hazard. This background will set the stage for what kinds of data are needed

for successful computations of fire hazard and, therefore, will provide guidance for test design.

2.1 Quantifying hazard in fires

During the 1970s, knowledge about the toxicity of materials was considered a "missing link" in

understanding fire hazard. Thus, a number of tests were developed and proposed in this area, although

none have yet been accepted by U.S. standards organizations or by ISO. Nonetheless, methods for

measuring the toxic potency of materials started being widely used in the 1980s; their history is reviewed

in the next chapter. Use of a number of these tests became common for product evaluation, and one was

even adopted for regulatory use [13]. Yet, the data from them could not be treated in a useful

engineering way, since a suitably comprehensive analysis methodology was lacking.

One of the earliest milestones in the search for methods to evaluate quantitatively the fire hazard in

buildings was a two-day workshop on "Practical Approaches for Smoke Toxicity Hazard Assessment"

[14], sponsored by the National Fire Protection Association in February 1984. This workshop

convened groups of leading toxicologists, fire protection engineers, fire scientists, fire modelers, and code

and fire service representatives to study the problem. Later in 1984, the Toxicity Advisory Committee

of NFPA proposed a simple four-step procedure [15] derived from the workshop's efforts. As the

project progressed, papers were published which discussed the evolving philosophy and structure of the

hazard assessment methodology [16], [17]. These papers, and the growing questions regarding

combustion product toxicity, stimulated some early hazard analyses using both hand-calculated estimates

and some of the available computer fire models.

2.1.1 Hand calculations

In May of 1984, the Toxicity Advisory Committee of the National Fire Protection Association published

a procedure for providing "order of magnitude estimates" of the toxic hazards of smoke for specified

situations [18]. In this report, Bukowski based the estimating procedure on a series of algebraic

equations, which could be solved on a hand calculator. Individual equations were provided to estimate

steady-state values for such parameters as upper-layer temperature, smoke density, and toxicity; and

graphical solutions were provided for room filling time. This work was followed by the more extensive

compilation of such equations for use by the U.S. Navy in assessing fire hazards on ships [19].

Subsequently, the Toxicity Advisory Committee was asked by the National Electrical Code Committee

for assistance in addressing a toxicity hazard question regarding polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) plenum

cables. In providing that help, a hand-calculated analysis was performed [20]. This paper concluded

for a single, specified scenario, that the size of room fire needed to cause the decomposition of the cable

insulation would itself cause a toxicity hazard in an adjacent space before the cable would become

involved.

4
In general, such algebraic equations are constructed for single fire types and conditions. They are also

limited to steady-state analyses and cannot deal consistently with the transient aspects of fire behavior.

To obtain a complete answer of broad applicability, then, requires a computer to solve the differential

equations which describe these transient phenomena. This is the role of computer fire models.

2.1.2 Computer models

The models of building fires that are currently available vary considerably in scope, complexity, and

purpose. Simple "room filling" models such as the Available Safe Egress Time (ASET) model [21] run quickly on almost any computer, and provide good estimates of a limited number of parameters of

interest for a fire in a single compartment. A special-purpose model can provide a single function; e.g. , COMPF2 [22] calculates post-flashover room temperatures. And, very detailed models like the

HARVARD 5 code [23] predict the burning behavior of multiple items in a room, along with the

time-dependent conditions therein.

In addition to the single-room models mentioned above, there are a smaller number of multi-room models

which have been developed. These include the BRI (or Tanaka) transport model [24] which is similar

to the FAST model [25], and the HARVARD 6 code [26], a multi-room version of HARVARD

5. All of these models are of the zone (or control volume) type. They assume that the buoyancy of the

hot gases causes them to stratify into two layers: a hot, smokey upper layer and a cooler lower layer.

With limitations, experiments have shown this to be an appropriate approximation [27], [28].

Other types of models include network models and field models. The former use one control volume per

room and are used to predict conditions far removed from the fire room, in spaces where temperatures

are near ambient and this layering does not take place. The field model goes to the other extreme,

dividing the room into hundreds or even thousands of control volumes. Such models can predict the

variation in conditions within the layers, but require long run times on supercomputers to do so. Thus,

they are used sparingly, when highly detailed calculations are essential.

Thus, we can immediately see that two alternative methods for assessing fire hazard have emerged:

• simple, closed-form equations, generally not requiring a computer for solving (hand calculations);

and

• numerical computations of a fire where a large number of equations, often differential equations,

are being solved simultaneously (computer fire models).

For a reference to all of the commonly used computer fire models, the reader is referred to Friedman's

recent compilation [29]. Reference [30] reviews several of both the simple computational methods

and the computer fire models and gives further references to example hazard analyses which have been

conducted by using these tools.

5
2.2 Definitions of terms

At this point it is appropriate to define the most important terms used throughout this study.

Toxic potency — toxicity of the smoke from a specimen of material or product, taken on a per-unitspecimen-mass basis. A typical biological end point adopted is the "LC50 ," which stands for the

concentration which will be lethal to 50% of the exposed specified test animals in a specified time

period. The units are in concentration, i.e., g m

3

. It must be emphasized, however, that toxic

potency is not an inherent property of a material [31]. The LC50 variable must be

accompanied by an indication of the exposure time but, by itself, does not specify the test apparatus nor the specimen heating conditions. The length of the test animal exposure time is particularly important, since for many substances the value of the LC50 is inversely dependent

on the exposure time. For fire toxicity, a 30-minute exposure time (along with a 14-day postexposure observation period) has often been specified. Note that a lower LC50 value indicates a higher toxic potency.

Fire hazard — generally, this is taken to be a measure of the seriousness of the exposure conditions

which threaten the physical well-being of the occupant. The hazard may come from various

sources, for example, smoke inhalation, direct flame burn, injuries due to trauma (e.g., ceiling

collapse) or high temperatures, or inability to escape due to lack of visibility or the presence of

acid gases which affect the eyes.

Toxic fire hazard — this term is a subset of "fire hazard," occurring when the hazard being considered

is due to inhalation of toxic combustion products alone.

The physical well-being of the occupants can be threatened in a number of ways, but two are severe:

lethality and incapacitation. Fire hazard models incorporate values for incapacitation based on toxicity,

temperature rise, heat flux, or other criteria. These can be very useful in trying to understand certain

fire phenomena. However, incapacitation of humans is very difficult to predict based on animal exposure

results. This is due both to the physiological differences between humans and test animals and the use of simple animal measurements to represent a diversity of human activities during a fire (e.g., sleeping,

running). Clearly, we also lack a laboratory model for the incapacitation of humans. Human lethality,

on the other hand, while in some cases is still difficult to assess from animal data, is less ambiguous.

Thus, while acknowledging the significant importance of incapacitation of occupants, it will not be

explicitly quantified in this study; instead, we shall quantify only lethality.

2.3 Fire scenarios and toxic potency data

To compute the course of a fire and its impact on occupants, it is necessary to specify the details of the

combustibles, the environment, and the type of ignition. This information, collectively, is known as the

fire scenario. In many cases, fire histories are discussed where the scenario is tacitly implicit and is not

spelled out. Such implicitness can be very misleading. To reach agreement on how products perform

or how building occupants are or are not threatened by fire, the fire scenario being examined must be

explicitly described.

6
Today's computer-based fire models [29] have the ability to incorporate full definition of the fire

scenario. This can lead to determination of the course of a variety of enclosure fires, including the

resulting thermal and (in some cases) toxicological environment. HAZARD I [12] additionally includes

the response of occupants to residential fires. This enables the additional determination of the impact of

the fire on people.

Fire hazard modeling, then, allows for differentiating among the complex, but realistic, performance of

competitive products [32]. Consider, for example, the following situation. Product A produces

smoke of moderate toxic potency throughout a fire. A hazard analysis of the chosen scenario shows that

deaths occur only late in the fire. The alternative product B produces smoke of high toxic potency mainly

at the beginning of the fire, resulting in fewer total deaths, but ones that occur soon after ignition. The

computation can identify the early warning times and prompt evacuation rates that would make product

A the better choice. For further examples of the use of fire hazard modeling, the reader is referred to

the example cases in [33].

While the time-varying characteristic of a fire can only be computed by the use of a computer, one can

use a simpler fire representation to obtain insight into toxic fire hazard and the needed product data for

its computation. Babrauskas has developed such an expression for a fire where the spread of flame is symmetrically away from an ignition point, with all room boundaries being very far away [34]. He

derived the following expression for use in estimating the relative contributions to toxic hazard for two

products used in the same application:

FED « MLR

(1)

MLR is the averaged mass loss rate from the time that 10% of the mass loss occurred

to the time that 90% has occurred.

tig is an indicator of the rate at which the product's burning area is increasing. If one

conceives flame spread as a continuous series of ignitions, then the shorter the ignition

delay time, the faster the flame spread rate.

FED is the Fractional effective Exposure Dose [35], [36]. It is the time-integrated

concentration (C) of smoke encountered by the occupant during the course of the fire,

normalized by the product of the LC50 and the exposure time used in its determination.

This dimensionless number equals 0 at the start of the fire and 1 at the time that the occupant has received a lethal dose of the smoke.

7
A similar analysis can be performed for the situation where the fire is no longer spreading, i.e.,

when all the combustibles in the room are already fully burning. This is the situation after the

fire has passed the point of flashover. The resulting equation is:

FED « + .... (2)

where:

the An values are the areas of the combustibles covered by flames,

the m" values are the mass loss rates per unit area of the combustibles, and

the LC50 values are as defined before.

The latter equation has the additional value of enabling an estimate of the relative contributions of

multiple products to the FED and thus the toxic hazard.

This simplified presentation indicates the types of data needed for including smoke toxicity in a fire

hazard analysis. The model accepts a dimensional definition of the combustibles and accepts or generates

their burning history. The time-dependent mass loss data give the quantity of smoke formed. The toxic

potency figure, characterized by the LC50 and integrated as the FED, indicates the severity of that smoke.

8
3 Types of fires

An apparatus for fire property measurement, such as the toxic potency device to be described in Chapter

8, has some degree of versatility. Proper selection of combustion conditions can replicate more than one

fire type. This Chapter considers the relative importance of smoke toxicity in the hazard from different

fire types. This will lead to optimal use of the ensuing methodology.

The characteristics of unwanted fires can be almost endlessly diverse. Yet, while various fire types can

occur, they are not at all equally represented in national fire death statistics. Based on these statistics,

we can identify the real fires in which smoke toxicity is most critical.

There are various ways in which fire types can be grouped. The important consideration is to start with

a list which includes all potential fire scenarios; the way that this entirety is then subdivided becomes of

lesser concern. The British Standards Institution (BSI) has developed a combustion-characterized outline,

which has gained a substantial degree of international acceptance. In their Code of Practice for the

Assessment of Toxic Hazards in Fire in Buildings and Transport [37] they itemize the following six

types of fires:

I. Self-sustained smoldering decomposition (i.e., a cigarette on upholstered furniture or bedding).

II. Non-flaming oxidative decomposition.

III. Non-flaming pyrolytic decomposition.

IV. Developing fires, flaming (pre-flashover fires).

V. Fully-developed fires, high ventilation (post-flashover fuel-controlled fires).

VI. Fully-developed fires, low ventilation (post-flashover ventilation-controlled fires).

The BSI Code is limited to evaluation of buildings and transport vehicles. While the problems may be

similar to certain industrial or other protection needs, we will here likewise limit ourselves to the same

scope. Thus, explosions, fires in mines, and similar issues will not be addressed.

In the United States, the largest single cause of fire deaths (27% of the annual total) is due to cigarettes

and other smoking materials ignitions [38]. Such a fire starts out as type I, although it may proceed

to the flaming stages. That the bulk of the smoke is produced after the furniture item bursts into flames

has been reinforced by results of animal exposures in large-scale fire tests [39], [40]. These indicate that only after the smoldering goes to flaming do animal deaths tend to occur. Thus, simulation of

smoldering combustion is not a priority for a toxic potency measurement method.

Fire types II and III are considered rare in terms of fire fatalities and generally not of top importance as

far as public concern goes. The scenarios which could include such a fire type would be overheated

electric wiring (but without accompanying flaming) or overheated combustibles placed near heating

appliances (again, without flaming). The statistics do not lend themselves readily to identifying these fire

types, but part of the reason is that the systems themselves which are used for collecting fire statistics

were set up primarily to obtain details on the more likely scenarios. In some applications, possibly

9
industrial occupancies, concerns with type II and III fires may become important, but this is not likely

to be true for general applications.

What remains to consider are types IV, V, and VI. For considering these open-flame fire types, we first wish to clarify the terms used.

Pre-flashover fires generally show: — primarily radiant heating, with heat fluxes ranging from 20 to 50 kW-m"2 near the ignition

source, to being negligible further away — only one item or a small number of items on fire — combustion air not vitiated.

Post-flashover fires are distinguished by, among other things: — primarily radiant heating, with heat fluxes from about 20 to 150 kW-m"2

all over the room — many items simultaneously on fire — vitiated combustion air for some, but not all, burning items.

The transition between fire type V and VI occurs when the amount of fuel being gasified becomes great

enough that all of the pyrolysate cannot burn within the room of fire origin. Thus, in a type VI fire,

considerable burning also occurs outside, at doors, windows, or other openings. The distinction between

types V and VI may be made as a simple either/or choice for certain types of fire models. For examining

the toxicity aspects, however, as we shall see later, the exact fuel/oxygen ratio needs to be known, not

just a bipartite split. Thus, we will consider V + VI as the post-flashover fires of interest.

What is still important to decide, however, is whether pre-flashover (IV) or post-flashover (V/VI) fires

should be where the focus of standard toxic potency measurement lies. In this case, U.S. fire death

statistics can be consulted. The statistics are not tabulated according to "pre-flashover" or "postflashover," but they do include an equivalent concept. The factor analyzed for is "flame damage beyond

the room." Such flame damage does not occur if the fire does not progress beyond the pre-flashover

stage, but does occur if flashover is reached and burning continues. The U.S. fire statistics

[41], [42] show that 69% of all fire deaths are associated with post-flashover fires, with the vast

majority of deaths occurring outside the room of fire origin.

Clearly, the post-flashover fires are the most important problem to be addressed. One question remains,

however. For pre-flashover fires, is toxicity an important issue? From the fire statistics, we see that for

pre-flashover fires, most of the deaths occur in the room of fire origin. Moreover, computer-based

hazard modeling can provide an estimate of the importance of toxicity relative to thermal effects for this

scenario.

Figure 1. shows a comparison of the estimated toxicity and thermal hazards in the lower layer of the

room of fire origin for a range of fire growth rates. (The results are similar for the upper layer.) To

understand the impact of the comparison, a definition of tenability limits for temperature, radiant flux,

and toxic gases must first be introduced:

• The effects of temperature as an exposure limit under fire conditions have not been well studied.

Industrial hygiene literature primarily gives data for heat stress under conditions of prolonged,

typically 8-hour, exposures. The older literature, as it relates to fire, has been reviewed by

10
1000

900

o

7

c

"E

D)

/

25 -

*E 20 -

15 -

10 -

0

Fast fire growth rate — - Medium fire growth rate

• Slow fire growth rate

Tenability limit for toxicity £

20 40 60 80

Temperature (°C)

100 120

Figure 1. Relative impact of toxicity and thermal effects in the room of fire origin

for a range of fire growth rates.

n
Simms and Hinkley [43], although, based on that review, they could not make any recommendations of tenability values. Criteria for temperature are, in fact, especially difficult to set,

since the temperature at which adverse effects are noted depends not only on the exposure time,

but also on additional factors such as the relative humidity and the interactions of heat and toxic

gases. Experimental data from studies with pigs have shown no injuries at 120°C for 2 min,

100°C for 5 min, and 90 °C for 10 min [44], [45]. Some experimental data for humans

have been reported which show that temperatures of 100°C could be withstood by a clothed,

inactive adult male for about 30 min before intolerable discomfort is reached; a 75 °C exposure

could be withstood for about 60 min [46]. These experimental values seem high. Zapp

[47] has stated that "...air temperatures as high as 100°C can be tolerated only under very

special conditions (i.e., still air) for more than a few min, and that some people are incapacitated

by breathing air at 65 °C..." The following comparisons are based on the 100°C limit.

As noted earlier, the effects of toxic gases have been studied in depth by many researchers. One

indicator of toxicity that has been used in hazard calculations is the parameter Ct. This parameter

represents the time-integrated exposure to the mass concentration of all of the mass of fuel lost

within the structure and is thus a concentration-time product (hence the name Ct). The units are gram-minutes per cubic meter. A value of 900 gminm"3 has been proposed as a reference value

for the lethality of smoke from most common building materials [7], [33]. The value for Ct of

900 gminm 3 comes from a constant 30-min exposure to smoke of typical toxicity (in these

studies, LC50 concentrations of approximately 30 g-m"3

). Where materials more or less toxic are considered, this reference value can be varied accordingly (e.g., by factors of 10).

As Figure 1. shows, the tenability limit for temperature (100°C) is reached long before the typical limit

for toxicity (900 g min m"3

) is approached. At the temperature limit, Ct levels below 20 g-min m

3 are seen for a broad range of fire growth rates. To put these in perspective, one must consider the

concentrations necessary to cause lethal effects at such low Ct levels. Presuming, for the moment, the

same linear relationship for Ct, then the LC50 concentrations necessary to cause lethality are simply the

Ct value divided by the time to reach that value.

Over the time period necessary to reach the lethal level from temperature, an equal life safety threat due

to smoke toxicity would require an LC50 value of approximately 0.1 g-m"3. This is over 100 times

smaller than those found for typical building materials; virtually no commercial products exposed under

realistic fire conditions have LC50 values so low. Thus, for well-mixed smoke within the room of fire

origin, toxic hazard is much less frequently a threat than is thermal hazard. In this context, the value of

a toxic potency measurement method is the identification of those products that produce smoke of extreme

toxic potency.

12
4 Toxic potency measurements

In this chapter we examine briefly the history of development of bench-scale measurement methods for

toxic potency. We then consider the current needs of the voluntary standards organizations. We find,

in examining this situation, that a test development effort is warranted, despite many years of earlier such

efforts.

The impelling need for a small-scale laboratory procedure to ascertain the toxic potency of the combustion

products from materials was revealed by a scientific paper in Science in 1975 [48]. This research

by Petajan et al. showed that the combustion products from an experimental fire-retarded rigid

polyurethane foam caused grand mal seizures and death in rats, while the same foam without the fireretardant did not produce any abnormal neurological effects. The toxicity of the combustion products

from the fire-retarded foam was attributed to the formation of a bicyclic phosphate ester, namely, 4-ethyll-phospha-2,6,7-trioxabicyclo[2,2,2]octane-l-oxide, in the smoke. This result raised an alarm about the

possible presence of "supertoxicants" in smoke from burning or smoldering materials. Since the presence

of this bicyclic phosphate ester would not have been detected by ordinary chemical analysis of the smoke,

this paper also emphasized the need for animals as the measurement "instruments." Many laboratories

had pursued the chemical approach and had published extensive lists of chemical compounds found in the

combustion atmospheres of materials thermally decomposed under different conditions. A summary of

the literature on the combustion products and smoke toxicity from seven plastics indicated over 400

detected compounds [49]. Since the toxicity of all of those compounds was not known nor was the

toxicity of the mixed atmospheres known, the need for a combined biological and chemical approach was

obvious. The observation of adverse effects in rodents would indicate the presence of unusual toxicants or synergistic effects of combined toxicants that might not be discovered by routine chemical analysis

alone.

World-wide concern about the toxicity of combustion products was indicated by the many laboratories

which developed smoke toxicity test methods in the next decade. At least 20 such methods were

described in 1983 [50]. At about the same time, 13 published methods were evaluated by Arthur D.

Little, Inc., to assess the feasibility of incorporating combustion toxicity requirements into building

material and furnishing codes of New York State [51]. On the basis of seven different criteria, only

two methods — the closed-system cup furnace smoke toxicity method developed at the National Bureau

of Standards and the flow-through smoke toxicity method developed at the University of Pittsburgh —

were found acceptable. The state of New York decided to use the method ("UPitt") developed at the

University of Pittsburgh [13]. Since it was unclear how to use the results of toxicity testing in regulation,

the state of New York only requires that materials be examined with the UPitt protocol and that the

results be filed with the state.

13
In separate regulation, New York City has also adopted toxicity requirements as part of their building

code. They require that products not be more toxic than wood3

. Since wood is not a product of specific

composition or fire behavior, New York City uses an "average" wood, corresponding to the LC50s of

several different species tested in the UPitt method and then averaged. A number of other states also

announced their intentions to regulate in this area; however, this has not yet come about.

Four smoke toxicity measurement procedures were eventually proposed to the American Society for

Testing and Materials (ASTM). These included the cup furnace method, the UPitt method, and two

others which were somewhat less commonly used. These were the University of San Francisco "Dome

Chamber" test [52] and the original radiant heat test, developed at Weyerhaeuser [53]. None of

the four proposed methods were accepted; and, at present, there is no ASTM standard smoke toxicity test method.

The latter two were not accepted because they enjoyed only limited use by laboratories. With the Dome

Chamber, serious toxicological reservations were raised about a method which only measures time to

various incapacitation effects (such as collapse) or to death, and does not evaluate actual product toxic

potency. The Weyerhaeuser test was, simply, rarely used, largely because certain mechanical aspects

were felt lacking in robustness.

Both the cup furnace and the UPitt methods had achieved rather widespread use in the United States, yet

certain reservations remained. Primary issues were that neither method was felt to represent adequately

the combustion environment occurring in actual building fires. Also, it was felt that data validating the

results of these tests against real-scale fires were scant. Although these test methods were never

standardized, it is said that a number of products were changed or withdrawn because of their test results.

As more materials were examined in these systems, it became evident that the number of products

generating "supertoxicants" was small. Indeed, most of the toxicity of combustion atmospheres could

be explained by the main toxic combustion gases (e.g., CO, C02 HCN, reduced 02 , HC1), and that one

rarely had to worry about minor or obscure components [11], [36], [54], [55].

There has also been significant discussion concerning the potential misuse of toxicological data. The

concern was that if any method for obtaining toxic potency data alone were approved, it might become

a new determinant for the acceptability of products. As a result, a view emerged that a method worthy

of approval should have the following attributes:

• the combustion conditions would appropriately represent real-scale fires, and the method could

be validated to demonstrate its success in predicting the real-scale fire; and

• a technique was in place, as part of the proposed method or separately, for assembling enough

needed data so that a credible fire hazard assessment could be made.

Chapter 7 examines some details of wood combustion. It will be seen that wood is about the least

desirable choice for a reference material. The two main reasons for this are: (1) wood toxicity

is dominated by CO production, which is extremely test- and protocol-dependent and is badly

represented in all bench-scale methods unless special computational corrective measures are taken.

(2) The repeatability of tests on wood, due to natural lumber variability, is much poorer than for

most other materials.

14
To satisfy these two criteria above, development of three new methods was pursued. Professor Alarie

at the University of Pittsburgh undertook to design "UPitt II," which would use the well-validated

combustion system of the Cone Calorimeter, instead of the box furnace used in the older UPitt test. The

resulting method has been recently published [56]. The method is costly and difficult to install and

has some of the same operational difficulties encountered as were earlier encountered by NIST in an

exploratory study on an attempted coupling of a conical-heater type of combustion system to the animal

exposure system used with the cup furnace method [57]. Partly because of these reasons, the fire

safety community has not shown interest in this development.

The second solution was proposed by NIBS when it established a project on combustion toxicity in 1982.

After a 1986 conference [58] suggested the need for a "performance test method" for combustion

toxicity, NIBS commissioned test development work to be conducted by the Southwest Research Institute

(SwRI). The fundamental principles of the method were described in the 1988 NIBS conference [59],

[60]; and, after some further development work and public comment, the method was submitted to ballot at ASTM in March 1991. Since the NIBS method formed the starting point for the development

work at NIST on a new measurement method, some features of this apparatus are examined more closely

in Chapter 8.

The third solution is the protocol being described in the present study.

15
5 Criteria for bench-scale toxic potency measurement

A rational measurement method development program must be guided by sound, comprehensive, and

well-accepted criteria for what is a satisfactory measurement method. This methodology is built on what

was learned through numerous discussions on such occasions as ASTM, NFPA, or NIBS committee

meetings.

The measurement method presented here addresses the concerns noted above. In particular, the method

is directed at:

(a) obtaining LC50 values where combustion condition realism, representation of real-scale

fire, and similar requirements could be met; and

(b) being an integral part of a fire hazard assessment method. Thus, means had to be in

place for supplying all of the needed information, not just the LC50 value alone.

The method development followed the guidelines that have become generally accepted by the profession.

At this point presenting them serves to outline why the development progressed in the manner it did.

As reasoned in Chapter 3, the community (as evidenced in the NIBS meetings) considers that the primary

application of toxicity data is for assessing the smoke hazard in post-flashover fires. However, since preflashover fires are also of interest, it was desirable to explore the same physical apparatus for representing

those fires, provided this did not compromise the primary use.

5.1 Types of data to be obtained

Various fire hazard assessments can have differing toxicological data needs, depending on the exact

situation that is being examined. The following is a minimum data set (see Chapter 2) for representing even the simplest fire conditions.

A. Toxic potency should be measured, reportable in correct concentration (e.g., g-m"3

) units.

B. The chemical data necessary for the N-Gas Model should be properly obtainable from the

measurement method. We shall review the N-Gas Model in the next chapter and demonstrate how

its use produces a measurement method which is simple to conduct and which minimizes the

usage of experimental animals.

16
5.2 General measurement method requirements

The following is a list of the general requirements which are expected of any viable engineering

measurement method. These are presented for background and need not be elaborated.

A. Adequate repeatability.

B. Adequate reproducibility.

C. Adequate validity.

D. Safety to operator.

E. Safety to environment, i.e., no excessive pollution.

F. Affordable apparatus costs.

G. Tests conductible reasonably quickly and efficiently.

H. Sample preparation not excessively difficult.

I. Ease of cleaning and maintaining of the apparatus.

5.3 Specific measurement method requirements

A more direct set of requirements combines the above with state-of-the art understanding of fire physics

and chemistry and of inhalation toxicology.

A. The measurement method should represent the chosen full-scale combustion scenario correctly.

Adequate repeatability and reproducibility can be tested by standard statistical methods

and require no elaboration. Validity, however, is a different issue. While it can be

tested statistically, the hopes of success are small, unless accurate knowledge of physics,

chemistry and toxicology are incorporated into its design. For this reason, there are some important corollaries:

1. Composite specimens should be testable as composites.

Normally, the burning behavior of composites cannot be predicted from

information about the constituents alone, and neither can the toxic potency. In a few cases, efforts have been made to compute the toxic potency of the

composite from measurements on the components [61], [62]; however,

this is not viable in the general case.

2. Since in the post-flashover fire, radiant heating predominates, the specimen should

receive uniform, well-controlled radiant heating.

In practice it has proven to be impossible to relate adequately the results from

combustion under conditions of predominantly convective, conductive, or thermal

immersion heating to those from radiant heating tests. Face uniformity is needed

since calculations or modeling on the basis of the average radiant heat flux are not possible if there are wide variations in heating over the face of the specimen.

17
Specimens should be burned to their natural conclusion in much the same way they would

in real-scale fires; i.e., a specimen should not artificially be stopped from burning before

all the combustibles that can burn do burn.

At most times after ignition in the real-scale fire, some surface elements will be

barely ignited, others will be half-burned-through, while others yet will be nearly

burned through. This situation holds true in the pre-flashover fire relatively soon

after ignition is established, and remains true until the late stages of the postflashover fire. Any bench-scale measurement method procedure which captures

products of combustion only from the surface layer of the specimen, or the back

layer, etc., will not represent post-flashover fire scenarios, nor most other useful

fire scenarios.

For establishing the correlation of the bench-scale result to the full scale by chemical

analysis, the specimen's yields of various toxic gases species must be measurable.

This is essential, since it is one of the primary ways of comparing the full-scale

to the bench-scale result.

For establishing the correlation of the bench-scale result to the full scale by bioassay,

both the LC50s (or an approximation thereto) and the causes of animal deaths need to be

measured and recorded.

Again, if this information is not available, validation efforts become compromised.

There must be a minimum loss of gases and particulates.

It will be impossible to represent desired real-scale fire scenarios if the losses in

the bench-scale measurement method are high, erratic, or subject to anomalies.

Specimens should be tested without crushing, powdering, etc. To achieve a good representation of the real-scale behavior, specimens should be

presented with similar thermal boundary conditions and internal heat/mass

transfer conditions. Both of those will not be possible if the form of the

specimen is altered.

Specimens of a wide range of densities, thicknesses and toxicities which may occur in the

real world should be testable without needing to be excluded or "beating" the test. A practical measurement method will, perforce, have limits for these variables,

but they should be as broad as possible and include the range of interest for

hazard assessment. Due to the nature of commercial composites, products of at

least 25 mm thickness (or 50 mm, in the case of upholstered furniture specimens)

must be accommodated.

Protective outer layers should be realistically represented in the measurement method

procedure.

Some composites are designed whereby skin layers will protect internal layers

which may be more flammable or more toxic. These systems should be

subjected to realistic testing; the outer layers should be allowed to give about as much protective value as they do in real-scale performance.
10. Edge effects should not influence the results disproportionately.

This issue is closely related to the previous one. The specimen testing

arrangement should be such that products which burn primarily from the topdown in real-scale should not burn from the sides-in in the bench-scale

measurement method.

11. Samples should be tested in the horizontal, face-up orientation.

Samples tested in any other orientation are prone to melt and drip or to fall out

of the holder during testing.

12. The combustion environment to which the specimen is subjected in the measurement

method should correspond to that in the design scenario. This includes correct oxygen

levels, and also the absence of such phenomena as re-circulation or re-combustion of

combustion products, catalytic conversion, etc., unless they are also present in the design

fire scenario.

As will be seen in Chapter 7, this condition will generally be impossible for any

bench-scale measurement method to meet in its entirety. In such a case,

alternative provisions need to be made to correct the results for known biases.

13. Since the measurement method is to be designed for, at least, post-flashover fires, it is important that the test data be in such a format so that the prediction of several items

simultaneously burning in a room could be done.

This was discussed in Chapter 2.

B. The measurement method should provide for a well-characterized, toxicologically sound exposure

of animals.

1. There is a very broad consensus pointing to the wisdom of providing animals with a 30-

min exposure period, followed by a 14-day post-exposure observation period [6]. The

14-day post-exposure period is necessary to identify those materials that produce

combustion products which cause metabolic or physiologic effects following the exposure

(e.g., HC1 and other irritant gases).

2. The rat has been chosen in the largest number of combustion toxicity measurement

methods. There are cogent reasons (reasonable cost and availability; extensive amount

of historical data; large enough to provide for blood samples; closest overall model to

human response among animals of similar cost) for continuing with this practice.

3. The gases to which the animals are exposed should consist of the total combustion

products from the specimen's burning history.

4. As close to a square-wave exposure as possible is desired.

The evaluation of LC50s is accompanied by increased uncertainty if the gas

concentrations are significantly changing during the course of the exposure. The

time during which the combustion gases in the animal chamber are present at a

19
level near their average integrated level should be as close as possible to the

average value during the entire 30-min period.

5. The biological effects on the animals' condition during the measurement method should

be adversely affected as little as possible by causes other than specimen toxicity.

This includes: providing a sufficient size of animal exposure chamber so that the

animals' exhaled C02 does not affect them adversely; making sure that heating

conditions from specimen heaters do not create an excessive heat burden to the

animals; providing a restraint system that does not cause undue physical injury.

6. The usage of animals should be minimized, consistent with obtaining data of acceptable

quality.

There are two reasons for this: (a) humanitarian concerns; and (b) the costliness

and time-consuming nature of animal experiments.

The objective of the measurement method development work was then to ensure that all of the

requirements were met as well as possible. Before examining the results of the development program,

we shall next look at the details of the N-Gas Model, then consider in some detail the issues associated

with CO toxicity.

20
6 The N-Gas Model

To minimize the cost and time for conducting tests, while at the same time providing the maximum

amount of information valuable in fire hazard computations, NIST has been developing a concept which

has come to be known as the N-Gas Model. In this chapter we explain how this model was developed

and how it is applied in testing.

Experience with earlier toxicity tests indicated that the cost of doing them was invariably high. The main

reason for this was that the toxic potency had to be determined by a trial -and-error process, where each

of 4-10 trials involved using a number of animals (often 6). Over the last 8 years, a significant effort

was mounted at NIST to develop an alternative approach whereby emphasis would be placed on

toxicological interactions of mixtures of gases. Thus, usage of animals, while not entirely eliminated,

could be substantially reduced. This became known as the N-Gas Model. Its use forms an integral part

of the new procedures which we present in a later chapter. Thus, at this point, as prerequisite

background, we will describe the N-Gas Model and discuss the quality of predictive results that can be

obtained by its use.

The N-Gas Model has been developed using rats. As such, its use in hazard modeling depends on the

quality of its correlation with human data, and veritiable lethal inhalation data for humans are not

available. Nonetheless, an effort to approximate this relationship is underway. Figure 2. shows that the

equilibrium carboxyhemoglobin (COHb) values for humans and rats are quite comparable over a considerable range of exposures to carbon monoxide [63]. As will be demonstrated in Chapter 7,

carbon monoxide is the principal toxicant in most smokes, and COHb formation is the mechanism by

which the body is deprived of oxygen, leading to death. Thus, this similarity is encouraging, and the rat toxicity data can be used to simulate human toxicity, albeit with caution. Further work on the kinetics

of the uptake and unloading of toxicants is also underway and will be described in a separate publication.

6.1 Basis of the model

The N-Gas Model is based on the now well-established hypothesis that a small number ("N") of gases

in the smoke accounts for a large percentage of the observed toxic potency [9], [10], [11], [36], [54],

[64], [65], [66], [67], [68]. The lethality of each of these gases is determined for

laboratory animals, e.g., rats. Similar measurements for combinations of these gases tell whether the

gases are additive, synergistic, or antagonistic. The results of these mixed gas tests have been reduced

to an algebraic equation which has been empirically determined for the exposure of rats to mixtures of

CO, C02, HCN, reduced 02 and HC1. Examination of these results in both bench-scale and larger-scale

tests have shown that the predictability of the N-Gas Model is good [69].

The concept that simple additivity may be sufficient to explain the toxicity of mixtures of fire gases was

originally proposed by Tsuchiya and Sumi [70]. Significant work was also done in this area by

Hartzell [35], who proposed that the term "Fractional Effective Dose" is suitable for naming the variable

which quantifies what fraction of a lethal dose the animal has received. Huggett [71], however,

21
ioo i

1 r-—T"

—r——

r

0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 .8000 9000 10,000

AVERAGE CARBON MONOXIDE (ppm)

Figure 2. Comparison of human curve and rat data for carboxyhemoglobin

equilibrium levels for different CO exposures.

pointed out that the actual dose delivered to an animal via inhalation cannot normally be quantified;

instead, we may consider an exposure dose, which is defined as the product of the gas concentration in

the atmosphere, multiplied by the time of the exposure. Thus, we more appropriately refer to the

Fractional effective Exposure Dose (FED). Thus, for the case of simple additivity, the FED can be

defined as

t

FED =

where C4 is the concentration of the ith gas species, and LCt50(i) is the lethal concentration x time product

for that gas species. In quite a few practical cases the time of exposure is fixed and uniform, while the

concentrations vary slightly or not at all. In such a case, the simplification can be made to

FED =

22
Experimental work has borne out that mixtures of the important toxic gases follow the above relationship

generally, but with some modifications. The most current version of the equation is as follows:

FED =

m[CO] +

lHCN] +

21 "

[°2] +

Proi +

[Jflfrl (5)

[C02 ]-b LCX (HCN) 21 -LC50 (O2) LCX (HCl) LCM (HBr)

where the numbers in brackets indicate the actual atmospheric concentrations of the gases, and the

constants to be discussed below are for deaths within the 30-minute exposure + 14-day post-exposure

period. Note that two terms differ from the form of equation 12.

The first term reflects the potentiation of CO by C02 [66]. Studies at NIST have shown that while C02

is of very low toxicity by itself (30 minute LC50 = 470,000 ppm with 95% confidence limits from

430,000 to 510,000 ppm [72]), its effect on mixtures is not as slight as linear additivity would

suggest. As the concentration of C02 increases (up to 5%), the toxicity of CO increases. Above 5%,

the toxicity of CO starts to decrease again. The empirically-determined values of m and b are -18 and

122000 if the C02 concentrations are 5% or less and 23 and -38600 when the C02 concentration is above

5%. Carbon dioxide also increases the toxicity of other gases currently included in the model as well

as that of N02 [36], [72]. However, for simplicity, the effect of the C02is added into this equation once. Since CO is generally the dominant toxicant in nearly all real fires, the C02 effect is merged into the CO

factor. As more information becomes available, the N-Gas equation will be changed to indicate the effect

of C02 on the other gases as well.

The form of the third term arises because oxygen itself is not a toxicant; instead, its lack is what is toxic.

Thus, the form for 02 in the above equation will follow as (21 - 02

). The 30 minute LC50 of 02

is 5.4%

which is subtracted from the normal concentration of 02 in air, i.e., 21%.

Even with these non-linearities there is still some systematic deviation from the ideal. 50% of the animals

should die at an FED = 1.0, plus-or-minus a confidence interval. Instead, as shown in Table 1. through

Table 3. [54], due to small non-linearities, the 50% lethality level corresponds to FED = 1.1 (95%

confidence interval of + 0.2). Since the concentration-response curves for animal lethalities from smoke

are very steep, the experimental loading is close to the predicted LC50 value if some percentage (other

than 0 or 100%) of animals die. The data in Table 1. through Table 3. indicate the high value of this

equation. (These tables separate the within-exposure deaths from the post-exposure deaths to provide

additional information for the reader regarding validation hypothesis #5 in Chapter 9.)

The LC50 values for 30-minute exposures plus post-exposure deaths for the linear terms are as follows:

HCN: 150 ppm [67]; HC1: 3800 ppm [73]; HBr: 3000 ppm from the literature [74].

The model is now considered well enough established to be offered for engineering use, as explained

below. Further refinements to the 7-gas model are not precluded, however. There are several areas for

potential future study. For example, HC1 concentrations below 1000 ppm may not have any lethal effect even in the post-exposure period. Nitrogen oxides, especially N02

, need consideration, and the NOx factor is not strictly additive. As noted earlier, N02 and C02 are synergistic; N02 plus HCN show

antagonistic effects [75].

23
Table 1. Predictability of N-Gas Model using CO, C02

, and reduced 02

FED

Value

Deaths

Within

Exposure

Deaths

Post

Exposure

Day

of

Death

0.84 0/6 0/4a

0.89 0/6 0/4a

0.93 0/6 l/4a 0

0.96 0/5 0/4b

1.01 3/6 0/3

1 06 4/6 1/2 3

1.07 3/6 1/2 0

1.12 4/6 0/lb

1.22 5/6 0/1

a two animals cannulated for blood analysis, then sacrificed.

b

one animal cannulated for blood analysis, then sacrificed.

Table 2. Predictability of N-Gas Model using CO, C02

, and HCN

FED Value

Post

Exposure21

Deaths

Within

Exposure

Deaths

Post

Exposure

Day of

Death

0.95 0/6 1/6 0

1.03 0/6 1/6 1

1.01 0/6 0/6

1.11 0/6 2/6 1,3

a calculated for post-exposure deaths since no animals died within the 30-min. exposure.

24
Table 3. Predictability of N-Gas Model using CO, C02 , HCN, and reduced 02

FED Value

Within

Exposure*1

FED Value

Post

Exposure

Deaths

Within

Exposure

Deaths

Post

Exposure

Day of

Death

0 77 0/6 0/6

ft qi ft/6 ft/6

1.06 1.23 1/6 1/5 1

1.08 0/6 0/6

1.22 4/6 0/2

a calculated primarily for within-exposure since only one animal died during the postexposure period. In these cases, the difference in FED between within- and post-exposure

is that the post exposure LC50 for HCN is 50 ppm lower than that used for withinexposure deaths.

6.2 Validation and application

The model was developed on the basis of experiments with gas mixtures which could be very well

controlled and analyzed. The model should certainly perform successfully under those conditions, and

it did, as documented by the data presented above. The model would have little applicability, however,

if it were not also predictive of the lethalities from burning solid materials.

A number of diverse materials had been studied at bench scale, mostly using the cup furnace. These are shown in Table 4. Table 5. illustrates data from the radiant apparatus. The data show the degree of the

accuracy of the model.

The model was also tested against smoke from real -scale fires [39], [40], [76], [69] with similar

accuracy.

By using the N-Gas Model with the radiant toxicity apparatus, both the time necessary to evaluate a material and the number of animal tests needed for the toxic potency determination are reduced. It also

helps establish whether the toxicity is usual (i.e., the toxicity can be explained by the measured gases) or is unusual (additional gases are needed to explain the toxicity). The procedures used will be described

in detail in Chapter 8.

25
Table 4. Data from materials decomposed in the flaming mode in the cup furnace smoke

toxicity method

Generic

Material

Reference 1X50*

(g tn )

FED

at ll.50

Comments

ADC o

o 10 11 ,J7 i>wx antagonism witn hl-in : ARC Ado 77 Lj 1 ^1 l.Jl fNux antagonism wiui riL-fN i ADC Ado 77 Lj

24

1I. 1I 1J

1.33

J>ux antagonism witn tiL-iN ;

Douglas fir 8 40 1.03

Douglas fir 69 46 0.96

FPU/FR 39 26 1.15

Modacrylic 8 4 1.80 NOx antagonism with HCN ?

Polyester fiber 61 31 0.79 Unusual toxicity

Polyester fabric 62 36 0.74 Unusual toxicity

Polyester + FPU #13 62 38 1.17

Polypheny1 sul fone 8 20 0.88

Polystyrene 8 39 0.42 Unusual toxicity

PVC 69 18 1.12

Red oak 8 57 0.92

Rigid PU 8 13 1.56 NOx antagonism with HCN ?

Rigid PU 69 11 1.13

Wool 8 28 1.58 NOx antagonism with HCN ?

a based on mass consumed.

26
Table 5. Validation of the N-Gas Model against various combustibles, using the radiant test method

Material

Integrated gas concentrations (30 min)

LC50

(g/m3

)

FED

at LC50

CO

(ppm)

C02 (ppm) (%)HCN

(ppm)

net

(ppm)

HJBr

yyyyyy^&yyyy^fyyyyyy. (ppm)

NOx (ppm)

Douglas fir 3100 36000 17.2 NM NM NM NM 56 0.9

Rigid PU foam 1800 21000 18.5 130 NM NM NM 22 1.3

PVC 2000 13000 19.2 NM 2300 NM NM 26 1.1

Flexible PU foam

#43644-1

1400 53000 13.2 44 NM NM NM 52 1.1

Melamine

PU foam

380 9600 19.7 150 NM NM 48 12 1.2

Vinyl fabric 3000 18000 18.6 NM 650 NM 12 32 0.9

Melamine PU foam + vinyl fabric

1800 18000 18.6 92 170 NM 57 26 1.1

NM not measured

27
7 The CO problem in fires

High carboxyhemoglobin (COHb) in most fire victims indicates that CO inhalation is the primary cause of most fire deaths [78]. Thus, it is extremely important that CO should be treated correctly in fire

hazard analysis. There are some special testing difficulties involved. These are explored in this chapter,

which provides the necessary solutions.

7.1 The bench-scale CO problem

In a previous comprehensive hazard analysis of fire-retardant-treated versus unretarded products [79]

we were unable "to predict accurately the production of CO from less-than-room-sized tests." The

problem has not been solved in its entirety. Nonetheless, there is now available an empirical solution.

This section explains the implications of this problem and then describes the solution.

By examining the data contained in the above-mentioned hazard study [79], in earlier studies on the fire

toxicity of upholstered furniture [39], [40], [76], and in the recent toxicity validation study [69], certain

general trends can be seen. The yields of certain combustion products (C02 , HCl, HBr, HCN) are seen

to be roughly independent of whether the measurement was taken in a closed-box bench-scale test (cup

furnace smoke toxicity method; also the current radiant method), a flow-through bench-scale test (Cone

Calorimeter), an open burning environment (furniture calorimeter), or in an actual room fire. The

number of combustion gases examined in this manner was not large, and some (e.g., HCl) are difficult

to measure to high precision. Nonetheless, the yields in the various scales and environments are similar,

at least to the resolution of our measuring capability. This was emphatically not seen for one gas: CO.

Table 6. shows the collected CO results.

Since CO toxicity is the major factor in fire deaths, the ability to treat it in a realistic, quantitative way

is a top priority. NIST has recently started an effort geared towards understanding and quantifying the

production of CO in fires. Sound, theoretically-based models are still some ways off in this area. Empirical methods and some degree of understanding, however, are currently emerging. The state of the

art in understanding CO production has recently been reviewed [80]. This document may be

consulted for a detailed understanding of the issues; here, some of the pertinent conclusions are summarized.

The production of CO from burning fuels is intimately associated with the supply of oxygen for

combustion. In general, there are two paths by which the supply of oxygen to the fire can be limited:

(1) By lowering the oxygen concentration in the incoming air stream from 21% to a lower value.

(2) By maintaining the oxygen concentration in the incoming air stream at 21%, but reducing the

volume flow of air into the fire.

28
Table 6. Yields of CO, as measured in various test programs (kg/kg fuel consumed)

Method Test

conditions

DF RPU PVC NFRa FR

b Chair

NFR

Chair

FR

Reference [69] [69] [69] [79] [79] [76] [76]

Cup furnace flaming 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.074 0.155 0.02 0.05

Radiant

apparatus

50 kW/m2 0.03

0.04

0.09 —

0.12

0.09

Cone

Calorimeter

25 kW/m2 — — — — — 0.01 0.05

30 kW/m2 — — — 0.02 0.06 — —

35 kW/m2 0.005 0.06 0.08 — — — —

50 kW/m2 0.003 0.08 0.08

75 kW/m2 0.003 0.04 0.07 — — — —

Furniture

Calorimeter

average 0.013 0.08 0.09 0.04 0.05

steady-state 0.012 0.06

Real-scale flaming 0.07

0.12

0.10 —

0.14

0.2 —

0.5

0.18 0.23 0.04 —

0.11

0.06

0.12

DF Douglas fir RPU Rigid polyurethane foam

PVC Polyvinyl chloride a Mixed commodities, all without fire retardants. b Mixed commodities, all containing fire retardants.

The effects on CO of limiting oxygen availability via Path #1 was recently examined by Mulholland and

co-workers [81]. Their results are indicated in Figure 3. The left-most point for each fuel corre- sponds to the minimum oxygen concentration at which combustion can be sustained. It can be seen that

this is, typically, about 13% It can also be seen that there is a very regular dependence of the CO yield

on the oxygen concentration. The important thing to note, however, is that the increase in CO, as one

goes from a 21 % air stream down to an air stream having 14% oxygen, is only by a factor of 2.5. This

increase is consistent and repeatable, but is only of modest importance in establishing fire hazard.

29
2x1 0"3 1 1 1 1 ! ! 1 1 13 15 17 19 21

VOLUME % OXYGEN

Figure 3. The dependence of CO yield (kg/kg fuel consumed) on oxygen concentration in the incoming air stream (ABS: acrylonitrile butadiene styrene;

PE: polyethylene; PMMA: polymethylmethacrylate; DF: Douglas fir).

30

The CO increase associated with Path #2 can be assessed from the data of Beyler [82] and also of

Morehart, Zukoski, and Kubota [83]. Figure 4. shows the CO yield results, based on both sets of

data4 and somewhat simplified to portray only the major trends. The yields of CO, fco, are plotted as a function of v?, the equivalence ratio, which is defined as

=

(kg Juel/kg air)

(6)

(kg Juel/kg air)^

where "stoich" denotes conditions at which the ratio between fuel and oxygen is in the amount required

to yield complete combustion, with no excess oxygen. The plateau seen in this figure is consistent with

the recommendation of Mulholland [84], who surveyed data from a large number of room fire tests and recommends that fco = 0.2 (g CO)/(g fuel burned) be taken as characteristic for flashed-over room

fires. It is remarkable how small an effect of fuel type is seen in Figure 4., despite the wide variation in

the chemical structure of these fuels.

Figure 5. shows these data replotted in a slightly different variable, the CO/C02 ratio. This makes the

rising portion of the curves fall on a single line, while differentiating two plateaus. The lower plateau,

at CO/C02 = 0.05, corresponds to fuels which have no oxygen atoms in the fuel molecule. The higher

plateau, at CO/C02 = 0.08, corresponds to oxygen-containing fuels. Thus, at the present time, a fuel

chemistry effect can be seen with Path #2 fires, but it is small and only refers to a fairly gross description

of the fuel.

In neither Figure 4. nor Figure 5. do we show data for low values of <p. This is because, in the regime

where there is a copious amount of excess air, there is no dependence of CO on <p, there being, instead,

another plateau. The value of that low plateau (unlike the upper plateau) is highly dependent on fuel

type. Furthermore, it appears to be also dependent on the scale of the combustion and possibly on other

variables. Table 7. shows some detailed results from [79]. In some, but not all, cases, the FR material

shows CO yields about a factor of 10 higher than the non-FR control. (This, of course, does not

translate into increased fire hazard, since real-scale burning rates of the FR commodities were seen to be greatly less than the non-FR one.) Thus, we can generalize that while the fco drops to very low

values for non-FR fuels in oxygen-rich mixtures, the fco for FR commodities drops only slightly.

The above generalizations are based on the rather limited experimental evidence available to date. Very

recent unpublished studies in this area [85] suggest that while the shape and the plateaus of the curves shown may be correct, there is some discussion as to whether the rising part of the curve begins at the

correct value of <p. The recent studies are finding that the rise begins at <p = 1.0, rather than <p = 0.5.

Experimental work in this area continues at this time. Preliminary indications from studies being

conducted both at NIST and at the Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University indicate that

actual room fires may exhibit slightly different results from the ones shown for 'catcher hood'

experiments. The differences are attributed to the fact that the temperatures in post-flashover

room fires are substantially higher than in the catcher hood experiments. As a consequence, in

the current unpublished findings, curves are seen which intersect the x-axis at about <p = 1.0,

instead of <p = 0.5. Otherwise, the indications are that for these fires with more realistic

temperatures both the slopes and the plateau levels of CO yield are similar to the catcher hood

results shown here.

32
33
Table 7. Additional details on CO yields for FR and non-FR materials, from [79]

CO co7 (kg/kg)

Specimen

NFR

/FR Cone Furn. Cup Cone Furn. Cup

wai. Fum. v^at. cal. Furn. TV Cabinet H INrK U.U13 A AO A A. la 1 OA 1 AA 2.09

TV Cabinet G rK A 1 AO AU.Jn/ A 1 O U.lo A <T O.O/ A HA U. /4 A TO 0.78

Bus. Machine F NFR 0.037 0.13 0.17 2.21 1.61 1.98

Bus. Machine A FR 0.055 0.29 0.30 1.60 1.45 1.53

Chair T—whole NFR 0.020 0.01 1.62 1.89

Chair S—whole FR 0.051 0.964

Chair T—foam NFR 0.016 0.025 1.71 2.05

Chair S—foam FR 0.055 0.15 0.81 1.19

Cable D—whole NFR 0.041 0.12 1.77 1.61

Cahle K whole FR 0.060 0.10 1.34 1.04

Cable D—wire ins. NFR 0.029 0.050 2.19 2.38

Cable K—wire ins. FR 0.135 0.13 1.00 1.26

Circuit Bd. C NFR 0.014 0.10 0.075 2.07 1.71 2.13

Circuit Bd. L FR 0.103 0.10 0.15 1.87 1.36 1.24

Specimen

NFR

/FR

HCN

(kg/kg)

Cone

Cal.

Furn.

Cal.

Cup

Furn.

HBr

(kg/kg)

Cone

Cal

Furn.

Cal.

Cup

Furn.

HC1

(kg/kg)

Cone

Cal.

Furn.

Cal.

Cup

Furn. TV Cabinet H

TV Cabinet G

NFR

FR 0.069 0.082 0.017

Bus. Machine F

Bus. Machine A

NFR

FR

Chair T—whole

Chair S—whole

Chair T—foam only

Chair S—foam only

NFR

FR

NFR

FR

0.002

0.005

0.002

0.0023

0.001

0.023

0.0007

0.0032 0.022

Cable D—whole

Cable K—whole

Cable D—wire ins.

Cable K—wire ins.

NFR

FR

NFR

FR

0.112

0.131

ND

0.093

0.121

0.133

Circuit Bd. C

Circuit Bd. L

NFR

FR 0.022 0.0043

34
This observation does not change the implications for fire hazard analysis, since the upper plateau values

for <p are similar in the new studies to those found previously.

The implication of these results for bench-scale testing are profound. Since the objective is to represent

post-flashover fires, it would be appropriate if bench-scale test conditions could be created so that the

sample is always burned at a fixed <p. This is not possible, however. Bench-scale toxic potency devices

may be configured in two ways: as closed boxes, or as flow-through systems. A recent investigation at the University of Pittsburgh [56] revealed that flow-through systems can be designed for combustion

toxicity bioassay tests; however, they are extremely cumbersome and cannot be recommended for routine

work. Even with a system of such complexity, practical control to achieve a desired, constant <p during

the test was not found to be feasible. There are additional problems with a flow-through geometry of this

sort. One of them is that, in trying to achieve adequately high values of <p, the heater ends up being

submersed in a stagnant gas pool. This, in turn, will cause an unanticipated secondary combustion on

the face of the heater.

In a closed-box test, by contrast, there is no means of adjusting the oxygen supply, short of adding some

during the test. In both geometries, if <p were to be high, the animals would be presented with a very

low oxygen environment in which they could not survive. Thus, it can be seen that a bench-scale

bioassay test where the mixture is maintained at a desired, post-flashover value of <p (<p > 0.5) is not

feasible.

Since it is not feasible to set <p to the desired value in a bench-scale test, how much of an error is being

committed? The CO yield in the Cone Calorimeter (Table 6.) is from a factor of 2 to an order of

magnitude lower than in the room fire. The results in the radiant toxicity apparatus were not as low, but

were still about a factor of 2 lower than in the room fire. The cup furnace method results, however,

were extremely variable, ranging from a factor of 5 lower to a factor of 2 higher than in the room fire.

For the purposes of comparison, it is especially important to realize that the furniture calorimeter results

did not track the results in the room fires, being lower by a factor of 2 to 10. This piece of information

is crucial to understanding the behavior of CO generation. The distinction being created here is between

"large-scale" testing (i.e., the end-use object, but tested in the open, not in the room) and "real-scale"

testing, where an actual fire test room is used. For heat release rate, the distinction between the two is,

in many cases, unimportant [86]. For CO production, however, the distinction is crucial. The

furniture calorimeter is normally operated in the high excess air regime, with <p -* 0. The exact value of

(p at which room flashover will be reached depends somewhat on the details of room construction.

Nonetheless, for rooms roughly the size of the ASTM fire test room [87], flashover is reached

generally at the time <p reaches a value of 0.5. By examining Figure 4. or Figure 5., we can note that

<p = 0.5 is exactly the point at which rapid rise of CO yields begins. Thus, the occurrence of flashover

and a sharp increase in CO yield occur essentially simultaneously. Here, we emphasize that CO yield

is defined as (kg CO)/(kg fuel loss). The fire hazard, however, is controlled either by the production rate

of CO (for nearby victims) or by the production (for victims far away), and not by the yield. The

production rate of CO is (kg CO)/s, while the production of CO is (kg CO) for the total fire. The

production rate of CO can be factored as

35
CO production rate = fco x m (7)

At flashover, if the CO yield rises, the CO production rate is ever more so increased, since the flashover

event is marked by a very rapid rise in rhf

, the mass loss rate of the fuel (kg-s" 1 ). Thus, there are two

entirely different reasons why a very rapid rise in CO production rate occurs at flashover.

7.2 Adjusting LC50s for expected CO yield in real-scale fires

Since it is not possible to design a bench-scale test to simulate the flashover conditions occurring in a room fire, it becomes important to establish an alternative means by which correct CO data could be

utilized. The technique to do this was developed in [69]; here the basic steps are summarized.

The basis of the N-gas or FED approach to assessing the toxicity of multiple gases is primarily an

additive one, as shown in Eq. (4). If in the toxic potency test the amount of CO generated is such that

the yield is < 0.2 g/g fuel burned, it is possible to add a term into the FED equation which represents

this "missing CO." The concentration to be used is the difference between the CO concentration at fco = 0.2 and the actual measured concentration. The LC50 should be the value for CO. Since this is only

a correction term, a simplification is warranted to avoid the non-linearity of CO/C02 interaction; thus

LC50-CO (volumetric) = 4000 ppm is assumed. (This is its value at the C02 = 5% condition).

Converted into concentration units, this becomes LC50-CO (cone.) = 4.58 g-m"3

. Giving,

LCjo {corf) =

1

+ 44xl0-3 - 5.0x 10"5 [CO] (8)

LC$o mioo

where the variables, along with their units are:

LC50(corr) = the corrected value of the LC50 , in concentration units (g-m"3

) LC50 = the measured or approximate value of the LC50 , in concentration units (g-m"3

) [CO] = the average measured CO concentration in the box (ppm)

mioo = tota" specimen mass lost during test (g).

Thus, the solution to handling data from bench-scale toxic potency tests is to correct the measured LC50

by the equation given above. The equation is valid under all circumstances where the present FED

computational scheme is valid, even if the measured fco should be > 0.2, and, thus, the correction

would decrease the toxicity of the specimen.

7.3 CO production in the radiant apparatus and in the cup furnace

method

For the same materials, the CO produced in the cup burner method is generally larger (and closer to postflashover levels) than in the radiant apparatus. The disparity is the strongest for wood (Table 6.), but

is true for the other materials examined also. This is not due to a more fuel-rich (higher <p) combustion

36
mixture in the cup; in fact the opposite is true. For wood, the dominant toxicant is CO. Since the CO

yield is lower for the radiant furnace, more fuel must be combusted to produce the same amount of CO

as with the cup furnace. Since the air volume is nominally the same in both devices, the fuel/air mixture

is richer in the radiant apparatus. Some years ago, opinions had been expressed that the specimen in the

cup furnace method is, in fact, seeing a high value of "local <p," due to poor mixing in the system.

Experiments were conducted specifically to examine this point by flowing air directly into the specimen

zone [57]. The results showed that localized vitiation did not exist, and that forced aeration did not

increase the yield of CO.

If localized vitiation is not part of the answer, it still becomes important to consider the effect of overall

oxygen concentrations on production of CO. During the experiments conducted by SwRI leading to the

development of the NIBS method, an initial opportunity arose to examine the effects of oxygen

concentration on fco. This was followed by more detailed studies, conducted at the request of NIST.

As explained above, it is not feasible to create oxygen conditions in a bench-scale toxicity test which

mimic the situation in the real-scale fire. Fortunately, a numerical correction method can be used and

corrects for this effect. This eliminates much of the dirr ",t concern [88] with CO yields obtained in

the test. Nonetheless, it was desired to investigate the CO environment in the apparatus in some detail,

to make certain that no anomalies in combustion are occurring. This work was done at SwRI and was

done in two stages.

In the first stage, some preliminary data on Douglas fir (DF), rigid polyurethane foam (RPU), and

Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) were gathered. The data suggested that CO yields for RPU and PVC were

insensitive to oxygen levels, but that DF was. Clearly the issue needed further exploration. This was

done in a follow-up study at SwRI [89], where many more tests were run using these same three

materials. To be able to better study and control conditions, these exploratory tests (unlike the

recommended method which was eventually developed and is presented in Chapter 8) involved controlling

the oxygen conditions within the apparatus by introduction of supplementary 02 from a gas bottle. The

initial analysis of the new data indicated results similar to those from the first study. For RPU and PVC,

the data shown in Table 8. again suggest no special CO dependence on 02 levels. The data, as first analyzed from this series for Douglas fir, are shown in Figure 6. The data points appear to show a

consistent increase of fco with dropping oxygen concentration. As an interesting point of reference, this

trend is compared with the predictive relation of Mulholland et al. [81], which is shown as a solid line.

Upon further analysis, the suggestive trend of the points in Figure 6 was seen to be misleading. The

data plotted in this figure were test-average fco values. Yet, in most of the tests, the burning would

switch from flaming to non-flaming some time before the end of the 15-min period. While care was

taken to exclude from the data analyzed those tests where a large fraction of the time was in the nonflaming mode, nonetheless the fco values actually represented a mixture of flaming and non-flaming CO

yields. We now see the following explanation. Some materials exhibit a near-constant CO yield

throughout their burning history. Others, of which woods are a prime example, show very little CO yield

during flaming combustion and a great deal once flaming has gone out (Figure 7 ). The results for RPU

(Figure 8 ) are similar with regard to change in yield levels. Unlike DF, the RPU box concentrations

do not increase in slope at the flame extinction point, since the flaming values for RPU fco are not as low as for DF.

37
0.1

0.01 -

<D

O

o 0.001

0.0001

0.12

:©:

Q.

0.16 0.20

Oxygen concentration (vol.)

Figure 6. Preliminary analysis of SwRI results of Douglas fir (O); also shown is a trend line (—) from the results of Mulholland et al. [81].

38
CO AND CO YIELD - DOUGLAS FIR #5

0.5

Time (min)

Figure 7. Results obtained at SwRI for Douglas fir, demonstrating how the CO

yield changes with mode (flaming vs. non-flaming) of burning.
Time (min)

Figure 8.

40

Results obtained at SwRI for rigid polyurethane foam, demonstrating the

change in CO yield with mode of burning.
Table 8. CO yield measurements on various combustibles made in the radiant apparatus at SwRI

Material Specimen

size

(cm2

)

Oxygen

concentration*1 CO yield

(kg/kg)

Rigid polyurethane foam 25.9 18 0.062

25.9 16 0.089

25.9 14 0.084

50.6 18 0.084

50.6 16 0.080

Rigid PVC 25.9 21 0.074

25.9 18 0.065

25.9 16 0.061

a Only data for specimens burning primarily in flaming mode are shown.

The level of 02 in the apparatus does not directly affect the yield of CO for these materials. Instead,

lower levels of 02 correspond to shorter times for burning to change from flaming to non-flaming. The

data were, thus, re-analyzed. Yields of CO were examined for time periods which were strictly confined

to all-flaming or all-non-flaming. This analysis indicated the following:

Table 9. Approximate CO yield ratios in SwRI tests

Material Ratio

fco (non-flaming)/fco (flaming)

Douglas fir 70 - 240

Rigid polyurethane foam 20

PVC < 1

The fact that a broad range, as opposed to a constant value, for Douglas fir is seen might be attributed

to the following effect: the char combustion is expected to be significantly sensitive to the history of

41
0.001 ' ' ' ' ' ' ' 0 20 40 60 80 100 120

Irradiance (kW/m )

Figure 9. Comparison between CO yields measured in the Cone Calorimeter for a cellulosic material (Douglas fir, A) and a thermoplastic (PMMA, O).

42
burning; how the char layer was built up, and to what thickness, might be expected to influence the

results. This burning history will, in turn, be affected by how soon a dropping oxygen level causes switchover to a non-flaming burning regime.

As a point of further interest, levels of HCN and HC1 were also monitored in the SwRI experiments.

Neither of these was affected by 02 levels in any systematic way at the levels tested.

Another factor which might be effecting the difference between the two apparatuses is the heating flux.

The specimens in the radiant heat apparatus are exposed to an irradiance of 50 kW m"2

. A Douglas fir specimen in the cup furnace, by comparison, is exposed to a furnace temperature of around 525 °C,

which corresponds to a black body flux of slightly less than 25 kW m"2

. This may comprise part of the

answer, but would not be judged to be a large factor. The Cone Calorimeter data in Table 6 suggest

some increase in CO yield for Douglas fir, with inconsistent results for rigid polyurethane foam and no

effect for PVC. Further results from other Cone Calorimeter tests are presented in Figure 9. For the

thermoplastic material (PMMA), it is clear that there is no significant dependence of fco on the

irradiance. For the cellulosic material (a different stock of Douglas fir), however, a dependence is seen

as follows:

fco

= exp( -0.036 q" - 2.5) (9)

where q" denotes the test irradiance. In quite a few other cases, the results would not be as clear-cut

as the examples cited, due to difficulties in measuring very low CO concentrations. Nonetheless, for

Douglas fir, Eq. (9) suggests that fco rises by a factor of 2.5 as the test irradiance is lowered from 50

to 25 kWm 2. This does not, however, explain the findings of Table 6 , where it is seen that fco for

Douglas fir is nearly 6 times greater in the cup furnace than in the radiant apparatus. Similarly, it does

not explain the data in that Table, where at the same irradiance of 50 kW m"2

, the CO yield in the Cone

Calorimeter is nearly an order of magnitude lower than in the radiant apparatus. Further complicating

understanding of the apparatus-dependence of CO generation are the values seen from the next two

materials shown—rigid polyurethane foam and PVC. For those materials, the Cone Calorimeter and the

radiant apparatus results are nearly identical.

To summarize, at the present time, strong differences in CO production among the different bench-scale

apparatuses occur for some charring materials, but not for others, nor for melting materials. It appears

to be a phenomenon associated with the heating conditions to which char is subjected. The focus on char

is offered since materials which show none (or a smaller amount of charring) seem to behave more

similarly in the different environments. In addition, the specimen in the cup furnace, as contrasted to the one in the radiant apparatus,

• is much smaller, • is heated from all sides nearly uniformly, and not just from the top down, and • can also pyrolyze.

It would be desirable, in the longer term, to develop an improved capability to predict CO evolution in

bench-scale apparatuses. Nonetheless, using the CO correction method, outlined in this chapter, enables

widely varying bench-scale results to be adjusted to predict the real-scale generation of CO adequately.

43
8 The radiant toxicity method

This chapter begins with a historical overview of earlier designs, then describes the main features of the

radiant test method, discusses some of the reasons for specific features of the method, and gives results

obtained with a number of materials.

8.1 Basic design and test apparatus

A method to assess the acute inhalation toxic potency of combustion products requires three main

components: an animal exposure system, a chemical analysis system, and a combustion system.

8.1.1 Animal exposure system

The animal exposure system in the present test method is similar to that designed for use in the cup

furnace smoke toxicity method [7] developed at NIST. This animal exposure system was, subsequently,

adapted for use in an earlier radiant lamp smoke toxicity method developed at Weyerhaeuser Company

[53] and in the NIBS method [58], [59], [60]. The animals are exposed in an approximately 200 L

polymethylmethacrylate or polycarbonate rectangular box. The furnace is located below the left side and

six portholes are positioned across the front to hold the test animals. The portholes are designed such

that only the heads of the animals, which are held in restrainers, are exposed to the smoke. The headonly exposure reduces the problem of overheating the animals, and eliminates the problems of animals

huddling together (and possibly breathing smoke that has been filtered through the fur of another animal)

and ingesting smoke particulates deposited on the fur during the exposure when grooming after the

exposure. The current exposure chamber is changed in only one minor aspect from the earlier version.

Instead of a blowout panel on the top of the chamber, an expansion bag of approximately 49 L capacity

is attached to a porthole located in the far right wall (Figure 10 ). This expansion bag provides for safety

in case of an explosion and also minimizes leaks which otherwise would occur into or out of the system

due to pressure differences between the air inside and outside the chamber.

8.1.2 Chemical analysis system

The chemical analysis system is the same used with the cup furnace smoke toxicity method and is in

compliance with the principles outlined in ASTM E 800 [90]. Since this is a closed system, the

atmosphere which is removed for nondestructive chemical analysis and which can be recirculated is returned to the animal exposure chamber. The atmosphere which can be returned is that analyzed for

CO, C02

, and 02

. Some analyzers are destructive (i.e., the atmosphere after analysis is different from

that taken prior to analysis) and therefore do not permit the return of the samples to the exposure

chamber. These include those for HCN, HC1, HBr, and NOx

. Care should be taken to minimize the

amount of air taken from the chamber to monitor these non-returnable gases. Further details on the gas

analysis systems are provided in the description of the standard test procedure (see the Annex).

44
Figure 10. General view of radiant toxicity apparatus.

45
8.1.3 Combustion system

Most fire researchers have accepted the animal exposure system and the chemical analysis systems

described in the previous two sections. The main issue with regard to smoke toxicity test methods has

been the combustion systems. Certainly no one test procedure can simulate all possible fire scenarios.

The cup furnace was used to decompose materials under two severe conditions, namely, 25 °C above

(flaming conditions) and 25 °C below (nonflaming conditions) each material's autoignition temperature.

The heating conditions provided by the cup furnace could best be described as "thermal immersion."

This means heating of small specimens under conditions where the temperature gradients across the

specimen are small, the temperatures on all specimen faces are rather similar, and a substantial amount

of the heat transfer occurs by conduction. These are conditions which are commonly seen, for example,

in thermo-gravimetric analysis (TGA) instruments. The cup furnace, however, does not readily represent

the fire conditions occurring in a room fire. Most fire scientists now agree that:

1. The combustion system should thermally decompose materials under more realistic conditions,

namely radiant heat,

2. The furnace should allow for the decomposition of materials, products, composites, and

assemblies under likely end-use conditions,

3 . The system should allow for the testing of larger sample sizes than previously acceptable in the

cup furnace (e.g., the cup furnace test procedure recommended sample sizes no larger than 8

grams although larger sizes were successfully tested) and in some tube furnaces and

4. The fire scenario should simulate the conditions under which the greatest number of human lives are lost, namely post-flashover.

Thus, various investigators have sought to find a better combustion system. In 1984, AlexeefF and

Packham proposed using the radiant heater system (Figure 11 ) developed by H. W. Stacy at Weyerhaeuser Company [53], [50]. This method did not achieve wide use because of problems with the

test hardware. It did, however, offer the possibility of testing composite materials realistically exposed

to radiant heating fluxes. The new University of Pittsburgh II radiant test procedure [56] couples the

Cone Calorimeter combustor with the flow-through animal exposure system previously used with the

UPitt I smoke toxicity method [91].

In 1986, the National Institute of Building Sciences (NIBS) formed a working group to develop a performance test method for evaluating toxic hazard of materials and products. After the determination

of their required criteria, they asked SwRI to design, build, and test the new system. SwRI used the

animal exposure system and chemical analytical system from the cup furnace smoke toxicity method and

started with the Weyerhaeuser radiant heating system. In this development work, while SwRI kept the

basic principles of the Weyerhaeuser design, all of the individual components were re-designed. The

major improvements were:

• The weighing system was designed for increased robustness and sensitivity. • The combustion cell was built to a new design, allowing for easy disassembling, cleaning, and

eventual replacement, as needed.

46
Figure 11. The radiant exposure system designed at Weyerhaeuser.

47
• The circulation of gases was changed to avoid cyclic flow behavior. The earlier system had a

single chimney connecting the combustion chamber to the animal exposure chamber. Natural

convection-driven gas movements were erratic in such a system, showing sporadic "gulping"

behavior. It was found that by segregating the chimney with two vertical septa into three flow

channels this gulping could be eliminated. • The materials usage for the chimney was examined. A construction made of calcium silicate

board was found to be unacceptable, but one made of stainless steel was found to be suitable. • An expansion bag was provided to reduce gas leakage due to pressure differentials. • A shutter was provided to close off the combustion cell from the animal exposure chamber at the

appropriate time. • A new lamp design was used, together with improved calibration and control procedures for the

lamps. • A special exhaust line was provided for carrying away any combustion products that might leak

out of the load cell hole. • A spark ignition system, similar to the one used on the Cone Calorimeter, was added.

As development work at SwRI progressed, a joint activity between SwRI and NIST began developing the

apparatus for measuring toxic potency of materials and products. The purpose was to gather data for

engineering analyses of fire hazard, rather than an index of toxic hazard as pursued by NIBS. This

cooperation resulted in additional areas where the combustion system was re-designed to provide

ruggedness, ease of operation, and safety. These were:

• Stainless steel foil was installed to cover the insulating refractory blanket which acts as the trap

door seal.

• The shutter was modified to avoid free falling.

• The load cell was covered with a calcium silicate board to act as a heat shield.

• A precise locating bracket was developed for the heat flux meter to allow consistent repositioning

in the combustion chamber.

• The spark ignitor was fitted with a standard tapered joint in the quartz combustion cell in order

to eliminate gas leakage.

• Provision was made to wrap specimens with stainless steel foil instead of aluminum foil in those

cases where the aluminum was being melted or was reacting with the specimen.

• The specimen was backed up by a layer of low-density refractory blanket, placed on top of an impervious stainless steel plate as the means of supporting it on the load cell.

• A temperature controller circuit was developed for maintaining constant irradiance from the heat

lamps.

• A removable, tinted polycarbonate safety shield was installed in front of the combustion chamber.

48
The apparatus as implemented for the NIBS test has been documented by SwRI [92]. The preliminary results of the SwRI/NIST collaboration were published in a NIST publication [69]. The Annex

contains step-by-step details in ASTM format of the method as developed. This chapter summarizes the

basic operating principles, illustrated with sample data.

8.2 Operating the method

The steps to measure the toxic potency of the smoke from a product are straightforward. All samples

are exposed to an irradiance of 50 kW-m"2

. Changes in the concentration of smoke in the animal

exposure chamber are achieved by variation of the surface area of the sample. The number of animal

tests is minimized by using chemical information on the smoke. The results to be reported are the values

of LC50 and LC50(corr). A number of other variables should be reported to enable a complete and useful

documentation of the procedures. These are detailed in the Annex.

Procedure A: Determine an estimated LC50 (30-minute exposure plus 14-day post-exposure observation

period) using the N-Gas Model. This entails two experiments, neither involving animals. The specimen

size for the first is not critical, but is normally of less-than-maximum dimension and is guided by prior

data for similar products. The sample's lost mass and the concentrations of gases in the N-Gas Model

are measured, and an FED is calculated using Equation (5). Based on this result, a similar second

experiment is performed for a specimen that should produce an FED of about 1.1. This is verified by

inserting values of the gas concentrations from the second test into the N-Gas Model. The LC50 is then

estimated by dividing the volatilized (2nd) sample mass by the apparatus volume. For the present, this

should be recorded to two significant figures for use in the following procedures.

Procedure B: Check the estimated LC50 (30-minute exposure plus 14-day post-exposure observation

period) using animals. Again two experiments are needed: one where the specimen surface area (and

mass) is chosen to produce an FED of about 0.8, and one to produce an FED of about 1.4. In each, the

mass loss and standard gas concentrations are measured and 6 rats are exposed to the smoke for 30

minutes. The measurements' are to assure that the sample decomposition indeed provided the desired

FED. (The presence of the animals will influence these values in that their respiration will generate some

C02 and deplete some of the other gases.)

The range of FED values here is wider than the entire rising portion of all dose-response curves

previously measured for fire smokes. Therefore, if the LC50 estimate is accurate, the exposure at FED

= 0.8 should result in 0 or 1 animal deaths and the exposure at FED = 1.4 should result in 5 or 6

animal deaths. (These could occur either during the 30-minute exposure or during the 14-day postexposure period.)

If the animal deaths are as predicted, then no further measurement is needed. The chemical data for the

4 experiments in Procedures A and B are used to calculate the best approximate value of the LC50 . This

should be reported to 1 significant figure (because the method reproduces real-scale results within a factor

of 3).

49
If such results are not seen, then Procedure C, below, must be used.

The CO concentration corresponding to the LC50 is needed so that the LC50 (corr) can be determined.

This concentration is determined by plotting the CO concentrations vs. the mass consumed for the 4

experiments. The best value of [CO]/m 100 is determined by a least squares linear regression analysis

which is forced through zero. (At zero mass loss, the CO concentration should also be zero.) The result

is inserted into Equation (8).

Procedure C: Determine a more accurate value for the LC50. For a proper statistical determination,

3 experiments are needed in which some, but not all, ofthe rats die. The idea is to bracket the LC50 and

then converge. The selection of sample sizes is guided by the prior 4 tests, but some trial-and-error will occur. One need not always wait for the end of the 14-day post-exposure period to determine the next

sample size. Unless all of the deaths occur late in the 14 days, the physiological status of the animals

at the end of the 30-minute exposure and after 24 hours should provide some indication of how close one

is to the lethal concentration. After determining the LC50 , it should be reported to 1 significant figure.

A total of 7 materials were examined experimentally with this method; the results are given in Tables 10

through 16. The statistical analysis of LC50 values was done according to the method of Litchfield and

Wilcoxon [93].

8.3 Simplifying the method

Post-flashover limit. As noted in Chapter 7, the LC50 of C02-potentiated CO is about 5 g m"3

, and the

yield of CO is about 0.2 gig of fuel burned. Therefore, the LC50 of post-flashover smoke is about 25

gm 3

. The previous work on validation of this radiant apparatus showed that the results could be used

to predict real-scale toxic potency to about a factor of 3 [76] . Therefore, post-flashover smokes with

LC50 (corr) values greater than 8 g m"3 are indistinguishable from each other. Most common building

and furnishing materials have LC50 values substantially higher than this. (Note the LC50 data throughout

this report.) Thus, the toxicity of the smoke will most often be determined by the fire ventilation, rather

than the specific products burning.

If the results in Procedure A suggest a specimen LC50 (corr) higher than this value, then a precise

determination is unnecessary for post-flashover scenarios. Rather, Procedure B could then be modified

to a single test at an FED that corresponds to an LC50 (corr) of 8 g m"3. An observation of no animal

deaths would confirm the suggestion. The LC50 (corr) would then be recorded as "greater than

8 g m

3 ,"and one would use the 8 g m"3 value in a hazard analysis.

50
Table 10. Test results for Douglas fir

Test

Irrad. Time

(min.)

Spec.

Area

(cm2

)

Init. Mass

(8)

Mass Loss Time

to ign.

i

Flame

out |

Average cone.

3

(8) (%)

co2 (ppm)CO

(ppm) (%)

DF-1 15 19.4 12.26 11.01 90 32 350 39300 2860 16.7

DF-2 15 24.2 12.43 11.04 89 37 405 37400 3200 16.9

DF-3 15 21.3 13.03 11.60 89 40 380 39800 3150 16.6

DF-4 15 24.2 13.64 12.20 89 42 405 42700 3700 16.3

DF-5 15 38.7 19.78 16.89 85 20 475 55600 5150 14.9

DF-6 15 67.7 25.50 21.36 84 30 510 64400 6220 13.7

Test

Smoke

Cone.

(g-m 3)

Animal lethality

# dead/# tested FED

Value

Yield

C02

(8'8)

Yield

CO

(8'8)

LC50

b (gm 3

)

WE WE + PE WE WE + PE WE WE + PE

DF-1 55.1 2/6 2/6 0.91 0.91 1.45 .088

DF-2 55.2 4/6 4/6 0.96 0.96 1.40 .103

DF-3 58.0 4/6 4/6 0.99 0.99 1.42 .096 56 56

DF-4 61.0 6/6 6/6 1.16 1.16 1.44 .106 (54-57) (54-57)

DF-5 84.4 6/6 6/6 1.63 1.63 1.37 .110

DF-6 106.8 6/6 6/6 1.83 1.83 1.28 .104

a Calculated from the time-integrated concentration under the instrument response curve.

b Calculated based on mass loaded per chamber volume times average percent mass loss according to the method of Litchfield and Wilcoxon.

WE Animals died within the 30-min exposure. WE+PE Animals died either within the 30-min exposure or during the 14-day post-exposure period.

51
Table 1 1 . Results for rigid polyurethane foam

Test

Irrad. Titnc

(min.)

Spec.

(cm2

)

Init. \Aa co

(g)

Mass Loss

Time

to ign.

(sj

Flame

out

(s)

Average conc.

a

(g) (%)

co2 (ppm)CO

(ppm) (%)

HCN

(ppm)

RP-1 15 19.4 4.70 4.22 90 15 285 N.M. N.M. N.M. 140

RP-2 15 19.4 4.71 N.M. N.M. 15 < 180 22500 1300 18.3 50

RP-3 15 19.4 4.80 4.29 89 20 <360 20300 1600 18.4 110

RP-4 15 19.4 4.83 4.62 96 20 265 20100 2200 18.5 200

RP-5 15 19.4 4.86 4.42 91 20 270 20600 1700 18.5 130

RP-6 15 19.4 4.97 4.64 93 29 265 21400 2300 18.6 150

RP-7 15 19.4 5.21 4.65 89 15 285 21200 1740 18.4 150

Smoke

Animal lethality

§ dead/ft tested FED

Value

Yield

C02

Yield

CO

Yield

HCN

LC50

b

(g-m 3

)

Cone.

Test (gm 3

) WE WE + PE WE WE + PE Hi (gig) i§ WE WE + PE

RP-1 21.1 1/6 1/6 N.A. N.A. N.M. N.M. .0094

RP-2 23.3 0.67 0.75 1.91 0.077 .0029

RP-3 21.4 1/6 2/6 0.99 1.17 1.84 0.120 .0075 22

RP-4 23.1 6/6 6/6 1.54 1.86 1.68 0.146 .0134

(21.6-

RP-5 22.1 5/6 5/6 1.10 1.30 1.80 0.123 .0088 22.2)

RP-6 23.2 5/6 6/6 1.33 1.58 1.84 0.155 .0101

RP-7 23.2 6/6 6/6 1.22 1.46 1.78 0.117 .0090

a Calculated from the time- integrated concentration under the instrument response curve.

b Calculated based on mass consumed per chamber volume according to the method of Litchfield and Wilcoxon.

N.A. Not applicable

N.M. Not measured

WE Animals died within the 30-min exposure. WE+PE Animals died either within the 30-min exposure or during the 14-day post-exposure period.

No animals exposed

52
Table 12. Results for PVC

Test

Irrad. Time

(rrtiru)

Spec.

Area

(cm2)

In it. Mass

(8)

Mass Loss Time

to ign.

(s)

Flame

out

<s)

Average cone.

8

(8) (%)

co2 (ppm)CO

(ppm) (%)

HCI

(ppm)

PV-1 15 2.4 4.43 3.98 90 50 205 10400 1300 19.6 1600

PV-2 15 2.4 5.17 4.65 90 40 230 13000 1700 19.2 2500

PV-3 15 2.4 6.01 5.41 90 51 210 13300 1900 19.1 2800

PV-4 15 2.4 6.80 6.15 90 45 212 14600 2300 18.9 2900

PV-5 15 2.4 7.39 6.63 90 41 235 16500 2800 18.7 2200

Smoke

Animal lethality H dead/# tested FED

Value Yield

co2

Yield

CO

Yield

HCI

(g-m s

)

Cone. WE +

Test fg-m

3

) WE WE + PE WE WE + PE (8/8) (8'8) ii WE PE

PV-1 19.9 0/6 1/6 0.30 0.73 1.04 .0837 .116

PV-2 23.2 1/6 4/6 0.39 1.07 1.21 .0935 .156

26

PV-3 27.0 0/6 3/6 0.44 1.19 1.06 .0913 .148

PV-4 30.8 1/6 4/6 0.54 1.33 0.98 .103 .138

(21 - 31)

PV-5 33.2 0/6 5/6 0.63 1.22 1.02 .110 .093

a Calculated from the time- integrated concentration under the instrument response curve.

b Calculated based on mass consumed per chamber volume according to the method of Litchfield and Wilcoxon.

WE Animals died within the 30-min exposure. WE+PE Animals died either within the 30-min exposure or during the 14-day post-exposure period.

53
Table 13. Results for flexible PU foam

Test

Irrad. Time

(min.)

Spec.

Area

(cm2

)

Init. Mass

(8)

Mass Loss Time

to ign.

1

Flame

out 1

Average cone.

3

1 (%)

co2 (ppm)

CO

(ppm) (%)

HCN

(ppm)

FP-1 15 96.8 8.22 8.22 100 15 115 42800 660 15.7 22

FP-2 15 96.8 10.09 10.08 100 15 120 N.A. N.A. N.A. 24

FP-3 15 96.8 10.39 10.38 100 20 140 53900 1800 14.1 44

FP-4 15 96.8 11.00 11.00 100 19 150 54400 1300 13.8 50

FP-5 15 96.8 11.40 11.39 100 20 145 57300 1950 13.7 74

FP-6 15 96.8 12.16 12.12 100 10 165 62600 1400 13.3 40

Test

Smoke

Cone. (gm 3

)

Animal lethality

# dead/# tested FED

Value

Yield

C02

111

Yield

CO

(gig)

Yield

HCN

(g'g)

LC50

b (gm 3

)

WE WE + PE WE WE + PE WE WE + PE

FP-1 41.1 0/6 0/6 0.63 0.64 2.04 0.223 .0010

FP-2 50.4 0/6 0/6 N.A. N.A. N.M. N.M. .0011

FP-3 52.0 1/6 3/6 1.09 1.16 1.95 .0424 .0014 58 52

FP-4 55.0 4/6 4/6 1.02 1.11 1.95 .0279 .0015 (53-63) (46-59)

FP-5 57.0 4/6 4/6 1.29 1.42 1.94 .0425 .0019

FP-6 60.6 3/6 4/6 1.01 1.08 2.11 .0299 .0011

a Calculated from the time- integrated concentration under the instrument response curve.

b Calculated based on mass consumed per chamber volume according to the method of Litchfield and Wilcoxon.

N.A. Not applicable

N.M. Not measured

WE Animals died within the 30-min exposure. WE+PE Animals died either within the 30-min exposure or during the 14-day post-exposure period.

54
Table 14. Results for melamine type PU foam

Test

Irrad. Time

(nun.)

Spec.

Area

(cm2

)

Init. Mass

(i)

Mass Loss Time

to ign.

m

Flame

out

(s)

Average conc.

a

(g) (%)

co2 (ppm)CO

(ppm)

02 (%)HCN

(ppm)

NOx (ppm)

MF-1 15 19.5 2.60 2.49 96 40 195 12800 330 19.4 130 no

MF-2 15 19.5 2.80 2.68 96 20 290 9180 430 19.8 220 25

MF-3 15 19.5 3.00 2.86 95 30 150 10800 520 19.6 170 50

MF-4 15 19.5 3.40 3.22 95 35 275 12800 440 19.2 N.M. 80

MF-5 15 19.5 3.40 3.27 96 30 285 12800 520 19.2 N.M. 80

MF-6 15 19.5 3.40 3.27 96 30 165 11500 620 19.6 180 40

MF-7 15 19.5 4.01 3.89 97 45 190 15400 590 18.9 260 60

Smoke

Animal lethality

# dead/# tested FEDValue

Yield

C02

Yield

CO

Yield

HCN

LC5ob

(g-rn

3

)

Cone.

Test (gm 3) WE WE + PE WE WE + PE (gfg) Wm (g/g) WE WE + PE

MF-1 12.5 2/6 3/6 0.81 1.03 2.13 .041 .017

MF-2 13.4 4/6 5/6 1.26 1.63 1.44 .051 .026

MF-3 14.3 2/6 2/6 1.01 1.29 1.64 .059 .018 14.8

12.5 MF-4

MF-5

16.1

16.4

1.58

1.61

.044

.051

N.M.

N.M.

(12.6-

17.3)

(9.7-16.1)

MF-6 16.4 4/6 6/6 1.11 1.41 1.52 .061 .017

MF-7 19.5 6/6 6/6 1.52 1.94 1.59 .044 .019

a Calculated from the time- integrated concentration under the instrument response curve.

b Calculated based on mass consumed per chamber volume according to the method of Litchfield and Wilcoxon.

N.M. Not measured

WE Animals died within the 30-min exposure. WE+PE Animals died either within the 30-min exposure or during the 14-day post-exposure period.

55
Table 15. Results for vinyl fabric

1 est

Irrad Time

(nun)

Spec.

Area

(cm7)

Init. Mass

(g)

Mass Loss Time

to

ign.

1

Flame

out W

Average cone.

3

(8) (%)

co2 (ppm)

CO

(ppm)

o2 (%)

HCN

(ppm)

HC1

(ppm)

NO,

(ppm)

1 15 22.6 7.0 5.7 81 7 130 16500 2700 18.7 N.M. 642 N.M.

2 15 22.6 8.0 6.5 81 7 140 19100 3200 18.3 5 569 13

3° 15 22.6 8.0 6.3 79 7 150 14800 2300 19.4 6 575 10

4 15 22.6 8.4 6.7 80 7 150 19300 3300 18.4 8 237 12

5 15 22.6 9.0 7.3 81 7 155 20800 3600 18.1 13 1214 16

Test

Smoke

Cone.

(g-m 3

)

Animal lethality

§ dead/# tested FED

Value Yield

co2 11

Yield

CO

(gig)

Yield

HCN

(gig)

Yield

Ha

LC^

(g-m 3

)

WE

WE +

PE WE

WE +

PE WE

WE +

PE

1 28.6 0/6 2/6 0.62 0.81 1.20 0.115 N.M. 0.033

2 32.5 0/5 2/5 0.78 0.94 1.18 0.120 0.0002 0.025

3 31.4 0/6 3/6 0.53 0.69 0.95 0.103 0.0002 0.027 ND 32

(28-37)

4 32.8 3/6 4/6 0.79 0.87 1.20 0.122 0.0003 0.010

5 36.6 3/6 6/6 0.90 1.25 1.15 0.119 0.0005 0.048

3 Calculated from time-integrated concentration under the instrument response curve. Calculated based on mass consumed per chamber volume according to the method of Litchfield and

Wilcoxon.

This experiment had a small leak in the pressure relief bag during the first 10 min. of the test N.M. Not measured

ND Not determined

WE Animals died within the 30-min exposure. WE+PE Animals died either within the 30-min exposure or during the 14-day post-exposure period.

56
Table 16. Results for melamine type PU foam and vinyl fabric composite

Test*

Irrad Time

(min)

Spec.

Area

(cm2

)

Init. Mass

<xf

Mass Loss Time

to

ign.

(s)

Flame

out

(*)

Average cone.

§ §1

C02 (ppm)CO

(ppm) (%)

HCN

(ppm)

HC1

(ppm)

NOx (ppm)

1 15 19.3 5.5 4.7 86 6 140 14700 1400 19.1 60 137 48

2 15 16.1 5.7 5.0 88 7 145 18300 1800 18.6 94 190 53

3 15 19.3 6.1 5.2 85 7 135 19600 1900 18.4 83 189 64

4 15 19.3 6.6 5.6 85 7 140 20000 2000 18.3 114 222 61

5 15 19.3 7.0 6.0 86 6 >170 21400 2000 18.2 120 155 68

Smoke

Animal lethality

# dead/# tested FED

Value Yield

C02

Yield

CO

Yield

HCNb Yield

HC1

LCjo'

(8-m3

)

Cone. WE +

Test (g-m 3) WE WE + PE WE WE + PE fe/gJ (g/8) (8/8) (8'8) WE PE

1 23.6 1/6* 1/6* 0.65 0.79 1.24 0.075 0.004 0.008

2 25.0 0/6 1/6 0.95 1.16 1.50 0.091 0.006 0.011

3 26.0 2/6 5/6 0.92 1.11 1.55 0.090 0.005 0.011

27

(25-29)

26

(24-28)

4 28.1 5/6 5/6 1.11 1.36 1.47 0.090 0.006 0.011

5 30.0 5/6 6/6 1.19 1.43 1.47 0.092 0.006 0.007

a Calculated from time-integrated concentration under the instrument response curve.

b Calculated based on mass consumed per chamber volume according to the method of Litchfield and Wilcoxon.

0 In these experiments, the foam was 27.3% and the fabric was 72.7% of the mass. WE Animals died within the 30-min exposure. WE+PE Animals died either within the 30-min exposure or during the 14-day post-exposure period.

* Some question as to whether animal died as a result of toxic exposure.

57
Table 17. The values obtained for LC50 —raw and corrected

iviaici lai Raw LC5Q

(g-m 3

)

LC50 (corr)

(g-m3

)

'

Value 95%

confidence

interval

Value 95%

confidence

interval

Douglas fir 56 j*t - j i Zl on oil zu.O - Zl.l

Rigid polyurethane foam 22 Zl .0 - ZZ.Z 1 A14 1 A 1 1 /I C14.3 - 14.

D

PVC 26 21 - 31 16 13.7 - 17.5

Flexible polyurethane

foam

52 46-59 18 16.9 - 18.4

Melamine type PU foam 13 10- 16 8 7.2 - 10.4

Vinyl fabric 32 28 - 37 19 17.7 - 20.9

Melamine type PU foam

and vinyl fabric composite

26 24-28 15 14.7 - 16.2

Visual Inspection. When the fire community has sufficient experience with LC50 measurements using

this approach, some groupings of products could be exempted from further determinations by inspection

and be described as "having an LC50(corr) greater than 8 g-m"3 ." Some possible examples follow.

• Wood and other cellulosics, since all species would be expected to show LC50 values similar to the Douglas fir value cited here.

• Synthetic materials containing only C, H, and O.

• Polymer/additive mixtures that have been shown to follow the N-Gas Equation (i.e., produce no

additional toxicants) and have LC50 values greater than 8 g-m"3

.

• Products that are only present in small quantities, perhaps demonstrated using equation (9) in

Chapter 2.

• Products that would not be expected to become fuel for a flashed-over fire, such as those items

only installed behind a sufficiently protective barrier.

58
Based on an overview of reported toxic potency values, this process could result in an extremely small

fraction of commercial products needing to be measured. Note that this applies to post-flashover

scenarios only.

8.4 Use of the LC50 data in hazard analyses

In the previous section, the conservative value of 8 gm~3 was offered as representing the toxic

exposures. However, people are likely to inhale smoke from real fires for a range of times. It is therefore pertinent to discuss how one might obtain appropriate LC50 values for other exposure times

without having to perform additional measurements.

It has often been convenient to presume that the product of the LC50 and the exposure time is a constant.

Thus, the LC50 for, e.g., a 5-minute exposure would be 30/5 = 6 times the LC50 for a 30-minute

exposure. Reference [67] contains data for exposures ranging from 5 to 60 minutes, enabling a test of

this convention. As was shown in the previous chapter, most of the smoke toxicity results from

inhalation of CO and C02 . Figure 12. shows (a) the product of exposure time and LC50 value for CO

in the presence of 5% C02 and (b) the LC50 value alone, both plotted as a function of exposure time.

The first curve has a positive slope of about 3 g m"3

; i.e., the above convention is not conservative at shorter exposure times.

From this analysis, a better approximation than the constant value for the LC50 t product is warranted.

Empirically, the values of LC50 -t

,/z (for the CO/C02 mixtures above) are a nearly constant 27 + 2

g(CO)-m"3 min'^. (Others have found similar relationships for this type of data [94], [95].) Following the procedure in Section 8.3, this value is divided by 0.2 g(CO)/g(fuel burned) and adjusted for

the factor of 3 uncertainty in the bench-scale test data. One then obtains an approximation for the toxic

potency of post-flashover smoke of LC50 ~ 45 g-m^min'^-r''*. This approximation is offered for hazard

calculations for exposure times greatly different from 30 minutes.

8.5 Use with pre-flashover fires

Chapter 3 showed that for pre-flashover, flaming fires, smoke toxicity is usually less life threatening than

are thermal effects. There will, however, be some products whose smoke is of much higher than

ordinary toxic potency. It is thus important to be able to measure these low LC50 values, and it is desirable to use the same apparatus as for post-flashover toxic potency data.

LC50 values for products burning pre-flashover can be determined simultaneously with the post-flashover

values, using the same procedure described above, but without the correction for post-flashover CO. The

rationale for doing so follows.

For a small, developing fire, the bench-scale specimen in the radiant apparatus is, in fact, a fair

representation of the full-scale fire. The thermal boundary conditions are appropriate: they are radiative,

and they are from one face only. A small fire will impose about 35 kW/m2 on an adjacent unburned

59
0 0

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60

Time (minutes)

Figure 12. Toxic potency of C02 potentiated CO as a function of exposure time.

surface [96], [97], although values around 48 kW/m2 are common, and values over 100 kW/m2

can be measured. Thus, an irradiance of 50 kW/m2 for a pre-flashover test is somewhat high, but is by

no means out of line. (If a specific scenario involves a heating flux lower than 50 kW/m2

, it can be

accommodated readily in the procedure.)

The other difference between pre- and post-flashover fires concerns the atmospheres. For post-flashover

applications, the LC50 was corrected to account for the fact that the oxygen supply in a post-flashover

fire is limited. This effect could not be simulated in a bench-scale apparatus and needed to be put in by

a computational procedure. In the pre-flashover fire, however, such a shortage of oxygen does not occur.

8.6 Fulfillment of criteria for a good test

Chapter 5 provided a list of the criteria against which a toxicity test method should be examined to determine if it satisfies basic expectations. The proposed method is now reviewed against these criteria.

60
8.6.1 Types of data to be obtained

a. Toxic potency should be measured, and should be measurable and reportable in correct

(g-m~3

) units.

This is done.

b. The chemical data necessary for the N-Gas Model should be properly obtainable from the test. We reviewed the N-Gas Model and demonstrated why it should be used in order to produce a test which is as simple to conduct as possible and which minimizes the usage of animals.

This is done by using Procedures A, B, and C.

8.6.2 General test method requirements

a. Adequate repeatability.

The statistical confidence limits obtained are shown in Table 17. The average deviation

for the 95% confidence limits is + 12% of the mean. This is certainly acceptable for a bioassay test.

b. Adequate reproducibility.

This issue cannot be completely answered until an inter-laboratory trial (a "round-robin")

is conducted. However, a comparison of SwRI and NIST data is encouraging. The

results for raw LC50 were discussed in the previous section; differences here indicate

differences in protocols used, not lack of reproducibility problems. These results do not

show the kind of data scatter for wood materials as was reported by Hirschler [98];

however, natural cellulosic materials may be prone to variability problems and should be

avoided for use as reference materials.

c. Adequate validity.

Validation of the method is described in the next chapter.

d. Safety to operator.

The apparatus has been in use in two laboratories for over one year now and has a good

safety record.

e. Safety to environment, i.e., no excessive pollution.

The procedures here are typical of any small-scale fire test. In most jurisdictions, only

a competent venting system will be required. In some locales, extra measures such as afterburners could be mandated.

f. Affordable apparatus costs.

The cost of the apparatus is estimated to be comparable to the cup furnace apparatus.

g. Tests to be conductible reasonably quickly and efficiently.

The procedures, because of reliance on the N-Gas Model, take substantially less time

than with the cup furnace method. A labor savings of up to a factor of 3 can be

expected.

61
h. Sample preparation not to be excessively difficult.

Sample preparation is routine for any fire test laboratory.

i. Ease of cleaning and maintaining of the apparatus.

The cleaning procedures for the exposure chamber are similar to those for the cup

furnace method. Cleaning the quartz combustion chamber and the connecting chimney

are more difficult, but not unduly so.

8.6.3 Specific test method requirements

a. The test should represent the chosen full-scale combustion scenario correctly.

We consider this according to each of the specific items below.

1. Composite specimens should be testable as composites.

The design of the specimen holder system and the procedures developed have

been specifically geared towards the capability to test composites. The depth of

50 mm allowed has been found adequate to address almost all product needs, as

verified by experience in testing to this depth with the Cone Calorimeter.

2. Since in the post-flashover fire radiant heating predominates, the specimen should receive

uniform, well-controlled radiant heating.

The design of the heating lamp assembly and the calibration procedures allows

for this to be done satisfactorily. Each lampholder is separately adjustable for

height, lateral location, and angle of inclination. The verification of flux

uniformity is done with a special calibration jig, described in the Annex.

3. The test must be set up so that specimens are burned to their natural conclusion in much

the same way they would in real-scale fires; i.e., a specimen should not artificially be

stopped from burning before all the combustibles that can burn do burn up.

Specimens are burned for 15 min in the combustion cell. This allows products

of reasonable thickness to be tested in a process simulating natural combustion.

The specimen thickness can be chosen to obtain an accurate measure of LC50 , but

to avoid specimens so thick that burning is highly incomplete.

4. For establishing the correlation of the bench-scale result to the full scale by chemical

analysis, the specimen's yields of various toxic gases species must be measurable.

The method does this successfully and follows the guidance for good practice laid

down in ASTM E 800.

5. For establishing the correlation of the bench-scale result to the full scale by bioassay,

both the LC50s and the causes of animal deaths need to be measured and recorded.

This is done by examining during- and post-exposure lethality and analyzing the

contributions of the gases with the use of the N-Gas Model.

6. There must be a minimum loss of gases and particulates.

The best indicator of this phenomenon is HC1 loss, since this combustion product

is the most readily depositable of all the toxicologically important combustion

62
products. Experience with the real-scale test program previously conducted [69]

has suggested that yields of HC1 in the cup furnace method, in the radiant

apparatus, and in the Cone Calorimeter are very similar. Interestingly enough,

it was found in that program that the yields in the real-scale tests were smaller.

This was attributable both to the travel distance for gases between the burn room

and the target room and due to losses in the sampling system from the target

room. On the whole, those findings confirmed that HC1 is very easy to lose and

that the closed box type of test, as represented by either the radiant apparatus or

the cup furnace method, is one of the systems least prone to losses.

These findings are further confirmed in additional studies at SwRI. When four

different polyvinyl chlorides were tested in the radiant apparatus and in the cup

furnace method, it was found that, within the limits of error of the measurements

(ranging from 15% to 57%), there was seen to be no difference in the yield of

HC1 in these two bench-scale toxicity test methods [99].

7. Specimens should be tested without crushing, powdering, etc. Specimens are prepared from the finished product without changing its basic

shape or nature.

8. Specimens of a wide range of densities, thicknesses and toxicities which may occur in the

real world should be testable without needing to be excluded or "beating" the test. A maximum specimen volume of 480 cm3

is accommodated. The maximum

LC50 which can be measured is = 2.4 p , where p = specimen density (kg-m"3

). For example, for a wood product having p = 500, a maximum LC50 of 1200

g m"3 can be measured. For a foam having a density of 30 g-m"3 this would be

a maximum LC50 of 72 g-m"3. This is well above the LC50 value of 8 g-m*3

derived in Section 8.2. On the low end of the LC50, there is no unique lower

limit. Infinitesimally small specimens can be tested; this, however, presents

practical difficulties if they are composites. More uncertainty, however, can be

accepted at small-LC50 end of the scale, since high precision would not usually

be required in computing situations where "supertoxic" products with large

exposed areas and large mass loss rates would occur.

9. Protective outer layers should be realistically treated by the test procedure.

The layers are tested exactly as occurring in the end-use product. For products

showing special flammability problems around the edges, well-known procedures [100] can be used by the testing laboratory to ensure that a representative test has been

made.

10. Edge effects should not be disproportionately influencing the results.

Specimens are exposed on a single face to radiation, and side heating is avoided.

11. Samples should be tested in the horizontal, face-up orientation.

This was successfully implemented in the test method.

63
12. The combustion environment to which the specimen is subjected in the test should

correspond to that in the design scenario. This includes correct oxygen levels, and also

the absence of such phenomena as re-circulation or re-combustion of combustion

products, catalytic conversion, etc., unless they are also present in the design fire

scenario.

Chapter 7 examined this requirement with regard to CO production, and showed

that this condition is generally impossible for any bench-scale test to meet in its

entirety. Thus, alternative provisions need to be made to correct the results for

known biases. Such a procedure was evolved for computing LC50(corr). Recirculation occurs in the radiant test apparatus, but is limited due to die large 200

L box used and can correspond to re-circulation occurring in post-flashover fires.

Catalytic conversion and re-combustion are avoided by not submerging a heater

into the combustion product volume.

13. Since the test is to be used for, at least, post-flashover fires, it is important that the test data be in such a format so that the prediction of several items simultaneously burning

in a room could be done.

Good hazard models include multiple burning objects. This provides either an

indication that the LC50 is indistinguishable from 8 g-m 3 or an actual LC50 for

each. The model then integrates.

The test should provide for a well-characterized, toxicologically sound exposure to animals.

1. There is a very broad consensus pointing to the wisdom of providing animals with a 30-

min exposure period, followed by a 14-day post-exposure observation period.

Done.

2. The rat has been chosen in the largest number of combustion toxicity tests. There are persuasive reasons (reasonable cost and availability; closest overall model to human

response among animals of similar cost) for continuing with this practice.

Done.

3. The gases to which the animals are exposed should consist of the total combustion

products from the specimen's burning history.

The animal exposure chamber collects gases from the entire burning history of

the specimen.

4. As close to a square-wave exposure as possible is desired.

The gases are collected in a closed system and reasonable leak-tightness is maintained. The exposure is nearly constant during 15 through 30 mins and is a rapidly rising function during the first 15 min.

5. Animal condition during the test should be adversely affected as little as possible by

causes other than specimen toxicity.

The 200 L size of the animal chamber is adequate to prevent toxic buildup of

C02 or of lower levels of 02 due to animal respiration.
The animals are exposed in a head-only configuration, which reduces undue

stress from heat to the body.

The restraint system is well-proved and does not cause undue physical injury as long as the rats used are in the correct weight range.

6. The usage of animals should be minimized, consistent with obtaining data of acceptable

quality.

This is accomplished by implementing the N-Gas Model as an integral part of the

test method. Roughly a factor of 3 savings in animal use is seen, compared to

full LC50 bioassays normally performed in fire toxicity studies.

65
9 Validation results

This chapter considers the general requirements for validating a bench-scale combustion toxicity test method, then examines the data available for the present method.

9.1 Background

Attempts to validate bench-scale toxicity tests have generally been limited and not entirely convincing.

Thus, during the course of 1989-1990, a pilot-scale validation project was conducted at NIST. The

project had several objectives. Foremost was to establish quantitative, plausible validation hypotheses

by which future exercises of validating bench-scale toxicity tests could be accomplished. Another

objective was to provide illustrative results by subjecting two bench-scale tests to the procedures

developed. One of the two methods examined was the radiant apparatus method. The data used for the

method were based on the earliest available data from SwRI. In real scale, three materials were tested

in a burn room/corridor/target room configuration. All of the test details were reported in the Technical

Note [69]; here, some of the salient findings are summarized.

9.2 The validation hypotheses

The following five validation hypotheses were established as pertinent.

1 . The equal LC50 hypothesis

LC50 values, as measured in the bench-scale test and in the real-scale one, agree to within the acceptable

uncertainty.

2. The primary toxic gases hypothesis

The bench-scale test shows the same primary toxic gases as the real-scale test.

3. The equal yields hypothesis

The yields of the measured toxic gases (except CO) are the same, to within the acceptable uncertainty,

in the bench-scale and in the real-scale tests. Yields of CO from bench-scale tests are not compared

directly against real-scale yields; rather, a post-correction method is used for CO values from bench-scale

tests.

4. The N-Gas hypothesis

The real-scale and the bench-scale results agree, to within the acceptable uncertainty, with predictions

based on measured gas concentrations and computations made according to the N-Gas Model.

5. The type of death hypothesis

The type of death (within- or post-exposure) is similarfor the bench-scale andfor the real-scale tests.

66
To be usable, the hypotheses must be accompanied by a statement as to what factor of agreement is expected between the bench-scale and the real -scale results. The study showed that a factor of 3 was

useful and achievable.

9.3 Performance of the radiant test method

The validation study mentioned [69] not only established the basis for validation procedures, but also

provided validation data for the present radiant apparatus method. Three materials were used for this

validation: Douglas fir, rigid polyurethane foam, and PVC. These are, in fact, the first 3 of the 7

products examined in detail in the present study. While a choice of only three materials is, of course,

limited, the materials were chosen with significant care. The objective of any proof-by-enumeration

validation exercise is to challenge the method with as diverse a set of test cases as possible. The

materials chosen were indeed diverse. Natural cellulosics and man-made plastics were included. Solid

and foam plastics were represented. Materials where CO (along with C02 and low 02

) is the only

toxicant were compared against ones which produced significant amounts of HC1 and HCN.

The results showed the following for the radiant apparatus method:

• The equal-LC50 hypothesis was proved. • The yields of non-CO species showed agreement. • The N-Gas hypothesis was proved. • The primary toxic gas hypothesis was proved. This hypothesis carries a caveat regarding oxygen

levels and sorbable gases. Oxygen levels encountered in the real-scale fire will depend largely

on ventilation conditions within the environment. This will, in general, only fortuitously be

reproduced by any bench-scale condition. Thus, mismatch of 02 on the lists of primary gases

from the bench-scale vs. the real -scale test will indicate nothing more than actual ventilation

conditions. Similarly, the results showed recovery of more of the fully sorbable species (e.g.,

HC1) in the bench-scale radiant apparatus (and also in the cup furnace apparatus) than in the realscale environment. This, again, has very plausible reasons. The flow path lengths are normally

significantly longer in the real-scale fire, thus making losses more likely there than in the small

closed-box tests. • The type of death hypothesis could not be checked out due to lack of sufficient data. However,

if there were problems in this area they would equally show up as an inability to get acceptable

N-Gas predictions. Since the latter were well-behaved, there should be no major conflicts with

this hypothesis.

Thus, even with the small number of materials used to challenge the method, we conclude that a successful demonstration of validity has been made. As opportunities arise to subject the protocol to additional validation, we will pursue them, but we do not anticipate that these conclusions would undergo

serious revision.

67
10 Conclusions

A complete package has been assembled for the engineering analysis of fire toxicity within the context

of fire hazard. The package comprises:

• A determination that attention should be focused on the post-flashover fire, due to the

preponderant fraction of U.S. fire deaths under these conditions. • A determination that the endpoint sought should be lethality. • A detailed examination of the requirements that a useful bench-scale toxic potency measurement

method has to meet and the data it should produce. • A bench-scale toxic potency measurement method which meets these requirements. • A computational procedure for correcting the results obtained so as to indicate CO levels to be

expected from real-scale post-flashover fires. • Procedures for reducing the usage of animals and broadening the applicability of data by

interpreting gas measurement data from the method in the context of the N-Gas Model. • A procedure for identifying whether the product produces smoke within the ordinary range for

post-flashover fires. • Validation results against real-scale fires, demonstrating that the bench-scale results can

successfully predict such fires.

The package is based on a careful analysis of fire death statistics and fire modeling results which indicate

that the major concern is with post-flashover fires. A method is also provided for utilizing the data from

the bench-scale method for determining smoke toxic potency from flaming, pre-flashover fires. Other

fire types are considered highly specialized and have not been treated within the scope of this study.

68
1 1 Acknowledgments

This study consolidates a number of fire toxicity investigations conducted by NIST over the last several

years. Portions of the work comprising the study have been funded by The Society of the Plastics

Industry, Inc., by BFGoodrich, and by The Industry Coalition.

Dr. A. F. Grand, of Southwest Research Institute, conducted two studies to assess the feasibility of the

approach proposed here; his contributions were essential to the success of the work.

The Smoke Toxicity Working Group of the National Institute of Building Sciences, chaired by Mr. H.

Roux, provided a valuable forum where some of the concepts proposed here were first discussed and

debated.

At NIST, portions of the experimental work were done by Ms. M. Navarro, Mr. W.H. Twilley, and Mr.

R. McCombs. Discussions with Dr. J. Snell and Mr. E. Braun were especially helpful during the course of this work. Special thanks go to Sheilda B. Smith for her excellent assistance in finalizing the

document.

69
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71
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[31] Punderson, J.O., Toxicity and Fire Safety of Wire Insulation: A State-of-the-Art Review, Wire

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72
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Test Method on Data From Some Cellular Polymers, J. Comb. Tox. 3, 237-258 (1976).

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Toxicity of Smoke, J. Fire Sciences. 2, 306-320 (1984).

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the Toxicological Effects of Different Time Exposures to the Individual and Combined Fire

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73
252 in Polyurethane '88, Proceedings of the 31st Society of Plastics Meeting, Philadelphia, PA,

October 1988, Technomic Publishing Company, Inc., Lancaster, PA.

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Performance of School Bus Interior Components (NISTIR 4347). [U.S.] Natl. Inst. Stand, and

Tech. (1990).

[56] Caldwell, D.J. and Alarie, Y.C., A Method to Determine the Potential Toxicity of Smoke from

Burning Polymers: I. Experiments With Douglas Fir , J. Fire Sci. 8, 23-62 (1990).

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Combustion Limitations and Alternatives to the NBS Toxicity Test Method (NBSIR 85-3274).

[U.S.] Natl. Bur. Stand. (1985).

[58] NIBS Fire Hazards Conference I Proceedings, National Institute of Building Sciences, Washington

(1986).

[59] NIBS Fire Hazard Conference III Proceedings, National Institute of Building Sciences,

Washington (1988).

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of the Joint Mtg. of the Fire Retardant Chemicals Assn. and the Soc. of Plastics Engineers,

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[61] Levin, B.C., Paabo, M., Fultz, M.L., Bailey, C, Yin, W., and Harris, S.E., An Acute

Inhalation Toxicological Evaluation of Combustion Products From Fire-Retarded and Non-Fire

Retarded Flexible Polyurethane Foam and Polyester (NBSIR 83-2791). [U.S.] Nat. Bur. Stand.

(1983).

[62] Levin, B.C., Paabo, M., Bailey, C.S., and Harris, S.E., Toxicity of the Combustion Products

From a Flexible Polyurethane Foam and a Polyester Fabric Evaluated Separately and Together

by the NBS Toxicity Test Method, pp. 1111-1122 in First Intl. Symp. of Fire Safety Science,

Hemisphere Publishing, Washington (1986).

[63] Stewart, R.D., "The Effect of Carbon Monoxide on Man," JFF/Combustion Toxicology 1, 167-

176 (1974).

[64] Levin, B. C, Paabo, M., Highbarger, L., and Eller, N., Toxicity of Complex Mixtures of Fire

Gases, The Toxicologist. 10, 84 (1990).

[65] Levin, B.C., Paabo, M., Bailey, C, Harris, S.E., and Gurman, J.L., Toxicological Effects of

the Interactions of Fire Gases and Their Use in a Toxic Hazard Assessment Computer Model.

The Toxicologist. 5,127 (1985).

[66] Levin, B.C., Paabo, M., Gurman, J.L., Harris, S.E., and Braun, E., Toxicological Interactions

Between Carbon Monoxide and Carbon Dioxide, Toxicology. 47, 135-164 (1987).

74
[67] Levin, B.C., Gurman, J.L., Paabo, M., Baier, L., and Holt, T., Toxicological Effects of

Different Time Exposures to the Fire Gases: Carbon Monoxide or Hydrogen Cyanide or to

Carbon Monoxide Combined with Hydrogen Cyanide or Carbon Dioxide. Proceedings of the

Ninth Joint Panel Meeting of the U.S. -Japan (UJNR) Panel on Fire Research and Safety (NBSIR

88-3753), [U.S.] Natl. Bur. Stand. (1988).

[68] Levin, B.C., Paabo, M., Gurman, J.L. and Harris, S.E., Toxicological Effects of the Interactions

of Fire Gases, pp. 617-629 in Volume II of the Unclassified Section of the Proc. of the

Smoke/Obscurants Symposium X, Adelphi, MD (1986).

[69] Babrauskas, V., Harris, R.H., Jr., Braun, E., Levin, B.C., Paabo, M., and Gann, R.G., The

Role of Bench-Scale Test Data in Assessing Full-Scale Fire Toxicity (NIST Tech. Note 1284),

[U.S.] Natl. Inst. Stand, and Tech. (1991).

[70] Tsuchiya, Y., and Sumi, K., Evaluation of the Toxicity of Combustion Products, J. Fire and

Flamm. 3, 46-50 (1972).

[71] Huggett, C, Combustion Conditions and Exposure Conditions for Combustion Product Toxicity

Testing, J. Fire Sciences. 2, 328-347 (1984).

[72] Levin, B.C., Paabo, M., Highbarger, L., and Eller, N., Synergistic Effects of Nitrogen Dioxide

and Carbon Dioxide Following Acute Inhalation Exposures in Rats (NISTIR 89-4105). Natl. Inst. Stand. Tech. (1989).

[73] Hartzell, G.E., Grand, A.F., and Switzer, W.G., Toxicity of Smoke Containing Hydrogen

Chloride, Chapter 2 in Fire and Polymers: Hazards Identification and Prevention, ed. by G.L.

Nelson, ACS Symposium Series 425, American Chemical Society, Washington, D.C., pp. 12-20

(1990) .

[74] Sax, N.I., Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials,Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York

(1984).

[75] Levin, B.C., Paabo, M., and Navarro, M., Toxic interactions of binary mixtures of N02 plus

CO, N02 plus HCN, N02 plus reduced 02

, and N02 plus C02

, The Toxicologist. 11, 222

(1991) .

[76] Braun, E., Gann, R.G., Levin, B.C., and Paabo, M., Combustion Product Toxic Potency

Measurements: Comparison of a Small-Scale Test and "Real-World" Fires. J. Fire Sciences 8,

63-79 (1990)

[77] Levin, B.C., Paabo, M., and Schiller, S.B., A Standard Reference Material for Calibration of

the Cup Furnace Toxicity Method for Assessing the Acute Inhalation Toxicity of Combustion

Products. NIST J. Res., accepted for publication.

[78] Birky, M.M., Halpin, B.M., Caplan, Y.H., Fisher, R.S., McAllister, J.M., and Dixon, A.M.,

Fire Fatality Study, Fire and Materials, 3, 211-217, 1979.

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[79] Babrauskas, V., Harris, R.H., Jr., Gann, R.G., Levin, B.C., Lee, B.T., Peacock, R.D., Paabo,

M., Twilley, W., Yoklavich, M.F., and Clark, H.M., Fire Hazard Comparison of Fire-Retarded

and Non-Fire-Retarded Products (NBS Special Publication SP 749). [U.S.] Natl. Bur. Stand.

(1988).

[80] Pitts, W.M., Executive Summary for the Workshop on Developing a Predictive Capability for

CO Formation in Fires (NISTIR 89-4093). [U.S.] Natl. Inst. Stand, and Tech. (1989).

[81] Mulholland, G., Janssens, M., Yusa, S., and Babrauskas, V., The Effect of Oxygen Concentration on CO and Smoke Produced by Flames, submitted to Fire Safety Science — Proc. of the

Third International Symposium (1991).

[82] Beyler, C.L., Major Species Production by Solid Fuels in a Two-Layer Compartment Fire

Environment, pp. 431-440 in Fire Safety Science—Proceedings of the First International

Symposium, C.E. Grant and P.J. Pagni, eds., Hemisphere Publ., Washington (1986).

[83] Morehart, J.H., Zukoski, E.E., and Kubota, T., Species Produced in Fires Burning in TwoLayered and Homogeneous Vitiated Environments (NIST-GCR-90-585). [U.S.] Natl. Inst. Stand,

and Tech. (1990).

[84] Mulholland, G., NIST, private communication (1988).

[85] Roby, R.J., and Beyler, C.L., private communication (1991).

[86] Babrauskas, V., Upholstered Furniture Room Fires — Measurements, Comparison With

Furniture Calorimeter Data, and Flashover Predictions, /. of Fire Sciences. 2, 5-19 (1984).

[87] Proposed Standard Method for Room Fire Test of Wall and Ceiling Materials and Assemblies,

1982 Annual Book ofASTM Standards, Part 18. American Society for Testing and Materials,

Philadelphia (1982).

[88] Clarke, F.B., and Hirschler, M.M., A Critical Evaluation of the Proposed NIBS Test, to be

published in J. of Fire Sciences.

[89] Grand, A.F., private communication (1991).

[90] Standard Guide for Measurement of Gases Present or Generated During Fires (E 800-88).

American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia (1991).

[91] Alarie, Y. and Anderson, R.C., Toxicological and Acute Lethal Hazard Evaluation of Thermal

Decomposition Products of Synthetic and Natural Polymers. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 51, 341-

362 (1979).

[92] Grand, A.F., Development of a Product Performance Smoke Toxicity Test, Southwest Research

Institute Project No. 01-1744, Final Report to National Institute of Building Sciences,

Washington, DC (1990).

76
[93] Litchfield, J.T., and Wilcoxon, F., A Simplified Method of Evaluating Dose-Effect Experiments,

J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 96, 99-113 (1949).

[94] "An Overview of Synthetic Materials Producing Toxic Fumes in Fires," Dynamac Corp.,

Rockville, MD (1982).

[95] Hilado, C.J. and Furst, A., "Estimating Short-Term LC50 Values," Fire Technology 12, 109-1 12

(1976).

[96] Babrauskas, V., and Krasny, J.F., Fire Behavior of Upholstered Furniture (NBS Monograph

173). [U.S.] Natl. Bur. Stand. (1985).

[97] Ohlemiller, T.J. and Villa, K., Furniture Flammability: An Investigation of the California

Bulletin 133 Test - Part II: Characterization of the Ignition Source and a Comparable Gas

Burner (NISTIR 4348), [U.S.] Natl. Inst. Tech. (1990).

[98] Hirschler, M.M. and Smith, G.F., Investigation of a Smoke Toxicity Fire Model for Use on

Wood, paper presented at the Third Intl. Symp. on Fire Safety Science, Edinburgh, Scotland

(1991).

[99] Grand, A.F. and Hirschler, M.M., private communication (1991).

[100] Breazeale, A.F., Wire and Cable Fire Performance as Determined by a Cone Calorimeter, pp.

536-542 in Proc. 37th Intl. Wire and Cable Symp., U.S. Army Communications-Electronics

Command, Fort Monmouth, NJ (1988).

77
ANNEX — The Measurement Method

STANDARD MEASUREMENT METHOD FOR THE DEVELOPMENT

OF DATA FOR USE IN TOXIC FIRE HAZARD MODELING

1. Introduction

1.1 The pyrolysis or combustion of every combustible material produces smoke which is toxic. It is,

therefore, desirable to establish a standard test method for the development of data for use in toxic hazard

modeling. Such data include quantification of the toxicity of the smoke, along with the fire parameters

of time to ignition and mass burning rate. It is also desirable to ascertain whether or not the observed

toxicity is attributable to the major common toxicants.

2. Scope

2. 1 This laboratory procedure is designed to assess the acute inhalation toxicity of combustion products

generated under post-flashover conditions. It also provides for a determination of the time to ignition and

mass burning rate. 2.2 The procedure entails exposing full-thickness specimens to radiant heaters and allowing them to combust completely. The amount of combustion products generated is adjusted by changing the exposed

area of the specimen.

2.3 Specimens are exposed to a radiant heating flux of 50 kW/m2 for 15 min. An electric spark is used

for ignition.

2.4 Lethal toxic potency values are estimated using calculations which employ combustion atmosphere

analytical data for carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, oxygen (vitiation) and, if present, hydrogen cyanide,

hydrogen chloride, and hydrogen bromide.

2.5 Estimated toxic potency values are verified with two tests in which the test animals (rats) are exposed. Verification is considered successful if exposure to a combustion product concentration equal

to 70% of that needed for the estimated LC50 produces no deaths, while exposure to a concentration equal

to 130% of that needed for the estimated LC50 produces 100% deaths.

2.6 The method is limited to test specimens no larger than 76 mm x 127 mm (3 in x 5 in), with a thickness no greater than 50 mm (2 in). Specimens are intended to be representative of finished products,

including composite and combination systems.

2.7 This method has been designed to generate data for fire hazard analysis, to provide a means for

material and product evaluations (including composites), and to assist in the research and development

of materials and products.

2.8 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as the standard.

2.9 This standard should be used to measure and describe the properties of materials, products, or

assemblies in response to heat andflame under controlled laboratory conditions and should not be used

alone to describe or appraise the fire hazard or fire risk of materials, products, or assemblies under

actual fire conditions. However, results of this test may be used as elements of a fire risk assessment

which takes into account all of the factors which are pertinent to an assessment of the fire hazard of a

product in a particular end use.

2. 10 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety problems associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and

determine the applicability of regulatory limitations (especially with regard to the institutional care and

78
use of experimental test animals) prior to use. For specific hazard statements see Section 8.

3. Referenced Documents

3.1 ASTM Standards:1 E 176 Terminology Relating to Fire Standards.

E 800 Standard Guide for Measurement of Gases Present or Generated During Fires.

3.2 International Standards Organization Standard.2

ISO/TR 9122 Toxicity Testing of Fire Effluents.

4. Terminology

4. 1 Definitions—For definitions of general terms used in this test method, refer to ASTM Standard E

176.

4.2 Descriptions of Terms Specific to This Measurement Method:

4.2. 1 concentration-time curve—a plot of the concentration of a gaseous toxicant (ppm) or smoke (mass

of material consumed per chamber volume, g m"3

) as a function of time.

4.2.2 Ct product—the concentration-time product in ppm-min obtained by integration of the area under

a concentration-time curve. 4.2.3 time-integrated concentration—the concentration-time product in ppm-min obtained by integration

of the area under a concentration-time curve and dividing by the time (ppm).

4.2.4 Fractional effective Exposure Dose (FED)—the ratio of the Ct product or the time-integrated

concentration for a gaseous toxicant produced in a given test to that Ct product or time-integrated

concentration of the toxicant which has been statistically determined from independent experimental data

to produce lethality in 50% of test animals within a specified exposure (deaths only during the exposure)

or within a specified exposure plus post-exposure observation time.

4.2.5 mass loss concentration—the mass loss of a test specimen per unit exposure chamber volume

(g-m-3

). 4.2.6 post-flashover—the stage of a room fire when the average air temperature in the upper half of

the room exceeds 600 °C.

4.2.7 LC50—the specimen mass loss per chamber volume (g-m-3

) or time-integrated gas concentration

(ppm) which causes 50% of the animals to die during or following a specified time exposure. In this test procedure, LC50 values are estimated based on 30-minute exposures and a 14- day post-exposure

observation period.

5. Summary of Test Method

5.1 This method uses an apparatus wherein a test specimen is subjected to ignition while exposed to

50 kW/m2 of radiant heat for 15 minutes. The smoke is held within a 200 L chamber which is joined to the combustion cell through a connecting chimney. Three procedures are used in the test. Under

Procedure A, concentrations of the major gaseous toxicants are monitored over a 30-minute period, with

1 Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol. 04.07.

2 Available from American National Standards Institute, 1430 Broadway, New York, NY 10018.

79
Ct products for each being determined from integration of the areas under the respective concentrationtime plots. The Fractional effective Exposure Dose (FED) is computed from these results. The predicted

value of the LC50 is taken as corresponding to FED = 1. Under Procedure B, the estimated LC50 is checked in verification tests by exposing six rats, restrained for head-only exposure, for 30 minutes to

the smoke produced under two conditions: for FED = 0.7 and for FED = 1.3. If no rats die during the

30-minute exposure, or within 14-days post-exposure to the mass loss concentration corresponding to

FED = 0.7 and all six rats die during the 30-minute exposure, or within 14 days post-exposure, to the

mass loss concentration corresponding to FED = 1.3, the estimated LC50 is assumed to be confirmed.

If such results are not obtained, then in Procedure C a complete experimental and statistical determination

of the LC50 value is performed.

6. Significance and Use

6.1 This test method is used to estimate on the basis of specific toxic gas concentrations, and

subsequently confirm with animal exposures, the lethal toxic potency of smoke produced upon exposure

of a product to fire. The confirmation determines whether certain major gaseous toxicants account for

most of the observed toxic effects and the lethal toxic potency. If the estimated LC50 value is not

adequately confirmed, indicating the potential for unusual or unexplained toxicity, the estimated value

obtained from this test method needs to be examined more thoroughly. In that event, more precise LC50

values need to be determined.

6.2 This radiant heat flux of 50 kW/m2is chosen to represent a post-flashover fire condition.

6.3 The time history of the oxygen/fuel ratio occurring in a real fire is important in determining the

CO produced in the fire. Bench-scale tests do not have the capability to simulate this variable; instead, a method is used to correct the raw LC50 values obtained in the test to reflect the CO which has been

shown to be produced in actual, post-flashover fires.

6.4 Tests are conducted on small-size specimens that are representative of materials, products, or composites in their intended end use. This test method is not specified for end-use products that do not

have planar, or nearly planar, external surfaces.

6.5 This test method provides a means for additional analytical and physiological measurements which

provide more detailed information on the nature of the toxic effect.

6.6 This test method does not attempt to address the toxicological significance of changes in

particulate/aerosol size, smoke transport, distribution or deposition, or changes in the concentration of

any smoke constituent as a function of time.

6.7 The propensity for smoke from any material to have the same effects on humans in fire situations can only be inferred to the extent that the rat is correlated with humans as a biological system.

6.8 This test method does not assess incapacitation. In most cases, it can be assumed that

incapacitation will occur at levels lower than the lethal toxic potency values. However, it has been

observed that exposure levels sufficient to cause a post-exposure death have not been sufficient to produce

incapacitation during the exposure.

6.9 The effects of sensory irritation are not addressed by this test method.

7. Apparatus

7.1 Animal Exposure Chamber:

7.1.1 The animal exposure chamber, shown in Figures Al and A2, can be constructed of clear

polycarbonate or polymethylmethacrylate with a 200 L nominal volume. Its inside dimensions are 1220

mm x 370 mm x 450 mm (48 in. x 14-1/2 in. x 17-3/4 in.). The six animal ports are located in a

80
horizontal row, approximately half way from the bottom to the top of the chamber, in the front wall. The

ports are intended to allow exposure of the heads of the rats. Thermocouples are placed at animal ports

No. 1, 3, and 6 to monitor the temperature to which the animals are exposed. A plastic bag with at least a 49 L volume is attached to a special port at the end of the chamber to provide for gas expansion and

to serve as a blow-out panel. The exposure box is equipped with a gas sampling port at the animal nose

level in the geometric center of the exposure chamber and with a port for returning gases in the end wall

closest to the gas analyzers. There are two doors in the animal chamber, in the front wall near the

connection to the combustion cell and in the end wall nearest the animal ports. The purpose of the doors

is to allow for cleaning and maintenance of the chamber, the chimney, the smoke shutter, and other

components. Opening of the doors keeps the exposure chamber from overheating during the calibration

of the heat lamps and provides fresh air to the animals immediately prior to testing.

7.2 Chimney:

7.2.1 The chimney (Figure A3) is a stainless steel assembly approximately 30 x 300 mm (1-1/4 x 11-

3/4 in.), inside dimensions, and 300 mm (11-3/4 in.) wide. It connects the combustion cell to the animal

exposure chamber. The chimney is divided into three channels by stainless steel dividers. The center

channel is approximately 150 mm (6 in.) wide. The purpose of the dividers is to induce smoke to travel

up through the center portion of the chimney, while air from the animal exposure chamber is drawn down

through the outside channels to provide air to the combustion cell. The chimney is connected to the

underside of the animal exposure chamber by clamps, permitting its removal for cleaning. It is sealed to

the animal chamber by low-density ceramic fiber insulation (approximately 65 kg/m3

). The other end of

the chimney is sealed to the combustion cell by an H-shaped trough with a small quantity of the same

fiber insulation in the trough.

7.3 Smoke Shutter:

7.3.1 The smoke shutter is made of stainless steel plate and is situated inside the animal exposure

chamber. It is positioned so that it will close over the chimney opening. It is hinged and provided with

a positive locking mechanism. The purpose of the shutter is to seal the combustion chamber and chimney

from the exposure chamber at the end of irradiation. A wire attached to the shutter and a simple push

rod are provided for gentle closing of the shutter. A wire attached to a clamp locks the shutter in place.

To produce a gas tight seal, the underside of the shutter is covered with a 12 mm (0.5 in.) thick blanket

of low-density ceramic fiber insulation (approximately 65 kg/m3

), which is further covered with 0.1 mm

(0.005 in) thick stainless steel foil.

7.4 Combustion Cell:

7.4.1 The combustion cell (Figures A4, A5, and A6) is a horizontal quartz tube with a 127 mm (5 in.)

inside diameter and approximately 320 mm (12-1/2 in.) long. It is sealed at one end and has a large

standard taper outer joint at the other end. A sealed inner joint serves as a removable plug for the open

end (see Figure A6). The combustion cell has a rectangular opening on the top parallel to the axis of the

cylinder with a "collar" which allows it to fit securely into the chimney. The bottom of the cell has a hole

for the rod connecting the specimen support platform and the load cell. The sealed end of the combustion

cell is fitted with a standard tapered glass joint for the electric sparker.

7.4.2 The combustion cell is supported by a metal frame that also holds the load cell which monitors

mass loss rate. This entire frame is supported by a laboratory jack which holds the combustion cell

tightly to the chimney during experimentation, and allows the combustion cell to be lowered for removal

and cleaning. The load cell is always at a fixed distance from the combustion cell.

7.5 Radiant Heaters:

7.5.1 The active element of the heater consists of four quartz infrared lamps (with tungsten filaments),

rated at 2000 W at 240 V. The lamps (two on each side) are encased in water-cooled holders with

81
parabolic reflectors. These holders (Figure A4) are attached to adjustable metal frames, which allow the

lamps to be moved vertically, laterally, and rotated, in such a way as to give a uniform flux field across

the sample surface.

7.5.2 To keep the lamps from overheating, cooling water must be circulated through their respective

holders. Each pair of lamps requires a minimum flow of 600 ml per minute (0.16 GPM). A rotameter

is installed onto each coolant line to give a visual check of coolant flow during the test. To prevent

accidentally operating the lamps without the required cooling water, a reverse-acting pressure switch

located in the cooling water line ensures that cooling water is flowing before allowing the lamps to operate.

7.5.3 The irradiance of the lamps must be held at a preset level corresponding to the required radiant

flux. This can be accomplished by various control methods; the procedure described here uses a temperature controller and two thermocouples (Type K) placed between the lamps and the combustion

cell and wired in parallel.

7.5.4 The irradiance from the lamps is to be uniform within the central area of the sample holder to within + 10%. Figure A7 shows the calibration holder used to determine the uniformity of the radiant

field from the lamps. If the field is found not to be adequately uniform, the lamp holders must be re- positioned, as necessary.

7.6 Temperature Controller:

7.6. 1 When a temperature controller is used for maintaining the required radiant flux, the quartz lamps

output is controlled by a thermocouple signal to the temperature controller. The outputs from the two

Type K thermocouples are averaged by means of a parallel-wired connection, and this averaged value is used as the input to the controller. The temperature controller must be a three-term type, and must

provide an output signal suitable for driving the power controller. The temperature controller must also

incorporate a means for setting the maximum output to prevent, if needed, the power controller from

being driven wide-open. The power controller is selected to be compatible with the radiant heat lamps

used.

7.7 Heat Flux Meter:

7.7. 1 The total heat flux meter shall be of the Schmidt-Boelter (thermopile) type, or equivalent, with

a design range of at least 75 kW/m2

. The target receiving radiation shall be flat, circular, approximately

12.5 mm in diameter, and coated with durable matt-black finish. The target shall be water-cooled. The

flux meter shall have an accuracy of within + 3% and a repeatability within 0.5%.

7.7.2 The calibration of the heat flux meter must be checked periodically. This is most readily

accomplished by having two flux meters, one used for routine testing and another used only for

calibration purposes.

7.7.3 The flux meter shall be used to calibrate the radiant heater temperature controller. It shall be

positioned in a rigid support device to ensure repeatable readings. The surface of the heat flux meter must

be located at a position equivalent to the center of the specimen face. Figure A7 indicates a calibration

bracket suitable for this purpose.

7.8 Ignitor:

7.8.1 A spark ignitor is constructed of two 3.2 mm (0.125 in) stainless steel rods. One of these two

rods is bent at 90 degrees and flattened on the end and positioned to give the appearance of the tip of an

automotive-type spark plug. The gap between the two rods shall be about 2 mm + 0.5 mm. These rods

pass through a 29/42 male ground glass stopper, forming a gas-tight seal with a mating joint found on

the combustion cell (Figure A6). These two rods are connected to the high-voltage spark system which

uses a 10 kV transformer (Figure A8). To reduce the propagation of radio frequency interference into

the instrumentation, a 20,000 fi, 5 watt resistor is connected in series with one of the electrodes. The

spark gap is positioned approximately 25 mm (1 in.) above the center of the top surface of the specimen,

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inside the combustion cell. 7.9 Specimen Holder:

7.9.1 The specimen holder is a stainless steel assembly approximately 76 mm x 127 mm (3x5 in.),

inside dimensions, and 50 mm (2 in.) deep (Figure A9). The specimen is backed by a layer of ceramic

fiber insulating blanket on a stainless steel plate. It is positioned for testing on the specimen platform,

inside the combustion cell.

7.10 Load Cell:

7.10.1 The general arrangement of the load cell and specimen holder is illustrated in Figure A4. The

load cell is installed under the combustion cell. The specimen and holder are located on a support plate

and a rigid rod. The load cell shall have an accuracy of 0.01 g, and it shall have a measuring range of

at least 100 g. The load cell shall be well-insulated against the heating effects of the radiant heaters.

7.11 Gas Sampling:

7.11.1 The gas sampling system shall be designed using the requirements specified in ASTM E 800.

Since this is a closed system, gases which are removed for chemical analysis and which can be

recirculated to the animal exposure chamber are returned. A suitable gas sampling arrangement is shown

in Figure A10. It includes a pump, a glass wool filter at the sampling port, a cold trap to remove soot

and moisture, and a pressure relief valve which returns all flow not required by the CO, CO2, and 02 gas analyzers. The flow to these analyzers is also returned to the animal exposure chamber through

separate return lines. The return lines shall be closed during calibration of the instruments to prevent the

accumulation of calibration gases in the animal exposure chamber.

7.11.2 Gas Analyzers:

7.11.2.1 The oxygen analyzer shall have a range from 0 to at least 21%.

7.11.2.2 The carbon dioxide analyzer shall have a range encompassing at least 0 to 10%.

7.11.2.3 The carbon monoxide analyzer shall have a range encompassing at least 0 to 10,000 ppm.

7.11 .2.4 Additional gas analysis for HCN, RCt or HBr shall be performed when the nature of the test specimen indicates the possibility of these gases being present in the combustion products. Analysis for

these gases shall follow the instructions in E 800. For any gases where analysis methods are used which

involve chemical reaction, such products are not returned to the animal exposure chamber but, rather,

disposed in an environmentally correct manner.

7.12 Digital Data Collection:

7.12.1 The data collection system must have facilities for the recording of the output from the carbon

monoxide, carbon dioxide, and oxygen analyzers; any gas analyzers used for optionally-monitored gases;

the thermocouples at the animal's noses; and the load cell. The data system shall have an accuracy

corresponding to 0.01% of full-scale instrument output.

7.13 Animal Restrainers:

7.13.1 Animal restrainers designed to permit exposures of only the animals' heads shall be used. A

detailed illustration of one animal restrainer meeting this requirement is given in Figure All. Openings

in the animal restrainer are necessary to allow for dissipation of body heat.

8. Hazards

8.1 The test procedure involves high temperatures, bright lights, and combustion processes. Therefore,

precautions must be exercised against hazards from burns, eye injuries, ignition of extraneous objects,

and inhalation of combustion products. To avoid accidental leakage of toxic combustion products into the

surrounding atmosphere, the entire exposure system is placed into a chemical hood or under a canopy

hood. If under a canopy hood, an accessory exhaust trunk for any combustion gases escaping through the

83
load cell hole on the bottom of the combustion cell is required. An exhaust line to evacuate the exposure

box at the end of a test is recommended. The operator must use safety tongs for removal of specimen

holder. The combustion cell, while hot, must only be touched with protective gloves.

8.2 The venting system for the exposure chamber must be checked for proper operation before testing

and must discharge into an exhaust system with adequate capacity.

8.3 To guard against bodily or eye injury to the operator, a tinted safety shield constructed out of

polymethylmethacrylate or polycarbonate in front of the combustion chamber is recommended.

9. Test Specimens

9.1 Test specimens shall be cut to appropriate area and thickness, no larger than 76 x 127 mm (3 x

5 in.), representing the end-use product. Raw materials (e.g., paints, adhesives, wall coverings, etc.) shall

be tested on the substrate to which they are normally applied. For testing, the sides and the bottom of

the specimens shall be wrapped in aluminum foil. Specimens shall be backed by at least a 6 mm thick

layer of ceramic fiber insulating blanket in the specimen holder.

Note 1. Specimens which, upon testing, show loss of or reactivity with aluminum foil cannot be

tested by covering the sides and bottom with aluminum foil. Such specimens must be re-tested

using stainless steel foil.

9.2 Test specimens shall be conditioned for 24 h prior to testing at an ambient temperature of 23 + 3°C

(73±5°F) and a relative humidity of 50+ 10%.

10. Animals

10. 1 The test animals shall be inbred 3-to 4-month-old male rats, weighing between 225 and 350 grams

(also, see Section 14.3). Larger rats may undergo undue stress if forced into the restrainer. The rats

shall be obtained from a reputable supplier that certifies its animals to be pathogen-free.

10.2 Maintenance and care of animals shall be performed by qualified trained personnel in accordance

with guidelines of the National Institutes of Health Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals

[1]. The animal housing facilities shall be inspected and the experimental plan approved by the animal

care and use committee of the institution where the experiments are to be conducted.

10.3 Upon receipt, the animals shall be identified, weighed, and housed in a separate quarantine area

for a minimum of seven days prior to testing. During the quarantine period, animals shall be observed

and weighed daily. Animals that are deemed unsuitable by reason of health or other criteria are not to be used. Cage assignments shall be made according to a randomization routine.

10.4 Animals are to be weighed daily from the day of arrival to the end of the 14-day post-exposure

observation period. Normally, 1 rat in 5 is to be used as a control.

10.5 Prior to exposure, the animals shall be weighed and secured into individual restrainers for

placement into the portholes of the animal exposure chamber.

10.6 After testing, surviving animals shall be housed in an animal room separate from the pre-test

animal room for the post-exposure observation period.

11. Calibration of Apparatus

11.1 The following parts of the test apparatus require calibration: the temperature controller, the

radiant heaters, the gas analyzers, and the load cell. 11.2 Calibration of the Temperature Controller:

11.2.1 To set up the controller, first insert the flux meter in its holder so that the sensing surface is

84
at the exact center of where the top of the specimen is placed in normal testing. Lamp adjustment to

obtain a uniform flux field over the sample must already be completed. Next connect the output of the

heat flux meter to a strip chart recorder running at a trace speed sufficiently fast to detect any changes

in the flux. Using the output from the heat flux meter, follow the instructions of the controller

manufacturer for adjusting the controller in order to obtain, as closely as possible, a square wave output

from the heat flux meter when the lamps are turned on and then turned off. Because the lamps respond

quickly, while the temperature at the thermocouples rises more slowly, it is important to avoid a

significant over-shoot, which can occur if the controller is not tuned optimally. It is also important to

avoid using settings which result in an unstable, oscillating output. If such a problem is noted, the

solution is to limit the maximum output from the slave controller. This can be done by either using the

"load line out" function of the temperature controller, if so equipped, or else, by installing a voltage

divider at the output of the temperature controller. When setting up the controller with this function it

is always necessary to have the thermocouples reading room air temperature and not some elevated

temperature. By correct adjustment of the temperature controller, 90% of the desired flux can be reached

within 2 s, with 100% being reached within 20 s, and a deviation of within ±5% for the rest of the test. 11.3 Heater Flux Calibration:

11.3.1 For heat flux calibration, install the calibration bracket (Figure A 12) and insert the heat flux

meter into the proper opening. If necessary, verify that the sensing surface of the flux meter is centered

at the location equivalent to that of the top of the specimen when the specimen holder is in place on the

specimen platform. The ignitor shall be removed from its position during this procedure. Set the

temperature controller to the desired flux temperature. Turn on the radiant heat lamps and adjust the

temperature controller until the desired irradiance (50 kW/m2 +10%) is achieved. Recheck the

established flux level prior to the test (be certain that the combustion cell has cooled to ambient

temperature before rechecking).

11.3.2 Check the orientation of the radiant heat lamps whenever the heaters have been moved or a lamp replaced, using the following procedure. Install the heat flux calibration jig shown in Figure A7.

The top face of the calibration jig is to be at the same height where the top of a test specimen is placed.

Estimate a power setting for the lamps that will produce the desired level (e.g., 50 kW/m2

) at the center

hole. Adjust the power and allow at least five minutes for equilibration. Adjust the orientation of the

radiant heat lamps so that no measurement at seven locations across the face of the specimen (see Figure

A7) deviates more than 10% from the average.

11.4 Gas Analyzer Calibration:

11.4.1 At the beginning of each test, the 02 , C02 , and CO analyzers are calibrated by using nitrogen

gas for "zeroing" and an appropriate gas mixture near to, but less than, the analyzer full-scale reading

for "spanning." For zeroing, N2 flowing at the same rate and pressure as the sample gas is used. For

spanning the 02 analyzer, ambient air (20.9% 02) is used, while the C02 and CO analyzers are spanned

with a gas cylinder containing C02 and CO at known concentrations. Either separate gas cylinders or a single mixture containing both CO and C02 may be used for spanning both the CO and the C02 analyzers. During the calibration procedure the gas return lines must be diverted into the exhaust and

not into the exposure chamber to prevent inadvertent accumulation of CO and C02

* 11.4.2 Calibration of apparatus for analysis of optional gases (e.g., HCN, HC£, HBr, and NO^ shall

be performed using guidance given in ASTM E 800.

11.5 Load Cell Calibration:

11.5.1 The load cell shall be calibrated with standard weights in the range of test specimen initially

when first setting up or after making adjustments for sensitivity and range.

11.5.2 Before each test, the load cell is routinely checked with a reference weight. Any deviation of

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the load cell output, as compared to these weights, shall be recorded, and appropriate compensation shall

be made for the specimen mass loss readings.

12. Procedure

12.1 Three different procedures are described in this method. Procedures A and B are performed, in

order, in all cases. Procedure C is contingent upon the results obtained in Procedure B. The steps for

preparation are described first, followed by the instructions for conducting the three procedures.

12.2 Preparation (Applicable to all Procedures, Except as Noted):

12.2.1 Turn on coolant water for the heat flux meter (at least 750 mi/min) and for the tungsten lamps

(at least 600 m^/min).

12.2.2 Verify that the spark ignition circuit is operational.

12.2.3 Perform the required calibration procedures specified in Section 11.

12.2.4 Weigh the specimen on a laboratory balance capable of ± 0.01 g. Prepare the test specimen

as described in Section 9. Verify that the load cell readout corresponds to the appropriate weight of the

specimen plus holder.

12.3 Running the Test—Procedure A:

12.3.1 Select a specimen exposed area for this procedure. In the absence of information from tests of

similar products, select an area equal to 1/4 of the maximum 96.5 cm2 area. 12.3.2 Insert the prepared specimen in the holder into the combustion chamber and close the chamber

with the standard taper plug. Secure the plug with springs. Close the front door, all animal ports and

access doors to the animal chamber. Ascertain that the shutter is open.

12.3.3 Activate the power to the radiant heat lamps and start the data collection.

12.3.4 Turn on the sparker and note the time ignition occurs. Turn off the sparker. Note the time of

flameout. For samples which have the tendency to self-extinguish immediately (e.g., containing certain

fire retardants) the sparker is to be left on until flaming ceases. Note 2: Constant use of the sparker increases the concentration of NOx

in the combustion

atmosphere.

12.3.5 Close the shutter and switch off the heat lamps at 15 min. Collect the data until 30 min have

elapsed.

12.3.6 Cool to ambient temperature and re-weigh the specimen still wrapped in the stainless steel foil.

12.3.7 Determine the FED estimate observed in this procedure as:

FED - m[CO] + 21 " [Q2 ] + [HCN]

+ [HCl]

+ [HBr]

(1)

[C02

] -b 21 -LC50 02 LC50 HCN LC^ HCl LCS0 HBr

= m[CO]

+ 21 -[°2 ] + [HCN]

+ [HCl]

+ [HBr]

[C02 ]-b 21-5.4% 150 ppm 3700 ppm 3000 ppm (2)

where the values of all gas concentrations are the integrated values under the concentration-time curve

taken over the 30-minute test period and divided by 30. All the values are in ppm except 02 which is

in %. The values of m and b depend on the concentration of C02. If [C02

] < 5%, m = -18 and

b = 122,000. If [C02

] > 5%, m = 23 and b = -38,600.

12.3.8 Determine the specimen mass (mass loaded) needed for the FED = 1 condition by dividing the

86
initial mass of the specimen used in this procedure by the FED value derived in the previous step.

12.3.9 Determine the estimated LC50 by dividing the specimen mass that is estimated to be consumed

at the FED = 1 condition by the chamber volume, as indicated in eq (3), below. Record this estimated

LC50 to 2 significant figures.

Specimen mass loss

Total FED x Chamber volume

where the LC50 is expressed in g/m, the specimen mass loss is in grams, and the chamber volume is in

m

3

.

Note 3. The values of LC50 are derived on the basis of mass consumed. To determine the amount

of specimen which will need to be used in Procedure B, however, requires that the initial mass

(mass loaded) also be known for the same conditions.

12.3.10 From the FED estimate in 12.3.7 and the specimen exposed area, determine a new specimen

exposed area for a sample that would produce an FED of 1 . 1

.

12.3.11 Repeat steps 12.3.2 through 12.3.9 using the new sample size. Verify that the FED for this

sample is near 1.1.

12.4 Running the Test—Procedure B:

12.4.1 Procedure B consists of two tests, the first done at FED = 0.8, the second at FED = 1.4.

12.4.2 Determine the specimen mass for the FED = 0.8 test by selecting mass to be 70% of the mass

needed for FED =1.1. Adjust the area of the exposed specimen face in the same ratio as for the mass

required.

12.4.3 When ready to start the test, weigh the animals to be tested and place them in their restrainers.

12.4.4 Insert the specimen in the appropriate holder into the combustion system and close the chamber

with the standard taper plug (use no grease or sealant on the ground glass). Secure the plug with springs.

Immediately prior to beginning the test, place the animals into the ports in the animal exposure chamber

and close the doors to the box.

12.4.5 Activate the power to the radiant heat lamps and start the data collection.

12.4.6 Turn on the sparker. Record the time when ignition of the specimen occurs and turn off the

sparker. Record the time of flameout. For samples which have the tendency to self-extinguish

immediately (e.g., containing fire retardants) the sparker is to be left on until flaming ceases (see Note

2).

12.4.7 Switch off the power to the radiant heat lamps and close the smoke shutter when 15 minutes

have elapsed after the start of the test. 12.4.8 Collect data for 30 minutes after the start of test. Note the behavior of the animals and the time

and number of animals that died during the exposure.

12.4.9 At the end of 30 minutes, stop collecting data. Remove the animals from the exposure

chamber. Vent the exposure chamber with a high-capacity exhaust system.

12.4.10 Check the animals for any signs of toxic effects (e.g., difficulty in breathing, convulsions),

posture, exploratory behavior, eye opacity, discharge from nose and mouth, and eye and righting reflex.

The status and weights of the animals are to be followed for at least a 14-day post-exposure period. If

test animals are still losing weight at the end of the 14-day period, they should be kept until they die or

recover, as indicated by 3 successive days of weight gain.

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12.4.11 Remove the sample holder from the combustion chamber and cool it to ambient temperature

in an exhaust hood. After the specimen has cooled, disassemble the specimen holder and determine the

weight of the stainless steel foil and the residue.

12.4.12 Determine an estimated LC50 value from the data of this test run by using eq (3), above.

12.4. 13 Clean the combustion chamber. Clean the exposure chamber before each different test material

(or as often as it seems necessary after visual inspection). Ethyl alcohol is a suitable solvent.

12.4.14 Repeat the above testing steps for a specimen size corresponding to FED = 1.4.

12.4.15 If no animals die during the 30-minute exposure, or within 14 days post-exposure to the mass

loss concentration corresponding to FED = 0.8 and all six rats die during the 30-minute exposure, or

within 14 days post-exposure, to the mass loss concentration corresponding to FED = 1.4, the testing

is then complete. Determine a final approximate LC50 using the animal data and N-Gas equation results

from all 4 tests. Otherwise, Procedure C is used, wherein a complete experimental and statistical

determination of the LC50 value is performed.

12.5 Running the Test—Procedure C:

12.5. 1 Procedure C consists of a complete experimental and statistical determination of the LC50 value

of the sample.

12.5.2 Depending on whether the estimated LC50 was shown by the tests in Procedure B to be too low

or too high, select a smaller or larger specimen area to be tested.

12.5.3 Perform the testing steps as described in 12.4.3 to 12.4.12 for the selected specimen size.

12.5.4 Repeat the testing steps for additional specimen areas, until 3 tests are obtained where animal

deaths are neither 0 nor 6.

12.5.5 Make a statistical determination of the LC50 value using the method of Litchfield and Wilcoxon

[2].

13. Report

13.1 Report the Following General Information.

13.1.1 Responsible laboratory and person.

13.1.2 Test dates and identification.

13.1.3 Specimen description, manufacturer or submitter, generic components (if available), and any

identification known from the manufacturer.

13.1.4 Irradiation time and heat flux conditions.

13.1.5 Strain of rat and identity of the commercial supplier.

13.2 Report the Following Information From Procedures A and B.

13.2.1 Mass of the specimen (g) before the test and the amount consumed (g/m3

) during the test. 3

13.2.2 Time to ignition and flameout (s). 3

13.2.3 Other observations, such as melting, char formation, spalling, unusually vigorous burning, or

re-ignition. 3

13.2.4 Time-integrated concentration of gases (ppm or %) measured for the 30-minute exposure

period. 3

13.2.5 Lowest concentration of oxygen (%) observed during the exposure.

3

13.2.6 Average and maximum animal chamber temperatures for the 30-minute exposure period.3

13.2.7 Weight of each animal (g) when received, prior to test, and during post-exposure observation

period. 3

Report this information for each test conducted.

88
13.2.8 Time of animal deaths during the exposure and post-exposure period. Report day of deaths with

day 0 being the day of exposure.

3

13.2.9 Observations made about the condition of animals immediately after the exposure and unusual

observations during the post-exposure period (Procedure B and C only).3

13.2.10 The gas concentrations and the computed FED value, as determined in 12.4.7.

13.2.11 The estimated LC50 values, using eq (3), for the four test specimens in Procedures A and B.

Determine the final estimated value for LC50(raw) as follows:

For the four tests, plot the sample mass lost vs. the FED values.

Perform a linear least squares analysis of the plot and use the resulting line to determine a best

approximate LC50 using eq (3).

13.2.12 Compute the value of LC50 corrected for the expected post-flashover yield of CO according

to:

LC50 (corf) -

+ 44xl0"3 - 5.0x 10"5 (4)

LCS0(raw) m

where LC50(corr) is the corrected value of LC50 (g-m 3

); LC50 (raw) is the raw value of LC50 (g m"3

), obtained above; m is the mass of specimen lost during test at the FED =1.1 condition (g); and [CO] is the concentration of CO at the FED = 1.1 condition (ppm).

13.2.13 Whether or not the estimated LC50 was verified by the tests of Procedure B.

13.3 Report the Following Information From Procedure C.

13.3.1 The same test information as specified under 13.3.1 through 13.3.9, above.

13.3.2 The concentration-response curve (on the appropriate graph paper: probit or log-probability)

and the statistically computed LC50 . (This includes a concentration-response curve from which a

statistically determined LC50 value and 95% confidence limits on the LC50 are calculated according the

method of Litchfield and Wilcoxon [2]

.

14. Precision and bias

14.1 Repeatability (Within-Laboratory Precision)—The repeatability for this method has not yet been

determined.

14.2 Reproducibility (Between-Laboratory Precision)—The reproducibility for this method has not yet

been determined.

14.3 Bias—This test method uses rats as the test animals. The degree of bias reflected in the results

from this test, compared to toxic effects on humans, has not been quantified. The numerical values cited

in eq (2) have been determined under laboratory conditions for one type of test animal (Fischer 344 male

rats) only. It is possible that use of other strains of rats or animals from other suppliers could give

different LC50 values. The numbers used are to be those applicable to the rat strain and laboratory in

which the research is being conducted.

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APPENDIX

(Nonmandatory information)

XI. COMMENTARY

XI.1 Introduction

XI . 1 . 1 The purpose of this commentary is to provide information on the development of a radiant heat

smoke toxicity test method and to describe certain uses for the data.

XI .2 Development of the method

XI.2.1 Many smoke toxicity test procedures have been developed and tested since the publication of

"America Burning" by The National Commission on Fire Prevention and Control [3] in 1973 noted

that most fire victims die from inhaling smoke and toxic gases. At least 20 such methods were described

in 1983 [4]. At about the same time, 13 published methods were evaluated by Arthur D. Little, Inc.,

to assess the feasibility of incorporating combustion toxicity requirements into building material and

furnishing codes of New York State [5]. On the basis of seven different criteria, only two

methods—the closed-system cup furnace smoke toxicity method [6] developed at the National Institute

of Standards and Technology (NIST) [previously known as the National Bureau of Standards (NBS)] and

the flow-through smoke toxicity method developed at the University of Pittsburgh [7]—were found

acceptable. The state of New York decided to use the method developed at the University of Pittsburgh.

Since it was unclear how to use the results of this toxicity method in regulation, the state of New York

only requires that materials be examined with the University of Pittsburgh's protocol and that the results

be filed with the state. There are no criteria to judge whether a material needs to be regulated or not.

Smoke toxicity test methods continue to be developed and evaluated; the three methods most recently

developed are the radiant furnace smoke toxicity protocol (described in the present standard), the National

Institute of Building Sciences (NIBS) toxic hazard test method [8], [9] [which was developed at Southwest Research Institute (SwRI)], and the University of Pittsburgh II radiant furnace method [10].

Although these methods differ in numerous characteristics, all three use radiant heat to thermally

decompose materials.

XI.2. 2 A test method to assess the acute inhalation toxicity of products of combustion requires three

main components: a combustion system, a chemical analysis system, and an animal exposure system.

The chemical analysis system and the animal exposure system of the radiant heat smoke toxicity method

described herein are the same as that used in the cup furnace smoke toxicity method. This animal

exposure system and chemical analysis system were also adapted from those used in an earlier radiant

heat toxicity method [11]. The combustion furnace used in the present method was developed at SwRI

by A.F. Grand and is an improvement of a furnace designed by H.W. Stacey in the laboratories of the

Weyerhaeuser Company and which was used in the earlier radiant heat toxicity method [4], [11].

XI. 2. 3 Since the animal exposure system and the chemical analysis system achieved widespread

professional acceptance, the development issue of most concern was the combustion system. No one test method can simulate all possible fire scenarios. The cup furnace decomposed materials under two severe

conditions—25 °C above (flaming conditions) and 25 °C below (nonflaming conditions) the material's

autoignition temperature and provided thermal immersion heating. The cup furnace does not readily

represent the fire conditions occurring in a room fire. Instead, it was realized that:

90
1. the combustion system should thermally decompose materials under more realistic conditions,

namely radiant heat;

2. the furnace should allow for the decomposition of materials, products, composites, and

assemblies under likely end-use conditions;

3. the system should allow for the testing of larger sample sizes than previously acceptable in the

cup furnace (e.g., the cup furnace test procedure recommended sample sizes no larger than 8

grams although larger sizes were tested) and in some tube furnaces; and

4. the fire scenario should simulate the conditions under which the greatest number of human

lives are lost, namely post-flashover fires.

XI.2. 4 Thus, various investigators have sought to find a better combustion system. In 1984, Alexeeff

and Packham proposed using the radiant heater system developed at Weyerhaeuser Company [1 1]. This

method did not achieve wide use because of problems with the test hardware. It did, however, offer the

possibility of testing composite materials realistically exposed to radiant heating fluxes. In 1985, Levin

and co-workers [12] explored the use of the well-established, robust combustion system of the Cone

Calorimeter [13]. The intrinsically flow-through Cone Calorimeter combustion system was coupled

to the 200 L closed-animal exposure system in this investigation. The results proved feasible, but not

practicable: coupling closed-box and flow-through systems resulted in a very difficult test procedure. The

University of Pittsburgh II radiant test procedure [10] couples the Cone Calorimeter combustor with the

flow-through animal exposure system previously used with the University of Pittsburgh I smoke toxicity

method [7].

XI. 2. 5 In 1986, the National Institute of Building Sciences (NIBS) formed a working group to develop

a performance test method for evaluating toxic hazard of materials and products. After the determination

of the criteria, they asked SwRI to design, build, and test the new system. SwRI used the animal

exposure system and chemical analytical system from the cup furnace smoke toxicity method and

modified the radiant heating system described in reference [11]. As this work was in progress, the

National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) noted the hardware being evolved by SwRI and

initiated a joint activity between SwRI and NIST. The task here was to develop an improved test for

measuring toxic potency of materials and products; unlike the NIBS effort, the test procedure was not

intended to yield an index of toxic hazard. The radiant furnace smoke toxicity test method developed at NIST with the help of SwRI uses the same design for the combustion system and animal exposure system

as the NIBS and cup furnace methods, respectively. However, in a number of areas, the actual hardware

of the combustion system was re-designed to provide for ruggedness and ease of operation.

XI. 2. 6 The preliminary results of the SwRI/NIST collaboration were published in a NIST publication

[14]; this publication also contained documentation examining the validity of the method compared

to real-scale fires. The test apparatus as implemented for the NIBS test has also been documented by

SwRI [15].

XI.3 Presentation of the data in terms of the N-Gas Model

XI. 3.1 The N-Gas Model developed by Levin and co-workers [16], [17], [18], [19],

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[20] is based on the hypothesis that a small number ("N") of gases in the smoke accounts for a large

percentage of the observed toxic potency. The lethality of each of these gases was determined for

laboratory animals, e.g., rats. Similar measurements for combinations of these gases tell us whether the

effects of these gases are additive, synergistic, or antagonistic. The results of these mixed gas tests to

date have been reduced to an algebraic equation which has been empirically determined for the exposure

of rats to mixtures of CO, C02 , HCN, and reduced 02 [18], [19]. Data for the addition of HC1 into the

equation came from the work of Hartzell et al. [21] and was tested at NIST with the material thermal

decomposition of vinyl materials in both small and full-scale tests [22], [23], [24]. The equation

used for evaluation (eq (1), above) can be viewed as performing a summation of various gaseous

toxicants, adding up to a Fractional effective Exposure Dose (FED). If FED = 1.1, then it is expected

that the gas mixture will be lethal to 50% of the exposed animals. Values of FED > 1.1 represent

mixtures of greater yet toxicity, while FED < 1.1 denotes a lesser toxicity. The validation of the N-Gas

Model indicates that, for the preponderance of conditions examined, the toxicity of gaseous combustion

products can be estimated by measuring the gases named above (plus, HBr in systems where Br is present

in the specimen [22]).

XI. 3. 2 If the N-Gas Model were always sufficient to describe the actual product toxicity, then only

Procedure A would be needed for testing. It does happen, however, that products can be found where

the preponderance of the toxic effects generated comes from more unusual gaseous components. To

guard against erroneous estimates in such cases, Procedures B and C are required.

XI. 3. 3 Traditional biological testing for combustion product toxicity was formulated on the basis of

solely conducting procedures analogous to Procedure C. Procedure C requires that a complete

concentration-response curve be generated by animal testing. The present method reduces testing costs,

animal usage and time by developing Procedures A and B; by incorporating these procedures, the typical

usage of animals per test product can be significantly reduced.

XI .4 Representation of post-flashover fires

XI.4.1 Recent studies at NIST [14] have demonstrated that a bench-scale toxic potency test can

adequately represent most aspects of a post-flashover fire. The one crucial exception is the generation of

carbon monoxide. This is governed primarily by the available air supply in the actual full-scale fire, and

cannot be simulated in a practical bench-scale test method. It was also found, however, that actual postflashover fires exhibit a yield of CO of approximately 0.2. The yield of CO is defined as the mass of CO

evolved, per mass of specimen lost. Based on this finding, it is possible to develop an equation whereby

the raw LC50 value is corrected to correspond to the condition which would prevail in a post-flashover

fire. This equation is given above as eq (4). In any cases where a pre-flashover fire representation is desired, the raw, rather than the corrected, LC50 values, would be used.

92
REFERENCES

[1] Guide for the Care and Use of the Laboratory Animals, U.S. Department of Health and Human

Services, National Institutes of Health Publication No. 86-23 (1985).

[2] Litchfield, J.T. and Wilcoxon, F., A Simplified Method of Evaluating Dose-Effect Experiments,

J. Pharmacol Exp. Ther. 96, 99-113 (1949).

[3] America Burning, Report of the National Commission on Fire Prevention and Control, U.S.

Government Printing Office, Washington (1973).

[4] Kaplan, H.L., Grand, A.F., and Hartzell, G.E., Combustion Toxicology: Principles and Test

Methods, Technomic Publishing Co., Inc., Lancaster, PA (1983).

[5] Anderson, R.C., Croce, P. A., Feeley, F.G., III, and Sakura, J.D., Study to Assess the

Feasibility of Incorporating Combustion Toxicity Requirements Into Building Material and

Furnishing Codes of New York State. Final report to Department of State, Office of Fire

Prevention and Control, Albany, New York, From Arthur D. Little, Inc., Cambridge, MA

(1983).

[6] Levin, B.C., Fowell, A.J., Birky, M.M., Paabo, M., Stolte, A., and Malek, D., Further

Development of a Test Method for the Assessment of the Acute Inhalation Toxicity of

Combustion Products (NBSIR 82-2532). [U.S.] Natl. Bur. Stand. (1982).

[7] Alarie, Y. and Anderson, R.C., Toxicological and Acute Lethal Hazard Evaluation of Thermal

Decomposition Products of Synthetic and Natural Polymers. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 57, 341-

362 (1979).

[8] NIBS Fire Hazard Conference III Proceedings, National Institute of Building Sciences,

Washington (1988).

[9] Norris, J.C., National Institute of Building Sciences Toxicity Hazard Test, pp. 146-155 in Proc.

of the Joint Mtg. of the Fire Retardant Chemicals Assn. and the Soc. of Plastics Engineers,

Technomic Publishing, Lancaster, PA (1988).

[10] Caldwell, D.J. and Alarie, Y.C., A Method to Determine the Potential Toxicity of Smoke from

Burning Polymers: I. Experiments with Douglas Fir. J. Fire Sci. 8, 23-62 (1990).

[11] Alexeeff, G.V., and Packham, S.C., Use of a Radiant Furnace Fire Model to Evaluate Acute

Toxicity of Smoke, J. Fire Sciences. 2, 306-320 (1984).

[12] Levin, B.C., Babrauskas, V., Braun, E., Gurman, J., and Paabo, M., An Exploration of

Combustion Limitations and Alternatives to the NBS Toxicity Test Method (NBSIR 85-3274).

[U.S.] Natl. Bur. Stand. (1985).

93
[13] Babrauskas, V., Development of the Cone Calorimeter — A Bench-Scale Heat Release Rate

Apparatus Based on Oxygen Consumption, Fire and Materials. 8, 81-95 (1984).

[14] Babrauskas, V., Harris, R.H., Jr., Braun, E., Levin, B.C., Paabo, M., and Gann, R.G., The

Role of Bench-Scale Test Data in Assessing Full-Scale Fire Toxicity (NIST Tech. Note 1284),

[U.S.] Natl. Inst. Stand, and Tech. (1991).

[15] Grand, A.F., Development of a Product Performance Smoke Toxicity Test, Southwest Research

Institute Project No. 01-1744, Final Report to National Institute of Building Sciences,

Washington, DC (1990).

[16] Levin, B.C., Paabo, M., Bailey, C, Harris, S.E., and Gurman, J.L., Toxicological Effects of

the Interactions of Fire Gases and Their Use in a Toxic Hazard Assessment Computer Model.

The Toxicologist. 5, 127 (1985).

[17] Babrauskas, V., Levin, B.C., and Gann, R.G., A New Approach to Fire Toxicity Data for

Hazard Evaluation, Fire J. 81, 22-71 (1987). Also in ASTM Stand. News. 14, 28-33 (1986).

[18] Levin, B.C., Paabo, M., Gurman, J.L., and Harris, S.E., Effects of Exposure to Single or Multiple Combinations of the Predominant Toxic Gases and Low Oxygen Atmospheres Produced

in Fires, Fund. Appl. Tox. 9, 236-250 (1987).

[19] Levin, B.C., Paabo, M., Gurman, J.L., Clark, H.M., and Yoklavich, M.F., Further Studies of

the Toxicological Effects of Different Time Exposures to the Individual and Combined Fire

Gases: Carbon Monoxide, Hydrogen Cyanide, Carbon Dioxide, and Reduced Oxygen, pp. 249-

252 in Polyurethane '88, Proceedings of the 31st Society of Plastics Meeting, Technomic

Publishing Co., Lancaster, PA (1988).

[20] Levin, B.C. and Gann, R.G., Toxic Potency of Fire Smoke: Measurement and Use, pp. 3-11 in

Fire and Polymers: Hazards Identification and Prevention (ACS Symp. Series 425), G.L. Nelson,

ed., Amer. Chem. Soc. Washington (1990).

[21] Hartzell, G.E., Grand, A.F., and Switzer, W.G., Toxicity of Smoke Containing Hydrogen

Chloride. Chapter 2 in Fire and Polymers: Hazards Identification and Prevention (ACS Symp.

Series 425). American Chemical Society, Washington (1990).

[22] Babrauskas, V., Harris, R.H., Jr., Gann, R.G., Levin, B.C., Lee, B.T., Peacock, R.D., Paabo,

M., Twilley, W., Yoklavich, M.F., and Clark, H.M., Fire Hazard Comparison of Fire-Retarded

and Non-Fire-Retarded Products (NBS Special Publication SP 749). [U.S.] Natl. Bur. Stand.

(1988).

[23] Braun, E., Davis, S., Klote, J.H., Levin, B.C., and Paabo, M., Assessment of the Fire

Performance of School Bus Interior Components (NISTIR 4347). [U.S.] Natl. Inst. Stand, and

Tech. (1990).

[24] Babrauskas, V., Harris, R.H., Jr., Braun, E., Levin, B.C., Paabo, M., and Gann, R.G., The

Role of Bench-Scale Test Data in Assessing Full-Scale Fire Toxicity (NIST Tech. Note 1284),

94
[U.S.] Natl. Inst. Stand, and Tech. (1991).
ANIMAL EXPOSURE PORTS

RADIANT HEATERS

SPECIMEN PLATFORM

LOAD CELL

COMBUSTION

CELL

Figure Al. General view of radiant heat apparatus.

96
TOP VIEW

LJ TZTD

1

_J 395

EXPANSION BAG PORT

1240

SIDE VIEW

EXPOSURE PORTS

o o o o o

ACCESS DOORS

CHIMNEY

RADIANT HEATERS

LOAD CELL

END VIEW

7

470

1

1

ssfe

COMBUSTION

CELL

DIMENSIONS SHOWN ARE IN MILLIMETERS

Figure A2. Main dimensions of the apparatus.

97
BAFFLE 152

19.1 I

•71.4

t

NOTES;

DIMENSIONS IN MILLIMETERS, INSIDE MEASURE

WHERE APPLICABLE

MATERIAL: 1.6 MM (1/16") STAINLESS STEEL

298.5

304.8

JL

19.1

31.8

12.7

r

12.7 i i

i i

| { UNDERSIDE

OPEN

Figure A3. Chimney.

98
\

DIMENSIONS IN MILLIMETERS

Figure A4. End view showing dimensions pertinent to combustion cell and heaters.

49
CHIMNEY

BAFFLE

, KNOB ASSY.

20 K OHM

RESISTOR

GROUND GLASS

JOINTSPARK IGNITOR

SPECIMEN SUPPORT

COMBUSTION CELL

SUPPORT

STRIP HEATER

COMBUSTION CELL

LABORATORYJACK

re A5. Side view of combustion cell.
Figure A6. Construction details for the combustion cell.
DIMENSIONS IN MILLIMETERS

Figure A7. Calibration jig used for checking the uniformity of irradiance.

102
13 1 CABINET BUD FUTURA MD-1962

12 1 RESISTOR 20K OHM STD

11 WIRE. CORONA RES. HV DEARBORN 391845

10 2 3.2 DIA. SS RODS STD

9 1 RECEPTACLE. CERAMIC. 10KV 3ART OF 10KV TRANSFORMFR

a 1 RESISTOR. PWR. 10K. 225W OHMITE L225J10K

7 1 TRANSFORMER. 10KV. 22MA -JONFGAN MODI E 1 JH-90-A

s 1 SURGE SUPPRESSOR GF MOVV130I A20R

5 1 LPANEL INDICATOR LIGHT. RED DIALIGHT 249-7866.0931-514

4 1 TOGGLE SWITCH. DPST ClJTl FR-HAMMFR 7590K6

3 1 POWER LINE FILTER CORCOM 3FP1

2 1 FUSE? HOI DFR S FUSF 3AG ?A LITTLEFUSF 342058A

1 1 POWFR RFCFPTACI F RFI DFN 17?53

APPROX 245" V1 0

1 1

DIMENSIONS IN MILLIMETERS

T12

Figure A8. Power supply for spark ignition.
DIMENSIONS IN MILLIMETERS

Figure A9. Specimen holder.

104
co2

Detector

0.5 //min.

CO

Detector

0.5 //min.HJ

R

02

Detector U L

2 //min.

Combustion

Excess

Combustion

Gases

0.5 //min.

Analyzed Combustion Gases

Animal

Exposure

Box

Gases

£

il

25 m//min.

1

HCN Sampling

Port I

1

1 1 Animal Exposure

Ports

R - Rotameter

PRV - Pressure Relief Valve

Figure A10. Gas sampling system.

105
r

Figure All. Animal restrained
r—Tap 6-32 for \set screws, \ 2 places_

MiU slot JO deep

1-3.2

Drill thru 6.35 dia, 2 places-1 Tap 10-32

for indexing screw

B—.

FLUX METER HOLDER

-22.7-4-19-j B—1

SECTION B-BSLEEVE

5 dia, 7 deep

index hole

A*—

i

•558.8-

35 dia. hole

« Note 1 —I /

Index hole down

i

i

i

i

i

I

t<o

1

7H

7

19

1 9 1— y-Slot size 5 mm S Note 2

SECTION A-A

19—1 I—

FLUX METER SUPPORT BRACKET

(Made of 0.15 mm steel sheet)

Note 1: Adjust length to get flux meter to center in combustion cell Note 2: Position bracket on cart support legs and center hole in combustion cell Mark and drill and tap 10-32 to support bracket

All dimensions in meters Not to scale

Figure A12. Holder used for positioning flux meter for pre-test calibration.

107

•U U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1 991 — 31 1-89 1' 40776
1

NIST-114A U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

(PEV. 3-90) NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF STANDARDS AND TECHNOLOGY

BIBLIOGRAPHIC DATASHEET

1. PUBLICATION OR REPORT NUMBER

NIST/SP-827

2. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NUMBER

1

3. PUBLICATION DATE

December 1991

4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE

Toxic Potency Measurement for Fire Hazard Analysis

5. AUTHOR(S)

Vytenis Babrauskas, Barbara C. Levin, Richard G. Gann, Maya Paabo, Richard H. Harris, Jr., Richard D. Peacock. Shvuitsu Yusa 1

6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION (IF JOINT OR OTHER THAN NIST, SEE INSTRUCTIONS)

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF STANDARDS AND TECHNOLOGY

GAITHERSBURG, MD 20899

9 SPONSORING ORGANIZATION NAME AND COMPLETE ADDRESS /STREET. CITY. STATE. ZIP)

7. CONTRACT/GRANT NUMBER

8. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED

Final

10. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES

I

1 1 . ABSTRACT (A 200-WORD OR LESS FACTUAL SUMMARY OF MOST SIGNIFICANT INFORMATION. IF DOCUMENT INCLUDES A SIGNIFICANT BIBUOGRAPHY OR

'

LITERATURE SURVEY, MENTION IT HERE.)

A comprehensive methodology has been developed for obtaining and using smoke toxicity data for fire

hazard analysis. This description of the methodology comprises: determination that the post-flashover

fire is the proper focus of smoke inhalation deaths; criteria for a useful bench-scale toxic potency (LC50) measurement method; a method which meets these criteria, especially validation against real-scale fires; a computational procedure for correcting the results for the CO levels observed in real-scale postflashover fires; procedures for reducing the usage of animals and broadening the applicability of data by

interpreting gas measurement data using the N-Gas Model; and a procedure for identifying whether a product produces smoke within the ordinary range of toxic potency for post-flashover fires.

" rl i

12. KEYWORDS (6 TO 12 ENTRIES; ALPHABETICAL ORDER; CAPITAUZE ONLY PROPER NAMES; AND SEPARATE KEY WORDS BY SEMICOLONS)

Keywords: building fires; combustion products; computer fire models; fire deaths; fire hazard analysis;

N-gas model; radiant heating; smoke toxicity; toxicity test methods.

1

13. AVAILABILITY

UNLIMITED

FOR OFFICIAL DISTRIBUTION. DO NOT RELEASE TO NATIONAL TECHNICAL INFORMATION SERVICE (NTIS).

X

X

X

ORDER FROM SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS, U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE,

WASHINGTON, DC 20402. ORDER FROM NATIONAL TECHNICAL INFORMATION SERVICE (NTIS), SPRINGFIELD, VA 22161.

14. NUMBER OF PRINTED PAGES

119

15. PRICE

ELECTRONIC FORM

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